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English Pages 1533 Year 2021
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MATHEMATICAL FORMULAS*
Quadratic Formula
Derivatives and Integrals
_______
√ 2
−b ± b − 4ac If ax 2 + bx + c = 0, then x = _____________ 2a
d sin x = cos x ___
Binomial Theorem n(n − 1)x 2 . . . nx + _________ ( 1 + x) n = 1 + ___ + 1! 2!
x
→ → → a ⋅ b = b ⋅ → a = a b + a b + a b = ab cos θ z z
| |
dx = ln(x + _________ _______
x dx = − __________ 1 __________
dx x __________ = ____________
√ x 2 + a 2
(x 2 + a 2 ) 3/2 (x 2 + a 2 ) 3/2
a 2 ( x 2 + a 2 ) 1/2
Cramer’s Rule
b x b y b z
Two simultaneous equations in unknowns x and y, a 1 x + b 1 y = c 1 and a 2 x + b 2 y = c 2 ,
a y a z a x a y a x a z ˆ ˆ = i − ˆ j + k b y b z b x b z b x b y
| | | | | |
have the solutions
|c b | = c b − c b x = a b a b − a b | a b |
ˆ ˆ = (a y b z − b y a z ) i + (a z b x − b z a x ) ˆj + (a x b y − b x a y ) k
c 1 b 1
2 2 _______
→ | → a × b | = ab sin θ
Trigonometric Identities
α + β
1
1
2
2
1 2 2 1 __________ 1 2
2 1
and a 1 c 1
|
1 1 _ sin α ± sin β = 2 sin _ 2 (α ± β) cos 2 (α ∓ β)
cos α + cos β
x 2 + a 2 )
( x 2 + a 2 ) 1/2
ˆ i ˆ j k ˆ → → → a a a → a × b = − b × a = x y z
1 = 2 cos _ ( 2
x
e dx = e
dx
→ Let θ be the smaller of the two angles between → a and b . Then y y
cos x dx = sin x
d e x = e x ___
(x 2 0) in seconds. (a) What is the acceleration when t = 3.0 s? (b) When (if ever) is the acceleration zero? (c) When (if ever) is the velocity zero? (d) When (if ever) does the speed equal 10 m/s? 16 M
CALC
GO
→
→
→
A cart is propelled over an xy plane with acceleration com- ponents a x = 4.0 m/s 2 and a y = ‒2.0 m/s 2 . Its initial velocity has components v 0x = 8.0 m/s and v 0y = 12 m/s. In unit-vector nota- tion, what is the velocity of the cart when it reaches its greatest y coordinate? 17 M
M A moderate wind accelerates a pebble over a horizon- tal xy plane with a constant acceleration a = (5.00 m / s 2 ) ˆ i + (7.00 m / s2 ) ˆ j. At time t = 0, the velocity is (4.00 m/s) ˆ i. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) angle of its velocity when it has been displaced by 12.0 m parallel to the x axis?
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CALC The acceleration of a particle moving only on a hori- zontal xy plane is given by a = 3t ˆ i + 4t ˆ j, where a is in meters per second-squared and t is in seconds. At t = 0, the position vec- tor r = (20.0 m) ˆ i + (40.0 m) ˆ j locates the particle, which then has the velocity vector v = (5.00 m / s) ˆ i + (2.00 m / s) ˆ j. At t = 4.00 s, what are (a) its position vector in unit-vector notation and (b) the angle between its direction of travel and the positive direc- tion of the x axis? →
H GO In Fig. 4.12, particle A moves along the line y = 30 m with a constant velocity v of magnitude 3.0 m/s and paral- lel to the x axis. At the instant particle A passes the y axis, particle B leaves the origin with a zero initial speed and a constant acceleration a of mag- nitude 0.40 m/s 2 . What angle θ between a and the positive direction of the y axis would result in a collision?
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(s)
Average Acceleration and Instantaneous
GO
→
→
→
θ
CALC
→
→
→
The position r of a particle moving in an xy plane is given by r = (2.00 t 3 − 5.00t) ˆ i + (6.00 − 7.00t 4 ) ˆ j, with r in meters and t in seconds. In unit-vector notation, calculate (a) r , (b) v , and (c) a for t = 2.00 s. (d) What is the angle between the positive direction of the x axis and a line tangent to the particle’s path at t = 2.00 s? E
→
→
20°
Acceleration 11
CALC SSM A particle moves so that its position (in meters) as a function of time (in seconds) is r = ˆ i + 4 t 2 ˆj + t k̂. Write expressions for (a) its velocity and (b) its acceleration as functions of time. ̂ ˆ ˆ 14 E A proton initially has v = 4.0 i − 2.0 j + 3.0k and then 4.0 s ̂ later has v = −2.0 ˆ i − 2.0 ˆ j + 5.0k (in meters per second). For that 4.0 s, what are (a) the proton’s average acceleration a avg in unit-vector notation, (b) the magnitude of a avg , and (c) the angle between a avg and the positive direction of the x axis?
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19 H
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Module 4.3
At one instant a bicyclist is 40.0 m due east of a park’s flag- pole, going due south with a speed of 10.0 m/s. Then 30.0 s later, the cyclist is 40.0 m due north of the flagpole, going due east with a speed of 10.0 m/s. For the cyclist in this 30.0 s interval, what are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the displacement, the (c) magnitude and (d) direction of the average velocity, and the (e) magnitude and (f) direction of the average acceleration? 12 E
→
y
v
A
θ
→
a
→
x
B
Figure 4.12
Problem 20.
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Module 4.4
Projectile Motion
A dart is thrown horizontally with an initial speed of 10 m/s toward point P, the bull’s-eye on a dart board. It hits at point Q on the rim, vertically below P, 0.19 s later. (a) What is the distance PQ? (b) How far away from the dart board is the dart released? 21
E
E A small ball rolls horizontally off the edge of a tabletop that is 1.20 m high. It strikes the floor at a point 1.52 m hori- zontally from the table edge. (a) How long is the ball in the air? (b) What is its speed at the instant it leaves the table? 23 E A projectile is fired horizontally from a gun that is 45.0 m above flat ground, emerging from the gun with a speed of 250 m/s. (a) How long does the projectile remain in the air? (b) At what horizontal distance from the firing point does it strike the ground? (c) What is the magnitude of the vertical component of its velocity as it strikes the ground?
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BIO FCP In the 1991 World Track and Field Champion- ships in Tokyo, Mike Powell jumped 8.95 m, breaking by a full 5 cm the 23-year long-jump record set by Bob Beamon. Assume that Powell’s speed on takeoff was 9.5 m/s (about equal to that of a sprinter) and that g = 9.80 m/s 2 in Tokyo. How much less was Powell’s range than the maximum possible range for a par- ticle launched at the same speed? 25 E FCP The current world-record motorcycle jump is 77.0 m, set by Jason Renie. Assume that he left the take-off ramp at 12.0° to the horizontal and that the take-off and landing heights are the same. Neglecting air drag, determine his take-off speed.
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E A stone is catapulted at time t = 0, with an initial veloc- ity of magnitude 20.0 m/s and at an angle of 40.0° above the horizontal. What are the magnitudes of the (a) horizontal and (b) vertical components of its displacement from the catapult site at t = 1.10 s? Repeat for the (c) horizontal and (d) vertical com- ponents at t = 1.80 s, and for the (e) horizontal and (f) vertical components at t = 5.00 s. 27 M A certain airplane has a θ speed of 290.0 km/h and is diving at an angle of θ = 30.0° below the horizontal when the pilot releases a radar decoy (Fig. 4.13). The horizontal distance between the release point and the point where the decoy strikes the d ground is d = 700 m. (a) How long is the decoy in the air? (b) How high was the release point? Figure 4.13 Problem 27.
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M GO In Fig. 4.14, a stone is projected at a cliff of height h with an initial speed of 42.0 m/s directed at angle θ0 = 60.0° above the horizontal. The stone strikes at A, 5.50 s after launch- ing. Find (a) the height h of the cliff, (b) the speed of the stone just before impact at A, and (c) the maximum height H reached above the ground.
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A
H
θ0
h
A projectile’s launch speed is five times its speed at maxi- mum height. Find launch angle θ0 . 29 M
GO A soccer ball is kicked from the ground with an initial speed of 19.5 m/s at an upward angle of 45°. A player 55 m away in the direction of the kick starts running to meet the ball at that instant. What must be his average speed if he is to meet the ball just before it hits the ground? 30 M
M FCP In a jump spike, a volleyball player slams the ball from overhead and toward the opposite floor. Controlling the angle of the spike is difficult. Suppose a ball is spiked from a height of 2.30 m with an initial speed of 20.0 m/s at a downward angle of 18.00°. How much farther on the opposite floor would it have landed if the downward angle were, instead, 8.00°?
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GO You throw a ball M toward a wall at speed 25.0 m/s and at angle θ0 = 40.0° above the horizontal (Fig. 4.15). The wall θ0 is distance d = 22.0 m from the d release point of the ball. (a) How far above the release point does Figure 4.15 Problem 32. the ball hit the wall? What are the (b) horizontal and (c) vertical components of its velocity as it hits the wall? (d) When it hits, has it passed the highest point on its trajectory? 32
M SSM A plane, diving with constant speed at an angle of 53.0° with the vertical, releases a projectile at an altitude of 730 m. The projectile hits the ground 5.00 s after release. (a) What is the speed of the plane? (b) How far does the projectile travel horizontally during its flight? What are the (c) horizontal and (d) vertical components of its velocity just before striking the ground?
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FCP A trebuchet was a hurling machine built to attack the walls of a castle under siege. A large stone could be hurled against a wall to break apart the wall. The machine was not placed near the wall because then arrows could reach it from the castle wall. Instead, it was positioned so that the stone hit the wall during the second half of its flight. Suppose a stone is launched with a speed of v 0 = 28.0 m/s and at an angle of θ0 = 40.0°. What is the speed of the stone if it hits the wall (a) just as it reaches the top of its parabolic path and (b) when it has descended to half that height? (c) As a percentage, how much faster is it moving in part (b) than in part (a)?
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SSM A rifle that shoots bullets at 460 m/s is to be aimed at a target 45.7 m away. If the center of the target is level with the rifle, how high above the target must the rifle barrel be pointed so that the bullet hits dead center?
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M GO During a tennis match, a player serves the ball at 23.6 m/s, with the center of the ball leaving the racquet hori- zontally 2.37 m above the court surface. The net is 12 m away and 0.90 m high. When the ball reaches the net, (a) does the ball clear it and (b) what is the distance between the center of the ball and the top of the net? Suppose that, instead, the ball is served as before but now it leaves the racquet at 5.00° below the horizontal. When the ball reaches the net, (c) does the ball clear it and (d) what now is the distance between the center of the ball and the top of the net?
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M SSM A lowly high diver pushes off horizontally with a speed of 2.00 m/s from the platform edge 10.0 m above the
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Problem 28.
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surface of the water. (a) At what horizontal distance from the edge is the diver 0.800 s after pushing off? (b) At what vertical distance above the surface of the water is the diver just then? (c) At what horizontal distance from the edge does the diver strike the water? A golf ball is struck v at ground level. The speed of the golf ball as a function of the time is shown in Fig. 4.16, where t = 0 at the instant the ball is struck. The scaling v on the vertical axis is set 0 1 2 3 4 5 by v a = 19 m/s and v b = 31 t (s) m/s. (a) How far does the Figure 4.16 Problem 38. golf ball travel horizon- tally before returning to ground level? (b) What is the maxi- mum height above ground level attained by the ball? 38 M
v 0
3.0 m
b
18 m
θ0
)s/m( v
In Fig. 4.17, a ball is thrown leftward from the left h edge of the roof, at height h θ above the ground. The ball hits the ground 1.50 s later, d at distance d = 25.0 m from the building and at angle Figure 4.17 Problem 39. θ = 60.0° with the horizontal. (a) Find h. (Hint: One way is to reverse the motion, as if on video.) What are the (b) magnitude and (c) angle relative to the horizontal of the velocity at which the ball is thrown? (d) Is the angle above or below the horizontal? 39
M
M FCP Suppose that a shot putter can put a shot at the world- class speed v 0 = 15.00 m/s and at a height of 2.160 m. What horizontal distance would the shot travel if the launch angle θ0 is (a) 45.00° and (b) 42.00°? The answers indicate that the angle of 45°, which maximizes the range of projectile motion, does not maximize the horizontal distance when the launch and landing are at different heights.
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GO FCP Upon spotting M Insect on twig an insect on a twig overhang- ing water, an archer fish squirts d water drops at the insect to knock it into the water (Fig. 4.18). Although the insect is located along a straight-line path at angle Archer fish ϕ and distance d, a drop must be launched at a different angle θ0 if Figure 4.18 Problem 41. its parabolic path is to intersect the insect. If ϕ0 = 36.0° and d = 0.900 m, what launch angle θ0 is required for the drop to be at the top of the parabolic path when it reaches the insect? 41
M FCP In 1939 or 1940, Emanuel Zacchini took his human-cannonball act to an extreme: After being shot from a cannon, he soared over three Ferris wheels and into a net (Fig. 4.19). Assume that he is launched with a speed of 26.5 m/s and at an angle of 53.0°. (a) Treating him as a particle, calculate his clear- ance over the first wheel. (b) If he reached maximum height over the middle wheel, by how much did he clear it? (c) How far from the cannon should the net’s center have been positioned (neglect air drag)?
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Net
23 m R
a
3.0 m
Figure 4.19
Problem 42.
M A ball is shot from the ground into the air. At a height of 9.1 m, its velocity is v = (7.6 ˆ i + 6.1 ˆ j) m / s, with ˆ i horizontal and ˆ j upward. (a) To what maximum height does the ball rise? (b) What total horizontal distance does the ball travel? What are the (c) magnitude and (d) angle (below the horizontal) of the ball’s velocity just before it hits the ground?
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M A baseball leaves a pitcher’s hand horizontally at a speed of 161 km/h. The distance to the batter is 18.3 m. (a) How long does the ball take to travel the first half of that distance? (b) The second half? (c) How far does the ball fall freely during the first half? (d) During the second half? (e) Why aren’t the quantities in (c) and (d) equal?
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M In Fig. 4.20, a ball is launched with a velocity of v 0 d2 magnitude 10.0 m/s, at an Ball angle of 50.0° to the hori- zontal. The launch point is d1 at the base of a ramp of hor- Figure 4.20 Problem 45. izontal length d 1 = 6.00 m and height d 2 = 3.60 m. A plateau is located at the top of the ramp. (a) Does the ball land on the ramp or the plateau? When it lands, what are the (b) magnitude and (c) angle of its displace- ment from the launch point?
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BIO GO FCP In basketball, hang is an illusion in which a player seems to weaken the gravitational acceleration while in midair. The illusion depends much on a skilled player’s ability to rapidly shift the ball between hands during the flight, but it might also be supported by the longer horizontal distance the player travels in the upper part of the jump than in the lower part. If a player jumps with an initial speed of v 0 = 7.00 m/s at an angle of θ0 = 35.0°, what percent of the jump’s range does the player spend in the upper half of the jump (between maxi- mum height and half maximum height)?
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SSM A batter hits a pitched ball when the center of the ball is 1.22 m above the ground. The ball leaves the bat at an angle of 45° with the ground. With that launch, the ball should have a horizontal range (returning to the launch level) of 107 m. (a) Does the ball clear a 7.32-m-high fence that is 97.5 m horizontally from the launch point? (b) At the θ fence, what is the distance between the fence top and h the ball center?
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GO In Fig. 4.21, a ball is thrown up onto a roof, landing 4.00 s later at height h = 20.0 m above the release 48 M
d
Figure 4.21
Problem 48.
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C HAP T ER 4 MOT ION IN T WO AND T HREE D IMENSIONS
level. The ball’s path just before landing is angled at θ = 60.0° with the roof. (a) Find the horizontal distance d it travels. (See the hint to Problem 39.) What are the (b) magnitude and (c) angle (relative to the horizontal) of the ball’s initial velocity? A football kicker can give the ball an initial speed of 25 m/s. What are the (a) least and (b) greatest elevation angles at which he can kick the ball to score a field goal from a point 50 m in front of goalposts whose horizontal bar is 3.44 m above the ground? 49 H
h
SSM
H BIO FCP A skilled skier knows to jump upward before reaching a downward slope. Consider a jump in which the launch speed is v 0 = 10 m/s, the launch angle is θ0 = 11.3°, the initial course is approximately flat, and the steeper track has a slope of 9.0°. Figure 4.22a shows a prejump that allows the skier to land on the top portion of the steeper track. Figure 4.22b shows a jump at the edge of the steeper track. In Fig. 4.22a, the skier lands at approximately the launch level. (a) In the landing, what is the angle ϕ between the skier’s path and the slope? In Fig. 4.22b, (b) how far below the launch level does the skier land and (c) what is ϕ? (The greater fall and greater ϕ can result in loss of control in the landing.)
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h
Figure 4.24
Problem 53.
H GO A ball is to be shot from level ground with a cer- tain speed. Figure 4.25 shows the range R it will have versus the launch angle θ0 . The value of θ0 determines the flight time; let t max represent the maximum flight time. What is the least speed the ball will have during its flight if θ0 is chosen such that the flight time is 0.500t max ?
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200 )m( R
H Two seconds after being projected from ground level, a projectile is displaced 40 m horizontally and 53 m ver- tically above its launch point. What are the (a) horizontal and (b) vertical components of the initial velocity of the projectile? (c) At the instant the projectile achieves its maximum height above ground level, how far is it displaced horizontally from the launch point?
GO
50
D
100
0
θ0
Figure 4.25
Problem 54.
H SSM A ball rolls horizontally off the top of a stairway with a speed of 1.52 m/s. The steps are 20.3 cm high and 20.3 cm wide. Which step does the ball hit first?
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Module 4.5
Uniform Circular Motion
An Earth satellite moves in a circular orbit 640 km (uni- form circular motion) above Earth’s surface with a period of 98.0 min. What are (a) the speed and (b) the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration of the satellite? 56 E
E A carnival merry-go-round rotates about a vertical axis at a constant rate. A man standing on the edge has a constant speed of 3.66 m/s and a centripetal acceleration a of magnitude 1.83 m/s 2 . Position vector r locates him relative to the rotation axis. (a) What is the magnitude of r ? What is the direction of r when a is directed (b) due east and (c) due south?
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→
→
(a )
(b ) Figure 4.22
Problem 51.
H A ball is to be shot from level ground toward a wall at distance x (Fig. 4.23a). Figure 4.23b shows the y component vy of the ball’s velocity just as it would reach the wall, as a function of that distance x. The scaling is set by v ys = 5.0 m/s and x s = 20 m. What is the launch angle?
v ys y
xs
)s/m( y v
0
(a) –v ys
Problem 52.
H GO In Fig. 4.24, a baseball is hit at a height h = 1.00 m and then caught at the same height. It travels alongside a wall, moving up past the top of the wall 1.00 s after it is hit and then down past the top of the wall 4.00 s later, at distance D = 50.0 m farther along the wall. (a) What horizontal distance is traveled by the ball from hit to catch? What are the (b) magnitude and (c) angle (relative to the horizontal) of the ball’s velocity just after being hit? (d) How high is the wall?
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E A woman rides a carnival Ferris wheel at radius 15 m, completing five turns about its horizontal axis every minute. What are (a) the period of the motion, the (b) magnitude and (c) direction of her centripetal acceleration at the highest point, and the (d) magnitude and (e) direction of her centripetal accel- eration at the lowest point?
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A centripetal-acceleration addict rides in uniform circular motion with radius r = 3.00 m. At one instant his acceleration is a = (6.00 m/s 2 ) ˆ i + (−4.00 m/s 2 ) ˆ j. At that instant, what are the values of (a) v ⋅ a and (b) r × a ? 60 E
→
(m) (b ) x
Figure 4.23
A rotating fan completes 1200 revolutions every minute. Consider the tip of a blade, at a radius of 0.15 m. (a) Through what distance does the tip move in one revolution? What are (b) the tip’s speed and (c) the magnitude of its acceleration? (d) What is the period of the motion? 58 E
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→
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→
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When a large star becomes a supernova, its core may be compressed so tightly that it becomes a neutron star, with a radius of about 20 km (about the size of the San Francisco area). If a neutron star rotates once every second, (a) what is the speed of a particle on the star’s equator and (b) what is the magnitude of the particle’s centripetal acceleration? (c) If the neutron star rotates faster, do the answers to (a) and (b) increase, decrease, or remain the same? 61 E
E What is the magnitude of the acceleration of a sprinter running at 10 m/s when rounding a turn of radius 25 m?
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GO At t1 = 2.00 s, the acceleration of a particle in counter- clockwise circular motion is (6.00 m/s 2 ) ˆ i + (4.00 m/s 2 ) ˆ j. It moves at constant speed. At time t 2 = 5.00 s, the particle’s acceleration is (4.00 m/s 2 ) ˆ i + (‒6.00 m/s 2 ) ˆ j. What is the radius of the path taken by the particle if t 2 ‒ t 1 is less than one period? 63 M
M GO A particle moves horizontally in uniform circular motion, over a horizontal xy plane. At one instant, it moves through the point at coordinates (4.00 m, 4.00 m) with a velocity of ‒5.00 ˆ i m/s and an acceleration of +12.5 ˆ j m/s 2 . What are the (a) x and (b) y coordinates of the center of the circular path?
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A purse at radius 2.00 m and a wallet at radius 3.00 m travel in uniform circular motion on the floor of a merry-go-round as the ride turns. They are on the same radial line. At one instant, the acceleration of the purse is (2.00 m/s 2 ) ˆ i + (4.00 m/s 2 ) ˆ j. At that instant and in unit-vector notation, what is the acceleration of the wallet? 65 M
A particle moves along a circular path over a horizontal xy coordinate system, at constant speed. At time t 1 = 4.00 s, it is at point (5.00 m, 6.00 m) with velocity (3.00 m/s) ˆ j and accelera- tion in the positive x direction. At time t 2 = 10.0 s, it has velocity (−3.00 m/s) ˆ i and acceleration in the positive y direction. What are the (a) x and (b) y coordinates of the center of the circular path if t 2 ‒ t 1 is less than one period? 66
back along the sidewalk to his starting point, taking 10.0 s. What is the ratio of the man’s running speed to the sidewalk’s speed? Module 4.7
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M Two highways intersect as shown in Fig. 4.26. At the instant shown, a police car P is distance d P = 800 m from the intersection and moving at speed v P = 80 km/h. Motorist M is distance d M = 600 m from the intersection and moving at speed v M = 60 km/h.
y
M
M
SSM A boy whirls a stone in a horizontal circle of radius 1.5 m and at height 2.0 m above level ground. The string breaks, and the stone flies off horizontally and strikes the ground after traveling a horizontal distance of 10 m. What is the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration of the stone during the circular motion?
A cat rides a merry-go-round turning with uniform circular motion. At time t 1 = 2.00 s, the cat’s velocity is v 1 = (3.00 m / s) ˆ i + (4.00 m / s) ˆ j, measured on a horizontal xy coordinate system. At t 2 = 5.00 s, the cat’s velocity is v 2 = (−3.00 m / s) ˆ i + (−4.00 m / s) ˆ j. What are (a) the magnitude of the cat’s centripetal acceleration and (b) the cat’s average acceleration during the time interval t 2 ‒ t 1 , which is less than one period? H
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Module 4.6
Relative Motion in One Dimension
A cameraman on a pickup truck is traveling westward at 20 km/h while he records a cheetah that is moving westward 30 km/h faster than the truck. Suddenly, the cheetah stops, turns, and then runs at 45 km/h eastward, as measured by a sud- denly nervous crew member who stands alongside the cheetah’s path. The change in the animal’s velocity takes 2.0 s. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the animal’s acceleration according to the cameraman and the (c) magnitude and (d) direc- tion according to the nervous crew member? 69 E
E A boat is traveling upstream in the positive direction of an x axis at 14 km/h with respect to the water of a river. The water is flowing at 9.0 km/h with respect to the ground. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the boat’s velocity with respect to the ground? A child on the boat walks from front to rear at 6.0 km/h with respect to the boat. What are the (c) magnitude and (d) direction of the child’s velocity with respect to the ground?
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A suspicious-looking man runs as fast as he can along a moving sidewalk from one end to the other, taking 2.50 s. Then security agents appear, and the man runs as fast as he can 71 M
dM
BIO
v M P
v P
x
dP
GO
→
→
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Relative Motion in Two Dimensions
A rugby player runs with the ball directly toward his oppo- nent’s goal, along the positive direction of an x axis. He can legally pass the ball to a teammate as long as the ball’s velocity relative to the field does not have a positive x component. Sup- pose the player runs at speed 4.0 m/s relative to the field while he passes the ball with velocity v BP relative to himself. If v BP has magnitude 6.0 m/s, what is the smallest angle it can have for the pass to be legal? 72 E
Figure 4.26 Problem 73. (a) In unit-vector notation, what is the velocity of the motorist with respect to the police car? (b) For the instant shown in Fig. 4.26, what is the angle between the velocity found in (a) and the line of sight between the two cars? (c) If the cars maintain their velocities, do the answers to (a) and (b) change as the cars move nearer the intersection? M After flying for 15 min in a wind blowing 42 km/h at an angle of 20° south of east, an airplane pilot is over a town that is 55 km due north of the starting point. What is the speed of the airplane relative to the air?
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SSM A train travels due south at 30 m/s (relative to the ground) in a rain that is blown toward the south by the wind. The path of each raindrop makes an angle of 70° with the verti- cal, as measured by an observer stationary on the ground. An observer on the train, however, sees the drops fall perfectly vertically. Determine the speed of the raindrops relative to the ground.
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M A light plane attains an airspeed of 500 km/h. The pilot sets out for a destination 800 km due north but discovers that the plane must be headed 20.0° east of due north to fly there directly. The plane arrives in 2.00 h. What were the (a) magni- tude and (b) direction of the wind velocity?
76
M SSM Snow is falling vertically at a constant speed of 8.0 m/s. At what angle from the vertical do the snowflakes appear to be falling as viewed by the driver of a car traveling on a straight, level road with a speed of 50 km/h?
77
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96
C HAP T ER 4 MOT ION IN T WO AND T HREE D IMENSIONS
In the overhead view of N Fig. 4.27, Jeeps P and B race along straight lines, across P E flat terrain, and past station- ary border guard A. Relative θ1 A to the guard, B travels at a θ2 constant speed of 20.0 m/s, at the angle θ2 = 30.0°. Relative B to the guard, P has acceler- ated from rest at a constant Figure 4.27 Problem 78. rate of 0.400 m/s 2 at the angle θ1 = 60.0°. At a certain time during the acceleration, P has a speed of 40.0 m/s. At that time, what are the (a) magnitude and (b) direc- tion of the velocity of P relative to B and the (c) magnitude and (d) direction of the acceleration of P relative to B? 78 M
Two ships, A and B, leave port at the same time. Ship A travels northwest at 24 knots, and ship B travels at 28 knots in a direction 40° west of south. (1 knot = 1 nautical mile per hour; see Appendix D.) What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the velocity of ship A relative to B? (c) After what time will the ships be 160 nautical miles apart? (d) What will be the bearing of B (the direction of B’s position) relative to A at that time? 79
M
In Fig. 4.28a, a sled moves in the negative x direction at constant speed v s while a ball of ice is shot from the sled with a velocity v 0 = v 0x ˆ i + v 0y ˆ j relative to the sled. When the ball lands, its horizontal displacement ∆x bg relative to the ground (from its launch position to its landing position) is measured. Figure 4.28b gives ∆x bg as a function of v s . Assume the ball lands at approximately its launch height. What are the values of (a) v 0x and (b) v 0y ? The ball’s displacement ∆x bs relative to the sled can also be measured. Assume that the sled’s velocity is not changed when the ball is shot. What is ∆x bs when v s is (c) 5.0 m/s and (d) 15 m/s? 84
→
40
SSM
M
y
Sled x
(a)
0
10
–40
CALC GO Ship A is located 4.0 km north and 2.5 km east of ship B. Ship A has a velocity of 22 km/h toward the south, and ship B has a velocity of 40 km/h in a direction 37° north of east. (a) What is the velocity of A relative to B in unit- vector notation with ˆ i toward the east? (b) Write an expression (in terms of ˆ i and ˆ j) for the position of A relative to B as a function of t, where t = 0 when the ships are in the positions described above. (c) At what time is the separation between the ships least? (d) What is that least separation? H GO A 200-m-wide river has a uniform flow speed of 1.1 m/s through a jungle and toward the east. An explorer wishes to leave a small clearing on the south bank and cross the river in a powerboat that moves at a constant speed of 4.0 m/s with respect to the water. There is a clearing on the north bank 82 m upstream from a point directly opposite the clearing on the south bank. (a) In what direction must the boat be pointed in order to travel in a straight line and land in the clearing on the north bank? (b) How long will the boat take to cross the river and land in the clearing?
82
(b ) Figure 4.28
Problem 84.
You are kidnapped by political-science majors (who are upset because you told them political science is not a real science). Although blindfolded, you can tell the speed of their car (by the whine of the engine), the time of travel (by mentally counting off seconds), and the direction of travel (by turns along the rectangular street system). From these clues, you know that you are taken along the following course: 50 km/h for 2.0 min, turn 90° to the right, 20 km/h for 4.0 min, turn 90° to the right, 20 km/h for 60 s, turn 90° to the left, 50 km/h for 60 s, turn 90° to the right, 20 km/h for 2.0 min, turn 90° to the left, 50 km/h for 30 s. At that point, (a) how far are you from your starting point, and (b) in what direction relative to your initial direction of travel are you? 85
A radar station detects an airplane approaching directly from the east. At first observation, the airplane is at distance d 1 = 360 m from the station and at angle θ1 = 40° above the horizon (Fig. 4.29). The airplane is tracked through an angular change ∆θ = 123° in the vertical east – west plane; its distance is then d 2 = 790 m. Find the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the airplane’s displacement during this period. 86
Airplane d2
Additional Problems
A woman who can row a boat at 6.4 km/h in still water faces a long, straight river with a width of 6.4 km and a current of 3.2 km/h. Let ˆ i point directly across the river and ˆ j point directly downstream. If she rows in a straight line to a point directly opposite her starting position, (a) at what angle to ˆ i must she point the boat and (b) how long will she take? (c) How long will she take if, instead, she rows 3.2 km down the river and then back to her starting point? (d) How long if she rows 3.2 km up the river and then back to her starting point? (e) At what angle
20
v s (m/s)
GO
81 H
83
Ball
v s
)m( gb xΔ
A 200-m-wide river flows due east at a uniform speed of 2.0 m/s. A boat with a speed of 8.0 m/s relative to the water leaves the south bank pointed in a direction 30° west of north. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the boat’s velocity relative to the ground? (c) How long does the boat take to cross the river? 80
to ˆ i should she point the boat if she wants to cross the river in the shortest possible time? (f) How long is that shortest time?
Δ
θ
d1
θ1
W
BIO
E
Radar dish Figure 4.29
Problem 86.
SSM A baseball is hit at ground level. The ball reaches its maximum height above ground level 3.0 s after being hit. Then 2.5 s after reaching its maximum height, the ball barely clears a
87
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P ROBL EMS
fence that is 97.5 m from where it was hit. Assume the ground is level. (a) What maximum height above ground level is reached by the ball? (b) How high is the fence? (c) How far beyond the fence does the ball strike the ground? Long flights at midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere encounter the jet stream, an eastward airflow that can affect a plane’s speed relative to Earth’s surface. If a pilot maintains a certain speed relative to the air (the plane’s airspeed), the speed relative to the surface (the plane’s ground speed) is more when the flight is in the direction of the jet stream and less when the flight is opposite the jet stream. Suppose a round-trip flight is scheduled between two cities separated by 4000 km, with the outgoing flight in the direction of the jet stream and the return flight opposite it. The airline computer advises an airspeed of 1000 km/h, for which the difference in flight times for the outgo- ing and return flights is 70.0 min. What jet-stream speed is the computer using? 88
SSM A particle starts from the origin at t = 0 with a velocity ˆ / s and moves in the xy plane with constant acceleration of 8.0 j m (4.0 ˆ i + 2.0 ˆ j) m / s2 . When the particle’s x coordinate is 29 m, what are its (a) y coordinate and (b) speed?
89
BIO At what initial speed must the basketball player in Fig. 4.30 throw the ball, at angle θ0 = 55° above the horizontal, to make the foul shot? The horizontal distances are d 1 = 1.0 ft and d 2 = 14 ft, and the heights are h 1 = 7.0 ft and h 2 = 10 ft.
90
SSM Oasis A is 90 km due west of oasis B. A desert camel leaves A and takes 50 h to walk 75 km at 37° north of due east. Next it takes 35 h to walk 65 km due south. Then it rests for 5.0 h. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the camel’s displacement relative to A at the resting point? From the time the camel leaves A until the end of the rest period, what are the (c) magnitude and (d) direction of its average velocity and (e) its average speed? The camel’s last drink was at A; it must be at B no more than 120 h later for its next drink. If it is to reach B just in time, what must be the (f) magnitude and (g) direc- tion of its average velocity after the rest period?
93
FCP Curtain of death. A large metallic asteroid strikes Earth and quickly digs a crater into the rocky material below ground level by launching rocks upward and outward. The following table gives five pairs of launch speeds and angles (from the horizontal) for such rocks, based on a model of crater formation. (Other rocks, with intermediate speeds and angles, are also launched.) Suppose that you are at x = 20 km when the asteroid strikes the ground at time t = 0 and position x = 0 (Fig. 4.32). (a) At t = 20 s, what are the x and y coordinates of the rocks headed in your direction from launches A through E? (b) Plot these coordinates and then sketch a curve through the points to include rocks with intermediate launch speeds and angles. The curve should indicate what you would see as you look up into the approaching rocks.
94
θ0
Launch Speed (m/s) Angle (degrees)
d1
A B C D E
h2 h1
d2
During volcanic erup- Figure 4.30 Problem 90. tions, chunks of solid rock can be blasted out of the volcano; these projectiles are called volcanic bombs. Figure 4.31 shows a cross section of Mt. Fuji, in Japan. (a) At what initial speed would a bomb have to be ejected, at angle θ0 = 35° to the horizontal, from the vent at A in order to fall at the foot of the volcano at B, at verti- cal distance h = 3.30 km and horizontal distance d = 9.40 km? Ignore, for the moment, t he effects of air on the bomb’s travel. (b) What would be the time of flight? (c) Would the effect of the air increase or decrease your answer in (a)? 91
A
97
θ0
h
d
B
520 630 750 870 1000
14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0
y
You x (km) 0
10 Figure 4.32
20
Problem 94.
Figure 4.33 shows the straight path of a par- B ticle across an xy coordinate system as the par- ticle is accelerated from rest during time interval y ∆t 1 . The acceleration is constant. The xy coor- A dinates for point A are (4.00 m, 6.00 m); those x for point B are (12.0 m, 18.0 m). (a) What is the Figure 4.33 ratio a y /a x of the acceleration components? (b) What are the coordinates of the particle if the Problem 95. motion is continued for another interval equal to ∆t 1 ? 95
For women’s volleyball the top of the net is 2.24 m above the floor and the court measures 9.0 m by 9.0 m on each side of the net. Using a jump serve, a player strikes the ball at a point that is 3.0 m above the floor and a horizontal distance of 8.0 m from the net. If the initial velocity of the ball is horizontal, (a) what minimum magnitude must it have if the ball is to clear the net and (b) what maximum magnitude can it have if the ball is to strike the floor inside the back line on the other side of the net? 96
Figure 4.31
Problem 91.
An astronaut is rotated in a horizontal centrifuge at a radius of 5.0 m. (a) What is the astronaut’s speed if the centrip- etal acceleration has a magnitude of 7.0g? (b) How many revo- lutions per minute are required to produce this acceleration? (c) What is the period of the motion? 92
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C HAP T ER 4 MOT ION IN T WO AND T HREE D IMENSIONS
SSM A rifle is aimed horizontally at a target 30 m away. The bullet hits the target 1.9 cm below the aiming point. What are (a) the bullet’s time of flight and (b) its speed as it emerges from the rifle?
97
A particle is in uniform circular motion about the origin of an xy coordinate system, moving clockwise with a period of 7.00 s. At one instant, its position vector (measured from the origin) is r = (2.00 m) ˆ i − (3.00 m) ˆ j. At that instant, what is its velocity in unit-vector notation? 98
→
In Fig. 4.34, a lump of wet putty moves in uniform circular motion as it rides at a radius of Wheel 20.0 cm on the rim of a wheel rotating counterclockwise with a Putty h period of 5.00 ms. The lump then happens to fly off the rim at the d 5 o’clock position (as if on a clock Figure 4.34 Problem 99. face). It leaves the rim at a height of h = 1.20 m from the floor and at a distance d = 2.50 m from a wall. At what height on the wall does the lump hit? 99
An iceboat sails across the surface of a frozen lake with constant acceleration produced by the wind. At a certain instant the boat’s velocity is (6.30 ˆ i ‒ 8.42 ˆ j) m/s. Three seconds later, because of a wind shift, the boat is instantaneously at rest. What is its average acceleration for this 3.00 s interval? 100
In Fig. 4.35, a ball is vc shot directly upward from the ground with an initial speed of v 0 v 0 = 7.00 m/s. Simultaneously, a Ball construction elevator cab begins to move upward from the ground with Figure 4.35 Problem 101. a constant speed of v c = 3.00 m/s. What maximum height does the ball reach relative to (a) the ground and (b) the cab floor? At what rate does the speed of the ball change relative to (c) the ground and (d) the cab floor? 101
A magnetic field forces an electron to move in a circle with radial acceleration 3.0 × 10 14 m/s 2 . (a) What is the speed of the electron if the radius of its circular path is 15 cm? (b) What is the period of the motion? 102
In 3.50 h, a balloon drifts 21.5 km north, 9.70 km east, and 2.88 km upward from its release point on the ground. Find (a) the magnitude of its average velocity and (b) the angle its aver- age velocity makes with the horizontal. 103
A ball is thrown horizontally from a height of 20 m and hits the ground with a speed that is three times its initial speed. What is the initial speed? 104
A projectile is launched with an initial speed of 30 m/s at an angle of 60° above the horizontal. What are the (a) magni- tude and (b) angle of its velocity 2.0 s after launch, and (c) is the angle above or below the horizontal? What are the (d) magni- tude and (e) angle of its velocity 5.0 s after launch, and (f) is the angle above or below the horizontal? ˆ 106 The position vector for a proton is initially r = 5.0 i − 6.0 ˆ j + ̂ ̂ 2.0k and then later is r = −2.0 ˆ i + 6.0 ˆ j + 2.0k , all in meters. (a) What is the proton’s displacement vector, and (b) to what plane is that vector parallel? 105
→
→
y A particle P travels with constant speed on a circle of radius r = 3.00 m (Fig. 4.36) and completes one revolution in 20.0 s. P The particle passes through O r at time t = 0. State the following vectors in magnitude-angle nota- tion (angle relative to the posi- tive direction of x). With respect to O, find the particle’s position x O vector at the times t of (a) 5.00 s, (b) 7.50 s, and (c) 10.0 s. (d) For Figure 4.36 Problem 107. the 5.00 s interval from the end of the fifth second to the end of the tenth second, find the parti- cle’s displacement. For that interval, find (e) its average velocity and its velocity at the (f) beginning and (g) end. Next, find the acceleration at the (h) beginning and (i) end of that interval.
107
The fast French train known as the TGV (Train à Grande Vitesse) has a scheduled average speed of 216 km/h. (a) If the train goes around a curve at that speed and the magnitude of the acceleration experienced by the passengers is to be lim- ited to 0.050g, what is the smallest radius of curvature for the track that can be tolerated? (b) At what speed must the train go around a curve with a 1.00 km radius to be at the accelera- tion limit? 108
(a) If an electron is projected horizontally with a speed of 3.0 × 10 6 m/s, how far will it fall in traversing 1.0 m of horizontal distance? (b) Does the answer increase or decrease if the initial speed is increased? 109
A person walks up a stalled 15-m-long escalator in 90 s. When standing on the same escalator, now moving, the person is carried up in 60 s. How much time would it take that person to walk up the moving escalator? Does the answer depend on the length of the escalator? 110 BIO
(a) What is the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration of an object on Earth’s equator due to the rotation of Earth? (b) What would Earth’s rotation period have to be for objects on the equator to have a centripetal acceleration of magnitude 9.8 m/s 2 ? 111
The range of a projectile depends not only on v 0 and θ0 but also on the value g of the free-fall acceleration, which varies from place to place. In 1936, Jesse Owens established a world’s running broad jump record of 8.09 m at the Olympic Games at Berlin (where g = 9.8128 m/s 2 ). Assuming the same values of v 0 and θ0 , by how much would his record have differed if he had com- y peted instead in 1956 at Melbourne (where g = 9.7999 m/s 2 )? 112 FCP
Figure 4.37 shows the path taken by a drunk skunk over level ground, from initial point i to final point f. The angles are θ1 = 30.0°, θ2 = 50.0°, and θ3 = 80.0°, and the distances are d 1 = 5.00 m, d 2 = 8.00 m, and d 3 = 12.0 m. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) angle of the skunk’s displacement from i to f ?
3
113
d2
2
d3
1 d 1
x
i
f
Figure 4.37
Problem 113.
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P ROBL EMS
The position vector r of a particle moving in the xy plane is r = 2t ˆ i + 2 sin[(π/4 rad/s)t] ˆ j, with r in meters and t in seconds. (a) Calculate the x and y components of the particle’s position at t = 0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0 s and sketch the particle’s path in the xy plane for the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 4.0 s. (b) Calculate the components of the particle’s velocity at t = 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 s. Show that the velocity is tangent to the path of the particle and in the direction the particle is moving at each time by drawing the velocity vectors on the plot of the particle’s path in part (a). (c) Calculate the components of the particle’s acceleration at t = 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 s. →
114 →
→
Circling the Galaxy. The Solar System is moving along an approximately circular path of radius 2.5 × 10 4 ly (light-years) around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy with a speed of 205 km/s. (a) How far has a person traveled along that path by the time of the person’s 20th birthday? (b) What is the period of the circling? 115
Record motorcycle jump. Figure 4.38 illustrates the ramps for the 2002 world-record motorcycle jump set by Jason Renie. The ramps were H = 3.00 m high, angled at θR = 12.0°, and sepa- rated by distance D = 77.0 m. Assuming that he landed halfway down the landing ramp and that the slowing effects of the air were negligible, calculate the speed at which he left the launch ramp. 116
y
Launch
θ
v 0
Landing H
R
θ
R
99
30° below the horizontal and a constant acceleration of 1.0 m/s 2 upward. (a) At what time t does the glider reach the ground? (b) How far horizontally has the glider traveled by then? (c) For the same initial conditions, what constant acceleration will cause the glider to reach the ground with zero speed (no motion)? Use ̂ unit-vector notation, with i in the horizontal direction of travel ̂ and j upward. Pittsburgh left. Drivers in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, are alert for an aggressive maneuver dubbed the Pittsburgh left. Fig- ure 4.39 gives an example that resulted in a collision. Cars A and B were initially stopped at a red light. At the onset of the green light at time t = 0, car A moved forward with acceleration a A but the driver of car B, wanting to make a left turn in front of A, anticipated the light change by moving during the yellow light for the perpendicular traffic. The driver started at time t = ‒Δt and moved through a quarter circle with tangential acceleration a B until there was a front‒side collision. In your investigation of the accident, you find that the width of each lane is w = 3.00 m and the width of car B is b = 1.50 m. The cars were in the middle of a lane initially and in the collision. Assume the accelerations were a A = 3.00 m/s 2 and a B = 4.00 m/s 2 (which is aggressive). When the collision occurred, (a) how far had A moved, (b) what was the speed of A, (c) what was the time, (d) how far had the middle front of B moved, and (e) what was the speed of B? (e) What was the value of Δt? (Engineers and physicists are com- monly hired to analyze traffic accidents and then testify in court as expert witnesses.) 122
x
b
w
D
Figure 4.38
Problem 116. B
Circling the Sun. Considering only the orbital motion of Earth around the Sun, how far has a person traveled along the orbit by the day of their 20th birthday? Earth’s speed along its orbit is 30 × 10 3 m/s. 117
Airboat. You are to ride an airboat over swampy water, starting from rest at point i with an x axis extending due east and a y axis extending due north. First, moving at 30° north of due east: (1) increase your speed at 0.400 m/s 2 for 6.00 s; (2) with whatever speed you then have, move for 8.00 s; (3) then slow at 0.400 m/s 2 for 6.00 s. Immediately then move due west: (4) increase your speed at 0.400 m/s 2 for 5.00 s; (5) with whatever speed you then have, move for 10.0 s; (6) then slow at 0.400 m/s 2 until you stop. In magnitude-angle notation, what then is your average velocity for the trip from point i? 118
Detective work. In a police story, a body is found 4.6 m from the base of a building and 24 m below an open window. (a) Assuming the victim left that window horizontally, what was the victim’s speed just then? (b) Would you guess the death to be accidental? Explain your answer. 119
A throw from third. A third baseman wishes to throw to first base, 127 ft distant. His best throwing speed is 85 mi/h. (a) If he throws the ball horizontally 3.0 ft above the ground, how far from first base will it hit the ground? (b) From the same initial height, at what upward angle must he throw the ball if the first baseman is to catch it 3.0 ft above the ground? (c) What will be the time of flight in that case? 120
Gliding down to ground. At time t = 0, a hang glider is 7.5 m above level ground with a velocity of 8.0 m/s at an angle of 121
A
Figure 4.39
Problem 122.
g dependence of projectile motion. A device shoots a small ball horizontally with speed 0.200 m/s from a height of 0.800 m above level ground on another planet. The ball lands at dis- tance d from the base of the device directly below the ejection point. What is g on the planet if d is (a) 7.30 cm, (b) 14.6 cm, and (c) 25.3 cm? 123
Disappearing bicyclist. Figure 4.40 is an overhead view of your car (width C = 1.50 m) and a large truck (width T = 1.50 m and length L = 6.00 m). Both are stopped for a red traffic light waiting to make a left-hand turn and are centered in a traffic lane. You are sitting at distance d = 2.00 m behind the front of your car next to the left-hand window. Your street has two lanes in each direction; the perpendicular street has one lane in each direction; each lane has width w = 3.00 m. A bicyclist moves at 124
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100
C HAP T ER 4 MOT ION IN T WO AND T HREE D IMENSIONS
a speed of 5.00 m/s toward the intersection along the middle of the curb lane of the opposing traffic. Sight line 1 is your view just as the bicyclist disappears behind the truck. Sight line 2 is your view just as the bicyclist reappears. For how long does the bicyclist disappear from your view? This is a common dangerous situation for bicyclists, motorcyclists, skateboarders, inline skat- ers, and drivers of scooters and short cars.
w
h t aP
Sight line 2
Sight line 1
Driver
Figure 4.40
Problem 124.
Stuntman jump. A movie stuntman is to run across a roof- top and jump horizontally off it, to land on the roof of the next building (Fig. 4.41). The rooftops are separated by h = 4.8 m vertically and d = 6.2 m horizontally. Before he attempts the jump, he wisely calculates if the jump is possible. Can he make the jump if his maximum rooftop speed is v 0 = 4.5 m/s? 125
Passing British rail trains. Two British rail trains pass each other on parallel tracks moving in opposite directions. Train A has length L A = 300 m and is moving at speed v A = 185 km/h. Train B has length L B = 250 m and is moving at speed v B = 200 km/h. How long does the passage take to a passenger on (a) A and (b) B? 126
Rising fast ball. A batter in a baseball game will sometimes describe a pitch as being a rising ball, termed a hop. Although technically possible, such upward motion would require a large backspin on the ball so that an aerodynamic force would lift the ball. More likely, a rising ball is an illusion stemming from the batter’s misjudgment of the ball’s initial speed. The distance between the pitching rubber and home plate is 60.5 ft. If a ball is thrown horizontally with no spin, how far does it drop during its flight if the initial speed v 0 is (a) 36 m/s (slow, about 80 mi/h) and (b) 43 m/s (fast, about 95 mi/h)? (c) What is the difference in the two displacements? (d) If the batter anticipates the slow ball, will the swing be below the ball or above it? 127
CALC Car throwing stones. Chipsealing is a common and relatively inexpensive way to pave a road. A layer of hot tar is sprayed onto the existing road surface and then stone chips are spread over the surface. A heavy roller then embeds the chips in the tar. Once the tar cools, most of the stones are trapped. However, some loose stones are scattered over the surface. They eventually will be swept up by a street cleaner, but if cars drive over the road before then, the rear tires on a leading car can launch stones backward toward a trailing car (Fig. 4.42). Assume that the stones are launched at speed v 0 = 11.2 m/s (25 mi/h), matching the speed of the cars. Also assume that stones can leave the tires of the lead car at road level and at any angle and not be stopped by mud flaps or the underside of the car. In terms of car lengths L c = 4.50 m, what is the least separation L between the cars such that stones will not hit the trailing car?
128
Portions of car rear
Portions of car front
v0
v0
v0
v0 h
d
Stone Figure 4.42
Figure 4.41
Problem 128.
Problem 125.
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C
H
A
P
T
E
R
5
Force and Motion—I
5.1 NEWTON’S FIRST AND SECOND LAWS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
5.1.1 Identify that a force is a vector quantity and thus has
acting on it as vectors with their tails anchored on
both magnitude and direction and also components. 5.1.2 Given two or more forces acting on the same par- ticle, add the forces as
vectors
the particle. 5.1.6 Apply the relationship (Newton’s second law)
to get the net force.
between the net force on an object, the mass of the
5.1.3 Identify Newton’s first and second laws of motion.
object, and the acceleration produced by the net
5.1.4 Identify inertial reference frames. 5.1.5 Sketch a free-body diagram for an object, show-
force. 5.1.7 Identify that only external forces on an object can
ing the object as a particle and drawing the forces
cause the object to accelerate.
Key Ideas ●
The velocity of an object can change (the object can
●
The mass of a body is the characteristic of that body
accelerate) when the object is acted on by one or more
that relates the body’s acceleration to the net force
forces (pushes or pulls) from other objects. Newtonian
causing the acceleration. Masses are scalar quantities.
mechanics relates accelerations and forces. ●
Forces are vector quantities. Their magnitudes are
→
●
The net force
F net on a body with mass m is related a by →
to the body’s acceleration
defined in terms of the acceleration they would give the
→
F net = m a ,
standard kilogram. A force that accelerates that standard
→
2
body by exactly 1 m/s is defined to have a magnitude of 1 N. The direction of a force is the direction of the
which may be written in the component versions
F net, x = ma x F net,y = ma y and F net,z = ma z .
acceleration it causes. Forces are combined according to the rules of vector algebra. The net force on a body is the vector sum of all the forces acting on the body. ●
The second law indicates that in SI units
If there is no net force on a body, the body remains
1 N = 1 kg ⋅ m / s2 .
at rest if it is initially at rest or moves in a straight line at constant speed if it is in motion. ●
Reference frames in which Newtonian mechanics
●
A free-body diagram is a stripped-down diagram
in which only o ne body is considered. That body is
holds are called inertial reference frames or inertial
represented by either a sketch or a dot. The external
frames. Reference frames in which Newtonian mechanics
forces on the body are drawn, and a coordinate
does not hold are called noninertial reference frames or
system is superimposed, oriented so as to simplify
noninertial frames.
the solution.
What Is Physics?
We have seen that part of physics is a study of motion, including accelerations, which are changes in velocities. Physics is also a study of what can cause an object to accelerate. That cause is a force, which is, loosely speaking, a push or pull on the object. The force is said to act on the object to change its velocity. For example, when a dragster accelerates, a force from the track acts on the rear tires to cause the dragster’s acceleration. When a defensive guard knocks down a quarterback, a force from the guard acts on the quarterback to cause the quarterback’s backward
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acceleration. When a car slams into a telephone pole, a force on the car from the pole causes the car to stop. Science, engineering, legal, and medical journals are filled with articles about forces on objects, including people. A Heads Up. Many students find this chapter to be more challenging than the preceding ones. One reason is that we need to use vectors in setting up equations—we cannot just sum some scalars. So, we need the vector rules from Chapter 3. Another reason is that we shall see a lot of different arrangements: Objects will move along floors, ceilings, walls, and ramps. They will move upward on ropes looped around pulleys or by sitting in ascending or descending eleva- tors. Sometimes, objects will even be tied together. However, in spite of the variety of arrangements, we need only a single key idea (Newton’s second law) to solve most of the homework problems. The pur- pose of this chapter is for us to explore how we can apply that single key idea to any given arrangement. The application will take experience—we need to solve lots of problems, not just read words. So, let’s go through some of the words and then get to the sample problems. Newtonian Mechanics
The relation between a force and the acceleration it causes was first understood by Isaac Newton (1642–1727) a nd is the subject of this chapter. The study of that relation, as Newton presented it, is called Newtonian mechanics. We shall focus on its three primary laws of motion. Newtonian mechanics does not apply to all situations. If the speeds of the interacting bodies are very large—an appreciable fraction of the speed of light—we must replace Newtonian mechanics with Einstein’s special theory of relativity, which holds at any speed, including those near the speed of light. If the interacting bodies are on the scale of atomic structure (for example, they might be electrons in an atom), we must replace Newtonian mechanics with quantum mechanics. Physi- cists now view Newtonian mechanics as a special case of these two more compre- hensive theories. Still, it is a very important special case because it applies to the motion of objects ranging in size from the very small (almost on the scale of atomic structure) to astronomical (galaxies and clusters of galaxies). Newton’s First Law
Before Newton formulated his mechanics, it was thought that some influence, a “force,” was needed to keep a body moving at constant velocity. Similarly, a body was thought to be in its “natural state” when it was at rest. For a body to move with constant velocity, it seemingly had to be propelled in some way, by a push or a pull. Otherwise, it would “naturally” stop moving. These ideas were reasonable. If you send a puck sliding across a wooden floor, it does indeed slow and then stop. If you want to make it move across the floor with constant velocity, you have to continuously pull or push it. Send a puck sliding over the ice of a skating rink, however, and it goes a lot farther. You can imagine longer and more slippery surfaces, over which the puck would slide farther and farther. In the limit you can think of a long, extremely slippery surface (said to be a frictionless surface), over which the puck would hardly slow. (We can in fact come close to this situation by sending a puck sliding over a horizontal air table, across which it moves on a film of air.) From these observations, we can conclude that a body will keep moving with constant velocity if no force acts on it. That leads us to the first of Newton’s three laws of motion: Newton’s First Law: If no force acts on a body, the body’s velocity cannot change; that is, the body cannot accelerate.
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In other words, if the body is at rest, it stays at rest. If it is moving, it continues to move with the same velocity (same m agnitude and same direction). F
Force
Before we begin working problems with forces, we need to discuss several fea- tures of forces, such as the force unit, the vector nature of forces, the combining of forces, and the circumstances in which we can measure forces (without being fooled by a fictitious force). Unit. We can define the unit of force in terms of the acceleration a force would give to the standard kilogram (Fig. 1.3.1), which has a mass defined to be exactly 1 kg. Suppose we put that body on a horizontal, frictionless surface and pull hori- zontally (Fig. 5.1.1) such that the body has an acceleration of 1 m/s 2 . Then we can define our applied force as having a magnitude of 1 newton (abbreviated N). If we then pulled with a force magnitude of 2 N, we would find that the acceleration is 2 m/s 2 . Thus, the acceleration is proportional to the force. If the standard body of 1 kg has an acceleration of magnitude a (in meters per second per second), then the force (in newtons) producing the acceleration has a magnitude equal to a. We now have a workable definition of the force unit. Vectors. Force is a vector quantity and thus has not only magnitude but also direction. So, if two or more forces act on a body, we find the net force (or resultant force) by adding them as vectors, following the rules of Chapter 3. A single force that has the same magnitude and direction as the calculated net force would then have the same effect as all the individual forces. This fact, called the principle of superposition for forces, makes everyday forces reasonable and predictable. The world would indeed be strange and unpredictable if, say, you and a friend each pulled on the standard body with a force of 1 N and somehow the net pull was 14 N and the resulting acceleration was 14 m/s 2 . In this book, forces are most often represented with a vector symbol such as F , and a net force is represented with the vector symbol F net . As with other vectors, a force or a net force can have components along coordinate axes. When forces act only along a single axis, they are single-component forces. Then we can drop the overhead arrows on the force symbols and just use signs to indicate the directions of the forces along that axis. The First Law. Instead of our previous wording, the more proper statement of Newton’s first law is in terms of a net force: →
a →
A force F on the standard kilogram gives that body an acceleration a . Figure 5.1.1
→
→
Newton’s First Law: If no net force acts on a body ( F net = 0), the body’s velocity cannot change; that is, the body cannot accelerate. →
There may be multiple forces acting on a body, but if their net force is zero, the body cannot accelerate. So, if we happen to know that a body’s velocity is con- stant, we can immediately say that the net force on it is zero. Inertial Reference Frames
Newton’s first law is not true in all reference frames, but we can always find reference frames in which it (as well as the rest of Newtonian mechanics) is true. Such special frames are referred to as inertial reference frames, or simply inertial frames. An inertial reference frame is one in which Newton’s laws hold.
For example, we can assume that the ground is an inertial frame provided we can neglect Earth’s astronomical motions (such as its rotation).
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N W
E S
(a)
Earth’s rotation causes an apparent deflection. (b)
(a) The path of a puck sliding from the north pole as seen from a stationary point in space. Earth rotates to the east. (b) The path of the puck as seen from the ground. Figure 5.1.2
That assumption works well if, say, a puck is sent sliding along a short strip of frictionless ice—we would find that the puck’s motion obeys Newton’s laws. However, suppose the puck is sent sliding along a long ice strip extending from the north pole (Fig. 5.1.2a). If we view the puck from a stationary frame in space, the puck moves south along a simple straight line because Earth’s rota- tion around the north pole merely slides the ice beneath the puck. However, if we view the puck from a point on the ground so that we rotate with Earth, the puck’s path is not a simple straight line. Because the eastward speed of the ground beneath the puck is greater the farther south the puck slides, from our ground-based view the puck appears to be deflected westward (Fig. 5.1.2b). However, this apparent deflection is caused not by a force as required by Newton’s laws but by the fact that we see the puck from a rotating frame. In this situation, the ground is a noninertial frame, and trying to explain the deflection in terms of a force would lead us to a fictitious force. A more common example of inventing such a nonexistent force can occur in a car that is rapidly increas- ing in speed. You might claim that a force to the rear shoves you hard into the seat back. FCP In this book we usually assume that the ground is an inertial frame and that measured forces and accelerations are from this frame. If measurements a re made in, say, a vehicle that is accelerating relative to the ground, then the measurements are being made in a noninertial frame and the results can be surprising.
Checkpoint 5.1.1
Which of the figure’s six arrangements correctly show the vector addition of forces F 1 and F 2 to yield the third vector, which is meant to represent their net force F net ? →
→
→
F1
(a)
F1
F2
F1
(b)
F2
(c )
F2
F2
F1
(d )
F1
F1
(e)
F2
(f )
F2
Mass
From everyday e xperience you already know that applying a given force to bod- ies (say, a baseball and a bowling ball) results in different accelerations. The com- mon explanation is correct: The object with the larger mass is accelerated less. But we can be more precise. The acceleration is actually inversely related to the mass (rather than, say, the square of the mass). Let’s justify that inverse relationship. Suppose, as previously, we push on the standard body (defined to have a mass of exactly 1 kg) with a force of magnitude 1 N. The body accelerates with a magnitude of 1 m/s 2 . Next we push on body X with the same force and find that it accelerates at 0.25 m/s 2 . Let’s make the (correct) assumption that with the same force, m X ___ a ___ = 0 , m 0
a X
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5.1 NEWP ON’S F IRSP HND SE- OND L HWS
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and thus a 0 1.0 m / s2 = 4.0 kg. _________ m X = m 0 ___ a X = (1.0 kg) 0.25 m / s2 Defining the mass of X in this way is useful only if the procedure is consistent. Suppose we apply an 8.0 N force first to the standard body (getting an accelera- tion of 8.0 m/s 2 ) and then to body X (getting an acceleration of 2.0 m/s 2 ). We would then calculate the mass of X as a 0 8.0 m / s2 = 4.0 kg, ________ m X = m 0 ___ a X = (1.0 kg) 2.0 m / s2 which means that our procedure is consistent and thus usable. The results also suggest that mass is an intrinsic characteristic of a body—it automatically comes with the existence of the body. Also, it is a scalar quantity. However, the nagging question remains: What, exactly, is mass? Since the word mass is used in everyday English, we should have some intui- tive understanding of it, maybe something that we can physically sense. Is it a body’s size, weight, or density? The answer is no, although those characteristics are sometimes confused with mass. We can say only that the mass of a body is the characteristic that relates a force on the body to the resulting acceleration. Mass has no more familiar definition; you can have a physical sensation of mass only when you try to accelerate a body, as in the kicking of a baseball or a bowling ball.
Newton’s Second Law
All the definitions, experiments, and observations we have discussed so far can be summarized in one neat statement: Newton’s Second Law: The net force on a body is equal to the product of the body’s mass and its acceleration.
In equation form, →
F net = m a →
(5.1.1)
(Newton’s second law).
Identify the Body. This simple equation is the key idea for nearly all the homework problems in this chapter, but we must use it cautiously. First, we must be certain about which body we are applying it to. Then F net must be the vector sum of all the forces that act on that body. Only forces that act on that body are to be included in the vector sum, not forces acting on other bodies that might be involved in the given situation. For example, if you are in a rugby scrum, the net force on you is the vector sum of all the pushes and pulls on your body. It does not include any push or pull on another player from you or from anyone else. Every time you work a force problem, your first step is to clearly state the body to which you are applying Newton’s law. Separate Axes. Like other vector equations, Eq. 5.1.1 is equivalent to three component equations, one for each axis of an xyz coordinate system: →
F net, x = ma x , F net, y = ma y , and F net, z = ma z .
(5.1.2)
Each of these equations relates the net force component along an axis to the acceleration along that same axis. For example, the first equation tells us that the sum of all the force components along the x axis causes the x component a x of the body’s acceleration, but causes no acceleration in the y and z directions. Turned around, the acceleration component a x is caused only by the sum of the
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force components along the x axis and is completely unrelated to force compo- nents along another axis. In general, The acceleration component along a given axis is caused only by the sum of the force components along that same axis, and not by force components along any other axis.
Forces in Equilibrium. Equation 5.1.1 tells us that if the net force on a body is zero, the body’s acceleration a = 0. If the body is at rest, it stays at rest; if it is moving, it continues to move at constant velocity. In such cases, any forces on the body balance one another, and both the forces and the body are said to be in equilibrium. Commonly, the forces are also said to cancel one another, but the term “cancel” is tricky. It does not mean that the forces cease to exist (canceling forces is not like canceling dinner reservations). The forces still act on the body but cannot change the velocity. Units. For SI units, Eq. 5.1.1 tells us that →
1 N = (1 kg)(1 m / s2 ) = 1 kg ⋅ m / s2 .
(5.1.3)
Some force units in other systems of units are g iven in Table 5 .1.1 a nd Appendix D. Table 5.1.1 Units in Newton’s Second Law (Eqs. 5.1.1 and 5.1.2)
System
Force
Mass
Acceleration
SI CGS a British b
newton (N) dyne pound (lb)
kilogram (kg) gram (g) slug
m/s 2 cm/s 2 ft/s 2
a
1 dyne = 1 g ⋅ cm/s 2 . 1 lb = 1 slug ⋅ ft/s 2 .
b
Diagrams. To solve problems with Newton’s second law, we often draw a free-body diagram in which the only body shown is the one for which we are summing forces. A sketch of the body itself is preferred by some teachers but, to save space in these chapters, we shall usually represent the body with a dot. Also, each force on the body is drawn as a vector arrow with its tail anchored on the body. A coordinate system is usually included, and the acceleration of the body is sometimes shown with a vector arrow (labeled as an acceleration). This whole procedure is designed to focus our attention on the body of interest. External Forces Only. A system consists of one or more bodies, and any force on the bodies inside the system from bodies outside the system is called an external force. If the bodies making up a system are rigidly connected to one another, we can treat the system a s one composite body, and the net force F net on it is the vector sum of all external forces. (We do not include internal forces —that is, forces between two bodies inside the system. Internal forces cannot accelerate the system.) For example, a connected railroad engine and car form a system. If, say, a tow line pulls on the front of the engine, the force due to the tow line acts on the whole engine–car system. Just as for a single body, we can relate the net external force on a system to its acceleration with Newton’s second law, F net = m a , where m is the total mass of the system. →
→
→
Checkpoint 5.1.2
3N
5N
The figure here shows two horizontal forces acting on a block on a frictionless floor. If a third horizon- tal force F 3 also acts on the block, what are the magnitude and direction of F 3 when the block is (a) stationary and (b) moving to the left with a constant speed of 5 m/s? →
→
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5.1 NEWP ON’S F IRSP HND SE- OND L HWS
Sample Problem 5.1.1
One- and two-dimensional forces, puck
Here are examples of how to use Newton’s second law for a puck when one or two forces act on it. Parts A, B, and C of Fig. 5.1.3 show three situations in which one or two forces act on a puck that moves over frictionless ice along an x axis, in one-dimensional motion. The puck’s mass is m = 0.20 kg. Forces F 1 and F 2 are directed along the axis and have magnitudes F 1 = 4.0 N and F 2 = 2.0 N. Force F 3 is directed at angle θ = 30° and has magnitude F 3 = 1.0 N. In each situation, what is the acceleration of the puck? →
A F1 x
The horizontal force causes a horizontal acceleration.
( a)
→
Puck
→
F1
x
This is a free-body diagram.
(b )
B
KEY IDEA In each situation we can relate the acceleration a to the net force F net acting on the puck with Newton’s second law, F net = m a . However, because the motion is along only the x axis, we can simplify each situation by writing the second law for x components only: →
F2
F1 x
→
→
107
(c )
→
F net, x = ma x .
F2
(5.1.4)
F1
For Fig. 5.1.3b, where only one horizontal force acts, Eq. 5.1.4 gives us
This is a free-body diagram.
C F2
θ
F3
F 1 = ma x ,
x
Only the horizontal component of F3 competes with F2.
(e )
which, with given data, yields
F2
F 1 _______ 4.0 N 2 a x = __ m = 0.20 kg = 20 m / s .
x
(d )
The free-body diagrams for the three situations are also given in Fig. 5.1.3, with the puck represented by a dot. Situation A:
These forces compete. Their net force causes a horizontal acceleration.
(Answer)
The positive answer indicates that the acceleration is in the positive direction of the x axis.
θ
F3
x
This is a free-body diagram.
(f )
In three situations, forces act on a puck that moves along an x axis. Free-body diagrams are also shown. Figure 5.1.3
In Fig. 5.1.3d, two horizontal forces act on the puck, F 1 in the positive direction of x and F 2 in the negative direction. Now Eq. 5.1.4 gives us
F 3, x is. (Force F 3 is two-dimensional but the motion is only one-dimensional.) Thus, we write Eq. 5.1.4 as
F 1 − F 2 = ma x,
F 3, x − F 2 = ma x .
Situation B: →
→
which, with given data, yields F 1 − F 2 ____________ 4.0 N − 2.0 N 2 a x = ______ m = 0.20 kg = 10 m / s . (Answer) Thus, the net force accelerates the puck in the positive direction of the x axis. →
In Fig. 5.1.3f, force F 3 is not directed along the direction of the puck’s acceleration; only the x component Situation C:
→
(5.1.5)
From the figure, we see that F 3, x = F 3 cos θ. Solving for the acceleration and substituting for F 3, x yield F 3, x − F 2 ___________ F 3 cos θ − F 2 a x = ________ m = m (1.0 N)(cos 30°) − 2.0 N = _____________________ = −5.7 m / s2 . 0.20 kg
(Answer) Thus, the net force accelerates the puck in the negative direction of the x axis.
Hdditional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
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Sample Problem 5.1.2
Two-dimensional forces, cookie tin
Here we find a missing force by using the acceleration. In the overhead view of Fig. 5.1.4a, a 2.0 kg cookie tin is accelerated a t 3.0 m/s 2 in the direction shown by a , over a frictionless horizontal surface. The acceleration is caused by three horizontal forces, only two of which are shown: F 1 of magnitude 10 N and F 2 of magnitude 20 N. What is the third force F 3 in unit-vector notation and in magnitude- angle notation?
F 3, x = ma x − F 1, x − F 2, x
→
→
→
= m(a cos 50°) − F 1 cos(−150°) − F 2 cos 90°. Then, substituting known data, we find F 3, x = (2.0 kg)(3.0 m/s 2 ) cos 50° − (10 N) cos(−150°)
→
− (20 N) cos 90° = 12.5 N.
KEY IDEA The net force F net on the tin is the sum of the three forces and is related to the acceleration a via Newton’s second law ( F net = m a ). Thus,
F 3, y = ma y − F 1, y − F 2, y = m(a sin 50°) − F 1 sin(−150°) − F 2 sin 90°
→
→
→
→
→
= (2.0 kg)(3.0 m/s 2 ) sin 50° − (10 N) sin(−150°) − (20 N) sin 90°
(5.1.6)
F 1 + F 2 + F 3 = m a , →
= −10.4 N.
which gives us
Vector: →
→
(5.1.7)
→
F 3 = m a − F 1 − F 2 . →
Because this is a two-dimensional problem, we cannot find F 3 merely by substituting the magnitudes for the vector quantities on the right side of Eq. 5.1.7. Instead, we must vectorially add m a , −F 1 (the reverse of F 1 ), and −F 2 (the reverse of F 2 ), as shown in Fig. 5.1.4b. This addi- tion can be done directly on a vector-capable calculator because we know both magnitude and angle for all three vectors. However, here we shall evaluate the right side of Eq. 5.1.7 in terms of components, first along the x axis and then along the y axis. Caution: Use only one axis at a time. Calculations:
In unit-vector notation, we can write F 3 = F 3,x ˆ i + F 3,y ˆ j = (12.5 N) ˆ i − (10.4 N) ˆ j
→
≈ (13 N) ˆ i − (10 N) ˆ j.
(Answer)
→
→
→
→
Similarly, along the y axis we find
y components: →
→
Along the x axis we have
x components:
→
→
We can now use a vector-capable calculator to get the magnitude and the angle of F 3 . We can also use Eq. 3.1.6 to obtain the magnitude and the angle (from the positive direction of the x axis) as →
__________
2 2 F 3 = √ F 3, x + F 3, y = 16 N
F
3 , y θ = tan −1 ____ = −40°. F
and
3 , x
(Answer)
y
These are two of the three horizontal force vectors.
This is the resulting horizontal acceleration vector.
F2
y
We draw the product of mass and acceleration as a vector. – F1
a
– F2
50° ma
x
30° F1
(a)
(b)
x
F3
Then we can add the three vectors to find the missing third force vector.
(a) An overhead view of two of three horizontal forces that act on a cookie tin, resulting in acceleration a . F 3 is not shown. (b) An arrangement of vectors m a , −F 1 , and −F 2 to find force F 3 . Figure 5.1.4
→
→
→
→
→
→
Hdditional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
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5.2 SOME PARTICULAR FORCES Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
5.2.1 Determine the magnitude and direction of the gravi-
5.2.4 Determine the magnitude and direction of the
tational force acting on a body with a given mass, at a
normal force on an object when the object is
location with a given free-fall acceleration.
pressed or pulled onto a surface.
5.2.2 Identify that the weight of a body is the magni-
5.2.5 Identify that the force parallel to the surface is a
tude of the net force required to prevent the body
frictional force that appears when the object slides
from falling freely, as measured from the reference frame of the ground.
or attempts to slide along the surface. 5.2.6 Identify that a tension force is said to pull at both
5.2.3 Identify that a scale gives an object’s weight when
ends of a cord (or a cord-like object) when the cord
the measurement is done in an inertial frame but not in
is taut.
an accelerating frame, where it gives an apparent weight.
Key Ideas →
●
A gravitational force
F g on a body is a pull by another
→
●
A normal force
F N is the force on a body from a sur-
body. In most situations in this book, the other body
face against which the body presses. The normal force
is Earth or some other astronomical body. For Earth,
is always perpendicular to the surface.
the force is directed down toward the ground, which is assumed to be an inertial frame. With that assumption, →
F g is
the magnitude of
f is the force on a body when the
body slides or attempts to slide along a surface. The
as to oppose the sliding. On a frictionless surface, the frictional force is negligible.
m is the body’s mass and g is the magnitude of
the free-fall acceleration. ●
A frictional force
force is always parallel to the surface and directed so
F g = mg, where
→
●
●
When a cord is under tension, each end of the cord pulls
on a body. The pull is directed along the cord, away from
W of a body is the magnitude of the upward
The weight
force needed to balance the gravitational force on the body. A body’s weight is related to the body’s mass by
the point of attachment to the body. For a massless cord (a cord with negligible mass), the pulls at both ends of the cord have the same magnitude
T, even if the cord runs around
a massless, frictionless pulley (a pulley with negligible mass
W = mg.
and negligible friction on its axle to oppose its rotation).
Some Particular Forces The Gravitational Force →
A gravitational force F g on a body is a certain type of pull that is directed toward a second body. In these early chapters, we do not discuss the nature of this force and usually consider situations in which the second body is Earth. Thus, when we speak of the gravitational force F g on a body, we usually mean a force that pulls on it directly toward the center of Earth—that is, directly down toward the ground. We shall assume that the ground is an inertial frame. Free Fall. Suppose a body of mass m is in free fall with the free-fall accelera- tion of magnitude g. Then, if we neglect the effects of the air, the only force acting on the body is the gravitational force F g . We can relate this downward force and downward acceleration with Newton’s second law ( F = m a ). We place a ver- tical y axis along the body’s path, with the positive direction upward. For this axis, Newton’s second law can be written in the form F net, y = ma y , which, in our situation, becomes −F g = m( − g) →
→
→
or
F g = mg.
→
(5.2.1)
In words, the magnitude of the gravitational force is equal to the product mg.
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- CHA P ER 5 F OR- E HND MOP ION—I
mL
mR
At Rest. This same gravitational force, with the same magnitude, still acts on the body even when the body is not in free fall but is, say, at rest on a pool table or moving across the table. (For the gravitational force to disappear, Earth would have to disappear.) We can write Newton’s second law for the gravitational force in these vector forms: ˆ F g = −F g ˆ j = −mg j = m g ,
→
(5.2.2)
→
ˆ is the unit vector that points upward along a y axis, directly away from where j the ground, and g is the free-fall acceleration (written as a vector), directed downward. →
F gL
= mL g
FgR
= mR g
An equal-arm balance. When the device is in balance, the gravitational force F gL on the body being weighed (on the left pan) and the total gravitational force F gR on the reference bodies (on the right pan) are equal. Thus, the mass m L of the body being weighed is equal to the total mass m R of the reference bodies. Figure 5.2.1
→
→
Weight
The weight W of a body is the magnitude of the net force required to prevent the body from falling freely, as measured by someone on the ground. For example, to keep a ball at rest in your hand while you stand on the ground, you must pro- vide an upward force to balance the gravitational force on the ball from Earth. Suppose the magnitude of the gravitational force is 2.0 N. Then the magnitude of your upward force must be 2.0 N, and thus the weight W of the ball is 2.0 N. We also say that the ball weighs 2.0 N and speak about the ball weighing 2.0 N. A ball with a weight of 3.0 N would require a greater force from you— namely, a 3.0 N force—to keep it at rest. The reason is that the gravitational force you must balance has a greater magnitude—namely, 3.0 N. We say that this sec- ond ball is heavier than the first ball. Now let us generalize the situation. Consider a body that has an acceleration a of zero relative to the ground, which we again assume to be an inertial frame. Two forces act on the body: a downward gravitational force F g and a balancing upward force of magnitude W. We can write Newton’s second law for a vertical y axis, with the positive direction upward, as
→
→
F net, y = ma y. In our situation, this becomes W − F g = m(0) or
W = F g
(weight, with ground as inertial frame).
(5.2.3) (5.2.4)
This equation tells us (assuming the ground is an inertial frame) that Scale marked in either weight or mass units
The weight W of a body is equal to the magnitude F g of the gravitational force on the body.
Substituting mg for F g from Eq. 5.2.1, we find W = mg Fg
(weight),
(5.2.5)
= mg
A spring scale. The read- ing is proportional to the weight of the object on the pan, and the scale gives that weight if marked in weight units. If, instead, it is marked in mass units, the reading is the object’s weight only if the value of g at the location where the scale is being used is the same as the value of g at the location where the scale was calibrated. Figure 5.2.2
which relates a body’s weight to its mass. Weighing. To weigh a body means to measure its weight. One way to do this is to place the body on one of the pans of an equal-arm balance (Fig. 5.2.1) and then place reference bodies (whose masses are known) on the other pan until we strike a balance (so that the gravitational forces on the two sides match). The masses on the pans then match, and we know the mass of the body. If we know the value of g for the location of the balance, we can also find the weight of the body with Eq. 5.2.5. We can also weigh a body with a spring scale (Fig. 5.2.2). The body stretches a spring, moving a pointer along a scale that has been calibrated and marked in
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5.2 SOME A HRP I- U L HR F OR- ES
111
either mass or weight units. (Most bathroom scales in the United States work this way and are marked in the force unit pounds.) If the scale is marked in mass units, it is accurate only where the value of g is the same as where the scale was calibrated. The weight of a body must be measured when the body is not accelerating vertically relative to the ground. For example, you can measure your weight on a scale in your bathroom or on a fast train. However, if you repeat the measure- ment with the scale in an accelerating elevator, the reading differs from your weight because of the acceleration. Such a measurement is called an apparent weight. Caution: A body’s weight is not its mass. Weight is the magnitude of a force and is related to mass by Eq. 5.2.5. If you move a body to a point where the value of g is different, the body’s mass (an intrinsic property) is not different but the weight is. For example, the weight of a bowling ball having a mass of 7.2 kg is 71 N on Earth but only 12 N on the Moon. The mass is the same on Earth and the Moon, but the free-fall acceleration on the Moon is only 1.6 m/s 2 . The Normal Force
If you stand on a mattress, Earth pulls you downward, but you remain stationary. The reason is that the mattress, because it deforms downward due to you, pushes up on you. Similarly, if you stand on a floor, it deforms (it is compressed, bent, or buckled ever so slightly) and pushes up on you. Even a seemingly rigid concrete floor does this (if it is not sitting directly on the ground, enough people on the floor could break it). The push on you from the mattress or floor is a normal force F N . The name comes from the mathematical term normal, meaning perpendicular: The force on you from, say, the floor is perpendicular to the floor. →
When a body presses against a surface, the surface (even a seemingly rigid one) deforms and pushes on the body with a normal force F N that is perpen- dicular to the surface. →
Figure 5.2.3a shows an example. A block of mass m presses down on a table, deforming it somewhat because of the gravitational force F g on the block. The table pushes up on the block with normal force F N . The free-body diagram for the block is given in Fig. 5.2.3b. Forces F g and F N are the only two forces on the block and they are both vertical. Thus, for the block we can write Newton’s second law for a positive-upward y axis (F net, y = ma y) as →
→
→
→
F N − F g = ma y. y
The normal force is the force on the block from the supporting table.
Normal force FN
Block
FN
Block x
The gravitational force on the block is due to Earth’s downward pull.
Fg
( a)
The forces balance.
Fg
(b)
(a) A block resting on a table experiences a normal force F N perpendicular to the tabletop. (b) The free-body diagram for the block. Figure 5.2.3
→
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- CHA P ER 5 F OR- E HND MOP ION—I
From Eq. 5.2.1, we substitute mg for F g , finding F N − mg = ma y. Then the magnitude of the normal force is F N = mg + ma y = m(g + a y )
(5.2.6)
for any vertical acceleration a y of the table and block (they might be in an accel- erating elevator). (Caution: We have already included the sign for g but a y can be positive or negative here.) If the table and block are not accelerating relative to the ground, then a y = 0 and Eq. 5.2.6 yields F N = mg.
(5.2.7)
Checkpoint 5.2.1
In Fig. 5.2.3, is the magnitude of the normal force F N greater than, less than, or equal to mg if the block and table are in an elevator moving upward (a) at constant speed and (b) at increasing speed? →
Friction
Direction of attempted slide f →
A frictional force f opposes the attempted slide of a body over a surface. Figure 5.2.4
If we either slide or attempt to slide a body over a surface, the motion is resisted by a bonding between the body and the surface. (We discuss this bonding more in the next chapter.) The resistance is considered to be a single force f , called either the frictional force or simply friction. This force is directed along the surface, opposite the direction of the intended motion (Fig. 5.2.4). Sometimes, to simplify a situation, friction is assumed to be negligible (the surface, or even the body, is said to be frictionless). →
Tension
When a cord (or a rope, cable, or other such object) is attached to a body and pulled taut, the cord pulls on the body with a force T directed away from the body and along the cord (Fig. 5.2.5a). The force is often called a tension force because the cord is said to be in a state of tension (or to be under tension), which means that it is being pulled taut. The tension in the cord is the magnitude T of the force on the body. For example, if the force on the body from the cord has magnitude T = 50 N, the tension in the cord is 50 N. A cord is often said to be massless (meaning its mass is negligible compared to the body’s mass) and unstretchable. The cord then exists only as a connection between two bodies. It pulls on both bodies with the same force magnitude T, →
T
T
T
T
The forces at the two ends of the cord are equal in magnitude.
(a )
(b )
T
T
(c )
(a) The cord, pulled taut, is under tension. If its mass is negligible, the cord pulls on the body and the hand with force T , even if the cord runs around a massless, frictionless pulley as in (b) and (c). Figure 5.2.5
→
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5.3 HA A L Y ING NEWP ON’S L HWS
113
even if the bodies and the cord are accelerating a nd even if the cord runs around a massless, frictionless pulley (Figs. 5.2.5b and c). Such a pulley has negligible mass compared to the bodies and negligible friction on its axle opposing its rota- tion. If the cord wraps halfway around a pulley, as in Fig. 5.2.5c, the net force on the pulley from the cord has the magnitude 2T. Checkpoint 5.2.2
The suspended body in Fig. 5.2.5c weighs 75 N. Is T equal to, greater than, or less than 75 N when the body is moving upward (a) at constant speed, (b) at increasing speed, and (c) at decreasing speed?
5.3 APPLYING NEWTON’S LAWS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
5.3.1 Identify Newton’s third law of motion and third-law
5.3.3 For an arrangement where a system of several
force pairs.
objects moves rigidly together, draw a free-body
5.3.2 For an object that moves vertically or on a horizon-
diagram and apply Newton’s second law for the
tal or inclined plane, apply Newton’s second law to a
individual objects and also for the system taken as
free-body diagram of the object.
a composite object.
Key Ideas →
F net on a body with mass m is related to the body’s acceleration a by ●
The net force
→
→
→
●
If a force
F BC acts on body B due to body C, then F CB on body C due to body B: →
there is a force
F net = m a , →
→
→
F BC = F CB .
which may be written in the component versions
F net,x = m a x F net,y = m a y and F net,z = m a z.
The forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
Newton’s Third Law
Two bodies are said to interact when they push or pull on each other—that is, when a force acts on each body due to the other body. For example, suppose you position a book B so it leans against a crate C (Fig. 5.3.1a). Then the book and crate interact: There is a horizontal force F BC on the book from the crate (or due to the crate) and a horizontal force F CB on the crate from the book (or due to the book). This pair of forces is shown in Fig. 5.3.1b. New- ton’s third law states that →
Book B
Crate C
→
(a)
FBC
Newton’s Third Law: When two bodies interact, the forces on the bodies from each other are always equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
FC B
B
C
(b )
For the book and crate, we can write this law as the scalar relation F BC = F CB
(equal magnitudes)
or as the vector relation →
→
F BC = −F CB
Figure 5.3.1
(equal magnitudes and opposite directions),
The force on B due to C has the same magnitude as the force on C due to B.
(a) Book B leans against crate →
(5.3.1) C. (b) Forces F BC (the force on the book →
from the crate) and F CB (the force on where the minus sign means that these two forces are in opposite directions. the crate from the book) have the same We can call the forces between two interacting bodies a third-law force pair. magnitude and are opposite in direction.
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- CHA P ER 5 F OR- E HND MOP ION—I
Cantaloupe
FC E
Cantaloupe C
These are third-law force pairs.
F EC
Table T
Earth Earth E (a )
(c ) F CT
These forces just happen to be balanced.
F CT
(normal force from table)
So are these. F TC
F CE
(gravitational force) (b )
(d )
(a) A cantaloupe lies on a table that stands on Earth. (b) The forces on the cantaloupe are F CT and F CE . (c) The third-law force pair for the cantaloupe–Earth interaction. (d) The third-law force pair for the cantaloupe–table interaction. Figure 5.3.2
→
→
When any two bodies interact in any situation, a third-law force pair is present. The book and crate in Fig. 5.3.1a are stationary, but the third law would still hold if they were moving and even if they were accelerating. As another example, let us find the third-law force pairs involving the can- taloupe in Fig. 5.3.2a, which lies on a table that stands on Earth. The cantaloupe interacts with the table and with Earth (this time, there are three bodies whose interactions we must sort out). Let’s first focus on the forces acting on the cantaloupe (Fig. 5.3.2b). Force F CT is the normal force on the cantaloupe from the table, and force F CE is the gravi- tational force on the cantaloupe due to Earth. Are they a third-law force pair? No, because they are forces on a single body, the cantaloupe, and not on two interacting bodies. To find a third-law pair, we must focus not on the cantaloupe but on the interaction between the cantaloupe and one other body. In the cantaloupe– Earth interaction (Fig. 5.3.2c), Earth pulls on the cantaloupe with a gravitational force F CE and the cantaloupe pulls on Earth with a gravitational force F EC . Are these forces a third-law force pair? Yes, because they are forces on two interacting bodies, the force on each due to the other. Thus, by Newton’s third law, →
→
→
→
→
→
F CE = − F EC
(cantaloupe–Earth interaction).
Next, in the cantaloupe–table interaction, the force on the cantaloupe from the table is F CT and, conversely, the force on the table from the cantaloupe is F TC (Fig. 5.3.2d). These forces are also a third-law force pair, and so →
→
→
→
F CT = − F TC
(cantaloupe–table interaction).
Checkpoint 5.3.1
Suppose that the cantaloupe and table of Fig. 5.3.2 are in an elevator cab that begins to accelerate upward. (a) Do the magnitudes of F TC and F CT increase, decrease, or stay the same? (b) Are those two forces still equal in magnitude and opposite in direction? (c) Do the magnitudes of F CE and F EC increase, decrease, or stay the same? (d) Are those two forces still equal in magnitude and opposite in direction? →
→
→
→
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5.3 HA A L Y ING NEWP ON’S L HWS
115
Applying Newton’s Laws
The rest of this chapter consists of sample problems. You should pore over them, learning their procedures for attacking a problem. Especially important is know- ing how to translate a sketch of a situation into a free-body diagram with appro- priate axes, so that Newton’s laws can be applied.
Sample Problem 5.3.1
Block on table, block hanging
Figure 5.3.3 shows a block S (the sliding block) with mass M = 3.3 kg. The block is free to move along a horizontal frictionless surface and connected, by a cord that wraps over a frictionless pulley, to a second block H (the hanging block), with mass m = 2.1 kg. The cord and pulley have negligible masses compared to the blocks (they are “massless”). The hanging block H falls as the sliding block S accelerates to the right. Find (a) the acceleration of block S, (b) the accel- eration of block H, and (c) the tension in the cord. Q What is this problem all about? You are given two bodies—sliding block and hang- ing block—but must also consider Earth, which pulls on both bodies. (Without Earth, nothing would happen here.) A total of five forces act on the blocks, as shown in Fig. 5.3.4: 1. The cord pulls to the right on sliding block S with a force of magnitude T. 2. The cord pulls upward on hanging block H with a force of the same magnitude T. This upward force keeps block H from falling freely. 3. Earth pulls down on block S with the gravitational force F gS , which has a magnitude equal to Mg. →
4. Earth pulls down on block H with the gravitational force F gH , which has a magnitude equal to mg. →
→
5. The table pushes up on block S with a normal force F N . There is another thing you should note. We assume that the cord does not stretch, so that if block H falls 1 mm Sliding block S M
Frictionless surface m
Hanging block H
FN
Block S T
M
F gS T m
F gH
Figure 5.3.4
The forces acting on the two blocks of Fig. 5.3.3.
in a certain time, block S moves 1 mm to the right in that same time. This means that the blocks move together and their accelerations have the same magnitude a. Q How do I classify this problem? Should it suggest a particular law of physics to me? Yes. Forces, masses, and accelerations are involved, and they should suggest Newton’s second law of motion, F net = m a . That is our starting key idea.
→
→
Q If I apply Newton’s second law to this problem, to which body should I apply it? We focus on two bodies, the sliding block and the hanging block. Although they are extended objects (they are not points), we can still treat each block as a par- ticle because every part of it moves in exactly the same way. A second key idea is to apply Newton’s second law separately to each block. Q What about the pulley? We cannot represent the pulley as a particle because different parts of it move in different ways. When we discuss rotation, we shall deal with pulleys in detail. Meanwhile, we eliminate the pulley from consideration by assuming its mass to be negligible compared with the masses of the two blocks. Its only function is to change the cord’s orientation. →
A block S of mass M is connected to a block H of mass m by a cord that wraps over a pulley. Figure 5.3.3
Block H
Q OK. Now how do I apply F net = m a to the sliding block? Represent block S as a particle of mass M and draw all the forces that act on it, as in Fig. 5.3.5a. This is the block’s free-body diagram. Next, draw a set of axes. It makes sense →
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- CHA P ER 5 F OR- E HND MOP ION—I
We can now substitute mg for F gH and −a for a y (negative because block H accelerates in the negative direction of the y axis). We find T − mg = −ma. (5.3.6)
y
y
FN
a
Now note that Eqs. 5.3.4 a nd 5.3.6 are simultaneous equa- tions with the same two unknowns, T and a. Subtracting these equations eliminates T. Then solving for a yields m g. a = _______ (5.3.7) M + m
T T
M
F gS
m
x
Sliding block S
a
x
F gH
(a)
Hanging block H
Substituting this result into Eq. 5.3.4 yields
( b)
(a) A free-body diagram for block S of Fig. 5.3.3. (b) A free-body diagram for block H of Fig. 5.3.3.
Mm g. T = _______ M + m
Figure 5.3.5
Putting in the numbers gives, for these two quantities, 2.1 kg m g = _____________ a = _______ (9.8 m / s2 ) M + m 3.3 kg + 2.1 kg
to draw the x axis parallel to the table, in the direction in which the block moves. Q Thanks, but you still haven’t told me how to apply F net = m a to the sliding block. All you’ve done is explain how to draw a free-body diagram. You are right, and here’s the third key idea: The expression F net = M a is a vector e quation, so we can write it as three component equations: →
→
→
→
F net, x = Ma x
F net, y = Ma y
F net, z = Ma z (5.3.2)
in which F net, x, F net, y , and F net, z are the components of the net force along the three axes. Now we apply each com- ponent equation to its corresponding direction. Because block S does not accelerate vertically, F net,y = Ma y becomes F N − F gS = 0
or
F N = F gS .
(5.3.3)
Thus in the y direction, the magnitude of the normal force is equal to the magnitude of the gravitational force. No force acts in the z direction, which is perpendicu- lar to the page. In the x direction, there is only one force component, which is T. Thus, F net, x = Ma x becomes T = Ma.
(5.3.4)
This equation contains two unknowns, T and a; so we can- not yet solve it. Recall, however, that we have not said anything about the hanging block. →
Q I agree. How do I apply F net = m a to the hanging block? We apply it just as we did for block S: Draw a free-body diagram for block H, as in Fig. 5.3.5b. Then apply F net = m a in component form. This time, because the accelera- tion is along the y axis, we use the y part of Eq. 5.3.2 (F net, y = ma y) to write →
→
→
T − F gH = ma y.
(5.3.5)
(5.3.8)
= 3.8 m / s2 and
(Answer)
(3.3 kg)(2.1 kg) Mm g = ______________ T = _______ (9.8 m / s2 ) M + m 3.3 kg + 2.1 kg = 13 N.
(Answer)
Q The problem is now solved, right? That’s a fair question, but the problem is not really finished until we have examined the results to see whether they make sense. (If you made these calculations on the job, wouldn’t you want to see whether they made sense before you turned them in?) Look first at Eq. 5.3.7. Note that it is dimensionally correct and that the acceleration a will always be less than g (because of the cord, the hanging block is not in free fall). Look now at Eq. 5.3.8, which we can rewrite in the form M mg. T = _______ M + m
(5.3.9)
In this form, it is easier to see that this equation is also dimensionally correct, because both T and mg have dimen- sions of forces. Equation 5.3.9 also lets us see that the ten- sion in the cord is always less than mg, and thus is always less than the gravitational force on the hanging block. That is a comforting thought because, if T were greater than mg, the hanging block would accelerate upward. We can also check the results by studying special cases, in which we can guess what the answers must be. A simple example is to put g = 0, as if the experiment were carried out in interstellar space. We know that in that case, the blocks would not move from rest, there would be no forces on the ends of the cord, and so there would be no tension in the cord. Do the formulas predict this? Yes, they do. If you put g = 0 in Eqs. 5.3.7 and 5.3.8, you find a = 0 and T = 0. Two more special cases you might try are M = 0 and m → ∞.
Hdditional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
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5.3 HA A L Y ING NEWP ON’S L HWS
Sample Problem 5.3.2
Cord accelerates box up a ramp
Many students consider problems involving ramps (inclined planes) to be especially hard. The difficulty is probably visual because we work with (a) a tilted coordi- nate system and (b) the components of the gravitational force, not the full force. Here is a typical example with all the tilting and angles explained. (In WileyPLUS, the fig- ure is available as an animation with voiceover.) In spite of the tilt, the key idea is to apply Newton’s second law to the axis along which the motion occurs. In Fig. 5.3.6a, a cord pulls a box of sea biscuits up along a frictionless plane inclined at angle θ = 30.0°. The box has mass m = 5.00 kg, and the force from the cord has magnitude T = 25.0 N. What is the box’s acceleration a along the inclined plane?
perpendicular to the plane), as expressed by Newton’s second law (Eq. 5.1.1). We need to write Newton’s second law for motion along an axis. Because the box moves along the inclined plane, placing an x axis along the plane seems reasonable (Fig. 5.3.6b). (There is nothing wrong with using our usual coordinate system, but the expressions for components would be a lot messier because of the mis- alignment of the x axis with the motion.) After choosing a coordinate system, we draw a free-body diagram with a dot representing the box (Fig. 5.3.6b). Then we draw all the vectors for the forces acting on the box, with the tails of the vectors anchored on the dot. (Drawing the vectors willy-nilly on the dia- gram can easily lead to errors, especially on exams, so always anchor the tails.) Force T from the cord is up the plane and has magni- tude T = 25.0 N. The gravitational force F g is downward (of Calculations:
KEY IDEA
→
The acceleration along the plane is set by the force components along the plane (not by force components
(a) A box is pulled up a plane by a cord. (b) The three forces acting on the box: the cord’s force T , the gravita- tional force F g , and the normal force F N . (c)–(i) Finding the force components along the plane and perpendicular to it. In WileyPLUS, this figure is available as an animation with voiceover.
→
y
Figure 5.3.6
Normal force
→
→
→
T
The box accelerates.
Cord’s pull
θ
θ
Fg
Gravitational force
(b)
Perpendicular component of
This is also. 90° – θ
θ
θ
θ
Fg
Hypotenuse
Fg
(c )
A
x
FN
Cord
(a)
This is a right triangle. 90° – θ
117
(d)
Parallel component of
(e )
θ
(f )
Adjacent leg (use cos θ )
Opposite leg (use sin θ )
Fg
The net of these forces determines the acceleration.
θ
mg
cos θ
mg
mg
(g)
mg
These forces merely balance.
y x T
x
FN
sin θ
sin θ
mg
( h)
cos θ
(i )
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118
- CHA P ER 5 F OR- E HND MOP ION—I
course) and has magnitude mg = (5.00 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 ) = 49.0 N. That direction means that only a component of the force is along the plane, and only that component (not the full force) affects the box’s acceleration along the plane. Thus, before we can write Newton’s second law for motion along the x axis, we need to find an expression for that important component. Figures 5.3.6c to h indicate the steps that lead to the expression. We start with the given angle of the plane and work our way to a triangle of the force components (they are the legs of the triangle and the full force is the hypotenuse). Figure 5.3.6c shows that the angle between the ramp and F g is 90° − θ. (Do you see a right triangle there?) Next, Figs. 5.3.6d to f show F g and its components: One compo- nent is parallel to the plane (that is the one we want) and the other is perpendicular to the plane. Because the perpendicular component is perpendicu- lar, the angle between it and F g must be θ (Fig. 5.3.6d). The component we want is the far leg of the component right triangle. The magnitude of the hypotenuse is mg (the magnitude of the gravitational force). Thus, the com- ponent we want has magnitude mg sin θ (Fig. 5.3.6g). We have one more force to consider, the normal force F N shown in Fig. 5.3.6b. However, it is perpendicular to
the plane and thus cannot affect the motion along the plane. (It has no component along the plane to accelerate the box.) We are now ready to write Newton’s second law for motion along the tilted x axis: F net, x = ma x. The component a x is the only component of the acceleration (the box is not leaping up from the plane, which would be strange, or descending into the plane, which would be even stranger). So, let’s simply write a for the acceleration along the plane. Because T is in the positive x direction and the com- ponent mg sin θ is in the negative x direction, we next write →
→
T − mg sin θ = ma.
→
Substituting data and solving for a, we find a = 0.100 m /s 2 .
→
(Answer)
The result is positive, indicating that the box acceler- ates up the inclined plane, in the positive direction of the tilted x axis. If we decreased the magnitude of T enough to make a = 0, the box would move up the plane at con- stant speed. And if we decrease the magnitude of T even more, the acceleration would be negative in spite of the cord’s pull. →
→
→
Sample Problem 5.3.3
(5.3.10)
Fear and trembling on a roller coaster
Many roller-coaster enthusiasts prefer riding in the first car because they enjoy being the first to go over an “edge” and onto a downward slope. However, many other enthusiasts prefer the rear car, claiming that going over the edge is far
more frightening there. What produces that fear factor in the last car of a traditional gravity-driven roller coaster? Let’s consider a coaster having 10 identical cars with total mass M and massless interconnections. Figure 5.3.7a shows
θ
(a)
( b) T x
x
' T
1 Mg sin θ 10
( c) T x
'
x
T
9 Mg sin θ 10
(d )
A roller coaster with (a) the first car on a slope and (b) all but the last car on the slope. (c) Free-body diagrams for the cars on the plateau and the car on the slope in (a). (d) Free-body diagrams for (b). Figure 5.3.7
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5.3 HA A L Y ING NEWP ON’S L HWS
the coaster just after the first car has begun its descent along a frictionless slope with angle θ. Figure 5.3.7b shows the coaster just before the last car begins its descent. What is the acceleration of the coaster in these two situations?
KEY IDEAS (1) The net force on an object causes the object’s accel- eration, as related by Newton’s second law ( F net = m a ). (2) When the motion is along a single axis, we write that law in component form (such as F net, x = ma x) and we use only force components along that axis. (3) When several objects move together with the same velocity and the same accel- eration, they can be regarded as a single composite object. Internal forces act between the individual objects, but only external forces can cause the composite object to accelerate. →
→
Figure 5.3.7c shows free- body diagrams associated with Fig. 5.3.7a, with conve- nient axes superimposed. The tilted x ′ axis has its positive direction up the slope. T is the magnitude of the inter- connection force between the car on the slope and the cars still on the plateau. Because the coaster consists of 10 identical cars with total mass M, the mass of the car 1 on the slope is __ M and the mass of the cars on the pla- 10 9 teau is __ M. Only a single external force acts along the 10 x axis on the nine-car composite—namely, the intercon- nection force with magnitude T. (The forces between the nine cars are internal forces.) Thus, Newton’s second law for motion along the x axis (F net, x = ma x) becomes
From Sample Problem 5.3.2, we know to write that gravi- tational component as −mg sin θ, where m is the mass. Because we know that the car accelerates down the slope in the negative x ′ direction with magnitude a, we can write 1 the acceleration a s −a. Thus, for this car, with mass __ M we 10 write Newton’s second law for motion along the x ′ axis as 1 1 T − __ Mg sin θ = __ M(−a). 10 10 9 Substituting our result of T = __ Ma, we find 10 1 a = __ g sin θ. 10
where a is the magnitude of the acceleration a x along the x axis. Along the tilted x ′ axis, two forces act on the car on the slope: the interconnection force with magnitude T (in the positive direction of the axis) and the x ′ component of the gravitational force (in the negative direction of the axis).
(Answer)
Figure 5.3.7d shows free-body diagrams associated with Fig. 5.3.7b. For the car still on the plateau, we rewrite our previous result for the tension as Calculations for Fig. 5.3.7b:
1 T = __ Ma. 10
Calculations for Fig. 5.3.7a:
9 T = __ 10 Ma,
119
Similarly, we rewrite the equation for motion along the x ′ axis as 9 9 T − __ Mg sin θ = __ M(−a). 10 10
Again solving for a, we now find
9 a = __ g sin θ. 10
(Answer)
This last answer is 9 times the first answer. Thus, in general, the acceleration of the cars greatly increases as more of them go over the edge and onto the slope. That increase in acceleration occurs regardless of your car choice, but your interpretation of the acceleration depends on the choice. In the first car, most of the accelera- tion occurs on the slope and is due to the component of the gravitational force along the slope, which is reasonable. In the last car, most of the acceleration occurs on the plateau and is due to the push on you from the back of your seat. That push rapidly increases as you approach the edge, giv- ing you the frightening sensation that you are about to be hurled off the plateau and into the air. The fear factor:
Hdditional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Sample Problem 5.3.4
Forces within an elevator cab
Although people would surely avoid getting into the elevator with you, suppose that you weigh yourself while on an elevator that is moving. Would you weigh more than, less than, or the same as when the scale is on a stationary floor? In Fig. 5.3.8a, a passenger of mass m = 72.2 kg stands on a platform scale in an elevator cab. We are concerned with the scale readings when the cab is stationary and when it is moving up or down. (a) Find a general solution for the scale reading, whatever the vertical motion of the cab.
KEY IDEAS (1) The reading is equal to the magnitude of the normal force F N on the passenger from the scale. The only other force acting on the passenger is the gravitational force F g , as shown in the free-body diagram of Fig. 5.3.8b. (2) We can relate the forces on the passenger to his acceleration a by using Newton’s second law ( F net = m a ). However, recall that we can use this law only in an inertial frame. If the cab accelerates, then it is not an inertial frame. So we choose the ground to be our inertial frame and make any measure of the passenger’s acceleration relative to it. →
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Substituting this and other known values into Eq. 5.3.12, we find Calculation:
y
F N = (72.2 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 + 0) = 708 N.
FN
(Answer)
This is the weight of the passenger and is equal to the magnitude F g of the gravitational force on him. (c) What does the scale read if the cab accelerates upward at 3.20 m/s 2 and downward at 3.20 m/s 2 ?
Passenger
Fg
(a )
(b )
These forces compete. Their net force causes a vertical acceleration.
Calculations:
F N = (72.2 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 + 3.20 m/s 2 ) = 939 N,
(a) A passenger stands on a platform scale that indicates either his weight or his apparent weight. (b) The free-body diagram for the passenger, showing the normal force F N on him from the scale and the gravitational force F g . →
→
Because the two forces on the passenger and his acceleration are all directed vertically, along the y axis in Fig. 5.3.8b, we can use Newton’s second law writ- ten for y components (F net, y = ma y) to get Calculations:
or
(5.3.11)
This tells us that the scale reading, which is equal to normal force magnitude F N, depends on the vertical acceleration. Substituting mg for F g gives us F N = m(g + a)
(Answer) (5.3.12)
for any choice of acceleration a. If the acceleration is upward, a is positive; if it is downward, a is negative. (b) What does the scale read if the cab is stationary or moving upward at a constant 0.50 m/s?
KEY IDEA For any constant velocity (zero or otherwise), the accel- eration a of the passenger is zero.
Sample Problem 5.3.5
(Answer)
and for a = −3.20 m/s 2 , it gives
Figure 5.3.8
F N − F g = ma F N = F g + ma.
For a = 3.20 m/s 2 , Eq. 5.3.12 g ives
F N = (72.2 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 − 3.20 m/s 2 ) = 477 N.
(Answer)
For an upward acceleration (either the cab’s upward speed is increasing or its downward speed is decreas- ing), the scale reading is greater than the passenger’s weight. That reading is a measurement of an apparent weight, because it is made in a noninertial frame. For a downward acceleration (either decreasing upward speed or increasing downward speed), the scale reading is less than the passenger’s weight. (d) During the upward acceleration in part (c), what is the magnitude F net of the net force on the passenger, and what is the magnitude a p,cab of his acceleration as mea- sured in the frame of the cab? Does F net = m a p,cab ? →
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The magnitude F g of the gravitational force on the passenger does not depend on the motion of the passenger or the cab; so, from part (b), F g is 708 N. From part (c), the magnitude F N of the normal force on the pas- senger during the upward acceleration is the 939 N reading on the scale. Thus, the net force on the passenger is Calculation:
F net = F N − F g = 939 N − 708 N = 231 N, (Answer) during the upward acceleration. However, his accelera- tion a p,cab relative to the frame of the cab is zero. Thus, in the noninertial frame of the accelerating cab, F net is not equal to ma p,cab , and Newton’s second law does not hold.
Acceleration of block pushing on block
Some homework problems involve objects that move together, because they are either shoved together or tied together. Here is an example in which you apply Newton’s second law to the composite of two blocks and then to the individual blocks. In Fig. 5.3.9a, a constant horizontal force F app of mag- nitude 20 N is applied to block A of mass m A = 4.0 kg, which pushes against block B of mass m B = 6.0 kg. The blocks slide over a frictionless surface, along an x axis. →
(a) What is the acceleration of the blocks? →
Because force F app is applied directly to block A, we use Newton’s second law to relate that force to the acceleration a of block A. Because the motion is along the x axis, we use that law for x components (F net, x = ma x ), writing it as Serious
Error:
→
F app = m A a.
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REV IEW & SU MMHRY
B F app
A x
(a)
Fapp
A
F AB x
( b)
B F BA x
(c)
connected system. We can relate the net force on the system to the acceleration of the system with Newton’s second law. Here, once again for the x axis, we can write that law as
This force causes the acceleration of the full two-block system.
F app = (m A + m B)a, →
These are the two forces acting on just block A. Their net force causes its acceleration.
where now we properly apply F app to the system with total mass m A + m B. Solving for a and substituting known values, we find
This is the only force causing the acceleration of block B.
(Answer)
F app 20 N 2 _____________ a = ________ m A + m B = 4.0 kg + 6.0 kg = 2.0 m / s .
(a) A constant horizontal force F app is applied to block A, which pushes against block B. (b) Two horizontal forces act on block A. (c) Only one horizontal force acts on block B. →
Figure 5.3.9
→
However, this is seriously wrong because F app is not the only horizontal force acting on block A. There is also the force F AB from block B (Fig. 5.3.9b). →
→
Solution: Let us now include force F AB by writing, again for the x axis, Dead-End
F app − F AB = m Aa.
Thus, the acceleration of the system and of each block is in the positive direction of the x axis and has the magnitude 2.0 m/s 2 . →
(b) What is the (horizontal) force F BA on block B from block A (Fig. 5.3.9c)?
KEY IDEA We can relate the net force on block B to the block’s acceleration with Newton’s second law. Here we can write that law, still for compo- nents along the x axis, as Calculation:
F BA = m Ba,
→
(We use the minus sign to include the direction of F AB .) Because F AB is a second unknown, we cannot solve this equation for a. Solution: Because of the direction in which force F app is applied, the two blocks form a rigidly Successful
121
→
which, with known values, gives F BA = (6.0 kg)(2.0 m/s 2 ) = 12 N.
(Answer)
→
Thus, force F BA is in the positive direction of the x axis and has a magnitude of 12 N.
Hdditional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Review & Summary The velocity of an object can change (the object can accelerate) when the object is acted on by one or more forces (pushes or pulls) from other objects. New- tonian mechanics relates accelerations and forces. Newtonian Mechanics
Forces are vector quantities. Their magnitudes are defined in terms of the acceleration they would give the standard kilogram. A force that accelerates that standard body by exactly 1 m/s 2 is defined to have a magnitude of 1 N. The direction of a force is the direction of the acceleration it causes. Forces are combined according to the rules of vector algebra. The net force on a body is the vector sum of all the forces acting on the body. Force
Reference frames in which Newtonian mechanics holds are called inertial reference frames or inertial frames. Reference frames in which Newtonian mechanics does not hold are called noninertial reference frames or noninertial frames. Inertial Reference Frames
The mass of a body is the characteristic of that body that relates the body’s acceleration to the net force causing the acceleration. Masses are scalar quantities. Mass
→
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If there is no net force on a body, the body remains at rest if it is initially at rest or moves in a straight line at constant speed if it is in motion. Newton’s First Law
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The net force F net on a body with mass m is related to the body’s acceleration a by Newton’s Second Law
F net = m a , →
(5.1.1)
which may be written in the component versions F net, x = ma x F net, y = ma y and F net, z = ma z . (5.1.2)
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The second law indicates that in SI units
W = mg.
1 N = 1 kg ⋅ m / s 2 .
(5.1.3)
A free-body diagram is a stripped-down diagram in which only one body is considered. That body is represented by either a sketch or a dot. The external forces on the body are drawn, and a coordinate system is superimposed, oriented so as to simplify the solution. →
A gravitational force F g on a body is a pull by another body. In most situations in this book, the other body is Earth or some other astronomical body. For Earth, the force is directed down toward the ground, which is assumed to be an inertial frame. With that assumption, the mag- nitude of F g is Some Particular Forces
→
F g = mg,
(5.2.1)
where m is the body’s mass and g is the magnitude of the free- fall acceleration. The weight W of a body is the magnitude of the upward force needed to balance the gravitational force on the body. A body’s weight is related to the body’s mass by
(5.2.5)
→
A normal force F N is the force on a body from a surface against which the body presses. The normal force is always per- pendicular to the surface. A frictional force f is the force on a body when the body slides or attempts to slide along a surface. The force is always parallel to the surface and directed so as to oppose the sliding. On a frictionless surface, the frictional force is negligible. When a cord is under tension, each end of the cord pulls on a body. The pull is directed along the cord, away from the point of attachment to the body. For a massless cord (a cord with neg- ligible mass), the pulls at both ends of the cord have the same magnitude T, even if the cord runs around a massless, friction- less pulley (a pulley with negligible mass and negligible friction on its axle to oppose its rotation). →
If a force F BC acts on body B due to body C, then there is a force F CB on body C due to body B: →
Newton’s Third Law
→
F BC = −F CB .
→
→
Questions Figure 5.1 gives the free-body diagram for four situations in which an object is pulled by several forces across a friction- less floor, as seen from overhead. In which situations does the acceleration a of the object have (a) an x component and 1
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y
→
y
y
7N
6N
3N 5N
2N
x
x
4N
(2)
Two horizontal forces,
3N
pull a banana split across a fric- tionless lunch counter. Without using a calculator, determine which of the vectors in the free-body diagram of Fig. 5.2 best represent (a) F 1 and (b) F 2 . What is the net-force component along (c) the x axis and (d) the y axis? Into which quadrants do (e) the net-force vector and (f) the split’s acceleration vector point?
y
1
4 2
4N
(4)
Question 1. →
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In Fig. 5.3, forces F 1 and F 2 are applied to a lunchbox as it slides at constant velocity over a frictionless floor. We are to decrease angle θ without changing the magnitude of F 1 . For constant velocity, should we increase, decrease, or maintain the magnitude of F 2 ?
F 1 = (3 N) ˆ i − (4 N) ˆ j and F 2 = −(1 N) ˆ i − (2 N) ˆ j,
3N x
5N
3 →
3N
5N
(3) Figure 5.1
→
x
4N 4N
→
2N
5N
2N
(1)
y
6N
3N
2N
4N
2
(b) a y component? (c) In each situation, give the direction of a by naming either a quadrant or a direction along an axis. (Don’t reach for the calculator because this can be answered with a few mental calculations.)
F1
F2
→
3
Figure 5.3
θ Question 3.
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x
7 8
6
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5 Figure 5.2
At time t = 0, constant F begins to act on a rock moving through deep space in the +x direction. (a) For time t > 0, which are possible functions x(t) for the rock’s position: (1) x = 4t − 3, (2) x = −4t 2 + 6t − 3, (3) x = 4t 2 + 6t − 3? (b) For which function is F directed opposite the rock’s initial direction of motion? 4
Question 2.
Figure 5.4 shows overhead views of four situations in which forces act on a block that lies on a frictionless floor. If the force 5
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QU ESP IONS
magnitudes are chosen properly, in which situations is it pos- sible that the block is (a) stationary and (b) moving with a con- stant velocity?
Figure 5.7 gives three graphs of velocity component vx (t) and three graphs of velocity component v y (t). The graphs are not to scale. Which v x (t) graph and which v y (t) graph best correspond to each of the four situations in Question 1 and Fig. 5.1? 8
v x
F1
(1)
(2)
F2
F1
v x
v x
F2
t F3
F1
(3)
t
t
F1
F2
(4)
F2
Figure 5.4
(a )
F3
Question 5.
(b )
v y
(c )
v y
Figure 5.5 shows the same breadbox in four situations where horizontal forces are applied. Rank the situations accord- ing to the magnitude of the box’s acceleration, greatest first.
v y
6
3N
6N
58 N
(a) 13 N
t
(b ) 15 N
(d ) Figure 5.5
(d )
t
(e )
25 N
43 N
(c )
t
60 N
20 N
Figure 5.7
(f )
Question 8.
Figure 5.8 shows a train of four blocks being pulled across a frictionless floor by force F . What total mass is accelerated to the right by (a) force F , (b) cord 3, and (c) cord 1? (d) Rank the blocks according to their accelerations, greatest first. (e) Rank the cords according to their tension, greatest first. 9
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Question 6.
FCP July 17, 1981, Kansas City: The newly opened Hyatt Regency is packed with people listening and dancing to a band playing favorites from the 1940s. Many of the people are crowded onto the walkways that hang like bridges across the wide atrium. Suddenly two of the walkways collapse, falling onto the merrymakers on the main floor. The walkways were suspended one above another on ver- tical rods and held in place by nuts threaded onto the rods. In the original design, only two long rods were to be used, each extending through all three walkways (Fig. 5.6a). If each walkway and the merrymakers on it have a combined mass of M, what is the total mass supported by the threads and two nuts on (a) the lowest walkway and (b) the highest walkway? Apparently someone responsible for the actual construc- tion realized that threading nuts on a rod is impossible except at the ends, so the design was changed: Instead, six rods were used, each connecting two walkways (Fig. 5.6b). What now is the total mass supported by the threads and two nuts on (c) the lowest walkway, (d) the upper side of the highest walkway, and (e) the lower side of the highest walkway? It was this design that failed on that tragic night—a simple engineering error.
7
Cord 1
10 kg
3 kg
Cord 2
Figure 5.8
5 kg
Cord 3
2 kg
F
Question 9.
10 kg Figure 5.9 shows three 5 kg blocks being pushed across 2 kg F a frictionless floor by horizon- tal force F . What total mass 1 2 3 is accelerated to the right by Figure 5.9 Question 10. (a) force F , (b) force F 21 on block 2 from block 1, and (c) force F 32 on block 3 from block 2? (d) Rank the blocks accord- ing to their acceleration magnitudes, greatest first. (e) Rank forces F , F 21 , and F 32 according to magnitude, greatest first. 10
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A vertical force F is applied to a block of mass m that lies on a floor. What happens to the magnitude of the normal force F N on the block from the floor as magnitude F is increased from zero if force F is (a) downward and (b) upward? 11
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Rods
Walkways
Figure 5.10 shows four choices for the direction of a force of magnitude F to be applied to a block on an inclined plane. The directions are either hori- b zontal or vertical. (For choice b, the force is not enough to lift the a block off the plane.) Rank the c choices according to the mag- nitude of the normal force act- 30° d ing on the block from the plane, greatest first. Figure 5.10 Question 12. 12
Nuts
(a ) Figure 5.6
Question 7.
(b )
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Problems Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
BIO
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 5.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard Flying
Circus of Physics
Newton’s First and Second Laws
E
E Two horizontal forces act on a 2.0 kg chopping block that can slide over a frictionless kitchen counter, which lies in an xy plane. One force is F 1 = (3.0 N) ˆ i + (4.0 N) ˆ j. Find the acceleration of the chopping block in unit-vector notation when the other force is (a) F 2 = (−3.0 N) ˆ i + (−4.0 N) ˆ j, (b) F 2 = (−3.0 N) ˆ i + ˆ ˆ (4.0 N) j, and (c) F 2 = (3.0 N) i + (−4.0 N) ˆ j.
2
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m/s 2
E If the 1 kg standard body has an acceleration of 2.00 at 20.0° to the positive direction of an x axis, what are (a) the x component and (b) the y component of the net force acting on the body, and (c) what is the net force in unit-vector notation?
3
While two forces act on it, a particle is to move at the con- stant velocity v = (3 m / s) ˆ i − (4 m / s) ˆ j. One of the forces is F 1 = (2 N) ˆ i + (−6 N) ˆ j. What is the other force? 4 M
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CALC A 0.340 kg particle moves in an xy plane according to x(t) = −15.00 + 2.00t − 4.00t 3 and y(t) = 25.00 + 7.00t − 9.00t 2 , with x and y in meters and t in seconds. At t = 0.700 s, what are (a) the magnitude and (b) the angle (relative to the posi- tive direction of the x axis) of the net force on the particle, and (c) what is the angle of the particle’s direction of travel?
9 M
GO A 0.150 kg particle moves along an x axis M CALC according to x(t) = −13.00 + 2.00t + 4.00t 2 − 3.00t 3 , with x in meters and t in seconds. In unit-vector notation, what is the net force acting on the particle at t = 3.40 s? 10
A 2.0 kg particle moves along an x axis, being propelled by a variable force directed along that axis. Its position is given by x = 3.0 m + (4.0 m/s)t + ct 2 − (2.0 m/s 3 )t 3 , with x in meters and t in seconds. The factor c is a constant. At t = 3.0 s, the force on the particle has a magnitude of 36 N and is in the negative direc- tion of the axis. What is c? 11 M
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Two horizontal forces F 1 and F 2 act on a 4.0 kg disk that slides over frictionless ice, on which an xy coordinate sys- tem is laid out. Force F 1 is in the positive direction of the x axis and has a magnitude of 7.0 N. Force F 2 has a magnitude of 9.0 N. Figure 5.14 gives the x component v x of the velocity of the disk as a function of time t during the sliding. What is the angle between the constant directions of forces F 1 and F 2 ? 12
H
GO
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4 )s/m( x v
M GO Three astronauts, pro- y pelled by jet backpacks, push and guide a 120 kg asteroid toward a processing dock, exerting the forces shown in Fig. 5.11, with F1 F 1 = 32 N, F 2 = 55 N, F 3 = 41 N, θ1 x θ1 = 30°, and θ3 = 60°. What is θ3 F2 the asteroid’s acceleration (a) in unit-vector notation and as (b) F3 a magnitude and (c) a direction relative to the positive direction Figure 5.11 Problem 5. of the x axis? 6 M In a two-dimensional tug- Alex of-war, Alex, Betty, and Charles Charles pull horizontally on an automo- bile tire at the angles shown in the overhead view of Fig. 5.12. The tire remains stationary in spite of the three pulls. Alex pulls with force F A of magnitude 220 N, Betty 137° and Charles pulls with force F C of magnitude 170 N. Note that the direction of F C is not given. What is the magnitude of Betty’s Figure 5.12 Problem 6. force F B ? y 7 M SSM There are two forces on the 2.00 kg box in the over- head view of Fig. 5.13, but only F1 one is shown. For F 1 = 20.0 N, x a = 12.0 m/s 2 , and θ = 30.0°, find the second force (a) in unit-vector θ notation and as (b) a magnitude a and (c) an angle relative to the positive direction of the x axis. Figure 5.13 Problem 7.
5
M A 2.00 kg object is subjected to three forces that give it an acceleration a = −(8.00 m / s2 ) ˆ i + (6.00 m / s 2 ) ˆ j. If two of the three forces are F 1 = (30.0 N) ˆ i + (16.0 N) ˆ j and F 2 = −(12.0 N) ˆ i + (8.00 N) ˆ j, find the third force.
8
Only two horizontal forces act on a 3.0 kg body that can move over a frictionless floor. One force is 9.0 N, acting due east, and the other is 8.0 N, acting 62° north of west. What is the magnitude of the body’s acceleration? 1
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
GO SSM
2
–2
0
1
2
3
–4 t
Figure 5.14
(s)
Problem 12.
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Module 5.2
Some Particular Forces
Figure 5.15 shows an arrangement in which four disks are suspended by cords. The longer, top cord loops over a frictionless pulley and pulls with a force of magnitude 98 N on the wall to which it is attached. The tensions in the three shorter cords are T 1 = 58.8 N, T 2 = 49.0 N, and T 3 = 9.8 N. What are the masses of (a) disk A, (b) disk B, (c) disk C, and (d) disk D? 13
E
E A block with a weight of 3.0 N is at rest on a horizontal surface. A 1.0 N upward force is applied to the block by
A T1 B T2 C T3 D
14
Figure 5.15
Problem 13.
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A ROBL EMS
SSM (a) An 11.0 kg salami is supported by a cord that runs to a spring scale, which is supported by a cord hung from the ceil- ing (Fig. 5.16a). What is the reading on the scale, which is marked in SI weight units? (This is a way to measure weight by a deli owner.) (b) In Fig. 5.16b the salami is supported by a cord that runs around a pulley and to a scale. The opposite end of the scale is attached by a cord to a wall. What is the reading on the scale? (This is the way by a physics major.) (c) In Fig. 5.16c the wall has been replaced with a second 11.0 kg salami, and the assembly is stationary. What is the reading on the scale? (This is the way by a deli owner who was once a physics major.)
15 E
Spring scale
E FCP In April 1974, John Massis of Belgium man- aged to move two passen- ger railroad cars. He did so by clamping his teeth down on a bit that was attached to the cars with a rope and then leaning backward while pressing his feet against the Figure 5.19 Problem 18. railway ties (Fig. 5.19). The cars together weighed 700 kN (about 80 tons). Assume that he pulled with a constant force that was 2.5 times his body weight, at an upward angle θ of 30° from the horizontal. His mass was 80 kg, and he moved the cars by 1.0 m. Neglecting any retarding force from the wheel rotation, find the speed of the cars at the end of the pull.
18
SSM A 500 kg rocket sled can be accelerated at a constant rate from rest to 1600 km/h in 1.8 s. What is the magnitude of the required net force?
19 E
A car traveling at 53 km/h hits a bridge abutment. A pas- senger in the car moves forward a distance of 65 cm (with respect to the road) while being brought to rest by an inflated air bag. What magnitude of force (assumed constant) acts on the pas- senger’s upper torso, which has a mass of 41 kg?
Spring scale
20 E
(b) Spring scale
A
IM
S
EG
AO
N
LA
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A constant horizontal force F a pushes a 2.00 kg FedEx package across a frictionless floor on which an xy coordinate system has been drawn. Figure 5.20 gives the package’s x and y velocity components versus time t. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of F a ? 21
E
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( a)
10 )s/m( x v
(c )
Problem 15.
Figure 5.16
Rod Some insects can walk below a thin rod (such as a twig) Leg Tibia by hanging from it. Suppose that joint θ such an insect has mass m and hangs from a horizontal rod as shown in Fig. 5.17, with angle θ = 40°. Its six legs are all under Figure 5.17 Problem 16. the same tension, and the leg sec- tions nearest the body are horizontal. (a) What is the ratio of the tension in each tibia (forepart of a leg) to the insect’s weight? (b) If the insect straightens out its legs somewhat, does the ten- sion in each tibia increase, decrease, or stay the same? BIO
1 t
0 )s/m( yv
Module 5.3
0
1
2
3
–10
Applying
In Fig. 5.18, let the mass of the block be 8.5 kg and the angle θ be 30°. Find (a) the tension in the cord and (b) the normal force acting on the block. (c) If the cord is cut, find the magnitude of the resulting acceleration of the block. E
3
–5
Newton’s Laws 17
2 (s)
16 M
5
t
Figure 5.20
SSM
m
tio Fric
ss nle
θ Figure 5.18
Problem 17.
(s)
Problem 21.
FCP A customer sits in an amusement park ride in which the compartment is to be pulled downward in the negative direc- tion of a y axis with an acceleration magnitude of 1.24g, with g = 9.80 m/s 2 . A 0.567 g coin rests on the customer’s knee. Once the motion begins and in unit-vector notation, what is the coin’s acceleration relative to (a) the ground and (b) the customer? (c) How long does the coin take to reach the compartment
22 E
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ssergnoC fo yr arbiL ,sotohP dlroW ediW/PA
means of an attached vertical string. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the force of the block on the horizontal surface?
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- CHA P ER 5 F OR- E HND MOP ION—I
ceiling, 2.20 m above the knee? In unit-vector notation, what are (d) the actual force on the coin and (e) the apparent force according to the customer’s measure of the coin’s acceleration? Tarzan, who weighs 820 N, swings from a cliff at the end of a 20.0 m vine that hangs from a high tree limb and initially makes an angle of 22.0° with the vertical. Assume that an x axis extends horizontally away from the cliff edge and a y axis extends upward. Immediately after Tarzan steps off the cliff, the tension in the vine is 760 N. Just then, what are (a) the force on him from the vine in unit-vector notation and the net force on him (b) in unit-vector notation and as (c) a magnitude and (d) an angle relative to the positive direction of the x axis? What are the (e) magnitude and (f) angle of Tarzan’s acceleration just then? 23 E
0.13 g, its speed before entering the branch was 220 m/s, and its penetration depth was 15 mm. If its speed was decreased at a uniform rate, what was the magnitude of the force of the branch on the toothpick? SSM A block is projected up a frictionless inclined plane with initial speed v 0 = 3.50 m/s. The angle of incline is θ = 32.0°. (a) How far up the plane does the block go? (b) How long does it take to get there? (c) What is its speed when it gets back to the bottom?
31 M
M Figure 5.22 shows an over- y head view of a 0.0250 kg lemon F1 half and two of the three horizontal forces that act on it as it is on a fric- θ1 x tionless table. Force F 1 has a mag- nitude of 6.00 N and is at θ1 = 30.0°. θ2 Force F 2 has a magnitude of 7.00 N F2 and is at θ2 = 30.0°. In unit-vector notation, what is the third force Figure 5.22 Problem 32. if the lemon half (a) is station- ary, (b) has the constant velocity v = (13.0 ˆ i − 14.0 ˆ j ) m/s, and (c) has the varying velocity v = (13.0t ˆ i − 14.0t ˆ j) m / s2 , where t is time?
32
→
There are two horizontal F1 x forces on the 2.0 kg box in the overhead view of Fig. 5.21 but only one (of magnitude F 1 = Figure 5.21 Problem 24. 20 N) is shown. The box moves along the x axis. For each of the following values for the accelera- tion a x of the box, find the second force in unit-vector notation: (a) 10 m/s 2 , (b) 20 m/s 2 , (c) 0, (d) −10 m/s 2 , and (e) −20 m/s 2 . 24
E
Sunjamming. A “sun yacht” is a spacecraft with a large sail that is pushed by sunlight. Although such a push is tiny in every- day circumstances, it can be large enough to send the spacecraft outward from the Sun on a cost-free but slow trip. Suppose that the spacecraft has a mass of 900 kg and receives a push of 20 N. (a) What is the magnitude of the resulting acceleration? If the craft starts from rest, (b) how far will it travel in 1 day and (c) how fast will it then be moving? 25 E
The tension at which a fishing line snaps is commonly called the line’s “strength.” What minimum strength is needed for a line that is to stop a salmon of weight 85 N in 11 cm if the fish is initially drifting at 2.8 m/s? Assume a constant deceleration. 26 E
7 E SSM An electron with a speed of 1.2 × 10 m/s moves horizontally into a region where a constant vertical force of 4.5 × 10 −16 N acts on it. The mass of the electron is 9.11 × 10 −31 kg. Determine the vertical distance the electron is deflected during the time it has moved 30 mm horizontally. 27
A car that weighs 1.30 × 10 4 N is initially moving at 40 km/h when the brakes are applied and the car is brought to a stop in 15 m. Assuming the force that stops the car is constant, find (a) the magnitude of that force and (b) the time required for the change in speed. If the initial speed is doubled, and the car experiences the same force during the braking, by what factors are (c) the stopping distance and (d) the stopping time multiplied? (There could be a lesson here about the danger of driving at high speeds.) 28
E
A firefighter who weighs 712 N slides down a vertical pole with an acceleration of 3.00 m/s 2 , directed downward. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction (up or down) of the verti- cal force on the firefighter from the pole and the (c) magni- tude and (d) direction of the vertical force on the pole from the firefighter? 29 E
E FCP The high-speed winds around a tornado can drive projectiles into trees, building walls, and even metal traffic signs. In a laboratory simulation, a standard wood toothpick was shot by pneumatic gun into an oak branch. The toothpick’s mass was
30
→
→
→
M An elevator cab and its load have a combined mass of 1600 kg. Find the tension in the supporting cable when the cab, originally moving downward at 12 m/s, is brought to rest with constant acceleration in a distance of 42 m.
33
M GO In Fig. 5.23, a crate of mass m = 100 kg is pushed at constant speed up a frictionless ramp ( θ = 30.0°) by a horizontal force F . What are the magni- tudes of (a) F and (b) the force on the crate from the ramp?
m
34
F
→
→
θ
Problem 34. The velocity of a 3.00 kg particle is given by v = (8.00t ˆ i + 3.00 t 2 ˆj ) m/s, with time t in seconds. At the instant the net force on the particle has a magnitude of 35.0 N, what are (a) the direction (relative to the positive direction of the x axis) of the net force and (b) the particle’s direction of travel? Figure 5.23
35
M
CALC
→
Holding on to a towrope moving parallel to a frictionless ski slope, a 50 kg skier is pulled up the slope, which is at an angle of 8.0° with the horizontal. What is the magnitude F rope of the force on the skier from the rope when (a) the magnitude v of the skier’s velocity is constant at 2.0 m/s and (b) v = 2.0 m/s as v increases at a rate of 0.10 m/s 2 ? 36 M
M A 40 kg girl and an 8.4 kg sled are on the frictionless ice of a frozen lake, 15 m apart but connected by a rope of negligible mass. The girl exerts a horizontal 5.2 N force on the rope. What are the acceleration magnitudes of (a) the sled and (b) the girl? (c) How far from the girl’s initial position do they meet?
37
A 40 kg skier skis directly down a frictionless slope angled at 10° to the horizontal. Assume the skier moves in the negative direction of an x axis along the slope. A wind force with compo- nent F x acts on the skier. What is F x if the magnitude of the ski- er’s velocity is (a) constant, (b) increasing at a rate of 1.0 m/s 2 , and (c) increasing at a rate of 2.0 m/s 2 ? 38 M
A sphere of mass 3.0 × 10 −4 kg is suspended from a cord. A steady horizontal breeze pushes the sphere so that the cord 39 M
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A ROBL EMS
makes a constant angle of 37° with the vertical. Find (a) the push magnitude and (b) the tension in the cord. GO A dated box of dates, of mass 5.00 kg, is sent sliding up a frictionless ramp at an angle of θ to the horizontal. Figure 5.24 gives, as a function of time t, the component v x of the box’s velocity along an x axis that extends directly up the ramp. What is the mag- nitude of the normal force on the box from the ramp? 40 M
4 2 )s/m( xv
0
1
2
3
–2
An elevator cab is pulled upward by a cable. The cab and its single occupant have a combined mass of 2000 kg. When that occupant drops a coin, its acceleration relative to the cab is 8.00 m/s 2 downward. What is the tension in the cable? 46 M
BIO GO FCP The Zacchini family was renowned for their human-cannonball act in which a family member was shot from a cannon using either elastic bands or compressed air. In one version of the act, Emanuel Zacchini was shot over three Ferris wheels to land in a net at the same height as the open end of the cannon and at a range of 69 m. He was propelled inside the barrel for 5.2 m and launched at an angle of 53°. If his mass was 85 kg and he underwent constant acceleration inside the barrel, what was the magnitude of the force propelling him? (Hint: Treat the launch as though it were along a ramp at 53°. Neglect air drag.)
47 M
M GO In Fig. 5.27, elevator cabs A and B are connected by a short cable and can be pulled upward or lowered by the cable above cab A. Cab A has mass 1700 kg; cab B has mass 1300 kg. A 12.0 kg box of catnip lies on the floor of cab A. The tension in the cable connecting the cabs is 1.91 × 10 4 N. What is the magnitude of the normal force on the box from the floor?
48
–4 t
Figure 5.24
127
(s)
Problem 40.
Using a rope that will snap if the tension in it exceeds 387 N, you need to lower a bundle of old roofing material weighing 449 N from a point 6.1 m above the ground. Obviously if you hang the bundle on the rope, it will snap. So, you allow the bundle to accel- erate downward. (a) What magnitude of the bundle’s acceleration will put the rope on the verge of snapping? (b) At that accelera- tion, with what speed would the bundle hit the ground? 41 M
M GO In earlier days, horses pulled barges down canals in the manner shown in Fig. 5.25. Suppose the horse pulls on the rope with a force of 7900 N at an angle of θ = 18° to the direction of motion of the barge, which is headed straight along the positive direction of an x axis. The mass of the barge is 9500 kg, and the magnitude of its acceleration is 0.12 m/s 2 . What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction (relative to posi- tive x) of the force on the barge from the water?
42
A
In Fig. 5.28, a block of mass m = 5.00 kg is B pulled along a horizontal frictionless floor by a cord that exerts a force of magnitude F = 12.0 N at an angle θ = 25.0°. (a) What is the magnitude of the block’s acceleration? (b) The force magni- Figure 5.27 tude F is slowly increased. What is its value just Problem 48. before the block is lifted (completely) off the floor? (c) What is the magnitude of the block’s acceleration just before it is lifted (completely) off the floor? 49 M
m
θ
F
θ Figure 5.28
Problems 49 and 60. Figure 5.25
Problem 42.
M SSM In Fig. 5.26, a chain consisting of five links, each of mass 0.100 kg, is lifted verti- cally with constant acceleration of magnitude a = 2.50 m/s 2 . Find the magnitudes of (a) the force on link 1 from link 2, (b) the force on link 2 from link 3, (c) the force on link 3 from link 4, and (d) the force on link 4 from link 5. Then find the magnitudes of (e) the force F on the top link from the person lifting the chain and (f) the net force accelerating each link.
43
→
F
5 4
a
3 2 1
A lamp hangs vertically from a cord in a descending elevator that decelerates at 2.4 m/s 2 . Figure 5.26 (a) If the tension in the cord is 89 N, what is the Problem 43. lamp’s mass? (b) What is the cord’s tension when the elevator ascends with an upward acceleration of 2.4 m/s 2 ? 44
M
An elevator cab that weighs 27.8 kN moves upward. What is the tension in the cable if the cab’s speed is (a) increasing at a rate of 1.22 m/s 2 and (b) decreasing at a rate of 1.22 m/s 2 ? 45 M
GO In Fig. 5.29, three bal- A lot boxes are connected by cords, one of which wraps over a pul- B ley having negligible friction on C its axle and negligible mass. The three masses are m A = 30.0 kg, Figure 5.29 Problem 50. m B = 40.0 kg, and m C = 10.0 kg. When the assembly is released from rest, (a) what is the tension in the cord connect- ing B and C, and (b) how far does A move in the first 0.250 s (assuming it does not reach the pulley)? 50 M
Figure 5.30 shows two blocks connected by a cord (of negligible mass) that passes over a frictionless pulley (also of negligible mass). The arrangement is known as Atwood’s machine. One block has mass m 1 = 1.30 kg; the other has mass m 2 = 2.80 kg. What are (a) the magnitude of the blocks’ acceleration and (b) the tension in the cord? 51
M
GO
m1
m2
Figure 5.30
Problems 51 and 65.
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- CHA P ER 5 F OR- E HND MOP ION—I
An 85 kg man lowers himself to the ground from a height of 10.0 m by holding onto a rope that runs over a frictionless pulley to a 65 kg sandbag. With what speed does the man hit the ground if he started from rest? 53 M In Fig. 5.31, three connected blocks are pulled to the right on a horizontal frictionless table by a force of magnitude T 3 = 65.0 N. If m 1 = 12.0 kg, m 2 = 24.0 kg, and m 3 = 31.0 kg, calculate (a) the magnitude of the system’s acceleration, (b) the tension T 1 , and (c) the tension T 2 . 52 M
m1
T1
m2
T2
Figure 5.31
T3
m3
Problem 53.
GO Figure 5.32 shows four penguins that are being M playfully pulled along very slippery (frictionless) ice by a cura- tor. The masses of three penguins and the tension in two of the cords are m 1 = 12 kg, m 3 = 15 kg, m 4 = 20 kg, T 2 = 111 N, and T 4 = 222 N. Find the penguin mass m 2 that is not given. 54
m4 m3
m1
T2
Figure 5.32
T4
Problem 54.
m1 M SSM Two blocks are in contact on a frictionless table. A horizontal m2 force is applied to the larger block, as F shown in Fig. 5.33. (a) If m 1 = 2.3 kg, m 2 = 1.2 kg, and F = 3.2 N, find the Figure 5.33 magnitude of the force between the Problem 55. two blocks. (b) Show that if a force of the same magnitude F is applied to the smaller block but in the opposite direction, the magnitude of the force between the blocks is 2.1 N, which is not the same value calculated in (a). (c) Explain the difference.
55
→
In Fig. 5.34a, a constant horizontal force F a is applied to block A, which pushes against block B with a 20.0 N force directed horizontally to the right. In Fig. 5.34b, the same force F a is applied to block B; now block A pushes on block B with a 10.0 N force directed horizontally to the left. The blocks have a combined mass of 12.0 kg. What are the magnitudes of (a) their acceleration in Fig. 5.34a and (b) force F a ? 56 M
GO
→
→
A
B
Fa
B
A
Fa
(a )
(b ) Figure 5.34
Problem 56.
M A block of mass m 1 = 3.70 kg on a frictionless plane inclined at angle θ = 30.0° is connected by a cord over a massless, friction- less pulley to a second block of mass m 2 = 2.30 kg (Fig. 5.35). What are (a) the magnitude of the acceleration of each block, (b) the direction of the acceleration of the hanging block, and (c) the tension in the cord?
57
m1
m2
θ Figure 5.35
Problem 57.
M Figure 5.36 shows a man sitting in a bosun’s chair that dan- gles from a massless rope, which runs over a massless, friction- less pulley and back down to the man’s hand. The combined mass of man and chair is 95.0 kg. With what force magnitude must the man pull on the rope if he is to rise (a) with a constant velocity and (b) with an upward accel- eration of 1.30 m/s 2 ? (Hint: A free-body diagram can really help.) If the rope on the right extends to the ground and is Figure 5.36 Problem 58. pulled by a co-worker, with what force magnitude must the co-worker pull for the man to rise (c) with a constant velocity and (d) with an upward acceleration of 1.30 m/s 2 ? What is the magnitude of the force on the ceiling from the pulley system in (e) part a, (f ) part b, (g) part c, and (h) part d?
58
M SSM A 10 kg monkey climbs up a massless rope that runs over a frictionless tree limb and back down to a 15 kg pack- age on the ground (Fig. 5.37). (a) What is the magnitude of the least acceleration the monkey must have if it is to lift the package off the ground? If, after the pack- age has been lifted, the monkey stops its climb and holds onto the rope, what are the (b) magnitude and (c) direction of the monkey’s acceleration and (d) the tension in the rope?
59
Bananas
M CALC Figure 5.28 shows Figure 5.37 Problem 59. a 5.00 kg block being pulled along a frictionless floor by a cord that applies a force of constant magnitude 20.0 N but with an angle θ(t) that varies with time. When angle θ = 25.0°, at what rate is the accelera- tion of the block changing if (a) θ(t) = (2.00 × 10 −2 deg/s)t and (b) θ(t) = −(2.00 × 10 −2 deg/s)t? (Hint: The angle should be in radians.)
60
M SSM A hot-air balloon of mass M is descending vertically with downward acceleration of magnitude a. How much mass (ballast) must be thrown out to give the balloon an upward acceleration of magnitude a? Assume that the upward force from the air (the lift) does not change because of the decrease in mass.
61
BIO FCP In shot putting, m any athletes elect to launch the shot at an angle that is smaller than the theoretical one (about
62 H
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42°) at which the distance of a projected ball at the same speed and height is greatest. One reason has to do with the speed the athlete can give the shot during the acceleration phase of the throw. Assume that a 7.260 kg shot is accelerated along a straight path of length 1.650 m by a constant applied force of magnitude 380.0 N, starting with an initial speed of 2.500 m/s (due to the athlete’s preliminary motion). What is the shot’s speed at the end of the acceleration phase if the angle between the path and the horizontal is (a) 30.00° and (b) 42.00°? (Hint: Treat the motion as though it were along a ramp at the given angle.) (c) By what percent is the launch speed decreased if the athlete increases the angle from 30.00° to 42.00°?
cable if the cars are at the maximum permissible mass and are being accelerated up the incline at 0.81 m/s 2 ? Support cable Pull cable
θ
Figure 5.38 gives, as a function of time t, the force component F x that acts on a 3.00 kg ice block that can move only along the x axis. At t = 0, the block is moving in the positive direction of the axis, with a speed of 3.0 m/s. What are its (a) speed and (b) direction of travel at t = 11 s? 63
H
CALC
GO
Figure 5.40
6
Problem 66.
H Figure 5.41 shows three blocks attached by cords that loop over frictionless pulleys. Block B lies on a frictionless table; the masses are m A = 6.00 kg, m B = 8.00 kg, and m C = 10.0 kg. When the blocks are released, what is the tension in the cord at the right?
67
)N( xF
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
–4 t
Figure 5.38
(s)
Problem 63.
129
B
C
A
Figure 5.41
Problem 67.
BIO FCP A shot putter launches a 7.260 kg shot by push- ing it along a straight line of length 1.650 m and at an angle of 34.10° from the horizontal, accelerating the shot to the launch speed from its initial speed of 2.500 m/s (which is due to the ath- lete’s preliminary motion). The shot leaves the hand at a height of 2.110 m and at an angle of 34.10°, and it lands at a horizon- tal distance of 15.90 m. What is the magnitude of the athlete’s average force on the shot during the acceleration phase? (Hint: Treat the motion during the acceleration phase as though it were along a ramp at the given angle.)
68 H
GO Figure 5.39 shows a box of mass m 2 = 1.0 kg on a fric- tionless plane inclined at angle θ = 30°. It is connected by a cord of negligible mass to a box of mass m 1 = 3.0 kg on a horizontal frictionless surface. The pulley is frictionless and massless. (a) If the magnitude of horizontal force F is 2.3 N, what is the tension in the connecting cord? (b) What is the largest value the magni- tude of F may have without the cord becoming slack? 64 H
→
→
m1
Additional Problems F
In Fig. 5.42, 4.0 kg block A and 6.0 kg block B are con- nected by a string of negligible mass. Force F A = (12 N) ˆ i acts on block A; force F B = (24 N) ˆ i acts on block B. What is the tension in the string? 69
→
m2
θ Figure 5.39
→
Problem 64.
GO CALC Figure 5.30 shows Atwood’s machine, in which two containers are connected by a cord (of negligible mass) passing over a frictionless pulley (also of negligible mass). At time t = 0, container 1 has mass 1.30 kg and container 2 has mass 2.80 kg, but container 1 is losing mass (through a leak) at the con- stant rate of 0.200 kg/s. At what rate is the acceleration magnitude of the containers changing at (a) t = 0 and (b) t = 3.00 s? (c) When does the acceleration reach its maximum value?
A
FA
B
FB
65 H
H GO Figure 5.40 shows a section of a cable-car system. The maximum permissible mass of each car with occupants is 2800 kg. The cars, riding on a support cable, are pulled by a sec- ond cable attached to the support tower on each car. Assume that the cables are taut and inclined at angle θ = 35°. What is the difference in tension between adjacent sections of the pull
66
x
Figure 5.42
Problem 69.
FCP An 80 kg man drops to a concrete patio from a window 0.50 m above the patio. He neglects to bend his knees on landing, taking 2.0 cm to stop. (a) What is his average acceleration from when his feet first touch the patio to when he stops? (b) What is the magnitude of the average stopping force exerted on him by the patio?
70
Rocket thrust. A rocket and its payload have a total mass of 5.0 × 10 4 kg. How large is the force produced by the engine (the thrust) when (a) the rocket hovers over the launchpad just after ignition, and (b) the rocket is accelerating upward at 20 m/s 2 ? 71
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- CHA P ER 5 F OR- E HND MOP ION—I
Block and three cords. In Fig. 5.43, a block B of mass M = 15.0 kg hangs by a cord from a knot K of mass m K , which hangs from a ceiling by means of two cords. The cords have negligible mass, and the magnitude of the gravitational force on the knot is negligible compared to the gravitational force on the block. The angles are θ1 = 28° and θ2 = 47°. What is the tension in (a) cord 3, (b) cord 1, and (c) cord 2? 72
θ1
θ2
Cord 1
Cord 2 Knot K Cord 3
M
Figure 5.43
Sled pull. Two people pull with constant forces 90.0 N and 92.0 N in opposite directions on a 25.0 kg sled on frictionless ice. The sled is initially stationary. At the end of 3.00 s, what are its (a) displacement and (b) speed? 75
Dockside lifting. Figure 5.46 shows the cable rigging for a crane to lift a large container with mass 2.80 × 10 4 kg onto or from a ship. Assume that the mass is uniformly spread within the container. The container is supported at its corners by four identical cables that are under tension T 4 and that are at an angle θ4 = 60.0° with the vertical. They are attached to a horizontal bar that is supported by two identical cables under tension T 2 and at angle θ2 = 40.0° with the vertical. They are attached to the main crane cable that is under tension T 1 and vertical. Assume the mass of the bar is negligible compared to the weight of the container. What are the values of (a) T 1 , (b) T 2 , and (c) T 4 ? 76
Main cable
Block B
Problem 72.
θ2 θ2
Forces stick−block. In Fig. 5.44, a 33 kg block is pushed across a frictionless floor by means of a 3.2 kg stick. The block moves from rest through distance d = 77 cm in 1.7 s at constant acceleration. (a) Identify all horizontal third-law force pairs. (b) What is the magnitude of the force on the stick from the hand? (c) What is the magnitude of the force on the block from the stick? (d) What is the magnitude of the net force on the stick? 73
Horizontal bar
θ4 θ4 θ4 θ4
a
m M
Figure 5.44
Wo rldw ide Shipping
Frictionless surface
Problem 73.
Lifting cable danger. Cranes are used to lift steel beams at construction sites (Fig. 5.45a). Let’s look at the danger in such a lift for a beam with length L = 12.0 m, a square cross-section with edge length w = 0.540 m, and density ρ = 7900 kg/m 3 . The main cable from the crane is attached to two short cables of length h = 7.00 m symmetrically attached to the beam at distance d from the midpoint (Fig. 5.45b). (a) What is the tension T main in the main cable when the beam is lifted at constant speed? What is the tension T short in each short cable if d is (b) 1.60 m, (c) 4.24 m, and (d) 5.91 m? (e) As d increases, what happens to the danger of the short cables snapping?
Figure 5.46
74
Main cable sotohptisopeD/midnaroz
h
h
d
d L
(a )
(b ) Figure 5.45
Problem 74.
Beam
Problem 76.
Crate on truck. A 360 kg crate rests on the bed of a truck that is moving at speed v 0 = 120 km/h in the positive direction of an x axis. The driver applies the brakes and slows to a speed v = 62 km/h in 17 s at a constant rate and without the crate slid- ing. What magnitude of force acts on the crate during this 17 s? 77
Noninertial frame projectile. A device shoots a small ball horizontally with speed 0.200 m/s from height h = 0.800 m above an elevator floor. The ball lands at distance d from the base of the device directly below the ejection point. The vertical accel- eration of the elevator can be controlled. What is the elevator’s acceleration magnitude a if d is (a) 14.0 cm, (b) 20.0 cm, and (c) 7.50 cm? 78
BIO A car crashes head on into a wall and stops, with the front collapsing by 0.500 m. The 70 kg driver is firmly held to the seat by a seat belt and thus moves forward by 0.500 m during the crash. Assume that the acceleration (or deceleration) is con- stant during the crash. What is its magnitude of the force on the driver from the seat belt during the crash if the initial speed of the car is (a) 35 mi/h and (b) 70 mi/h?
79
Redesigning a ramp. Figure 5.47 shows a block that is released on a frictionless ramp at angle θ = 30.0° and that then slides down through distance d = 0.800 m along the ramp in a 80
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131
certain time t 1 . What should the angle be to increase the sliding time by 0.100 s? Physics
Circus
Block Figure 5.48
Problem 82.
d
Penguin’s weight. A weight-conscious penguin with a mass of 15.0 kg rests on a bathroom scale (Fig. 5.49). What is the pen- guin’s weight in (a) newtons and (b) pounds? What is the mag- nitude (newtons) of the normal force on the penguin from the scale? 83
θ Figure 5.47
Problem 80
Two forces. The only two forces acting on a body have magnitudes of F 1 = 20 N and F 2 = 35 N and directions that differ by 80°. The resulting acceleration has a magnitude of 20 m/s 2 . What is the mass of the body? 81
Physics circus train. You are charged with moving a circus to the next town. You have two engines and need to attach four boxcars to each, as shown in Fig. 5.48 for one of the engines. The mass of each boxcar is given below in kilograms, and each engine produces the same accelerating force. (a) Determine which box- cars should be connected to each engine so that the accelera- tions of the trains are both a = 2.00 m/s 2 . (b) Next, determine the sequence of boxcars in each train that minimizes the tensions in the interconnections between boxcars. Here is an example of an answer: CBAF —boxcar C would be the last (leftmost) one and boxcar F would be the first (rightmost) one. For the train with boxcar B, what are the interconnection tensions between (c) the front boxcar and the boxcar behind it and (d) the last boxcar and the boxcar in front of it? 82
A 7.50 × 10 5 , B 7.00 × 10 5 , C 6.00 × 10 5 , D 5.00 × 10 5 , E 4.00 × 10 5 , F 3.50 × 10 5 , G 2.00 × 10 5 , H 1.00 × 10 5
Scale
Figure 5.49
Problem 83.
Pop. If a person drinks a can of Diet Coke before enter- ing the doctor’s office to be weighed, how much will the drink increase the weight measurement? Answer in pounds. The can has 12 US fluid ounces and the drink is flavored water with a density of 997 kg/m 3 . 84 BIO
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A
P
T
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6
Force and Motion—II
6.1 FRICTION Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
6.1.1 Distinguish between friction in a static situation
6.1.3 For objects on horizontal, vertical, or inclined
and in a kinetic situation.
planes in situations involving friction, draw free-body
6.1.2 Determine direction and magnitude of a frictional
diagrams and apply Newton’s second law.
force.
Key Ideas →
●
When a force
→
F tends to slide a body along a
●
surface, a frictional force from the surface acts on
The magnitude of
given by
f s,max = μs F N ,
the body. The frictional force is parallel to the surface and directed so as to oppose the sliding. It is due to bonding between the body and the surface. →
f s . If there is sliding, the frictional f k . →
force is a kinetic frictional force
→
●
If a body does not move, the static frictional force →
F parallel to the surface are f s is directed opposite that component. If the component increases, f s also and the component of
→
equal in magnitude, and
increases.
μs is the coefficient of static friction and F N is the →
If the body does not slide, the frictional force is a static frictional force
where
→
f s has a maximum value f s,max
f s
F f s,max , the body slides on
magnitude of the normal force. If the component of parallel to the surface exceeds the surface. ●
If the body begins to slide on the surface, the
magnitude of the frictional force rapidly decreases to a →
constant value
f k given by
f k = μk F N,
where
μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction.
What Is Physics?
In this chapter we focus on the physics of three common types of force: frictional force, drag force, and centripetal force. An engineer preparing a car for the India- napolis 500 must consider all three types. Frictional forces acting on the tires are crucial to the car’s acceleration out of the pit and out of a curve (if the car hits an oil slick, the friction is lost and so is the car). Drag forces acting on the car from the passing air must be minimized or else the car will consume too much fuel and have to pit too early (even one 14 s pit stop can cost a driver the race). Centrip- etal forces are crucial in the turns (if there is insufficient centripetal force, the car slides into the wall). We start our discussion with frictional forces. Friction
Frictional forces are unavoidable in our daily lives. If we were not able to counteract them, they would stop every moving object and bring to a halt every rotating shaft. About 20% of the gasoline used in an automobile is needed to counteract friction in the engine and in the drive train. On the other hand, if friction were totally absent, we could not get an automobile to go anywhere, and we could not walk or ride a
132 /
6.1 F RIC T ION
133
bicycle. We could not hold a pencil, and, if we could, it would not write. Nails and screws would be useless, woven cloth would fall apart, and knots would untie. Three Experiments. Here we deal with the frictional forces that exist between dry solid surfaces, either stationary relative to each other or moving across each other at slow speeds. Consider three simple thought experiments: 1. Send a book sliding across a long horizontal counter. As expected, the book slows and then stops. This means the book must have an acceleration paral- lel to the counter surface, in the direction opposite the book’s velocity. From Newton’s second law, then, a force must act on the book parallel to the coun- ter surface, in the direction opposite its velocity. That force is a frictional force. 2. Push horizontally on the book to make it travel at constant velocity along the counter. Can the force from you be the only horizontal force on the book? No, because then the book would accelerate. From Newton’s second law, there must be a second force, directed opposite your force but with the same magnitude, so that the two forces balance. That second force is a frictional force, directed parallel to the counter. 3. Push horizontally on a heavy crate. The crate does not move. From Newton’s second law, a second force must also be acting on the crate to counteract your force. Moreover, this second force must be directed opposite your force and have the same magnitude as your force, so that the two forces balance. That second force is a frictional force. Push even harder. The crate still does not move. Apparently the frictional force can change in magnitude so that the two forces still balance. Now push with all your strength. The crate begins to slide. Evidently, there is a maximum magnitude of the frictional force. When you exceed that maximum magnitude, the crate slides.
Two Types of Friction. Figure 6.1.1 shows a similar situation. In Fig. 6.1.1a, a block rests on a tabletop, with the gravitational force F g balanced by a nor- mal force F N . In Fig. 6.1.1b, you exert a force F on the block, attempting to pull it to the left. In response, a frictional force f s is directed to the right, exactly →
→
→
→
There is no attempt at sliding. Thus, no friction and no motion.
FN
Frictional force = 0 Fg
(a )
Force F attempts sliding but is balanced by the frictional force. No motion. Force F is now stronger but is still balanced by the frictional force. No motion. (a) The forces on a stationary block. (b–d) An exter- nal force F , applied to the block, is balanced by a static frictional force f s . As F is increased, f s also increases, until f s reaches a certain maximum value. (Figure continues) Figure 6.1.1
→
→
FN
Frictional force = F
fs
F
Fg
(b ) FN
fs
F
Frictional force = F
Fg
(c )
Force F is now even stronger but is still balanced by the frictional force. No motion.
A
FN fs
F
Frictional force = F
Fg
(d )
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C HAP T ER 6 F ORC E AND MOT ION—II
Finally, the applied force has overwhelmed the static frictional force. Block slides and accelerates.
FN
Weak kinetic frictional force
F fk
Fg
(e ) v
FN
Same weak kinetic frictional force
fk
F
Fg
→
(f )
Static frictional force can only match growing applied force.
e cr of lanoit cirf f o edutinga M
(Continued) (e) Once f s reaches its maximum value, the block “breaks away,” accelerating suddenly in the direction of F . ( f ) If the block is now to move with constant velocity, F must be reduced from the maximum value it had just before the block broke away. (g) Some experimental results for the sequence (a) through ( f ). In WileyPLUS, this figure is available as an animation with voiceover. Figure 6.1.1
To maintain the speed, weaken force F to match the weak frictional force.
a
Maximum value of f s fk is approximately constant
Kinetic frictional force has only one value (no matching).
Breakaway
0 (g)
Time
→
balancing your force. The force f s is called the static frictional force. The block does not move. Figures 6.1.1c and 6.1.1d show that as you increase the magnitude of your applied force, the magnitude of the static frictional force f s also increases and the block remains at rest. When the applied force reaches a certain magnitude, however, the block “breaks away” from its intimate contact with the tabletop and accelerates leftward (Fig. 6.1.1e). The frictional force that then opposes the motion is called the kinetic frictional force f k . Usually, the magnitude of the kinetic frictional force, which acts when there is motion, is less than the maximum m agnitude of the static frictional force, which acts when there is no motion. Thus, if you wish the block to move across the surface with a constant speed, you must usually decrease the magnitude of the applied force once the block begins to move, as in Fig. 6.1.1f. As an example, Fig. 6.1.1g shows the results of an experiment in which the force on a block was slowly increased until breakaway occurred. Note the reduced force needed to keep the block moving at constant speed after breakaway. Microscopic View. A frictional force is, in essence, the vector sum of many forces acting between the surface atoms of one body and those of another body. If two highly polished and carefully cleaned metal surfaces are brought together in a very good vacuum (to keep them clean), they cannot be made to slide over each other. Because the surfaces are so smooth, many atoms of one surface contact many atoms of the other surface, and the surfaces cold-weld together instantly, forming a single piece of metal. If a machinist’s specially polished gage blocks are brought together in air, there is less atom-to-atom contact, but the blocks stick firmly to each other and can be separated only by means of a wrenching motion. Usually, however, this much atom-to-atom contact is not possible. Even a highly polished metal surface is far from being flat on the atomic scale. Moreover, the surfaces of everyday objects have layers of oxides and other contaminants that reduce cold-welding. When two ordinary surfaces are placed together, only the high points touch each other. (It is like having the Alps of Switzerland turned over and placed down on the Alps of Austria.) The actual microscopic area of contact is much less than the apparent macroscopic contact area, perhaps by a factor of 10 4 . Nonetheless, →
→
/
6.1 F RIC T ION
many contact points do cold-weld together. These welds produce static friction when an applied force attempts to slide the surfaces relative to each other. If the applied force is great e nough to pull one surface across the other, there is first a tearing of welds (at breakaway) and then a continuous re-forming and tearing of welds as movement occurs and chance contacts are made (Fig. 6.1.2). The kinetic frictional force f k that opposes the motion is the vector sum of the forces at those many chance contacts. If the two surfaces are pressed together harder, many more points cold-weld. Now getting the surfaces to slide relative to each other requires a greater applied force: The static frictional force f s has a greater maximum value. Once the sur- faces are sliding, there are many more points of momentary cold-welding, so the kinetic frictional force f k also has a greater magnitude. Often, the sliding motion of one surface over another is “jerky” because the two surfaces alternately stick together and then slip. Such repetitive stick-and-slip can pro- duce squeaking or squealing, as when tires skid on dry pavement, fingernails scratch along a chalkboard, or a rusty hinge is opened. It can also produce beautiful and capti- vating sounds, as in music when a bow is drawn properly across a violin string. FCP
135
(a )
→
→
(b )
→
The mechanism of sliding friction. (a) The upper surface is sliding to the right over the lower surface in this enlarged view. (b) A detail, showing two spots where cold-welding has occurred. Force is required to break the welds and maintain the motion. Figure 6.1.2
Properties of Friction
Experiment shows that when a dry and unlubricated body presses against a sur- face in the same condition and a force F attempts to slide the body along the surface, the resulting frictional force has three properties: →
→
If the body does not move, then the static frictional force f s and the component of F that is parallel to the surface balance each other. They are equal in magnitude, and f s is directed opposite that component of F .
Property 1.
→
→
→
→
Property 2.
The magnitude of f s has a maximum value f s,max that is given by f s,max = μ s F N,
(6.1.1)
where μs is the coefficient of static friction and F N is the magnitude of the nor- mal force on the body from the surface. If the magnitude of the component of F that is parallel to the surface exceeds f s,max , then the body begins to slide along the surface. →
If the body begins to slide along the surface, the magnitude of the frictional force rapidly decreases to a value f k given by
Property 3.
f k = μk F N,
(6.1.2)
where μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction. Thereafter, during the sliding, a kinetic frictional force f k with magnitude given by Eq. 6.1.2 opposes the motion. →
The magnitude F N of the normal force appears in properties 2 and 3 as a measure of how firmly the body presses against the surface. If the body presses harder, then, by Newton’s third law, F N is greater. Properties 1 and 2 are worded in terms of a single applied force F , but they also hold for the net force of several applied forces acting on the body. Equations 6.1.1 and 6.1.2 are not vector equa- tions; the direction of f s or f k is always parallel to the surface and opposed to the attempted sliding, and the normal force F N is perpendicular to the surface. The coefficients μs and μk are dimensionless and must be determined exper- imentally. Their values depend on certain properties of both the body and the surface; hence, they are usually referred to with the preposition “between,” as in “the value of μs between an egg and a Teflon-coated skillet is 0.04, but that between rock-climbing shoes and rock is as much as 1.2.” We assume that the value of μk does not depend on the speed at which the body slides along the surface. →
→
→
→
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C HAP T ER 6 F ORC E AND MOT ION—II
Checkpoint 6.1.1
A block lies on a floor. (a) What is the magnitude of the frictional force on it from the floor? (b) If a horizontal force of 5 N is now applied to the block, but the block does not move, what is the magnitude of the frictional force on it? (c) If the maximum value f s,max of the static frictional force on the block is 10 N, will the block move if the magnitude of the horizontally applied force is 8 N? (d) If it is 12 N? (e) What is the magnitude of the frictional force in part (c)?
Sample Problem 6.1.1
Angled force applied to an initially stationary block
This sample problem involves a tilted applied force, which requires that we work with components to find a frictional force. The main challenge is to sort out all the compo- nents. Figure 6.1.3a shows a force of magnitude F = 12.0 N applied to an 8.00 kg block at a downward angle of θ = 30.0°. The coefficient of static friction between block and floor is s = 0.700; the coefficient of kinetic friction is k = 0.400. D oes the block begin to slide or does it remain stationary? What is the magnitude of the frictional force on the block?
KEY IDEAS (1) When the object is stationary on a surface, the static frictional force balances the force component that is attempting to slide the object along the surface. (2) The maximum possible magnitude of that force is given by Eq. 6.1.1 ( f s,max = s F N). (3) If the component of the applied force along the surface exceeds this limit on the static fric- tion, the block begins to slide. (4) If the object slides, the kinetic frictional force is given by Eq. 6.1.2 ( f k = k F N).
F N − mg − F sin θ = m(0),
(6.1.4)
F N = mg + F sin θ .
(6.1.5)
which gives us
Now we can evaluate f s,max = s F N: f s,max = s (mg + F sin θ)
= (0.700)((8.00 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 ) + (12.0 N )(sin 30°)) = 59.08 N. (6.1.6)
Because the magnitude F x (= 10.39 N ) of the force com- ponent attempting to slide the block is less than f s,max (= 59.08 N), the block remains stationary. That means that the magnitude f s of the frictional force matches F x . From Fig. 6.1.3d, we can write Newton’s second law for x components as F x − f s = m(0), and thus
To see if the block slides (and thus to calcu- late the magnitude of the frictional force), we must compare the applied force component F x with the maximum m agni- tude f s,max that the static friction can have. From the trian- gle of components and full force shown in Fig. 6.1.3b, we see that
(6.1.7)
f s = F x = 10.39 N ≈ 10.4 N.
(Answer)
Calculations:
y
θ
x
Fx
θ
F
F x = F cos θ = (12.0 N ) cos 30° = 10.39 N.
Block
Fy
F
(a )
(b)
(6.1.3)
From Eq. 6.1.1, we know that f s,max = s F N, but we need the magnitude F N of the normal force to evaluate f s,max . Because the normal force is vertical, we need to write Newton’s second law (F net,y = ma y) for the vertical force components acting on the block, as displayed in Fig. 6.1.3c. The gravitational force with magnitude mg acts downward. The applied force has a downward compo- nent F y = F sin θ . And the vertical acceleration a y is just zero. Thus, we can write Newton’s second law as
FN
Block Fy fs
Fg
(c )
Fx
(d )
(a) A force is applied to an initially stationary block. (b) The components of the applied force. (c) The vertical force components. (d) The horizontal force components. Figure 6.1.3
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137
6.1 F RIC T ION
Sample Problem 6.1.2
Snowboarding
Most snowboarders (Fig. 6.1.4a) realize that a snowboard will easily slide down a snowy slope because the fric- tion between the snow and the moving board warms the snow, producing a micron-thick layer of meltwater with a low coefficient of kinetic friction. However, few snow- boarders realize that the normal force supporting them is mainly due to air pressure, not the snow itself. Here we examine the forces on a 70 kg snowboarder sliding directly down the fall line of an 18° slope, which is a blue square slope in the rating system of North America. The coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.040. We will use an x axis that is directed down the slope (Fig. 6.1.4b). (a) What is the acceleration down the slope?
wind-packed snow, the board’s passage is too brief for the air to be squeezed out and is momentarily trapped. For a board with a length of 1.5 m and moving at 15 m/s, how long is it over any given part of the snow? L = _ 1.5 m t = _ v 15 m/s = 0.10 s.
(Answer)
(c) For such a brief interval, the compression by the snow- boarder increases the pressure of the trapped air, which then contributes 2/3 of the normal force. What is the con- tribution F air for the 70 kg snowboarder? 2 F air = _ mg cos θ 3
2 = _ (70 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )(cos 18°) 3
= 435 N.
KEY IDEAS (1) The snowboarder accelerates (the speed increases) down the slope due to a net force F net,x , which is the vec- tor sum of the frictional force f k up the slope and the component F g,x of the gravitational force down the slope. (2) The frictional force is a kinetic frictional force with a magnitude given by Eq. 6.1.2 ( f k = k F N), in which F N is the magnitude of the normal force on the snowboarder (perpendicular to the slope). (3) We can relate the accel- eration of the snowboarder to the net force along the slope by writing Newton’s second law (F net,x = ma x) for motion along the slope.
(Answer)
→
segamI ytteG/noisiVlatigiD/kuineL lyrraD
Figure 6.1.4b shows the component mg sin θ of the gravitational force down the slope and the component mg cos θ perpendicular to it. The normal force F N matches that perpendicular component, so Calculations:
F N = mg cos θ and thus the magnitude of the frictional force up the slope is f k = μ k F N = μ k mg cos θ.
(a)
We then find the acceleration a x along the x axis from Newton’s second law:
y
F net,x = ma x −f k + mg sin θ = ma x − μ k mg cos θ + mg sin θ = ma x g(− μk cos θ + sin θ) = a x a x = (9.8 m/s 2 )(−0.040 cos 18° + sin 18°) = −2.7 m/s 2 . (Answer) (b) If the board’s speed is less than 10 m/s, the air between the snow particles beneath the board flows off to the sides and the normal force is provided directly by the particles. The result is the same for fresh snow for even faster speeds because the snow is porous so that the air can be squeezed out. However, for those faster speeds over
FN fk
mg
mg
cos θ
θ
sin θ
θ x
Fg
(b)
(a) Snowboarding. (b) A free-body diagram for the snowboarder. Figure 6.1.4
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138
C HAP T ER 6 F ORC E AND MOT ION—II
6.2 THE DRAG FORCE AND TERMINAL SPEED Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
6.2.1 Apply the relationship between the drag force on an
6.2.2 Determine the terminal speed of an object falling
object moving through air and the speed of the object.
through air.
Key Ideas ●
When there is relative motion between air (or some
other fluid) and a body, the body experiences a drag force
area of a cross section taken perpendicular to the rela-
D that opposes the relative motion and points in the
direction in which the fluid flows relative to the body. The →
D is related to the relative speed v by an experimentally determined drag coefficient C according to magnitude of
1 D = _ CρAv 2 , 2
where
v ).
→
tive velocity
→
●
When a blunt object has fallen far enough through →
D and the gravi- F g on the body become equal. The body then falls at a constant terminal speed v t given by air, the magnitudes of the drag force →
tational force
_____
is the fluid density (mass per unit volume) and
v t =
A is the effective cross-sectional area of the body (the
2F g
√ CρA . _____
The Drag Force and Terminal Speed
A fluid is anything that can flow—generally either a gas or a liquid. When there is a relative velocity between a fluid and a body (either because the body moves through the fluid or because the fluid moves past the body), the body experiences a drag force D that opposes the relative motion and points in the direction in which the fluid flows relative to the body. Here we examine only cases in which air is the fluid, the body is blunt (like a baseball) rather than slender (like a javelin), and the relative motion is fast enough so that the air becomes turbulent (breaks up into swirls) behind the body. In such cases, the magnitude of the drag force D is related to the relative speed v by an experimentally determined drag coefficient C according to →
→
1 D = _ CρAv 2 , 2
(6.2.1)
where is the air density (mass per volume) and A is the effective c ross-sectional area of the body (the area of a cross section taken perpendicular to the velocity v ). The drag coefficient C (typical values range from 0.4 to 1.0) is not truly a constant for a given body because if v varies significantly, the value of C can vary as well. Here, we ignore such complications. Downhill speed skiers know well that drag depends on A and v 2 . To reach high speeds a skier must reduce D as much as possible by, for example, riding the skis in the “egg position” (Fig. 6.2.1) to minimize A. Falling. When a blunt body falls from rest through air, the drag force D is directed upward; its magnitude gradually increases from zero as the speed of the body increases. This upward force D opposes the downward gravitational force F g on the body. We can relate these forces to the body’s acceleration by writing Newton’s second law for a vertical y axis (F net,y = ma y) as →
segamI ytteG/+E/rtonhcet
This skier crouches in an “egg position” so as to minimize her effective cross-sectional area and thus minimize the air drag act- ing on her. Figure 6.2.1
→
→
→
D − F g = ma,
(6.2.2)
where m is the mass of the body. As suggested in Fig. 6.2.2, if the body falls long enough, D eventually equals F g . From Eq. 6.2.2, this means that a = 0, and so the body’s speed no longer increases. The body then falls at a constant speed, called the terminal speed v t .
/
6.2 T HE D RAG F ORC E AND T ERMINAL SP EED
139
Table 6.2.1 Some Terminal Speeds in Air
Object
Terminal Speed (m/s)
95% Distance a (m)
145 60 42 31 20 9 7 5
2500 430 210 115 47 10 6 3
Shot (from shot put) Sky diver (typical) Baseball Tennis ball Basketball Ping-Pong ball Raindrop (radius = 1.5 mm) Parachutist (typical) a
This is the distance through which the body must fall from rest to reach 95% of its terminal speed.
Based on Peter J. Brancazio, Sport Science, 1984, Simon & Schuster, New York.
To find v t , we set a = 0 in Eq. 6.2.2 and substitute for D from Eq. 6.2.1, obtaining 1 _ CρAv 2 t − F g = 0, 2
_____
which gives
v t =
2 F g
. √ _____ CρA
As the cat’s speed increases, the upward drag force increases until it balances the gravitational force.
(6.2.3)
D D
Fg
Fg
Fg
(a )
(b )
(c )
The forces that act on a body falling through air: (a) the body when it has just begun to fall and (b) the free-body diagram a little later, after a drag force has developed. (c) The drag force has increased until it balances the gravitational force on the body. The body now falls at its constant terminal speed. Figure 6.2.2
moc.kcotsrettuhS/oinotnA ykS
Table 6.2.1 gives values of v t for some common objects. According to calculations* based on Eq. 6.2.1, a cat must fall about six floors to reach terminal speed. Until it does so, F g > D and the cat acceler- ates downward because of the net downward force. Recall from Chapter 2 that your body is an accelerometer, not a speedometer. Because the cat also senses the acceleration, it is frightened and keeps its feet underneath its body, its head tucked in, and its spine bent upward, making A small, v t large, and injury likely. However, if the cat does reach v t during a longer fall, the acceleration vanishes and the cat relaxes somewhat, stretching its legs and neck horizon- tally outward and straightening its spine (it then resembles a flying squir- rel). These actions increase area A and thus also, by Eq. 6.2.1, the drag D. The cat begins to slow because now D > F g (the net force is upward), until a new, smaller v t is reached. The decrease in v t reduces the possibility of serious injury on landing. Just before the end of the fall, when it sees it is nearing the ground, the cat pulls its legs back beneath its body to prepare FCP for the landing. Humans often fall from great heights for the fun of skydiving. How- ever, in April 1987, during a jump, sky diver Gregory Robertson noticed that fellow sky diver Debbie Williams had been knocked unconscious in a collision with a third sky diver and was unable to open her parachute. Robertson, who was well above Williams at the time and who had not yet opened his parachute for the 4 km plunge, reoriented his body head-down so as to minimize A and maximize his downward speed. Reaching an esti- mated v t of 320 km/h, he caught up with Williams and then went into a hori- zontal “spread eagle” (as in Fig. 6.2.3) to increase D so that he could grab her. He opened her parachute and then, after releasing her, his own, a scant 10 s before impact. Williams received extensive internal injuries due to her FCP lack of control on landing but survived.
Falling body
Sky divers in a horizontal “spread eagle” maximize air drag. Figure 6.2.3
*W. O. Whitney and C. J. Mehlhaff, “High-Rise Syndrome in Cats.” The Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 1987.
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140
C HAP T ER 6 F ORC E AND MOT ION—II
Sample Problem 6.2.1
Terminal speed of falling raindrop
A raindrop with radius R = 1.5 mm falls from a cloud that is at height h = 1200 m above the ground. The drag coefficient C for the drop is 0.60. Assume that the drop is spherical throughout its fall. The density of water w is 1000 kg/m 3 , and the density of air a is 1.2 kg/m 3 . (a) As Table 6.1.1 indicates, the raindrop reaches terminal speed after falling just a few meters. What is the terminal speed?
KEY IDEA The drop reaches a terminal speed v t when the gravita- tional force on it is balanced by the air drag force on it, so its acceleration is zero. We could then apply Newton’s second law and the drag force equation to find v t, but Eq. 6.2.3 does all that for us. To use Eq. 6.2.3, we need the drop’s effec- tive cross-sectional area A and the magnitude F g of the gravitational force. Because the drop is spherical, A is the area of a circle (R 2 ) that has the same radius as the sphere. To find F g, we use three facts: (1) F g = mg, where m is the drop’s mass; (2) the (spherical) drop’s volume is 4 V = _ πR 3 ; and (3) the density of the water in the drop is 3 the mass per volume, or w = m/V. Thus, we find Calculations:
4 3 F g = Vρw g = _ πR ρw g. 3
We next substitute this, the expression for A, and the given data into Eq. 6.2.3. Being careful to distinguish between the air density a and the water density w , we obtain
______
2 F v t = Cρa A
√
g ______ =
_________
8πR ρw g _________ =
_______
√ 3Cρ πR √ 8R3Cρρ g 3
a
2
w _______ a
___________________________________
(8 )(1.5 × 10 −3 m)(1000 kg /m 3 )(9.8 m / s2 ) = ___________________________________ (3)(0.60)(1.2 kg /m 3 ) (Answer ) = 7.4 m / s ≈ 27 km / h.
√
Note that the height of the cloud does not enter into the calculation. (b) What would be the drop’s speed just before impact if there were no drag force?
KEY IDEA With no drag force to reduce the drop’s speed during the fall, the drop would fall with the constant free-fall accel- eration g, so the constant-acceleration e quations of Table 2.4.1 apply. Because we know the acceleration is g, the initial velocity v 0 is 0, and the displacement x − x 0 is −h, we use Eq. 2.4.6 to find v: Calculation:
____
___________________
v = √ 2gh = √ (2)(9.8 m / s2 )(1200 m) = 153 m / s ≈ 550 km / h.
(Answer )
Had he known this, Shakespeare would scarcely have written, “it droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven, upon the place beneath.” In fact, the speed is close to that of a bullet from a large-caliber handgun!
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Checkpoint 6.2.1
Is the terminal speed for a large raindrop greater than, less than, or the same as that for a small raindrop, assuming that both drops are spherical?
6.3 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
6.3.1 Sketch the path taken in uniform circular motion
6.3.3 For a particle in uniform circular motion, apply
and explain the velocity, acceleration, and force vec-
the relationship between the radius of the path, the
tors (magnitudes and directions) during the motion.
particle’s speed and mass, and the net force acting
6.3.2 ldentify that unless there is a radially inward net
on the particle.
force (a centripetal force), an object cannot move in circular motion.
/
6.3 U NIF ORM C IRC U L AR MOT ION
141
Key Ideas ●
If a particle moves in a circle or a circular arc of
radius
R at constant speed v , the particle is said to
●
This acceleration is due to a net centripetal force on
the particle, with magnitude given by
2
____ , F = mv R
be in uniform circular motion. It then has a centripetal acceleration
a with magnitude given by
→
2
v . a = __ R
where →
and
m is the particle’s mass. The vector quantities a →
F are directed toward the center of curvature of the
particle’s path.
Uniform Circular Motion
From Module 4.5, recall that when a body moves in a circle (or a circular arc) at constant speed v, it is said to be in uniform circular motion. Also recall that the body has a centripetal acceleration (directed toward the center of the circle) of constant magnitude given by 2
v (centripetal acceleration ), a = __ R
(6.3.1)
where R is the radius of the circle. Here are two examples: 1. Rounding a curve in a car. You are sitting in the center of the rear seat of a car moving at a constant high speed along a flat road. When the driver suddenly turns left, rounding a corner in a circular arc, you slide across the seat toward the right and then jam against the car wall for the rest of the turn. What is going on? While the car moves in the circular arc, it is in uniform circular motion; that is, it has an acceleration that is directed toward the center of the circle. By Newton’s second law, a force must cause this acceleration. Moreover, the force must also be directed toward the center of the circle. Thus, it is a centripetal force, where the adjective indicates the direction. In this example, the centripetal force is a frictional force on the tires from the road; it makes the turn possible. If you are to move in uniform circular motion along with the car, there must also be a centripetal force on you. However, apparently the frictional force on you from the seat was not great enough to make you go in a circle with the car. Thus, the seat slid beneath you, until the right wall of the car jammed into you. Then its push on you provided the needed centripetal force on you, and you joined the car’s uniform circular motion. 2. Orbiting Earth. This time you are a passenger in the space shuttle Atlantis. As it and you orbit Earth, you float through your cabin. What is going on? Both you and the shuttle are in uniform circular motion and have accel- erations directed toward the center of the circle. Again by Newton’s second law, centripetal forces must cause these accelerations. This time the centrip- etal forces are gravitational pulls (the pull on you and the pull on the shuttle) exerted by Earth and directed radially inward, toward the center of Earth. In both car and shuttle you are in uniform circular motion, acted on by a cen- tripetal force—yet your sensations in the two situations are quite different. In the car, jammed up against the wall, you are aware of being compressed by the wall. In the orbiting shuttle, however, you are floating around with no sensation of any force acting on you. Why this difference? The difference is due to the nature of the two centripetal forces. In the car, the centripetal force is the push on the part of your body touching the car wall. You can sense the compression on that part of your body. In the shuttle, the centripetal force is Earth’s gravitational pull on every atom of your body.
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C HAP T ER 6 F ORC E AND MOT ION—II
v
r
Puck String
T
R
The puck moves in uniform circular motion only because of a toward-thecenter force.
An overhead view of a hockey puck moving with constant speed v in a circular path of radius R on a horizontal frictionless surface. The centripetal force on the puck is T , the pull from the string, directed inward along the radial axis r extending through the puck. Figure 6.3.1
→
Thus, there is no compression (or pull) on any one part of your body and no sensation of a force acting on you. (The sensation is said to be one of “weightlessness,” but that description is tricky. The pull on you by Earth has certainly not disappeared and, in fact, is only a little less than it would be with you on the ground.) Another example of a centripetal force is shown in Fig. 6.3.1. There a hockey puck moves around in a circle at constant speed v while tied to a string looped around a central peg. This time the centripetal force is the radially inward pull on the puck from the string. Without that force, the puck would slide off in a straight line instead of moving in a circle. Note again that a centripetal force is not a new kind of force. The name merely indicates the direction of the force. It can, in fact, be a frictional force, a gravitational force, the force from a car wall or a string, or any other force. For any situation: A centripetal force accelerates a body by changing the direction of the body’s velocity without changing the body’s speed.
From Newton’s second law and Eq. 6.3.1 (a = v 2 /R), we can write the magnitude F of a centripetal force (or a net centripetal force) as v 2 (magnitude of centripetal force ). F = m __ R
(6.3.2)
Because the speed v here is constant, the magnitudes of the acceleration and the force are also constant. However, the directions of the centripetal acceleration and force are not con- stant; they vary continuously so as to always point toward the center of the circle. For this reason, the force and acceleration vectors are sometimes drawn along a radial axis r that moves with the body and always extends from the center of the circle to the body, as in Fig. 6.3.1. The positive direction of the axis is radially outward, but the acceleration and force vectors point radially inward.
Checkpoint 6.3.1
As every amusement park fan knows, a Ferris wheel is a ride consisting of seats mounted on a tall ring that rotates around a horizontal axis. When you ride in a Ferris wheel at constant speed, what are the directions of your acceleration a and the normal force F N on you (from the always upright seat) as you pass through (a) the highest point and (b) the lowest point of the ride? (c) How does the magnitude of the acceleration at the highest point compare with that at the lowest point? (d) How do the magnitudes of the normal force compare at those two points? →
→
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6.3 U NIF ORM C IRC U L AR MOT ION
Sample Problem 6.3.1
143
Vertical circular loop, Diavolo
Largely because of riding in cars, you are used to hori- zontal circular motion. Vertical circular motion would be a novelty. In this sample problem, such motion seems to defy the gravitational force. In a 1901 c ircus performance, A llo “Dare D evil” Dia- volo introduced the stunt of riding a bicycle in a loop-the- loop (Fig. 6.3.2a). Assuming that the loop is a circle with radius R = 2.7 m, what is the least speed v that Diavolo and his bicycle could have at the top of the loop to remain in contact with it there? FCP
KEY IDEA We can assume that Diavolo and his bicycle travel through the top of the loop as a single particle in uniform circular motion. Thus, at the top, the acceleration a of this par- ticle must have the magnitude a = v 2 /R given by Eq. 6.3.1 and be directed downward, toward the center of the circular loop. →
The forces on the particle when it is at the top of the loop are shown in the free-body diagram of Fig 6.3.2b. The gravitational force F g is downward along a y axis; so is the normal force F N on the particle from the loop (the loop can push down, not pull up); so also is the centripetal acceleration of the particle. Thus, Newton’s second law for y components (F net,y = ma y ) gives us Calculations:
→
→
muesuM dlroW sucriC fo noissimr ep htiw decudorper hpargotohP
−F N − F g = m(−a) v 2 . __ −F N − mg = m (− R )
and
If the particle has the least speed v needed to remain in contact, then it is on the verge of losing contact with the loop (falling away from the loop), which means that F N = 0 at the top of the loop (the particle and loop touch but without any normal force). Substituting 0 for F N in Eq. 6.3.3, solving for v, and then substituting known val- ues give us
(a )
___
y
a
FN
Fg
_______________
v = √ gR = √ (9.8 m/s 2 )(2.7 m )
Diavolo and bicycle
The normal force is from the overhead loop.
(6.3.3)
The net force provides the toward-the-center acceleration.
(b)
(a) Contemporary advertisement for Diavolo and (b) free-body diagram for the performer at the top of the loop. Figure 6.3.2
= 5.1 m / s.
(Answer )
Diavolo made certain that his speed at the top of the loop was greater than 5.1 m/s so that he did not lose contact with the loop and fall away from it. Note that this speed requirement is independent of the mass of Diavolo and his bicycle. Had he feasted on, say, pierogies before his performance, he still would have had to exceed only 5.1 m/s to maintain contact as he passed through the top of the loop. Comments:
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Sample Problem 6.3.2
Driving in flat turns and upside down
A modern race car is designed so that the passing air pushes down on it, allowing the car to travel much faster through a flat turn in a Grand Prix without friction failing. This downward push is called negative lift. Can a race car have so much negative lift that it could be driven upside down on a long ceiling, as done fictionally by a sedan in the first Men in Black movie? Figure 6.3.3a represents a Grand Prix race car of mass m = 600 kg as it travels on a flat track in a circular arc of radius R = 100 m. Because of the shape of the car and the wings on it, the passing air exerts a negative lift F L down- ward on the car. The coefficient of static friction between Upside-down racing:
→
the tires and the track is 0.75. (Assume that the forces on FCP the four tires are identical.) (a) If the car is on the verge of sliding out of the turn when its speed is 28.6 m/s, what is the magnitude of the negative lift F L acting downward on the car? →
KEY IDEAS 1. A centripetal force must act on the car because the car is moving around a circular arc; that force must be directed toward the center of curvature of the arc (here, that is horizontally).
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144
C HAP T ER 6 F ORC E AND MOT ION—II
2
2. The only horizontal force acting on the car is a fric- tional force on the tires from the road. So the required centripetal force is a frictional force. 3. Because the car is not sliding, the frictional force must be a static frictional force f s (Fig. 6.3.3a).
v F L = m ( ____ μs R − g )
(28.6 m / s) 2 = (600 kg ) _____________ − 9.8 m / s2 (0.75 )(100 m )
(
→
4. Because the car is on the verge of sliding, the magni- tude f s is equal to the maximum value f s,max = s F N, where F N is the magnitude of the normal force F N act- ing on the car from the track. →
→
The frictional force f s is shown in the free-body diagram of Fig. 6.3.3b. It is in the negative direction of a radial axis r that always extends from the center of curvature through the car as the car moves. The force produces a centripetal acceleration of magni- tude v 2 /R. We can relate the force and acceleration by writing Newton’s second law for components along the r axis (F net,r = ma r ) as Radial calculations:
v 2 __ −f s = m (− R ) .
2
= 663.7 N ≈ 660 N.
(b) The magnitude F L of the negative lift on a car depends on the square of the car’s speed v 2 , just as the drag force does (Eq. 6.2.1). Thus, the negative lift on the car here is greater when the car travels faster, a s it does on a straight section of track. What is the magnitude of the negative lift for a speed of 90 m/s?
KEY IDEA F L is proportional to v 2 .
(6.3.4)
(6.3.5)
Substituting our known negative lift of F L = 663.7 N and solving for F L,90 give us
calculations: Next, let’s consider the verti- cal forces on the car. The normal force F N is directed up, in the positive direction of the y axis in Fig. 6.3.3b. The gravitational force F g = m g and the negative lift F L are directed down. The acceleration of the car along the y axis is zero. Thus we can write Newton’s second law for components along the y axis (F net,y = ma y ) as
Calculations:
F L,90 = 6572 N ≈ 6600 N.
Vertical
→
→
→
→
F N − mg − F L = 0, or
F N = mg + F L.
(Answer )
Thus we can write a ratio of the negative lift F L,90 at v = 90 m/s to our result for the negative lift F L at v = 28.6 m/s as F L, 90 __________ (90 m / s) 2 ______ = . F L (28.6 m / s) 2
Substituting f s,max = s F N for f s leads us to v . μ s F N = m ( __ R )
)
(6.3.6)
Now we can combine our results along the two axes by substituting Eq. 6.3.6 for F N in Eq. 6.3.5. D oing so and then solving for F L lead to Combining results:
(Answer )
The gravitational force is, of course, the force to beat if there is a chance of racing upside down: Upside-down racing:
F g = mg = (600 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 ) = 5880 N. With the car upside down, the negative lift is an upward force of 6600 N, which exceeds the downward 5880 N. Thus, the car could run on a long ceiling provided that it moves at about 90 m/s (= 324 km/h = 201 mi/h). How- ever, moving that fast while right side up on a horizontal track is dangerous enough, so you are not likely to see upside-down racing except in the movies.
Friction: toward the center FN
r
Center
Car
fs
fs
r
a
R
Fg
The toward-thecenter force is the frictional force.
Normal force: helps support car
y
v
Gravitational force: pulls car downward
FL
(a )
Track-level view of the forces
(b )
Negative lift: presses car downward
(a) A race car moves around a flat curved track at constant speed v. The frictional force f s provides the necessary centripetal force along a radial axis r. (b) A free-body diagram (not to scale) for the car, in the vertical plane containing r. Figure 6.3.3 →
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145
QU EST IONS
Review & Summary When a force F tends to slide a body along a surface, a frictional force from the surface acts on the body. The fric- tional force is parallel to the surface and directed so as to oppose the sliding. It is due to bonding between the atoms on the body and the atoms on the surface, an effect called cold-welding. If the body does not slide, the frictional force is a static fric- tional force f s . If there is sliding, the frictional force is a kinetic frictional force f k . →
Friction
→
related to the relative speed v by an experimentally determined drag coefficient C according to 1 CρAv 2 , D = _ 2
(6.2.1)
where is the fluid density (mass per unit volume) and A is the effective cross-sectional area of the body (the area of a cross section taken perpendicular to the relative velocity v ). →
→
→
1. If a body does not move, the static frictional force f s and the component of F parallel to the surface are equal in magni- tude, and f s is directed opposite that component. If the com- ponent increases, f s also increases. 2. The magnitude of f s has a maximum value f s,max given by →
→
When a blunt object has fallen far enough through air, the magnitudes of the drag force D and the gravita- tional force F g on the body become equal. The body then falls at a constant terminal speed v t given by Terminal Speed
→
→
_____
2 Fg v t = _____ . CρA
√
→
f s ,max = s F N ,
(6.1.1)
where s is the coefficient of static friction and F N is the mag- nitude of the normal force. If the component of F parallel to the surface exceeds f s,max , the static friction is overwhelmed and the body slides on the surface. 3. If the body begins to slide on the surface, the magnitude of the frictional force rapidly decreases to a constant value f k given by →
f k = k F N ,
(6.1.2)
(6.2.3)
If a particle moves in a circle or a circular arc of radius R at constant speed v, the particle is said to be in uniform circular motion. It then has a centripetal acceleration a with magnitude given by Uniform Circular Motion
→
2
v . a = __ R
(6.3.1)
This acceleration is due to a net centripetal force on the particle, with magnitude given by 2
mv , F = ____ R
where k is the coefficient of kinetic friction. When there is relative motion between air (or some other fluid) and a body, the body experiences a drag force D that opposes the relative motion and points in the direction in which the fluid flows relative to the body. The magnitude of D is Drag Force →
→
(6.3.2) →
where m is the particle’s mass. The vector quantities a and F are directed toward the center of curvature of the particle’s path. A particle can move in circular motion only if a net cen- tripetal force acts on it. →
Questions In Fig. 6.1, if the box is station- θ ary and the angle θ between the x horizontal and force F is increased F somewhat, do the following quan- Figure 6.1 Question 1. tities increase, decrease, or remain the same: (a) F x ; (b) f s ; (c) F N ; (d) f s,max ? (e) If, instead, the box is sliding and θ is increased, does the magnitude of the frictional force on the box increase, decrease, or remain the same? 1
→
Repeat Question 1 for force F angled upward instead of downward as drawn. →
2
→
In Fig. 6.2, horizontal force F 1 of magnitude 10 N is applied to a box on a floor, but the box does F1 not slide. Then, as the magnitude of vertical force F 2 is increased from zero, do the following quan- F2 tities increase, decrease, or stay Figure 6.2 Question 3. the same: (a) the magnitude of the frictional force f s on the box; (b) the magnitude of the normal force F N on the box from the floor; (c) the maximum value f s,max of the magnitude of the static frictional force on the box? (d) Does the box eventually slide? 3
→
→
→
In three experiments, three different horizontal forces are applied to the same block lying on the same countertop. The force magnitudes are F 1 = 12 N, F 2 = 8 N, and F 3 = 4 N. In each experiment, the block remains stationary in spite of the applied force. Rank the forces according to (a) the magnitude f s of the static frictional force on the block from the counter- top and (b) the maximum value f s,max of that force, greatest first. 4
If you press an apple crate against a wall so hard that the crate cannot slide down the wall, what is the direction of (a) the static frictional force f s on the crate from the wall and (b) the normal force F N on the crate from the wall? If you increase your push, what happens to (c) f s , (d) F N , and (e) f s,max ? 5
→
→
In Fig. 6.3, a block of mass m is held stationary on a ramp by the frictional force on it from the ramp. A force F , directed up the ramp, is then applied to the block and gradually increased in magnitude from zero. During the increase, what happens to the direction and magnitude of the fric- tional force on the block? 6
F
→
θ Figure 6.3
Question 6.
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C HAP T ER 6 F ORC E AND MOT ION—II
Reconsider Question 6 but with the force F now directed down the ramp. As the magnitude of F is increased from zero, what happens to the direction and magnitude of the frictional force on the block? →
7
→
In Fig. 6.4, a horizontal force of 100 N is to be applied to a 10 kg slab that is initially stationary on a frictionless floor, to accelerate the slab. A 10 kg block lies on top of the slab; the coefficient of friction between the block and the slab is not known, and the block might slip. In fact, the contact between the block and the slab might even be frictionless. (a) Consid- ering that possibility, what is the possible range of values for the magnitude of the slab’s acceleration a slab ? (Hint: You don’t need written calculations; just consider extreme values for .) (b) What is the possible range for the magnitude a block of the block’s acceleration? 8
Block
100 N
Slab Figure 6.4
Question 8.
Figure 6.5 shows the overhead view of the path of an amusement-park ride that travels at constant speed through five circular arcs of radii R 0 , 2R 0 , and 3R 0 . Rank the arcs according to the magnitude of the centripetal force on a rider traveling in the arcs, greatest first. 9
fall just west of Chicago. The stunt was great fun until the last sky diver with the pumpkin opened his parachute. The pump- kin broke free from his grip, plummeted about 0.5 km, ripped through the roof of a house, slammed into the kitchen floor, and splattered all over the newly remodeled kitchen. From the sky diver’s viewpoint and from the pumpkin’s viewpoint, why did the sky diver lose control of the pumpkin? A person riding a Ferris wheel moves through positions at (1) the top, (2) the bottom, and (3) midheight. If the wheel rotates at a constant rate, rank these three positions according to (a) the magnitude of the person’s centripetal acceleration, (b) the magnitude of the net centripetal force on the person, and (c) the magnitude of the normal force on the person, greatest first. 11
During a routine flight in 1956, test pilot Tom Attridge put his jet fighter into a 20° dive for a test of the aircraft’s 20 mm machine cannons. While traveling faster than sound at 4000 m altitude, he shot a burst of rounds. Then, after allowing the can- nons to cool, he shot another burst at 2000 m; his speed was then 344 m/s, the speed of the rounds relative to him was 730 m/s, and he was still in a dive. Almost immediately the canopy around him was shredded and his right air intake was damaged. With little flying capability left, the jet crashed into a wooded area, but Attridge managed to escape the resulting explosion. Explain what apparently hap- pened just after the second burst of cannon rounds. (Attridge has been the only pilot who has managed to shoot himself down.) 12
A box is on a ramp that is at angle θ to the horizontal. As θ is increased from zero, and before the box slips, do the following increase, decrease, or remain the same: (a) the com- ponent of the gravitational force on the box, along the ramp, (b) the magnitude of the static frictional force on the box from the ramp, (c) the component of the gravitational force on the box, perpendicular to the ramp, (d) the magnitude of the nor- mal force on the box from the ramp, and (e) the maximum value f s,max of the static frictional force? 13
2 1
Figure 6.5
3
5
4
Question 9.
FCP In 1987, as a Halloween stunt, two sky divers passed a pumpkin back and forth between them while they were in free
10
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 6.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard
BIO Flying
Circus of Physics
Friction
The floor of a railroad flatcar is loaded with loose crates having a coefficient of static friction of 0.25 with the floor. If the train is initially moving at a speed of 48 km/h, in how short a dis- tance can the train be stopped at constant acceleration without causing the crates to slide over the floor? 1
E
In a pickup game of dorm shuffleboard, students crazed by final exams use a broom to propel a calculus book along the dorm hallway. If the 3.5 kg book is pushed from rest through a distance of 0.90 m by the horizontal 25 N force from the broom and then has a speed of 1.60 m/s, what is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the book and floor? 3 E SSM A bedroom bureau with a mass of 45 kg, including drawers and clothing, rests on the floor. (a) If the coefficient 2
E
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
of static friction between the bureau and the floor is 0.45, what is the magnitude of the minimum horizontal force that a per- son must apply to start the bureau moving? (b) If the drawers and clothing, with 17 kg mass, are removed before the bureau is pushed, what is the new minimum magnitude? A slide-loving pig slides down a certain 35° slide in twice the time it would take to slide down a frictionless 35° slide. What is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the pig and the slide? 4 E
GO A 2.5 kg block is initially at rest on a horizontal surface. A horizontal force F of magnitude 6.0 N and a vertical force P are then applied to the block (Fig. 6.6). The coefficients of fric- tion for the block and surface are s = 0.40 and k = 0.25. Deter- mine the magnitude of the frictional force acting on the block if the magnitude of P is (a) 8.0 N, (b) 10 N, and (c) 12 N. 5 E
→
→
→
/
P ROBL EMS
0.500mg is then applied at upward angle θ = 20°. What is the magnitude of the acceleration of the block across the floor if the friction coefficients are (a) s = 0.600 and k = 0.500 and (b) s = 0.400 and k = 0.300?
P F
Figure 6.6
147
SSM A 68 kg crate is dragged across a floor by pulling on a rope attached to the crate and inclined 15° above the horizon- tal. (a) If the coefficient of static friction is 0.50, what minimum force magnitude is required from the rope to start the crate moving? (b) If k = 0.35, what is the magnitude of the initial acceleration of the crate?
11 E
Problem 5.
E A baseball player with mass m = 79 kg, sliding into sec- ond base, is retarded by a frictional force of magnitude 470 N. What is the coefficient of kinetic friction k between the player and the ground?
6
E SSM A person pushes horizontally with a force of 220 N on a 55 kg crate to move it across a level floor. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the crate and the floor is 0.35. What is the magnitude of (a) the frictional force and (b) the acceleration of the crate? 8 E FCP The mysterious sliding stones. Along the remote Racetrack Playa in Death Valley, California, stones some- times gouge out prominent trails in the desert floor, as if the stones had been migrating (Fig. 6.7). For years curiosity mounted about why the stones moved. One explanation was that strong winds during occasional rainstorms would drag the rough stones over ground softened by rain. When the des- ert dried out, the trails behind the stones were hard-baked in place. According to measurements, the coefficient of kinetic friction between the stones and the wet playa ground is about 0.80. What horizontal force must act on a 20 kg stone (a typical mass) to maintain the stone’s motion once a gust has started it moving? (Story continues with Problem 37.)
7
E BIO In about 1915, Henry Sincosky of Philadelphia suspended himself from a rafter by gripping the rafter with the thumb of each hand on one side and the fingers on the oppo- site side (Fig. 6.10). Sincosky’s mass was 79 kg. If the coefficient of static friction between hand and rafter was 0.70, what was the least magnitude of the normal force on the rafter from each thumb or opposite fingers? (After suspending himself, Sincosky chinned himself on the rafter and then moved hand-over-hand along the rafter. If you do not think Sincosky’s grip was remarkable, try to repeat his stunt.)
12
A worker pushes horizontally on a 35 kg crate with a force of magnitude 110 N. The coefficient of static friction between the crate and the floor is 0.37. (a) What is the value of Figure 6.10 f s,max under the circumstances? (b) Does the crate move? (c) What is the frictional force on Problem 12. the crate from the floor? (d) Suppose, next, that a second worker pulls directly upward on the crate to help out. What is the least vertical pull that will allow the first work- er’s 110 N push to move the crate? (e) If, instead, the second worker pulls horizontally to help out, what is the least pull that will get the crate moving? 13 E
E Figure 6.11 shows the Joint with ice cross section of a road cut into B A' the side of a mountain. The solid line AAʹ represents a weak F bedding plane along which slid- θ ing is possible. Block B directly above the highway is separated A from uphill rock by a large crack Figure 6.11 Problem 14. (called a joint), so that only fric- tion between the block and the bedding plane prevents sliding. The mass of the block is 1.8 × 10 7 kg, the dip angle θ of the bed- ding plane is 24°, and the coefficient of static friction between block and plane is 0.63. (a) Show that the block will not slide under these circumstances. (b) Next, water seeps into the joint and expands upon freezing, exerting on the block a force F parallel to AAʹ. What minimum value of force magnitude F will trigger a slide down the plane?
14
ecruoS ecneicS/dahcS yrreJ Figure 6.7
Problem 8. What moved the stone?
GO A 3.5 kg block is pushed along a horizontal floor by a force F of magnitude 15 N at an angle θ = 40° with the horizon- tal (Fig. 6.8). The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the floor is 0.25. Calculate the magnitudes of (a) the frictional force on the block from the floor and (b) the block’s acceleration. 9 E
θ
→
Figure 6.9 shows an ini- tially stationary block of mass m on a floor. A force of magnitude 10
E
→
F
Problems 9 and 32. y
F
x
Figure 6.9
E The coefficient of static friction between Teflon and scrambled eggs is about 0.04. What is the smallest angle from the horizontal that will cause the eggs to slide across the bottom of a Teflon-coated skillet?
15
Figure 6.8
θ Problem 10.
M A loaded penguin sled weighing 80 N rests on a plane inclined at angle θ = 20° to the horizontal (Fig. 6.12). Between the sled and the plane, the coefficient of static friction is 0.25, and the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.15. (a) What is the
16
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C HAP T ER 6 F ORC E AND MOT ION—II
→
F
θ Figure 6.12
Problems 16 and 22.
→
In Fig. 6.13, a force P acts x on a block weighing 45 N. The P block is initially at rest on a plane θ inclined at angle θ = 15° to the Figure 6.13 Problem 17. horizontal. The positive direction of the x axis is up the plane. Between block and plane, the coeffi- cient of static friction is s = 0.50 and the coefficient of kinetic fric- tion is k = 0.34. In unit-vector notation, what is the frictional force on the block from the plane when P is (a) (−5.0 N ) ˆ i, (b) (−8.0 N ) ˆ i, ˆ and (c) (−15 N )i? 17 M
→
M GO You testify as an expert witness in a case involving an accident in which car A slid into the rear of car B, which was stopped at a red light along a road headed down a hill (Fig. 6.14). You find that the slope of the hill is θ = 12.0°, that the cars were separated by distance d = 24.0 m when the driver of car A put the car into a slide (it lacked any automatic anti- brake-lock system), and that the speed of car A at the onset of braking was v 0 = 18.0 m/s. With what speed did car A hit car B if the coefficient of kinetic friction was (a) 0.60 (dry road surface) and (b) 0.10 (road surface covered with wet leaves)?
18
A
B d
θ Figure 6.14
Problem 18. →
A 12 N horizontal force F y pushes a block weighing 5.0 N against F a vertical wall (Fig. 6.15). The coef- x ficient of static friction between the wall and the block is 0.60, and the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.40. Figure 6.15 Problem 19. Assume that the block is not moving initially. (a) Will the block move? (b) In unit-vector notation, what is the force on the block from the wall? 19
M
m In Fig. 6.16, a box of m Cheerios (mass m C = 1.0 kg) and F a box of Wheaties (mass m W = 3.0 kg) are accelerated across a Figure 6.16 Problem 20. horizontal surface by a horizon- tal force F applied to the Cheerios box. The magnitude of the frictional force on the Cheerios box is 2.0 N, and the magni- tude of the frictional force on the Wheaties box is 4.0 N. If the magnitude of F is 12 N, what is the magnitude of the force on the Wheaties box from the Cheerios box?
20
M
GO
C
W
→
→
GO In Fig. 6.12, a sled F is held on an inclined plane F2 by a cord pulling directly up the plane. The sled is to be on the verge of moving up the F1 plane. In Fig. 6.17, the magni- tude F required of the cord’s 0 2 force on the sled is plotted Figure 6.17 Problem 22. versus a range of values for the coefficient of static friction s between sled and plane: F 1 = 2.0 N, F 2 = 5.0 N, and 2 = 0.50. At what angle θ is the plane inclined? 22 M
µs
µ
M When the three blocks in Fig. 6.18 are released from rest, they accelerate with a magnitude of 0.500 m/s 2 . Block 1 has mass M, block 2 has 2M, and block 3 has 2M. What is the coefficient of kinetic friction between block 2 and the table?
2
23
M A 4.10 kg block is pushed along a floor by a constant applied force that is horizontal and has a magnitude of 40.0 N. Figure 6.19 gives the block’s speed v versus time t as the block moves along an x axis on the floor. The scale of the figure’s vertical axis is set by v s = 5.0 m/s. What is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the floor?
1
3 Figure 6.18
vs
24
M SSM Block B in Fig. 6.20 weighs 711 N. The coefficient of static friction between block and table is 0.25; angle θ is 30°; assume that the cord between B and the knot is horizontal. Find the maxi- mum weight of block A for which the system will be stationary.
Problem 23.
)s/m( v
v 0
CALC An initially stationary box of sand is to be pulled across a floor by means of a cable in which the tension should not exceed 1100 N. The coefficient of static friction between the box and the floor is 0.35. (a) What should be the angle between the cable and the horizontal in order to pull the greatest possible amount of sand, and (b) what is the weight of the sand and box in that situation?
21 M
least magnitude of the force F , parallel to the plane, that will prevent the sled from slipping down the plane? (b) What is the minimum magnitude F that will start the sled moving up the plane? (c) What value of F is required to move the sled up the plane at constant velocity?
0
0.5 (s)
1.0
t
Figure 6.19
Problem 24.
25
Knot
θ
B
A
GO Figure 6.21 shows three crates being pushed over a con- Figure 6.20 Problem 25. crete floor by a horizontal force F of magnitude 440 N. The masses m1 of the crates are m 1 = 30.0 kg, m 2 m3 m2 = 10.0 kg, and m 3 = 20.0 kg. The coefficient of kinetic friction F between the floor and each of the crates is 0.700. (a) What is the Figure 6.21 Problem 26. magnitude F 32 of the force on crate 3 from crate 2? (b) If the crates then slide onto a polished floor, where the coefficient of kinetic friction is less than 0.700, is 26 M
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P ROBL EMS
magnitude F 32 more than, less than, or the same as it was when the coefficient was 0.700? GO Body A in Fig. 6.22 M weighs 102 N, and body B weighs 32 N. The coefficients of friction between A and the incline are s = 0.56 and k = 0.25. Angle θ is 40°. Let the positive direction of an x axis be up the incline. In unit-vector notation, what is the acceleration of A if A is initially (a) at rest, (b) moving up the incline, and (c) moving down the incline?
Frictionless, massless pulley
27
A
M SSM Two blocks, of weights 3.6 N and 7.2 N, are con- nected by a massless string and slide down a 30° inclined plane. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the lighter block and the plane is 0.10, and the coefficient between the heavier block and the plane is 0.20. Assuming that the lighter block leads, find (a) the magnitude of the acceleration of the blocks and (b) the tension in the taut string.
31
GO A block is pushed across a floor by a constant force that is applied at downward angle θ (Fig. 6.8). Figure 6.25 gives the acceleration magnitude a versus a range of values for the coeffi- cient of kinetic friction k between block and floor: a 1 = 3.0 m/s 2 , k2 = 0.20, and k3 = 0.40. What is the value of θ? 32 M
B
θ Figure 6.22
Problems 27 and 28.
a
In Fig. 6.22, two blocks are connected over a pulley. The mass of block A is 10 kg, and the coefficient of kinetic friction between A and the incline is 0.20. Angle θ of the incline is 30°. Block A slides down the incline at constant speed. What is the mass of block B? Assume the connecting rope has negligible mass. (The pulley’s function is only to redirect the rope.) 28 M
GO In Fig. 6.23, blocks A and B have weights of 44 N and 22 N, respectively. (a) Determine the minimum weight of block C to keep A from sliding if s between A and the table is 0.20. (b) Block C suddenly is lifted off A. What is the acceleration of block A if k between A and the table is 0.15?
a1
0
Frictionless, massless pulley
A
μ3
k
μ
k
k
Figure 6.25
Problem 32.
H SSM A 1000 kg boat is traveling at 90 km/h when its engine is shut off. The magnitude of the frictional force f k between boat and water is proportional to the speed v of the boat: f k = 70v, where v is in meters per second and f k is in newtons. Find the time required for the boat to slow to 45 km/h.
33
→
GO In Fig. 6.26, a slab of H m2 F mass m 1 = 40 kg rests on a fric- μ = 0 m 1 x tionless floor, and a block of mass m 2 = 10 kg rests on top of the slab. Figure 6.26 Problem 34. Between block and slab, the coef- ficient of static friction is 0.60, and the coefficient of kinetic fric- tion is 0.40. A horizontal force F of magnitude 100 N begins to pull directly on the block, as shown. In unit-vector notation, what are the resulting accelerations of (a) the block and (b) the slab? 34
B
Figure 6.23
μ2
– a1
29 M
C
149
Problem 29.
M CALC A toy chest and its contents have a combined weight of 180 N. The coefficient of static friction between toy chest and floor is 0.42. The child in Fig. 6.24 attempts to move the chest across the floor by pulling on an attached rope. (a) If θ is 42°, what is the magnitude of the force F that the child must exert on the rope to put the chest on the verge of moving? (b) Write an expression for the magnitude F required to put the chest on the verge of moving as a function of the angle θ. Deter- mine (c) the value of θ for which F is a minimum and (d) that minimum magnitude.
30
→
→
m H The two blocks (m = 16 kg F and M = 88 kg) in Fig. 6.27 are not attached to each other. The coef- M ficient of static friction between the blocks is s = 0.38, but the Frictionless surface beneath the larger block is Figure 6.27 Problem 35. frictionless. What is the minimum magnitude of the horizontal force F required to keep the smaller block from slipping down the larger block?
35
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Module 6.2
The Drag Force and Terminal Speed
The terminal speed of a sky diver is 160 km/h in the spread- eagle position and 310 km/h in the nosedive position. Assuming that the diver’s drag coefficient C does not change from one posi- tion to the other, find the ratio of the effective cross-sectional area A in the slower position to that in the faster position. 36 E
θ
Figure 6.24
Problem 30.
M FCP Continuation of Problem 8. Now assume that Eq. 6.2.1 gives the magnitude of the air drag force on the typical 20 kg stone, which presents to the wind a vertical cross-sectional area of 0.040 m 2 and has a drag coefficient C of 0.80. Take
37
/
150
C HAP T ER 6 F ORC E AND MOT ION—II
the air density to be 1.21 kg/m 3 , and the coefficient of kinetic friction to be 0.80. (a) In kilometers per hour, what wind speed V along the ground is needed to maintain the stone’s motion once it has started moving? Because winds along the ground are retarded by the ground, the wind speeds reported for storms are often measured at a height of 10 m. Assume wind speeds are 2.00 times those along the ground. (b) For your answer to (a), what wind speed would be reported for the storm? (c) Is that value reasonable for a high-speed wind in a storm? (Story continues with Problem 65.) Assume Eq. 6.2.1 gives the drag force on a pilot plus ejec- tion seat just after they are ejected from a plane traveling horizon- tally at 1300 km/h. Assume also that the mass of the seat is equal to the mass of the pilot and that the drag coefficient is that of a sky diver. Making a reasonable guess of the pilot’s mass and using the appropriate v t value from Table 6.2.1, estimate the magnitudes of (a) the drag force on the pilot + seat and (b) their horizon- tal deceleration (in terms of g), both just after ejection. (The result of (a) should indicate an engineering requirement: The seat must include a protective barrier to deflect the initial wind blast away from the pilot’s head.) 38 M
Calculate the ratio of the drag force on a jet flying at 1000 km/h at an altitude of 10 km to the drag force on a prop- driven transport flying at half that speed and altitude. The den- sity of air is 0.38 kg/m 3 at 10 km and 0.67 kg/m 3 at 5.0 km. Assume that the airplanes have the same effective cross-sectional area and drag coefficient C. 39
M
M FCP In downhill speed skiing a skier is retarded by both the air drag force on the body and the kinetic frictional force on the skis. (a) Suppose the slope angle is θ = 40.0°, the snow is dry snow with a coefficient of kinetic friction k = 0.0400, the mass of the skier and equipment is m = 85.0 kg, the cross-sectional area of the (tucked) skier is A = 1.30 m 2 , the drag coefficient is C = 0.150, and the air density is 1.20 kg/m 3 . (a) What is the terminal speed? (b) If a skier can vary C by a slight amount dC by adjusting, say, the hand positions, what is the corresponding variation in the terminal speed?
If the wheel’s speed is doubled, what is the magnitude F N at the (c) highest and (d) lowest point? A police officer in hot pursuit drives her car through a cir- cular turn of radius 300 m with a constant speed of 80.0 km/h. Her mass is 55.0 kg. What are (a) the magnitude and (b) the angle (relative to vertical) of the net force of the officer on the car seat? (Hint: Consider both horizontal and vertical forces.) 46 M
FCP A circular-motion addict of mass 80 kg rides a Fer- ris wheel around in a vertical circle of radius 10 m at a constant speed of 6.1 m/s. (a) What is the period of the motion? What is the magnitude of the normal force on the addict from the seat when both go through (b) the highest point of the circular path and (c) the lowest point?
47 M
M FCP A roller-coaster car at an amusement park has a mass of 1200 kg when fully loaded with passengers. As the car passes over the top of a circular hill of radius 18 m, assume that its speed is not changing. At the top of the hill, what are the (a) magnitude F N and (b) direction (up or down) of the normal force on the car from the track if the car’s speed is v = 11 m/s? What are (c) F N and (d) the direction if v = 14 m/s?
48
GO In Fig. 6.28, a car is driven at constant speed over a circular hill and then into a circular valley with the same radius. At the top of the hill, the normal force on the driver from the car seat is 0. The driver’s mass is 70.0 kg. What is the magnitude of the normal force on the driver from the seat when the car passes through the bottom of the valley? 49 M
Radius
40
Module 6.3
Uniform Circular Motion
A cat dozes on a stationary merry-go-round in an amuse- ment park, at a radius of 5.4 m from the center of the ride. Then the operator turns on the ride and brings it up to its proper turning rate of one complete rotation every 6.0 s. What is the least coefficient of static friction between the cat and the merry- go-round that will allow the cat to stay in place, without sliding (or the cat clinging with its claws)? 41 E
Radius
Figure 6.28
Problem 49.
M CALC An 85.0 kg passenger is made to move along a circular path of radius r = 3.50 m in uniform circular motion. (a) Figure 6.29a is a plot of the required magnitude F of the net centripetal force for a range of possible values of the passenger’s speed v. What is the plot’s slope at v = 8.30 m/s? (b) Figure 6.29b is a plot of F for a range of possible values of T, the period of the motion. What is the plot’s slope at T = 2.50 s?
50
F
Suppose the coefficient of static friction between the road and the tires on a car is 0.60 and the car has no negative lift. What speed will put the car on the verge of sliding as it rounds a level curve of 30.5 m radius?
F
42 E
E What is the smallest radius of an unbanked (flat) track around which a bicyclist can travel if her speed is 29 km/h and the s between tires and track is 0.32?
v
43
During an Olympic bobsled run, the Jamaican team makes a turn of radius 7.6 m at a speed of 96.6 km/h. What is their acceleration in terms of g? 44 E
M SSM FCP A student of weight 667 N rides a steadily rotating Ferris wheel (the student sits upright). At the highest point, the magnitude of the normal force F N on the student from the seat is 556 N. (a) Does the student feel “light” or “heavy” there? (b) What is the magnitude of F N at the lowest point?
45
→
→
T
(a)
(b) Figure 6.29
Problem 50.
M SSM An airplane is flying in a horizontal circle at a speed of 480 km/h (Fig. 6.30). If its wings are tilted at angle θ = 40° to the horizontal, what is the radius of the circle in which the plane is flying? Assume that the required force is provided entirely by an “aerodynamic lift” that is perpen- dicular to the wing surface.
51
θ Figure 6.30
Problem 51. /
151
P ROBL EMS
FCP An amusement park ride consists of a car moving in a vertical circle on the end of a rigid boom of negligible mass. The combined weight of the car and riders is 5.0 kN, and the circle’s radius is 10 m. At the top of the circle, what are the (a) magnitude F B and (b) direction (up or down) of the force on the car from the boom if the car’s speed is v = 5.0 m/s? What are (c) F B and (d) the direction if v = 12 m/s?
52 M
M An old streetcar rounds a flat corner of radius 9.1 m, at 16 km/h. What angle with the vertical will be made by the loosely hanging hand straps?
53
In designing circular rides for amusement parks, mechanical engineers must consider how small variations in certain parameters can alter the net force on a passenger. Consider a passenger of mass m riding around a horizontal cir- cle of radius r at speed v. What is the variation dF in the net force magnitude for (a) a variation dr in the radius with v held constant, (b) a variation dv in the speed with r held constant, and (c) a variation dT in the period with r held constant? 54
M
CALC
FCP
A bolt is threaded onto Bolt one end of a thin horizontal rod, and the rod is then rotated hori- Rod zontally about its other end. An engineer monitors the motion by Strobed flashing a strobe lamp onto the positions rod and bolt, adjusting the strobe rate until the bolt appears to be in Figure 6.31 Problem 55. the same eight places during each full rotation of the rod (Fig. 6.31). The strobe rate is 2000 flashes per second; the bolt has mass 30 g and is at radius 3.5 cm. What is the magnitude of the force on the bolt from the rod? 55
M
the car hit the wall? To avoid the crash, a driver could elect to turn the car so that it just barely misses the wall, as shown in the figure. (d) What magnitude of frictional force would be required to keep the car in a circular path of radius d and at the given speed v 0 , so that the car moves in a quarter circle and then parallel to the wall? (e) Is the required force less than f s,max so that a circular path is possible? H SSM In Fig. 6.34, a 1.34 kg ball is connected by means of two massless strings, each of length L = 1.70 m, to a vertical, rotating rod. The strings are tied to the rod with separation d = 1.70 m and are taut. The tension in the upper string is 35 N. What are the (a) tension in the lower string, (b) magnitude of the net force F net on the ball, and (c) speed of the ball? (d) What is the direction of F net ?
59
Rotating rod
Figure 6.34
Problem 59. 60 GO In Fig. 6.35, a box of ant aunts (total mass m 1 = 1.65 kg) and a box of ant uncles (total mass m 2 = 3.30 kg) slide down an inclined plane while attached by a massless rod parallel to the plane. The angle of incline is θ = 30.0°. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the aunt box and the incline is 1 = 0.226; that between the uncle box and the incline is 2 = 0.113. Compute (a) the tension in the rod and (b) the magnitude of the common acceleration of the two boxes. (c) How would the answers to (a) and (b) change if the uncles trailed the aunts? Additional Problems
m1
m2
θ
GO
Figure 6.35
Problem 60.
r m
SSM A block of mass m t = 4.0 kg is put on top of a block of mass m b = 5.0 kg. To cause the top block to slip on the bot- tom one while the bottom one is held fixed, a horizontal force of at least 12 N must be applied to the top block. The assem- bly of blocks is now placed on a horizontal, frictionless table (Fig. 6.36). Find the magnitudes of (a) the maximum horizon- tal force F that can be applied to the lower block so that the blocks will move together and (b) the resulting acceleration of the blocks.
61
M
M FCP Brake or turn? Figure 6.33 depicts an overhead view of a car’s path as the car travels toward a Figure 6.32 Problem 57. wall. Assume that the driver begins to brake the car when the distance to the wall is d = 107 m, and take the car’s mass as m = 1400 kg, its initial speed as v 0 = 35 m/s, and the coeffi- cient of static friction as s = 0.50. Assume that the car’s weight is dis- Car path tributed evenly on the four wheels, d even during braking. (a) What mag- nitude of static friction is needed Wall (between tires and road) to stop the Figure 6.33 car just as it reaches the wall? (b) Problem 58. What is the maximum possible static friction f s,max ? (c) If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the (sliding) tires and the road is k = 0.40, at what speed will
58
L
→
GO A banked circular highway curve is designed for traf- fic moving at 60 km/h. The radius of the curve is 200 m. Traffic is moving along the highway at 40 km/h on a rainy day. What is the minimum coefficient of friction between tires and road that will allow cars to take the turn without sliding off the road? (Assume the cars do not have negative lift.)
A puck of mass m = 1.50 kg slides in a circle of radius r = 20.0 cm on a frictionless table while attached to a hanging cylinder of mass M = 2.50 kg by means of a cord that extends through a hole in the table (Fig. 6.32). What speed keeps the cylinder at rest?
d
→
56 M
57 M
L
→
mt
mb
Figure 6.36
F
Problem 61.
A 5.00 kg stone is rubbed across the horizontal ceiling of a cave passageway (Fig. 6.37). If the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.65 and the force applied to the stone is angled at θ = 70.0°, what must the magnitude of the force be for the stone to move at constant velocity? 62
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152
C HAP T ER 6 F ORC E AND MOT ION—II
m1
F
θ
m2
θ
Stone Figure 6.37
Problem 62.
BIO FCP In Fig. 6.38, a 49 kg rock climber is climbing a “chimney.” The coefficient of static friction between her shoes and the rock is 1.2; between her back and the rock is 0.80. She has reduced her push against the rock until her back and her shoes are on the verge of slipping. (a) Draw a free-body diagram of her. (b) What is the magnitude of her push against the rock? (c) What fraction of her weight is supported by the frictional force on her shoes?
63
Figure 6.39
Problem 66.
67 In Fig. 6.40, a crate slides down an inclined right-angled trough. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the crate and the trough is k . What is the acceleration of the crate in terms of k , θ, and g?
90°
θ Figure 6.40
Problem 67.
Engineering a highway curve. If a car goes through a curve too fast, the car tends to slide out of the curve. For a banked curve with friction, a frictional force acts on a fast car to oppose the tendency to slide out of the curve; the force is directed down the bank (in the direction water would drain). Consider a circular curve of radius R = 200 m and bank angle θ, where the coefficient of static fric- tion between tires and pavement is s . A car (without nega- tive lift) is driven around the curve. (a) Find an expression for the car speed v max that puts the car on the verge of sliding out. (b) On the same graph, plot v max versus angle θ for the range 0° to 50°, first for s = 0.60 (dry pavement) and then for s = 0.050 (wet or icy pavement). In kilometers per hour, evaluate v max for a bank angle of θ = 10° and for (c) s = 0.60 and (d) s = 0.050. (Now you can see why accidents occur in highway curves when icy conditions are not obvi- P ous to drivers, who tend to drive at normal speeds.) 68
Figure 6.38
Problem 63.
A high-speed railway car goes around a flat, horizontal cir- cle of radius 470 m at a constant speed. The magnitudes of the horizontal and vertical components of the force of the car on a 51.0 kg passenger are 210 N and 500 N, respectively. (a) What is the magnitude of the net force (of all the forces) on the pas- senger? (b) What is the speed of the car? 64
FCP Continuation of Problems 8 and 37. Another explana- tion is that the stones move only when the water dumped on the playa during a storm freezes into a large, thin sheet of ice. The stones are trapped in place in the ice. Then, as air flows across the ice during a wind, the air-drag forces on the ice and stones move them both, with the stones gouging out the trails. The magnitude of the air-drag force on this horizontal “ice sail” is given by D ice = 4C ice A ice v 2 , where C ice is the drag coefficient (2.0 × 10 −3 ), is the air density (1.21 kg/m 3 ), A ice is the horizon- tal area of the ice, and v is the wind speed along the ice. Assume the following: The ice sheet measures 400 m by 500 m by 4.0 mm and has a coefficient of kinetic friction of 0.10 with the ground and a density of 917 kg/m 3 . Also assume that 100 stones identical to the one in Problem 8 are trapped in the ice. To maintain the motion of the sheet, what are the required wind speeds (a) near the sheet and (b) at a height of 10 m? (c) Are these reasonable values for high-speed winds in a storm?
65
GO In Fig. 6.39, block 1 of mass m 1 = 2.0 kg and block 2 of mass m 2 = 3.0 kg are connected by a string of negligible mass and are initially held in place. Block 2 is on a frictionless surface tilted at θ = 30°. The coefficient of kinetic friction between block 1 and the horizontal surface is 0.25. The pulley has negligible mass and friction. Once they are released, the blocks move. What then is the tension in the string? 66
A student, crazed by final exams, uses a force P of magni- tude 80 N and angle θ = 70° to push a 5.0 kg block across the ceiling of his room (Fig. 6.41). If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the ceiling is 0.40, what is the magnitude of the block’s acceleration?
θ
69
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GO Figure 6.42 shows a coni- cal pendulum, in which the bob (the small object at the lower end of the cord) moves in a horizon- tal circle at constant speed. (The cord sweeps out a cone as the bob rotates.) The bob has a mass of 0.040 kg, the string has length L = 0.90 m and negligible mass, and the bob follows a circular path of circumference 0.94 m. What are (a) the tension in the string and (b) the period of the motion?
Figure 6.41
Problem 69.
70
Cord
L
Bob
Figure 6.42
r
Problem 70.
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P ROBL EMS
An 8.00 kg block of steel is at rest on a horizontal table. The coefficient of static friction between the block and the table is 0.450. A force is to be applied to the block. To three sig- nificant figures, what is the magnitude of that applied force if it puts the block on the verge of sliding when the force is directed (a) horizontally, (b) upward at 60.0° from the horizontal, and (c) downward at 60.0° from the horizontal? 71
A box of canned goods slides down a ramp from street level into the basement of a grocery store with acceleration 0.75 m/s 2 directed down the ramp. The ramp makes an angle of 40° with the horizontal. What is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the box and the ramp? 72
the plank. When the angle of inclination with the horizontal reaches 30°, the box starts to slip, and it then slides 2.5 m down the plank in 4.0 s at constant acceleration. What are (a) the coefficient of static friction and (b) the coefficient of kinetic friction between the box and the plank? SSM Block A in Fig. 6.45 has mass m A = 4.0 kg, and block B has mass m B = 2.0 kg. The coefficient of kinetic friction between block B and the horizontal plane is k = 0.50. The inclined plane is frictionless and at angle θ = 30°. The pulley serves only to change the direction of the cord connecting the blocks. The cord has negligible mass. Find (a) the tension in the cord and (b) the magnitude of the acceleration of the blocks.
79
In Fig. 6.43, the coefficient of kinetic fric- tion between the block and inclined plane is 0.20, and angle θ is 60°. What are the (a) magnitude a and (b) direction (up or down the plane) of the θ block’s acceleration if the block is sliding down the plane? What are (c) a and (d) the direction if Figure 6.43 the block is sent sliding up the plane? Problem 73. 73
A 110 g hockey puck sent sliding over ice is stopped in 15 m by the frictional force on it from the ice. (a) If its initial speed is 6.0 m/s, what is the magnitude of the frictional force? (b) What is the coefficient of friction between the puck and the ice?
Frictionless, massless pulley
A locomotive accelerates a 25-car train along a level track. Every car has a mass of 5.0 × 10 4 kg and is subject to a frictional force f = 250v, where the speed v is in meters per second and the force f is in newtons. At the instant when the speed of the train is 30 km/h, the magnitude of its acceleration is 0.20 m/s 2 . (a) What is the tension in the coupling between the first car and the locomotive? (b) If this tension is equal to the maximum force the locomotive can exert on the train, what is the steepest grade up which the locomotive can pull the train at 30 km/h? 76
A house is built on the top of a hill with a nearby slope at angle
θ = 45° (Fig. 6.44). An engineering study indicates that the slope
angle should be reduced because the top layers of soil along the slope might slip past the lower layers. If the coefficient of static friction between two such layers is 0.5, what is the least angle ϕ through which the present slope should be reduced to prevent slippage?
New slope Original slope
ϕ
Figure 6.44
Problem 76.
What is the terminal speed of a 6.00 kg spherical ball that has a radius of 3.00 cm and a drag coefficient of 1.60? The den- sity of the air through which the ball falls is 1.20 kg/m 3 . 77
A student wants to determine the coefficients of static friction and kinetic friction between a box and a plank. She places the box on the plank and gradually raises one end of 78
μ
mA
k
A
θ Figure 6.45
Problem 79.
Calculate the magnitude of the drag force on a missile 53 cm in diameter cruising at 250 m/s at low altitude, where the density of air is 1.2 kg/m 3 . Assume C = 0.75. 80
SSM A bicyclist travels in a circle of radius 25.0 m at a con- stant speed of 9.00 m/s. The bicycle–rider mass is 85.0 kg. Calcu- late the magnitudes of (a) the force of friction on the bicycle from the road and (b) the net force on the bicycle from the road.
81
In Fig. 6.46, a stuntman drives a car (without negative lift) over the top of a hill, the cross sec- R tion of which can be approximated by a circle of radius R = 250 m. Figure 6.46 Problem 82. What is the greatest speed at which he can drive without the car leaving the road at the top of the hill? 82
You must push a crate across a floor to a docking bay. The crate weighs 165 N. The coefficient of static friction between crate and floor is 0.510, and the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.32. Your force on the crate is directed horizontally. (a) What magnitude of your push puts the crate on the verge of sliding? (b) With what magnitude must you then push to keep the crate moving at a constant velocity? (c) If, instead, you then push with the same magnitude as the answer to (a), what is the mag- nitude of the crate’s acceleration? 83
→
In Fig. 6.47, force F is y applied to a crate of mass m on θ a floor where the coefficient of x static friction between crate and floor is s . Angle θ is initially 0° F but is gradually increased so that Figure 6.47 Problem 84. the force vector rotates clockwise in the figure. During the rotation, the magnitude F of the force is continuously adjusted so that the crate is always on the verge of sliding. For s = 0.70, (a) plot the ratio F/mg versus θ and (b) determine the angle θinf at which the ratio approaches an infinite value. (c) Does lubricating the floor increase or decrease θinf , or is the value unchanged? (d) What is θinf for s = 0.60? 84
θ
mB B
74
75
153
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C HAP T ER 6 F ORC E AND MOT ION—II
In the early afternoon, a car is parked on a street that runs down a steep hill, at an angle of 35.0° relative to the horizontal. Just then the coefficient of static friction between the tires and the street surface is 0.725. Later, after nightfall, a sleet storm hits the area, and the coefficient decreases due to both the ice and a chemical change in the road surface because of the temperature decrease. By what percentage must the coefficient decrease if the car is to be in danger of sliding down the street? 85
FCP A sling-thrower puts a stone (0.250 kg) in the sling’s pouch (0.010 kg) and then begins to make the stone and pouch move in a vertical circle of radius 0.650 m. The cord between the pouch and the person’s hand has negligible mass and will break when the tension in the cord is 33.0 N or more. Suppose the sling-thrower can gradually increase the speed of the stone. (a) Will the breaking occur at the lowest point of the circle or at the highest point? (b) At what speed of the stone will that breaking occur?
86
SSM A car weighing 10.7 kN and traveling at 13.4 m/s with- out negative lift attempts to round an unbanked curve with a radius of 61.0 m. (a) What magnitude of the frictional force on the tires is required to keep the car on its circular path? (b) If the coefficient of static friction between the tires and the road is 0.350, is the attempt at taking the curve successful?
87
In Fig. 6.48, block 1 of mass θ F m 1 = 2.0 kg and block 2 of mass m1 m 2 = 1.0 kg are connected by a m2 string of negligible mass. Block 2 is pushed by force F of magni- Figure 6.48 Problem 88. tude 20 N and angle θ = 35°. The coefficient of kinetic friction between each block and the hori- zontal surface is 0.20. What is the tension in the string? 88
→
SSM A filing cabinet weighing 556 N rests on the floor. The coefficient of static friction between it and the floor is 0.68, and the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.56. In four different attempts to move it, it is pushed with horizontal forces of magni- tudes (a) 222 N, (b) 334 N, (c) 445 N, and (d) 556 N. For each attempt, calculate the magnitude of the frictional force on it from the floor. (The cabinet is initially at rest.) (e) In which of the attempts does the cabinet move?
89
In Fig. 6.49, a block weighing 22 N is held at rest against a vertical wall by a horizontal force F of magnitude 60 N. The coefficient of F static friction between the wall and the block is 0.55, and the coefficient of kinetic friction between them is 0.38. In six experiments, a sec- ond force P is applied to the block and directed parallel to the wall with these magnitudes and Figure 6.49 directions: (a) 34 N, up, (b) 12 N, up, (c) 48 N, up, Problem 90. (d) 62 N, up, (e) 10 N, down, and (f) 18 N, down. In each experiment, what is the magnitude of the frictional force on the block? In which does the block move (g) up the wall and (h) down the wall? (i) In which is the frictional force directed down the wall? 90
→
→
Down and up. (a) Let an x axis extend up a plane inclined at angle θ = 60° with the horizontal. What is the acceleration of a block sliding down the plane if the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and plane is 0.20? (b) What is the 91
acceleration if the block is given an upward shove and is still sliding up the slope? Airport luggage. In an airport, luggage is transported from one location to another by a conveyor belt. At a certain loca- tion, the belt moves down an incline that makes an angle of 2.5° with the horizontal. Assume that with such a slight angle there is no slipping of the luggage and that an x axis extends up the incline. Determine the frictional force from the belt on a box with weight 69 N when the box is on that incline for the fol- lowing situations: (a) The belt is stationary. (b) The belt has a constant speed of 0.65 m/s. (c) The belt has a speed of 0.65 m/s that is increasing at a rate of 0.20 m/s 2 . (d) The belt has a speed of 0.65 m/s that is decreasing at a rate of 0.20 m/s 2 . (e) The belt has a speed of 0.65 m/s that is increasing at a rate of 0.57 m/s 2 . 92
How far? A block slides down an inclined plane of slope angle θ with a constant velocity. It is then projected up the plane with an initial speed v 0 . (a) How far up the plane will it move before coming to rest? (b) Will it slide down again? 93
Turntable candy. An M&M candy piece is placed on a sta- tionary turntable, at a distance of 6.6 cm from the center. Then the turntable is turned on and its turning rate adjusted so that it makes 2.00 full turns in 2.45 s. The candy rides the turntable without slipping. (a) What is the magnitude of its acceleration? (b) If the turntable rate is gradually increased to 2.00 full turns every 1.80 s, the candy piece then begins to slide. What is the coefficient of static friction between it and the turntable? 94
Circling the Galaxy. The Solar System is moving along an approximately circular path of radius 2.5 × 10 4 ly (light-years) around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy with a speed of 205 km/s. (a) In years, what is the period of the circling? (b) The mass of the Solar System is approximately equal to the mass of the Sun (1.99 × 10 30 kg). What is the magnitude of the centrip- etal force on the Solar System in the circling? 95
Icy curb ramps. Slipping and falling while walking on an icy surface is a very common occurrence in winter weather. The danger comes when a person steps forward because then the full weight is over only the rear foot while that foot pushes back- ward. The static coefficient of friction of a common shoe (flat shoe or pump) on ice is μ s = 0.050. Let the person’s mass be m = 70 kg. (a) On a level surface, what magnitude F of the horizon- tal backward push puts the person on the verge of slipping? (b) Most urban communities require curb ramps (Fig. 6.50) so that wheelchairs can travel between sidewalk and street. The common allowed slope is for a rise of 1 distance unit to a (hori- zontal) length of 12 distance units, which gives a slope of 8.33%. If the person attempted to stand on such a ramp that is covered with ice, what would be the magnitude of the component of the gravitational force on the person down the ramp? (c) What would be the maximum magnitude of the static frictional force up the ramp? (d) Can the person stand like that without slipping (or walk up the ramp)? (e) What is the maximum angle θverge of a ramp such that the person is on the verge of slipping? (f) Some brands of winter footwear allow a person to walk up a ramp that is at the maximum allowed angle of 7.0° without slipping. If the backward force magnitude that puts the person on the verge of slipping is 34 N, what is the coefficient of static friction between the footwear and the ice? 96 BIO
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P ROBL EMS
155
Wood plate
θ
Stone plate Wood support
moc.kcotsrettuhS/adiemlA ed yendiS
(b)
Problem 98. (a) Chalk used in rock climbing. (b) Hang bar arrangement. Figure 6.51
Sliding down a ski slope on your back. Suppose you fall off your skis while skiing down a uniform slope at a moderate speed of 12 m/s. If you are wearing common ski overalls and land on your back, the coefficient of kinetic friction between the overalls and the snow is 0.25. Assume an x axis extends up the slope. What is your velocity along the axis when you hit a tree after sliding for 7.0 s if you are on (a) a blue slope (for beginners) at slope angle 12°, (b) a red slope at angle 18°, and (c) a black slope at angle 25°? (d) If you avoid all obstacles, on which slope will you slide to a stop and how far will that take? 99
Figure 6.50
Problem 96.
Braking distance in snow. You are driving at 60 mi/h (= 26.8 m/s). Assume that you then brake at a constant accelera- tion with the maximum static friction on the tires from the road- way (no sliding). What is your minimum braking distance if the coefficient of static friction μ s is (a) 0.70 for dry asphalt, (b) 0.30 for a snow layer of depth 2.5 mm, and (c) 0.15 for a snow layer of a depth 3.20 cm? (The lesson here is simple: Slow down when driving in snow.) 97
BIO Rock climbing chalk. Many rock climbers, whether outdoors or in a gym, periodically dip their fingers into a chalk bag hanging from the back of their belt to coat their fingers (Fig. 6.51a). (The chalk is magnesium carbonate, not classroom chalk.) Climbers claim that the chalk dries their fingers from sweat, allowing better grips on the holds but other climbers doubt that effect. In a research experiment, experienced climb- ers supported their weight on a hang bar, something commonly used in training. However, this hang bar could be tilted (Fig. 6.51b). On its wood support, researchers attached a stone plate from which a climber would hang by one hand, and then the researchers increased the tilt angle θ until the climber slipped off. From the slip angle θslip we can calculate the coefficient of static friction μs between the fingers and the stone plate. What is μs for limestone when θslip is (a) 32.6° for unchalked fingers and (b) 37.2° for chalked fingers? What is μs for sandstone when θslip is (a) 36.5° for unchalked fingers and (b) 41.9° for chalked fingers?
98
Car on an icy hill—destined for YouTube video. Some of the funniest videos on YouTube show cars in uncontrolled slides on icy roads, especially icy hills. Here is an example of such a slide. A car with an initial speed v 0 = 10.0 m/s slides down a long icy road with an inclination of θ = 5.00° (a mild incline, nothing like the hills of San Francisco). The coefficient of kinetic friction between the tires and the ice is μk = 0.10. How far does the car take to slide to a stop if we assume that it does not hit anything along the way? 100
Controlled platoon of cars. A platoon of cars moves along a road under computer control with uniform spacings and equal speeds that are set by a dynamic system that monitors the weather road conditions. It determines the speed for a given spacing such that, in an emergency, each car would stop just as it reached the car in front of it. The coefficient of static friction μs is 0.700 for dry asphalt and 0.300 for rain-wetted asphalt. The cars each have length L = 4.50 m. What should the controlled speed be (meters per second, miles per hour, and kilometers per hour) if the bumper–bumper spacing is 2L for (a) dry asphalt and (b) wet asphalt? What should it be if the spacing is 5L for (a) dry asphalt and (b) wet asphalt? 101
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7
Kinetic Energy and Work
7.1 KINETIC ENERGY Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
7.1.1 Apply the relationship between a particle’s kinetic
7.1.2 Identify that kinetic energy is a scalar quantity.
energy, mass, and speed.
Key Idea ●
K associated with the motion of a particle of mass m and speed v, where v is well below the speed of
The kinetic energy
light, is
1 K = _ mv 2 2
(kinetic energy).
What Is Physics?
One of the fundamental goals of physics is to investigate something that everyone talks about: energy. The topic is obviously important. Indeed, our civilization is based on acquiring and effectively using energy. For example, e veryone knows that any type of motion requires energy: Flying across the Pacific Ocean requires it. Lifting material to the top floor of an office building or to an orbiting space station requires it. Throwing a fastball requires it. We spend a tremendous amount of money to acquire and use energy. Wars have been started because of energy resources. Wars have been ended because of a sudden, overpowering use of energy by one side. Everyone knows many examples of energy and its use, but what does the term energy really mean? What Is Energy?
The term energy is so broad that a clear definition is difficult to write. Techni- cally, energy is a scalar quantity associated with the state (or condition) of one or more objects. However, this definition is too vague to be of help to us now. A looser definition might at least get us started. Energy is a number that we associate with a system of one or more objects. If a force changes one of the objects by, say, making it move, then the energy number changes. After count- less experiments, scientists and engineers realized that if the scheme by which we assign energy numbers is planned carefully, the numbers can be used to predict the outcomes of experiments and, even more important, to build machines, such as flying machines. This success is based on a wonderful property of our universe: Energy can be transformed from one type to another and transferred from one object to another, but the total amount is always the same (energy is conserved). No exception to this principle of energy conservation has ever been found.
156 /
7.1 KINET IC ENERGY
157
Money. Think of the many types of energy as being numbers representing money in many types of bank accounts. Rules have been made about what such money numbers mean and how they can be changed. You can transfer money numbers from one account to another or from one system to another, perhaps electronically with nothing material actually moving. However, the total amount (the total of all the money numbers) can always be accounted for: It is always conserved. In this chapter we focus on only one type of energy (kinetic energy) and on only one way in which energy can be transferred (work). Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy K is energy associated with the state of motion of an object. The faster the object moves, the greater is its kinetic energy. When the object is stationary, its kinetic energy is zero. For an object of mass m whose speed v is well below the speed of light, 1 K = _ mv 2 2
(7.1.1)
(kinetic energy).
For example, a 3.0 kg duck flying past us at 2.0 m/s has a kinetic energy of 6.0 kg ⋅ m 2 /s 2 ; that is, we associate that number with the duck’s motion. The SI unit of kinetic energy (and all types of energy) is the joule (J), named for James Prescott Joule, an English scientist of the 1800s, a nd defined as 1 joule = 1 J = 1 kg ⋅ m 2 /s 2 .
(7.1.2)
Thus, the flying duck has a kinetic energy of 6.0 J.
Checkpoint 7.1.1
The speed of a car (treat it as being a particle) increases from 5.0 m/s to 15.0 m/s. What is the ratio of the final kinetic energy K f to the initial kinetic energy K i ?
Sample Problem 7.1.1
Kinetic energy, train crash
ssergnoC fo yrarbiL fo ysetruoC
In 1896 in Waco, Texas, William Crush parked two loco- motives at opposite ends of a 6.4-km-long track, fired them up, tied their throttles open, and then allowed them to crash head-on at full speed (Fig. 7.1.1) in front of 30,000 spectators. Hundreds of people were hurt by flying debris; several were killed. Assuming each locomotive weighed 1.2 × 10 6 N and its acceleration was a constant 0.26 m/s 2 , what was the total kinetic energy of the two locomotives FCP just before the collision?
KEY IDEAS (1) We need to find the kinetic energy of each locomotive with Eq. 7.1.1, but that means we need each locomotive’s speed just before the collision and its mass. (2) Because we can assume e ach locomotive had constant acceleration, we can use the equations in Table 2.1.1 to find its speed v just before the collision.
The aftermath of an 1896 crash of two locomotives. Figure 7.1.1
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C HAP T ER 7 KINET IC ENERGY AND WORK
6
We choose Eq. 2.4.6 because we know values for all the variables except v:
N = 1.22 × 10 5 kg. __________ m = 1.2 × 10 9.8 m/s 2
v 2 = v 2 0 + 2a(x − x 0).
Now, using Eq. 7.1.1, we find the total kinetic energy of the two locomotives just before the collision as
Calculations:
With v 0 = 0 and x − x 0 = 3.2 × 10 3 m (half the initial sepa- ration), this yields 2
2
1 K = 2( _ mv 2 ) = (1.22 × 10 5 kg)(40.8 m/s) 2 2
3
= 2.0 × 10 8 J.
v = 0 + 2(0.26 m /s )(3.2 × 10 m), or
v = 40.8 m/s = 147 km/h.
We can find the mass of each locomotive by dividing its given weight by g:
(Answer)
This collision was like an exploding bomb.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
7.2 WORK AND KINETIC ENERGY Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
7.2.1 Apply the relationship between a force (magnitude
7.2.3 If multiple forces act on a particle, calculate the
and direction) and the work done on a particle by the force when the particle undergoes a displacement.
net work done by them. 7.2.4 Apply the work–kinetic energy theorem to relate
7.2.2 Calculate work by taking a dot product of the
the work done by a force (or the net work done by
force vector and the displacement vector, in either
multiple forces) and the resulting change in kinetic
magnitude-angle or unit-vector notation.
energy.
Key Ideas ●
W is energy transferred to or from an object via
Work
●
When two or more forces act on an object, their
a force acting on the object. Energy transferred to the
net work is the sum of the individual works done by
object is positive work, and from the object, negative
the forces, which is also equal to the work that would
work.
be done on the object by the net force
→
→
●
The work done on a particle by a constant force →
ing dis placement
●
W = Fd cos ϕ = F ⋅ d →
in which →
of
→
(work, constant force),
ϕ is the constant angle between the directions →
F and d .
F that is along the displace- d can do work on the object.
→
ment
ΔK = K f − K i = W
(work–kinetic energy theorem),
K i is the initial kinetic energy of the particle K f is the kinetic energy after the work is done. The
in which and
Only the component of
ΔK in the kinetic energy W done on the particle:
For a particle, a change
equals the net work
→
●
F dur-
d is
F net of those
forces.
equation rearranged gives us
K f = K i + W.
Work
If you accelerate a n object to a greater speed by applying a force to the object, you 1 increase the kinetic energy K (= _ mv 2 ) of the object. Similarly, if you decelerate 2 the object to a lesser speed by applying a force, you decrease the kinetic energy of the object. We account for these changes in kinetic energy by saying that your force has transferred energy to the object from yourself or from the object to
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7.2 WORK AND KINET IC ENERGY
159
yourself. In such a transfer of energy v ia a force, work W is said to be done on the object by the force. More formally, we define work as follows: Work W is energy transferred to or from an object by means of a force acting on the object. Energy transferred to the object is positive work, and energy trans- ferred from the object is negative work.
“Work,” then, is transferred energy; “doing work” is the act of transferring the energy. Work has the same units as energy and is a scalar quantity. The term transfer can be misleading. It does not mean that anything mate- rial flows into or out of the object; that is, the transfer is not like a flow of water. Rather, it is like the electronic transfer of money between two bank accounts: The number in one account goes up while the number in the other account goes down, with nothing material passing between the two accounts. Note that we are not concerned here with the common meaning of the word “work,” which implies that any physical or mental labor is work. For example, if you push hard against a wall, you tire because of the continuously repeated muscle contractions that are required, and you are, in the common sense, work- ing. However, such effort does not cause an energy transfer to or from the wall and thus is not work done on the wall as defined here. To avoid confusion in this chapter, we shall use the symbol W only for work and shall represent a weight with its equivalent mg.
Work and Kinetic Energy Finding an Expression for Work
Let us find an expression for work by considering a bead that can slide along a frictionless wire that is stretched along a horizontal x axis (Fig. 7.2.1). A con- stant force F , directed at an angle ϕ to the wire, accelerates the bead along the wire. We can relate the force and the acceleration with Newton’s second law, written for components along the x axis: →
F x = ma x,
(7.2.1) →
where m is the bead’s mass. As the bead moves through a displacement d , the force changes the bead’s velocity from an initial value v 0 to some other value v . Because the force is constant, we know that the acceleration is also constant. Thus, we can use Eq. 2.4.6 to write, for components along the x axis, →
v 2 = v 2 0 + 2 a xd.
→
(7.2.2)
Solving this equation for a x, substituting into Eq. 7.2.1, and rearranging then give us 1 1 _ mv 2 − _ mv 2 = F d. 2
2
0
x
(7.2.3)
The first term is the kinetic energy K f of the bead at the end of the displacement d, and the second term is the kinetic energy K i of the bead at the start. Thus, the left side of Eq. 7.2.3 tells us the kinetic energy has been changed by the force, and the right side tells us the change is equal to F x d. Therefore, the work W done on the bead by the force (the energy transfer due to the force) is W = F x d.
(7.2.4)
If we know values for F x and d, we can use this equation to calculate the work W. To calculate the work a force does on an object as the object moves through some displacement, we use only the force component along the object’s displacement. The force component perpendicular to the displacement does zero work.
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C HAP T ER 7 KINET IC ENERGY AND WORK
From Fig. 7.2.1, we see that we can write F x as F cos ϕ, where ϕ is the angle between the directions of the displacement d and the force F . Thus, →
W = Fd cos ϕ
A
This component does no work.
Small initial kinetic energy F
ϕ
Wire
Ki
x
(7.2.5)
(work done by a constant force).
F
Bead
→
This force does positive work on the bead, increasing speed and kinetic energy.
ϕ
x
v 0
This component does work.
F
ϕ
A constant force F directed at angle ϕ to the displacement d of a bead on a wire accelerates the bead along the wire, changing the velocity of the bead from v 0 to v . A “kinetic energy gauge” indicates the resulting change in the kinetic energy of the bead, from the value K i to the value K f . In WileyPLUS, this figure is available as an animation with voiceover. →
Figure 7.2.1
→
→
Larger final kinetic energy
→
F Kf
ϕ v
Displacement
d
We can use the definition of the scalar (dot) product (Eq. 3.3.1) to write →
→
W = F ⋅ d
(work done by a constant force),
(7.2.6)
→
where F is the magnitude of F . (You may wish to review the discussion of scalar products in Module 3.3.) Equation 7.2.6 is especially useful for calculating the work when F and d are given in unit-vector notation. Cautions. There are two restrictions to using Eqs. 7.2.4 through 7.2.6 to cal- culate work done on an object by a force. First, the force must be a constant force; that is, it must not change in magnitude or direction as the object moves. (Later, we shall discuss what to do with a variable force that changes in magni- tude.) Second, the object must be particle-like. This means that the object must be rigid; all parts of it must move together, in the same direction. In this chapter we consider only particle-like objects, such as the bed and its occupant being pushed in Fig. 7.2.2. Signs for Work. The work done on an object by a force can be either positive work or negative work. For example, if angle ϕ in Eq. 7.2.5 is less than 90°, then cos ϕ is positive and thus so is the work. However, if ϕ is greater than 90° (up to 180°), then cos ϕ is negative and thus so is the work. (Can you see that the work is zero when ϕ = 90°?) These results lead to a simple rule. To find the sign of the work done by a force, consider the force vector component that is parallel to the displacement: →
F
A contestant in a bed race. We can approximate the bed and its occupant as being a particle for the purpose of calculating the work done on them by the force applied by the contestant. Figure 7.2.2
→
A force does positive work when it has a vector component in the same direction as the displacement, and it does negative work when it has a vector component in the opposite direction. It does zero work when it has no such vector component.
Units for Work. Work has the SI unit of the joule, the same as kinetic energy. However, from Eqs. 7.2.4 and 7.2.5 we can see that an equivalent unit
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7.2 WORK AND KINET IC ENERGY
161
is the newton-meter (N ⋅ m). The corresponding unit in the British system is the foot-pound (ft ⋅ lb). Extending Eq. 7.1.2, we have 1 J = 1 kg · m 2 /s 2 = 1 N · m = 0.738 ft · lb.
(7.2.7)
Net Work. When two or more forces act on an object, the net work done on the object is the sum of the works done by the individual forces. We can calculate the net work in two ways. (1) We can find the work done by each force and then sum those works. (2) Alternatively, we can first find the net force F net of those forces. Then we can use Eq. 7.2.5, substituting the magnitude F net for F and also the angle between the directions of F net and d for ϕ. Similarly, we can use Eq. 7.2.6 with F net substituted for F . →
→
→
→
→
Work–Kinetic Energy Theorem
Equation 7.2.3 relates the change in kinetic energy of the bead (from a n initial K i =
1 1 2 _ _ mv 2 ) done on the bead. For such 0 to a later K f = 2 mv ) to the work W (= F xd 2
particle-like objects, we can generalize that equation. Let ΔK be the change in the kinetic energy of the object, and let W be the net work done on it. Then ΔK = K f − K i = W,
(7.2.8)
which says that change in the kinetic
net work done on . the particle )
( energy of a particle ) = ( We can also write
K f = K i + W,
(7.2.9)
which says that kinetic energy after
kinetic energy
the net
(the net work is done ) = ( before the net work ) + ( work done ). These statements are known traditionally as the work–kinetic energy theorem for particles. They hold for both positive and negative work: If the net work done on a particle is positive, then the particle’s kinetic energy increases by the amount of the work. If the net work done is negative, then the particle’s kinetic energy decreases by the amount of the work. For example, if the kinetic energy of a particle is initially 5 J and there is a net transfer of 2 J to the particle (positive net work), the final kinetic energy is 7 J. If, instead, there is a net transfer of 2 J from the particle (negative net work), the final kinetic energy is 3 J. Checkpoint 7.2.1
A particle moves along an x axis. Does the kinetic energy of the particle increase, decrease, or remain the same if the particle’s velocity changes (a) from −3 m/s to −2 m/s and (b) from −2 m/s to 2 m/s? (c) In each situation, is the work done on the particle positive, negative, or zero?
Sample Problem 7.2.1
Work done by two constant forces, industrial spies
Figure 7.2.3a shows two industrial spies sliding an initially stationary 225 kg floor safe a displacement d of magni- tude 8.50 m. The push F 1 of spy 001 is 12.0 N at an angle of 30.0° downward from the horizontal; the pull F 2 of spy 002 is 10.0 N at 40.0° above the horizontal. The magnitudes →
→
→
and directions of these forces do not change as the safe moves, and the floor and safe make frictionless contact. →
(a) What is the net work done on the safe by forces F 1 and F 2 during the displacement d ? →
→
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C HAP T ER 7 KINET IC ENERGY AND WORK
Spy 002
Spy 001
Only force components parallel to the displacement do work. FN
Safe d
→
Because these forces are constant in both magnitude and direction, we can find the work they do with Eq. 7.2.5.
F1
Fg
→
KEY IDEA
F2
40.0° 30.0°
(a )
(b) During the displacement, what is the work W g done on the safe by the gravitational force F g and what is the work W N done on the safe by the normal force F N from the floor?
(b )
(a) Two spies move a floor safe through a displace- ment d . (b) A free-body diagram for the safe. Figure 7.2.3 →
Thus, with mg as the magnitude of the gravitational force, we write Calculations:
and
KEY IDEAS (1) The net work W done on the safe by the two forces is the sum of the works they do individually. (2) Because we can treat the safe as a particle and the forces are constant in both magnitude and direction, we can use either Eq. 7.2.5 (W = Fd cos ϕ ) or Eq. 7.2.6 (W = F ⋅ d ) to calculate those works. Let’s choose Eq. 7.2.5. →
→
From Eq. 7.2.5 and the free-body diagram for the safe in Fig. 7.2.3b, the work done by F 1 is Calculations:
→
W 1 = F 1 d cos ϕ1 = (12.0 N)(8.50 m)(cos 30.0°) = 88.33 J,
W g = mgd cos 90° = mgd(0) = 0
(Answer)
W N = F Nd cos 90° = F N d(0) = 0.
(Answer)
We should have known this result. Because these forces are perpendicular to the displacement of the safe, they do zero work on the safe and do not transfer any energy to or from it. (c) The safe is initially stationary. What is its speed v f at the end of the 8.50 m displacement?
KEY IDEA The speed of the safe changes because its kinetic energy is changed when energy is transferred to it by F 1 and F 2 . →
→
We relate the speed to the work done by combining Eqs. 7.2.8 (the work–kinetic energy theorem) and 7.1.1 (the definition of kinetic energy): Calculations:
→
and the work done by F 2 is W 2 = F 2d cos ϕ2 = (10.0 N)(8.50 m )(cos 40.0°) = 65.11 J.
1 1 2 _ 2 W = K f − K i = _ 2 mv f − 2 mv i .
The initial speed v i is zero, and we now know that the work done is 153.4 J. Solving for v f and then substituting known data, we find that
Thus, the net work W is W = W 1 + W 2 = 88.33 J + 65.11 J = 153.4 J ≈ 153 J.
____
(Answer)
2W = ____
v f = √ m
During the 8.50 m displacement, therefore, the spies transfer 153 J of energy to the kinetic energy of the safe.
Sample Problem 7.2.2
_________
2(153.4 J )
√ _________ 225 kg
= 1.17 m / s.
(Answer)
Work done by a constant force in unit-vector notation
During a storm, a crate of crepe is sliding across a slick, oily parking lot through a displacement d = (−3.0 m) ˆ i while a steady wind pushes against the crate with a force F = (2.0 N) ˆ i + (−6.0 N) ˆ j. The situation and coordinate axes are shown in Fig. 7.2.4.
The parallel force component does negative work, slowing the crate.
→
y
→
(a) How much work does this force do on the crate during the displacement?
KEY IDEA Because we can treat the crate as a particle and because the wind force is constant (“steady”) in both magnitude
Force F slows a crate during displacement d . →
Figure 7.2.4
x F
→
d
and direction during the displacement, we can use either Eq. 7.2.5 (W = Fd cos ϕ ) or Eq. 7.2.6 (W = F ⋅ d ) to cal- culate the work. Since we know F and d in unit-vector notation, we choose Eq. 7.2.6. →
→
→
→
/
7.3 WORK D ONE BY T HE GRAV IT AT IONAL F ORC E
Calculations:
We write
W = F ⋅ d = [(2.0 N) ˆ i + (−6.0 N) ˆ j] ⋅ [(−3.0 m ) ˆ i]. →
→
Of the possible unit-vector dot products, only ˆ i ⋅ ˆ i, ˆ j ⋅ ˆ j, and ˆ ˆ k · k are nonzero (see Appendix E). Here we obtain ˆ ˆ i + (−6.0 N)(−3.0 m) ˆ W = (2.0 N)(−3.0 m) i · j · ˆ i = (−6.0 J)(1) + 0 = −6.0 J.
(Answer)
Thus, the force does a negative 6.0 J of work on the crate, transferring 6.0 J of energy from the kinetic energy of the crate.
163
(b) If the crate has a kinetic energy of 10 J at the beginning of displacement d , what is its kinetic energy at the end of d ? →
→
KEY IDEA Because the force does negative work on the crate, it reduces the crate’s kinetic energy. Using the work–kinetic energy theorem in the form of Eq. 7.2.9, we have Calculation:
K f = K i + W = 10 J + (−6.0 J) = 4.0 J.
(Answer)
Less kinetic energy means that the crate has been slowed.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
7.3 WORK DONE BY THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
7.3.1 Calculate the work done by the gravitational
7.3.2 Apply the work–kinetic energy theorem to situa-
force when an object is lifted or lowered.
tions where an object is lifted or lowered.
Key Ideas →
W g done by the gravitational force F g on a particle-like object of mass m as the object moves through a displacement d is given by ●
The work
→
W g = mgd cos ϕ ,
●
change
ΔK = K f − K i = W a + W g . If
ϕ is the angle between F g and d . →
in which
→
W g done by the gravitational force and the ΔK in the object’s kinetic energy by
the work
K f = K i, then the equation reduces to W a = −W g,
which tells us that the applied force transfers as much
W a done by an applied force as a particle-
The work
like object is either lifted or lowered is related to
energy to the object as the gravitational force transfers from it.
Work Done by the Gravitational Force
We next examine the work done on an object by the gravitational force acting on it. Figure 7.3.1 shows a particle-like tomato of mass m that is thrown upward with _ mv 2 . As the tomato rises, initial speed v 0 and thus with initial kinetic energy K i = 1 0 2 it is slowed by a gravitational force F g ; that is, the tomato’s kinetic energy decreases because F g does work on the tomato as it rises. Because we can treat the tomato as a particle, we can use Eq. 7.2.5 (W = Fd cos ϕ ) to express the work done during a displacement d . For the force magnitude F, we use mg as the magnitude of F g . Thus, the work W g done by the gravitational force F g is →
→
→
→
→
W g = mgd cos ϕ
(work done by gravitational force).
(7.3.1)
/
164
C HAP T ER 7 KINET IC ENERGY AND WORK
→
→
K
v Fg
For a rising object, force F g is directed opposite the displacement d , as indicated in Fig. 7.3.1. Thus, ϕ = 180° and
f
W g = mgd cos 180° = mgd(−1) = −mgd.
The force does negative work, decreasing speed and kinetic energy.
d
The minus sign tells us that during the object’s rise, the gravitational force act- ing on the object transfers energy in the amount mgd from the kinetic energy of the object. This is consistent with the slowing of the object as it rises. After the object has reached its maximum height and is falling back down, the angle ϕ between force F g and displacement d is zero. Thus,
Fg K
v 0
→
i
→
W g = mgd cos 0° = mgd(+1) = +mgd.
Fg
(7.3.3)
The plus sign tells us that the gravitational force now transfers energy in the amount mgd to the kinetic energy of the falling object (it speeds up, of course).
Because the gravitational force F g acts on it, a particle-like tomato of mass m thrown upward slows from velocity v 0 to velocity v during displace- ment d . A kinetic energy gauge indi- cates the resulting change in the kinetic _ 2 energy of the tomato, from K i = 1 2 mv 0 to 1 2 _ K f = 2 mv . Figure 7.3.1 →
→
(7.3.2)
→
→
Work Done in Lifting and Lowering an Object →
Now suppose we lift a particle-like object by applying a vertical force F to it. During the upward displacement, our applied force does positive work W a on the object while the gravitational force does negative work W g on it. Our applied force tends to transfer energy to the object while the gravitational force tends to transfer energy from it. By Eq. 7.2.8, the change ΔK in the kinetic energy of the object due to these two energy transfers is
Upward displacement
d
F
Object Fg
(a)
F
Object
Fg
ΔK = K f − K i = W a + W g ,
Does positive work
in which K f is the kinetic energy at the end of the displacement and K i is that at the start of the displacement. This equation also applies if we lower the object, but then the gravitational force tends to transfer energy to the object while our force tends to transfer energy from it. If an object is stationary before and after a lift (as when you lift a book from the floor to a shelf), then K f and K i are both zero, and Eq. 7.3.4 reduces to
Does negative work
W a + W g = 0
Does negative work
or
Does positive work
W a = −mgd cos ϕ →
(a) An applied force F lifts an object. The object’s displace- ment d makes an angle ϕ = 180° with the gravitational force F g on the object. The applied force does positive work on the object. (b) An applied force F lowers an object. The displacement d of the object makes an angle ϕ = 0° with the gravita- tional force F g . The applied force does negative work on the object. Figure 7.3.2 →
→
→
→
(work d one in lifting and lowering; K f = K i),
(7.3.5)
(7.3.6)
with ϕ being the angle between F g and d . If the displacement is vertically upward (Fig. 7.3.2a), then ϕ = 180° and the work done by the applied force equals mgd. If the displacement is vertically downward (Fig. 7.3.2b), then ϕ = 0° and the work done by the applied force equals −mgd. Equations 7.3.5 and 7.3.6 apply to any situation in which an object is lifted or lowered, with the object stationary before and after the lift. They are indepen- dent of the magnitude of the force used. For example, if you lift a mug from the floor to over your head, your force on the mug varies c onsiderably during the lift. Still, because the mug is stationary before and after the lift, the work your force does on the mug is given by Eqs. 7.3.5 and 7.3.6, where, in Eq. 7.3.6, mg is the weight of the mug and d is the distance you lift it. →
(b )
→
W a = −W g.
Note that we get the same result if K f and K i are not zero but are still equal. Either way, the result means that the work done by the applied force is the nega- tive of the work done by the gravitational force; that is, the applied force transfers the same amount of energy to the object as the gravitational force transfers from the object. Using Eq. 7.3.1, we can rewrite Eq. 7.3.5 as
Downward displacement
d
(7.3.4)
→
/
7.3 WORK D ONE BY T HE GRAV IT AT IONAL F ORC E
Sample Problem 7.3.1
Work in pulling a sleigh up a snowy slope
In this problem an object is pulled along a ramp but the object starts and ends at rest and thus has no overall change in its kinetic energy (that is important). Figure 7.3.3a shows the situation. A rope pulls a 200 kg sleigh (which you may know) up a slope at incline angle θ = 30°, through distance d = 20 m. The sleigh and its contents have a total mass of 200 kg. The snowy slope is so slippery that we take it to be frictionless. How much work is done by each force acting on the sleigh?
KEY IDEAS (1) During the motion, the forces are constant in mag- nitude and direction and thus we can calculate the work done by each with Eq. 7.2.5 (W = Fd cos ϕ) in which ϕ is the angle between the force and the displacement. We reach the same result with Eq. 7.2.6 (W = F ⋅ d ) in which we take a dot product of the force vector and displace- ment vector. (2) We can relate the net work done by the forces to the change in kinetic energy (or lack of a change, as here) with the work–kinetic energy theorem of Eq. 7.2.8 (ΔK = W). →
The second (equivalent) way to get this result is to use the full gravitational force F g instead of a component. The angle between F g and d is 120° (add the incline angle 30° to 90°). So, Eq. 7.2.5 gives us →
The first thing to do with most physics problems involving forces is to draw a free-body diagram to organize our thoughts. For the sleigh, Fig.7.3.3b is our free- body diagram, showing the gravitational force F g , the force T from the rope, and the normal force F N from the slope.
W g = F gd cos 120° = mgd cos 120°
= (200 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )(20 m) cos 120° = −1.96 × 10 4 J.
→
Let’s start with this easy calculation. The normal force is perpendicular to the slope and thus also to the sleigh’s displacement. Thus the normal force does not affect the sleigh’s motion and does zero work. To be more formal, we can apply Eq. 7.2.5 to write Work W N by the normal force.
W N = F N d cos 90° = 0.
We have two ways of calculating this work. The quicker way is to use the work– kinetic energy theorem of Eq. 7.2.8 (ΔK = W), where the net work W done by the forces is W N + W g + W T and the change ΔK in the kinetic energy is just zero (because the ini- tial and final kinetic energies are the same—namely, zero). So, Eq. 7.2.8 gives us 0 = W N + W g + W T = 0 − 1.96 × 10 4 J + W T W T = 1.96 × l0 4 J.
and
F net,x = ma x, F T − mg sin 30° = m(0), to find
W T = F T d cos 0° = (mg sin 30°)d cos 0° = (200 kg)(9.8 m /s 2 )(sin 30°)(20 m) cos 0° = 1.96 × 10 4 J.
We can find the work done by the gravitational force in either of two ways (you pick the more appealing way). From an ear- lier discussion about ramps (Sample Problem 5.3.2 and Fig. 5.3.6), we know that the component of the gravita- tional force along the slope has magnitude mg sin θ and is directed down the slope. Thus the magnitude is
(Answer)
(Answer)
d
(a )
θ FN
x T
The angle ϕ between the displacement and this force component is 180°. So we can apply Eq. 7.2.5 to write = −1.96 × 10 J.
F T = mg sin 30°.
This is the magnitude. Because the force and the displace- ment are both up the slope, the angle between those two vectors is zero. So, we can now write Eq. 7.2.5 to find the work done by the rope’s force:
Work Wg by the gravitational force.
W g = F gx d cos 180° = (980 N)(20 m)(−1)
(Answer)
Instead of doing this, we can apply Newton’s second law for motion along the x axis to find the magnitude F T of the rope’s force. Assuming that the acceleration along the slope is zero (except for the brief starting and stopping), we can write
(Answer)
F gx = mg sin θ = (200 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 ) sin 30° = 980 N.
(Answer)
Work WT by the rope’s force.
→
→
→
→
→
Calculations:
4
165
Does negative work
mg
sin θ mg
(b)
θ
F
Does positive work cos θ
g
The negative result means that the gravitational force Figure 7.3.3 (a) A sleigh is pulled up a snowy slope. (b) The free-body diagram for the sleigh. removes energy from the sleigh.
/
166
C HAP T ER 7 KINET IC ENERGY AND WORK
Sample Problem 7.3.2
Work done on an accelerating elevator cab
An elevator cab of mass m = 500 kg is descending with speed v i = 4.0 m/s when its supporting cable begins to slip, allowing it to fall with constant acceleration a = g / 5 (Fig. 7.3.4a). →
Elevator cable
→
(a) During the fall through a distance d = 12 m, what is the work W g done on the cab by the gravitational force F g ? →
KEY IDEA We can treat the cab as a particle and thus use Eq. 7.3.1 (W g = mgd cos ϕ ) to find the work W g. From Fig. 7.3.4b, we see that the angle between the directions of F g and the cab’s displacement d is 0°. So, Calculation:
→
→
2
W g = mgd cos 0° = (500 kg)(9.8 m/s )(12 m)(1)
An elevator cab, descending with speed v i , suddenly begins to acceler- ate downward. (a) It moves through a displacement d with constant accel- eration a = g / 5. (b) A free-body diagram for the cab, displacement included.
y
Figure 7.3.4
Cab
T
→
→
Fg d
→
Does negative work Does positive work
a
(a )
(b )
(b) During the 12 m fall, what is the work W T done on the cab by the upward pull T of the elevator cable?
Note that W T is not simply the negative of W g because the cab accelerates during the fall. Thus, Eq. 7.3.5 (which assumes that the initial and final kinetic energies are equal) does not apply here.
KEY IDEA
(c) What is the net work W done on the cab during the fall?
= 5.88 × 10 4 J ≈ 59 kJ.
(Answer)
→
We can calculate work W T with Eq. 7.2.5 (W = Fd cos ϕ) by first writing F net,y = ma y for the components in Fig. 7.3.4b. Calculations:
The net work is the sum of the works done by the forces acting on the cab: Calculation:
W = W g + W T = 5.88 × 10 4 J − 4.70 × 10 4 J = 1.18 × 10 4 J ≈ 12 kJ.
We get T − F g = ma.
(7.3.7)
Solving for T, substituting mg for F g, and then substituting the result in Eq. 7.2.5, we obtain W T = Td cos ϕ = m(a + g)d cos ϕ .
(7.3.8)
Next, substituting −g/5 for the (downward) acceleration a and then 180° for the angle ϕ between the directions of forces T and m g , we find g 4 mgd cos ϕ W T = m ( − __ + g ) d cos ϕ = __ 5 5 4 (500 kg)(9.8 m / s2 = __ )(12 m) cos 180° 5 = −4.70 × 10 4 J ≈ −47 kJ. (Answer) →
Caution:
→
(Answer)
(d) What is the cab’s kinetic energy at the end of the 12 m fall?
KEY IDEA The kinetic energy changes because of the net work done on the cab, according to Eq. 7.2.9 (K f = K i + W). From Eq. 7.1.1, we write the initial kinetic 1 energy as K i = _ mv 2 i . We then write Eq. 7.2.9 as 2 Calculation:
1 K f = K i + W = _ mv 2 i + W 2
1 2 4 = _ 2 (500 kg)(4.0 m/s) + 1.18 × 10 J
= 1.58 × 10 4 J ≈ 16 kJ.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Checkpoint 7.3.1
We do work W 1 in pulling some boxy fruit up along a frictionless ramp by a rope through a distance d. We then increase the angle of the ramp and again pull the boxy fruit up the ramp through the same distance d. Is our work greater than, less than, or the same as W 1 ?
/
7.4 WORK D ONE BY A SP RING F ORC E
167
7.4 WORK DONE BY A SPRING FORCE Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
7.4.1 Apply the relationship (Hooke’s law) between the
to the final position of the object or by using the
force on an object due to a spring, the stretch or com- pression of the spring, and the spring constant of the
known generic result of that integration. 7.4.4 Calculate work by graphically integrating on a
spring.
graph of force versus position of the object.
7.4.2 Identify that a spring force is a variable force.
7.4.5 Apply the work–kinetic energy theorem to situa-
7.4.3 Calculate the work done on an object by a spring
tions in which an object is moved by a spring force.
force by integrating the force from the initial position
Key Ideas →
●
The force
F s from a spring is →
→
F s = −kd
●
(Hooke’s law),
●
→
where
A spring force is thus a variable force: It varies with
the displacement of the spring’s free end.
d is the displacement of the spring’s free end
If an object is attached to the spring’s free end, the
W s done on the object by the spring force when x i to a final position x f is work
from its position when the spring is in its relaxed state
k is the spring x axis
(neither compressed nor extended), and
constant (a measure of the spring’s stiffness). If an
the object is moved from an initial position
1 2 _ W s = _ kx − 1 kx 2 . 2 i 2 f
lies along the spring, with the origin at the location of the spring’s free end when the spring is in its relaxed state,
If
we can write
F x = −kx
x i = 0 and x f = x , then the equation becomes 1 2 W s = − _ kx . 2
(Hooke’s law).
Work Done by a Spring Force
We next want to examine the work done on a particle-like object by a particular type of variable force—namely, a spring force, the force from a spring. Many forces in nature have the same mathematical form as the spring force. Thus, by examining this one force, you can gain an understanding of many others. The Spring Force
Figure 7.4.1a shows a spring in its relaxed state—that is, neither compressed nor extended. One end is fixed, and a particle-like object—a block, say—is attached to the other, free end. If we stretch the spring by pulling the block to the right as in Fig. 7.4.1b, the spring pulls on the block toward the left. (Because a spring force acts to restore the relaxed state, it is sometimes said to be a restoring force.) If we compress the spring by pushing the block to the left as in Fig. 7.4.1c, the spring now pushes on the block toward the right. To a good approximation for many springs, the force F s from a spring is pro- portional to the displacement d of the free end from its position when the spring is in the relaxed state. The spring force is given by
x Fx
=0 =0
Block attached to spring x
0 (a )
→
→
→
→
F s = −k d
x Fx
positive negative
d Fs
(7.4.1)
(Hooke’s law),
0 (b )
which is known as Hooke’s law after Robert Hooke, an English scientist of the late 1600s. The minus sign in Eq. 7.4.1 indicates that the direction of the spring
x
d
(a) A spring in its relaxed state. The origin of an x axis has been placed at the end of the spring that is attached to a block. (b) The block is displaced by d , and the spring is stretched by a positive amount x. Note the restoring force F s exerted by the spring. (c) The spring is compressed by a negative amount x. Again, note the restoring force.
Fs
Figure 7.4.1
x
x
Fx
negative positive
→
→
x
x
0 (c )
/
168
C HAP T ER 7 KINET IC ENERGY AND WORK
force is always opposite the direction of the displacement of the spring’s free end. The constant k is called the spring constant (or force constant) and is a measure of the stiffness of the spring. The larger k is, the stiffer the spring; that is, the larger k is, the stronger the spring’s pull or push for a given displacement. The SI unit for k is the newton per meter. In Fig. 7.4.1 a n x axis has been placed parallel to the length of the spring, with the origin (x = 0) at the position of the free end when the spring is in its relaxed state. For this common arrangement, we can write Eq. 7.4.1 as F x = −kx
(Hooke’s law),
(7.4.2)
where we have changed the subscript. If x is positive (the spring is stretched toward the right on the x axis), then F x is negative (it is a pull toward the left). If x is negative (the spring is compressed toward the left), then F x is positive (it is a push toward the right). Note that a spring force is a variable force because it is a function of x, the position of the free end. Thus F x can be symbolized as F(x). Also note that Hooke’s law is a linear relationship between F x and x. The Work Done by a Spring Force
To find the work done by the spring force as the block in Fig. 7.4.1a moves, let us make two simplifying assumptions about the spring. (1) It is massless; that is, its mass is negligible relative to the block’s mass. (2) It is an ideal spring; that is, it obeys Hooke’s law exactly. Let us also assume that the contact between the block and the floor is frictionless and that the block is particle-like. We give the block a rightward jerk to get it moving and then leave it alone. As the block moves rightward, the spring force F x does work on the block, decreasing the kinetic energy and slowing the block. However, we cannot find this work by using Eq. 7.2.5 (W = Fd cos ϕ ) because there is no one value of F to plug into that equation—the value of F increases as the block stretches the spring. There is a neat way around this problem. (1) We break up the block’s dis- placement into tiny segments that are so small that we can neglect the variation in F in each segment. (2) Then in each segment, the force has (approximately) a single value and thus we can use Eq. 7.2.5 to find the work in that segment. (3) Then we add up the work results for all the segments to get the total work. Well, that is our intent, but we don’t really want to spend the next several days adding up a great many results and, besides, they would be only approximations. Instead, let’s make the segments infinitesimal so that the error in each work result goes to zero. And then let’s add up all the results by integration instead of by hand. Through the ease of calculus, we can do all this in minutes instead of days. Let the block’s initial position be x i and its later position be x f. Then divide the distance between those two positions into many segments, e ach of tiny length Δx. Label these segments, starting from x i, as segments 1, 2, and so on. As the block moves through a segment, the spring force hardly varies because the seg- ment is so short that x hardly varies. Thus, we can approximate the force mag- nitude as being constant within the segment. Label these magnitudes as F x1 in segment 1, F x2 in segment 2, and so on. With the force now constant in each segment, we can find the work done within each segment by using Eq. 7.2.5. H ere ϕ = 180°, and so cos ϕ = −1. Then the work done is −F x1 Δx in segment 1, −F x 2 Δx in segment 2, and so on. The net work W s done by the spring, from x i to x f , is the sum of all these works: W s = ∑ −F xj Δx,
(7.4.3)
/
7.4 WORK D ONE BY A SP RING F ORC E
169
where j labels the segments. In the limit as Δx goes to zero, Eq. 7.4.3 becomes x f
W s = −F x dx .
(7.4.4)
x i
From Eq. 7.4.2, the force magnitude F x is kx. Thus, substitution leads to x f
x f
i
i
W s = −kx dx = −k x dx x x x 1 1 = (− _ k)[ x 2 ] f = (− _ k)( x 2 − x 2 ). 2
x i
2
f
i
(7.4.5)
Multiplied out, this yields 1 2 1 _ kx 2 W s = _ kx − 2 f 2 i
(work b y a spring force).
(7.4.6)
This work W s done by the spring force can have a positive or negative value, depending on whether the net transfer of energy is to or from the block as the block moves from x i to x f . Caution: The final position x f appears in the second term on the right side of Eq. 7.4.6. Therefore, Eq. 7.4.6 tells us: Work W s is positive if the block ends up closer to the relaxed position (x = 0) than it was initially. It is negative if the block ends up farther away from x = 0. It is zero if the block ends up at the same distance from x = 0.
If x i = 0 and if we call the final position x, then Eq. 7.4.6 becomes 1 2 W s = − _ kx 2
(work by a spring force).
(7.4.7)
The Work Done by an Applied Force
Now suppose that we displace the block along the x axis while continuing to apply a force F a to it. During the displacement, our applied force does work W a on the block while the spring force does work W s. By Eq. 7.2.8, the change ΔK in the kinetic energy of the block due to these two energy transfers is →
ΔK = K f − K i = W a + W s ,
(7.4.8)
in which K f is the kinetic energy at the end of the displacement and K i is that at the start of the displacement. If the block is stationary before and after the dis- placement, then K f and K i are both zero and Eq. 7.4.8 reduces to W a = −W s .
(7.4.9)
If a block that is attached to a spring is stationary before and after a displace- ment, then the work done on it by the applied force displacing it is the negative of the work done on it by the spring force.
Caution: If the block is not stationary before and after the displacement, then this statement is not true. Checkpoint 7.4.1
For three situations, the initial and final positions, respectively, along the x axis for the block in Fig. 7. 4.1 are (a) −3 cm, 2 cm; (b) 2 cm, 3 cm; and (c) −2 cm, 2 cm. In each situ- ation, is the work done by the spring force on the block positive, negative, or zero?
/
170
C HAP T ER 7 KINET IC ENERGY AND WORK
Sample Problem 7.4.1
Work done by a spring to change kinetic energy
When a spring does work on an object, we cannot find the work by simply multiplying the spring force by the object’s displacement. The reason is that there is no one value for the force—it changes. However, we can split the displacement up into an infinite number of tiny parts and then approximate the force in each as being constant. Integration sums the work done in all those parts. Here we use the generic result of the integration. In Fig. 7.4.2, a cumin canister of mass m = 0.40 kg slides across a horizontal frictionless counter with speed v = 0.50 m/s. It then runs into and compresses a spring of spring constant k = 750 N/m. When the canister is momentarily stopped by the spring, by what distance d is the spring compressed?
The spring force does negative work, decreasing speed and kinetic energy.
v
k
Frictionless
m
d
Stop Figure 7.4.2
First touch
A canister moves toward a spring.
Putting the first two of these ideas together, we write the work–kinetic energy theorem for the canister as Calculations:
1 2 K f − K i = − _ kd . 2
KEY IDEAS 1. The work W s done on the canister by the spring force is related to the requested distance d by Eq. 7.4.7 1 2 ( W s = − _ kx ), with d replacing x. 2 2. The work W s is also related to the kinetic energy of the canister by Eq. 7.2.8 (K f − K i = W ).
Substituting according to the third key idea gives us this expression: 1 1 2 0 − _ mv 2 = − _ kd . 2 2
Simplifying, solving for d, and substituting known data then give us ________
___
0.40 kg m = (0.50 m / s) ________ d = v √ __ k 750 N / m
3. The canister’s kinetic energy has an initial value of 1 2 K = _ 2 mv and a value of zero when the canister is momentarily at rest.
√
= 1.2 × 10 −2 m = 1.2 cm.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
7.5 WORK DONE BY A GENERAL VARIABLE FORCE Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
7.5.1 Giv en a variable force as a function of pos i-
7.5.3 Convert a graph of acceleration versus position
tion, calculate the work done by it on an object by integrating the function from the initial to the final
to a graph of force versus position. 7.5.4 Apply the work–kinetic energy theorem to situa-
position of the object, in one or more dimens ions .
tions where an object is moved by a variable force.
7.5.2 Given a graph of force versus position, calculate the work done by graphically integrating from the initial position to the final position of the object.
Key Ideas →
●
When the force
F on a particle-like object depends F →
on the position of the object, the work done by
y but not on x or z , and component F z may z but not on x or y , then the work is
depend on depend on
on the object while the object moves from an initial
r i with coordinates (x i, y i, z i) to a final posi- tion r f with coordinates (x , y , z ) must be found by f f f integrating the force. If we assume that component F x may depend on x but not on y or z, component F y may
x f
y f
z f
x i
y i
z i
W = F x dx + F y dy + F z dz.
position
→
●
F has only an x component, then this reduces to
If
x f
W = F(x ) dx . x i
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171
7.5 WORK D ONE BY A GENERAL V ARIABL E F ORC E
Work is equal to the area under the curve.
Work Done by a General Variable Force One-Dimensional Analysis
Let us return to the situation of Fig. 7.2.1 but now consider the force to be in the positive direction of the x axis and the force magnitude to vary with position x. Thus, as the bead (particle) moves, the magnitude F(x) of the force doing work on it changes. Only the magnitude of this variable force changes, not its direction, and the magnitude at any position does not change with time. Figure 7.5.1a shows a plot of such a one-dimensional variable force. We want an expression for the work done on the particle by this force as the particle moves from an initial point x i to a final point x f . However, we cannot use Eq. 7.2.5 (W = Fd cos ϕ ) because it applies only for a constant force F . Here, again, we shall use calculus. We divide the area under the curve of Fig. 7.5.1a into a number of narrow strips of width Δx (Fig. 7.5.1b). We choose Δx small enough to permit us to take the force F(x) as being reasonably constant over that interval. We let F j,avg be the average v alue of F (x) within the jth interval. Then in Fig. 7.5.1b, F j,avg is the height of the jth strip. With F j,avg considered constant, the increment (small amount) of work ΔW j done by the force in the jth interval is now approximately given by Eq. 7.2.5 and is
( )
F x
(a)
0
xi
xf
x
→
ΔW j = F j,avg Δx.
(7.5.1)
We can approximate that area with the area of these strips. ( )
F x
Δ Wj F j,
(b )
0
xi
In Fig. 7.5.1b, ΔW j is then equal to the area of the jth rectangular, s haded strip. To approximate the total work W done by the force as the particle moves from x i to x f, we add the areas of all the strips between x i and x f in Fig. 7.5.1b: W = ∑Δ W j = ∑F j,avg Δx.
W = lim ∑F j,avg Δx. Δx→0
F
x
( x)
0
(c )
xi
Δx
xf
x
For the best, take the limit of strip widths going to zero.
(7.5.3) F
This limit is exactly what we mean by the integral of the function F(x) between the limits x i and x f. Thus, Eq. 7.5.3 becomes x f
xf
We can do better with more, narrower strips.
(7.5.2)
Equation 7.5.2 is an approximation because the broken “skyline” formed by the tops of the rectangular strips in Fig. 7.5.1b only approximates the actual curve of F(x). We can make the approximation better by reducing the strip width Δx and using more strips (Fig. 7.5.1c). In the limit, we let the strip width approach zero; the number of strips then becomes infinitely large and we have, a s an exact result,
Δx
avg
( x)
W
W = F(x) dx x i
(work: variable force).
(7.5.4)
If we know the function F(x), we can substitute it into Eq. 7.5.4, introduce the proper limits of integration, carry out the integration, and thus find the work. (Appendix E contains a list of common integrals.) Geometrically, the work is equal to the area between the F(x) curve and the x axis, between the limits x i and x f (shaded in Fig. 7.5.1d ). Three-Dimensional Analysis
Consider now a particle that is acted on by a three-dimensional force ˆ ˆ F = F xˆ i + F y j + F zk ,
→
(7.5.5)
in which the components F x, F F z can depend on the position of the par- y , and ticle; that is, they can be functions of that position. However, we make three
(d )
0
xi
xf
x
(a) A one-dimensional force F ( x) plotted against the dis- placement x of a particle on which it acts. The particle moves from x i to x f . (b) Same as (a) but with the area under the curve divided into narrow strips. (c) Same as (b) but with the area divided into narrower strips. (d) The limiting case. The work done by the force is given by Eq. 7.5.4 and is represented by the shaded area between the curve and the x axis and between x i and x f . Figure 7.5.1 →
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172
C HAP T ER 7 KINET IC ENERGY AND WORK
simplifications: F x may depend on x but not on y or z, F y may depend on y but not on x or z, and F z may depend on z but not on x or y. Now let the particle move through an incremental displacement ˆ . d r = dx ˆ i + dy ˆ j + dz k
(7.5.6)
→
→
The increment of work dW done on the particle by F during the displacement d r is, by Eq. 7.2.6,
→
dW = F ⋅ d r = F x dx + F y dy + F z dz. →
→
(7.5.7)
→
The work W done by F while the particle moves from an initial position r i having coordinates (x i, y i, z i) to a final position r f having coordinates (x f , y f , z f) is then r f
x f
y f
z f
i
i
i
i
W = dW = F x dx + F y dy + F z dz . r x y z
(7.5.8)
→
If F has only an x component, then the y and z terms in Eq. 7.5.8 are zero and the equation reduces to Eq. 7.5.4. Work–Kinetic Energy Theorem with a Variable Force
Equation 7.5.4 gives the work done by a variable force on a particle in a one- dimensional situation. Let us now make certain that the work is equal to the change in kinetic energy, as the work–kinetic energy theorem states. Consider a particle of mass m, moving along an x axis and acted on by a net force F(x) that is directed along that axis. The work done on the particle by this force as the particle moves from position x i to position x f is given by Eq. 7.5.4 as x f
x f
x i
x i
W = F(x ) dx = ma dx ,
(7.5.9)
in which we use Newton’s second law to replace F(x) with ma. We can write the quantity ma dx in Eq. 7.5.9 as dv dx. (7.5.10) ma dx = m ___ dt From the chain rule of calculus, we have dv = ___ dv ___ dx = ___ dv v, ___
(7.5.11)
dv v dx = mv dv. ma dx = m ___ dx
(7.5.12)
dt
dx dt
dx
and Eq. 7.5.10 becomes
Substituting Eq. 7.5.12 into Eq. 7.5.9 yields v f
v f
W = mv dv = m v dv v i
v i
1 1 _ 2 = _ mv 2 f − 2 mv i . 2
(7.5.13)
Note that when we change the variable from x to v we are required to express the limits on the integral in terms of the new variable. Note also that because the mass m is a constant, we are able to move it outside the integral. Recognizing the terms on the right side of Eq. 7.5.13 as kinetic energies allows us to write this equation as W = K f − K i = ΔK, which is the work–kinetic energy theorem.
/
173
7.5 WORK D ONE BY A GENERAL V ARIABL E F ORC E
Checkpoint 7.5.1
A particle moves along an x axis from x = 0 to x = 2.0 m as a force F = (3 x 2 N) ˆ i acts on it. How much work does the force do on the particle in that displacement? →
Sample Problem 7.5.1
Epidural
ecruoS ecneicS/izzaraM .P rD
(a) 12
)N( F
In a procedure commonly used in childbirth, a surgeon or an anesthetist must run a needle through the skin on the patient’s back (Fig. 7.5.2a), then through various tis- sue layers and into a narrow region called the epidural space that lies within the spinal canal surrounding the spi- nal cord. The needle is intended to deliver an anesthetic fluid. This tricky procedure requires much practice so that the doctor knows when the needle has reached the epidural space and not overshot it, a mistake that could result in serious complications. In the past, that practice has been done with actual patients. Now, however, new doctors can practice on virtual-reality simulations before injecting their first patient, allowing a doctor to learn how the force varies with a needle’s penetration. Figure 7.5.2b is a graph of the force magnitude F ver- sus displacement x of the needle tip in a typical epidural procedure. (The line segments have been straightened somewhat from the original data.) As x increases from 0, the skin resists the needle, but at x = 8.0 mm the force is finally great enough to pierce the skin, and then the required force decreases. Similarly, the needle finally pierces the interspinous ligament at x = 18 mm and the relatively tough ligamentum flavum at x = 30 mm. The needle then enters the epidural space (where it is to deliver the anesthetic fluid), and the force drops sharply. A new doctor must learn this pattern of force versus displacement to recognize when to stop pushing on the needle. Thus, this is the pattern to be programmed into a virtual-reality simulation of epidural procedure. How much work W is done by the force exerted on the needle to get the needle to the epidural space at x = 30 mm?
6
0
10
20 x
12
30
(mm) (b) J
F
C
(1) We can calculate the work W done by a variable force F(x) by integrating the force versus position x. Equation 7.5.4 tells us that
)N( F
KEY IDEAS
E
6
K A
G B
H
I
D
x f
W = F(x) dx . x i
We want the work done by the force during the displace- ment from x i = 0 to x f = 0.030 m. (2) We can evaluate the integral by finding the area under the curve on the graph of Fig 7.5.2b.
0
10
20 x
30
(mm) ( c)
(a) Epidural injection. (b) The force magnitude F versus displacement x of the needle. (c) Splitting up the graph to find the area under the curve. Figure 7.5.2
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174
C HAP T ER 7 KINET IC ENERGY AND WORK
Because our graph consists of straight-line segments, we can find the area by splitting the region below the curve into rectangular and triangular regions, as shown in Fig. 7.5.2c. For example, the area in triangular region A is Calculations:
Once we’ve calculated the areas for all the labeled regions in the figure, we find that the total work is W = (sum of the areas of regions A through K) = 0.048 + 0.024 + 0.012 + 0.036 + 0.009 + 0.001 + 0.016 + 0.048 + 0.016 + 0.004 + 0.024
1 area A = _ (0.0080 m )(12 N) = 0.048 N ⋅ m = 0.048 J. 2
= 0.238 J.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
7.6 POWER Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
7.6.1 Apply the relationship between average power,
7.6.3 Determine the instantaneous power by taking
the work done by a force, and the time interval in
a dot product of the force vector and an object’s
which that work is done.
velocity vector, in magnitude-angle and unit-vector
7.6.2 Given the work as a function of time, find the
notations.
instantaneous power.
Key Ideas ●
The power due to a force is the rate at which that
force does work on an object. ●
If the force does work
●
Instantaneous power is the instantaneous rate of
doing work:
____ . P = dW dt
W during a time interval Δt,
the average power due to the force over that time interval is
F at an angle ϕ
→
●
For a force
to the direction of travel
of the instantaneous velocity
W . P avg = ___ Δt
v , the instantaneous
→
power is
P = Fv cos ϕ = F ⋅ v . →
→
Power
The time rate at which work is done by a force is said to be the power due to the force. If a force does an amount of work W in an amount of time Δt, the average power due to the force during that time interval is W P avg = ___ Δt
(average power).
(7.6.1)
The instantaneous power P is the instantaneous time rate of doing work, which we can write as dW P = ____ dt
(instantaneous power).
(7.6.2)
Suppose we know the work W(t) done by a force as a function of time. Then to get the instantaneous power P at, say, time t = 3.0 s during the work, we would first take the time derivative of W(t) and then evaluate the result for t = 3.0 s.
/
7.6 P OWER
175
The SI unit of power is the joule per second. This unit is used so often that it has a special name, the watt (W), after James Watt, who greatly improved the rate at which steam engines could do work. In the British system, the unit of power is the foot-pound per second. Often the horsepower is used. These are related by (7.6.3)
1 horsepower = 1 hp = 550 ft ⋅ lb / s = 746 W.
(7.6.4)
sserP amuZ/nialgeR
and
1 watt = 1 W = 1 J / s = 0.738 ft ⋅ lb / s
Inspection of Eq. 7.6.1 shows that work can be expressed as power multiplied by time, as in the common unit kilowatt-hour. Thus, 1 kilowatt-hour = 1 kW ⋅ h = (10 3 W )(3600 s)
The power due to the truck’s applied force on the trailing load is the rate at which that (7.6.5) force does work on the load. Figure 7.6.1
= 3.60 × 10 6 J = 3.60 MJ.
Perhaps because they appear on our utility bills, the watt and the kilowatt-hour have become identified as electrical units. They can be used equally well as units for other examples of power and energy. Thus, if you pick up a book from the floor and put it on a tabletop, you are free to report the work that you have done as, say, 4 × 10 −6 kW · h (or more conveniently as 4 mW · h). We can also express the rate at which a force does work on a particle (or particle-like object) in terms of that force and the particle’s velocity. For a particle that is moving along a straight line (say, an x axis) and is acted on by a constant force F directed at some angle ϕ to that line, Eq. 7.6.2 becomes →
F cos ϕ dx dW = __________ dx P = ___ = F cos ϕ (___ dt ), dt dt P = Fv cos ϕ .
or
(7.6.6) →
Reorganizing the right side of Eq. 7.6.6 as the dot product F ⋅ v , we may also write the equation as →
P = F ⋅ v →
→
(7.6.7)
(instantaneous p ower). →
For example, the truck in Fig. 7.6.1 e xerts a force F on the trailing load, which has velocity v at some instant. The instantaneous power due to F is the rate at which F does work on the load at that instant and is given by Eqs. 7.6.6 and 7.6.7. Saying that this power is “the power of the truck” is often acceptable, but keep in mind what is meant: Power is the rate at which the applied force does work. →
→
→
Checkpoint 7.6.1
A block moves with uniform circular motion because a cord tied to the block is anchored at the center of a circle. Is the power due to the force on the block from the cord positive, negative, or zero?
Sample Problem 7.6.1
Power, force, and velocity
Here we calculate an instantaneous work—that is, the rate at which work is being done at any given instant rather than averaged over a time interval. Figure 7.6.2 shows constant forces F 1 and F 2 acting on a box as the box slides right- ward across a frictionless floor. Force F 1 is horizontal, with →
→
→
→
magnitude 2.0 N; force F 2 is angled upward by 60° to the floor and has magnitude 4.0 N. The speed v of the box at a certain instant is 3.0 m/s. What is the power due to each force acting on the box at that instant, and what is the net power? Is the net power changing at that instant?
/
176
C HAP T ER 7 KINET IC ENERGY AND WORK
KEY IDEA
→
We want an instantaneous power, not an average power over a time period. Also, we know the box’s velocity (rather than the work done on it).
Negative power. (This force is removing energy.) Frictionless
60°
F1
→
→
P 2 = F 2 v cos ϕ2 = (4.0 N)(3.0 m/s) cos 60° (Answer) →
This positive result tells us that force F 2 is transferring energy to the box at the rate of 6.0 J/s. The net power is the sum of the individual powers (complete with their algebraic signs):
v
P net = P 1 + P 2
→
Two forces F 1 and F 2 act on a box that slides rightward across a frictionless floor. The velocity of the box is v . Figure 7.6.2
= −6.0 W + 6.0 W = 0,
→
We use Eq. 7.6.6 for each force. For force F 1 , at angle ϕ 1 = 180° to velocity v , we have Calculation: →
→
= 6.0 W.
Positive power. (This force is supplying energy.)
F2
This negative result tells us that force F 1 is transferring energy from the box at the rate of 6.0 J/s. For force F 2 , at angle ϕ2 = 60° to velocity v , we have
→
(Answer)
which tells us that the net rate of transfer of energy to or _ mv 2 ) from the box is zero. Thus, the kinetic energy (K = 1 2 of the box is not changing, and so the speed of the box will remain at 3.0 m/s. With neither the forces F 1 and F 2 nor the velocity v changing, we see from Eq. 7.6.7 that P 1 and P 2 are constant and thus so is P net . →
P 1 = F 1 v cos ϕ 1 = (2.0 N)(3.0 m/s) cos 180°
→
→
= −6.0 W.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Review & Summary The kinetic energy K associated with the motion of a particle of mass m and speed v, where v is well below the speed of light, is Kinetic Energy
1 2 K = _ (kinetic energy). 2 mv
Work W is energy transferred to or from an object via a force acting on the object. Energy transferred to the object is positive work, and from the object, negative work. The work done on a particle by a constant force F during displacement d is →
W = Fd cos ϕ = F ⋅ d (work, constant force), →
→
→
→
W g = mgd cos ϕ,
(7.1.1)
Work
Work Done by a Constant Force
The work W g done by the gravitational force F g on a particle-like object of mass m as the object moves through a displacement d is given by Work Done by the Gravitational Force
→
(7.2.5, 7.2.6)
in which ϕ is the constant angle between the directions of F and d . Only the component of F that is along the displace- ment d can do work on the object. When two or more forces act on an object, their net work is the sum of the individual works done by the forces, which is also equal to the work that would be done on the object by the net force F net of those forces.
→
The work W a done by an applied force as a particle-like object is either lifted or lowered is related to the work W g done by the gravitational force and the change ΔK in the object’s kinetic energy by Work Done in Lifting and Lowering an Object
ΔK = K f − K i = W a + W g .
→
→
(7.3.1)
in which ϕ is the angle between F g and d . →
(7.3.4)
→
→
→
For a particle, a change ΔK in the kinetic energy equals the net work W done on the particle: Work and Kinetic Energy
ΔK = K f − K i = W (work–kinetic energy theorem),
(7.2.8)
in which K i is the initial kinetic energy of the particle and K f is the kinetic energy after the work is done. Equation 7.2.8 rearranged gives us K f = K i + W.
(7.2.9)
If K f = K i , then Eq. 7.3.4 reduces to W a = −W g ,
(7.3.5)
which tells us that the applied force transfers as much energy to the object as the gravitational force transfers from it. Spring Force
The force F s from a spring is →
→
→
F s = −k d (Hooke’s law),
(7.4.1)
where d is the displacement of the spring’s free end from its posi- tion when the spring is in its relaxed state (neither compressed nor extended), and k is the spring constant (a measure of the spring’s stiffness). If an x axis lies along the spring, with the →
/
177
QU EST IONS
origin at the location of the spring’s free end when the spring is in its relaxed state, Eq. 7.4.1 can be written as F x = −kx (Hooke’s law).
may depend on y but not on x or z, and component F z may depend on z but not on x or y, then the work is
(7.4.2)
A spring force is thus a variable force: It varies with the displacement of the spring’s free end. If an object is attached to the spring’s free end, the work W s done on the object by the spring force when the object is moved from an initial position x i to a final position x f is
x f
y f
z f
x i
y i
z i
W = F x dx + F y dy + F z dz . →
If F has only an x component, then Eq. 7.5.8 reduces to x f
W = F(x) dx .
Work Done by a Spring Force
1 2 _ 1 2 W s = _ 2 kx i − 2 kx f .
(7.4.6)
If x i = 0 and x f = x, then Eq. 7.4.6 becomes 1 W s = − _ k x 2 . 2
(7.4.7)
When the force F on a par- ticle-like object depends on the position of the object, the work done by F on the object while the object moves from an initial position r i with coordinates (x i , y i , z i ) to a final position r f with coordinates (x f , y f , z f ) must be found by integrating the force. If we assume that component F x may depend on x but not on y or z, component F y →
Work Done by a Variable Force →
(7.5.8)
(7.5.4)
x i
The power due to a force is the rate at which that force does work on an object. If the force does work W during a time interval Δt, the average power due to the force over that time inter- val is W . P avg = ___ (7.6.1) Δt Power
Instantaneous power is the instantaneous rate of doing work: dW . P = ___ (7.6.2) dt For a force F at an angle ϕ to the direction of travel of the instantaneous velocity v , the instantaneous power is →
→
P = Fv cos ϕ = F ⋅ v . →
(7.6.6, 7.6.7)
→
Questions Rank the following velocities according to the kinetic energy a particle will have with each velocity, greatest first: (a) v = 4 ˆ i + 3 ˆ j, (b) v = −4 ˆ i + 3 ˆ j, (c) v = −3 ˆ i + 4 ˆ j, (d) v = 3 ˆ i − 4 ˆ j, (e) v = 5 ˆ i, and (f) v = 5 m/s at 30° to the horizontal. 1
y
→
→
→
Figure 7.1a shows two horizontal forces that act on a block that is sliding to the right across a frictionless floor. Figure 7.1b shows three plots of the block’s kinetic energy K versus time t. (a ) Which of the plots best corresponds to the following three situations: (a) F 1 = F 2 , (b) F 1 > F 2 , (c) F 1 k B ). The spring force of which spring does more work if the springs are compressed (a) the same distance and (b) by the same applied force? 9
F2 F1 Fx
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(m)
–F1
A glob of slime is launched or dropped from the edge of a cliff. Which of the graphs in Fig. 7.7 could possibly show how the kinetic energy of the glob changes during its flight? 10
–F2
Figure 7.4
Question 6. K
K
K
K t
In Fig. 7.5, a greased pig has a choice of three frictionless slides along which to slide to the ground. Rank the slides according to how much work the gravitational force does on the pig during the descent, greatest first. 7
t
t
(a ) K
(d )
K
t
K
t
(f) Figure 7.7
(b )
(c )
K
(e )
(a )
t
(b )
t
t
(g )
(h )
Question 10.
(c )
In three situations, a single force acts on a moving par- ticle. Here are the velocities (at that instant) and the forces: (1) v = (−4 ˆ i) m / s, F = (6 ˆ i − 20 ˆ j) N; (2) v = (2 ˆ i − 3 ˆ j) m / s, F = ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ (−2 j + 7 k) N; (3) v = (−3 i + j) m/s, F = (2 i + 6 ˆ j) N. Rank the situations according to the rate at which energy is being trans- ferred, greatest transfer to the particle ranked first, greatest transfer from the particle ranked last. 11
Figure 7.5
Question 7.
→
→
→
Figure 7.6a shows four situations in which a horizontal force acts on the same block, which is initially at rest. The force mag- nitudes are F 2 = F 4 = 2F 1 = 2F 3 . The horizontal component v x of the block’s velocity is shown in Fig. 7.6b for the four situations. (a) Which plot in Fig. 7.6b best corresponds to which force in Fig. 7.6a? (b) Which plot in Fig. 7.6c (for kinetic energy K versus time t) best corresponds to which plot in Fig. 7.6b? 8
F1
F2
F3
F4
→
→
→
Figure 7.8 shows three arrangements of a block attached to identical springs that are in their relaxed state when the block is centered as shown. Rank the arrangements according to the magnitude of the net force on the block, largest first, when the block is displaced by distance d (a) to the right and (b) to the left. Rank the arrangements according to the work done on the block by the spring forces, greatest first, when the block is displaced by d (c) to the right and (d) to the left. 12
x
(a) v x
K A B
(1)
E F t
t
(2) Figure 7.8
(3)
Question 12.
G
C
H
D
(b )
(c ) Figure 7.6
Question 8.
/
P ROBL EMS
179
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
BIO
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 7.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard Flying Circus of Physics
Kinetic Energy
Module 7.2
A proton (mass m = 1.67 × 10 −27 kg) is being acceler- ated along a straight line at 3.6 × 10 15 m/s 2 in a machine. If the proton has an initial speed of 2.4 × 10 7 m/s and travels 3.5 cm, what then is (a) its speed and (b) the increase in its kinetic energy? 1 E
SSM
E If a Saturn V rocket with an Apollo spacecraft attached had a combined mass of 2.9 × 10 5 kg and reached a speed of 11.2 km/s, how much kinetic energy would it then have?
2
E FCP On August 10, 1972, a large meteorite skipped across the atmosphere above the western United States and western Canada, much like a stone skipping across water. The accompa- nying fireball was so bright that it could be seen in the daytime sky and was brighter than the usual meteorite trail. The meteor- ite’s mass was about 4 × 10 6 kg; its speed was about 15 km/s. Had it entered the atmosphere vertically, it would have hit Earth’s surface with about the same speed. (a) Calculate the meteorite’s loss of kinetic energy (in joules) that would have been associated with the vertical impact. (b) Express the energy as a multiple of the explosive energy of 1 megaton of TNT, which is 4.2 × 10 15 J. (c) The energy associated with the atomic bomb explosion over Hiroshima was equivalent to 13 kilotons of TNT. To how many Hiroshima bombs would the meteorite impact have been equivalent? E FCP An explosion at ground level leaves a crater with a diameter that is proportional to the energy of the explosion 1 raised to the _ 3 power; an explosion of 1 megaton of TNT leaves a crater with a 1 km diameter. Below Lake Huron in Michi- gan there appears to be an ancient impact crater with a 50 km diameter. What was the kinetic energy associated with that impact, in terms of (a) megatons of TNT (1 megaton yields 4.2 × 10 15 J) and (b) Hiroshima bomb equivalents (13 kilotons of TNT each)? (Ancient meteorite or comet impacts may have significantly altered the climate, killing off the dinosaurs and other life-forms.)
4
M A father racing his son has half the kinetic energy of the son, who has half the mass of the father. The father speeds up by 1.0 m/s and then has the same kinetic energy as the son. What are the original speeds of (a) the father and (b) the son?
5
→
→
→
t2
5 x
10 (m)
Figure 7.9
Problem 6.
t3
15
20
=0
0.5 s
0
1.0 s
1.5 s
0.2 x
0.4 (m)
Figure 7.10
2.0 s 0.6
0.8
Problem 7.
E A ice block floating in a river is pushed through a displace- ment d = (15 m) ˆ i − (12 m) ˆ j along a straight embankment by rushing water, which exerts a force F = (210 N ) ˆ i − (150 N ) ˆ j on the block. How much work does the force do on the block during the displacement?
8
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→
The only force acting on a 2.0 kg canister that is moving in an xy plane has a magnitude of 5.0 N. The canister initially has a velocity of 4.0 m/s in the positive x direction and some time later has a velocity of 6.0 m/s in the positive y direction. How much work is done on the canister by the 5.0 N force during this time? 9 E
E A coin slides over a frictionless plane and across an xy coordinate system from the origin to a point with xy coordinates (3.0 m, 4.0 m) while a constant force acts on it. The force has magnitude 2.0 N and is directed at a counterclockwise angle of 100° from the positive direction of the x axis. How much work is done by the force on the coin during the displacement?
10
M A 12.0 N force with a fixed orientation does work on a particle as the particle moves through the three-dimensional ˆ displacement d = (2.00 ˆ i − 4.00 ˆ j + 3.00 k) m. What is the angle between the force and the displacement if the change in the par- ticle’s kinetic energy is (a) +30.0 J and (b) −30.0 J?
11
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A can of bolts and nuts is pushed 2.00 m along an x axis by a broom along the greasy (frictionless) floor of a car repair shop in a version of shuffleboard. Figure 7.11 gives the work W done on the can by the con- stant horizontal force from the broom, versus the can’s posi- W tion x. The scale of the figure’s vertical axis is set by W s = 6.0 J. (a) What is the magnitude of that force? (b) If the can had an initial kinetic energy of 3.00 J, moving in the positive direction of the x axis, what is 0 1 2 x (m) its kinetic energy at the end of the 2.00 m? Figure 7.11 Problem 12. 12 M
s
W
0
t1
t
)J(
A bead with mass 1.8 × 10 −2 kg is moving along a wire in the positive direction of an x axis. Beginning at time t = 0, when the bead passes through x = 0 with speed 12 m/s, a constant force acts on the bead. Figure 7.9 indicates the bead’s position at these four times: t 0 = 0, t 1 = 1.0 s, t 2 = 2.0 s, and t 3 = 3.0 s. The bead momentarily stops at t = 3.0 s. What is the kinetic energy of the bead at t = 10 s? 6 M
Work and Kinetic Energy
A 3.0 kg body is at rest on a frictionless horizontal air track when a constant horizontal force F acting in the positive direction of an x axis along the track is applied to the body. A stroboscopic graph of the position of the body as it slides to the right is shown in Fig. 7.10. The force F is applied to the body at t = 0, and the graph records the position of the body at 0.50 s intervals. How much work is done on the body by the applied force F between t = 0 and t = 2.0 s? 7 E
3
t0
Biomedical application
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C HAP T ER 7 KINET IC ENERGY AND WORK
M A luge and its rider, with a total mass of 85 kg, emerge from a downhill track onto a horizontal straight track with an initial speed of 37 m/s. If a force slows them to a stop at a con- stant rate of 2.0 m/s 2 , (a) what magnitude F is required for the force, (b) what distance d do they travel while slowing, and (c) what work W is done on them by the force? What are (d) F, (e) d, and (f) W if they, instead, slow at 4.0 m/s 2 ?
13
M GO An 8.0 kg object is moving in the positive direc- tion of an x axis. When it passes through x = 0, a constant force directed along the axis begins K (J ) to act on it. Figure 7.14 gives its kinetic energy K versus K0 position x as it moves from x = 0 to x = 5.0 m; K 0 = 30.0 J. The force continues to act. What is v when the x (m) 0 5 object moves back through Figure 7.14 Problem 16. x = −3.0 m?
16
r
→
d
GO Figure 7.13 shows M F2 three forces applied to a trunk that moves leftward by 3.00 m θ over a frictionless floor. The F1 force magnitudes are F 1 = 5.00 N, F 2 = 9.00 N, and F 3 = 3.00 N, and the indicated angle F3 is θ = 60.0°. During the dis- placement, (a) what is the net Figure 7.13 Problem 15. work done on the trunk by the three forces and (b) does the kinetic energy of the trunk increase or decrease? 15
M GO In Fig. 7.15, a block of F ice slides down a frictionless ramp at angle θ = 50° while an ice worker pulls on the block (via a rope) with a force F r that has a magnitude of 50 N and is directed up the ramp. As the block slides through dis- tance d = 0.50 m along the ramp, θ its kinetic energy increases by 80 J. Figure 7.15 Problem 19. How much greater would its kinetic energy have been if the rope had not been attached to the block?
19
A block is sent up a friction- less ramp along which an x axis extends upward. Figure 7.16 gives the kinetic energy of the block as a function of position x; the scale of the figure’s vertical axis is set by K s = 40.0 J. If the block’s ini- tial speed is 4.00 m/s, what is the normal force on the block? 20 M
Ks
)J ( K
y M GO Figure 7.12 shows an overhead view of three horizon- F3 tal forces acting on a cargo can- ister that was initially stationary θ3 F1 but now moves across a friction- x less floor. The force magnitudes are F 1 = 3.00 N, F 2 = 4.00 N, θ2 and F 3 = 10.0 N, and the indi- F2 cated angles are θ2 = 50.0° and Figure 7.12 Problem 14. θ3 = 35.0°. What is the net work done on the canister by the three forces during the first 4.00 m of displacement?
14
the car’s weight) by 5.0 cm, how much work did her force do on the car?
0 x
Figure 7.16
1 (m)
2
Problem 20.
SSM A cord is used to vertically lower an initially station- ary block of mass M at a constant downward acceleration of g/4. When the block has fallen a distance d, find (a) the work done by the cord’s force on the block, (b) the work done by the gravitational force on the block, (c) the kinetic energy of the block, and (d) the speed of the block.
21 M
M A cave rescue team lifts an injured spelunker directly upward and out of a sinkhole by means of a motor-driven cable. The lift is performed in three stages, each requiring a vertical dis- tance of 10.0 m: (a) the initially stationary spelunker is accelerated to a speed of 5.00 m/s; (b) he is then lifted at the constant speed of 5.00 m/s; (c) finally he is decelerated to zero speed. How much work is done on the 80.0 kg rescuee by the force lifting him during each stage?
22
M In Fig. 7.17, a constant force F a of magnitude 82.0 N is applied to a 3.00 kg shoe box at angle ϕ = 53.0°, causing the box to move up a frictionless ramp at con- stant speed. How much work is done on the box by F a when the box has moved through vertical distance h = 0.150 m?
23
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ϕ
Fa
→
Module 7.3
Work Done by the Gravitational Force
A helicopter lifts a 72 kg astronaut 15 m vertically from the ocean by means of a cable. The acceleration of the astronaut is g/10. How much work is done on the astronaut by (a) the force from the helicopter and (b) the gravitational force on her? Just before she reaches the helicopter, what are her (c) kinetic energy and (d) speed? 17
E
SSM
(a) In 1975 the roof of Montreal’s Velodrome, with a weight of 360 kN, was lifted by 10 cm so that it could be centered. How much work was done on the roof by the forces making the lift? (b) In 1960 a Tampa, Florida, mother report- edly raised one end of a car that had fallen onto her son when a 1 jack failed. If her panic lift effectively raised 4000 N (about _ of 4 18 E
BIO FCP
Figure 7.17
Problem 23.
M GO In Fig. 7.18, a hori- zontal force F a of magnitude d 20.0 N is applied to a 3.00 kg psychology book as the book slides a distance d = 0.500 m up a frictionless ramp at angle F θ = 30.0°. (a) During the dis- θ placement, what is the net work done on the book by F a , the Figure 7.18 Problem 24. gravitational force on the book, and the normal force on the book? (b) If the book has zero kinetic
24
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y y g g o llo o o h h c c y y s s P P
a
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P ROBL EMS
GO In Fig. 7.19, a 0.250 kg block of H cheese lies on the floor of a 900 kg elevator cab that is being pulled upward by a cable through distance d 1 = 2.40 m and then through distance d 2 = 10.5 m. (a) Through d 1 , if the normal force on the block from the floor has constant mag- nitude F N = 3.00 N, how much work is done on the cab by the force from the cable? (b) Through d 2 , if the work done on the cab by the (constant) force from the cable is 92.61 kJ, what is the magnitude of F N ? 25
Module 7.4
M In Fig. 7.4.1a, a block K of mass m lies on a horizon- tal frictionless surface and is attached to one end of a hori- 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 zontal spring (spring constant x (m) k) whose other end is fixed. The Figure 7.21 Problem 30. block is initially at rest at the posi- tion where the spring is unstretched (x = 0) when a constant hori- zontal force F in the positive direction of the x axis is applied to it. A plot of the resulting kinetic energy of the block versus its position x is shown in Fig. 7.21. The scale of the figure’s verti- cal axis is set by K s = 4.0 J. (a) What is the magnitude of F ? (b) What is the value of k?
30
s
)J ( K
energy at the start of the displacement, what is its speed at the end of the displacement?
181
→
Figure 7.19
Problem 25.
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CALC SSM The only force acting on a 2.0 kg body as it moves along a positive x axis has an x component F x = −6x N, with x in meters. The velocity at x = 3.0 m is 8.0 m/s. (a) What is the velocity of the body at x = 4.0 m? (b) At what positive value of x will the body have a velocity of 5.0 m/s?
31 M
Work Done by a Spring Force
In Fig. 7.4.1, we must apply a force of magnitude 80 N to hold the block stationary at x = −2.0 cm. From that position, we then slowly move the block so that our force does +4.0 J of work on the spring–block system; the block is then again stationary. What is the block’s position? (Hint: There are two answers.) 26 E
A spring and block are in the arrangement of Fig. 7.4.1. When the block is pulled out to x = +4.0 cm, we must apply a force of magnitude 360 N to hold it there. We pull the block to x = 11 cm and then release it. How much work does the spring do on the block as the block moves from x i = +5.0 cm to (a) x = +3.0 cm, (b) x = −3.0 cm, (c) x = −5.0 cm, and (d) x = −9.0 cm? 27 E
E During spring semester at MIT, residents of the parallel buildings of the East Campus dorms battle one another with large catapults that are made with surgical hose mounted on a window frame. A balloon filled with dyed water is placed in a pouch attached to the hose, which is then stretched through the width of the room. Assume that the stretching of the hose obeys Hooke’s law with a spring constant of 100 N/m. If the hose is stretched by 5.00 m and then released, how much work does the force from the hose do on the balloon in the pouch by the time the hose reaches its relaxed length?
28
M In the arrangement of Fig. 7.4.1, we gradually pull the block from x = 0 to x = +3.0 cm, where it is stationary. Figure 7.20 gives the work that our force does on the block. The scale of the figure’s vertical axis is set by W s = 1.0 J. We then pull the block out to x = +5.0 cm and release it from rest. How much work does the spring do on the block when the block moves from x i = +5.0 cm to (a) x = +4.0 cm, (b) x = −2.0 cm, and (c) x = −5.0 cm?
29
Ws
M Figure 7.22 gives spring F force F x versus position x for F the spring–block arrangement of Fig. 7.4.1. The scale is set x (cm) by F s = 160.0 N. We release –2 –1 0 1 2 the block at x = 12 cm. How much work does the spring do –F on the block when the block Figure 7.22 Problem 32. moves from x i = +8.0 cm to (a) x = +5.0 cm, (b) x = −5.0 cm, (c) x = −8.0 cm, and (d) x = −10.0 cm?
32
x
s
s
GO The block in Fig. 7.4.1a lies on a horizontal frictionless surface, and the spring constant is 50 N/m. Initially, the spring is at its relaxed length and the block is stationary at position x = 0. Then an applied force with a constant magnitude of 3.0 N pulls the block in the positive direction of the x axis, stretch- ing the spring until the block stops. When that stopping point is reached, what are (a) the position of the block, (b) the work that has been done on the block by the applied force, and (c) the work that has been done on the block by the spring force? Dur- ing the block’s displacement, what are (d) the block’s position when its kinetic energy is maximum and (e) the value of that maximum kinetic energy? 33 H
Module 7.5
Work Done by a General Variable Force
A 10 kg brick moves along an x axis. Its acceleration as a function of its position is shown in Fig. 7.23. The scale of the figure’s vertical axis is set by a s = 20.0 m/s 2 . What is the net work performed on the brick by the force causing the acceleration as the brick moves from x = 0 to x = 8.0 m? 34 E
CALC
)2 s/m(
)J ( W
as
a
0
1 x
Figure 7.20
(cm)
2
Problem 29.
3
00
2 x
Figure 7.23
4 (m)
6
8
Problem 34.
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C HAP T ER 7 KINET IC ENERGY AND WORK
E CALC SSM The force on a particle is directed along an x axis and given by F = F 0 (x/x 0 − 1). Find the work done by the force in moving the particle from x = 0 to x = 2x 0 by (a) plotting F(x) and measuring the work from the graph and (b) integrating F(x).
35
CALC GO A 5.0 kg block moves in a straight line on a hor- izontal frictionless surface under the influence of a force that var- ies with position as shown in Fig. 7.24. The scale of the figure’s vertical axis is set by F s = 10.0 N. How much work is done by the force as the block moves from the origin to x = 8.0 m?
the cord is a constant 25.0 N. What is the change in the kinetic energy of the cart during the move? y
36 E
)N( e croF
Fs
2
4
8
M
CALC
–Fs
Position (m)
Figure 7.24
Problem 36.
→
a s
)2 s/m( a
2
4
6
x
8
(m)
2
Figure 7.26
Module 7.6
x
1
Problem 42.
Power
A force of 5.0 N acts on a 15 kg body initially at rest. Compute the work done by the force in (a) the first, (b) the second, and (c) the third seconds and (d) the instantaneous power due to the force at the end of the third second. 43 E
GO
0
x x
Figure 7.25 gives the acceleration of a 2.00 kg particle as an applied force F a moves it from rest along an x axis from x = 0 to x = 9.0 m. The scale of the figure’s vertical axis is set by a s = 6.0 m/s 2 . How much work has the force done on the par- ticle when the particle reaches (a) x = 4.0 m, (b) x = 7.0 m, and (c) x = 9.0 m? What is the particle’s speed and direction of travel when it reaches (d) x = 4.0 m, (e) x = 7.0 m, and (f) x = 9.0 m? 37
T
h
0
CALC
SSM
A skier is pulled by a towrope up a frictionless ski slope that makes an angle of 12° with the horizontal. The rope moves parallel to the slope with a constant speed of 1.0 m/s. The force of the rope does 900 J of work on the skier as the skier moves a distance of 8.0 m up the incline. (a) If the rope moved with a constant speed of 2.0 m/s, how much work would the force of the rope do on the skier as the skier moved a distance of 8.0 m up the incline? At what rate is the force of the rope doing work on the skier when the rope moves with a speed of (b) 1.0 m/s and (c) 2.0 m/s? 44 E
E SSM A 100 kg block is pulled at a constant speed of 5.0 m/s across a horizontal floor by an applied force of 122 N directed 37° above the horizontal. What is the rate at which the force does work on the block?
45
–as Figure 7.25
Problem 37.
The loaded cab of an elevator has a mass of 3.0 × 10 3 kg and moves 210 m up the shaft in 23 s at constant speed. At what average rate does the force from the cable do work on the cab? 46 E
M CALC A 1.5 kg block is initially at rest on a horizontal frictionless surface when a horizontal force along an x axis is applied to the block. The force is given by F ( x) = ( 2.5 − x 2 ) ˆ i N, where x is in meters and the initial position of the block is x = 0. (a) What is the kinetic energy of the block as it passes through x = 2.0 m? (b) What is the maximum kinetic energy of the block between x = 0 and x = 2.0 m? 2 ˆ acts on a particle 39 M CALC GO A force F = (cx − 3.00 x ) i as the particle moves along an x axis, with F in newtons, x in meters, and c a constant. At x = 0, the particle’s kinetic energy is 20.0 J; at x = 3.00 m, it is 11.0 J. Find c.
38
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→
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M CALC A can of sardines is made to move along an x axis from x = 0.25 m to x = 1.25 m by a force with a magnitude given by F = exp(−4x 2 ), with x in meters and F in newtons. (Here exp is the exponential function.) How much work is done on the can by the force?
40
M CALC A single force acts on a 3.0 kg particle-like object whose position is given by x = 3.0t − 4.0t 2 + 1.0t 3 , with x in meters and t in seconds. Find the work done by the force from t = 0 to t = 4.0 s.
41
H GO Figure 7.26 shows a cord attached to a cart that can slide along a frictionless horizontal rail aligned along an x axis. The left end of the cord is pulled over a pulley, of negligible mass and friction and at cord height h = 1.20 m, so the cart slides from x 1 = 3.00 m to x 2 = 1.00 m. During the move, the tension in
42
A machine carries a 4.0 kg package from an initial position ˆ at t = 0 to a final of d i = (0.50 m) ˆ i + (0.75 m) ˆ j + (0.20 m) k ˆ ˆ ˆ position of d f = (7.50 m )i + (12.0 m ) j + (7.20 m ) k at t = 12 s. The constant force applied by the machine on the package is F = ˆ i + j + find (a) (2.00 N )ˆ ( 4.00 N )ˆ (6.00 N ) k. For that displacement, the work done on the package by the machine’s force and (b) the average power of the machine’s force on the package. 47 M →
→
→
A 0.30 kg ladle sliding on a horizontal frictionless surface is attached to one end of a horizontal spring (k = 500 N/m) whose other end is fixed. The ladle has a kinetic energy of 10 J as it passes through its equilibrium position (the point at which the spring force is zero). (a) At what rate is the spring doing work on the ladle as the ladle passes through its equilibrium position? (b) At what rate is the spring doing work on the ladle when the spring is compressed 0.10 m and the ladle is moving away from the equilibrium position? 48 M
M SSM A fully loaded, slow-moving freight elevator has a cab with a total mass of 1200 kg, which is required to travel upward 54 m in 3.0 min, starting and ending at rest. The ele- vator’s counterweight has a mass of only 950 kg, and so the elevator motor must help. What average power is required of the force the motor exerts on the cab via the cable?
49
(a) At a certain instant, a particle-like object is acted on by a force F = (4.0 N )ˆ i − j + (2.0 N )ˆ (9.0 N )k while the object’s ˆ 50 M
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183
P ROBL EMS
velocity is v = −( 2.0 m / s )ˆ i + (4.0 m / s )k. What is the instanta- ˆ neous rate at which the force does work on the object? (b) At some other time, the velocity consists of only a y component. If the force is unchanged and the instantaneous power is −12 W, what is the velocity of the object? ˆ acts on 51 M A force F = (3.00 N i + ( 7.00 N ) ˆ j + ( 7.00 N ) k )ˆ →
→
a 2.00 kg mobile object that moves from an initial position of ˆ to a final position of d f = d i = ( 3.00 m ) ˆ i − (2.00 m )ˆ j + (5.00 m ) k ˆ −( 5.00 m ) ˆ i + (4.00 m ) ˆ j + (7.00 m ) k in 4.00 s. Find (a) the work done on the object by the force in the 4.00 s interval, (b) the aver- age power due to the force during that interval, and (c) the angle between vectors d i and d f .
→
→
→
→
H CALC A funny car accelerates from rest through a mea- sured track distance in time T with the engine operating at a con- stant power P. If the track crew can increase the engine power by a differential amount dP, what is the change in the time required for the run?
52
Additional Problems
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To pull a 50 kg crate across a horizontal frictionless floor, a worker applies a force of 210 N, directed 20° above the horizon- tal. As the crate moves 3.0 m, what work is done on the crate by (a) the worker’s force, (b) the gravitational force, and (c) the nor- mal force? (d) What is the total work? 58
A force F a is applied to a bead as the bead is moved along a straight wire through displacement +5.0 cm. The magnitude of F a is set at a certain value, but the angle ϕ between F a and the bead’s displacement can be chosen. Fig- ure 7.30 gives the work W done by F a on the bead for a range of ϕ values; W 0 = 25 J. How much work is done by F a if ϕ is (a) 64° and (b) 147°? 59
→
→
W0
)J( W
Figure 7.27 shows a cold package of hot dogs sliding right- ward across a frictionless floor through a distance d = 20.0 cm while three forces act on the package. Two of them are hori- zontal and have the magnitudes F 1 = 5.00 N and F 2 = 1.00 N; the third is angled down by θ = 60.0° and has the magnitude F 3 = 4.00 N. (a) For the 20.0 cm displacement, what is the net work done on the package by the three applied forces, the gravi- tational force on the package, and the normal force on the pack- age? (b) If the package has a mass of 2.0 kg and an initial kinetic energy of 0, what is its speed at the end of the displacement? 53
to move it distance d = 4.00 m to the side (Fig. 7.29). (a) What is the magni- tude of F when the crate is in this final position? During the crate’s displace- ment, what are (b) the total work L done on it, (c) the work done by the gravitational force on the crate, and (d) the work done by the pull on the crate from the rope? (e) Knowing F that the crate is motionless before and after its displacement, use the d answers to (b), (c), and (d) to find the Figure 7.29 Problem 57. work your force F does on the crate. (f) Why is the work of your force not equal to the product of the horizontal displacement and the answer to (a)?
→
→
0
Problem 59.
→
d F2
θ F3
Problem 53.
GO The only force acting F (N) on a 2.0 kg body as the body F moves along an x axis varies as 1 2 3 4 5 x (m) shown in Fig. 7.28. The scale of 0 the figure’s vertical axis is set by F s = 4.0 N. The velocity of –F the body at x = 0 is 4.0 m/s. (a) Figure 7.28 Problem 54. What is the kinetic energy of the body at x = 3.0 m? (b) At what value of x will the body have a kinetic energy of 8.0 J? (c) What is the maximum kinetic energy of the body between x = 0 and x = 5.0 m? 54
A frightened child is restrained by her mother as the child slides down a frictionless playground slide. If the force on the child from the mother is 100 N up the slide, the child’s kinetic energy increases by 30 J as she moves down the slide a distance of 1.8 m. (a) How much work is done on the child by the gravi- tational force during the 1.8 m descent? (b) If the child is not restrained by her mother, how much will the child’s kinetic energy increase as she comes down the slide that same distance of 1.8 m? 60
F1
Figure 7.27
ϕ Figure 7.30
x
s
s
SSM BIO A horse pulls a cart with a force of 40 lb at an angle of 30° above the horizontal and moves along at a speed of 6.0 mi/h. (a) How much work does the force do in 10 min? (b) What is the average power (in horsepower) of the force?
55
An initially stationary 2.0 kg object accelerates horizontally and uniformly to a speed of 10 m/s in 3.0 s. (a) In that 3.0 s interval, how much work is done on the object by the force accelerating it? What is the instantaneous power due to that force (b) at the end of the interval and (c) at the end of the first half of the interval? 56
A 230 kg crate hangs from the end of a rope of length L = 12.0 m. You push horizontally on the crate with a varying force F 57
→
How much work is done by a force F = (2x N ) ˆ i + (3 N ) ˆ j, with x in meters, that moves a particle from a position r i = (2 m )ˆ i ˆ ˆ + (3 m )ˆ j to a position r = − 4 m i − 3 m j? ( ) ( ) f →
61 CALC
→
→
A 250 g block is dropped onto a relaxed vertical spring that has a spring constant of k = 2.5 N/cm (Fig. 7.31). The block becomes attached to the spring and compresses the spring 12 cm before momentarily stopping. While the spring is being compressed, what work is done on the block by (a) the gravitational force on it and (b) the spring force? (c) What is the speed of the block just before it hits the spring? (Assume that friction is negligible.) (d) If the speed at impact is doubled, what is the maximum com- pression of the spring? 62
Figure 7.31
Problem 62.
SSM To push a 25.0 kg crate up a frictionless incline, angled at 25.0° to the horizontal, a worker exerts a force of 209 N par- allel to the incline. As the crate slides 1.50 m, how much work is done on the crate by (a) the worker’s applied force, (b) the
63
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C HAP T ER 7 KINET IC ENERGY AND WORK
gravitational force on the crate, and (c) the normal force exerted by the incline on the crate? (d) What is the total work done on the crate?
the boat to slide in a straight line for a distance of 8.0 m in a direction 20° north of east. What is the kinetic energy of the iceboat at the end of that 8.0 m?
Boxes are transported from one location to another in a warehouse by means of a conveyor belt that moves with a con- stant speed of 0.50 m/s. At a certain location the conveyor belt moves for 2.0 m up an incline that makes an angle of 10° with the horizontal, then for 2.0 m horizontally, and finally for 2.0 m down an incline that makes an angle of 10° with the horizontal. Assume that a 2.0 kg box rides on the belt without slipping. At what rate is the force of the conveyor belt doing work on the box as the box moves (a) up the 10° incline, (b) horizontally, and (c) down the 10° incline?
69
64
In Fig. 7.32, a cord runs around two massless, frictionless pulleys. A canister with mass m = 20 kg hangs from one pulley, and you exert a force F on the free end of the cord. (a) What must be the magnitude of F if you are to lift the canister at a constant speed? (b) To lift the canister by 2.0 cm, how far must you pull the free end of the cord? During that lift, what is the work done on the canis- ter by (c) your force (via the cord) and (d) the gravitational force? (Hint: When a cord loops around a pulley as shown, m F it pulls on the pulley with a net force that is twice the tension in Figure 7.32 Problem 65. the cord.) 65
→
→
If a car of mass 1200 kg is moving along a highway at 120 km/h, what is the car’s kinetic energy as determined by someone standing alongside the highway? 66
A spring with a pointer attached is hanging next to a scale marked in millimeters. Three different packages are hung from the spring, in turn, as shown in Fig. 7.33. (a) Which mark on the scale will the pointer indicate when no package is hung from the spring? (b) What is the weight W of the third package? 67
If a ski lift raises 100 passengers averaging 660 N in weight to a height of 150 m in 60.0 s, at constant speed, what average power is required of the force making the lift? ˆ ˆ 70 A force F = (4.0 N )i + c j acts on a particle as the particle travels through displacement d = (3.0 m ) ˆ i − ( 2.0 m )ˆ j. (Other forces also act on the particle.) What is c if the work done on the particle by force F is (a) 0, (b) 17 J, and (c) −18 J? →
→
→
Kinetic energy. If a vehicle with a mass of 1500 kg has a speed of 120 km/h, what is the vehicle’s kinetic energy as deter- mined by someone passing the vehicle at 140 km/h? 71
Work calculated by graphical integration. In Fig. 7.34b, an 8.0 kg block slides along a frictionless floor as a force acts on it, starting at x 1 = 0 and ending at x 3 = 6.5 m. As the block moves, the magnitude and direction of the force vary according to the graph shown in Fig. 7.34a. For example, from x = 0 to x = 1 m, the force is positive (in the positive direction of the x axis) and increases in magnitude from 0 to 40 N. And from x = 4 m to x = 5 m, the force is negative and increases in magnitude from 0 to 20 N. The block’s kinetic energy at x 1 is K 1 = 280 J. What is the block’s speed at (a) x 1 = 0, (b) x 2 = 4.0 m, and (c) x 3 = 6.5 m? 72 CALC
F
(N)
40
0
2
4
–20
6
x
(m)
x
(m)
(a )
SSM
v 1
0
v 2
F
2
v 3
F
4
6
(b) Figure 7.34
mm
mm
0
mm
0
0
30 40
Brick load. A load of bricks with mass m = 420 kg is to be lifted by a winch to a stationary position at height h = 120 m in 5.00 min. What must be the average power of the winch motion in kilowatts and horsepower? 73
BIO CALC Hip fracture and body mass index. Hip fracture due to a fall is a chronic problem, especially with older people and people subject to seizures. One research focus is on the cor- relation between fracture risk and weight, specifically, the body mass index (BMI). That index is defined as m/h 2 , where m is the mass (in kilograms) and h is the height (in meters) of a person. Is a person with a higher BMI more or less likely to fracture a hip in a fall on a floor? One way to measure the fracture risk is to measure the amount of energy absorbed as the hip impacts the floor and any cover- ing in a sideways fall. During the impact and compression of the floor and covering, the force from the hip does work on the
74
60
W
110 N 240 N Figure 7.33
Problem 67.
An iceboat is at rest on a frictionless frozen lake when a sudden wind exerts a constant force of 200 N, toward the east, on the boat. Due to the angle of the sail, the wind causes 68
Problem 72.
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floor and covering. A larger amount of work implies a smaller amount of energy left to fracture the hip. In an experiment, a participant is held horizontally in a sling with the left hip 5.0 cm above a force plate with a floor covering. When the participant is dropped, measurements are made of the force magnitude F on the plate during impact and the plate’s deflection d. Figure 7.35 gives idealized plots for two participants. For A: m = 55.0 kg, h = 1.70 m, peak force F A = 1400 N, and maximum plate deflec- tion d A = 2.00 cm. For B: m = 110 kg, h = 1.70 m, F B2 = 1600 N, d B2 = 6.00 cm, and intermediate force F B1 = 500 N at deflection d B1 = 4.00 cm. What is the BMI for (a) (lighter) participant A and (b) (heavier) participant B? (c) Which participant experiences the greater peak force from the plate, the lighter one or the heavier one? How much energy is absorbed by the plate and covering (how much work is done on the plate) for (d) participant A and (e) participant B? What is the absorbed energy per unit mass of (f) participant A and (g) participant B? (h) Do the results indicate higher plate absorption (and thus lower fracture risk for the participant) for the higher BMI or lower BMI? (i) Does this correlate with the peak force results? F FB 2 FA
185
driver is firmly held to the seat by a seat belt and thus moves forward by 0.500 m during the crash. Assume that the force on the driver from the seat belt is constant during the crash. Use the work−kinetic energy theorem to find the magnitude of that force during the crash if the initial speed of the car is (a) 35 mi/h and (b) 70 mi/h? (c) If the initial speed is multiplied by 2, as here, by what multiplying factor is the force increased? CALC Work and power as functions of time. A body of mass m accelerates uniformly from rest to speed v f in time t f . In terms of these symbols, at time t, what is (a) the work done on the body and (b) the power delivered to the body?
76
Work, train observer, ground observer. An object with mass m is initially stationary inside a train that moves at constant speed u along an x axis. A constant force then gives the object an acceleration a in the forward direction for time t. In terms of these given symbols, how much work is done by the force as measured by (a) an observer stationary inside the train and (b) an observer stationary alongside the track? 77
CALC Work and power, graphical integration. A single force acts on a 3.0 kg body that moves along an x axis. Figure 7.36 gives the velocity v versus time t due to the motion. What is the work done on the body (sign included) for the time intervals (a) 0 to 2.0 ms, (b) 2.0 to 5.0 ms, (c) 5.0 to 8.0 ms, and (d) 8.0 to 11 ms? What is the average power supplied to the body (sign included) for the time intervals (e) 0 to 2.0 ms, (f) 2.0 to 5.0 ms, (g) 5.0 to 8.0 ms, and (h) 8.0 to 11 ms?
78
v (m/s)
FB 1
d dA
Figure 7.35
dB 1
dB 2
Problem 74.
Car crash force from seat belt. A car crashes head on into a wall and stops, with the front collapsing by 0.500 m. The 70 kg
7.0 –7.0
2.0
5.0
75
Figure 7.36
8.0
11
t (ms)
Problem 78.
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8
Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy
8.1
POTENTIAL ENERGY
Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
8.1.1 Distinguish a conservative force from a noncon-
8.1.3 Calculate the gravitational potential energy
servative force.
of a particle (or, more properly, a particle–Earth
8.1.2 For a particle moving between two points, iden- tify that the work done by a conservative force does
system). 8.1.4 Calculate the elastic potential energy of a block–
not depend on which path the particle takes.
spring system.
Key Ideas ●
A force is a conservative force if the net work it does
y i y f, the change in the gravitational potential
potential energy. If the particle moves from height
on a particle moving around any closed path, from an
to height
initial point and then back to that point, is zero. Equiva-
energy of the particle–Earth system is
lently, a force is conservative if the net work it does on
ΔU = mg( y f − y i ) = mg Δy.
a particle moving between two points does not depend on the path taken by the particle. The gravitational
If the reference point of the particle is s et as
y i = 0
force and the spring force are conservative forces; the
●
kinetic frictional force is a nonconservative force.
and the corres ponding grav itational potential energy
●
Potential energy is energy that is associated with the
configuration of a system in which a conservative force acts. When the conservative force does work particle within the system, the change
W on a
potential energy
y is
ΔU in the poten-
U( y ) = mgy.
tial energy of the system is
∆U = −W. If the particle moves from point
x i to point x f, the
change in the potential energy of the system is
U i = 0, then the grav itational U when the particle is at any height
of the s y s tem is s et as
●
Elastic potential energy is the energy associated with
the state of compression or extension of an elastic object. For a spring that exerts a spring force
x
F = −kx when
its free end has displacement , the elastic potential energy is
x f
1 2 U(x) = _ kx . 2
ΔU = − F(x ) dx . x t
●
The potential energy associated with a system con-
sisting of Earth and a nearby particle is gravitational
●
The reference configuration has the spring at its
relaxed length, at which
x = 0 and U = 0 .
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8.1
P OT ENT IAL ENERGY
187
What Is Physics?
FR 321/kuhcretseN iilatiV
One job of physics is to identify the different types of energy in the world, especially those that are of common importance. One general type of energy is potential energy U. Technically, potential energy is energy that can be associated with the configuration (arrangement) of a system of objects that exert forces on one another. This is a pretty formal definition of something that is actually familiar to you. An example might help better than the definition: A bungee-cord jumper plunges from a staging platform (Fig. 8.1.1). The system of objects consists of Earth and the jumper. The force between the objects is the gravitational force. The configuration of the system changes (the separation between the jumper and Earth decreases— that is, of course, the thrill of the jump). We can account for the jumper’s motion and increase in kinetic energy by defining a gravitational potential energy U. This is the energy associated with the state of separation between two objects that attract each other by the gravitational force, here the jumper and Earth. When the jumper begins to stretch the bungee cord near the end of the plunge, the system of objects consists of the cord and the jumper. The force between the objects is an elastic (spring-like) force. The configuration of the system changes (the cord stretches). We can account for the jumper’s decrease in kinetic energy and the cord’s increase in length by defining an elastic potential energy U. This is the energy associated with the state of compression or extension of an elastic object, here the bungee cord. Physics determines how the potential energy of a system can be calculated so that energy might be stored or put to use. For example, before any particu- lar bungee-cord jumper takes the plunge, someone (probably a mechanical engi- neer) must determine the correct cord to be used by calculating the gravitational and elastic potential energies that can be expected. Then the jump is only thrilling and not fatal.
The kinetic energy of a bungee-cord jumper increases during the free fall, and then the cord begins to stretch, slowing the jumper. Figure 8.1.1
Work and Potential Energy
In Chapter 7 we discussed the relation between work and a change in kinetic energy. Here we discuss the relation between work and a change in potential energy. Let us throw a tomato upward (Fig. 8.1.2). We already know that as the tomato rises, the work W g done on the tomato by the gravitational force is negative because the force transfers energy from the kinetic energy of the tomato. We can now finish the story by saying that this energy is transferred by the gravitational force to the gravitational potential energy of the tomato–Earth system.
Negative work done by the gravitational force
Positive work done by the gravitational force
A tomato is thrown upward. As it rises, the gravitational force does negative work on it, decreasing its kinetic energy. As the tomato descends, the gravitational force does positive work on it, increasing its kinetic energy. Figure 8.1.2
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C HAP T ER 8 P OT ENT IAL ENERGY AND C ONSERV AT ION OF ENERGY
x
0
(a )
The tomato slows, stops, and then begins to fall back down because of the gravitational force. During the fall, the transfer is reversed: The work W g done on the tomato by the gravitational force is now positive—that force transfers energy from the gravitational potential energy of the tomato–Earth system to the kinetic energy of the tomato. For either rise or fall, the change ΔU in gravitational potential energy is defined as being equal to the negative of the work done on the tomato by the gravitational force. Using the general symbol W for work, we write this as ΔU = −W.
x
0
(b )
A block, attached to a spring and initially at rest at x = 0, is set in motion toward the right. (a) As the block moves rightward (as indi- cated by the arrow), the spring force does negative work on it. (b) Then, as the block moves back toward x = 0, the spring force does positive work on it. Figure 8.1.3
(8.1.1)
This equation also applies to a block–spring system, as in Fig. 8.1.3. If we abruptly shove the block to send it moving rightward, the spring force acts leftward and thus does negative work on the block, transferring energy from the kinetic energy of the block to the elastic potential energy of the spring–block system. The block slows and eventually stops, and�� then begins to move leftward because the spring force is still leftward. The transfer of energy is then reversed—it is from potential energy of the spring–block system to kinetic energy of the block. Conservative and Nonconservative Forces
Let us list the key elements of the two situations we just discussed: 1. The system consists of two or more objects. 2. A force acts between a particle-like object (tomato or block) in the system a nd the rest of the system. 3. When the system configuration changes, the force does work (call it W 1) on the particle-like object, transferring energy between the kinetic energy K of the object and some other type of energy of the system. 4. When the configuration change is reversed, the force reverses the energy transfer, doing work W 2 in the process. In a situation in which W 1 = −W 2 is always true, the other type of energy is a potential energy and the force is said to be a conservative force. As you might suspect, the gravitational force and the spring force are both conservative (since otherwise we could not have spoken of gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy, a s we did previously). A force that is not conservative is called a nonconservative force. The kinetic frictional force and drag force are nonconservative. For an example, let us send a block sliding across a floor that is not frictionless. During the sliding, a kinetic frictional force from the floor slows the block by transferring energy from its kinetic energy to a type of energy called thermal energy (which has to do with the random motions of atoms and molecules). We know from experiment that this energy transfer cannot be reversed (thermal energy cannot be transferred back to kinetic energy of the block by the kinetic frictional force). Thus, although we have a system (made up of the block and the floor), a force that acts between parts of the system, and a transfer of energy by the force, the force is not conservative. Therefore, thermal energy is not a potential energy. When only conservative forces act on a particle-like object, we can greatly simplify otherwise difficult problems involving motion of the object. Let’s next develop a test for identifying conservative forces, which will provide one means for simplifying such problems. Path Independence of Conservative Forces
The primary test for determining whether a force is conservative or nonconserva- tive is this: Let the force act on a particle that moves along any closed path, begin- ning at some initial position and eventually returning to that position (so that the
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8.1
P OT ENT IAL ENERGY
189
particle makes a round trip beginning and ending at the initial position). The force is conservative only if the total energy it transfers to and from the particle during the round trip along this and any other closed path is zero. In other words: The net work done by a conservative force on a particle moving around any closed path is zero.
We know from experiment that the gravitational force passes this closed- path test. An example is the tossed tomato of Fig. 8.1.2. The tomato leaves the launch 1 point with speed v 0 and kinetic energy _ mv 02 . The gravitational force acting on the 2 tomato slows it, stops it, and then causes it to fall back down. When the tomato 1 returns to the launch point, it again has speed v 0 and kinetic energy _ mv 02 . Thus, the 2 gravitational force transfers as much energy from the tomato during the ascent as it transfers to the tomato during the descent back to the launch point. The net work done on the tomato by the gravitational force during the round trip is zero. An important result of the closed-path test is that:
1 2
a
(a )
1
The force is conservative. Any choice of path between the points gives the same amount of work.
b
2
a
The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving between two points does not depend on the path taken by the particle.
b
And a round trip gives a total work of zero.
(b )
(a) As a conservative force acts on it, a particle can move from point a to point b along either path 1 or path 2. (b) The particle moves in a round trip, from point a to point b along path 1 and then back to point a along path 2. Figure 8.1.4
For example, suppose that a particle moves from point a to point b in Fig. 8.1.4a along either path 1 or path 2. If only a conservative force acts on the particle, then the work done on the particle is the same along the two paths. In symbols, we can write this result as W ab,1 = W ab,2 , (8.1.2) where the subscript ab indicates the initial and final points, respectively, a nd the subscripts 1 and 2 indicate the path. This result is powerful because it allows us to simplify difficult problems when only a conservative force is involved. Suppose you need to calculate the work done by a conservative force along a given path between two points, and the calculation is difficult or even impossible without additional information. You can find the work by substituting some other path between those two points for which the calculation is easier and possible. Proof of Equation 8.1.2
Figure 8.1.4b shows an arbitrary round trip for a particle that is acted upon by a sin- gle force. The particle moves from an initial point a to point b along path 1 and then back to point a along path 2. The force does work on the particle as the particle moves along each path. Without worrying about where positive work is done and where negative work is done, let us just represent the work done from a to b along path 1 as W ab,1 and the work done from b back to a along path 2 as W ba,2 . If the force is conservative, then the net work done during the round trip must be zero: and thus
W ab,1 + W ba,2 = 0, W ab,1 = −W ba,2 .
(8.1.3)
In words, the work done along the outward path must be the negative of the work done along the path back. Let us now consider the work W ab,2 done on the particle by the force when the particle moves from a to b along path 2, as indicated in Fig. 8.1.4a. If the force is conservative, that work is the negative of W ba,2 : W ab,2 = −W ba,2 .
(8.1.4)
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C HAP T ER 8 P OT ENT IAL ENERGY AND C ONSERV AT ION OF ENERGY
Substituting W ab,2 for −W ba,2 in Eq. 8.1.3, we obtain W ab,1 = W ab,2 , which is what we set out to prove. Checkpoint 8.1.1
The figure shows three paths connecting points a and b. A single force F does the indi- cated work on a particle moving along each path in the indicated direction. On the basis of this information, is force F conservative?
–60 J
→
a
Sample Problem 8.1.1
The gravitational force is conservative. Any choice of path between the points gives the same amount of work. a
a
KEY IDEAS
b
(1) We cannot calculate the work by using Eq. 7.3.1 (W g = mgd cos ). The reason is that the angle between the directions of the gravitational force F g and the dis- placement d varies along the track in an unknown way. (Even if we did know the shape of the track and could calculate along it, the calculation could be very difficult.) (2) Because Fg is a conservative force, we can find the work by choosing some other path between a and b—one that makes the calculation easy. →
→
→
Let us choose the dashed path in Fig. 8.1.5b; it consists of two straight segments. A long the horizontal segment, the angle is a constant 90°. Even though we do not know the displacement along that horizontal segment, Eq. 7.3.1 tells us that the work W h done there is Calculations:
W h = mgd cos 90° = 0. Along the vertical segment, the displacement d is 0.80 m and, with F g and d both downward, the angle is a →
b
Equivalent paths for calculating work, slippery cheese
The main lesson of this sample problem is this: It is perfectly all right to choose an easy path instead of a hard path. Figure 8.1.5a shows a 2.0 kg block of slippery cheese that slides along a frictionless track from point a to point b. The cheese travels through a total distance of 2.0 m along the track, and a net vertical distance of 0.80 m. How much work is done on the cheese by the gravita- tional force during the slide?
→
60 J 60 J
→
(a)
b
(b)
(a) A block of cheese slides along a frictionless track from point a to point b. (b) Finding the work done on the cheese by the gravitational force is easier along the dashed path than along the actual path taken by the cheese; the result is the same for both paths. Figure 8.1.5
constant 0°. Thus, Eq. 7.3.1 gives us, for the work W v done along the vertical part of the dashed path, W v = mgd cos 0°
= (2.0 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )(0.80 m)(1) = 15.7 J. →
The total work done on the cheese by F g as the cheese moves from point a to point b along the dashed path is then W = W h + W v = 0 + 15.7 J ≈ 16 J. (Answer) This is also the work done as the cheese slides along the track from a to b.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Determining Potential Energy Values
Here we find equations that give the value of the two types of potential energy discussed in this chapter: gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy. However, first we must find a general relation between a conservative force and the associated potential energy.
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8.1
P OT ENT IAL ENERGY
191
Consider a particle-like object that is part of a system in which a conserva- tive force F acts. When that force does work W on the object, the change ∆U in the potential energy associated with the system is the negative of the work done. We wrote this fact as Eq. 8.1.1 (∆U = −W). For the most general case, in which the force may vary with position, we may write the work W as in Eq. 7.5.4: →
x f
W = F(x) dx.
(8.1.5)
x i
This equation gives the work done by the force when the object moves from point x i to point x f , changing the configuration of the system. (Because the force is conservative, the work is the same for all paths between those two points.) Substituting Eq. 8.1.5 into Eq. 8.1.1, we find that the change in potential energy due to the change in configuration is, in general notation, x f
∆U = − F(x) dx.
(8.1.6)
x i
Gravitational Potential Energy
We first consider a particle with mass m moving vertically along a y axis (the positive direction is upward). A s the particle moves from point y i to point y f , the gravitational force F g does work on it. To find the corresponding change in the gravitational potential energy of the particle–Earth system, we use Eq. 8.1.6 with two changes: (1) We integrate along the y axis instead of the x axis, because the gravitational force acts vertically. (2) We substitute −mg for the force symbol F, because F g has the magnitude mg and is directed down the y axis. We then have →
→
y f
y f
y f
ΔU = − (−mg) dy = mg dy = mg y , y i
y i
which yields
[ ] y
i
∆U = mg( y f − y i) = mg ∆y.
(8.1.7)
Only changes ∆U in gravitational potential energy (or any other type of potential energy) a re physically meaningful. However, to simplify a calculation or a discussion, we sometimes would like to say that a certain gravitational potential value U is associated with a certain particle–Earth system when the particle is at a certain height y. To do so, we rewrite Eq. 8.1.7 as U − U i = mg( y − y i).
(8.1.8)
Then we take U i to be the gravitational potential energy of the system when it is in a reference c onfiguration in which the particle is at a reference point y i . Usually we take U i = 0 and y i = 0. Doing this changes Eq. 8.1.8 to U( y) = mgy
(gravitational potential energy).
(8.1.9)
This equation tells us: The gravitational potential energy associated with a particle–Earth system depends only on the vertical position y (or height) of the particle relative to the reference position y = 0, not on the horizontal position.
Elastic Potential Energy
We next consider the block–spring system shown in Fig. 8.1.3, with the block moving on the end of a spring of spring constant k. As the block moves from point x i to point x f , the spring force F x = −kx does work on the block. To find the
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C HAP T ER 8 P OT ENT IAL ENERGY AND C ONSERV AT ION OF ENERGY
corresponding change in the elastic potential energy of the block–spring system, we substitute −kx for F(x) in Eq. 8.1.6. We then have x f
x f
x f
1 ΔU = − (−kx) dx = k x dx = _ k [x 2 ] x i , 2 x i
x i
1 2 _ ΔU = _ kx − 1 kx 2 . 2 f 2 i
or
(8.1.10)
To associate a potential energy v alue U with the block at position x, we choose the reference configuration to be when the spring is at its relaxed length and the block is at x i = 0. Then the elastic potential energy U i is 0, and Eq. 8.1.10 becomes 1 2 U − 0 = _ kx − 0, 2
which gives us 1 2 U(x ) = _ kx 2
(8.1.11)
(elastic potential energy).
Checkpoint 8.1.2
A particle is to move along an x axis from x = 0 to x 1 while F1 a conservative force, directed along the x axis, acts on the parti- cle. The figure shows three situations in which the x component of that force varies with x. The force has the same maximum magnitude F 1 in all three situations. Rank the situations accord- ing to the change in the associated potential energy during the (1) particle’s motion, most positive first.
Sample Problem 8.1.2
F1 x1 x1
x1
(2)
(3)
–F1
Choosing reference level for gravitational potential energy, sloth
Here is an example with this lesson plan: Generally you can choose any level to be the reference level, but once chosen, be consistent. A 2.0 kg sloth hangs 5.0 m above the ground (Fig. 8.1.6). (a) What is the gravitational potential energy U of the sloth–Earth system if we take the reference point y = 0 to be (1) at the ground, (2) at a balcony floor that is 3.0 m above the ground, (3) at the limb, and (4) 1.0 m above the limb? Take the gravitational potential energy to be zero at y = 0.
KEY IDEA
6
3
1
0
5
2
0
3
0
–2
–3
0
–3
–5
–6
Once we have chosen the reference point for y = 0, we can calculate the gravitational potential energy U of the system relative to that reference point with Eq. 8.1.9. Calculations:
For choice (1) the sloth is at y = 5.0 m, and
U = mgy = (2.0 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )(5.0 m) = 98 J.
(Answer)
(1)
For the other choices, the values of U are
(3)
(4)
Four choices of reference point y = 0. Each y axis is marked in units of meters. The choice affects the value of the potential energy U of the sloth–Earth system. However, it does not affect the change ∆U in potential energy of the system if the sloth moves by, say, falling. Figure 8.1.6
(2) U = mgy = mg(2.0 m) = 39 J, (3) U = mgy = mg(0) = 0 J, (4) U = mgy = mg(−1.0 m) = −19.6 J ≈ −20 J.
(2)
(Answer)
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8.2 C ONSERV AT ION OF MEC HANIC AL ENERGY
(b) The sloth drops to the ground. For each choice of reference point, what is the change ∆U in the potential energy of the sloth–Earth system due to the fall?
For all four situations, we have the same ∆y = −5.0 m. Thus, for (1) to (4), Eq. 8.1.7 tells us that Calculation:
∆U = mg ∆y = (2.0 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )(−5.0 m)
KEY IDEA
= −98 J.
(Answer)
The change in potential energy does not depend on the choice of the reference point for y = 0; instead, it depends on the change in height ∆y. Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
8.2 CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
8.2.1 After first clearly defining which objects form a
8.2.2 For an isolated system in which only conservative
system, identify that the mechanical energy of the
forces act, apply the conservation of mechanical
system is the sum of the kinetic energies and poten-
energy to relate the initial potential and kinetic ener-
tial energies of those objects.
gies to the potential and kinetic energies at a later instant.
Key Ideas ●
E mec of a system is the sum K and potential energy U:
The mechanical energy
of its kinetic energy
E mec = K + U. ●
principle of conservation of mechanical energy is writ- ten as
K 2 + U 2 = K 1 + U 1,
An isolated system is one in which no external force
in which the subscripts refer to different instants during
causes energy changes. If only conservative forces
an energy transfer process. This conservation principle
do work within an isolated system, then the mechani-
can also be written as
E mec of the system cannot change. This
cal energy
∆E mec = ∆K + ∆U = 0.
Conservation of Mechanical Energy
The mechanical energy E mec of a system is the sum of its potential energy U and the kinetic energy K of the objects within it: E mec = K + U
(mechanical energy).
(8.2.1)
In this module, we examine what happens to this mechanical energy when only conservative forces cause energy transfers within the system—that is, when frictional and drag forces do not act on the objects in the system. Also, we shall assume that the system is isolated from its environment; that is, no external force from an object outside the system causes energy changes inside the system. When a conservative force does work W on an object within the system, that force transfers energy between kinetic energy K of the object and potential energy U of the system. From Eq. 7.2.8, the change ∆K in kinetic energy is ∆K = W
(8.2.2)
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C HAP T ER 8 P OT ENT IAL ENERGY AND C ONSERV AT ION OF ENERGY
and from Eq. 8.1.1, the change ∆U in potential energy is ∆U = −W.
(8.2.3)
Combining Eqs. 8.2.2 and 8.2.3, we find that ∆K = −∆U.
(8.2.4)
In words, one of these energies increases exactly as much as the other decreases. We can rewrite Eq. 8.2.4 as K 2 − K 1 = −(U 2 − U 1),
(8.2.5)
where the subscripts refer to two different instants and thus to two different arrangements of the objects in the system. Rearranging Eq. 8.2.5 yields K 2 + U 2 = K 1 + U 1
(conservation of mechanical energy).
(8.2.6)
In words, this equation says: the sum of K and U for
the sum of K and U for
( any state of a system ) = (any other state of the system ) , when the system is isolated and only conservative forces act on the objects in the system. In other words:
In an isolated system where only conservative forces cause energy changes, the kinetic energy and potential energy can change, but their sum, the mechanical energy E mec of the system, cannot change.
This result is called the principle of conservation of mechanical energy. (Now you can see where conservative forces got their name.) With the aid of Eq. 8.2.4, we can write this principle in one more form, as ∆E mec = ∆K + ∆U = 0.
(8.2.7)
The principle of conservation of mechanical energy allows us to solve problems that would be quite difficult to solve using only Newton’s laws: When the mechanical energy of a system is conserved, we can relate the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy at one instant to that at another instant without considering the intermediate motion and without finding the work done by the forces involved.
Figure 8.2.1 shows an example in which the principle of conservation of mechanical energy can be applied: As a pendulum swings, the energy of the pendulum–Earth system is transferred back and forth between kinetic energy K and gravitational potential energy U, with the sum K + U being constant. If we know the gravitational potential energy when the pendulum bob is at its highest point (Fig. 8.2.1c), Eq. 8.2.6 gives us the kinetic energy of the bob at the lowest point (Fig. 8.2.1e). For example, let us choose the lowest point as the reference point, with the gravitational potential energy U2 = 0. Suppose then that the potential energy at the highest point is U 1 = 20 J relative to the reference point. Because the bob momen- tarily stops at its highest point, the kinetic energy there is K 1 = 0. Putting these values into Eq. 8.2.6 g ives us the kinetic energy K 2 at the lowest point: K 2 + 0 = 0 + 20 J
or
K 2 = 20 J.
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8.2 C ONSERV AT ION OF MEC HANIC AL ENERGY
195
v = +v max
All kinetic energy v v
v U U
K
K U
(a )
(h)
K
(b )
A pendulum, with its mass concentrated in a bob at the lower end, swings back and forth. One full cycle of the motion is shown. During the cycle the values of the potential and kinetic ener- gies of the pendulum–Earth system vary as the bob rises and falls, but the mechanical energy E mec of the system remains constant. The energy E mec can be described as continu- ously shifting between the kinetic and potential forms. In stages (a) and (e), all the energy is kinetic energy. The bob then has its greatest speed and is at its lowest point. In stages (c) and (g), all the energy is potential energy. The bob then has zero speed and is at its highest point. In stages (b), (d), ( f ), and (h), half the energy is kinetic energy and half is potential energy. If the swinging involved a frictional force at the point where the pendulum is attached to the ceiling, or a drag force due to the air, then E mec would not be conserved, and eventually the pendulum would stop. Figure 8.2.1
v = 0
v = 0
All potential energy U
The total energy does not change (it is conserved ).
All potential energy
K
U
(g )
K
(c )
v = –v max
v
U
K
(f )
v
U
v
K
(d )
All kinetic energy U
K
(e )
Note that we get this result without considering the motion between the highest and lowest points (such as in Fig. 8.2.1d) and without finding the work done by any forces involved in the motion.
Checkpoint 8.2.1
The figure shows A four situations—one in which an initially stationary block is dropped and three in which the block is allowed to slide down B B B B frictionless ramps. (1) (2) (3) (4) (a) Rank the situa- tions according to the kinetic energy of the block at point B, greatest first. (b) Rank them according to the speed of the block at point B, greatest first.
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C HAP T ER 8 P OT ENT IAL ENERGY AND C ONSERV AT ION OF ENERGY
Sample Problem 8.2.1
Conservation of mechanical energy, water slide
The huge advantage of using the conservation of energy instead of Newton’s laws of motion is that we can jump from the initial state to the final state without consider- ing all the intermediate motion. Here is an example. In Fig. 8.2.2, a child of mass m is released from rest at the top of a water slide, at height h = 8.5 m above the bottom of the slide. Assuming that the slide is frictionless because of the water on it, find the child’s speed at the bottom of the slide.
The total mechanical energy at the top is equal to the total at the bottom.
KEY IDEAS (1) We cannot find her speed at the bottom by using her acceleration along the slide as we might have in earlier chapters because we do not know the slope (angle) of the slide. However, because that speed is related to her kinetic energy, perhaps we can use the principle of con- servation of mechanical energy to get the speed. Then we would not need to know the slope. (2) Mechanical energy is conserved in a system if the system is isolated and if only conservative forces cause energy transfers within it. Let’s check. Forces: Two forces act on the child. The gravitational force, a conservative force, does work on her. The normal force on her from the slide does no work because its direc- tion at any point during the descent is always perpendicu- lar to the direction in which the child moves. System: Because the only force doing work on the child is the gravitational force, we choose the child–Earth system as our system, which we can take to be isolated. Thus, we have only a conservative force doing work in an isolated system, so we can use the principle of conser- vation of mechanical energy. Let the mechanical energy be E mec,t when the child is at the top of the slide and E mec,b when she is at the bottom. Then the conservation principle tells us Calculations:
E mec,b = E mec,t .
(8.2.8)
Figure 8.2.2
a height h.
h
A child slides down a water slide as she descends
To show both kinds of mechanical energy, we have K b + U b = K t + U t ,
(8.2.9)
1 _ _ mv 2 + mgy . mv b2 + mgy b = 1 t t 2 2
or
Dividing by m and rearranging yield v b2 = v t2 + 2g(y t − y b). Putting v t = 0 and y t − y b = h leads to ____
__________________
v b = √ 2gh = √ (2)(9.8 m/s 2 )(8.5 m) = 13 m / s.
(Answer)
This is the same speed that the child would reach if she fell 8.5 m vertically. On an actual slide, some frictional forces would act and the child would not be moving quite so fast. Although this problem is hard to solve directly with Newton’s laws, using conservation of mechan- ical energy makes the solution much easier. However, if we were asked to find the time taken for the child to reach the bottom of the slide, energy methods would be of no use; we would need to know the shape of the slide, and we would have a difficult problem. Comments:
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
8.3 READING A POTENTIAL ENERGY CURVE Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
8.3.1 Given a particle’s potential energy as a function
x
of its position , determine the force on the particle.
x
8.3.2 Given a graph of potential energy versus , deter- mine the force on a particle.
x
8.3.3 On a graph of potential energy versus , super- impose a line for a particle’s mechanical energy and determine the particle’s kinetic energy for any given
x
value of .
/
8.3 READ ING A P OT ENT IAL ENERGY C U RV E
8.3.4 If a particle moves along an
x axis, use a potential
8.3.5 On a potential energy graph, identify any turning
energy graph for that axis and the conservation of
points and any regions where the particle is not
mechanical energy to relate the energy values at one position to those at another position.
197
allowed because of energy requirements. 8.3.6 Explain neutral equilibrium, stable equilibrium, and unstable equilibrium.
Key Ideas ●
U(x) for a F(x) acts on
a particle, we can find the force as
dU(x ) F(x ) = − _. dx U(x) is given on a graph, then at any value of x , the force F(x) is the negative of the slope of the curve ●
K(x) = E mec − U(x),
If we know the potential energy function
system in which a one-dimensional force
If
where
E mec is the mechanical energy of the system. x at which the particle K = 0 ).
● A turning point is a point
reverses its motion (there, ●
The particle is in equilibrium at points where the
U(x) curve is zero (there, F(x) = 0 ).
slope of the
there and the kinetic energy of the particle is given by
Reading a Potential Energy Curve
Once again we consider a particle that is part of a system in which a conservative force acts. This time suppose that the particle is constrained to move along an x axis while the conservative force does work on it. We want to plot the potential energy U(x) that is associated with that force and the work that it does, and then we want to consider how we can relate the plot back to the force and to the kinetic energy of the particle. However, before we discuss such plots, we need one more relationship between the force and the potential energy. Finding the Force Analytically
Equation 8.1.6 tells us how to find the change ∆U in potential energy between two points in a one-dimensional situation if we know the force F(x). Now we want to go the other way; that is, we know the potential energy function U(x) and want to find the force. For one-dimensional motion, the work W done by a force that acts on a par- ticle as the particle moves through a distance ∆x is F(x) ∆x. We can then write Eq. 8.1.1 as ∆U(x) = −W = −F(x) ∆x.
(8.3.1)
Solving for F(x) and passing to the differential limit yield dU(x ) F(x ) = − _ (one-dimensional motion), dx
(8.3.2)
which is the relation we sought. 1 kx 2 , which is the elastic poten- We can check this result by putting U(x ) = _ 2 tial energy function for a spring force. Equation 8.3.2 then yields, as expected, F(x) = −kx, which is Hooke’s law. Similarly, we can substitute U(x) = mgx, which is the gravitational potential energy function for a particle–Earth system, with a particle of mass m at height x above Earth’s surface. Equation 8.3.2 then yields F = −mg, which is the gravitational force on the particle. The Potential Energy Curve
Figure 8.3.1a is a plot of a potential energy function U(x) for a system in which a particle is in one-dimensional motion while a conservative force F(x) does work on it. We can easily find F(x) by (graphically) taking the slope of the U(x) curve at
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C HAP T ER 8 P OT ENT IAL ENERGY AND C ONSERV AT ION OF ENERGY
various points. (Equation 8.3.2 tells us that F(x) is the negative of the slope of the U(x) curve.) Figure 8.3.1b is a plot of F(x) found in this way. Turning Points
In the absence of a nonconservative force, the mechanical energy E of a system has a constant value given by U(x) + K(x) = E mec .
(8.3.3)
Here K(x) is the kinetic energy function of a particle in the system (this K(x) gives the kinetic energy as a function of the particle’s location x). We may rewrite Eq. 8.3.3 as K(x) = E mec − U(x).
(8.3.4)
Suppose that E mec (which has a constant value, remember) happens to be 5.0 J. It would be represented in Fig. 8.3.1c by a horizontal line that runs through the value 5.0 J on the energy axis. (It is, in fact, shown there.) Equation 8.3.4 and Fig. 8.3.1d tell us how to determine the kinetic energy K for any location x of the particle: On the U(x) curve, find U for that location x and then subtract U from E mec . In Fig. 8.3.1e, for example, if the particle is at any point to the right of x 5 , then K = 1.0 J. The value of K is greatest (5.0 J) when the particle is at x 2 and least (0 J) when the particle is at x 1. Since K can never be negative (because v 2 is always positive), the particle can never move to the left of x 1 , where E mec − U is negative. Instead, as the particle moves toward x 1 from x 2 , K decreases (the particle slows) until K = 0 at x 1 (the particle stops there). Note that when the particle reaches x 1, the force on the particle, given by Eq. 8.3.2, is positive (because the slope dU/dx is negative). This means that the particle does not remain at x 1 but instead begins to move to the right, opposite its earlier m otion. Hence x 1 is a turning point, a place where K = 0 (because U = E mec ) and the particle changes direction. There is no turning point (where K = 0) on the right side of the graph. When the particle heads to the right, it will continue indefinitely.
A U
( J) ( )
U x
This is a plot of the potential energy U versus position x.
Force is equal to the negative of the slope of the U(x ) plot.
6
F
(N)
Strong force, +x direction
5 4
+
3 x1
2 1 (a )
x2
x3
x4
x5
x
– x1
x2
x3
x4
x5
x
(b )
Mild force, –x direction
(a) A plot of U(x), the potential energy function of a system containing a particle confined to move along an x axis. There is no friction, so mechanical energy is conserved. (b) A plot of the force F(x) acting on the particle, derived from the potential energy plot by taking its slope at various points. (Figure continues) Figure 8.3.1
/
8.3 READ ING A P OT ENT IAL ENERGY C U RV E
U
( J),
E mec
The flat line shows a given value of the total mechanical energy Emec.
( J)
U
( J),
E mec
( J)
( )
U x
6
E mec
= 5.0 J
The difference between the total energy and the potential energy is the kinetic energy K. U(x )
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
Emec
x1
K
x2
x3
x4
x
x5
(d )
x1
At this position, K is zero (a turning point ). The particle cannot go farther to the left. ( J),
= 5.0 J
1
(c )
U
199
E mec
( J)
At this position, K is greatest and the particle is moving the fastest.
6
Emec
U
= 5.0 J
E mec
x3
x4
x
x5
For either of these three choices for Emec, the particle is trapped (cannot escape left or right).
( J)
6
5
5
4
K
= 5.0 J at x 2
4
3
K
= 1.0 J at x > x 5
3
2
2
1 (e )
( J),
x2
1 x1
x2
x3
x4
x5
x
(f )
x1
x2
x3
x4
x
x5
(Continued) (c)–(e) How to determine the kinetic energy. ( f ) The U(x) plot of (a) with three possible values of E mec shown. In WileyPLUS, this figure is available as an animation with voiceover. Figure 8.3.1
Equilibrium Points
Figure 8.3.1f shows three different values for E mec superposed on the plot of the potential energy function U(x) of Fig. 8.3.1a. Let us see how they change the situation. If E mec = 4.0 J (purple line), the turning point shifts from x 1 to a point between x 1 and x 2. Also, at any point to the right of x 5, the system’s mechanical energy is equal to its potential energy; thus, the particle has no kinetic energy and (by Eq. 8.3.2) no force acts on it, and so it must be stationary. A particle at such a position is said to be in neutral equilibrium. (A marble placed on a horizontal tabletop is in that state.) If E mec = 3.0 J (pink line), there are two turning points: One is between x 1 and x 2, and the other is between x 4 and x 5 . In addition, x 3 is a point at which K = 0. If the particle is located exactly there, the force on it is also zero, and the particle remains stationary. However, if it is displaced even slightly in either direction, a nonzero force pushes it farther in the same direction, and the particle contin- ues to move. A particle at such a position is said to be in unstable equilibrium. (A marble balanced on top of a bowling ball is an example.)
/
200
C HAP T ER 8 P OT ENT IAL ENERGY AND C ONSERV AT ION OF ENERGY
Next consider the particle’s behavior if E mec = 1.0 J (green line). If we place it at x 4 , it is stuck there. It cannot move left or right on its own because to do so would require a negative kinetic energy. If we push it slightly left or right, a restoring force appears that moves it back to x 4 . A particle at such a position is said to be in stable equilibrium. (A marble placed at the bottom of a hemispherical bowl is an example.) If we place the particle in the cup-like potential well centered at x 2, it is between two turning points. It can still move somewhat, but only partway to x 1 or x 3 .
Checkpoint 8.3.1
The figure gives the potential energy function U(x) for a system in which a particle is in one- dimensional motion. (a) Rank regions AB, BC, and CD according to the magnitude of the force on the particle, greatest first. (b) What is the direction of the force when the particle is in region AB?
)J( ) x(U
Sample Problem 8.3.1
5 3 1 B
C D
Reading a potential energy graph
20 E mec
16 )J ( U
A 2.00 kg particle moves along an x axis in one-dimensional motion while a conservative force along that axis acts on it. The potential energy U(x) associated with the force is plotted in Fig. 8.3.2a. That is, if the particle were placed at any position between x = 0 and x = 7.00 m, it would have the plotted value of U. A t x = 6.5 m, the particle has veloc- ity v 0 = (−4.00 m/s ) ˆ i.
= 16 J
Kinetic energy is the difference between the total energy and the potential energy.
K1
7
K0
→
0
(a) From Fig. 8.3.2a, determine the particle’s speed at x 1 = 4.5 m.
1 x
20
1 2 _ 1 2 K 0 = _ 2 mv 0 = 2 (2.00 kg)(4.00 m/s)
= 16.0 J. Because the potential energy there is U = 0, the mechani- cal energy is E mec = K 0 + U 0 = 16.0 J + 0 = 16.0 J . This value for E mec is plotted as a horizontal line in Fig. 8.3.2a. From that figure we see that at x = 4.5 m, the potential energy is U 1 = 7.0 J. The kinetic energy K 1 is the difference between E mec and U 1: K 1 = E mec − U 1 = 16.0 J − 7.0 J = 9.0 J.
5
6
7
Turning point
16
U
At x = 6.5 m, the particle has kinetic energy
)J (
(1) The particle’s kinetic energy is given by Eq. 7.1.1 (K = 1 _ mv 2 ). (2) Because only a conservative force acts on the 2 particle, the mechanical energy E mec (= K + U ) is con- served as the particle moves. (3) Therefore, on a plot of U(x) such as Fig. 8.3.2a, the kinetic energy is equal to the difference between E mec and U.
4 (m)
(a )
KEY IDEAS
Calculations:
x A
7
1
4
x
(m)
The kinetic energy is zero at the turning point (the particle speed is zero).
d
(b)
(a) A plot of potential energy U versus position x. (b) A section of the plot used to find where the particle turns around. Figure 8.3.2
1 Because K 1 = _ mv 12 , we find 2
v 1 = 3.0 m / s.
(Answer)
(b) Where is the particle’s turning point located?
KEY IDEA The turning point is where the force momentarily stops and then reverses the particle’s motion. That is, it is where the particle momentarily has v = 0 and thus K = 0.
/
8.4 WORK D ONE ON A SY ST EM BY AN EXT ERNAL F ORC E
Because K is the difference between E mec and U, we want the point in Fig. 8.3.2a where the plot of U rises to meet the horizontal line of E mec , as shown in Fig. 8.3.2b. Because the plot of U is a straight line in Fig. 8.3.2b, we can draw nested right triangles as shown and then write the proportionality of distances Calculations:
KEY IDEA The force is given by Eq. 8.3.2 (F(x) = −dU(x)/dx): The force is equal to the negative of the slope on a graph of U(x). For the graph of Fig. 8.3.2b, we see that for the range 1.0 m 0, what are given by v = −2.0 t 3 i m (a) the angular momentum L of the car and (b) the torque τ on the car, both calculated about the origin? What are (c) L and (d) τ about the point (2.0 m, 5.0 m, 0)? What are (e) L and (f) τ about the point (2.0 m, −5.0 m, 0)?
73
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
A wheel rotates clockwise about its central axis with an angular momentum of 600 kg · m2 /s. At time t = 0, a torque of magnitude 50 N · m is applied to the wheel to reverse the rotation. At what time t is the angular speed zero? 74
SSM In a playground, there is a small merry-go-round of radius 1.20 m and mass 180 kg. Its radius of gyration (see Problem 79 of Chapter 10) is 91.0 cm. A child of mass 44.0 kg runs at a speed of 3.00 m/s along a path that is tangent to the rim of the initially stationary merry-go-round and then jumps on. Neglect friction between the bearings and the shaft of the merry-go-round. Calculate (a) the rotational inertia of the merry-go-round about its axis of rotation, (b) the magnitude of the angular momentum of the running child about the axis of rotation of the merry-go-round, and (c) the angular speed of the merry-go-round and child after the child has jumped onto the merry-go-round.
75
A uniform block of granite in the shape of a book has face dimensions of 20 cm and 15 cm and a thickness of 1.2 cm. The density (mass per unit volume) of granite is 2.64 g/cm 3 . The block rotates around an axis that is perpendicular to its face and halfway between its center and a corner. Its angular momentum about that axis is 0.104 kg · m2 /s. What is its rotational kinetic energy about that axis? 76
Two particles, each of mass 2.90 × 10 −4 kg and speed 5.46 m/s, travel in opposite directions along parallel lines separated by 4.20 cm. (a) What is the magnitude L of the angular momentum of the two-particle system around a point midway between the two lines? (b) Is the value different for a differ- ent location of the point? If the direction of either particle is reversed, what are the answers for (c) part (a) and (d) part (b)? 77
SSM
A wheel of radius 0.250 m, moving initially at 43.0 m/s, rolls to a stop in 225 m. Calculate the magnitudes of its 78
/
343
P ROBL EMS
(a) linear acceleration and (b) angular acceleration. (c) Its rotational inertia is 0.155 kg · m 2 about its central axis. Find the magnitude of the torque about the central axis due to friction on the wheel. CALC Change in angular speed. In Fig. 11.8.6, a cockroach with mass m rides on a uniform disk of mass M = 8.00m and radius R = 0.0800 m. The disk rotates like a merry-go-round around its central axis. Initially, the cockroach is at radius r = 0 and the angular speed of the disk is ωi = 1.50 rad/s. Treat the cockroach as a particle. The cockroach crawls out to the rim of the disk. When the cockroach passes r = 0.800R, at what rate dω/ dr does the angular speed change as it moves outward?
79
Rolling into a loop. In Fig. 11.39, three objects will be released from rest at height h = 41.0 cm to roll smoothly down a h R straight track and into a circular loop of radius R = 14.0 cm. The objects are (a) a thin hoop, (b) a solid, uniform disk, and (c) a Figure 11.39 Problems 80 solid, uniform sphere, each with and 82. radius r ≪ R. Determine if the object will reach the top of the loop (without falling off the track) and calculate its speed there. 80
Change in angular momentum. In Fig. 11.8.6, a Texas cock- roach with mass m = 0.0500 kg (they are large) rides on a uni- form disk of mass M = 10.0m and radius R = 0.100 m. The disk rotates like a merry-go-round around its central axis. Initially, the cockroach is at radius r = R and the angular speed of the disk is ωi = 0.800 rad/s. Treat the cockroach as a particle. The cockroach crawls inward to r = 0.500R. What is the change in 81
angular momentum of (a) the cockroach–disk system, (b) the cockroach, and (c) the disk? CALC Speed in a loop. In Fig. 11.39, a solid, uniform sphere is released from rest at height h = 3R and rolls smoothly down a straight track and into a circular loop of radius R = 14.0 cm. The release height is sufficiently high that the sphere reaches the top of the loop with some speed v. We repeat the demon- stration by gradually increasing h. At what rate dv/dh does v increase when h reaches the value 4R?
82
Rolling friction. When an object rolls over a surface, the contact area com of both the object and the surface F can continuously deform and recover. Energy is lost in that con- tinuous motion and thus the kinetic energy of the object gradually h decreases. A rolling friction is said to Figure 11.40 Problem 83. act on the object, with a magnitude f r given by f r = μr F N , where μr is the coefficient of rolling friction and F N is the magnitude of the normal force. In Fig. 11.40, a pool ball rolls rightward over the felt of a pool table. The deformation of the ball is negligible but the deformation of the felt creates the rolling friction. The support forces along the contact area can then be represented by shifting the normal force F N rightward by distance h from being directly under the center of mass. The torque due to that force about the center of mass works against the rotation. The ball has mass m = 97.0 g and radius r = 26.2 mm, and the shift distance is h = 0.330 mm. (a) What is the magnitude of the torque due to the normal force? How much energy is lost to the torque if the ball rolls through (b) one revolution and (c) distance L = 30.0 cm? (d) What is the value of μr ? 83
N
→
/
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
1
2
Equilibrium and Elasticity 12.1 EQUILIBRIUM Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
12.1.1 Distinguish between equilibrium and static
12.1.4 For a given distribution of particles, calculate the
equilibrium.
coordinates of the center of gravity and the center of
12.1.2 Specify the four conditions for static equilibrium.
mass.
12.1.3 Explain center of gravity and how it relates to center of mass.
Key Ideas ●
A rigid body at rest is said to be in static equilibrium.
xy plane, all torque vectors are z axis, and the balance-of-torques equa-
If the forces lie in the
For such a body, the vector sum of the external forces
parallel to the
acting on it is zero:
tion is equivalent to the single component equation
→
F net = 0 If all the forces lie in the
xy plane, this vector equation
is equivalent to two component equations:
F net, x = 0 and F net, y = 0 ●
net, z = 0
(balance of forces).
(balance of forces).
Static equilibrium also implies that the vector sum
●
(balance of torques).
The gravitational force acts individually on each ele-
ment of a body. The net effect of all individual actions may be found by imagining an equivalent total gravi- →
tational force
F g acting at the center of gravity. If the g is the same for all the ele- →
gravitational acceleration
of the external torques acting on the body about any
ments of the body, the center of gravity is at the center
point is zero, or
of mass.
τ net = 0
→
(balance of torques).
What Is Physics?
Human constructions are supposed to be stable in spite of the forces that act on them. A building, for example, should be stable in spite of the gravitational force and wind forces on it, and a bridge should be stable in spite of the gravitational force pulling it downward and the repeated jolting it receives from cars and trucks. One focus of physics is on what allows an object to be stable in spite of any forces acting on it. In this chapter we examine the two main aspects of stability: the equilibrium of the forces and torques acting on rigid objects and the elasticity of nonrigid objects, a property that governs how such objects can deform. When this physics is done correctly, it is the subject of countless articles in physics and engineering journals; when it is done incorrectly, it is the subject of countless articles in newspapers and legal journals.
Equilibrium
344
Consider these objects: (1) a book resting on a table, (2) a hockey puck sliding with constant velocity across a frictionless surface, (3) the rotating blades of a ceiling fan, and (4) the wheel of a bicycle that is traveling along a straight path at constant speed. For each of these four objects,
/
12.1 EQU IL IBRIU M
345
→
1. The linear momentum P of its center of mass is constant. →
2. Its angular momentum L about its center of mass, or about any other point, is also constant. We say that such objects are in equilibrium. The two requirements for equilibrium are then (12.1.1) P = a constant and L = a constant. →
→
kcotsrettuhS/iarapoB hgniS tijrawnaK
Our concern in this chapter is with situations in which the constants in Eq. 12.1.1 are zero; that is, we are concerned largely with objects that are not moving in any way—either in translation or in rotation—in the reference frame from which we observe them. Such objects are in static equilibrium. Of the four objects mentioned near the beginning of this module, only one—the book resting on the table—is in static equilibrium. The balancing rock of Fig. 12.1.1 is another example of an object that, for the present at least, is in static equilibrium. It shares this property with countless other structures, such as cathedrals, houses, filing cabinets, and taco stands, that remain stationary over time. As we discussed in Module 8.3, if a body returns to a state of static equilib- rium after having been displaced from that state by a force, the body is said to be in stable static equilibrium. A marble placed at the bottom of a hemispherical bowl is an example. However, if a small force can displace the body and end the equilibrium, the body is in unstable static equilibrium. A Domino. For example, suppose we balance a domino with the domino’s center of mass vertically above the supporting edge, as in Fig. 12.1.2a. The torque about the supporting edge due to the gravitational force F g on the domino is zero because the line of action of F g is through that edge. Thus, the domino is in equilibrium. Of course, even a slight force on it due to some chance dis- turbance ends the equilibrium. As the line of action of F g moves to one side of the supporting edge (as in Fig. 12.1.2b), the torque due to F g increases the rotation of the domino. Therefore, the domino in Fig. 12.1.2a is in unstable static equilibrium. The domino in Fig. 12.1.2c is not quite as unstable. To topple this domino, a force would have to rotate it through and then beyond the balance position of Fig. 12.1.2a, in which the center of mass is above a supporting edge. A slight force will not topple this domino, but a vigorous flick of the finger against the domino certainly will. (If we arrange a chain of such upright dominos, a finger FCP flick against the first can cause the whole chain to fall.) A Block. The child’s square block in Fig. 12.1.2d is even more stable because its center of mass would have to be moved even farther to get it to pass above a supporting edge. A flick of the finger may not topple the block. (This is why you never see a chain of toppling square blocks.) The worker in Fig. 12.1.3 is like both
A balancing rock. Although its perch seems precarious, the rock is in static equilibrium. Figure 12.1.1
→
→
→
→
To tip the block, the center of mass must pass over the supporting edge.
com Fg
(a)
Fg
Fg
Supporting edge (b )
(c )
(a) A domino bal- anced on one edge, with its center of mass vertically above that edge. The gravitational force F g on the domino is directed through the supporting edge. (b) If the domino is rotated even slightly from the balanced orien- tation, then F g causes a torque that increases the rotation. (c) A domino upright on a narrow side is somewhat more stable than the domino in (a). (d) A square block is even more stable. Figure 12.1.2
B Fg
(d )
→
→
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346
C HAP T ER 12 EQU IL IBRIU M AND EL AST IC IT Y
the domino and the square block: Parallel to the beam, his stance is wide and he is stable; perpendicular to the beam, his stance is narrow and he is unstable (and at the mercy of a chance gust of wind). The analysis of static equilibrium is very important in engineering practice. The design engineer must isolate and identify all the external forces and torques that may act on a structure and, by good design and wise choice of materials, ensure that the structure will remain stable under these loads. Such analysis is necessary to ensure, for example, that bridges do not collapse under their traffic and wind loads and that the landing gear of aircraft will function after the shock of rough landings. tidEotohP/rennerB treboR
The Requirements of Equilibrium
The translational motion of a body is governed by Newton’s second law in its linear momentum form, given by Eq. 9.3.6 as
Robert Brenner/PhotoEdit
A construction worker balanced on a steel beam is in static equilibrium but is more stable parallel to the beam than perpendicular to it. Figure 12.1.3
→
dP . F net = ___ dt
→
(12.1.2) →
If the body is in translational equilibrium—that is, if P is a constant—then dP / dt = 0 and we must have →
→
F net = 0
(balance of forces ).
(12.1.3)
The rotational motion of a body is governed by Newton’s second law in its angular momentum form, given by Eq. 11.7.4 a s →
dL . τ net = ___ dt
(12.1.4)
→
→
→
If the body is in rotational equilibrium—that is, if L is a constant—then dL / dt = 0 and we must have
τ net = 0
→
(balance of torques ).
(12.1.5)
Thus, the two requirements for a body to be in equilibrium are as follows:
1. The vector sum of all the external forces that act on the body must be zero. 2. The vector sum of all external torques that act on the body, measured about any possible point, must also be zero.
These requirements obviously hold for static equilibrium. They also hold for the more general equilibrium in which P and L are constant but not zero. Equations 12.1.3 a nd 12.1.5, a s vector equations, are each equivalent to three independent component equations, one for each direction of the coordinate axes: →
→
Balance of forces
Balance of torques
F net,x = 0 F net,y = 0 F net,z = 0
net,x = 0 net,y = 0 net,z = 0
(12.1.6)
The Main Equations. We shall simplify matters by considering only situations in which the forces that act on the body lie in the xy plane. This means that the only torques that can act on the body must tend to cause rotation around an axis parallel to
/
12.1 EQU IL IBRIU M
347
the z axis. With this assumption, we eliminate one force equation and two torque equa- tions from Eqs. 12.1.6, leaving F net, x = 0
(balance of forces),
(12.1.7)
F net, y = 0
(balance of forces),
(12.1.8)
net, z = 0
(balance of torques).
(12.1.9)
Here, net,z is the net torque that the external forces produce either about the z axis or about any axis parallel to it. A hockey puck sliding at constant velocity over ice satisfies Eqs. 12.1.7, 12.1.8, a nd 12.1.9 a nd is thus in equilibrium but not in static equilibrium. For static equilibrium, the linear momentum P of the puck must be not only constant but also zero; the puck must be at rest on the ice. Thus, there is another requirement for static equilibrium: →
3. The linear momentum P of the body must be zero. →
Checkpoint 12.1.1
The figure gives six overhead views of a uniform rod on which two or more forces act perpendicularly to the rod. If the magnitudes of the forces are adjusted properly (but kept nonzero), in which situations can the rod be in static equilibrium?
(a )
(b )
(c )
(d )
(e )
(f )
The Center of Gravity
The gravitational force on an extended body is the vector sum of the gravitational forces acting on the individual elements (the atoms) of the body. Instead of con- sidering all those individual elements, we can say that The gravitational force F g on a body effectively acts at a single point, called the center of gravity (cog) of the body. →
Here the word “effectively” means that if the gravitational forces on the individual elements were somehow turned off and the gravitational force F g at the center of gravity were turned on, the net force and the net torque (about any point) acting on the body would not change. Until now, we have assumed that the gravitational force F g acts at the center of mass (com) of the body. This is equivalent to assuming that the center of grav- ity is at the center of mass. Recall that, for a body of mass M, the force F g is equal to M g , where g is the acceleration that the force would produce if the body were →
→
→
→
→
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348
C HAP T ER 12 EQU IL IBRIU M AND EL AST IC IT Y
to fall freely. In the proof that follows, we show that
y
If g is the same for all elements of a body, then the body’s center of gravity (cog) is coincident with the body’s center of mass (com). →
mi F gi
Line of action x
xi
O
Moment arm
(a )
This is approximately true for everyday objects because g varies only a little along Earth’s surface and decreases in magnitude only slightly with altitude. Thus, for objects like a mouse or a moose, we have been justified in assuming that the gravitational force acts at the center of mass. After the following proof, we shall resume that assumption. →
y
Proof
First, we consider the individual elements of the body. Figure 12.1.4a shows an extended body, of mass M, and one of its elements, of mass m i . A gravita- tional force F gi acts on each such element and is equal to m i g i . The subscript on g i means g i is the gravitational acceleration at the location of the element i (it can be different for other elements). For the body in Fig. 12.1.4a, each force F gi acting on an element produces a torque i on the element about the origin O, with a moment arm x i. Using Eq. 10.6.3 ( = r ⊥F ) as a guide, we can write each torque as i →
cog
→
Fg x cog
O
Moment arm
→
→
→
x
Line of action
(b )
(a) An element of mass m i in an extended body. The gravi- tational force F gi on the element has moment arm x i about the origin O of the coordinate system. (b) The gravitational force F g on a body is said to act at the center of gravity (cog) of the body. Here F g has moment arm x cog about origin O.
i = x i F gi .
Figure 12.1.4
→
→
→
(12.1.10)
The net torque on all the elements of the body is then
τ net = τi = ∑
∑
x i F gi .
(12.1.11)
Next, we consider the body as a whole. Figure 12.1.4b shows the gravitational force F g acting at the body’s center of gravity. This force produces a torque on the body about O, with moment arm x cog . Again using Eq. 10.6.3, we can write this torque as →
= x cog F g .
(12.1.12)
→
The gravitational force F g on the body is equal to the sum of the gravitational forces F gi on all its elements, so we can substitute Σ F gi for F g in Eq. 12.1.12 to write →
= x cog
∑
F gi .
(12.1.13)
→
Now recall that the torque due to force F g acting at the center of gravity is equal to the net torque due to all the forces F gi acting on all the elements of the body. (That is how we defined the center of gravity.) Thus, in Eq. 12.1.13 is equal to net in Eq. 12.1.11. Putting those two equations together, we can write →
x cog ∑ F gi = ∑ x i F gi Substituting m i g i for F gi gives us x cog ∑ m i g i = ∑ x i m i g i .
(12.1.14)
Now here is a key idea: If the accelerations g i at all the locations of the elements are the same, we can cancel g i from this equation to write x cog ∑ m i = ∑ x i m i .
(12.1.15)
The sum Σ m i of the masses of all the elements is the mass M of the body. There- fore, we can rewrite Eq. 12.1.15 a s 1 ∑ x m . x cog = ___ M i i
(12.1.16)
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12.2 SOME EXAMP L ES OF ST AT IC EQU IL IBRIU M
349
The right side of this equation gives the coordinate x com of the body’s center of mass (Eq. 9.1.4). We now have what we sought to prove. If the acceleration of gravity is the same at all locations of the elements in a body, then the coordinates of the body’s com and cog are identical: x cog = x com .
(12.1.17)
12.2 SOME EXAMPLES OF STATIC EQUILIBRIUM Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
12.2.1 Apply the force and torque conditions for static
of the origin (about which to calculate torques) can
equilibrium.
simplify the calculations by eliminating one or more
12.2.2 Identify that a wise choice about the placement
unknown forces from the torque equation.
Key Ideas ●
A rigid body at rest is said to be in static equilibrium.
●
Static equilibrium also implies that the vector sum
For such a body, the vector sum of the external forces
of the external torques acting on the body about any
acting on it is zero:
point is zero, or
→
F net = 0
If all the forces lie in the
τ net = 0
→
( balance of forces ).
xy plane, all torque vectors are z axis, and the balance-of-torques equa-
If the forces lie in the
xy plane, this vector equation
parallel to the
is equivalent to two component equations:
F net, x = 0 and F net, y = 0
(balance of torques ).
tion is equivalent to the single component equation
net, z = 0
(balance of forces).
(balance of torques).
Some Examples of Static Equilibrium
Here we examine several sample problems involving static equilibrium. In each, we select a system of one or more objects to which we apply the equa- tions of equilibrium (Eqs. 12.1.7, 12.1.8, and 12.1.9). The forces involved in the equilibrium are all in the xy plane, which means that the torques involved are parallel to the z axis. Thus, in applying Eq. 12.1.9, the balance of torques, we select an axis parallel to the z axis about which to calculate the torques. Although Eq. 12.1.9 is satisfied for any such choice of axis, you will see that certain choices simplify the application of Eq. 12.1.9 by eliminating one or more unknown force terms.
Checkpoint 12.2.1
The figure gives an overhead view of a uniform rod in static equilibrium. (a) Can you find the magnitudes of unknown forces F 1 and F 2 by balancing the forces? (b) If you wish to find the magnitude of force F 2 by using a balance of torques equa- tion, where should you place a rotation axis to eliminate F 1 from the equation? (c) The magnitude of F 2 turns out to be 65 N. What then is the magnitude of F 1 ? →
→
→
→
→
20 N
→
4d
2d
10 N
d
F1
d
F2
30 N
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350
C HAP T ER 12 EQU IL IBRIU M AND EL AST IC IT Y
Sample Problem 12.2.1
System
Balancing a horizontal beam
In Fig. 12.2.1a, a uniform beam, of length L and mass m = 1.8 kg, is at rest on two scales. A uniform block, with mass M = 2.7 kg, is at rest on the beam, with its center a dis- tance L/4 from the beam’s left end. What do the scales read?
L
L
4
Block
M
Beam m
Scale
Scale
KEY IDEAS The first steps in the solution of any problem about static equilibrium are these: Clearly define the system to be analyzed and then draw a free-body diagram of it, indicating all the forces on the system. Here, let us choose the system as the beam and block taken together. Then the forces on the system are shown in the free-body diagram of Fig. 12.2.1b. (Choosing the system takes experience, and often there can be more than one good choice.) Because the system is in static equilibrium, we can apply the balance of forces equations (Eqs. 12.1.7 and 12.1.8) and the balance of torques equation (Eq. 12.1.9) to it. The normal forces on the beam from the scales are F l on the left and F r on the right. The scale read- ings that we want are equal to the magnitudes of those forces. The gravitational force F g,beam on the beam acts at the beam’s center of mass and is equal to m g . Similarly, the gravitational force F g,block on the block acts at the block’s center of mass and is equal to m g . However, to simplify Fig. 12.2.1b, the block is represented by a dot within the boundary of the beam and vector F g,block is drawn with its tail on that dot. (This shift of the vector F g,block along its line of action does not alter the torque due to F g,block about any axis perpendicular to the figure.) The forces have no x components, so Eq. 12.1.7 (F net, x = 0) provides no information. For the y compo- nents, Eq. 12.1.8 (F net,y = 0) gives us
(a ) y
Fl
The vertical forces balance but that is not enough. L
Fr
2 L
4
x
Block
Beam F g, bea m = mg
We must also balance torques, with a wise choice of rotation axis.
Calculations: →
→
F g,block
= Mg (b )
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
F l + F r − Mg − mg = 0.
(12.2.1)
This equation contains two unknowns, the forces F l and F r , so we also need to use Eq. 12.1.9, the balance- of-torques equation. We can apply it to any rotation axis perpendicular to the plane of Fig. 12.2.1. Let us choose a rotation axis through the left end of the beam. We shall also use our general rule for assigning signs to torques: If a torque would cause an initially stationary body to rotate clockwise about the rotation axis, the torque is negative. If the rotation would be counterclockwise, the torque is positive. Finally, we shall write the torques in the form r ⊥ F, where the moment arm r ⊥ is 0 for F l , L/4 for M g , L/2 for m g , and L for F r . We now can write the balancing equation (net, z = 0) as →
→
→
→
(0)(F l) – (L/4)(Mg) – (L/2)(mg) + (L)(F r) = 0,
(a) A beam of mass m supports a block of mass M. (b) A free-body diagram, showing the forces that act on the system beam + block. Figure 12.2.1
which gives us 1 1 F r = _ Mg + _ mg 4 2 1 1 = _ (2.7 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 ) + _ (1.8 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 ) 4 2
=15.44 N ≈ 15 N.
(Answer)
Now, solving Eq. 12.2.1 for F l and substituting this result, we find F l = (M + m)g − F r = (2.7 kg + 1.8 kg)(9.8 m /s 2 ) − 15.44 N
= 28.66 N ≈ 29 N.
(Answer)
Notice the strategy in the solution: When we wrote an equation for the balance of force components, we got stuck with two unknowns. If we had written an equation for the balance of torques around some arbitrary axis, we would have again gotten stuck with those two unknowns. However, because we chose the axis to pass through the point of application of one of the unknown forces, here F l , we did not get stuck. Our choice neatly eliminated that force from the torque equation, allowing us to solve for the other unknown force magnitude F r. Then we returned to the equation for the balance of force components to find the remaining unknown force magnitude. →
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
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12.2 SOME EXAMP L ES OF ST AT IC EQU IL IBRIU M
Sample Problem 12.2.2
Balancing a leaning boom
Figure 12.2.2a shows a safe (mass M = 430 kg) hanging by a rope (negligible mass) from a boom (a = 1.9 m and b = 2.5 m) that consists of a uniform hinged beam (m = 85 kg) and horizontal cable (negligible mass).
b
Cable
θ
(a) What is the tension T c in the cable? In other words, what is the magnitude of the force T c on the beam from the cable? →
Beam com
m
a
Rope
KEY IDEAS The system here is the beam alone, and the forces on it are shown in the free-body diagram of Fig. 12.2.2b. The force from the cable is T c . The gravitational force on the beam acts at the beam’s center of mass (at the beam’s center) and is represented by its equivalent m g . The vertical component of the force on the beam from the hinge is F v , and the horizontal component of the force from the hinge is F h . The force from the rope supporting the safe is T r . Because beam, rope, and safe are stationary, the magnitude of T r is equal to the weight of the safe: T r = Mg. We place the origin O of an xy coordinate system at the hinge. Because the system is in static equilibrium, the balancing equations apply to it.
Hinge
(a )
→
M
→
y
Tc
→
θ
→
Tr
→
Beam
→
Let us start with Eq. 12.1.9 ( net, z = 0). Note that we are asked for the magnitude of force T c and not of forces F h and F v acting at the hinge, at point O. To eliminate F h and F v from the torque calculation, we should calculate torques about an axis that is perpendicular to the figure at point O. Then F h and F v will have moment arms of zero. The lines of action for T c , T r , and m g are dashed in Fig. 12.2.2b. The corresponding moment arms are a, b, and b/2. Writing torques in the form of r ⊥ F and using our rule about signs for torques, the balancing equation net,z = 0 becomes
Here is the wise choice of rotation axis.
Calculations:
→
→
→
→
→
x Fh
(a) A heavy safe is hung from a boom consisting of a horizontal steel cable and a uniform beam. (b) A free- body diagram for the beam. Figure 12.2.2
→
→
→
→
1 _ (a) (T c) − (b)(T r ) − (2 b )(mg) = 0.
F v
O
(b )
→
mg
(12.2.2)
Substituting Mg for T r and solving for T c, we find that 1 gb(M + _ m) 2 T c = _a _ 2
(9.8 m/s )(2.5 m)(430 kg + 85/2 kg) ______ = _______________ 1.9 m = 6093 N ≈ 6100 N. (Answer) (b) Find the magnitude F of the net force on the beam from the hinge.
magnitude F of the net force. Because we know T c, we apply the force balancing equations to the beam. Calculations:
F net, x = 0 as
For the horizontal balance, we c an rewrite F h − T c = 0,
and so
(12.2.3)
F h = T c = 6093 N.
For the vertical balance, we write F net,y = 0 as F v − mg − T r = 0. Substituting Mg for T r and solving for F v, we find that F v = (m + M)g = (85 kg + 430 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 ) = 5047 N. From the Pythagorean theorem, we now have _
2 F = √ F 2 h + F v
____________________
= √ (6093 N) 2 + (5047 N ) 2 ≈ 7900 N. (Answer )
KEY IDEA Now we want the horizontal component F h and vertical component F v so that we can combine them to get the
Note that F is substantially greater than either the com- bined weights of the safe and the beam, 5000 N, or the tension in the horizontal wire, 6100 N.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
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C HAP T ER 12 EQU IL IBRIU M AND EL AST IC IT Y
Sample Problem 12.2.3
Balancing a leaning ladder
In Fig. 12.2.3a, a ladder of length L = 12 m and mass m = 45 kg leans against a slick wall (that is, there is no friction between the ladder and the wall). The ladder’s upper end is at height h = 9.3 m above the pavement on which the lower end is supported (the pavement is not frictionless). The ladder’s center of mass is L/3 from the lower end, along the length of the ladder. A firefighter of mass M = 72 kg climbs the ladder until her center of mass is L/2 from the lower end. What then are the mag- nitudes of the forces on the ladder from the wall and the pavement?
KEY IDEAS
a torque due to M g about any axis perpendicular to the figure. Thus, the shift does not affect the torque balancing equation that we shall be using.) The only force on the ladder from the wall is the hori- zontal force F w (there cannot be a frictional force along a frictionless wall, so there is no vertical force on the lad- der from the wall). The force F p on the ladder from the pavement has two components: a horizontal component F px that is a static frictional force and a vertical component F py that is a normal force. To apply the balancing equations, let’s start with the torque balancing of Eq. 12.1.9 ( net,z = 0). To choose an axis about which to calculate the torques, note that we have unknown forces ( F w and F p ) at the two ends of the ladder. To eliminate, say, F p from the calculation, we place the axis at point O, perpendicular to the figure (Fig. 12.2.3b). We also place the origin of an xy coordinate sys- tem at O. We can find torques about O with any of Eqs. 10.6.1 through 10.6.3, but Eq. 10.6.3 ( = r ⊥F ) is easiest to use here. Making a wise choice about the placement of the origin can make our torque calculation much easier. To find the moment arm r ⊥ of the horizontal force F w from the wall, we draw a line of action through that vec- tor (it is the horizontal dashed line shown in Fig. 12.2.3c). Then r ⊥ is the perpendicular distance between O and the line of action. In Fig. 12.2.3c, r ⊥ extends along the y axis and is equal to the height h. We similarly draw lines of →
→
→
→
→
→
First, we choose our system as being the firefighter and ladder, together, and then we draw the free-body diagram of Fig. 12.2.3b to show the forces acting on the system. Because the system is in static equilibrium, the balancing equations for both forces and torques (Eqs. 12.1.7 through 12.1.9) can be applied to it. In Fig. 12.2.3b, the firefighter is repre- sented with a dot within the boundary of the ladder. The gravitational force on her is represented with its equiva- lent expression M g , and that vector has been shifted along its line of action (the line extending through the force vec- tor), so that its tail is on the dot. (The shift does not alter Calculations:
→
A
→
→
→
Frictionless
y
System
Here are all the forces.
Fw
L
Firefighter com
h
Firefighter
Ladder com
F py
Ladder
Mg mg
F px
x
3
a/
a
(a)
O
(b )
a/
2
(a) A firefighter climbs halfway up a ladder that is leaning against a friction- less wall. The pavement beneath the ladder is not frictionless. (b) A free-body diagram, showing the forces that act on the firefighter + ladder system. The origin O of a coordinate system is placed at the point of application of the unknown force F p (whose vector compo- nents F px and F py are shown). (Figure 12.2.3 continues on following page.) Figure 12.2.3
→
→
→
/
353
12.2 SOME EXAMP L ES OF ST AT IC EQU IL IBRIU M
y
y
y
y
This moment arm is perpendicular to the line of action.
Fw
F py
h
Mg mg
(c )
F px
O
O
x
O
x
Here too.
Choosing the rotation axis here eliminates the torques due to these forces.
a/
O
x
2
Here too.
y
a/
x
3 y
Fw
These vertical forces balance.
These horizontal forces balance. (Continued from previous page) (c) Calculating the torques. (d) Balancing the forces. In WileyPLUS, this figure is available as an animation with voiceover.
F py
Figure 12.2.3
Mg mg
(d )
action for the gravitational force vectors M g and m g and see that their moment arms extend along the x axis. For the distance a shown in Fig. 12.2.3a, the moment arms are a/2 (the firefighter is halfway up the ladder) and a/3 (the ladder’s center of mass is one-third of the way up the lad- der), respectively. The moment arms for F px and F py are zero because the forces act at the origin. Now, with torques written in the form r ⊥ F, the bal- ancing equation net,z = 0 becomes →
→
→
(A positive torque corresponds to counterclockwise rotation and a negative torque corresponds to clockwise rotation.) Using the Pythagorean theorem for the right triangle made by the ladder in Fig. 12.2.3a, we find that _
a = √ L 2 − h 2 = 7.58 m.
O
x
O
x
Then Eq. 12.2.4 g ives us ga(M/2 + m/3) F w = _ _ h 2 (9.8 m/s )(7.58 m)(72/2 kg + 45/3 kg) = ______________________ 9.3 m = 407 N ≈ 410 N. (Answer)
→
−(h)(F w ) + (a/2)(Mg) + (a/3)(mg) + (0)(F px ) + (0)(F py ) = 0. (12.2.4)
F px
Now we need to use the force balancing equations and Fig. 12.2.3d. The equation F net, x = 0 gives us F w − F px = 0, so
F px = F w = 410 N.
(Answer)
The equation F net,y = 0 gives us F py − Mg − mg = 0, so
F py = (M + m)g = (72 kg + 45 kg)(9.8 m /s 2 ) = 1146.6 N ≈ 1100 N.
(Answer)
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Sample Problem 12.2.4
Chimney climb
We seek the magnitude F N of those two forces, which is also the magnitude of her push against either wall. The balancing equation for vertical forces F net,y = 0 gives us f 1 + f 2 – mg = 0.
In Fig. 12.2.4, a rock climber with mass m = 55 kg rests during a chimney climb, pressing only with her shoulders and feet against the walls of a fissure of width w = 1.0 m. Her center of mass is a horizontal distance d = 0.20 m from the wall against which her shoulders are pressed. A static friction force f 1 acts on her feet with coefficient of static friction µ1 = 1.1. A static friction force f 2 acts on her shoulders with coefficient of static friction µ 2 = 0.70. To rest, the climber wants to minimize her horizontal push on the walls. The minimum occurs when her feet and shoulders are both on the verge of sliding. (a) What is that minimum horizontal push on the walls? →
We want the climber to be on the verge of sliding at both her feet and her shoulders. That means we want the static frictional forces there to be at their maximum values f s,max . From Module 6.1, those maximum values are f 1 = μ1 F N and f 2 = μ2 F N . Substituting these expressions into the vertical-force bal- ancing equation leads to 2 (55 kg)(9.8 m/s ) mg _ _ _ F N = _ = = 299 N ≈ 300 N. μ1 + μ2 1.1 + 0.70 Thus, her minimum horizontal push must be about 300 N.
→
(b) For that push, what must be the vertical distance h between her feet and her shoulders if she is to be stable?
f2
Here we want to balance the torques on the climber. We can write the torques in the form r ⊥F, where r ⊥ is the moment arm of force F. We can choose any rotation axis to do that, but a wise choice can sim- plify our work. Let’s choose the axis through her shoul- ders. Then the moment arms of the forces acting there (the normal force and the frictional force) are simply zero. Frictional force f 1, the normal force F N at her feet, and the gravitational force F g have moment arms w, h, and d. Recalling our rule about the signs of torques and the corresponding directions, we can now write the torque balancing equation τ net = 0 around the rotation axis as
FN
Calculations:
f1
h
→
FN
→
→
y
Fg = m g
d x
w
The forces on a climber resting in a rock chimney. The push of the climber on the chimney walls results in the normal F N and the static frictional forces f 1 and f 2 . Figure 12.2.4
→
→
→
Solving for h, setting f 1 = μ1 F N, and substituting our result of F N = 299 N and other known values, we find that f 1 w – mgd μ1 F Nw – mgd mgd _ = _____________________ h = _ = μ1 w – __ F N F N F N
KEY IDEAS First, we choose our system as being the climber. Because she is in static equilibrium, we can apply a force balancing equation for the horizontal forces and also one for the verti- cal forces. In addition, the torques around any rotation axis balance. Figure 12.2.4 shows the forces that act on her. The only horizontal forces are the normal forces F N on her from the walls, at her feet and shoulders. The static friction forces on her are f 1 and f 2, directed upward. The gravita- tional force F g with magnitude mg acts at her center of mass. The equation F net,x = 0 tells us that the two normal forces on her must be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Calculations:
→
→
→
–(w)( f 1) + (h)(F f 2) + (0)( F N) = 0. N) + (d)(mg) + (0)(
→
(55 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )(0.20 m) = (1.1)(1.0 m) – ______________________ 299 N = 0.739 m ≈ 0.74 m If h is more than or less than 0.74 m, she must exert a force greater than 299 N on the walls to be stable. Here, then, is the advantage of knowing physics before you climb a chimney. When you need to rest, you will avoid the (dire) error of novice climbers who place their feet too high or too low. Instead, you will know that there is a “best” distance between shoulders and feet, requiring the least push and giv- ing you a good chance to rest.
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12.3 EL AST IC IT Y
355
12.3 ELASTICITY Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
12.3.1 Explain what an indeterminate situation is.
12.3.4 For shearing, apply the equation that relates
12.3.2 For tension and compression, apply the equa- tion that relates stress to strain and Young’s
stress to strain and the shear modulus. 12.3.5 For hydraulic stress, apply the equation that
modulus.
relates fluid pressure to strain and the bulk modulus.
12.3.3 Distinguish between yield strength and ultimate strength.
Key Ideas ●
Three elastic moduli are used to describe the elastic
behavior (deformations) of objects as they respond to
●
When an object is under a shearing stress, the
stress–strain relation is written as
F = G _ Δx , _
forces that act on them. The strain (fractional change in
A
length) is linearly related to the applied stress (force per unit area) by the proper modulus, according to the gen- eral stress–strain relation
where
L
∆x/L is the shearing strain of the object, ∆x is
the displacement of one end of the object in the direc- →
stress = modulus × strain.
tion of the applied force
F , and G is the shear modulus F/A.
of the object. The stress is ●
When an object is under tension or compression, the
stress–strain relation is written as
When an object undergoes hydraulic compression
due to a stress exerted by a surrounding fluid, the
F = E _ ΔL , _ A
●
stress–strain relation is written as
L
∆L/L is the tensile or compressive strain of the object, F is the magnitude of the applied force F causing the strain, A is the cross-sectional area over which F is applied (perpendicular to A ), and E is the Young’s modulus for the object. The stress is F/A .
_, p = B ΔV
V
where
→
→
where
p is the pressure (hydraulic stress) on the object ∆V/V (the strain) is the absolute value
due to the fluid,
of the fractional change in the object’s volume due to that pressure, and
B is the bulk modulus of the object.
Indeterminate Structures
For the problems of this chapter, we have only three independent equations at our disposal, usually two balance-of-forces equations and one balance-of-torques equation about a given rotation axis. Thus, if a problem has more than three unknowns, we cannot solve it. Consider an unsymmetrically loaded car. What are the forces—all different—on the four tires? A gain, we cannot find them because we have only three independent equations. Similarly, we can solve an equilibrium problem for a table with three legs but not for one with four legs. Problems like these, in which there are more unknowns than equations, are called indeterminate. Yet solutions to indeterminate problems exist in the real world. If you rest the tires of the car on four platform scales, e ach scale will register a definite read- ing, the sum of the readings being the weight of the car. What is eluding us in our efforts to find the individual forces by solving equations? The problem is that we have assumed—without making a great point of it— that the bodies to which we apply the equations of static equilibrium are per- fectly rigid. By this we mean that they do not deform when forces are applied to them. Strictly, there are no such bodies. The tires of the car, for example, deform easily under load until the car settles into a position of static equilibrium. We have all had experience with a wobbly restaurant table, which we usu- ally level by putting folded paper under one of the legs. If a big enough elephant sat on such a table, however, you may be sure that if the table did not collapse, /
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it would deform just like the tires of a car. Its legs would all touch the floor, the forces acting upward on the table legs would all assume definite (and differ- ent) values as in Fig. 12.3.1, a nd the table would no longer wobble. Of course, we (and the elephant) would be thrown out onto the street but, in principle, how do we find the individual values of those forces acting on the legs in this or similar situations where there is deformation? To solve such indeterminate equilibrium problems, we must supplement equilibrium equations with some knowledge of elasticity, the branch of physics and engineering that describes how real bodies deform when forces are applied to them.
com
F4
F2
Checkpoint 12.3.1
A horizontal uniform bar of weight 10 N is to hang from a ceiling by two wires that exert upward forces F 1 and F 2 on the bar. The figure shows four arrangements for the wires. Which arrangements, if any, are indeterminate (so that we cannot solve for numerical values of F 1 and F 2 )? →
F1
Fg
F3
→
→
The table is an inde- terminate structure. The four forces on the table legs differ from one another in magnitude and cannot be found from the laws of static equilib- rium alone.
→
Figure 12.3.1
F1
F2
F1
d
10 N
d
/2
d
10 N (c )
F2
10 N
(a )
F1
d
(b )
F2
F1
F2
10 N (d )
Elasticity
The atoms of a metallic solid are distributed on a repetitive three-dimensional lattice. The springs represent interatomic forces. Figure 12.3.2
When a large number of atoms come together to form a metallic solid, such as an iron nail, they settle into equilibrium positions in a three-dimensional lattice, a repetitive arrangement in which each atom is a well-defined equilibrium distance from its nearest neighbors. The atoms are held together by interatomic forces that are modeled as tiny springs in Fig. 12.3.2. The lattice is remarkably rigid, which is another way of saying that the “interatomic springs” are extremely stiff. It is for this reason that we perceive many ordinary objects, such as metal ladders, tables, and spoons, as perfectly rigid. Of course, some ordinary objects, such as gar- den hoses or rubber gloves, do not strike us as rigid at all. The atoms that make up these objects do not form a rigid lattice like that of Fig. 12.3.2 but are aligned in long, flexible molecular chains, each chain being only loosely bound to its neighbors. All real “rigid” bodies are to some extent elastic, which means that we can change their dimensions slightly by pulling, pushing, twisting, or compressing them. To get a feeling for the orders of magnitude involved, consider a vertical steel rod 1 m long and 1 cm in diameter attached to a factory ceiling. If you hang a subcompact car from the free end of such a rod, the rod will stretch but only by about 0.5 mm, or 0.05%. Furthermore, the rod will return to its original length when the car is removed. If you hang two cars from the rod, the rod will be permanently stretched and will not recover its original length when you remove the load. If you hang three cars from the rod, the rod will break. Just before rupture, the elongation of the
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12.3 EL AST IC IT Y
357
F
Δx
V F
ΔV L
L
+ ΔL
(a )
L
(b )
(c )
F
F
(a) A cylinder subject to tensile stress stretches by an amount ∆L. (b) A cylinder subject to shearing stress deforms by an amount ∆x, somewhat like a pack of playing cards would. (c) A solid sphere subject to uniform hydraulic stress from a fluid shrinks in volume by an amount ∆V. All the deformations shown are greatly exaggerated. Figure 12.3.3
rod will be less than 0.2%. Although deformations of this size seem small, they are important in engineering practice. (Whether a wing under load will stay on an airplane is obviously important.) Three Ways. Figure 12.3.3 shows three ways in which a solid might change its dimensions when forces act on it. In Fig. 12.3.3a, a cylinder is stretched. In Fig. 12.3.3b, a cylinder is deformed by a force perpendicular to its long axis, m uch as we might deform a pack of cards or a book. In Fig. 12.3.3c, a solid object placed in a fluid under high pressure is compressed uniformly on all sides. What the three deformation types have in common is that a stress, or deforming force per unit area, produces a strain, or unit deformation. In Fig. 12.3.3, tensile stress (associated with stretching) is illustrated in (a), shearing stress in (b), and hydrau- lic stress in (c). The stresses and the strains take different forms in the three situations of Fig. 12.3.3, but—over the range of engineering usefulness—stress and strain are proportional to each other. The constant of proportionality is called a modulus of elasticity, so that stress = modulus × strain.
L
A test specimen used to determine a stress–strain curve such as that of Fig. 12.3.5. The change ∆L that occurs in a certain length L is measured in a tensile stress–strain test. Figure 12.3.4
(12.3.1)
Tension and Compression
For simple tension or compression, the stress on the object is defined as F/A, where F is the magnitude of the force applied perpendicularly to an area A on the object. The strain, or unit deformation, is then the dimensionless quan- tity ∆L/L, the fractional (or sometimes percentage) change in a length of the specimen. If the specimen is a long rod and the stress does not exceed the yield strength, then not only the entire rod but also every section of it experiences the same strain when a given stress is applied. Because the strain is dimensionless, the modulus in Eq. 12.3.1 has the same dimensions as the stress—namely, force per unit area.
Ultimate strength Yield strength )A/F( ssertS
In a standard test of tensile properties, the tensile stress on a test cylinder (like that in Fig. 12.3.4) is slowly increased from zero to the point at which the cylinder fractures, and the strain is carefully measured and plotted. The result is a graph of stress versus strain like that in Fig. 12.3.5. For a substantial range of applied stresses, the stress–strain relation is linear, and the specimen recov- ers its original dimensions when the stress is removed; it is here that Eq. 12.3.1 applies. If the stress is increased beyond the yield strength S y of the specimen, the specimen becomes permanently deformed. If the stress continues to increase, the specimen eventually ruptures, at a stress called the ultimate strength S u .
0
Rupture
Range of permanent deformation Linear (elastic) range
Strain (ΔL/L )
A stress–strain curve for a steel test specimen such as that of Fig. 12.3.4. The specimen deforms permanently when the stress is equal to the yield strength of the specimen’s material. It ruptures when the stress is equal to the ultimate strength of the material. Figure 12.3.5
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C HAP T ER 12 EQU IL IBRIU M AND EL AST IC IT Y
The modulus for tensile and compressive stresses is called the Young’s modulus and is represented in engineering practice by the symbol E. Equation 12.3.1 becomes F = E _ ΔL . _ A
Courtesy Micro Courtesy Micro Measurements, Measurements, a a Division Division of Vishay Precision Group, Raleigh, NC
A strain gage of over- all dimensions 9.8 mm by 4.6 mm. The gage is fastened with adhesive to the object whose strain is to be measured; it experiences the same strain as the object. The electrical resistance of the gage varies with the strain, permitting strains up to 3% to be measured. Figure 12.3.6
(12.3.2)
L
The strain ∆L/L in a specimen can often be measured conveniently with a strain gage (Fig. 12.3.6), which can be attached directly to operating machinery with an adhesive. Its electrical properties are dependent on the strain it undergoes. Although the Young’s modulus for an object may be almost the same for ten- sion and compression, the object’s ultimate strength may well be different for the two types of stress. Concrete, for example, is very strong in compression but is so weak in tension that it is almost never used in that manner. Table 12.3.1 shows the Young’s modulus and other elastic properties for some materials of engineering interest. Shearing
In the case of shearing, the stress is also a force per unit area, but the force vec- tor lies in the plane of the area rather than perpendicular to it. The strain is the dimensionless ratio ∆x/L, with the quantities defined as shown in Fig. 12.3.3b. The corresponding modulus, which is given the symbol G in engineering practice, is called the shear modulus. For shearing, Eq. 12.3.1 is written as F = G _ Δx . _ A
(12.3.3)
L
Shearing occurs in rotating shafts under load and in bone fractures due to bending. Hydraulic Stress
In Fig. 12.3.3c, the stress is the fluid pressure p on the object, and, as you will see in Chapter 14, pressure is a force per unit area. The strain is ∆V/V, where V is the original volume of the specimen and ∆V is the absolute value of the change in volume. The corresponding modulus, with symbol B, is called the bulk modulus of the material. The object is said to be under hydraulic compression, and the pres- sure can be called the hydraulic stress. For this situation, we write Eq. 12.3.1 as ΔV . p = B _
(12.3.4)
V
The bulk modulus is 2.2 × 10 9 N/m 2 for water and 1.6 × 10 11 N/m 2 for steel. The pressure at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean, at its average depth of about 4000 m, is 4.0 × 10 7 N/m 2 . The fractional compression ∆V/V of a volume of water due to this pressure is 1.8%; that for a steel object is only about 0.025%. In gen- eral, solids—with their rigid atomic lattices—are less compressible than liquids, in which the atoms or molecules are less tightly coupled to their neighbors.
Table 12.3.1 Some Elastic Properties of Selected Materials of Engineering Interest
Material Steel a Aluminum Glass Concrete c Wood d Bone Polystyrene
Young’s Modulus E (10 9 N/m 2 )
Density (kg/m 3 ) 7860 2710 2190 2320 525 1900 1050
200 70 65 30 13 9 b 3
a
b
c
d
Structural steel (ASTM-A36). High strength
Ultimate Strength S u (10 6 N/m 2 ) 400 110 50 b 40 b 50 b 170 b 48
Yield Strength S y (10 6 N/m 2 ) 250 95 — — — — —
In compression. Douglas fir.
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12.3 EL AST IC IT Y
Sample Problem 12.3.1
Stress and strain of elongated rod
One end of a steel rod of radius R = 9.5 mm and length L = 81 cm is held in a vise. A force of magnitude F = 62 kN is then applied perpendicularly to the end face (uniformly across the area) at the other end, pulling directly away from the vise. What are the stress on the rod and the elongation ∆L and strain of the rod?
KEY IDEAS (1) Because the force is perpendicular to the end face and uniform, the stress is the ratio of the magnitude F of the force to the area A. The ratio is the left side of Eq. 12.3.2. (2) The elongation ∆L is related to the stress and Young’s modulus E by Eq. 12.3.2 (F/A = E ∆L/L). (3) Strain is the ratio of the elongation to the initial length L. Calculations:
= 2.2 × 10 8 N/m 2 .
(Answer)
The yield strength for structural steel is 2.5 × 10 8 N/m 2 , so this rod is dangerously close to its yield strength. We find the value of Young’s modulus for steel in Table 12.3.1. Then from Eq. 12.3.2 we find the elongation: (F/A)L _____________________ (2.2 × 10 8 N/m 2 )(0.81 m ) ∆L = _ _ = E 2.0 × 10 11 N/m 2 = 8.9 × 10 –4 m = 0.89 mm. (Answer) For the strain, we have –4
8.9 × 10 m ∆L = _____________________ __ L
0.81 m
= 1.1 × 10 –3 = 0.11%.
(Answer)
Balancing a wobbly table
A table has three legs that are 1.00 m in length and a fourth leg that is longer by d = 0.50 mm, so that the table wobbles slightly. A steel cylinder with mass M = 290 kg is placed on the table (which has a mass much less than M) so that all four legs are compressed but unbuckled and the table is level but no longer wobbles. The legs are wooden cylinders with cross-sectional area A = 1.0 cm 2 ; Young’s modulus is E = 1.3 × 10 10 N/m 2 . What are the magnitudes of the forces on the legs from the floor?
KEY IDEAS
F 4L F 3L __ = __ + d. AE
(12.3.6)
AE
We cannot solve this equation because it has two unknowns, F 4 and F 3 . To get a second equation containing F 4 and F 3, we can use a vertical y axis and then write the balance of vertical forces (F net,y = 0) as 3F 3 + F 4 − Mg = 0,
(12.3.7)
where Mg is equal to the magnitude of the gravitational force on the system. (Three legs have force F 3 on them.) To solve the simultaneous equations 12.3.6 and 12.3.7 for, say, F 3, we first use Eq. 12.3.7 to find that F 4 = Mg − 3F 3. Substituting that into Eq. 12.3.6 then yields, after some algebra, →
We take the table plus steel cylinder as our system. The situation is like that in Fig. 12.3.1, except now we have a steel cylinder on the table. If the tabletop remains level, the legs must be compressed in the following ways: Each of the short legs must be compressed by the same amount (call it ∆L 3 ) and thus by the same force of magnitude F 3 . The single long leg must be compressed by a larger amount ∆L 4 and thus by a force with a larger magnitude F 4 . In other words, for a level tabletop, we must have ∆L 4 = ∆L 3 + d.
(12.3.5)
From Eq. 12.3.2, we can relate a change in length to the force causing the change with ∆L = FL/ AE, where L is the original length of a leg. We can use this relation to replace ∆L 4 and ∆L 3 in Eq. 12.3.5. However, note that we can approxi- mate the original length L as being the same for all four legs. Making those replacements and that approx- imation gives us Calculations:
4 6.2 × 10 N F = __ F = _ _ stress = __ 2 A πR (π)(9.5 × 10 –3 m) 2
To find the stress, we write
Sample Problem 12.3.2
359
Mg dAE F 3 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ – _____________________ 4 4L 2 (290 kg)(9.8 m/s ) = _____________________ 4 (5.0 × 10 –4 m)(10 –4 m 2 )(1.3 × 10 10 N/m 2 ) – _____________________ (4)(1.00 m ) = 548 N ≈ 5.5 × 10 2 N.
(Answer)
From Eq. 12.3.7 we then find F 4 = Mg − 3F 3 = (290 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 ) − 3(548 N) ≈ 1.2 kN.
(Answer)
You can show that the three short legs a re e ach compressed by 0.42 mm and the single long leg by 0.92 mm.
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Review & Summary A rigid body at rest is said to be in static equilibrium. For such a body, the vector sum of the external forces acting on it is zero: Static Equilibrium
→
F net = 0 (balance of forces).
(12.1.3)
If all the forces lie in the xy plane, this vector equation is equiva- lent to two component equations: F net, x = 0 and F net, y = 0 (balance of forces). (12.1.7, 12.1.8) Static equilibrium also implies that the vector sum of the external torques acting on the body about any point is zero, or
τnet = 0
→
(12.1.5)
(balance of torques).
If the forces lie in the xy plane, all torque vectors are parallel to the z axis, and Eq. 12.1.5 is equivalent to the single component equation net, z = 0 (balance of torques). (12.1.9) The gravitational force acts individu- ally on each element of a body. The net effect of all individual actions may be found by imagining an equivalent total gravi- tational force F g acting at the center of gravity. If the gravi- tational acceleration g is the same for all the elements of the body, the center of gravity is at the center of mass. Center of Gravity
→
→
Three elastic moduli are used to describe the elastic behavior (deformations) of objects as they respond to forces that act on them. The strain (fractional change in length) is linearly related to the applied stress (force per unit area) by the proper modulus, according to the general relation Elastic Moduli
stress = modulus × strain.
When an object is under ten- sion or compression, Eq. 12.3.1 is written as Tension and Compression
F = E _ ΔL , _ A
(12.3.2)
L
where ∆L/L is the tensile or compressive strain of the object, F is the magnitude of the applied force F causing the strain, A is the cross-sectional area over which F is applied (perpendicular to A, as in Fig. 12.3.3a), and E is the Young’s modulus for the object. The stress is F/A. →
→
When an object is under a shearing stress, Eq. 12.3.1 is written as Shearing
F = G _ Δx , _
(12.3.3)
L
A
where ∆x/L is the shearing strain of the object, ∆x is the displacement of one end of the object in the direction of the applied force F (as in Fig. 12.3.3b), and G is the shear modulus of the object. The stress is F/A. →
When an object undergoes hydraulic compression due to a stress exerted by a surrounding fluid, Eq. 12.3.1 is written as Hydraulic Stress
ΔV , p = B _ V
(12.3.4)
where p is the pressure (hydraulic stress) on the object due to the fluid, ∆V/V (the strain) is the absolute value of the fractional change in the object’s volume due to that pressure, and B is the bulk modulus of the object.
(12.3.1)
Questions Figure 12.1 shows three situations in which the same horizontal rod is supported by a hinge on a wall at one end and a cord at its other end. Without written calculation, rank the situations according to the magnitudes of (a) the force on the rod from the cord, (b) the vertical force on the rod from the hinge, and (c) the horizontal force on the rod from the hinge, greatest first. 1
50 °
50 °
compared to that of the safe. (a) Rank the positions according to the force on post A due to the safe, greatest compression first, greatest tension last, and indicate where, if anywhere, the force is zero. (b) Rank them according to the force on post B. Figure 12.3 shows four overhead views of rotating uniform disks that are sliding across a frictionless floor. Three forces, of magnitude F, 2F, or 3F, act on each disk, either at the rim, at the center, or halfway between rim and center. The force vectors rotate along with the disks, and, in the “snapshots” of Fig. 12.3, point left or right. Which disks are in equilibrium? 3
F
(1)
(2) Figure 12.1
(3)
In Fig. 12.2, a rigid beam is attached to two posts that are fas- tened to a floor. A small but heavy safe is placed at the six positions indicated, in turn. Assume that the mass of the beam is negligible
1
F
2F
3F
2F
Question 1.
2
F
F
2F
F
(a)
2
3
4
5
(b ) Figure 12.3
6
F
2F
F
(c )
(d )
Question 3.
A ladder leans against a frictionless wall but is prevented from falling because of friction between it and the ground. Suppose you shift the base of the ladder toward the wall. Deter- mine whether the following become larger, smaller, or stay the 4
A
B
Figure 12.2
Question 2.
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QU EST IONS
same (in magnitude): (a) the normal force on the ladder from the ground, (b) the force on the ladder from the wall, (c) the static frictional force on the ladder from the ground, and (d) the maximum value f s,max of the static frictional force. Figure 12.4 shows a mobile of toy penguins hanging from a ceiling. Each crossbar is horizontal, has negligible mass, and extends three times as far to the right of the wire supporting it as to the left. Penguin 1 has mass m 1 = 48 kg. What are the masses of (a) penguin 2, (b) penguin 3, and (c) penguin 4? 5
361
pulley pulls on the pulley with a net force that is twice the tension in the cord.) (b) What is the tension in the short cord labeled with T ?
Fa
In Fig. 12.8, a vertical rod is hinged at its lower end and Figure 12.8 Question 9. attached to a cable at its upper end. A horizontal force F a is to be applied to the rod as shown. If the point at which the force is applied is moved up the rod, does the tension in the cable increase, decrease, or remain the same? 9
→
A B Figure 12.9 shows a hori- zontal block that is suspended by two wires, A and B, which are identical except for their com original lengths. The center of mass of the block is closer to Figure 12.9 Question 10. wire B than to wire A. (a) Mea- suring torques about the block’s center of mass, state whether the magnitude of the torque due to wire A is greater than, less than, or equal to the magnitude of the torque due to wire B. (b) Which wire exerts more force on the block? (c) If the wires are now equal in length, which one was originally shorter (before the block was suspended)?
10
1
2 3
Figure 12.4
4
Question 5.
C Figure 12.5 shows an overhead view of a uniform stick on which four forces act. Suppose we choose O A B a rotation axis through point O, calculate the torques about that Figure 12.5 Question 6. axis due to the forces, and find that these torques balance. Will the torques balance if, instead, the rotation axis is chosen to be at (a) point A (on the stick), (b) point B (on line with the stick), or (c) point C (off to one side of the stick)? (d) Suppose, instead, that we find that the torques about point O do not balance. Is there another point about which the torques will balance?
6
In Fig. 12.6, a stationary 5 kg rod AC is held against a wall by a rope and friction D between rod and wall. The uniform rod is 1 m long, and angle θ = 30°. (a) If you are to θ find the magnitude of the force T on the B C rod from the rope with a single equation, at A what labeled point should a rotation axis be placed? With that choice of axis and counter- Figure 12.6 clockwise torques positive, what is the sign of Question 7. (b) the torque τw due to the rod’s weight and (c) the torque τr due to the pull on the rod by the rope? (d) Is the magnitude of τr greater than, less than, or equal to the magnitude of τw ? 8 Three piñatas hang from the (stationary) assembly of massless pulleys and cords seen in Fig. 12.7. T One long cord runs from the ceil- ing at the right to the lower pulley at the left, looping halfway around all the pulleys. Several shorter cords suspend pulleys from the ceiling or piñatas from the pulleys. 10 The weights (in newtons) of two piñatas are given. (a) What is the 17 weight of the third piñata? (Hint: A cord that loops halfway around a Figure 12.7 Question 8.
The table gives the initial lengths of three rods and the changes in their lengths when forces are applied to their ends to put them under strain. Rank the rods according to their strain, greatest first. 11
Initial Length
Change in Length
2L 0 4L 0 10L 0
∆L 0 2∆L 0 4∆L 0
Rod A Rod B Rod C
7
→
A physical therapist gone wild has constructed the (sta- tionary) assembly of massless pulleys and cords seen in Fig. 12.10. One long cord wraps around all the pulleys, and shorter cords suspend pulleys from the ceiling or weights from the pul- leys. Except for one, the weights (in newtons) are indicated. (a) What is that last weight? (Hint: When a cord loops halfway around a pulley as here, it pulls on the pulley with a net force that is twice the tension in the cord.) (b) What is the tension in the short cord labeled T? 12
T
6 5
34
Figure 12.10
20 15
23
Question 12.
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Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
BIO
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 12.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard Flying
Circus of Physics
Equilibrium
A 75 kg window cleaner uses a 10 kg ladder that is 5.0 m long. He places one end on the ground 2.5 m from a wall, rests the upper end against a cracked window, and climbs the ladder. He is 3.0 m up along the ladder when the window breaks. Neglect friction between the ladder and window and assume that the base of the ladder does not slip. When the window is on the verge of breaking, what are (a) the magnitude of the force on the window from the ladder, (b) the magnitude of the force on the ladder from the ground, and (c) the angle (relative to the horizontal) of that force on the ladder? 7 E
Because g varies so little over the extent y of most structures, any structure’s center of 3 4 gravity effectively coincides with its center of mass. Here is a fictitious example where g var- ies more significantly. Figure 12.11 shows an 2 5 array of six particles, each with mass m, fixed to the edge of a rigid structure of negligible 1 6 x mass. The distance between adjacent particles Figure 12.11 along the edge is 2.00 m. The following table Problem 1. 2 gives the value of g (m/s ) at each particle’s location. Using the coordinate system shown, find (a) the x coordinate x com and (b) the y coordinate y com of the center of mass of the six-particle system. Then find (c) the x coordinate x cog and (d) the y coordinate y cog of the center of gravity of the six-particle system. 1 E
Particle
g
Particle
g
1 2 3
8.00 7.80 7.60
4 5 6
7.40 7.60 7.80
Module 12.2
E A physics Brady Bunch, whose weights in newtons are indicated in Fig. 12.13, is balanced on a seesaw. What is the number of the person who causes the largest torque about the rotation axis at fulcrum f directed (a) out of the page and (b) into the page?
8
1
2
220
330
440
4
3
2
Some Examples of Static Equilibrium
An automobile with a mass of 1360 kg has 3.05 m between the front and rear axles. Its center of gravity is located 1.78 m behind the front axle. With the automobile on level ground, determine the magnitude of the force from the ground on (a) each front wheel (assuming equal forces on the front wheels) and (b) each rear wheel (assuming equal forces on the rear wheels). E SSM In Fig. 12.12, a uniform sphere of mass m = 0.85 kg and radius r = 4.2 cm is held in place by a massless rope attached to a frictionless wall a distance L = 8.0 cm above the center of the sphere. Find (a) the tension in the rope and (b) the force on the sphere from the wall.
3
An archer’s bow is drawn at its midpoint until the tension in the string is equal to the force exerted by the archer. What is the angle between the two halves of the string?
3
4
5
6
7
8
560
440
330
220 newtons
1
2
3
4 meters
f
L
r
Figure 12.12
Problem 3. E A rope of negligible mass is stretched horizontally between two supports that are 3.44 m apart. When an object of weight 3160 N is hung at the center of the rope, the rope is observed to sag by 35.0 cm. What is the tension in the rope? 5
E A scaffold of mass 60 kg and length 5.0 m is supported in a horizontal position by a vertical cable at each end. A window washer of mass 80 kg stands at a point 1.5 m from one end. What is the tension in (a) the nearer cable and (b) the farther cable?
1
0
Problem 8.
E SSM A meter stick balances horizontally on a knife-edge at the 50.0 cm mark. With two 5.00 g coins stacked over the 12.0 cm mark, the stick is found to balance at the 45.5 cm mark. What is the mass of the meter stick?
9
GO The system in Fig. 12.14 is in equilibrium, with the string in the center exactly horizontal. Block A weighs 40 N, block B weighs 50 N, and angle is 35°. Find (a) tension T 1 , (b) tension T 2 , (c) tension T 3 , and (d) angle θ. 10 E
T1
ϕ
θ
T3
T2
A
B Figure 12.15 shows a diver of weight 580 N standing at the end of a diving board with Figure 12.14 Problem 10. a length of L = 4.5 m and negli- gible mass. The board is fixed to L two pedestals (supports) that are separated by distance d = 1.5 m. Of the forces acting on the board, what are the (a) magnitude and d (b) direction (up or down) of the force from the left pedestal and the (c) magnitude and (d) direc- Figure 12.15 Problem 11. tion (up or down) of the force from the right pedestal? (e) Which pedestal (left or right) is being stretched, and (f) which pedestal is being compressed?
11
4 E
560
Figure 12.13
2 E
6
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
E
SSM
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363
P ROBL EMS
In Fig. 12.16, trying to get his car out of mud, a man ties one end of a rope around the front bumper and the other end tightly around a utility pole 18 m away. He then pushes sideways on the rope at its midpoint with a force of 550 N, displacing the center of the rope 0.30 m, but the car barely moves. What is the magnitude of the force on the car from the rope? (The rope stretches somewhat.) 12 E
F
Figure 12.16
Problem 12.
In Fig. 12.20, a uniform beam of weight 500 N and length 3.0 m is suspended horizontally. On the left it is hinged to a wall; on the right it is supported by a cable bolted to the wall at distance D above the beam. The least tension that will snap the cable is 1200 N. (a) What value of D corresponds to that tension? (b) To prevent the cable from snap- ping, should D be increased or decreased from that value? 17 E
E GO In Fig. 12.21, hori- zontal scaffold 2, with uniform mass m 2 = 30.0 kg and length L 2 = 2.00 m, hangs from horizon- tal scaffold 1, with uniform mass m 1 = 50.0 kg. A 20.0 kg box of nails lies on scaffold 2, centered at distance d = 0.500 m from the left end. What is the tension T in the cable indicated?
Cable D
Beam Figure 12.20
E BIO
E In Fig. 12.18, a horizontal scaffold, of length 2.00 m and uniform mass 50.0 kg, is sus- pended from a building by two cables. The scaffold has dozens Figure 12.18 Problem 14. of paint cans stacked on it at various points. The total mass of the paint cans is 75.0 kg. The tension in the cable at the right is 722 N. How far horizontally from that cable is the center of mass of the system of paint cans?
14
→
→
→
Forces F 1 , F 2 , and F 3 act on the structure of Fig. 12.19, shown in an overhead view. We wish to put the structure in equilibrium by applying a fourth force, at a point such as P. The fourth force has vector components F h and F v . We are given that a = 2.0 m, b = 3.0 m, c = 1.0 m, F 1 = 20 N, F 2 = 10 N, and F 3 = 5.0 N. Find (a) F h , (b) F v , and (c) d. 15
E
→
F1 c
F2
b
O
a
F v d
F3
Problem 15.
A uniform cubical crate is 0.750 m on each side and weighs 500 N. It rests on a floor with one edge against a very small, fixed obstruction. At what least height above the floor must a horizon- tal force of magnitude 350 N be applied to the crate to tip it? 16 E
d
d L2
Figure 12.21
Problem 18.
L
F ⊥
E BIO A bowler holds a bowling ball (M = 7.2 kg) in the palm of his hand (Fig. 12.23). His upper arm is vertical; his lower arm (1.8 kg) is horizontal. What is the magnitude of (a) the force of the biceps muscle on the lower arm and (b) the force between the bony structures at the elbow contact point?
Biceps M
Elbow contact point
4.0 cm 15 cm 33 cm
Problem 20.
Lower arm (forearm plus hand) center of mass
Strut The system in Fig. 12.24 is in equilibrium. A concrete block T of mass 225 kg hangs from the end of the uniform strut of mass θ 45.0 kg. A cable runs from the ϕ ground, over the top of the strut, Hinge and down to the block, holding Figure 12.24 Problem 21. the block in place. For angles = 30.0° and θ = 45.0°, find (a) the tension T in the cable and the (b) horizontal and (c) vertical components of the force on the strut from the hinge. 21 M
Fh
Figure 12.19
d
20
Figure 12.23 x
2
E To crack a certain nut in d a nutcracker, forces with mag- nitudes of at least 40 N must act on its shell from both sides. For the nutcracker of Fig. 12.22, F ⊥ with distances L = 12 cm and d = 2.6 cm, what are the force Figure 12.22 Problem 19. components F ⊥ (perpendicular to the handles) corresponding to that 40 N?
a
P
=?
19
→
y
T
1
18
Figure 12.17 Calf muscle shows the anatomical struc- tures in the lower leg and Lower leg bones foot that are involved in standing on tiptoe, with the heel raised slightly off the B floor so that the foot effec- A tively contacts the floor only at point P. Assume P a b distance a = 5.0 cm, dis- tance b = 15 cm, and the Figure 12.17 Problem 13. person’s weight W = 900 N. Of the forces acting on the foot, what are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction (up or down) of the force at point A from the calf muscle and the (c) magnitude and (d) direction (up or down) of the force at point B from the lower leg bones? 13
Problem 17.
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364
C HAP T ER 12 EQU IL IBRIU M AND EL AST IC IT Y
BIO GO FCP In Fig. 12.25, w a 55 kg rock climber is in a lie- back climb along a fissure, with hands pulling on one side of the fissure and feet pressed against d h the opposite side. The fissure has com width w = 0.20 m, and the center of mass of the climber is a horizon- tal distance d = 0.40 m from the fissure. The coefficient of static friction between hands and rock Figure 12.25 Problem 22. is 1 = 0.40, and between boots and rock it is 2 = 1.2. (a) What is the least horizontal pull by the hands and push by the feet that will keep the climber stable? (b) For the horizontal pull of (a), what must be the vertical distance h between hands and feet? If the climber encounters wet rock, so that 1 and 2 are reduced, what happens to (c) the answer to (a) and (d) the answer to (b)?
22 M
GO In Fig. 12.26, one end of a uniform beam of weight 222 N is hinged to a wall; the other end is supported by a wire that makes angles θ = 30.0° with both wall and beam. Find (a) the tension in the wire and the (b) horizontal and (c) vertical components of the force of the hinge on the beam. 24 M BIO GO FCP In Fig. 12.27, a climber with a weight of 533.8 N is held by a belay rope connected to her climbing harness and belay device; the force of the rope on her has a line of action through her cen- ter of mass. The indicated angles are θ = 40.0° and = 30.0°. If her feet are on the verge of sliding on the vertical wall, what is the coeffi- cient of static friction between her climbing shoes and the wall?
the feet–ground contact point. If he is on the verge of sliding, what is the coefficient of static friction between feet and ground?
y
L
In Fig. 12.30, a 15 kg com block is held in place via a pulley d system. The person’s upper arm is vertical; the forearm is at angle x θ = 30° with the horizontal. Fore- a arm and hand together have a mass Figure 12.29 Problem 26. of 2.0 kg, with a center of mass at dis- tance d 1 = 15 cm from the contact point of the forearm bone and the upper-arm bone (humerus). The triceps muscle pulls verti- cally upward on the forearm at distance d 2 = 2.5 cm behind that contact point. Distance d 3 is 35 cm. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction (up or down) of the force on the forearm from the triceps muscle and the (c) magnitude and (d) direction (up or down) of the force on the forearm from the humerus? 27 M
BIO
GO
23 M
In Fig. 12.28, what magnitude of (constant) force F applied horizontally at the axle of the wheel is necessary to raise the wheel over a step obstacle of height h = 3.00 cm? The wheel’s radius is r = 6.00 cm, and its mass is m = 0.800 kg. 25
M
θ Triceps Hinge
com
θ Humerus
Figure 12.26
Problem 23.
Figure 12.30
Problem 27.
θ d1
d3
Block
d2
M GO In Fig. 12.31, suppose the length L of the uniform bar is 3.00 m and its weight is 200 N. Also, let the block’s weight W = 300 N and the angle θ = 30.0°. The wire can withstand a maxi- mum tension of 500 N. (a) What is the maximum possible distance x before the wire breaks? With the block placed at this maximum x, what are the (b) horizontal and (c) vertical components of the force on the bar from the hinge at A?
28
ϕ
SSM
→
θ
Figure 12.27
Problem 24.
M A door has a height of 2.1 m along a y axis that extends vertically upward and a width of 0.91 m along an x axis that extends outward from the hinged edge of the door. A hinge 0.30 m from the top and a hinge 0.30 m from the bottom each support half the door’s mass, which is 27 kg. In unit-vector notation, what are the forces on the door at (a) the top hinge and (b) the bottom hinge? 30 M GO In Fig. 12.32, a 50.0 kg uniform square sign, of edge length L = 2.00 m, is hung from a
C
x
θ
com
A
B
L
Figure 12.31
Problems 28 and 34.
29
r
F
h
Figure 12.28
Problem 25.
In Fig. 12.29, a climber leans out against a vertical ice wall that has negligible friction. Distance a is 0.914 m and dis- tance L is 2.10 m. His center of mass is distance d = 0.940 m from 26 M
GO
FCP
Cable
dv
Hinge Rod L
L dh
Figure 12.32
Problem 30. /
365
P ROBL EMS
horizontal rod of length d h = 3.00 m and negligible mass. A cable is attached to the end of the rod and to a point on the wall at distance d v = 4.00 m above the point where the rod is hinged to the wall. (a) What is the tension in the cable? What are the (b) magnitude and (c) direction (left or right) of the horizontal component of the force on the rod from the wall, and the (d) magnitude and (e) direction (up or down) of the vertical component of this force? 31 M GO In Fig. 12.33, a nonuniform bar is suspended at rest in a horizontal posi- θ ϕ tion by two massless cords. L One cord makes the angle θ = 36.9° with the vertical; com x the other makes the angle = 53.1° with the vertical. If the length L of the bar is Figure 12.33 Problem 31. 6.10 m, compute the distance x from the left end of the bar to its center of mass. M In Fig. 12.34, the driver of a car on a horizontal road makes an emergency stop by applying the brakes so that all four wheels lock and skid along the road. The coefficient of kinetic friction between tires and road is 0.40. The separation between the front and rear axles is L = 4.2 m, and the center of mass of the car is located at distance d = 1.8 m behind the front axle and distance h = 0.75 m above the road. The car weighs 11 kN. Find the magnitude of (a) the braking acceleration of the car, (b) the normal force on each rear wheel, (c) the normal force on each front wheel, (d) the braking force on each rear wheel, and (e) the braking force on each front wheel. (Hint: Although the car is not in translational equilibrium, it is in rotational equilibrium.)
32
h
d
Figure 12.34
Problem 32.
→
In Fig. 12.31, a thin horizontal bar AB of negligible weight and length L is hinged to a vertical wall at A and supported at B by a thin wire BC that makes an angle θ with the horizontal. A block of weight W can be moved anywhere along the bar; its position is defined by the distance x from the wall to its center of mass. As a function of x, find (a) the tension in the wire, and the (b) horizontal and (c) vertical components of the force on the bar from the hinge at A. 34 M
SSM A cubical box is filled with sand and weighs 890 N. We wish to “roll” the box by pushing horizontally on one of the upper edges. (a) What minimum force is required? (b) What minimum coefficient of static friction between box and floor is required? (c) If there is a more efficient way to roll the box, find the smallest possible force that would have to be applied directly to the box to roll it. (Hint: At the onset of tipping, where is the normal force located?)
35 M
M BIO FCP Figure 12.36 shows a 70 kg climber hanging by only the crimp y hold of one hand on the edge of a shallow x horizontal ledge in a rock wall. (The fin- gers are pressed down to gain purchase.) Her feet touch the rock wall at distance H = 2.0 m directly below her crimped fingers but do not provide any support. Her center of mass is distance a = 0.20 m from the wall. Assume that the force from com the ledge supporting her fingers is equally shared by the four fingers. What are the values of the (a) horizontal component F h and (b) vertical component F v of the force on each fingertip?
36
GO In Fig. 12.37, a uniform plank, with a length L of 6.10 m and a weight of 445 N, rests on the ground and against a frictionless roller at the top of a wall of height h = 3.05 m. The plank remains in equilibrium for any value of θ ≥ 70° but slips if θ v? For such supersonic speeds, Eqs. 17.7.1 and 17.7.9 no longer apply. Figure 17.8.1b depicts the spherical wavefronts that originated at various positions of the source. The radius of any wavefront is vt, where t is the time that has elapsed since the source emitted that (a) wavefront. Note that all the wavefronts bunch along a V-shaped envelope in this two-dimensional drawing. The wavefronts actu- W1 ally extend in three dimensions, and the bunching actually forms a cone called the Mach cone. A shock wave exists along the sur- face of this cone, because the bunching of wavefronts causes an abrupt rise and fall of air pressure as the surface passes through any point. From Fig. 17.8.1b, we see that the half-angle θ of the cone (the Mach cone angle) is given by v __ v sin θ = ___ (17.8.1) v S t = v S (Mach cone angle). The ratio v S /v is the Mach number. If a plane flies at Mach 2.3, its speed is 2.3 times the speed of sound in the air through which the plane is flying. The shock wave generated by a super- sonic aircraft (Fig. 17.8.2) or projectile produces a burst of sound, (b )
v S
S
x
Surface of Mach cone vt W6
v S
θ S1
S6
x S
v S t
yaG nhoJ ngisnE yb otohp yvaN .S.U fo ysetruoC
(a) A source of sound S moves at speed v S equal to the speed of sound and thus as fast as the wavefronts it generates. (b) A source S moves at speed v S faster than the speed of sound and thus faster than the wavefronts. When the source was at position S 1 it gener- ated wavefront W 1 , and at position S 6 it generated W 6 . All the spherical wavefronts expand at the speed of sound v and bunch along the surface of a cone called the Mach cone, forming a shock wave. The surface of the cone has half-angle θ and is tangent to all the wavefronts. Figure 17.8.1
Shock waves produced by the wings of a Navy FA 18 jet. The shock waves are visible because the sudden decrease in air pressure in them caused water molecules in the air to condense, forming a fog. Figure 17.8.2
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530
C HAP T ER 17 WAV ES—II
called a sonic boom, in which the air pressure first suddenly increases and then suddenly decreases below normal before returning to normal. Part of the sound that is heard when a rifle is fired is the sonic boom produced by the bullet. When a long bull whip is snapped, its tip is moving faster than sound and produces a FCP small sonic boom—the crack of the whip.
Checkpoint 17.8.1
The speed of sound varies with altitude in Earth’s atmosphere. If a supersonic air- plane changes altitude such that the speed of sound in the air is then slower, does the Mach angle increase or decrease?
Review & Summary Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves that can travel through solids, liquids, or gases. The speed v of a sound wave in a medium having bulk modulus B and den- sity ρ is Sound Waves
__
and, equivalently, when ΔL is related to λ by ΔL = 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, . . . . ___
λ
The intensity I of a sound wave at a surface is the average rate per unit area at which energy is transferred by the wave through or onto the surface: Sound Intensity
B v = √ __ ρ
(speed of sound).
(17.1.3)
In air at 20°C, the speed of sound is 343 m/s. A sound wave causes a longitudinal displacement s of a mass element in a medium as given by s = s m cos(kx − ωt),
(17.2.1)
where s m is the displacement amplitude (maximum displace- ment) from equilibrium, k = 2π/λ, and ω = 2πf, λ and f being the wavelength and frequency of the sound wave. The wave also causes a pressure change Δp from the equilibrium pressure: Δp = Δp m sin(kx − ωt), Δp m = (vρω)s m .
P , I = __ A
where P is the time rate of energy transfer (power) of the sound wave and A is the area of the surface intercepting the sound. The intensity I is related to the displacement amplitude s m of the sound wave by 1 2 2 I = _ (17.4.2) 2 ρvω s m .
(17.2.2)
(17.2.3)
Sound Level in Decibels
The interference of two sound waves with identical wavelengths passing through a common point depends on their phase difference ϕ there. If the sound waves were emit- ted in phase and are traveling in approximately the same direc- tion, ϕ is given by
(dB) is defined as
(17.3.3)
where ΔL is their path length difference (the difference in the distances traveled by the waves to reach the common point). Fully constructive interference occurs when ϕ is an integer mul- tiple of 2π, for m = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
(17.3.4)
and, equivalently, when ΔL is related to wavelength λ by ΔL = 0, 1, 2, . . . . ___
λ
(17.3.5)
Fully destructive interference occurs when ϕ is an odd multiple of π,
ϕ = (2m + 1)π,
for m = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
(17.3.6)
The sound level β in decibels
I , β = ( 10 dB ) log __ I
Interference
ΔL 2π, ϕ = ___ λ
(17.4.1)
The intensity at a distance r from a point source that emits sound waves of power P s is P s I = ____ . (17.4.3) 4πr 2
where the pressure amplitude is
ϕ = m(2π),
(17.3.7)
0
(17.4.4)
where I 0 (= 10 −12 W/m 2 ) is a reference intensity level to which all intensities are compared. For every factor-of-10 increase in intensity, 10 dB is added to the sound level. Standing sound wave patterns can be set up in pipes. A pipe open at both ends will resonate at frequencies Standing Wave Patterns in Pipes
v = ___ nv f = __ (17.5.2) λ 2L , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , where v is the speed of sound in the air in the pipe. For a pipe closed at one end and open at the other, the resonant fre- quencies are v = ___ nv f = __ (17.5.4) λ 4L , n = 1, 3, 5, . . . . Beats arise when two waves having slightly different fre- quencies, f 1 and f 2 , are detected together. The beat frequency is Beats
f beat = f 1 − f 2 .
(17.6.5)
/
QU EST IONS
The Doppler effect is a change in the observed frequency of a wave when the source or the detec- tor moves relative to the transmitting medium (such as air). For sound the observed frequency f ′ is given in terms of the source frequency f by The Doppler Effect
v ± v D f ′ = f ______ v ± v S (general Doppler effect) ,
(17.7.1)
531
The signs are chosen such that f ′ tends to be greater for motion toward and less for motion away. If the speed of a source relative to the medium exceeds the speed of sound in the medium, the Doppler equation no longer applies. In such a case, shock waves result. The half- angle θ of the Mach cone is given by Shock Wave
where v D is the speed of the detector relative to the medium, v S is that of the source, and v is the speed of sound in the medium.
v sin θ = __ v S (Mach cone angle).
(17.8.1)
Questions In a first experiment, a sinusoidal sound wave is sent through a long tube of air, transporting energy at the average rate of P avg,1 . In a second experiment, two other sound waves, identical to the first one, are to be sent simultaneously through the tube with a phase difference ϕ of either 0, 0.2 wavelength, or 0.5 wavelength between the waves. (a) With only mental calcula- tion, rank those choices of ϕ according to the average rate at which the waves will transport energy, greatest first. (b) For the first choice of ϕ, what is the average rate in terms of P avg,1 ? 1
In Fig. 17.1, two point sources S 1 L1 S 1 and S 2 , which are in phase, P emit identical sound waves of S 2 L2 wavelength 2.0 m. In terms of Figure 17.1 Question 2. wavelengths, what is the phase difference between the waves arriving at point P if (a) L 1 = 38 m and L 2 = 34 m, and (b) L 1 = 39 m and L 2 = 36 m? (c) Assuming that the source sepa- ration is much smaller than L 1 and L 2 , what type of interfer- ence occurs at P in situations (a) and (b)?
third lowest harmonic, and pipe E in its fourth lowest harmonic. Without computation, rank all five pipes according to their length, greatest first. (Hint: Draw the standing waves to scale and then draw the pipes to scale.) B
C
D
A
2
In Fig. 17.2, three long tubes L L (A, B, and C ) are filled with different gases under differ- ent pressures. The ratio of the L bulk modulus to the density is 16B 0 /ρ0 indicated for each gas in terms of L a basic value B 0 /ρ0 . Each tube has A a piston at its left end that can send a sound pulse through the tube (as in Fig. 16.1.2). The three L pulses are sent simultaneously. 4 B 0/ρ0 B Rank the tubes according to the time of arrival of the pulses at the open right ends of the tubes, ear- B 0/ρ0 C liest first. Figure 17.2 Question 3. 3
The sixth harmonic is set up in a pipe. (a) How many open ends does the pipe have (it has at least one)? (b) Is there a node, antinode, or some intermediate state at the midpoint? 4
In Fig. 17.3, pipe A is made to oscillate in its third harmonic by a small internal sound source. Sound emitted at the right end happens to resonate four nearby pipes, each with only one open end (they are not drawn to scale). Pipe B oscillates in its lowest harmonic, pipe C in its second lowest harmonic, pipe D in its 5
E
Figure 17.3
Question 5.
Pipe A has length L and one open end. Pipe B has length 2L and two open ends. Which harmonics of pipe B have a frequency that matches a resonant frequency of pipe A? 6
Figure 17.4 shows a moving sound source S that emits at a cer- tain frequency, and four station- ary sound detectors. Rank the 2 detectors according to the fre- quency of the sound they detect from the source, greatest first. 7
3
4 1
S
Figure 17.4
Question 7.
A friend rides, in turn, the f rims of three fast merry-go-rounds 3 while holding a sound source that emits isotropically at a certain fre- t quency. You stand far from each merry-go-round. The frequency 2 1 you hear for each of your friend’s Figure 17.5 Question 8. three rides varies as the merry-go- round rotates. The variations in frequency for the three rides are given by the three curves in Fig. 17.5. Rank the curves accord- ing to (a) the linear speed v of the sound source, (b) the angu- lar speeds ω of the merry-go-rounds, and (c) the radii r of the merry-go-rounds, greatest first. 8
For a particular tube, here are four of the six harmonic frequencies below 1000 Hz: 300, 600, 750, and 900 Hz. What two frequencies are missing from the list? 9
Figure 17.6 shows a stretched string of length L and pipes a, b, c, and d of lengths L, 2L, L/2, and L/2, respectively. The string’s tension is adjusted until the speed of waves on the string equals the speed of sound waves in the air. The fundamental 10
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mode of oscillation is then set up on the string. In which pipe will the sound produced by the string cause resonance, and what oscillation mode will that sound set up?
L
b
You are given four tuning forks. The fork with the lowest frequency oscillates at 500 Hz. By striking two tuning forks at a time, you can produce the following beat frequencies, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, and 8 Hz. What are the possible frequencies of the other three forks? (There are two sets of answers.) 11
a
c
Figure 17.6
d
Question 10.
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard
FCP Additional information available in The
BIO Flying
Circus of Physics
Where needed in the problems, use speed of sound in air = 343 m/s and
density of air = 1.21 kg/m 3
unless otherwise specified. Module 17.1
Speed of Sound
Two spectators at a soccer game see, and a moment later hear, the ball being kicked on the playing field. The time delay for spectator A is 0.23 s, and for spectator B it is 0.12 s. Sight lines from the two spectators to the player kicking the ball meet at an angle of 90°. How far are (a) spectator A and (b) specta- tor B from the player? (c) How far are the spectators from each other? 2 E What is the bulk modulus of oxygen if 32.0 g of oxygen occupies 22.4 L and the speed of sound in the oxygen is 317 m/s? 1
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
E
E FCP When the door of the Chapel of the Mausoleum in Hamilton, Scotland, is slammed shut, the last echo heard by someone standing just inside the door reportedly comes 15 s later. (a) If that echo were due to a single reflection off a wall opposite the door, how far from the door is the wall? (b) If, instead, the wall is 25.7 m away, how many reflections (back and forth) occur?
through the air alongside the rod. If the speed of sound in air is 343 m/s, what is the length of the rod? M SSM A stone is dropped into a well. The splash is heard 3.00 s later. What is the depth of the well?
7
M CALC GO FCP Hot chocolate effect. Tap a metal spoon inside a mug of water and note the frequency f i you hear. Then add a spoonful of powder (say, chocolate mix or instant coffee) and tap again as you stir the powder. The frequency you hear has a lower value f s because the tiny air bubbles released by the powder change the water’s bulk modulus. As the bubbles reach the water surface and disappear, the frequency gradually shifts back to its initial value. During the effect, the bubbles don’t appreciably change the water’s density or volume or the sound’s wavelength. Rather, they change the value of dV/dp —that is, the differential change in volume due to the differential change in the pressure caused by the sound wave in the water. If f s /f i = 0.333, what is the ratio (dV/dp) s /(dV/dp) i ?
8
3
A column of soldiers, marching at 120 paces per minute, keep in step with the beat of a drummer at the head of the col- umn. The soldiers in the rear end of the column are striding for- ward with the left foot when the drummer is advancing with the right foot. What is the approximate length of the column? 5 M SSM Earthquakes generate sound waves inside Earth. Unlike a gas, Earth can experience both transverse (S) and longi- tudinal (P) sound waves. Typically, the speed of S waves is about 4.5 km/s, and that of P waves 8.0 km/s. A seismograph records P and S waves from an earthquake. The first P waves arrive 3.0 min before the first S waves. If the waves travel in a straight line, how far away did the earthquake occur? 4
E
M A man strikes one end of a thin rod with a hammer. The speed of sound in the rod is 15 times the speed of sound in air. A woman, at the other end with her ear close to the rod, hears the sound of the blow twice with a 0.12 s interval between; one sound comes through the rod and the other comes
6
Module 17.2 9 E
Traveling Sound Waves
If the form of a sound wave traveling through air is s(x, t) = (6.0 nm) cos(kx + (3000 rad/s)t + ϕ),
how much time does any given air molecule along the path take to move between displacements s = +2.0 nm and s = −2.0 nm? E BIO FCP Underwater illu- sion. One clue used by your Wavefronts brain to determine the direction of a source of sound is the time d delay Δt between the arrival of θ the sound at the ear closer to the θ source and the arrival at the far- D R ther ear. Assume that the source L Figure 17.7 Problem 10. is distant so that a wavefront from it is approximately planar when it reaches you, and let D represent the separation between your ears. (a) If the source is located at angle θ in front of you (Fig. 17.7), what is Δt in terms of D and the speed of sound v in air? (b) If you are submerged in water and the sound source is directly to your right, what is Δt in terms of D and the speed of sound v w in water? (c) Based on the time-delay clue, your brain interprets the submerged sound to arrive at an angle θ from the forward direction. Evaluate θ for fresh water at 20°C.
10
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E BIO SSM Diagnostic ultrasound of frequency 4.50 MHz is used to examine tumors in soft tissue. (a) What is the wave- length in air of such a sound wave? (b) If the speed of sound in tissue is 1500 m/s, what is the wavelength of this wave in tissue?
11
E The pressure in a traveling sound wave is given by the equation
12
Δp = (1.50 Pa) sin π[(0.900 m −1 ) x − (315 s −1 )t]. Find the (a) pressure amplitude, (b) frequency, (c) wavelength, and (d) speed of the wave. A sound wave of the form s = s m cos(kx − ωt + ϕ) travels at 343 m/s through air in a long horizontal tube. At one instant, air molecule A at x = 2.000 m is at its maximum positive dis- placement of 6.00 nm and air molecule B at x = 2.070 m is at a positive displacement of 2.00 nm. All the molecules between A and B are at intermediate displacements. What is the frequency of the wave? 13 M
M Figure 17.8 shows the Δp (mPa) output from a pressure moni- tor mounted at a point along Δp the path taken by a sound wave of a single frequency traveling at 343 m/s through air with a –1 1 2 uniform density of 1.21 kg/m 3 . –Δp The vertical axis scale is set by Δp s = 4.0 mPa. If the displace- ment function of the wave is t (ms) s(x, t) = s m cos(kx − ωt), what Figure 17.8 Problem 14. are (a) s m, (b) k, and (c) ω? The air is then cooled so that its density is 1.35 kg/m 3 and the speed of a sound wave through it is 320 m/s. The sound source again emits the sound wave at the same frequency and same pressure amplitude. What now are (d) s m , (e) k, and (f) ω?
14
s
s
GO FCP A handclap on stage in an amphitheater sends out sound waves that scatter from terraces of width w = 0.75 m (Fig. 17.9). The sound returns to the stage as a periodic series of pulses, one from each terrace; the parade of pulses sounds like a played note. (a) Assuming that all the rays in Fig. 17.9 are horizontal, find the frequency at which the pulses return (that is, the frequency of the perceived note). (b) If the width w of the terraces were smaller, would the frequency be higher or lower? 15 M
M FCP Two loudspeakers are located 3.35 m apart on an outdoor stage. A listener is 18.3 m from one and 19.5 m from the other. During the sound check, a signal generator drives the two speakers in phase with the same amplitude and frequency. The transmitted frequency is swept through the audible range (20 Hz to 20 kHz). (a) What is the lowest frequency f min,1 that gives minimum signal (destructive interference) at the listener’s location? By what number must f min,1 be multiplied to get (b) the second lowest frequency f min,2 that gives minimum signal and (c) the third lowest frequency f min,3 that gives minimum sig- nal? (d) What is the lowest frequency f max,1 that gives maximum signal (constructive interference) at the listener’s location? By what number must f max,1 be multiplied to get (e) the second low- est frequency f max,2 that gives maximum signal and (f ) the third lowest frequency f max,3 that gives maximum signal?
17
GO In Fig. 17.10, sound M L waves A and B, both of wave- A length λ, are initially in phase and traveling rightward, as indi- L cated by the two rays. Wave A is B reflected from four surfaces but ends up traveling in its original L direction. Wave B ends in that direction after reflecting from two surfaces. Let distance L in Figure 17.10 Problem 18. the figure be expressed as a mul- tiple q of λ : L = qλ. What are the (a) smallest and (b) second smallest values of q that put A and B exactly out of phase with each other after the reflections? 18
GO Figure 17.11 shows two S1 S2 D isotropic point sources of sound, S 1 and S 2 . The sources emit waves Figure 17.11 Problem 19. in phase at wavelength 0.50 m; they are separated by D = 1.75 m. If we move a sound detec- tor along a large circle centered at the midpoint between the sources, at how many points do waves arrive at the detector (a) exactly in phase and (b) exactly out of phase? 19 M
Figure 17.12 shows four isotropic point sources of sound that are uniformly spaced on an x axis. The sources emit sound at the same wavelength λ and same amplitude s m , and they emit in phase. A point P is shown on the x axis. Assume that as the sound waves travel to P, the decrease in their amplitude is negli- gible. What multiple of s m is the amplitude of the net wave at P if distance d in the figure is (a) λ/4, (b) λ /2, and (c) λ? 20 M
S1 w
Module 17.3 E
S3
d
S4
Problem 15.
Interference
P
d
Figure 17.12
Two sound waves, from two different sources with the same frequency, 540 Hz, travel in the same direction at 330 m/s. The sources are in phase. What is the phase difference of the waves at a point that is 4.40 m from one source and 4.00 m from the other? 16
S2
d
Terrace
Figure 17.9
533
Problem 20.
M SSM In Fig. 17.13, two speakers separated by distance d 1 = 2.00 m are in phase. Assume the amplitudes of the sound waves from the speakers are approxi- mately the same at the listener’s ear at distance d 2 = 3.75 m directly in front of one speaker. Consider the full audible range for normal
21
d1
Speakers Listener d2
Figure 17.13
Problem 21.
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C HAP T ER 17 WAV ES—II
hearing, 20 Hz to 20 kHz. (a) What is the lowest frequency f min,1 that gives minimum signal (destructive interference) at the lis- tener’s ear? By what number must f min,1 be multiplied to get (b) the second lowest frequency f min,2 that gives minimum signal and (c) the third lowest frequency f min,3 that gives minimum sig- nal? (d) What is the lowest frequency f max,1 that gives maximum signal (constructive interference) at the listener’s ear? By what number must f max,1 be multiplied to get (e) the second lowest frequency f max,2 that gives maximum signal and (f ) the third low- est frequency f max,3 that gives maximum signal? In Fig. 17.14, sound with a r 40.0 cm wavelength travels right- ward from a source and through Source Detector a tube that consists of a straight Figure 17.14 Problem 22. portion and a half-circle. Part of the sound wave travels through the half-circle and then rejoins the rest of the wave, which goes directly through the straight portion. This rejoining results in interference. What is the smallest radius r that results in an intensity minimum at the detector? 22 M
GO Figure 17.15 shows two y point sources S 1 and S 2 that emit sound of wavelength λ = 2.00 m. S1 P The emissions are isotropic and in x phase, and the separation between the sources is d = 16.0 m. At any d point P on the x axis, the wave S2 from S 1 and the wave from S 2 interfere. When P is very far away (x ≈ ∞), what are (a) the phase Figure 17.15 Problem 23. difference between the arriving waves from S 1 and S 2 and (b) the type of interference they pro- duce? Now move point P along the x axis toward S 1 . (c) Does the phase difference between the waves increase or decrease? At what distance x do the waves have a phase difference of (d) 0.50λ, (e) 1.00λ, and (f) 1.50λ? 23 H
Module 17.4
E The source of a sound wave has a power of 1.00 μ W. If it is a point source, (a) what is the intensity 3.00 m away and (b) what is the sound level in decibels at that distance?
30
BIO FCP GO When you “crack” a knuckle, you suddenly widen the knuckle cavity, allowing more volume for the synovial fluid inside it and causing a gas bubble suddenly to appear in the fluid. The sudden production of the bubble, called “cavitation,” produces a sound pulse—the cracking sound. Assume that the sound is transmitted uniformly in all directions and that it fully passes from the knuckle interior to the outside. If the pulse has a sound level of 62 dB at your ear, estimate the rate at which energy is produced by the cavitation.
31 E
E BIO FCP Approximately a third of people with normal hearing have ears that continuously emit a low-intensity sound outward through the ear canal. A person with such spontane- ous otoacoustic emission is rarely aware of the sound, except perhaps in a noise-free environment, but occasionally the emis- sion is loud enough to be heard by someone else nearby. In one observation, the sound wave had a frequency of 1665 Hz and a pressure amplitude of 1.13 × 10 −3 Pa. What were (a) the dis- placement amplitude and (b) the intensity of the wave emitted by the ear? 33 E BIO FCP Male Rana catesbeiana bullfrogs are known for their loud mating call. The call is emitted not by the frog’s mouth but by its eardrums, which lie on the surface of the head. And, surprisingly, the sound has nothing to do with the frog’s inflated throat. If the emitted sound has a frequency of 260 Hz and a sound level of 85 dB (near the eardrum), what is the amplitude of the eardrum’s oscillation? The air density is 1.21 kg/m 3 .
32
M GO Two atmospheric sound sources A and B emit iso- tropically at constant power. The sound levels β of their emis- sions are plotted in Fig. 17.16 versus the radial distance r from the sources. The vertical axis scale is set by β1 = 85.0 dB and β2 = 65.0 dB. What are (a) the ratio of the larger power to the smaller power and (b) the sound level difference at r = 10 m?
34
Intensity and Sound Level
β1
Suppose that the sound level of a conversation is initially at an angry 70 dB and then drops to a soothing 50 dB. Assuming that the frequency of the sound is 500 Hz, determine the (a) initial and (b) final sound intensities and the (c) initial and (d) final sound wave amplitudes. 24
E
BIO
) Bd(
β
E A sound wave of frequency 300 Hz has an intensity of 1.00 μW/m 2 . What is the amplitude of the air oscillations caused by this wave?
B
25
E A 1.0 W point source emits sound waves isotropically. Assuming that the energy of the waves is conserved, find the intensity (a) 1.0 m from the source and (b) 2.5 m from the source.
26
SSM A certain sound source is increased in sound level by 30.0 dB. By what multiple is (a) its intensity increased and (b) its pressure amplitude increased? 28 E Two sounds differ in sound level by 1.00 dB. What is the ratio of the greater intensity to the smaller intensity?
27 E
E SSM A point source emits sound waves isotropically. The intensity of the waves 2.50 m from the source is 1.91 × 10 −4 W/m 2 . Assuming that the energy of the waves is conserved, find the power of the source.
29
A
β2 Figure 17.16
Problem 34.
100 r
500 (m)
1000
A point source emits 30.0 W of sound isotropically. A small microphone intercepts the sound in an area of 0.750 cm 2 , 200 m from the source. Calculate (a) the sound intensity there and (b) the power intercepted by the microphone. 35 M
M BIO FCP Party hearing. As the number of people at a party increases, you must raise your voice for a listener to hear you against the background noise of the other partygoers. How- ever, once you reach the level of yelling, the only way you can be heard is if you move closer to your listener, into the listener’s “personal space.” Model the situation by replacing you with an isotropic point source of fixed power P and replacing your lis- tener with a point that absorbs part of your sound waves. These points are initially separated by r i = 1.20 m. If the background
36
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P ROBL EMS
noise increases by Δβ = 5 dB, the sound level at your listener must also increase. What separation r f is then required? GO A sound source sends a sinusoidal sound wave of H angular frequency 3000 rad/s and amplitude 12.0 nm through a tube of air. The internal radius of the tube is 2.00 cm. (a) What is the average rate at which energy (the sum of the kinetic and potential energies) is transported to the opposite end of the tube? (b) If, simultaneously, an identical wave travels along an adjacent, identical tube, what is the total average rate at which energy is transported to the opposite ends of the two tubes by the waves? If, instead, those two waves are sent along the same tube simultaneously, what is the total average rate at which they transport energy when their phase difference is (c) 0, (d) 0.40π rad, and (e) π rad? 37
Module 17.5
Sources of Musical Sound
The water level in a vertical glass tube 1.00 m long can be adjusted to any position in the tube. A tuning fork vibrating at 686 Hz is held just over the open top end of the tube, to set up a standing wave of sound in the air-filled top portion of the tube. (That air-filled top portion acts as a tube with one end closed and the other end open.) (a) For how many different positions of the water level will sound from the fork set up resonance in the tube’s air-filled portion? What are the (b) least and (c) sec- ond least water heights in the tube for resonance to occur? 38 E
E SSM (a) Find the speed of waves on a violin string of mass 800 mg and length 22.0 cm if the fundamental frequency is 920 Hz. (b) What is the tension in the string? For the funda- mental, what is the wavelength of (c) the waves on the string and (d) the sound waves emitted by the string?
39
E Organ pipe A, with both ends open, has a fundamental frequency of 300 Hz. The third harmonic of organ pipe B, with one end open, has the same frequency as the second harmonic of pipe A. How long are (a) pipe A and (b) pipe B?
40
E A violin string 15.0 cm long and fixed at both ends oscillates in its n = 1 mode. The speed of waves on the string is 250 m/s, and the speed of sound in air is 348 m/s. What are the (a) frequency and (b) wavelength of the emitted sound wave?
41
A sound wave in a fluid medium is reflected at a barrier so that a standing wave is formed. The distance between nodes is 3.8 cm, and the speed of propagation is 1500 m/s. Find the fre- quency of the sound wave. 42 E
E SSM In Fig. 17.17, S is a small loud- speaker driven by an audio oscillator with a fre- quency that is varied from 1000 Hz to 2000 Hz, and D is a cylindrical pipe with two open ends and a length of 45.7 cm. The speed of sound in the air-filled pipe is 344 m/s. (a) At how many frequencies does the sound from the loud- speaker set up resonance in the pipe? What are the (b) lowest and (c) second lowest frequen- cies at which resonance occurs?
been produced? (b) If that dinosaur could be recreated (as in Jurassic Park), would a person with a hearing range of 60 Hz to 20 kHz be able to hear that fundamental mode and, if so, would the sound be high or low frequency? Fossil skulls that contain shorter nasal passages are thought to be those of the female Parasaurolophus. (c) Would that make the female’s fundamen- tal frequency higher or lower than the male’s? In pipe A, the ratio of a particular harmonic frequency to the next lower harmonic frequency is 1.2. In pipe B, the ratio of a particular harmonic frequency to the next lower harmonic frequency is 1.4. How many open ends are in (a) pipe A and (b) pipe B? 45 E
GO Pipe A, which is 1.20 m long and open at both ends, oscillates at its third lowest harmonic frequency. It is filled with air for which the speed of sound is 343 m/s. Pipe B, which is closed at one end, oscillates at its second lowest harmonic frequency. This frequency of B happens to match the frequency of A. An x axis extends along the interior of B, with x = 0 at the closed end. (a) How many nodes are along that axis? What are the (b) smallest and (c) second smallest value of x locating those nodes? (d) What is the fundamental frequency of B? 46 M
A well with vertical sides and water at the bottom reso- nates at 7.00 Hz and at no lower frequency. The air-filled portion of the well acts as a tube with one closed end (at the bottom) and one open end (at the top). The air in the well has a density of 1.10 kg/m 3 and a bulk modulus of 1.33 × 10 5 Pa. How far down in the well is the water surface? 47 M
One of the harmonic frequencies of tube A with two open ends is 325 Hz. The next-highest harmonic frequency is 390 Hz. (a) What harmonic frequency is next highest after the harmonic frequency 195 Hz? (b) What is the number of this next-highest harmonic? One of the harmonic frequencies of tube B with only one open end is 1080 Hz. The next-highest harmonic frequency is 1320 Hz. (c) What harmonic frequency is next highest after the harmonic frequency 600 Hz? (d) What is the number of this next-highest harmonic? 48 M
SSM A violin string 30.0 cm long with linear density M 0.650 g/m is placed near a loudspeaker that is fed by an audio oscillator of variable frequency. It is found that the string is set into oscillation only at the frequencies 880 and 1320 Hz as the frequency of the oscillator is varied over the range 500 –1500 Hz. What is the tension in the string?
49
GO A tube 1.20 m long is closed at one end. A stretched wire is placed near the open end. The wire is 0.330 m long and has a mass of 9.60 g. It is fixed at both ends and oscillates in its fundamental mode. By resonance, it sets the air column in the tube into oscillation at that column’s fundamental frequency. Find (a) that frequency and (b) the tension in the wire. 50 M
43
S D
Figure 17.17
Problem 43.
BIO FCP The crest of a Parasaurolophus dinosaur skull is shaped somewhat like a trombone and contains a nasal passage in the form of a long, bent tube open at both ends. The dino- saur may have used the passage to produce sound by setting up the fundamental mode in it. (a) If the nasal passage in a certain Parasaurolophus fossil is 2.0 m long, what frequency would have
44 E
535
Module 17.6
Beats
The A string of a violin is a little too tightly stretched. Beats at 4.00 per second are heard when the string is sounded together with a tuning fork that is oscillating accurately at concert A (440 Hz). What is the period of the violin string oscillation? 51 E
E A tuning fork of unknown frequency makes 3.00 beats per second with a standard fork of frequency 384 Hz. The beat frequency decreases when a small piece of wax is put on a prong of the first fork. What is the frequency of this fork?
52
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C HAP T ER 17 WAV ES—II
M SSM Two identical piano wires have a fundamen- tal frequency of 600 Hz when kept under the same tension. What fractional increase in the tension of one wire will lead to the occurrence of 6.0 beats/s when both wires oscillate simultaneously?
53
You have five tuning forks that oscillate at close but dif- ferent resonant frequencies. What are the (a) maximum and (b) minimum number of different beat frequencies you can pro- duce by sounding the forks two at a time, depending on how the resonant frequencies differ? 54 M
up in each tube, and some 1 of the sound that escapes 2 from them is detected by 3 D detector D, which moves directly away from the 4 Figure 17.19 Problem 62. tubes. In terms of the speed of sound v, what speed must the detector have such that the detected frequency of the sound from (a) tube 1, (b) tube 2, (c) tube 3, and (d) tube 4 is equal to the tube’s fundamental frequency? M An acoustic burglar alarm consists of a source emitting waves of frequency 28.0 kHz. What is the beat frequency between the source waves and the waves reflected from an intruder walk- ing at an average speed of 0.950 m/s directly away from the alarm?
63 Module 17.7
The Doppler Effect
A whistle of frequency 540 Hz moves in a circle of radius 60.0 cm at an angular speed of 15.0 rad/s. What are the (a) low- est and (b) highest frequencies heard by a listener a long dis- tance away, at rest with respect to the center of the circle? 55 E
E An ambulance with a siren emitting a whine at 1600 Hz overtakes and passes a cyclist pedaling a bike at 2.44 m/s. After being passed, the cyclist hears a frequency of 1590 Hz. How fast is the ambulance moving?
56
E A state trooper chases a speeder along a straight road; both vehicles move at 160 km/h. The siren on the trooper’s vehicle produces sound at a frequency of 500 Hz. What is the Doppler shift in the frequency heard by the speeder?
57
A sound source A and a reflecting surface B move directly toward each other. Relative to the air, the speed of source A is 29.9 m/s, the speed of surface B is 65.8 m/s, and the speed of sound is 329 m/s. The source emits waves at frequency 1200 Hz as measured in the source frame. In the reflector frame, what are the (a) frequency and (b) wavelength of the arriving sound waves? In the source frame, what are the (c) frequency and (d) wavelength of the sound waves reflected back to the source? 58 M
GO In Fig. 17.18, a French submarine and a U.S. subma- rine move toward each other during maneuvers in motionless water in the North Atlantic. The French sub moves at speed v F = 50.00 km/h, and the U.S. sub at v US = 70.00 km/h. The French sub sends out a sonar signal (sound wave in water) at 1.000 × 10 3 Hz. Sonar waves travel at 5470 km/h. (a) What is the signal’s frequency as detected by the U.S. sub? (b) What frequency is detected by the French sub in the signal reflected back to it by the U.S. sub? 59 M
French
v F Figure 17.18
v US
U.S.
Problem 59.
M A stationary motion detector sends sound waves of frequency 0.150 MHz toward a truck approaching at a speed of 45.0 m/s. What is the frequency of the waves reflected back to the detector?
60
BIO GO FCP A bat is flitting about in a cave, navigating via ultrasonic bleeps. Assume that the sound emission frequency of the bat is 39 000 Hz. During one fast swoop directly toward a flat wall surface, the bat is moving at 0.025 times the speed of sound in air. What frequency does the bat hear reflected off the wall?
61 M
Figure 17.19 shows four tubes with lengths 1.0 m or 2.0 m, with one or two open ends as drawn. The third harmonic is set 62 M
A stationary detector measures the frequency of a sound source that first moves at constant velocity directly toward the detector and then (after passing the detector) directly away from it. The emitted frequency is f. During the approach the detected frequency is f ′app and during the recession it is f ′rec . If ( f ′ app − f ′ rec )/f = 0.500, what is the ratio v s /v of the speed of the source to the speed of sound? 64 M
GO A 2000 Hz siren and a civil defense official are both at rest with respect to the ground. What frequency does the official hear if the wind is blowing at 12 m/s (a) from source to official and (b) from official to source? 65 H
GO Two trains are traveling toward each other at 30.5 m/s relative to the ground. One train is blowing a whistle at 500 Hz. (a) What frequency is heard on the other train in still air? (b) What frequency is heard on the other train if the wind is blow- ing at 30.5 m/s toward the whistle and away from the listener? (c) What frequency is heard if the wind direction is reversed? 66 H
H SSM A girl is sitting near the open window of a train that is moving at a velocity of 10.00 m/s to the east. The girl’s uncle stands near the tracks and watches the train move away. The locomotive whistle emits sound at frequency 500.0 Hz. The air is still. (a) What frequency does the uncle hear? (b) What frequency does the girl hear? A wind begins to blow from the east at 10.00 m/s. (c) What frequency does the uncle now hear? (d) What frequency does the girl now hear?
67
Module 17.8
Supersonic Speeds, Shock Waves
The shock wave off the cockpit of the FA 18 in Fig. 17.8.2 has an angle of about 60°. The airplane was traveling at about 1350 km/h when the photograph was taken. Approximately what was the speed of sound at the airplane’s altitude? 68 E
M SSM FCP A jet plane passes over you at a height of 5000 m and a speed of Mach 1.5. (a) Find the Mach cone angle (the sound speed is 331 m/s). (b) How long after the jet passes directly overhead does the shock wave reach you?
69
M A plane flies at 1.25 times the speed of sound. Its sonic boom reaches a man on the ground 1.00 min after the plane passes directly overhead. What is the altitude of the plane? Assume the speed of sound to be 330 m/s.
70
Additional Problems
At a distance of 10 km, a 100 Hz horn, assumed to be an isotropic point source, is barely audible. At what distance would it begin to cause pain? 71
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A bullet is fired with a speed of 685 m/s. Find the angle made by the shock cone with the line of motion of the bullet. 72
BIO FCP A sperm whale (Fig. 17.20a) vocalizes by produc- ing a series of clicks. Actually, the whale makes only a single sound near the front of its head to start the series. Part of that sound then emerges from the head into the water to become the first click of the series. The rest of the sound travels back- ward through the spermaceti sac (a body of fat), reflects from the frontal sac (an air layer), and then travels forward through the spermaceti sac. When it reaches the distal sac (another air layer) at the front of the head, some of the sound escapes into the water to form the second click, and the rest is sent back through the spermaceti sac (and ends up forming later clicks). Figure 17.20b shows a strip-chart recording of a series of clicks. A unit time interval of 1.0 ms is indicated on the chart. Assum- ing that the speed of sound in the spermaceti sac is 1372 m/s, find the length of the spermaceti sac. From such a calculation, marine scientists estimate the length of a whale from its click series.
73
traveling in its original direction. What multiple of wavelength λ is the smallest value of distance L in the figure that puts A and B exactly out of phase with each other after the reflections? 78 A trumpet player on a moving railroad flatcar moves toward a second trumpet player standing alongside the track while both play a 440 Hz note. The sound waves heard by a station- ary observer between the two players have a beat frequency of 4.0 beats/s. What is the flatcar’s speed? GO In Fig. 17.22, sound of wavelength 0.850 m is emitted isotropically by point source S. Sound ray 1 extends directly to detector D, at distance L = 10.0 m. Sound ray 2 extends to D via a reflection (effectively, a “bouncing”) of the sound at a flat sur- face. That reflection occurs on a perpendicular bisector to the SD line, at distance d from the line. Assume that the reflection shifts the sound wave by 0.500λ . For what least value of d (other than zero) do the direct sound and the reflected sound arrive at D (a) exactly out of phase and (b) exactly in phase? 79
Spermaceti sac Distal sac
Ray 2
Frontal sac
d
S
__ 2
Ray 1
L
Figure 17.22
D
__ 2 L
Problem 79.
GO A detector initially moves at constant velocity directly toward a stationary sound source and then (after passing it) directly from it. The emitted frequency is f. During the approach the detected frequency is f ′a pp and during the recession it is f ′r ec . If the frequencies are related by (f ′app − f ′rec )/f = 0.500, what is the ratio v D /v of the speed of the detector to the speed of sound? 80
(a )
1.0 ms
SSM (a) If two sound waves, one in air and one in (fresh) water, are equal in intensity and angular frequency, what is the ratio of the pressure amplitude of the wave in water to that of the wave in air? Assume the water and the air are at 20°C. (See Table 14.1.1.) (b) If the pressure amplitudes are equal instead, what is the ratio of the intensities of the waves?
81
(b)
Figure 17.20
Problem 73.
The average density of Earth’s crust 10 km beneath the continents is 2.7 g/cm 3 . The speed of longitudinal seismic waves at that depth, found by timing their arrival from distant earth- quakes, is 5.4 km/s. Find the bulk modulus of Earth’s crust at that depth. For comparison, the bulk modulus of steel is about 16 × 10 10 Pa. 74
A certain loudspeaker system emits sound isotropically with a frequency of 2000 Hz and an intensity of 0.960 mW/m 2 at a distance of 6.10 m. Assume that there are no reflections. (a) What is the intensity at 30.0 m? At 6.10 m, what are (b) the displacement amplitude and (c) the pressure amplitude? 75
Find the ratios (greater to smaller) of the (a) intensities, (b) pressure amplitudes, and (c) A particle displacement amplitudes for two sounds whose sound lev- L els differ by 37 dB. 76
In Fig. 17.21, sound waves A and B, both of wavelength λ , are initially in phase and traveling rightward, as indicated by the two rays. Wave A is reflected from four surfaces but ends up 77
L
B
Figure 17.21
Problem 77.
A continuous sinusoidal longitudinal wave is sent along a very long coiled spring from an attached oscillating source. The wave travels in the negative direction of an x axis; the source fre- quency is 25 Hz; at any instant the distance between successive points of maximum expansion in the spring is 24 cm; the maxi- mum longitudinal displacement of a spring particle is 0.30 cm; and the particle at x = 0 has zero displacement at time t = 0. If the wave is written in the form s(x, t) = s m cos(kx ± ωt), what are (a) s m, (b) k, (c) ω, (d) the wave speed, and (e) the correct choice of sign in front of ω? 82
BIO SSM Ultrasound, which Incident ultrasound consists of sound waves with fre- quencies above the human audi- θ ble range, can be used to produce Artery an image of the interior of a human body. Moreover, ultra- sound can be used to measure the speed of the blood in the body; it Figure 17.23 Problem 83. does so by comparing the frequency of the ultrasound sent into the body with the frequency of the ultrasound reflected back
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to the body’s surface by the blood. As the blood pulses, this detected frequency varies. Suppose that an ultrasound image of the arm of a patient shows an artery that is angled at θ = 20° to the ultrasound’s line of travel (Fig. 17.23). Suppose also that the frequency of the ultrasound reflected by the blood in the artery is increased by a maximum of 5495 Hz from the original ultrasound fre- quency of 5.000 000 MHz. (a) In Fig. 17.23, is the direction of the blood flow rightward or leftward? (b) The speed of sound in the human arm is 1540 m/s. What is the maximum speed of the blood? (Hint: The Doppler effect is caused by the component of the blood’s velocity along the ultrasound’s direction of travel.) (c) If angle θ were greater, would the reflected frequency be greater or less? The speed of sound in a certain metal is v m . One end of a long pipe of that metal of length L is struck a hard blow. A listener at the other end hears two sounds, one from the wave that travels along the pipe’s metal wall and the other from the wave that trav- els through the air inside the pipe. (a) If v is the speed of sound in air, what is the time interval Δt between the arrivals of the two sounds at the listener’s ear? (b) If Δt = 1.00 s and the metal is steel, what is the length L? 84
FCP An avalanche of sand along some rare desert sand dunes can produce a booming that is loud enough to be heard 10 km away. The booming apparently results from a periodic oscillation of the sliding layer of sand—the layer’s thickness expands and contracts. If the emitted frequency is 90 Hz, what are (a) the period of the thickness oscillation and (b) the wave- length of the sound?
85
A sound source moves along an x axis, between detectors A and B. The wavelength of the sound detected at A is 0.500 that of the sound detected at B. What is the ratio νs /ν of the speed of the source to the speed of sound? 86
SSM A siren emitting a sound of frequency 1000 Hz moves away from you toward the face of a cliff at a speed of 10 m/s. Take the speed of sound in air as 330 m/s. (a) What is the fre- quency of the sound you hear coming directly from the siren? (b) What is the frequency of the sound you hear reflected off the cliff? (c) What is the beat frequency between the two sounds? Is it perceptible (less than 20 Hz)?
87
At a certain point, two waves produce pressure variations given by Δp 1 = Δp m sin ωt and Δp 2 = Δp m sin(ωt − ϕ). At this point, what is the ratio Δp r /Δp m , where Δp r is the pressure amplitude of the resultant wave, if ϕ is (a) 0, (b) π/2, (c) π/3, and (d) π/4? 88
Two sound waves with an amplitude of 12 nm and a wave- length of 35 cm travel in the same direction through a long tube, with a phase difference of π/3 rad. What are the (a) amplitude and (b) wavelength of the net sound wave produced by their interference? If, instead, the sound waves travel through the tube in opposite directions, what are the (c) amplitude and (d) wavelength of the net wave? 89
A sinusoidal sound wave moves at 343 m/s through air in the positive direction of an x axis. At one instant during the oscillations, air molecule A is at its maximum displacement in the negative direction of the axis while air molecule B is at its equilibrium position. The separation between those molecules is 15.0 cm, and the molecules between A and B have intermediate 90
displacements in the negative direction of the axis. (a) What is the frequency of the sound wave? In a similar arrangement but for a different sinusoidal sound wave, at one instant air molecule C is at its maximum displacement in the positive direction while molecule D is at its maximum displacement in the negative direction. The separa- tion between the molecules is again 15.0 cm, and the molecules between C and D have intermediate displacements. (b) What is the frequency of the sound wave? Two identical tuning forks can oscillate at 440 Hz. A person is located somewhere on the line between them. Calculate the beat frequency as measured by this individual if (a) she is stand- ing still and the tuning forks move in the same direction along the line at 3.00 m/s, and (b) the tuning forks are stationary and the listener moves along the line at 3.00 m/s. 91
You can estimate your distance from a lightning stroke by counting the seconds between the flash you see and the thunder you later hear. By what integer should you divide the number of seconds to get the distance in kilometers? 92
SSM Figure 17.24 shows an S air-filled, acoustic interferometer, used to demonstrate the interfer- A B ence of sound waves. Sound source S is an oscillating diaphragm; D is a sound detector, such as the ear D or a microphone. Path SBD can be varied in length, but path SAD is Figure 17.24 Problem 93. fixed. At D, the sound wave com- ing along path SBD interferes with that coming along path SAD. In one demonstration, the sound intensity at D has a minimum value of 100 units at one position of the movable arm and con- tinuously climbs to a maximum value of 900 units when that arm is shifted by 1.65 cm. Find (a) the frequency of the sound emitted by the source and (b) the ratio of the amplitude at D of the SAD wave to that of the SBD wave. (c) How can it happen that these waves have different amplitudes, considering that they originate at the same source?
93
On July 10, 1996, a granite block broke away from a wall in Yosemite Valley and, as it began to slide down the wall, was launched into projectile motion. Seismic waves produced by its impact with the ground triggered seismographs as far away as 200 km. Later measurements indicated that the block had a mass between 7.3 × 10 7 kg and 1.7 × 10 8 kg and that it landed 500 m vertically below the launch point and 30 m horizontally from it. (The launch angle is not known.) (a) Estimate the block’s kinetic energy just before it landed. Consider two types of seismic waves that spread from the impact point—a hemispherical body wave traveled through the ground in an expanding hemisphere and a cylindrical surface wave traveled along the ground in an expanding shallow verti- cal cylinder (Fig. 17.25). Assume that the impact lasted 0.50 s, the vertical cylinder had a depth d of 5.0 m, and each wave type received 20% of the energy the block had just before impact. Neglecting any mechanical energy loss the waves experienced as they traveled, determine the intensities of (b) the body wave and (c) the surface wave when they reached a seismograph 200 km away. (d) On the basis of these results, which wave is more easily detected on a distant seismograph? 94
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Cylindrical wave
ω = 6.80 × 10 6 rad/s (Fig. 17.26).
Impact d
Hemispherical wave Figure 17.25
Problem 94.
The sound intensity is 0.0080 W/m 2 at a distance of 10 m from an isotropic point source of sound. (a) What is the power of the source? (b) What is the sound intensity 5.0 m from the source? (c) What is the sound level 10 m from the source? 95
SSM
Four sound waves are to be sent through the same tube of air, in the same direction: s 1 (x, t) = (9.00 nm) cos(2 πx − 700πt), s 2( x, t) = (9.00 nm) cos(2 πx − 700πt + 0.7π), s 3 (x, t) = (9.00 nm) cos(2 πx − 700πt + π), s 4 (x, t) = (9.00 nm) cos(2 πx − 700πt + 1.7π). What is the amplitude of the resultant wave? (Hint: Use a pha- sor diagram to simplify the problem.) 96
Straight line AB connects two point sources that are 5.00 m apart, emit 300 Hz sound waves of the same amplitude, and emit exactly out of phase. (a) What is the shortest distance between the midpoint of AB and a point on AB where the interfering waves cause maximum oscillation of the air molecules? What are the (b) second and (c) third shortest distances? 97
A point source that is stationary on an x axis emits a sinusoidal sound wave at a frequency of 686 Hz and speed 343 m/s. The wave travels radially outward from the source, causing air molecules to oscillate radially inward and outward. Let us define a wavefront as a line that connects points where the air molecules have the maximum, radially outward displace- ment. At any given instant, the wavefronts are concentric circles that are centered on the source. (a) Along x, what is the adja- cent wavefront separation? Next, the source moves along x at a speed of 110 m/s. Along x, what are the wavefront separations (b) in front of and (c) behind the source? 98
You are standing at a distance D from an isotropic point source of sound. You walk 50.0 m toward the source and observe that the intensity of the sound has doubled. Calculate the distance D. 99
Pipe A has only one open end; pipe B is four times as long and has two open ends. Of the lowest 10 harmonic numbers n B of pipe B, what are the (a) smallest, (b) second smallest, and (c) third smallest values at which a harmonic frequency of B matches one of the harmonic frequencies of A? 100
A toy rocket moves at a speed of 242 m/s directly toward a stationary pole (through stationary air) while emitting sound waves at frequency f = 1250 Hz. (a) What frequency f ′ is sensed by a detector that is attached to the pole? (b) Some of the sound reaching the pole reflects to the rocket, which has an onboard detector. What frequency f ″ does it detect? 101
SHM Doppler shift. A microscopic structure is in simple harmonic motion in air along an x axis with angular frequency 102
539
v
From a stationary source, a x beam of ultrasound of frequency f 0 is directed toward the struc- Figure 17.26 Problem 102. ture along that axis. The echo returned to a stationary detector at the ultrasound source var- ies in frequency during the oscillation from a lowest value f L to a highest value f H . The ratio f L /f 0 is 0.800. (a) Where in the oscillation is the structure when f L is emitted? What are (b) the amplitude x m of the oscillation and (c) the ratio f H /f 0 ? Beats with Doppler shifts. v 1 Figure 17.27 shows two isotropic x D point sources of sound: Sources v 2 S 1 and S 2 are moving in the posi- Figure 17.27 Problem 103. tive direction of an x axis toward detector D, and both emit sound with frequency f = 500 Hz. S 1 moves at speed v S1 = 0.180v, where v is the speed of sound. S 2 moves at v S2 = 0.185v. What is the beat frequency of the sound at the detector? 103
S
S
Off-axis Doppler shift. In y Fig. 17.28, a bat flies at speed v x v b = 9.00 m/s along an x axis while x emitting sound at frequency f = d 80.0 kHz. The sound is detected by D, located at distance d = 20.0 D m off the axis. Assume that the bat is an isotropic sound source. (a) What frequency f ′ is detected by D when the bat emits the sound Figure 17.28 Problem 104. at x b = −113 m. (Hint: What is the velocity component toward D just then?) (b) What is the bat’s coordinate at the moment of detection? (c) As the bat continues toward the origin of the coordinate system, does f ′ increase, decrease, or stay the same, and what is the detected frequency of the sound that is emitted at the origin? 104
b
b
Sound speed in aluminum. An experimenter wishes to measure the speed of sound in an aluminum rod 10 cm long by measuring the time a sound pulse takes to travel the length of the rod. If results good to four significant figures are desired, (a) how precisely must the length of the rod be known, and (b) how closely must the experimenter be able to resolve time intervals? 105
The loudest. One way to measure “loudness” is with the sound pressure level SPL (units dB SPL), which is defined as Δ p m SPL = 20 log (____ p ), 106
0
where Δp m is the measured pressure amplitude of the sound wave and p 0 is the reference pressure of 20 µPa (= 20 µN/m 2 ). For a sustained sinusoidal sound wave, the upper limit for the pressure amplitude is Δp m = 1 atm. In that case, what are (a) the maximum pressure and (b) the minimum pressure in the wave? (c) What is the SPL? (This is the “loudest” that a sustained sound wave can be in Earth’s atmosphere.) Longest string−can telephone. To make a string−can tele- phone (Fig. 17.29), punch a hole in the bottom of two empty food cans (or paper cups). Then, from the exterior of each can, run a string through the hole and tie a knot at the end to prevent the end from slipping back through the hole. Give one can to someone with the instruction to walk away and then pull on that 107
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can so that the string is under tension. You can then talk to the other person by speaking into your can. Your sound causes the can bottom to oscillate, which periodically pulls and releases the string, sending pulses along the string. When those pulses reach the bottom of the other can, that bottom oscillates, producing sound waves in the can’s air. The other person thus hears your message. A better design is with steel wire (instead of ordinary string) that is welded to the can bottoms to form rigid connec- tions. The Guinness World Record for the longest string−can telephone is 242.62 m, set in Chosei, Chiba, Japan, in 2019. Assume that steel wire was used. What is the time difference Δt between a pulse sent along the wire and a pulse sent through the air?
Figure 17.29
Problem 107.
Chalk squealing on a chalkboard. To make a chalk stick squeal when drawn across a ceramic (clay) chalkboard (Fig. 17.30), first rub it several times over the area to be used. Then hold the chalk stick about 30° from a perpendicular to the board and pull it. The chalk can undergo repeated stick and slip, producing the irritating squeal. The oscillations respon- sible for the sound occur in a shear layer that is a 0.3-mm-thick layer between the board and chalk stick whenever the chalk slips after sticking. Waves from that oscillating layer travel into the board, which radiates the sound much like a drumhead. If 108
moc.kcotsrettuhS/kcotsnoT Figure 17.30
Problem 108.
the frequency of the squeal- ing is 2050 Hz, what is the wavelength of the sound that reaches you? (If the chalk stick is short, your grip on it damps out the oscillations, eliminating the squeal.)
S1
S2
P1
Wave interference. Fig- P2 ure 17.31a shows two point sound sources S 1 and S 2 (a ) located on a line. The sources emit sound isotropically, in phase, and at the same wave- θ length λ and same amplitude. θ P1 Detection point P 1 is on a perpendicular bisector to the line between the sources; waves arrive there with zero phase difference. Detection P3 point P 2 is on the line through the sources; waves arrive (b) there with a phase difference Figure 17.31 Problem 109. of 5.0 wavelengths. (a) In terms of wavelengths, what is the distance between the sources? (b) What type of interference occurs at point P 1 ? The sources are now both moved directly away from point P 1 by a distance of λ / 2, at an angle of θ = 30° (Fig. 17.31b). (c) In terms of wavelengths, what is the phase difference between the waves arriving at point P 3 , which is on the new line through the sources? (d) What type of interference occurs at point P 3 ? 109
BIO Firing range. The most common handgun carried by United States police officers is the Glock 22 (0.40 caliber). The officers must qualify and train with the weapon on firing ranges where hearing protection is required to avoid hearing loss, pos- sibly permanent loss. In one investigation of the protection, a Glock 22 was fired 1.0 m from a mannequin. The noise was detected by two microphones. One was under protective gear on the mannequin’s ear and one was adjacent to the mannequin and unprotected. The noise level was measured in terms of the sound pressure level SPL (units dB SPL), which is defined as p SPL = 20 log (__ p 0 ) , where p is the measured sound pressure and p 0 is the reference pressure of 20 µPa (= 20 µN/m 2 ). What were the pressures for (a) 158 dB SPL for the unprotected microphone, (b) 123 dB SPL for the mannequin with the protective earmuffs, and (c) 103 dB SPL for the mannequin with both earmuffs and earplugs? The recommended allowable exposure set by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health is 140 dB SPL, which would be exceeded by an officer firing a Glock 22 without protection, as is sometimes required in the line of duty.
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Temperature, Heat, and the First Law of Thermodynamics
18.1 TEMPERATURE Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
18.1.1 Identify the lowest temperature as 0 on the
18.1.4 Explain the conditions for measuring a tempera-
Kelvin scale (absolute zero). 18.1.2 Explain the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
ture with a constant-volume gas thermometer. 18.1.5 For a constant-volume gas thermometer, relate
18.1.3 Explain the conditions for the triple-point
the pressure and temperature of the gas in some
temperature.
given state to the pressure and temperature at the triple point.
Key Ideas ●
Temperature is an SI base quantity related to our
●
In the SI system, temperature is measured on the
sense of hot and cold. It is measured with a ther-
Kelvin scale, which is based on the triple point of water
mometer, which contains a working substance with a
(273.16 K). Other temperatures are then defined by
measurable property, such as length or pressure, that
use of a constant-volume gas thermometer, in which a
changes in a regular way as the substance becomes
sample of gas is maintained at constant volume so its
hotter or colder.
pressure is proportional to its temperature. We define
●
When a thermometer and some other object are
placed in contact with each other, they eventually reach
T as measured with a gas thermom-
the temperature eter to be
thermal equilibrium. The reading of the thermometer
p T = (273.16 K) ( lim ___ p ).
is then taken to be the temperature of the other
gas→0 3
object. The process provides consistent and useful temperature measurements because of the zeroth law of
A and B are each in thermal C (the thermometer), then
T is in kelv ins , and p 3 and p are the pres s ures of
thermodynamics: If bodies
Here
equilibrium with a third body
the gas at 273.16 K and the meas ured temperature,
A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
res pectiv ely .
What Is Physics?
One of the principal branches of physics and engineering is thermodynamics, which is the study and application of the thermal energy (often called the internal energy) of systems. One of the central concepts of thermodynamics is tempera- ture. Since childhood, you have been developing a working knowledge of thermal energy and temperature. For example, you know to be cautious with hot foods and hot stoves and to store perishable foods in cool or cold compartments. You also know how to control the temperature inside home and car, and how to pro- tect yourself from wind chill and heat stroke.
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C HAP T ER 18 T EMP ERAT U RE, HEAT , AND T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
1039
108 106 )K( erutarepmeT
104 102 100
Universe just after beginning Highest laboratory temperature Center of the Sun
Surface of the Sun Tungsten melts Water freezes Universe today Boiling helium-3
Temperature
10 –2 10 –9
Examples of how thermodynamics figures into everyday engineering and science are countless. Automobile engineers are concerned with the heating of a car engine, such as during a NASCAR race. Food engineers are concerned both with the proper heating of foods, such as pizzas being microwaved, and with the proper cooling of foods, such as TV dinners being quickly frozen at a processing plant. Geologists are concerned with the transfer of thermal energy in an El Niño event and in the gradual warming of ice expanses in the Arctic and Antarctic. Agricultural engineers are concerned with the weather conditions that determine whether the agriculture of a country thrives or vanishes. Medical engineers are concerned with how a patient’s temperature might distinguish between a benign FCP viral infection and a cancerous growth. The starting point in our discussion of thermodynamics is the concept of temperature and how it is measured.
Record low temperature
Some temperatures on the Kelvin scale. Temperature T = 0 corresponds to 10 −∞ and cannot be plotted on this logarithmic scale. Figure 18.1.1
Temperature is one of the seven SI base quantities. Physicists measure tempera- ture on the Kelvin scale, which is marked in units called kelvins. Although the temperature of a body apparently has no upper limit, it does have a lower limit; this limiting low temperature is taken as the zero of the Kelvin temperature scale. Room temperature is about 290 kelvins, or 290 K as we write it, above this absolute zero. Figure 18.1.1 shows a wide range of temperatures. When the universe began 13.8 billion years ago, its temperature was about 10 39 K. As the universe expanded it cooled, and it has now reached an average temperature of about 3 K. We on Earth are a little warmer than that because we happen to live near a star. Without our Sun, we too would be at 3 K (or, rather, we could not exist).
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Thermally sensitive element
A thermoscope. The numbers increase when the device is heated and decrease when it is cooled. The thermally sensitive element could be—among many possibilities—a coil of wire whose electrical resistance is measured and displayed. Figure 18.1.2
The properties of many bodies change as we alter their temperature, perhaps by moving them from a refrigerator to a warm oven. To give a few examples: As their temperature increases, the volume of a liquid increases, a metal rod grows a little longer, and the electrical resistance of a wire increases, a s does the pressure exerted by a confined gas. We can use any one of these properties as the basis of an instrument that will help us pin down the concept of temperature. Figure 18.1.2 shows such an instrument. Any resourceful engineer could design and construct it, using any one of the properties listed above. The instru- ment is fitted with a digital readout display and has the following properties: If you heat it (say, with a Bunsen burner), the displayed number starts to increase; if you then put it into a refrigerator, the displayed number starts to decrease. The instrument is not calibrated in any way, and the numbers have (as yet) no physical meaning. The device is a thermoscope but not (as yet) a thermometer. Suppose that, as in Fig. 18.1.3a, we put the thermoscope (which we shall call body T) into intimate contact with another body (body A). The entire system is confined within a thick-walled insulating box. The numbers displayed by the thermoscope roll by until, eventually, they come to rest (let us say the reading is “137.04”) and no further change takes place. In fact, we suppose that every measurable property of body T and of body A has assumed a stable, unchanging value. Then we say that the two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with each other. Even though the displayed readings for body T have not been calibrated, we conclude that bodies T and A must be at the same (unknown) temperature. Suppose that we next put body T into intimate contact with body B (Fig. 18.1.3b) and find that the two bodies come to thermal equilibrium at the same
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543
T
T S
A
S
B
(a )
T T
B
A
(b )
A
B
(c )
(a) Body T (a thermoscope) and body A are in thermal equilibrium. (Body S is a thermally insulating screen.) (b) Body T and body B are also in thermal equilib- rium, at the same reading of the thermoscope. (c) If (a) and (b) are true, the zeroth law of thermodynamics states that body A and body B are also in thermal equilibrium. Figure 18.1.3
reading of the thermoscope. Then bodies T and B must be at the same (still unknown) temperature. If we now put bodies A and B into intimate contact (Fig. 18.1.3c), are they immediately in thermal equilibrium with each other? Experi- mentally, we find that they are. The experimental fact shown in Fig. 18.1.3 is summed up in the zeroth law of thermodynamics:
If bodies A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with a third body T, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
In less formal language, the message of the zeroth law is: “Every body has a property called temperature. When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium, their temperatures are equal. And vice versa.” We can now make our thermo- scope (the third body T) into a thermometer, confident that its readings will have physical meaning. All we have to do is calibrate it. We use the zeroth law constantly in the laboratory. If we want to know whether the liquids in two beakers are at the same temperature, we measure the temperature of each with a thermometer. We do not need to bring the two liquids into intimate contact and observe whether they are or are not in thermal equilibrium. The zeroth law, which has been called a logical afterthought, came to light only in the 1930s, long after the first and second laws of thermodynamics had been discovered and numbered. Because the concept of temperature is funda- mental to those two laws, the law that establishes temperature as a valid concept should have the lowest number—hence the zero.
Measuring Temperature
Here we first define and measure temperatures on the Kelvin scale. Then we calibrate a thermoscope so as to make it a thermometer. The Triple Point of Water
To set up a temperature scale, we pick some reproducible thermal phenomenon and, quite arbitrarily, assign a certain Kelvin temperature to its environment; that is, we select a standard fixed point and give it a standard fixed-point temperature. We could, for example, select the freezing point or the boiling point of water but, for technical reasons, we select instead the triple point of water.
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Gas thermometer bulb
Liquid water, solid ice, and water vapor (gaseous water) can coexist, in ther- mal equilibrium, at only one set of values of pressure and temperature. Figure 18.1.4 shows a triple-point cell, in which this so-called triple point of water can be achieved in the laboratory. By international agreement, the triple point of water has been assigned a value of 273.16 K as the standard fixed-point temperature for the calibration of thermometers; that is,
Vapor
T 3 = 273.16 K Ice Water
A triple-point cell, in which solid ice, liquid water, and water vapor coexist in thermal equilibrium. By international agreement, the tem- perature of this mixture has been defined to be 273.16 K. The bulb of a constant-volume gas thermometer is shown inserted into the well of the cell. Figure 18.1.4
Gas-f illed bulb
(18.1.1)
in which the subscript 3 means “triple point.” This agreement a lso sets the size of the kelvin as 1/273.16 of the difference between the triple-point temperature of water and absolute zero. Note that we do not use a degree mark in reporting Kelvin temperatures. It is 300 K (not 300°K), and it is read “300 kelvins” (not “300 degrees Kelvin”). The usual SI prefixes apply. Thus, 0.0035 K is 3.5 mK. No distinction in nomen- clature is made between Kelvin temperatures and temperature differences, so we can write, “the boiling point of sulfur is 717.8 K” and “the temperature of this water bath was raised by 8.5 K.” The Constant-Volume Gas Thermometer
The standard thermometer, against which all other thermometers are calibrated, is based on the pressure of a gas in a fixed volume. Figure 18.1.5 shows such a constant-volume gas thermometer; it consists of a gas-filled bulb connected by a tube to a mercury manometer. By raising and lowering reservoir R, the mercury level in the left arm of the U-tube can always be brought to the zero of the scale to keep the gas volume constant (variations in the gas volume can affect temperature measurements). The temperature of any body in thermal contact with the bulb (such as the liquid surrounding the bulb in Fig. 18.1.5) is then defined to be
Scale
0
T = Cp,
(18.1.2)
in which p is the pressure exerted by the gas and C is a constant. From Eq. 14.3.2, the pressure p is
h
p = p 0 − gh,
T
R
A constant-volume gas thermometer, its bulb immersed in a liquid whose temperature T is to be measured. Figure 18.1.5
(triple-point temperature),
(18.1.3)
in which p 0 is the atmospheric pressure, is the density of the mercury in the manometer, and h is the measured difference between the mercury levels in the two arms of the tube.* (The minus sign is used in Eq. 18.1.3 because pressure p is measured above the level at which the pressure is p 0 .) If we next put the bulb in a triple-point cell (Fig. 18.1.4), the temperature now being measured is T 3 = Cp 3,
(18.1.4)
in which p 3 is the gas pressure now. Eliminating C between Eqs. 18.1.2 a nd 18.1.4 gives us the temperature as p p ___ ) ( ___ T = T 3 ( p ) = (273.16 K p ) 3
3
(provisional).
(18.1.5)
We still have a problem with this thermometer. If we use it to measure, say, the boiling point of water, we find that different gases in the bulb give slightly different results. However, as we use smaller and smaller amounts of gas to fill the bulb, the readings converge nicely to a single temperature, no matter what gas we use. Figure 18.1.6 shows this convergence for three gases. *For pressure units, we shall use units introduced in Module 14.1. The SI unit for pressure is the newton per square meter, which is called the pascal (Pa). The pascal is related to other common pressure units by 1 atm = 1.01 × 10 5 Pa = 760 torr = 14.7 lb/in. 2 .
/
18.2 T HE C EL SIU S AND F AHRENHEIT SC AL ES
373.50
)K( erutarepmeT
Temperatures measured by a constant-volume gas thermometer, with its bulb immersed in boiling water. For temper- ature calculations using Eq. 18.1.5, pressure p 3 was measured at the triple point of water. Three different gases in the thermometer bulb gave generally different results at dif- ferent gas pressures, but as the amount of gas was decreased (decreasing p 3 ), all three curves converged to 373.125 K. Figure 18.1.6
545
373.40
N2
373.125 K
373.30 373.20
H2
373.10
He 0
20
40 p3
60 (kPa)
80
100
120
Thus the recipe for measuring a temperature with a gas thermometer is p T = (273.16 K) ( lim ___ p ).
(18.1.6)
gas→0 3
The recipe instructs us to measure an unknown temperature T as follows: Fill the thermometer bulb with an arbitrary amount of any gas (for example, nitrogen) and measure p 3 (using a triple-point cell) and p, the gas pressure at the temperature being measured. (Keep the gas volume the same.) Calculate the ratio p/p 3. Then repeat both measurements with a smaller amount of gas in the bulb, and again calculate this ratio. Continue this way, using smaller and smaller amounts of gas, until you can extrapolate to the ratio p/p 3 that you would find if there were approximately no gas in the bulb. Calculate the temperature T by substituting that extrapolated ratio into Eq. 18.1.6. (The temperature is called the ideal gas temperature.)
Checkpoint 18.1.1
For four gas samples, here are the pressure of the gas at temperature T and the pres- sure of the gas at the triple point. Rank the samples according to T, greatest first. Sample
Pressure (kPa)
Triple-Point Pressure (kPa)
1 2 3 4
2.6 4.8 5.5 7.2
2.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
18.2 THE CELSIUS AND FAHRENHEIT SCALES Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
18.2.1 Convert a temperature between any two (linear) temperature scales, including the Celsius, Fahrenheit,
18.2.2 Identify that a change of one degree is the same on the Celsius and Kelvin scales.
and Kelvin scales.
Key Idea ●
The Celsius temperature scale is defined by
with
T in kelvins. The Fahrenheit temperature scale is
defined by
T C = T − 273.15°,
9 T F = __ T + 32°. 5 C
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C HAP T ER 18 T EMP ERAT U RE, HEAT , AND T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
The Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales
So far, we have discussed only the Kelvin scale, used in basic scientific work. In nearly all countries of the world, the Celsius scale (formerly called the centigrade scale) is the scale of choice for popular and commercial use and much scientific use. Celsius temperatures are measured in degrees, and the Celsius degree has the same size as the kelvin. However, the zero of the Celsius scale is shifted to a more convenient value than absolute zero. If T C represents a Celsius temperature and T a Kelvin temperature, then T C = T − 273.15°.
(18.2.1)
In expressing temperatures on the Celsius scale, the degree symbol is commonly used. Thus, we write 20.00°C for a Celsius reading but 293.15 K for a Kelvin reading. The Fahrenheit scale, used in the United States, employs a smaller degree than the Celsius scale a nd a different zero of temperature. Y ou can easily v erify both these differences by examining an ordinary room thermometer on which both scales are marked. The relation between the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales is 9 T F = _ T + 32° , 5 C
(18.2.2)
where T F is Fahrenheit temperature. Converting between these two scales can be done easily by remembering a few corresponding points, such as the freezing and boiling points of water (Table 18.2.1). Figure 18.2.1 c ompares the Kelvin, Celsius, and Fahrenheit scales. We use the letters C and F to distinguish measurements a nd degrees on the two scales. Thus, 0°C = 32°F means that 0° on the Celsius scale measures the same temperature as 32° on the Fahrenheit scale, whereas 5 C° = 9 F° means that a temperature difference of 5 Celsius degrees (note the degree sym- bol appears after C) is equivalent to a temperature difference of 9 Fahrenheit degrees.
Triple point of water
Absolute zero
273.16 K
0K
0.01°C
–273.15°C
32.02°F
–459.67°F
The Kelvin, Celsius, and Fahrenheit temperature scales compared. Figure 18.2.1
Table 18.2.1 Some Corresponding Temperatures
Temperature
°C
°F
Boiling point of water a Normal body temperature Accepted comfort level Freezing point of water a Zero of Fahrenheit scale Scales coincide
100 37.0 20 0 ≈ −18 −40
212 98.6 68 32 0 −40
a
Strictly, the boiling point of water on the Celsius scale is 99.975°C, and the freezing point is 0.00°C. Thus, there is slightly less than 100 C° between those two points.
/
18.3 T HERMAL EXP ANSION
547
Checkpoint 18.2.1
The figure here shows three 70 °X linear temperature scales with the freezing and boiling points of water indicated. (a) Rank the degrees on these scales by size, greatest first. (b) Rank the fol- –20 °X lowing temperatures, highest first: 50°X, 50°W, and 50°Y.
Sample Problem 18.2.1
120 °W
90 ° Y
30 °W
0° Y
Boiling point
Freezing point
Conversion between two temperature scales
Suppose you come across old scientific notes that describe a temperature scale called Z on which the boiling point of water is 65.0°Z and the freezing point is −14.0°Z. To what temperature on the Fahrenheit scale would a temperature of T = −98.0°Z correspond? Assume that the Z scale is linear; that is, the size of a Z degree is the same every- where on the Z scale.
KEY IDEA
Z 65.0 °Z
F Boil
79.0 Z° –14.0 °Z
212 °F 180 F °
Freeze
32 °F
84.0 Z° T
= –98.0 °Z
T
=?
An unknown temperature scale compared with the Fahrenheit temperature scale. Figure 18.2.2
A conversion factor between two (linear) temperature scales can be calculated by using two known (benchmark) temperatures, such as the boiling and freezing points of water. The number of degrees between the known tem- peratures on one scale is equivalent to the number of degrees between them on the other scale. We begin by relating the given temper- ature T to either known temperature on the Z scale. Since T = −98.0°Z is closer to the freezing point (−14.0°Z) than to the boiling point (65.0°Z), we use the freezing point. Then we note that the T we seek is below this point by −14.0°Z − (−98.0°Z) = 84.0 Z° (Fig. 18.2.2). (Read this difference as “84.0 Z degrees.”) Next, we set up a conversion factor between the Z and Fahrenheit scales to convert this difference. To do so, we use both known temperatures on the Z scale and Calculations:
the corresponding temperatures on the Fahrenheit scale. On the Z scale, the difference between the boiling and freezing points is 65.0°Z − (−14.0°Z) = 79.0 Z°. On the Fahrenheit scale, it is 212°F − 32.0°F = 180 F°. Thus, a temperature difference of 79.0 Z° is equivalent to a temper- ature difference of 180 F° (Fig. 18.2.2), a nd we can use the ratio (180 F°)/(79.0 Z°) as our conversion factor. Now, since T is below the freezing point by 84.0 Z°, it must also be below the freezing point by 180 F° = 191 F°. (84.0 Z°) _______ 79.0 Z° Because the freezing point is at 32.0°F, this means that T = 32.0°F − 191 F° = −159°F.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
18.3 THERMAL EXPANSION Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
18.3.1 For one-dimensional thermal expansion, apply
18.3.3 For three-dimensional thermal expansion, apply
the relationship between the temperature change
the relationship between the temperature change
∆T, the length change ∆L, the initial length L, and
∆T, the volume change ∆V, the initial volume V, and
the coefficient of linear expansion
the coefficient of volume expansion .
.
18.3.2 For two-dimensional thermal expansion, use one-dimensional thermal expansion to find the change in area.
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C HAP T ER 18 T EMP ERAT U RE, HEAT , AND T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
Key Ideas ●
All objects change size with changes in temperature.
For a temperature change linear dimension
The change
is the coefficient of linear expansion.
∆V in the volume V of a solid or liquid is ∆V = V ∆T.
L is given by
∆L = L ∆T, in which
●
∆T, a change ∆L in any
= 3 is the material’s coefficient of volume
Here
expansion.
Thermal Expansion
segamI ytteG /aideM PWB/samohT hguH
When a Concorde flew faster than the speed of sound, ther- mal expansion due to the rubbing by passing air increased the aircraft’s length by about 12.5 cm. (The tem- perature increased to about 128°C at the aircraft nose and about 90°C at the tail, and cabin windows were noticeably warm to the touch.) Figure 18.3.1
You can often loosen a tight metal jar lid by holding it under a stream of hot water. Both the metal of the lid and the glass of the jar expand as the hot water adds energy to their atoms. (With the added energy, the atoms can move a bit farther from one another than usual, against the spring-like interatomic forces that hold every solid together.) However, because the atoms in the metal move farther apart than those in the glass, the lid expands more than the jar and thus is loosened. Such thermal expansion of materials with an increase in temperature must be anticipated in many c ommon situations. When a bridge is subject to large seasonal changes in temperature, for example, sections of the bridge are separated by expansion slots so that the sections have room to expand on hot days without the bridge buckling. When a dental cavity is filled, the filling material must have the same thermal expansion properties as the surrounding tooth; otherwise, consum- ing cold ice cream a nd then hot coffee would be very painful. When the Concorde aircraft (Fig. 18.3.1) was built, the design had to allow for the thermal expansion of the fuselage during supersonic flight because of frictional heating by the pass- FCP ing air. The thermal expansion properties of some materials can be put to common use. Thermometers and thermostats may be based on the differences in expan- sion between the components of a bimetal strip (Fig. 18.3.2). Also, the familiar liquid-in-glass thermometers are based on the fact that liquids such as mercury and alcohol expand to a different (greater) extent than their glass containers.
Table 18.3.1 Some Coefficients of
a
Linear Expansion
Substance Ice (at 0°C) Lead Aluminum Brass Copper Concrete Steel Glass (ordinary) Glass (Pyrex) Diamond Invar b Fused quartz
Linear Expansion
(10
−6
/C°)
51 29 23 19 17 12 11 9 3.2 1.2 0.7 0.5
a Room temperature values except for
the listing for ice. b This alloy was designed to have a low coefficient of expansion. The word is a shortened form of “invariable.”
If the temperature of a metal rod of length L is raised by an amount ∆T, its length is found to increase by an amount ∆L = L ∆T,
(18.3.1)
in which is a constant called the coefficient of linear expansion. The coefficient has the unit “per degree” or “per kelvin” and depends on the material. Although varies somewhat with temperature, for most practical purposes it can be taken as constant for a particular material. Table 18.3.1 shows some coefficients of lin- ear expansion. Note that the unit C° there could be replaced with the unit K. Brass Steel = T0 (a )
T
Different amounts of expansion or contraction can produce bending.
T
> T0 (b )
(a) A bimetal strip, consisting of a strip of brass and a strip of steel welded together, at temperature T 0 . (b) The strip bends as shown at temperatures above this reference temperature. Below the reference temperature the strip bends the other way. Many thermostats operate on this principle, making and breaking an electrical contact as the temperature rises and falls. Figure 18.3.2
/
18.3 T HERMAL EXP ANSION
The same steel ruler at two different temperatures. When it expands, the scale, the numbers, the thickness, and the diameters of the circle and circu- lar hole are all increased by the same factor. (The expansion has been exaggerated for clarity.)
549
Figure 18.3.3
1
2
3
4
(a )
1
2
3
5
6
7
Circle Circular hole 4
5
6
7
(b )
The thermal expansion of a solid is like photographic enlargement except it is in three dimensions. Figure 18.3.3b shows the (exaggerated) thermal expansion of a steel ruler. Equation 18.3.1 applies to every linear dimension of the ruler, including its edge, thickness, diagonals, and the diameters of the circle etched on it and the circular hole cut in it. If the disk cut from that hole originally fits snugly in the hole, it will continue to fit snugly if it undergoes the same tempera- ture increase as the ruler. Volume Expansion
If all dimensions of a solid expand with temperature, the volume of that solid must also expand. For liquids, volume expansion is the only meaningful expan- sion parameter. If the temperature of a solid or liquid whose volume is V is increased by an amount ∆T, the increase in volume is found to be ∆V = V ∆T,
(18.3.2)
where is the coefficient of volume expansion of the solid or liquid. The coef- ficients of volume expansion and linear expansion for a solid are related by
= 3.
(18.3.3)
The most common liquid, water, does not behave like other liquids. Above about 4°C, water expands as the temperature rises, as we would expect. Between 0 and about 4°C, however, water contracts with increasing temperature. Thus, at about 4°C, the density of water passes through a maximum. A t all other tempera- tures, the density of water is less than this maximum value. This behavior of water is the reason lakes freeze from the top down rather than from the bottom up. As water on the surface is cooled from, say, 10°C toward the freezing point, it becomes denser (“heavier”) than lower water and sinks to the bottom. Below 4°C, however, further cooling makes the water then on the surface less dense (“lighter”) than the lower water, so it stays on the surface until it freezes. Thus the surface freezes while the lower water is still liquid. If lakes froze from the bottom up, the ice so formed would tend not to melt completely during the summer, because it would be insulated by the water above. After a few years, many bodies of open water in the temper- ate zones of Earth would be frozen solid all year round—and aquatic life could FCP not exist.
Checkpoint 18.3.1
The figure here shows four rectangular metal plates, with sides of L, 2L, or 3L. They are all made of the same material, and their temperature is to be increased by the same amount. Rank the plates according to the expected increase in (a) their vertical heights and (b) their areas, greatest first.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
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C HAP T ER 18 T EMP ERAT U RE, HEAT , AND T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
Sample Problem 18.3.1
Thermal expansion on the Moon
noitartsinimdA ecapS dna scituanoreA lanoitaN/CSJ
When Apollo 15 landed on the Moon at the foot of the Apennines mountain range, an American flag was planted (Fig. 18.3.4). The aluminum, telescoping flagpole was 2.0 m long with a coefficient of linear expansion 2.3 × 10 −5 /° C. At that latitude on the Moon (26.1° N), the tem- perature varied from 290 K in the day to 110 K in the night. What was the change in length of the pole between day and night?
KEY IDEA The length increased as the temperature increased. Calculation:
We simply use Eq. 18.3.1:
ΔL = Lα ΔT = (2.0 m)(2.3 × 10 −5 / C° )(180 K ) = 8.3 × 10 −3 m = 8.3 mm.
Figure 18.3.4
Apollo 15.
18.4 ABSORPTION OF HEAT Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
18.4.1 Identify that thermal
energy
is associated with
∆T of a substance, Q and the substance’s specific heat c and mass m.
18.4.6 For a temperature change
the random motions of the microscopic bodies in
relate the change to the heat transfer
an object. 18.4.2 Identify that heat
Q is the amount of transferred
energy (either to or from an object’s thermal energy) due to a temperature difference between the object and its environment. 18.4.3 Convert energy units between various measure-
18.4.7 Identify the three phases of matter. 18.4.8 For a phase change of a substance, relate the
Q , the heat of transformation L, and m transformed. 18.4.9 Identify that if a heat transfer Q takes a sub- heat transfer
the amount of mass
ment systems.
stance across a phase-change temperature, the
18.4.4 Convert between mechanical or electrical energy
transfer must be calculated in steps: (a) a tem-
and thermal energy.
perature change to reach the phase-change tem-
∆T of a substance, relate the change to the heat transfer Q and the substance’s heat capacity C.
18.4.5 For a temperature change
perature, (b) the phase change, and then (c) any temperature change that moves the substance away from the phase-change temperature.
Key Ideas ●
Q is energy that is transferred between a sys-
Heat
tem and its environment because of a temperature
in which
C is the heat capacity of the object. If the m, then
object has mass
difference between them. It can be measured in joules
Q = cm( T f − T i ),
(J), calories (cal), kilocalories (Cal or kcal), or British thermal units (Btu), with
1 cal = 3.968 × 10 −3 Btu = 4.1868 J. ●
If heat
Q is absorbed by an object, the object’s tem- T f − T i is related to Q by
perature change
Q = C(T f − T i),
where
c is the specific heat of the material making up
the object. ●
The molar specific heat of a material is the heat
capacity per mole, which means per
6.02 × 10 23 ele-
mentary units of the material.
/
18.4 ABSORP T ION OF HEAT
●
Heat absorbed by a material may change the mate-
●
551
L V is the amount of energy
The heat of vaporization
rial’s physical state—for example, from solid to liquid or
per unit mass that must be added to vaporize a liquid
from liquid to gas. The amount of energy required per unit
or that must be removed to condense a gas.
mass to change the state (but not the temperature) of a
L. Thus,
particular material is its heat of transformation
Q = Lm.
●
The heat of fusion
L F is the amount of energy per
unit mass that must be added to melt a solid or that must be removed to freeze a liquid.
Temperature and Heat
If you take a can of cola from the refrigerator a nd leave it on the kitchen table, its temperature will rise—rapidly at first but then more slowly—until the tempera- ture of the cola equals that of the room (the two are then in thermal equilibrium). In the same way, the temperature of a cup of hot coffee, left sitting on the table, will fall until it also reaches room temperature. In generalizing this situation, we describe the cola or the coffee as a system (with temperature T S) and the relevant parts of the kitchen as the environment (with temperature T E) of that system. O ur observation is that if T is not equal to S T E, then T S will change (T E can also change some) until the two temperatures are equal and thus thermal equilibrium is reached. Such a change in temperature is due to a change in the thermal energy of the system because of a transfer of energy between the system and the system’s environment. (Recall that thermal energy is an internal energy that consists of the kinetic and potential energies associated with the random motions of the atoms, molecules, and other microscopic bodies within an object.) The trans- ferred energy is called heat and is symbolized Q. Heat is positive when energy is transferred to a system’s thermal energy from its environment (we say that heat is absorbed by the system). Heat is negative when energy is transferred from a system’s thermal energy to its environment (we say that heat is released or lost by the system). This transfer of energy is shown in Fig. 18.4.1. In the situation of Fig. 18.4.1a, in which T S > T E, energy is transferred from the system to the environment, so Q is negative. In Fig. 18.4.1b, in which T S = T E , there is no such transfer, Q is zero, and heat is neither released nor absorbed. In Fig. 18.4.1c, in which T S TE
Q
Environment
The system has the same temperature, so ...
0
If the temperature of a system exceeds that of its environment as in (a), heat Q is lost by the system to the environment until thermal equilibrium (b) is established. (c) If the temperature of the system is below that of the environment, heat is absorbed by the system until thermal equilibrium is established. Figure 18.4.1
In 1948, the scientific community decided that since heat (like work) is transferred energy, the SI unit for heat should be the one we use for energy— namely, the joule. The calorie is now defined to be 4.1868 J (exactly), with no refer- ence to the heating of water. (The “calorie” used in nutrition, sometimes called the Calorie (Cal), is really a kilocalorie.) The relations among the various heat units are 1 cal = 3.968 × 10 −3 Btu = 4.1868 J.
(18.4.1)
The Absorption of Heat by Solids and Liquids Heat Capacity
The heat capacity C of an object is the proportionality constant between the heat Q that the object absorbs or loses and the resulting temperature change ∆T of the object; that is, Q = C ∆T = C(T f − T i ),
(18.4.2)
in which T i and T f are the initial and final temperatures of the object. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. The heat capacity C of, say, a marble slab used in a bun warmer m ight be 179 cal/C°, which we can also write as 179 cal/K or as 749 J/K. The word “capacity” in this context is really misleading in that it suggests analogy with the capacity of a bucket to hold water. That analogy is false, and you should not think of the object as “containing” heat or being limited in its ability to absorb heat. Heat transfer can proceed without limit as long as the necessary temperature difference is maintained. The object may, of course, melt or vapor- ize during the process.
/
18.4 ABSORP T ION OF HEAT
553
Specific Heat
Table 18.4.1 Some Specific Heats
Two objects made of the same material—say, m arble—will have heat capacities proportional to their masses. It is therefore convenient to define a “heat capacity per unit mass” or specific heat c that refers not to an object but to a unit mass of the material of which the object is made. Equation 18.4.2 then becomes
and Molar Specific Heats at Room
Q = cm ∆T = cm(T f − T i).
Molar Specific Specific Heat Heat
(18.4.3)
Through experiment we would find that although the heat capacity of a particular marble slab might be 179 cal/C° (or 749 J/K), the specific heat of marble itself (in that slab or in any other marble object) is 0.21 cal/g · C° (or 880 J/kg · K ). From the way the calorie and the British thermal unit were initially defined, the specific heat of water is c = 1 cal/g · C° = 1 Btu/lb · F° = 4186.8 J/kg · K.
Temperature
(18.4.4)
Table 18.4.1 shows the specific heats of some substances at room temperature. Note that the value for water is relatively high. The specific heat of any substance actually depends somewhat on temperature, but the values in Table 18.4.1 a pply reasonably well in a range of temperatures near room temperature. Checkpoint 18.4.1
A certain amount of heat Q will warm 1 g of material A by 3 C° and 1 g of material B by 4 C°. Which material has the greater specific heat? Molar Specific Heat
In many instances the most convenient unit for specifying the amount of a substance is the mole (mol), where
cal Substance Elemental Solids Lead Tungsten Silver Copper Aluminum Other Solids Brass Granite Glass Ice (−10°C) Liquids Mercury Ethyl alcohol Seawater Water
g · K
J
J
kg · K mol · K
0.0305 0.0321 0.0564 0.0923 0.215
128 134 236 386 900
0.092 0.19 0.20 0.530
380 790 840 2220
0.033
140
0.58 0.93 1.00
2430 3900 4187
26.5 24.8 25.5 24.5 24.4
1 mol = 6.02 × 10 23 elementary units of any substance. Thus 1 mol of aluminum means 6.02 × 10 23 atoms (the atom is the elementary unit), and 1 mol of aluminum oxide means 6.02 × 10 23 molecules (the molecule is the elementary unit of the compound). When quantities are expressed in moles, specific heats must also involve moles (rather than a mass unit); they are then called molar specific heats. Table 18.4.1 shows the values for some elemental solids (each consisting of a single element) at room temperature. An Important Point
In determining and then using the specific heat of any substance, we need to know the conditions under which energy is transferred as heat. For solids and liquids, we usually assume that the sample is under constant pressure (usually atmospheric) during the transfer. It is also conceivable that the sample is held at constant volume while the heat is absorbed. This means that thermal expansion of the sample is prevented by applying external pressure. For solids and liquids, this is very hard to arrange e xperimentally, but the effect can be calculated, and it turns out that the specific heats under constant pressure and constant volume for any solid or liquid differ usually by no more than a few percent. Gases, a s you will see, have quite different values for their specific heats under constant-pressure conditions and under constant-volume conditions. Heats of Transformation
When energy is absorbed as heat by a solid or liquid, the temperature of the sample does not necessarily rise. Instead, the sample may change from one phase, or state, to another. Matter can exist in three common states: In the solid state,
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C HAP T ER 18 T EMP ERAT U RE, HEAT , AND T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
the molecules of a sample are locked into a fairly rigid structure by their mutual attraction. In the liquid state, the molecules have more energy and move about more. They may form brief clusters, but the sample does not have a rigid struc- ture and can flow or settle into a container. In the gas, or vapor, state, the mol- ecules have even more energy, are free of one another, and can fill up the full volume of a container. Melting. To melt a solid means to change it from the solid state to the liq- uid state. The process requires energy because the molecules of the solid must be freed from their rigid structure. Melting an ice cube to form liquid water is a common example. To freeze a liquid to form a solid is the reverse of melting and requires that energy be removed from the liquid, so that the molecules can settle into a rigid structure. Vaporizing. To vaporize a liquid means to change it from the liquid state to the vapor (gas) state. This process, like melting, requires energy because the molecules must be freed from their clusters. Boiling liquid water to transfer it to water vapor (or steam—a gas of individual water molecules) is a common exam- ple. Condensing a gas to form a liquid is the reverse of vaporizing; it requires that energy be removed from the gas, so that the molecules can cluster instead of flying away from one another. The amount of energy per unit mass that must be transferred as heat when a sample completely undergoes a phase change is called the heat of transformation L. Thus, when a sample of mass m completely undergoes a phase change, the total energy transferred is Q = Lm.
(18.4.5)
When the phase change is from liquid to gas (then the sample must absorb heat) or from gas to liquid (then the sample must release heat), the heat of transfor- mation is called the heat of vaporization L V. For water at its normal boiling or condensation temperature, L V = 539 cal/g = 40.7 kJ/mol = 2256 kJ/kg.
(18.4.6)
When the phase change is from solid to liquid (then the sample must absorb heat) or from liquid to solid (then the sample must release heat), the heat of transfor- mation is called the heat of fusion L F. For water at its normal freezing or melting temperature, L F = 79.5 cal/g = 6.01 kJ/mol = 333 kJ/kg.
(18.4.7)
Table 18.4.2 shows the heats of transformation for some substances. Table 18.4.2 Some Heats of Transformation
Melting
Boiling
Substance
Melting Point (K)
Heat of Fusion L F (kJ/kg)
Boiling Point (K)
Heat of Vaporization L V (kJ/kg)
Hydrogen Oxygen Mercury Water Lead Silver Copper
14.0 54.8 234 273 601 1235 1356
58.0 13.9 11.4 333 23.2 105 207
20.3 90.2 630 373 2017 2323 2868
455 213 296 2256 858 2336 4730
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18.4 ABSORP T ION OF HEAT
Sample Problem 18.4.1
Hot slug in water, coming to equilibrium
A copper slug whose mass m c is 75 g is heated in a labora- tory oven to a temperature T of 312°C. The slug is then dropped into a glass beaker containing a mass m w = 220 g of water. The heat capacity C b of the beaker is 45 cal/K. The initial temperature T i of the water and the beaker is 12°C. Assuming that the slug, beaker, and water are an isolated system and the water does not vaporize, find the final temperature T f of the system a t thermal equilibrium.
KEY IDEAS (1) Because the system is isolated, the system’s total energy cannot change and only internal transfers of thermal energy can occur. (2) Because nothing in the system under- goes a phase change, the thermal energy transfers can only change the temperatures. To relate the transfers to the temperature changes, we can use Eqs. 18.4.2 a nd 18.4.3 to write for the water: Q w = c w m w(T (18.4.8) f − T i ); for the beaker: Q b = C b(T − T ); (18.4.9) f i for the copper: Q c = c cm (18.4.10) c(T f − T ).
Temperatures a re contained in Eq. 18.4.12 only as differ- ences. Thus, because the differences on the Celsius and Kelvin scales are identical, we can use either of those scales in this equation. Solving it for T f , we obtain c cm cT + C bT i + c wm wT i T f = _____________________ . c wm w + C b + c cm c Using Celsius temperatures and taking values for c c and c w from Table 18.4.1, we find the numerator to be (0.0923 cal/g · K)(75 g)(312°C) + (45 cal/K)(12°C) + (1.00 cal/g · K)(220 g)(12°C) = 5339.8 cal, and the denominator to be (1.00 cal/g · K)(220 g ) + 45 cal/K + (0.0923 cal/g · K)(75 g) = 271.9 cal/C°.
Calculations:
Because the total energy of the system c annot change, the sum of these three energy transfers is zero: Q w + Q b + Q c = 0.
(18.4.11)
Substituting Eqs. 18.4.8 through 18.4.10 into Eq. 18.4.11 yields c wm w(T f − T i) + C b(T f − T i) + c cm c(T f − T ) = 0. (18.4.12)
Sample Problem 18.4.2
We then have 5339.8 cal = 19.6° C ≈ 20° C. T f = ___________ 271.9 cal / C°
(Answer)
From the given data you can show that Q w ≈ 1670 cal,
Q b ≈ 342 cal,
Q c ≈ −2020 cal.
Apart from rounding errors, the algebraic sum of these three heat transfers is indeed zero, as required by the con- servation of energy (Eq. 18.4.11).
Heat to change temperature and state
(a) How much heat must be absorbed by ice of mass m = 720 g at −10°C to take it to the liquid state at 15°C?
KEY IDEAS The heating process is accomplished in three steps: (1) The ice cannot melt at a temperature below the freezing point — so initially, any energy transferred to the ice as heat can only increase the temperature of the ice, until 0°C is reached. (2) The temperature then cannot increase until all the ice melts — so any energy transferred to the ice as heat now can only change ice to liquid water, until all the ice melts. (3) Now the energy transferred to the liquid water as heat can only increase the temperature of the liquid water. The heat Q 1 needed to take the ice from the initial T i = −10°C to the final T f = 0°C (so that the ice can then melt) is given by Eq. 18.4.3 (Q = cm ∆T ). Using the specific heat of ice c ice in Table 18.4.1 g ives us Warming the ice:
555
Q 1 = c ice m(T f − T i ) = (2220 J /kg · K)(0.720 kg)[0°C − (−10°C)] = 15 984 J ≈ 15.98 kJ. The heat Q 2 needed to melt all the ice is given by Eq. 18.4.5 (Q = Lm). Here L is the heat of fusion L F, with the value given in Eq. 18.4.7 and Table 18.4.2. We find Melting the ice:
Q 2 = L F m = (333 kJ/kg)(0.720 kg) ≈ 239.8 kJ. The heat Q 3 needed to increase the temperature of the water from the initial value T i = 0°C to the final value T f = 15°C is given by Eq. 18.4.3 (with the specific heat of liquid water c liq ): Warming the liquid:
Q 3 = c liq m(T f − T i ) = (4186.8 J /kg · K)(0.720 kg)(15°C − 0°C) = 45 217 J ≈ 45.22 kJ.
/
556
C HAP T ER 18 T EMP ERAT U RE, HEAT , AND T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
The total required heat Q tot is the sum of the amounts required in the three steps: Q tot = Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 3 = 15.98 kJ + 239.8 kJ + 45.22 kJ ≈ 300 kJ. (Answer) Total:
Note that most of the energy goes into melting the ice rather than raising the temperature.
194 kJ. From step 2, we can see that this amount of heat is insufficient to melt all the ice. Because the melting of the ice is incomplete, we must end up with a mixture of ice and liquid; the temperature of the mixture must be the freezing point, 0°C. We can find the mass m of ice that is melted by the available energy Q rem by using Eq. 18.4.5 with L F : Calculations:
(b) If we supply the ice with a total energy of only 210 kJ (as heat), what are the final state and temperature of the water?
KEY IDEA From step 1, we know that 15.98 kJ is needed to raise the temperature of the ice to the melting point. The remaining heat Q rem is then 210 kJ − 15.98 kJ, or about
Q rem _________ m = _____ = 194 kJ = 0.583 kg ≈ 580 g. L F 333 kJ / kg Thus, the mass of the ice that remains is 720 g − 580 g, or 140 g, a nd we have 580 g water and 140 g ice, at 0°C.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
18.5 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
18.5.1 If an enclosed gas expands or contracts, cal- culate the work
18.5.6 Identify the algebraic sign of a heat transfer
W done by the gas by integrating
Q that is associated with a transfer to a gas and a
the gas pressure with respect to the volume of the enclosure.
transfer from the gas.
∆E int of a gas
18.5.7 Identify that the internal energy
18.5.2 Identify the algebraic sign of work
W associated
tends to increase if the heat transfer is to the gas,
with expansion and contraction of a gas.
and it tends to decrease if the gas does work on its
p-V graph of pressure versus volume for
18.5.3 Given a
a process, identify the starting point (the initial state)
environment. 18.5.8 Identify that in an adiabatic process with a gas,
Q with the environment.
and the final point (the final state) and calculate the work by using graphical integration.
there is no heat transfer
18.5.9 Identify that in a constant-volume process with
p-V graph of pressure versus volume for a
W done by the gas.
18.5.4 On a
gas, identify the algebraic sign of the work associated
a gas, there is no work
18.5.10 Identify that in a cyclical process with a gas,
∆E int .
with a right-going process and a left-going process. 18.5.5 Apply the first law of thermodynamics to relate
there is no net change in the internal energy
18.5.11 Identify that in a free expansion with a gas, the
∆E int of a gas, the Q transferred as heat to or from the gas, and the work W done on or by the gas.
Q , work done W, and change in inter- ∆E int are each zero.
the change in the internal energy
heat transfer
energy
nal energy
Key Ideas ●
A gas may exchange energy with its surroundings
W done by a gas as it expands or contracts from an initial volume V i to a final volume V f is given by through work. The amount of work
p
The integration is necessary because the pressure may vary during the volume change. ●
The principle of conservation of energy for a thermo-
dynamic process is expressed in the first law of ther- modynamics, which may assume either of the forms
∆E int = E int, f − E int, i = Q − W
v f
W = dW = p dV. v i
or
dE int = dQ − dW
(first law)
(first law).
/
18.5 T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
E int represents the internal energy of the material, which
●
depends only on the material’s state (temperature, pres-
independent.
Q represents the energy exchanged Q is
sure, and volume).
as heat between the system and its surroundings;
positive if the system absorbs heat and negative if the system loses heat.
W is the work done by the system;
W is positive if the system expands against an external force from the surroundings and negative if the system
●
557
Q and W are path dependent; ∆E int is path The first law of thermodynamics finds application in
several special cases:
adiabatic processes:
Q = 0, ∆E int = −W
constant-volume processes:
W = 0, ∆E int = Q
cyclical processes:
∆E int = 0, Q = W
free expansions:
Q = W = ∆E int = 0
contracts because of an external force.
A Closer Look at Heat and Work
Here we look in some detail at how energy can be transferred as heat and work between a system a nd its environment. Let us take as our system a gas confined to a cylinder with a movable piston, as in Fig. 18.5.1. The upward force on the piston due to the pressure of the confined gas is equal to the weight of lead shot loaded onto the top of the piston. The walls of the cylinder are made of insulating mate- rial that does not allow any transfer of energy a s heat. The bottom of the cylinder rests on a reservoir for thermal energy, a thermal reservoir (perhaps a hot plate) whose temperature T you can control by turning a knob. The system (the gas) starts from an initial state i, described by a pressure p i, a volume V i, and a temperature T i. You want to change the system to a final state f, described by a pressure p f, a volume V f, and a temperature T f. The proce- dure by which you change the system from its initial state to its final state is called a thermodynamic process. During such a process, energy may be transferred into the system from the thermal reservoir (positive heat) or vice versa (negative heat). Also, work can be done by the system to raise the loaded piston (positive work) or lower it (negative work). We assume that all such changes occur slowly, with the result that the system is always in (approximate) thermal equilibrium (every part is always in thermal equilibrium). Suppose that you remove a few lead shot from the piston of Fig. 18.5.1, allowing the gas to push the piston and remaining shot upward through a differential displacement d s with an upward force F . Since the displace- ment is tiny, we can assume that F is constant during the displacement. Then F has a magnitude that is equal to pA, where p is the pressure of the gas and A is the face area of the piston. The differential work dW done by the gas during the displacement is →
→
→
→
→
dW = F · d s = (pA)(ds) = p(A ds) →
= p dV,
W
(18.5.1)
in which dV is the differential change in the volume of the gas due to the movement of the piston. When you have removed enough shot to allow the gas to change its volume from V i to V f, the total work done by the gas is V f
W = dW = p dV . V i
(18.5.2)
During the volume change, the pressure and temperature m ay also change. To evaluate Eq. 18.5.2 directly, we would need to know how pressure var- ies with volume for the actual process by which the system changes from state i to state f. One Path. There are actually many ways to take the gas from state i to state f. One way is shown in Fig. 18.5.2a, which is a plot of the pressure
Steam
Insulatio n
Liquid water
Q
Thermal reservoir
T
Control knob
A gas is confined to a cyl- inder with a movable piston. Heat Q can be added to or withdrawn from the gas by regulating the temperature T of the adjustable thermal reservoir. Work W can be done by the gas by raising or lowering the piston. Figure 18.5.1
/
558
C HAP T ER 18 T EMP ERAT U RE, HEAT , AND T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
A
It still goes from i to f, but now it does more work.
Gas moves from i to f, doing positive work.
i
a
W W
(a ) 0
>0
f
(b ) 0
We can control how much work it does.
f
(c ) 0
Volume
>0
f
Volume
Cycling clockwise yields a positive net work.
Moving from f to i, it does negative work.
h
erusserP
erusserP
erusserP
i
i
f W
d
c
(d ) 0
i
W
Volume
g
>0
erusserP
Process
erusserP
erusserP
i
It still goes from i to f, but now it does less work.
Volume
(e ) 0
0
f
(f ) 0
Volume
(a) The shaded area represents the work W done by a system as it goes from an initial state i to a final state f . Work W is positive because the system’s volume increases. (b) W is still positive, but now greater. (c) W is still positive, but now smaller. (d) W can be even smaller (path icdf ) or larger (path ighf ). (e) Here the system goes from state f to state i as the gas is compressed to less volume by an external force. The work W done by the system is now negative. ( f ) The net work W net done by the system during a complete cycle is represented by the shaded area. Figure 18.5.2
of the gas versus its volume and which is called a p-V diagram. In Fig. 18.5.2a, the curve indicates that the pressure decreases a s the volume increases. The integral in Eq. 18.5.2 (and thus the work W done by the gas) is represented by the shaded area under the curve between points i and f. Regardless of what exactly we do to take the gas along the curve, that work is positive, due to the fact that the gas increases its volume by forcing the piston upward. Another Path. Another way to get from state i to state f is shown in Fig. 18.5.2b. There the change takes place in two steps—the first from state i to state a, and the second from state a to state f. Step ia of this process is carried out at constant pressure, which means that you leave undisturbed the lead shot that ride on top of the piston in Fig. 18.5.1. You cause the volume to increase (from V i to V f ) by slowly turning up the temperature control knob, raising the temperature of the gas to some higher value T a. (Increasing the temperature increases the force from the gas on the piston, moving it upward.) During this step, positive work is done by the expand- ing gas (to lift the loaded piston) and heat is absorbed by the system from the thermal reservoir (in response to the arbitrarily small temperature differences that you create as you turn up the temperature). This heat is positive because it is added to the system. Step af of the process of Fig. 18.5.2b is carried out at constant volume, so you must wedge the piston, preventing it from moving. Then as you use the control
/
18.5 T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
559
knob to decrease the temperature, you find that the pressure drops from p a to its final value p f. During this step, heat is lost by the system to the thermal reservoir. For the overall process iaf, the work W, which is positive and is carried out only during step ia, is represented by the shaded area under the curve. Energy is transferred as heat during both steps ia and af, with a net energy transfer Q. Reversed Steps. Figure 18.5.2c shows a process in which the previous two steps are carried out in reverse order. The work W in this case is smaller than for Fig. 18.5.2b, as is the net heat absorbed. Figure 18.5.2d suggests that you can make the work done by the gas as small as you want (by following a path like icdf ) or as large as you want (by following a path like ighf ). To sum up: A system can be taken from a given initial state to a given final state by an infinite number of processes. Heat may or may not be involved, and in general, the work W and the heat Q will have different values for different processes. We say that heat and work are path-dependent quantities. Negative Work. Figure 18.5.2e shows an example in which negative work is done by a system as some external force compresses the system, reducing its vol- ume. The absolute value of the work done is still equal to the area beneath the curve, but because the gas is compressed, the work done by the gas is negative. Cycle. Figure 18.5.2f shows a thermodynamic cycle in which the system is taken from some initial state i to some other state f and then back to i. The net work done by the system during the cycle is the sum of the positive work done during the expansion and the negative work done during the compression. In Fig. 18.5.2f, the net work is positive because the area under the expansion curve (i to f ) is greater than the area under the compression curve ( f to i). Checkpoint 18.5.1
p
The p-V diagram here shows six curved paths (connected by vertical paths) that can be followed by a gas. Which two of the curved paths should be part of a closed cycle (those curved paths plus connecting vertical paths) if the net work done by the gas during the cycle is to be at its maximum positive value?
b
d
f
a
c
e
V
The First Law of Thermodynamics
You have just seen that when a system changes from a given initial state to a given final state, both the work W and the heat Q depend on the nature of the process. Experimentally, however, we find a surprising thing. The quantity Q − W is the same for all processes. It depends only on the initial and final states and does not depend at all on how the system gets from one to the other. All other combinations of Q and W, including Q alone, W alone, Q + W, and Q − 2W, are path dependent; only the quantity Q − W is not. The quantity Q − W must represent a change in some intrinsic property of the system. We call this property the internal energy E int and we write ∆E int = E int,f − E int,i = Q − W
(first law).
(18.5.3)
Equation 18.5.3 is the first law of thermodynamics. If the thermodynamic system undergoes only a differential change, we can write the first law as* dE int = dQ − dW
(first law).
(18.5.4)
*Here dQ and dW, unlike dE int , are not true differentials; that is, there are no such functions as Q( p, V ) and W( p, V ) that depend only on the state of the system. The quantities dQ and dW are called inexact differentials and are usually represented by the symbols d¯Q and d¯W. For our purposes, we can treat them simply as infinitesimally small energy transfers.
/
560
C HAP T ER 18 T EMP ERAT U RE, HEAT , AND T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
The internal energy E int of a system tends to increase if energy is added as heat Q and tends to decrease if energy is lost as work W done by the system.
In Chapter 8, we discussed the principle of energy conservation as it applies to isolated systems—that is, to systems in which no energy enters or leaves the system. The first law of thermodynamics is an extension of that principle to systems that are not isolated. In such cases, e nergy m ay be transferred into or out of the system as either work W or heat Q. In our statement of the first law of ther- modynamics above, we assume that there are no changes in the kinetic energy or the potential energy of the system a s a whole; that is, ∆K = ∆U = 0. Rules. Before this chapter, the term work and the symbol W always meant the work done on a system. However, starting with Eq. 18.5.1 and continuing through the next two chapters about thermodynamics, we focus on the work done by a system, such as the gas in Fig. 18.5.1. The work done on a system is always the negative of the work done by the system, so if we rewrite Eq. 18.5.3 in terms of the work W on done on the system, we have ∆E int = Q + W on . This tells us the following: The internal energy of a system tends to increase if heat is absorbed by the system or if positive work is done on the system. Conversely, the internal energy tends to decrease if heat is lost by the system or if negative work is done on the system.
p
Checkpoint 18.5.2
The figure here shows four paths on a p-V diagram along which a gas can be taken from state i to state f. Rank the paths according to (a) the change ∆E int in the internal energy of the gas, (b) the work W done by the gas, and (c) the magnitude of the energy trans- ferred as heat Q between the gas and its environ- ment, greatest first.
4 3
i
2 1
f
V
Some Special Cases of the First Law of Thermodynamics
Here are four thermodynamic processes as summarized in Table 18.5.1. 1. Adiabatic processes. An adiabatic process is one that occurs so rapidly or occurs in a system that is so well insulated that no transfer of energy as heat occurs between the system and its environment. Putting Q = 0 in the first law (Eq. 18.5.3) y ields ∆E int = −W
(18.5.5)
(adiabatic process).
Table 18.5.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics: Four Special Cases
The Law: ∆E int = Q − W (Eq. 18.5.3) Process Adiabatic Constant volume Closed cycle Free expansion
Restriction
Consequence
Q = 0 W = 0 ∆E int = 0 Q = W = 0
∆E int = −W ∆E int = Q Q = W ∆E int = 0
/
18.5 T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
This tells us that if work is done by the system (that is, if W is positive), the internal energy of the system decreases by the amount of work. Con- versely, if work is done on the system (that is, if W is negative), the inter- nal energy of the system increases by that amount. Figure 18.5.3 shows an idealized adiabatic process. Heat cannot enter or leave the system because of the insulation. Thus, the only way energy can be transferred between the system and its environment is by work. If we remove shot from the piston and allow the gas to expand, the work done by the system (the gas) is positive and the internal energy of the gas decreases. If, instead, we add shot and compress the gas, the work done by the system is negative a nd the internal energy of the gas increases.
561
We slowly remove lead shot, allowing an expansion without any heat transfer. Lead shot
W
2. Constant-volume processes. If the volume of a system (such as a gas) is held constant, that system can do no work. Putting W = 0 in the first law (Eq. 18.5.3) y ields ∆E int = Q
(18.5.6)
(constant-volume process).
Thus, if heat is absorbed by a system (that is, if Q is positive), the internal energy of the system increases. Conversely, if heat is lost during the process (that is, if Q is negative), the internal energy of the system m ust decrease.
Insulation
3. Cyclical processes. There are processes in which, after certain inter- changes of heat and work, the system is restored to its initial state. In that case, no intrinsic property of the system—including its internal energy— can possibly change. Putting ∆E int = 0 in the first law (Eq. 18.5.3) y ields Q = W
An adiabatic expansion can be carried out by slowly removing lead shot from the top of the piston. Adding lead shot reverses the process at any stage. Figure 18.5.3
(18.5.7)
(cyclical process).
Thus, the net work done during the process must exactly equal the net amount of energy transferred a s heat; the store of internal energy of the system remains unchanged. Cyclical processes form a closed loop on a p-V plot, as shown in Fig. 18.5.2f. We discuss such processes in detail in Chapter 20. 4. Free expansions. These are adiabatic processes in which no transfer of heat occurs between the system and its environment and no work is done on or by the system. Thus, Q = W = 0, and the first law requires that ∆E int = 0
(18.5.8)
(free expansion).
Figure 18.5.4 shows how such an expansion can be carried out. A gas, which is in thermal equilibrium within itself, is initially confined by a closed stopcock to one half of an insulated double chamber; the other half is evacuated. The stop- cock is opened, and the gas expands freely to fill both halves of the chamber. No heat is transferred to or from the gas because of the insulation. No work is done by the gas because it rushes into a vacuum and thus does not meet any pressure. A free expansion differs from all other processes we have considered because it cannot be done slowly and in a controlled way. As a result, at any given instant during the sudden expansion, the gas is not in thermal equilib- rium and its pressure is not uniform. Thus, although we can plot the initial and final states on a p-V diagram, we cannot plot the expansion itself.
Checkpoint 18.5.3
Stopcock
Vacuum
Insulation
The initial stage of a free-expansion process. After the stopcock is opened, the gas fills both chambers and eventually reaches an equilibrium state. Figure 18.5.4
p
For one complete cycle as shown in the p-V diagram here, are (a) ∆E int for the gas and (b) the net energy transferred as heat Q positive, negative, or zero? V
/
562
C HAP T ER 18 T EMP ERAT U RE, HEAT , AND T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
Sample Problem 18.5.1
First law of thermodynamics: work, heat, internal energy change
Let 1.00 kg of liquid water at 100°C be converted to steam at 100°C by boiling at standard atmospheric pressure (which is 1.00 atm or 1.01 × 10 5 Pa) in the arrangement of Fig. 18.5.5. The volume of that water changes from an ini- tial value of 1.00 × 10 −3 m 3 as a liquid to 1.671 m 3 as steam. (a) How much work is done by the system during this process?
KEY IDEA The change in the system’s internal energy is related to the heat (here, this is energy transferred into the system) and the work (here, this is energy transferred out of the system) by the first law of thermodynamics (Eq. 18.5.3). Calculation:
∆E int = Q − W = 2256 kJ − 169 kJ
KEY IDEAS (1) The system must do positive work because the volume increases. (2) We calculate the work W done by integrat- ing the pressure with respect to the volume (Eq. 18.5.2). Because here the pressure is constant at 1.01 × 10 5 Pa, we can take p outside the integral. Thus, Calculation:
V f
V f
W = p dV = p dV = p( V f − V i) V i
We write the first law as
5
V i
−3
≈ 2090 kJ = 2.09 MJ.
(Answer)
This quantity is positive, indicating that the internal energy of the system has increased during the boiling process. The added energy goes into separating the H 2O molecules, which strongly attract one another in the liq- uid state. We see that, when water is boiled, about 7.5% (= 169 kJ/2260 kJ) of the heat goes into the work of push- ing back the atmosphere. The rest of the heat goes into the internal energy of the system.
= (1.01 × 10 Pa)(1.671 m 3 − 1.00 × 10 m 3 ) = 1.69 × 10 5 J = 169 kJ.
(Answer) Lead shot
(b) How much energy is transferred as heat during the process?
KEY IDEA
W
Because the heat causes only a phase change and not a change in temperature, it is given fully by Eq. 18.4.5 (Q = Lm).
Steam
Because the change is from liquid to gaseous phase, L is the heat of vaporization L V, with the value given in Eq. 18.4.6 and Table 18.4.2. We find
Liquid water
Calculation:
Q
Thermal reservoir
Q = L V m = (2256 kJ/kg)(1.00 kg) = 2256 kJ ≈ 2260 kJ.
(Answer)
(c) What is the change in the system’s internal energy dur- ing the process?
Insulation
T
Control knob
Water boiling at constant pressure. Energy is transferred from the thermal reservoir as heat until the liquid water has changed completely into steam. Work is done by the expanding gas as it lifts the loaded piston. Figure 18.5.5
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
18.6 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
18.6.1 For thermal conduction through a layer, apply the relationship between the energy-transfer rate
P cond and the layer’s area A, thermal conductiv- ity k , thickness L , and temperature difference ∆T (between its two sides).
18.6.2 For a composite slab (two or more layers) that has reached the steady state in which temperatures are no longer changing, identify that (by the con- servation of energy) the rates of thermal conduction
P cond through the layers must be equal.
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18.6 HEAT T RANSF ER MEC HANISMS
ε
18.6.3 For thermal conduction through a layer, apply
L, and thermal conductivity k.
ness
by convection, in which a warmer fluid (gas or liquid) tends to rise in a cooler fluid. 18.6.5 In the em issio n of thermal radiation by an
(in kelv ins ). 18.6.6 In the absorption of thermal radiation by an object, apply the relationship between the energy-transfer rate
P abs and the object’s surface area A and emissivity ε, and the environmental temperature T (in kelvins). 18.6.7 Calculate the net energy-transfer rate P net of
object, apply the relations hip between the energ y - trans fer rate
T
emis s iv ity , and surface temperature
R, thick-
the relationship between thermal resistance
18.6.4 Identify that thermal energy can be transferred
563
an object emitting radiation to its environment and
P rad and the object’s s urface area A,
absorbing radiation from that environment.
Key Ideas ●
P cond at which energy is conducted through
The rate
a slab for which one face is maintained at the higher
T H and the other face is maintained at the lower temperature T C is temperature
Q T H − T C P cond = __ = kA ________ . t L Here each face of the slab has area
A, the length of the L, and k is the
●
Radiation is an energy transfer via the emission of
P rad at which an
electromagnetic energy. The rate
object emits energy via thermal radiation is
P rad = σε AT 4 ,
σ (= 5.6704 × 10 −8 W/m 2 · K 4 ) is the Stefan – Boltzmann constant, ε is the emissivity of the object’s where
surface,
A is its surface area, and T is its surface temper- P abs at which an object absorbs
slab (the distance between the faces) is
ature (in kelvins). The rate
thermal conductivity of the material.
energy via thermal radiation from its environment, which
● Convection occurs when temperature differences
T env (in kelvins), is
is at the uniform temperature
P abs = σεAT 4 env .
cause an energy transfer by motion within a fluid.
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
We have discussed the transfer of energy as heat between a system and its environment, but we have not yet described how that transfer takes place. There are three transfer mechanisms: conduction, convection, and radiation. Let’s next examine these mechanisms in turn. Conduction
If you leave the end of a metal poker in a fire for enough time, its handle will get hot. Energy is transferred from the fire to the handle by (thermal) conduction along the length of the poker. The vibration amplitudes of the atoms and elec- trons of the metal at the fire end of the poker become relatively large because of the high temperature of their environment. These increased vibrational ampli- tudes, and thus the associated energy, are passed along the poker, from atom to atom, during collisions between adjacent atoms. In this way, a region of rising temperature extends itself along the poker to the handle. Consider a slab of face area A and thickness L, whose faces are maintained at temperatures T H and T C by a hot reservoir and a cold reservoir, as in Fig. 18.6.1. Let Q be the energy that is transferred as heat through the slab, from its hot face to its cold face, in time t. Experiment shows that the conduction rate P cond (the amount of energy transferred per unit time) is T Q H − T C _________ P cond = ___ t = kA L ,
We assume a steady transfer of energy as heat. L
Hot reservoir at TH
k
Cold reservoir at TC
Q
(18.6.1)
in which k, called the thermal conductivity, is a constant that depends on the material of which the slab is made. A material that readily transfers energy by conduction is a good thermal conductor and has a high value of k. Table 18.6.1 gives the thermal conductivities of some common metals, gases, and building materials.
TH
> TC
Thermal conduction. Energy is transferred as heat from a reservoir at temperature T H to a cooler reservoir at temperature T C through a conducting slab of thick- ness L and thermal conductivity k. Figure 18.6.1
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C HAP T ER 18 T EMP ERAT U RE, HEAT , AND T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
Table 18.6.1 Some Thermal
Thermal Resistance to Conduction (R-Value)
Conductivities
If you are interested in insulating your house or in keeping cola cans cold on a picnic, you are more concerned with poor heat conductors than with good ones. For this reason, the concept of thermal resistance R has been introduced into engineering practice. The R-value of a slab of thickness L is defined as L . R = __ (18.6.2) k The lower the thermal conductivity of the material of which a slab is made, the higher the R-value of the slab; so something that has a high R-value is a poor thermal conductor and thus a good thermal insulator. Note that R is a property attributed to a slab of a specified thickness, not to a material. The commonly used unit for R (which, in the United States at least, is almost never stated) is the square foot–Fahrenheit degree–hour per British ther- mal unit (ft 2 · F° · h/Btu). (Now you know why the unit is rarely stated.)
Substance Metals Stainless steel Lead Iron Brass Aluminum Copper Silver
k (W/m · K) 14 35 67 109 235 401 428
Gases Air (dry) Helium Hydrogen
0.026 0.15 0.18
Building Materials Polyurethane foam Rock wool Fiberglass White pine Window glass
0.024 0.043 0.048 0.11 1.0
Conduction Through a Composite Slab
Figure 18.6.2 shows a composite slab, consisting of two materials having different thicknesses L 1 and L 2 and different thermal conductivities k 1 and k 2 . The tem- peratures of the outer surfaces of the slab are T H and T C. Each face of the slab has area A. Let us derive an expression for the conduction rate through the slab under the assumption that the transfer is a steady-state process; that is, the temperatures everywhere in the slab and the rate of energy transfer do not change with time. In the steady state, the conduction rates through the two materials must be equal. This is the same as saying that the energy transferred through one material in a certain time must be equal to that transferred through the other material in the same time. If this were not true, temperatures in the slab would be changing and we would not have a steady-state situation. Letting T X be the temperature of the interface between the two materials, we can now use Eq. 18.6.1 to write k 2A k 1A (T H − T X) (T X − T C) P cond = _______________ = _______________ . L 2 L 1
(18.6.3)
Solving Eq. 18.6.3 for T X yields, after a little algebra, k 1 L 2 T C + k 2L 1 T H T X = ___________________ . k 1L + k 2 2L 1
(18.6.4)
Substituting this expression for T X into either equality of Eq. 18.6.3 y ields
Hot reservoir at TH
L2
L1
k2
k1
A( T H − T C) P cond = _______________ . L 1 / k 1 + L 2 / k 2 Cold reservoir at TC
Q
(18.6.5)
We can extend Eq. 18.6.5 to apply to any number n of materials m aking up a slab: A(T H − T C) P cond = _____________ . (18.6.6) ∑(L/ k) The summation sign in the denominator tells us to add the values of L/k for all the materials.
TX
The energy transfer per second here ...
... equals the energy transfer per second here.
Heat is transferred at a steady rate through a composite slab made up of two different materials with different thick- nesses and different thermal conductivities. The steady-state temperature at the interface of the two materials is T X . Figure 18.6.2
Checkpoint 18.6.1
The figure shows the face and interface temperatures of a composite slab consisting of four materials, of identical thicknesses, through which the heat transfer is steady. Rank the materials according to their thermal conductivi- ties, greatest first. 25°C
15°C
10 °C
a
b
–5.0 °C c
–10°C d
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18.6 HEAT T RANSF ER MEC HANISMS
565
Convection
When you look at the flame of a candle or a match, you are watching thermal energy being transported upward by convection. Such energy transfer occurs when a fluid, such as air or water, comes in contact with an object whose tem- perature is higher than that of the fluid. The temperature of the part of the fluid that is in contact with the hot object increases, and (in most cases) that fluid expands and thus becomes less dense. Because this expanded fluid is now lighter than the surrounding cooler fluid, buoyant forces cause it to rise. Some of the surrounding cooler fluid then flows so as to take the place of the rising warmer fluid, and the process can then continue. Convection is part of many natural processes. Atmospheric convection plays a fundamental role in determining global climate patterns and daily weather variations. Glider pilots and birds alike seek rising thermals (convection currents of warm air) that keep them aloft. Huge energy transfers take place within the oceans by the same process. Finally, energy is transported to the surface of the Sun from the nuclear fur- nace at its core by enormous cells of convection, in which hot gas rises to the surface along the cell core and cooler gas around the core descends below the surface. Radiation
The third method by which an object and its environment can exchange energy as heat is via electromagnetic waves (visible light is one kind of electromagnetic wave). Energy transferred in this way is often called thermal radiation to distin- guish it from electromagnetic signals (as in, say, television broadcasts) and from nuclear radiation (energy and particles emitted by nuclei). (To “radiate” gener- ally means to emit.) When you stand in front of a big fire, you are warmed by absorbing thermal radiation from the fire; that is, your thermal energy increases as the fire’s thermal energy decreases. No medium is required for heat transfer via radiation—the radiation can travel through vacuum from, say, the Sun to you. The rate P rad at which an object emits energy via electromagnetic radiation depends on the object’s surface area A and the temperature T of that area in kelvins and is given by P rad = σεAT 4 .
Edward Kinsman/Science Source
A false-color thermo- gram reveals the rate at which energy is radiated by a cat. The rate is color- coded, with white and red indicating the greatest radiation rate. The nose is cool. Figure 18.6.3
(18.6.7)
Here σ = 5.6704 × 10 −8 W/m 2 · K4 is called the Stefan–Boltzmann constant after Josef Stefan (who discovered Eq. 18.6.7 experimentally in 1879) and Ludwig Boltzmann (who derived it theoretically soon after). The symbol ε represents the emissivity of the object’s surface, which has a value between 0 and 1, depending on the compo- sition of the surface. A surface with the maximum emissivity of 1.0 is said to be a blackbody radiator, but such a surface is an ideal limit and does not occur in nature. Note again that the temperature in Eq. 18.6.7 must be in kelvins so that a tempera- ture of absolute zero corresponds to no radiation. Note also that every object whose temperature is above 0 K—including you—emits thermal radiation. (See Fig. 18.6.3.) The rate P abs at which an object absorbs energy via thermal radiation from its environment, which we take to be at uniform temperature T env (in kelvins), is P abs = σε AT 4 env .
(18.6.8)
The emissivity ε in Eq. 18.6.8 is the same as that in Eq. 18.6.7. A n idealized black- body radiator, with ε = 1, will absorb all the radiated energy it intercepts (rather than sending a portion back away from itself through reflection or scattering). Because an object both emits and absorbs thermal radiation, its net rate P net of energy e xchange due to thermal radiation is P net = P abs − P rad = σεA(T 4 env − T 4 ).
(18.6.9)
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C HAP T ER 18 T EMP ERAT U RE, HEAT , AND T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
David A. Northcott/Getty Images
A rattlesnake’s face has thermal radiation detectors, allowing the snake to strike at an animal even in complete darkness. Figure 18.6.4
Sample Problem 18.6.1
P net is positive if net energy is being absorbed via radiation and nega- tive if it is being lost via radiation. Thermal radiation is involved in the numerous medical cases of a dead rattlesnake striking a hand reaching toward it. Pits between each eye and nostril of a rattlesnake (Fig. 18.6.4) serve as sensors of thermal radiation. When, say, a mouse moves close to a rattle- snake’s head, the thermal radiation from the mouse triggers these sensors, causing a reflex action in which the snake strikes the mouse with its fangs and injects its venom. The thermal radiation from a reaching hand can cause the same reflex action even if the snake has been dead for as long as 30 min because the snake’s nervous system continues to function. As one snake expert advised, if you must remove a recently killed rattlesnake, use a long stick rather FCP than your hand.
Thermal conduction through a layered wall
Figure 18.6.5 shows the cross section of a wall made of white pine of thickness L a and brick of thickness L d (= 2.0L a ), sandwiching two layers of unknown mate- rial with identical thicknesses and thermal conductivi- ties. The thermal conductivity of the pine is k a and that of the brick is k d (= 5.0k a ). The face area A of the wall is unknown. Thermal conduction through the wall has reached the steady state; the only known interface tem- peratures are T 1 = 25°C, T 2 = 20°C, and T 5 = −10°C. What is interface temperature T 4?
KEY IDEAS (1) Temperature T 4 helps determine the rate P d at which energy is conducted through the brick, as given by Eq. 18.6.1. H owever, we lack enough data to solve Eq. 18.6.1 for T 4. (2) Because the conduction is steady, the conduc- tion rate P d through the brick must equal the conduction rate P a through the pine. That gets us going. Calculations:
write
From Eq. 18.6.1 and Fig. 18.6.5, we can
T 1 − T 2 T 4 − T 5 _______ P a = k aA and P d = k d A _______ . L a L d T1
Indoors
T2
T3
T4
T5
ka
kb
kc
kd
La
Lb
Lc
Ld
(b )
(c )
(a ) Figure 18.6.5
(d )
Setting P a = P d and solving for T 4 yield k a L d (T 1 − T 2) T 4 = _____ + T 5 . k dL a
Outdoors
The energy transfer per second is the same in each layer.
Steady-state heat transfer through a wall.
Letting L d = 2.0L a and k d = 5.0k a , and inserting the known temperatures, we find k a ( 2.0 La ) (25° C − 20° C) + (−10° C ) T 4 = _________ (5.0k a ) L a = −8.0° C.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Sample Problem 18.6.2
Making ice by radiating to the sky
During an extended wilderness hike, you have a ter- rific craving for ice. Unfortunately, the air temperature drops to only 6.0°C each night—too high to freeze water. However, because a clear, moonless night sky acts like a blackbody radiator at a temperature of T s = −23°C, perhaps you can make ice by letting a shallow layer of
water radiate energy to such a sky. To start, y ou thermally insulate a container from the ground by placing a poorly conducting layer of, say, foam rubber, bubble wrap, Sty- rofoam peanuts, or straw beneath it. Then you pour water into the container, forming a thin, uniform layer with mass m = 4.5 g, top surface A = 9.0 cm 2 , depth d = 5.0 mm,
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REV IEW & SU MMARY
emissivity ε = 0.90, and initial temperature 6 .0°C. Find the time required for the water to freeze via radiation. Can the freezing be accomplished during one night?
The total required energy loss is thus Q tot = Q 1 + Q 2 = −113 J − 1499 J = −1612 J. While the water loses energy by radiating to the sky, it also absorbs energy radiated to it from the sky. In a total time t, we want the net energy of this exchange to be the energy loss Q tot ; so we want the power of this exchange to be net energy Q tot power = __________ = ____ (18.6.10) t . time Radiation:
KEY IDEAS (1) The water cannot freeze at a temperature above the freezing point. Therefore, the radiation must first remove an amount of energy Q 1 to reduce the water temperature from 6.0°C to the freezing point of 0°C. (2) The radia- tion then must remove an additional amount of energy Q 2 to freeze all the water. (3) Throughout this process, the water is also absorbing energy radiated to it from the sky. We want a net loss of energy. Using Eq. 18.4.3 and Table 18.4.1, we find that cooling the water to 0°C requires an energy loss of Cooling the water:
Q 1 = cm( T f − T i ) = (4190 J/kg ⋅ K)(4.5 × 10 −3 kg)(0° C − 6.0° C) = −113 J. Thus, 113 J must be radiated away by the water to drop its temperature to the freezing point. Using Eq. 18.4.5 (Q = mL) with the value of L being L F from Eq. 18.4.7 or Table 18.4.2, and inserting a minus sign to indicate an energy loss, we find Freezing the water:
Q 2 = −mL F = −(4.5 × 10 −3 kg)(3.33 × 10 5 J/kg) = −1499 J.
The power of such an energy e xchange is also the net rate P net of thermal radiation, as given by Eq. 18.6.9; so the time t required for the energy loss to be Q tot is Q Q t = ____ = _______________ . (18.6.11) 4 P net σεA( T 4 s − T ) Although the temperature T of the water decreases slightly while the water is cooling, we can approximate T as being the freezing point, 273 K. With T s = 250 K, the denominator of Eq. 18.6.11 is (5.67 × 10 −8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4 )(0.90)(9.0 × 10 −4 m 2 ) × [(250 K) 4 − (273 K) 4 ] = −7.57 × 10 −2 J/s, and Eq. 18.6.11 g ives us −1612 J t = _________________ −7.57 × 10 −2 J/s = 2.13 × 10 4 s = 5.9 h.
(Answer)
Because t is less than a night, freezing water by having it radiate to the dark sky is feasible. In fact, in some parts of the world people used this technique long before the introduction of electric freezers.
Review & Summary Temperature is an SI base quantity related to our sense of hot and cold. It is measured with a thermometer, which contains a working substance with a measurable property, such as length or pressure, that changes in a regular way as the substance becomes hotter or colder. Temperature; Thermometers
When a thermometer and some other object are placed in contact with each other, they eventually reach thermal equilibrium. The reading of the thermometer is then taken to be the temperature of the other object. The process provides consistent and useful temperature measurements because of the zeroth law of thermodynamics: If bodies A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with a third body C (the thermometer), then A and B are in thermal equilib- rium with each other. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
In the SI system, tem- perature is measured on the Kelvin scale, which is based on the The Kelvin Temperature Scale
triple point of water (273.16 K). Other temperatures are then defined by use of a constant-volume gas thermometer, in which a sample of gas is maintained at constant volume so its pressure is proportional to its temperature. We define the temperature T as measured with a gas thermometer to be p T = (273.16 K) ( lim ___ p ) . gas→0 3
(18.1.6)
Here T is in kelvins, and p 3 and p are the pressures of the gas at 273.16 K and the measured temperature, respectively. Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales
ture scale is defined by
T C = T − 273.15°,
The Celsius tempera- (18.2.1)
with T in kelvins. The Fahrenheit temperature scale is defined by 9 T F = _ T + 32° . 5 C
(18.2.2)
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C HAP T ER 18 T EMP ERAT U RE, HEAT , AND T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
All objects change size with changes in temperature. For a temperature change ∆T, a change ∆L in any linear dimension L is given by Thermal Expansion
∆L = L ∆T,
(18.3.1)
in which is the coefficient of linear expansion. The change ∆V in the volume V of a solid or liquid is ∆V = V ∆T.
(18.3.2)
Here = 3 is the material’s coefficient of volume expansion. Heat Q is energy that is transferred between a sys- tem and its environment because of a temperature differ- ence between them. It can be measured in joules (J), calories (cal), kilocalories (Cal or kcal), or British thermal units (Btu), with He a t
1 cal = 3.968 × 10 −3 Btu = 4.1868 J.
(18.4.1)
If heat Q is absorbed by an object, the object’s temperature change T f − T i is related to Q by Heat Capacity and Specific Heat
Q = C(T f − T i ),
(18.4.2)
in which C is the heat capacity of the object. If the object has mass m, then Q = cm(T f − T i ),
(18.4.3)
where c is the specific heat of the material making up the object. The molar specific heat of a material is the heat capacity per mole, which means per 6.02 × 10 23 elementary units of the material. Matter can exist in three com- mon states: solid, liquid, and vapor. Heat absorbed by a mate- rial may change the material’s physical state—for example, from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas. The amount of energy required per unit mass to change the state (but not the temper- ature) of a particular material is its heat of transformation L. Thus, Heat of Transformation
Q = Lm.
(18.4.5)
The heat of vaporization L V is the amount of energy per unit mass that must be added to vaporize a liquid or that must be removed to condense a gas. The heat of fusion L F is the amount of energy per unit mass that must be added to melt a solid or that must be removed to freeze a liquid. A gas may exchange energy with its surroundings through work. The amount of work W done by a gas as it expands or contracts from an initial volume V i to a final volume V f is given by Work Associated with Volume Change
V f
W = dW = p dV. V i
(18.5.2)
The integration is necessary because the pressure p may vary during the volume change. The principle of conser- vation of energy for a thermodynamic process is expressed in the first law of thermodynamics, which may assume either of the forms First Law of Thermodynamics
or
∆E int = E int, f − E int,i = Q − W
(18.5.3)
dE int = dQ − dW.
(18.5.4)
E int represents the internal energy of the material, which depends only on the material’s state (temperature, pressure, and volume). Q represents the energy exchanged as heat between the system and its surroundings; Q is positive if the system absorbs heat and negative if the system loses heat. W is the work done by the system; W is positive if the system expands against an external force from the surroundings and negative if the sys- tem contracts because of an external force. Q and W are path dependent; ∆E int is path independent. The first law of thermody- namics finds application in several special cases: Applications of the First Law
adiabatic processes:
Q = 0, ∆E int = −W
constant-volume processes:
W = 0, ∆E int = Q
cyclical processes:
∆E int = 0, Q = W
free expansions: Q = W = ∆E int = 0 The rate P cond at which energy is conducted through a slab for which one face is maintained at the higher temperature T H and the other face is maintained at the lower temperature T C is Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
Q T H − T C . __________ P cond = ___ t = kA L
(18.6.1)
Here each face of the slab has area A, the length of the slab (the distance between the faces) is L, and k is the thermal conductiv- ity of the material. Convection occurs when temperature differences cause an energy transfer by motion within a fluid. Radiation is an energy transfer via the emission of electro- magnetic energy. The rate P rad at which an object emits energy via thermal radiation is P rad = σεAT 4 ,
(18.6.7)
where σ (= 5.6704 × 10 −8 W/m 2 · K4 ) is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, ε is the emissivity of the object’s surface, A is its sur- face area, and T is its surface temperature (in kelvins). The rate P abs at which an object absorbs energy via thermal radiation from its environment, which is at the uniform temperature T env (in kelvins), is P abs = σεAT 4 env .
(18.6.8) /
QU EST IONS
569
Questions The initial length L, change in temperature ∆T, and change in length ∆L of four rods are given in the following table. Rank the rods according to their coefficients of thermal expansion, greatest first. 1
Rod
L (m)
∆T (C°)
∆L (m)
a b c d
2 1 2 4
10 20 10 5
4 × 10 −4 4 × 10 −4 8 × 10 −4 4 × 10 −4
Figure 18.1 shows three lin- 150 ° ear temperature scales, with the freezing and boiling points of X water indicated. Rank the three scales according to the size of one –50 ° degree on them, greatest first. 2
120 ° Y –140 °
60 ° Z 20 °
Figure 18.1 Question 2. Materials A, B, and C are solids that are at their melting tempera- tures. Material A requires 200 J to melt 4 kg, material B requires 300 J to melt 5 kg, and material C requires 300 J to melt 6 kg. Rank the materials according to their heats of fusion, greatest first.
A sample A of liquid water and a sample B of ice, of iden- tical mass, are placed in a thermally insulated container and allowed to come to thermal equilibrium. Figure 18.2a is a sketch of the temperature T of the samples versus time t. (a) Is the equilibrium temperature above, below, or at the freezing point of water? (b) In reaching equilibrium, does the liquid partly freeze, fully freeze, or undergo no freezing? (c) Does the ice partly melt, fully melt, or undergo no melting? 4
Question 4 continued: Graphs b through f of Fig. 18.2 are additional sketches of T versus t, of which one or more are impossible to produce. (a) Which is impossible and why? (b) In the possible ones, is the equilibrium temperature above, below, or at the freezing point of water? (c) As the possible situations reach equilibrium, does the liquid partly freeze, fully freeze, or undergo no freezing? Does the ice partly melt, fully melt, or undergo no melting? 5
T
Figure 18.4 shows two closed cycles on p p p-V diagrams for a gas. The three parts of cycle 1 are of the same length and shape V V as those of cycle 2. (1) (2) For each cycle, should Figure 18.4 Questions 7 and 8. the cycle be traversed clockwise or counter- clockwise if (a) the net work W done by the gas is to be positive and (b) the net energy transferred by the gas as heat Q is to be positive? 7
3
T
The left side of the wall is 20 C° higher than 1 2 3 1 3 2 3 1 2 the right side. Rank the arrangements accord- ing to (a) the (steady (a ) (b ) (c ) state) rate of energy Figure 18.3 Question 6. conduction through the wall and (b) the tem- perature difference across material 1, greatest first.
T
For which cycle in Fig. 18.4, traversed clockwise, is (a) W greater and (b) Q greater? 8
Three different materials of T identical mass are placed one at a time in a special freezer that can 1 2 extract energy from a material at a certain constant rate. During 3 the cooling process, each material t begins in the liquid state and ends in the solid state; Fig. 18.5 shows Figure 18.5 Question 9. the temperature T versus time t. (a) For material 1, is the specific heat for the liquid state greater than or less than that for the solid state? Rank the materials according to (b) freezing-point temperature, (c) specific heat in the liquid state, (d) specific heat in the solid state, and (e) heat of fusion, all greatest first. 9
A solid cube of edge length r, a solid sphere of radius r, and a solid hemisphere of radius r, all made of the same material, are maintained at temperature 300 K in an environment at tempera- ture 350 K. Rank the objects according to the net rate at which thermal radiation is exchanged with the environment, greatest first. 10
A hot object is dropped into a thermally insulated container of water, and the object and water are then allowed to come to thermal equilibrium. The experiment is repeated twice, with different hot objects. All three objects have the same mass and initial temperature, and the mass and initial temperature of the water are the same in the three experiments. For each of the experiments, Fig. 18.6 gives graphs of the temperatures T of the object and the water versus time t. Rank the graphs according to the specific heats of the objects, greatest first. 11
(a )
t
(b )
T
t
(c )
T
t
T
T
(d )
t
(e )
Figure 18.2
t
(f )
T
t
Questions 4 and 5.
Figure 18.3 shows three different arrangements of materials 1, 2, and 3 to form a wall. The thermal conductivities are k 1 > k 2 > k 3 . 6
T
(a )
t
(b ) Figure 18.6
t
(c )
t
Question 11. /
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C HAP T ER 18 T EMP ERAT U RE, HEAT , AND T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 18.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard
BIO Flying
Circus of Physics
Temperature
Suppose the temperature of a gas is 373.15 K when it is at the boiling point of water. What then is the limiting value of the ratio of the pressure of the gas at that boiling point to its pres- sure at the triple point of water? (Assume the volume of the gas is the same at both temperatures.) 1
E
E Two constant-volume gas thermometers are assembled, one with nitrogen and the other with hydrogen. Both contain enough gas so that p 3 = 80 kPa. (a) What is the difference between the pressures in the two thermometers if both bulbs are in boiling water? (Hint: See Fig. 18.1.6.) (b) Which gas is at higher pressure?
2
E A gas thermometer is con- structed of two gas-containing bulbs, each in a water bath, as shown in Fig. 18.7. The pressure difference between the two bulbs is measured by a mercury manometer as shown. Appropri- Figure 18.7 Problem 3. ate reservoirs, not shown in the diagram, maintain constant gas volume in the two bulbs. There is no difference in pressure when both baths are at the triple point of water. The pressure difference is 120 torr when one bath is at the triple point and the other is at the boiling point of water. It is 90.0 torr when one bath is at the triple point and the other is at an unknown temperature to be measured. What is the unknown temperature?
3
Module 18.2
The Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales
(a) In 1964, the temperature in the Siberian village of Oymyakon reached −71°C. What temperature is this on the Fahrenheit scale? (b) The highest officially recorded tempera- ture in the continental United States was 134°F in Death Valley, California. What is this temperature on the Celsius scale? 4
E
At what temperature is the Fahrenheit scale reading equal to (a) twice that of the Celsius scale and (b) half that of the Cel- sius scale? 5 E
On a linear X temperature scale, water freezes at −125.0°X and boils at 375.0°X. On a linear Y temperature scale, water freezes at −70.00°Y and boils at −30.00°Y. A temperature of 50.00°Y corresponds to what temperature on the X scale? 6 M
Suppose that on a linear temperature scale X, water boils at −53.5°X and freezes at −170°X. What is a temperature of 340 K on the X scale? (Approximate water’s boiling point as 373 K.) 7 M
Module 18.3
Thermal Expansion
At 20°C, a brass cube has edge length 30 cm. What is the increase in the surface area when it is heated from 20°C to 75°C? 8
E
A circular hole in an aluminum plate is 2.725 cm in diameter at 0.000°C. What is its diameter when the temperature of the plate is raised to 100.0°C? 9 E
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
An aluminum flagpole is 33 m high. By how much does its length increase as the temperature increases by 15 C°? 10 E
What is the volume of a lead ball at 30.00°C if the ball’s volume at 60.00°C is 50.00 cm 3 ? 11 E
E An aluminum-alloy rod has a length of 10.000 cm at 20.000°C and a length of 10.015 cm at the boiling point of water. (a) What is the length of the rod at the freezing point of water? (b) What is the temperature if the length of the rod is 10.009 cm?
12
SSM Find the change in volume of an aluminum sphere with an initial radius of 10 cm when the sphere is heated from 0.0°C to 100°C.
13 E
When the temperature of a copper coin is raised by 100 C°, its diameter increases by 0.18%. To two significant figures, give the percent increase in (a) the area of a face, (b) the thickness, (c) the volume, and (d) the mass of the coin. (e) Calculate the coefficient of linear expansion of the coin. 14 M
M A steel rod is 3.000 cm in diameter at 25.00°C. A brass ring has an interior diameter of 2.992 cm at 25.00°C. At what common temperature will the ring just slide onto the rod?
15
When the temperature of a metal cylinder is raised from 0.0°C to 100°C, its length increases by 0.23%. (a) Find the per- cent change in density. (b) What is the metal? Use Table 18.3.1. 16 M
3 SSM An aluminum cup of 100 cm capacity is completely filled with glycerin at 22°C. How much glycerin, if any, will spill out of the cup if the temperature of both the cup and the glyc- erin is increased to 28°C? (The coefficient of volume expansion of glycerin is 5.1 × 10 −4 /C°.) 17 M
M At 20°C, a rod is exactly 20.05 cm long on a steel ruler. Both are placed in an oven at 270°C, where the rod now measures 20.11 cm on the same ruler. What is the coefficient of linear expansion for the material of which the rod is made?
18
CALC GO A vertical glass tube of length L = 1.280 000 m is half filled with a liquid at 20.000 000°C. How much will the height of the liquid column change when the tube and liquid are heated to 30.000 000°C? Use coefficients glass = 1.000 000 × 10 −5 /K and liquid = 4.000 000 × 10 −5 /K.
19 M
GO In a certain experi- M Electric ment, a small radioactive Radioactive heater source source must move at selected, extremely slow speeds. This Clamp motion is accomplished by fas- d tening the source to one end of Figure 18.8 Problem 20. an aluminum rod and heating the central section of the rod in a controlled way. If the effective heated section of the rod in Fig. 18.8 has length d = 2.00 cm, at what constant rate must the temperature of the rod be changed if the source is to move at a constant speed of 100 nm/s? 20
H SSM As a result of a temperature rise of 32 C°, a bar with a crack at its center buckles upward (Fig. 18.9). The fixed
21
/
P ROBL EMS
distance L 0 is 3.77 m and the coefficient of linear expansion of the bar is 25 × 10 −6 /C°. Find the rise x of the center. Module 18.4
at a constant rate. Figure 18.10 gives the temperature T of the sample versus time t; the horizontal scale is set by t s = 80.0 min. The sample freezes during the energy removal. The specific heat of the sample in its initial liquid phase is 3000 J/kg · K. What are (a) the sample’s heat of fusion and (b) its specific heat in the frozen phase?
L0
x L0
Absorption of
Heat
Figure 18.9 Problem 21. One way to keep the contents of a garage from becoming too cold on a night when a severe subfreezing temperature is forecast is to put a tub of water in the garage. If the mass of the water is 125 kg and its initial temperature is 20°C, (a) how much energy must the water transfer to its surroundings in order to freeze completely and (b) what is the lowest possible temperature of the water and its surroundings until that happens?
22
E
FCP
E SSM A small electric immersion heater is used to heat 100 g of water for a cup of instant coffee. The heater is labeled “200 watts” (it converts electrical energy to thermal energy at this rate). Calculate the time required to bring all this water from 23.0°C to 100°C, ignoring any heat losses.
23
E A certain substance has a mass per mole of 50.0 g/mol. When 314 J is added as heat to a 30.0 g sample, the sample’s temperature rises from 25.0°C to 45.0°C. What are the (a) spe- cific heat and (b) molar specific heat of this substance? (c) How many moles are in the sample?
24
CALC The specific heat of a substance varies with temper- ature according to the function c = 0.20 + 0.14T + 0.023T 2 , with T in °C and c in cal/g · K. Find the energy required to raise the temperature of 2.0 g of this substance from 5.0°C to 15°C.
32 M
Nonmetric version: (a) How long does a 2.0 × 10 5 Btu/h water heater take to raise the temperature of 40 gal of water from 70°F to 100°F? Metric version: (b) How long does a 59 kW water heater take to raise the temperature of 150 L of water from 21°C to 38°C? 33
M
M GO Samples A and B are at different initial tempera- tures when they are placed in a thermally insulated container and allowed to come to thermal equilibrium. Figure 18.11a gives their temperatures T versus time t. Sample A has a mass of 5.0 kg; sample B has a mass of 1.5 kg. Figure 18.11b is a general plot for the material of sample B. It shows the temperature change ∆T that the material undergoes when energy is transferred to it as heat Q. The change ∆T is plotted versus the energy Q per unit mass of the material, and the scale of the vertical axis is set by ∆T s = 4.0 C°. What is the specific heat of sample A?
34
100
A
60
B
20
SSM Calculate the minimum amount of energy, in joules, required to completely melt 130 g of silver initially at 15.0°C.
How much water remains unfrozen after 50.2 kJ is transferred as heat from 260 g of liquid water initially at its freezing point? M In a solar water heater, energy from the Sun is gathered by water that circulates through tubes in a rooftop collector. The solar radiation enters the collector through a transparent cover and warms the water in the tubes; this water is pumped into a hold- ing tank. Assume that the efficiency of the overall system is 20% (that is, 80% of the incident solar energy is lost from the 300 system). What collector area is necessary to raise the tem- perature of 200 L of water in 270 the tank from 20°C to 40°C in 1.0 h when the intensity of 250 incident sunlight is 700 W/m 2 ?
29
)K( T
M A 0.400 kg sample is placed in a cooling apparatus that removes energy as heat
0
ts t
Figure 18.10
(min)
Problem 30.
0 t
10 (min)
20
0 Q
(a)
27 E
28 E
ΔTs
)°C( TΔ
E What mass of butter, which has a usable energy content of 6.0 Cal/g (= 6000 cal/g), would be equivalent to the change in gravitational potential energy of a 73.0 kg man who ascends from sea level to the top of Mt. Everest, at elevation 8.84 km? Assume that the average g for the ascent is 9.80 m/s 2 .
26
What mass of steam at 100°C must be mixed with 150 g of ice at its melting point, in a thermally insulated container, to produce liquid water at 50°C? 31 M
)C°( T
E BIO A certain diet doctor encourages people to diet by drinking ice water. His theory is that the body must burn off enough fat to raise the temperature of the water from 0.00°C to the body temperature of 37.0°C. How many liters of ice water would have to be consumed to burn off 454 g (about 1 lb) of fat, assuming that burning this much fat requires 3500 Cal be trans- ferred to the ice water? Why is it not advisable to follow this diet? (One liter = 10 3 cm 3 . The density of water is 1.00 g/cm 3 .)
25
30
571
8 /m (kJ/kg)
16
(b ) Figure 18.11
Problem 34.
An insulated Thermos contains 130 cm 3 of hot coffee at 80.0°C. You put in a 12.0 g ice cube at its melting point to cool the coffee. By how many degrees has your coffee cooled once the ice has melted and equilibrium is reached? Treat the coffee as though it were pure water and neglect energy exchanges with the environment. 35
M
M A 150 g copper bowl contains 220 g of water, both at 20.0°C. A very hot 300 g copper cylinder is dropped into the water, causing the water to boil, with 5.00 g being converted to steam. The final temperature of the system is 100°C. Neglect energy transfers with the environment. (a) How much energy (in calories) is transferred to the water as heat? (b) How much to the bowl? (c) What is the original temperature of the cylinder?
36
M A person makes a quantity of iced tea by mixing 500 g of hot tea (essentially water) with an equal mass of ice at its melt- ing point. Assume the mixture has negligible energy exchanges with its environment. If the tea’s initial temperature is T i = 90°C, when thermal equilibrium is reached what are (a) the mix- ture’s temperature T f and (b) the remaining mass m f of ice? If
37
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572
C HAP T ER 18 T EMP ERAT U RE, HEAT , AND T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
T i = 70°C, when thermal equilibrium is reached what are (c) T f and (d) m f ? M A 0.530 kg sample of liquid water and a sample of ice are placed in a thermally insulated container. The container also contains a device that transfers energy as heat from the liquid water to the ice at a constant rate P, until thermal equilibrium is reached. The temperatures T of the liquid water and the ice are given in Fig. 18.12 as functions of time t; the horizontal scale is set by t s = 80.0 min. (a) What is rate P? (b) What is the initial mass of the ice in the container? (c) When thermal equilibrium is reached, what is the mass of the ice produced in this process?
38
V 0 to 4.0V 0 while its pressure decreases from p 0 to p 0 /4.0. If V 0 = 1.0 m 3 and p 0 = 40 Pa, how much work is done by the gas if its pressure changes with volume via (a) path A, (b) path B, and (c) path C? CALC GO A thermodynamic system is taken from state A to state B to state C, and then back to A, as shown in the p-V diagram of Fig. 18.15a. The vertical scale is set by p s = 40 Pa, and the horizontal scale is set by V s = 4.0 m 3 . (a)–(g) Complete the table in Fig. 18.15b by inserting a plus sign, a minus sign, or a zero in each indicated cell. (h) What is the net work done by the system as it moves once through the cycle ABCA?
44 E
40 C
20
ps
)aP( erusserP
)C° ( T
0
–20 0 t
Figure 18.12
A
ts
(min)
Problem 38.
(a )
Volume (m3)
GO Calculate the specific heat of a metal from the follow- ing data. A container made of the metal has a mass of 3.6 kg and contains 14 kg of water. A 1.8 kg piece of the metal initially at a temperature of 180°C is dropped into the water. The container and water initially have a temperature of 16.0°C, and the final temperature of the entire (insulated) system is 18.0°C. 40 M
The First
Law of Thermodynamics
In Fig. 18.14, a gas sample expands from 43
E
CALC
D
Figure 18.13
Problem 42.
A
C
B
4.0V0
V0
3
Volume (m ) Figure 18.14
Problem 43.
(a)
(b)
+
B
C
+
(c)
(d)
C
A
(e)
(f)
(g)
Problem 44.
45
40 C
30
B
20 10 A
0 V Suppose 200 J of work 3 Volume (m ) is done on a system and 70.0 cal is extracted from Figure 18.16 Problem 45. the system as heat. In the sense of the first law of ther- modynamics, what are the values (including algebraic signs) of (a) W, (b) Q, and (c) ∆E int ? s
46 E
SSM When a system is a f taken from state i to state f along path iaf in Fig. 18.17, Q = 50 cal and W = 20 cal. Along path ibf, Q = 36 cal. (a) What is W along i b path ibf ? (b) If W = −13 cal for the 0 Volume return path fi, what is Q for this path? (c) If E int,i = 10 cal, what is Figure 18.17 Problem 47. E int,f ? If E int,b = 22 cal, what is Q for (d) path ib and (e) path bf ?
47 M
As a gas is held within a closed chamber, it passes through the cycle shown in Fig. 18.18. Determine the energy transferred by the system as heat during constant-pressure pro- cess CA if the energy added as heat Q AB during constant-volume process AB is 20.0 J, no energy is transferred as heat during adiabatic process BC, and the net work done during the cycle is 15.0 J. 48
p0
0
E SSM A gas CALC within a closed chamber undergoes the cycle shown in the p-V diagram of Fig. 18.16. The horizontal scale is set by V s = 4.0 m 3 . Cal- culate the net energy added to the system as heat during one complete cycle.
B
M
B
GO
erusserP
Module 18.5
Cu
)aP( erusserP
H GO A 20.0 g copper ring at 0.000°C has an inner diam- eter of D = 2.54000 cm. An alu- minum sphere at 100.0°C has a diameter of d = 2.545 08 cm. The sphere is put on top of the ring (Fig. 18.13), and the two are allowed to come to thermal equilibrium, with no heat lost to the surroundings. The sphere just passes through the ring at the equilibrium tem- perature. What is the mass of the sphere?
42
Figure 18.15
(b)
ΔEint
erusserP
(a) Two 50 g ice cubes are dropped into 200 g of water in a thermally insulated container. If the water is initially at 25°C, and the ice comes directly from d a freezer at −15°C, what is the final temperature at thermal equilibrium? (b) What is the final temperature if only one Al ice cube is used? SSM
Vs
W
A
)2m/N( erusserP
GO Ethyl alcohol has a boiling point of 78.0°C, a freez- ing point of −114°C, a heat of vaporization of 879 kJ/kg, a heat of fusion of 109 kJ/kg, and a specific heat of 2.43 kJ/kg · K. How much energy must be removed from 0.510 kg of ethyl alcohol that is initially a gas at 78.0°C so that it becomes a solid at −114°C?
0
39 M
41 H
B
Q
A
0
C
Volume
Figure 18.18
Problem 48. /
573
P ROBL EMS
M
GO
A lab sample of gas is taken through cycle abca shown in the p-V diagram of Fig. 18.20. The net work done is +1.2 J. Along path ab, the change in the internal energy is +3.0 J and the magnitude of the work done is 5.0 J. Along path ca, the energy transferred to the gas as heat is +2.5 J. How much energy is transferred as heat along (a) path ab and (b) path bc? 50
M
GO
Module 18.6
additional energy must each bee produce during the 20 min to maintain 47°C?
p a
b
c
d V
Figure 18.19
Problem 49.
p
a
Figure 18.21
b
c V
Figure 18.20
Problem 50.
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
A sphere of radius 0.500 m, temperature 27.0°C, and emis- sivity 0.850 is located in an environment of temperature 77.0°C. At what rate does the sphere (a) emit and (b) absorb thermal radiation? (c) What is the sphere’s net rate of energy exchange? E The ceiling of a single-family dwelling in a cold climate should have an R-value of 30. To give such insulation, how thick would a layer of (a) polyurethane foam and (b) silver have to be?
52
SSM Consider the slab shown in Fig. 18.6.1. Suppose that L = 25.0 cm, A = 90.0 cm 2 , and the material is copper. If T H = 125°C, T C = 10.0°C, and a steady state is reached, find the con- duction rate through the slab.
53 E
If you were to walk briefly in space without a spacesuit while far from the Sun (as an astronaut does in the movie 2001, A Space Odyssey), you would feel the cold of space—while you radiated energy, you would absorb almost none from your environment. (a) At what rate would you lose energy? (b) How much energy would you lose in 30 s? Assume that your emissivity is 0.90, and estimate other data needed in the calculations. E
BIO
FCP
CALC A cylindrical copper rod of length 1.2 m and cross- sectional area 4.8 cm 2 is insulated along its side. The ends are held at a temperature difference of 100 C° by having one end in a water–ice mixture and the other in a mixture of boiling water and steam. At what rate (a) is energy conducted by the rod and (b) does the ice melt?
55 E
M BIO FCP The giant hornet Vespa mandarinia japonica preys on Japanese bees. However, if one of the hornets attempts to invade a beehive, several hundred of the bees quickly form a compact ball around the hornet to stop it. They don’t sting, bite, crush, or suffocate it. Rather they overheat it by quickly raising their body temperatures from the normal 35°C to 47°C or 48°C, which is lethal to the hornet but not to the bees (Fig. 18.21). Assume the following: 500 bees form a ball of radius R = 2.0 cm for a time t = 20 min, the primary loss of energy by the ball is by thermal radiation, the ball’s surface has emissivity ε = 0.80, and the ball has a uniform temperature. On average, how much
56
Problem 56.
M (a) What is the rate of energy loss in watts per square meter through a glass window 3.0 mm thick if the outside tem- perature is −20°F and the inside temperature is +72°F? (b) A storm window having the same thickness of glass is installed par- allel to the first window, with an air gap of 7.5 cm between the two windows. What now is the rate of energy loss if conduction is the only important energy-loss mechanism?
57
51 E
54
ytisrevinU awagamaT ,onO otasaM .rD ©
Figure 18.19 represents a closed cycle for a gas (the figure is not drawn to scale). The change in the internal energy of the gas as it moves from a to c along the path abc is −200 J. As it moves from c to d, 180 J must be transferred to it as heat. An additional transfer of 80 J to it as heat is needed as it moves from d to a. How much work is done on the gas as it moves from c to d? 49
A solid cylinder of radius r 1 = 2.5 cm, length h 1 = 5.0 cm, emissivity 0.85, and temperature 30°C is suspended in an envi- ronment of temperature 50°C. (a) What is the cylinder’s net thermal radiation transfer rate P 1? (b) If the cylinder is stretched until its radius is r 2 = 0.50 cm, its net thermal radiation transfer rate becomes P 2 . What is the ratio P 2 /P 1 ? 58 M
M In Fig. 18.22a, two identical rectangular rods of metal are welded end to end, with a tempera- ture of T 1 = 0°C on the left side and a temperature of T 2 = 100°C on the right side. In 2.0 min, 10 J is con- ducted at a constant rate from the right side to the left side. How much time would be required to conduct 10 J if the rods were welded side to side as in Fig. 18.22b?
59
Figure 18.23 shows the cross section of a wall made of three layers. The layer thick- nesses are L 1 , L 2 = 0.700L 1, and L 3 = 0.350L 1 . The thermal con- ductivities are k 1 , k 2 = 0.900k 1 , and k 3 = 0.800k 1 . The tempera- tures at the left side and right side of the wall are T H = 30.0°C and T C = −15.0°C, respectively. Ther- mal conduction is steady. (a) What is the temperature difference ∆T 2 across layer 2 (between the left and right sides of the layer)? If k 2 were, instead, equal to 1.1k 1 , (b) would the rate at which energy is conducted through the wall be greater than, less than, or the same as previously, and (c) what would be the value of ∆T 2 ? 60
M
GO
CALC SSM In Fig. 18.24, a 5.0 cm slab has formed on an
T2
T1
(a) T2
T1
(b ) Figure 18.22
Problem 59.
k1
k2
k3
TH
TC L1
L2
Figure 18.23
L3
Problem 60.
Air Ice Water
61 M
Figure 18.24
Problem 61. /
574
C HAP T ER 18 T EMP ERAT U RE, HEAT , AND T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
outdoor tank of water. The air is at −10°C. Find the rate of ice formation (centimeters per hour). The ice has thermal conduc- tivity 0.0040 cal/s · cm · C° and density 0.92 g/cm 3 . Assume there is no energy transfer through the walls or bottom. M FCP Leidenfrost effect. A Water drop water drop will last about 1 s on h a hot skillet with a temperature L Skillet between 100°C and about 200°C. However, if the skillet is much Figure 18.25 Problem 62. hotter, the drop can last several minutes, an effect named after an early investigator. The longer lifetime is due to the support of a thin layer of air and water vapor that separates the drop from the metal (by distance L in Fig. 18.25). Let L = 0.100 mm, and assume that the drop is flat with height h = 1.50 mm and bottom face area A = 4.00 × 10 −6 m 2 . Also assume that the skillet has a constant temperature T s = 300°C and the drop has a temperature of 100°C. Water has density = 1000 kg/m 3 , and the supporting layer has thermal conductivity k = 0.026 W/m · K. (a) At what rate is energy con- ducted from the skillet to the drop through the drop’s bottom surface? (b) If conduction is the primary way energy moves from the skillet to the drop, how long will the drop last?
62
Figure 18.26 shows (in cross section) a wall consisting of four layers, with thermal conductivities k 1 = 0.060 W/m · K, k 3 = 0.040 W/m · K, and k 4 = 0.12 W/m · K (k 2 is not known). The layer thicknesses are L 1 = 1.5 cm, L 3 = 2.8 cm, and L 4 = 3.5 cm (L 2 is not known). The known temperatures are T 1 = 30°C, T 12 = 25°C, and T 4 = −10°C. Energy transfer through the wall is steady. What is interface temperature T 34 ? 63 M
GO
k1
k2
k3
T1 T 12
L1
T23
L2
Figure 18.26
k4 T34
L3
T4
L4
Problem 63.
FCP Penguin huddling. To withstand the harsh M BIO weather of the Antarctic, emperor penguins huddle in groups (Fig. 18.27). Assume that a penguin is a circular cylinder with a top surface area a = 0.34 m 2 and height h = 1.1 m. Let P r be the rate at which an individual penguin radiates energy to the
64
environment (through the top and the sides); thus NP r is the rate at which N identical, well-separated penguins radiate. If the penguins huddle closely to form a huddled cylinder with top sur- face area Na and height h, the cylinder radiates at the rate P h . If N = 1000, (a) what is the value of the fraction P h /NP r and (b) by what percentage does huddling reduce the total radiation loss? Ice has formed on a shallow pond, and a steady state has been reached, with the air above the ice at −5.0°C and the bot- tom of the pond at 4.0°C. If the total depth of ice + water is 1.4 m, how thick is the ice? (Assume that the thermal conductivities of ice and water are 0.40 and 0.12 cal/m · C° · s, respectively.) 66 H CALC GO FCP Evaporative cooling of beverages. A cold beverage can be kept cold even on a warm day if it is slipped into a porous ceramic container that has been soaked in water. Assume that energy lost to evaporation matches the net energy gained via the radiation exchange through the top and side sur- faces. The container and beverage have temperature T = 15°C, the environment has temperature Tenv = 32°C, and the container is a cylinder with radius r = 2.2 cm and height 10 cm. Approxi- mate the emissivity as ε = 1, and neglect other energy exchanges. At what rate dm/dt is the container losing water mass? 65 M
Additional Problems
In the extrusion of cold chocolate from a tube, work is done on the chocolate by the pressure applied by a ram forcing the chocolate through the tube. The work per unit mass of extruded chocolate is equal to p/, where p is the difference between the applied pressure and the pressure where the chocolate emerges from the tube, and is the density of the chocolate. Rather than increasing the temperature of the chocolate, this work melts cocoa fats in the chocolate. These fats have a heat of fusion of 150 kJ/kg. Assume that all of the work goes into that melting and that these fats make up 30% of the chocolate’s mass. What percentage of the fats melt during the extrusion if p = 5.5 MPa and = 1200 kg/m 3 ? 68 Icebergs in the North Atlantic present hazards to shipping, causing the lengths of shipping routes to be increased by about 30% during the iceberg season. Attempts to destroy icebergs include planting explosives, bombing, torpedoing, shelling, ram- ming, and coating with black soot. Suppose that direct melting of the iceberg, by placing heat sources in the ice, is tried. How much energy as heat is required to melt 10% of an iceberg that has a mass of 200 000 metric tons? (Use 1 metric ton = 1000 kg.) 67
Figure 18.28 displays a closed cycle for a gas. The change in internal energy along path ca is −160 J. The energy trans- ferred to the gas as heat is 200 J along path ab, and 40 J along path bc. How much work is done by the gas along (a) path abc and (b) path ab? 69
p c
a
b V
Figure 18.28
otohpsoiB / totoretroT nialA ©
Figure 18.27
Problem 64.
In a certain solar house, energy Problem 69. from the Sun is stored in barrels filled with water. In a particular winter stretch of five cloudy days, 1.00 × 10 6 kcal is needed to maintain the inside of the house at 22.0°C. Assuming that the water in the barrels is at 50.0°C and that the water has a density of 1.00 × 10 3 kg/m 3 , what volume of water is required? 70
A 0.300 kg sample is placed in a cooling apparatus that removes energy as heat at a constant rate of 2.81 W. Figure 18.29 gives the temperature T of the sample versus time t. The 71
/
575
P ROBL EMS
temperature scale is set by T s = 30°C and the time scale is set by t s = 20 min. What is the specific heat of the sample?
Ts
r
)C°( T
The average rate at which energy is conducted outward through the ground surface in North America is 54.0 mW/m 2 , and the 0 t average thermal conductivity of the t (min) near-surface rocks is 2.50 W/m · K. Assuming a surface temperature of Figure 18.29 Problem 71. 10.0°C, find the temperature at a depth of 35.0 km (near the base of the crust). Ignore the heat generated by the presence of radioactive elements. 72
s
What is the volume increase of an aluminum cube 5.00 cm on an edge when heated from 10.0°C to 60.0°C? 73
In a series of experiments, T block B is to be placed in a ther- mally insulated container with block A, which has the same mass as block B. In each experiment, block B is initially at a certain temperature T B , but temperature T A of block A is changed 0 T 1 T 2 from experiment to experiment. T (K) Let T f represent the final tem- perature of the two blocks when Figure 18.30 Problem 74. they reach thermal equilibrium in any of the experiments. Figure 18.30 gives temperature T f versus the initial temperature T A for a range of possible values of T A , from T A1 = 0 K to T A2 = 500 K. The vertical axis scale is set by T fs = 400 K. What are (a) temperature T B and (b) the ratio c B /c A of the specific heats of the blocks? 74
through the sides of the icicle or T down through the tip because there is no temperature change Energy transfer in those directions. It can lose energy and freeze only by sending energy up (through distance L) L to the top of the icicle, where the temperature T r can be below 0°C. Liquid coating Take L = 0.12 m and T r = −5°C. (0°C) Assume that the central tube Liquid water and the upward conduction path (0°C) both have cross-sectional area A. In terms of A, what rate is (a) Figure 18.32 Problem 78. energy conducted upward and (b) mass converted from liquid to ice at the top of the central tube? (c) At what rate does the top of the tube move downward because of water freezing there? The thermal conductivity of ice is 0.400 W/m · K, and the density of liquid water is 1000 kg/m 3 .
fs
)K( T
f
A
A
A
CALC SSM A sample of gas expands from an initial pres- sure and volume of 10 Pa and 1.0 m 3 to a final volume of 2.0 m 3 . During the expansion, the pressure and volume are related by the equation p = aV 2 , where a = 10 N/m 8 . Determine the work done by the gas during this expansion.
79
Figure 18.33a shows a cylinder containing gas and closed by a movable piston. The cylinder is kept submerged in an ice– water mixture. The piston is quickly pushed down from position 1 to position 2 and then held at position 2 until the gas is again at the temperature of the ice–water mixture; it then is slowly raised back to position 1. Figure 18.33b is a p-V diagram for the pro- cess. If 100 g of ice is melted during the cycle, how much work has been done on the gas? 80
Figure 18.31 displays a p closed cycle for a gas. From c to c b, 40 J is transferred from the gas as heat. From b to a, 130 J is transferred from the gas as heat, and the magnitude of the work a b done by the gas is 80 J. From a to c, 400 J is transferred to the gas V as heat. What is the work done by Figure 18.31 Problem 75. the gas from a to c? (Hint: You need to supply the plus and minus signs for the given data.) 75
2
SSM The temperature of a 0.700 kg cube of ice is decreased to −150°C. Then energy is gradually transferred to the cube as heat while it is otherwise thermally isolated from its environ- ment. The total transfer is 0.6993 MJ. Assume the value of c ice given in Table 18.4.1 is valid for temperatures from −150°C to 0°C. What is the final temperature of the water? CALC GO FCP Icicles. Liquid water coats an active (grow- ing) icicle and extends up a short, narrow tube along the central axis (Fig. 18.32). Because the water–ice interface must have a temperature of 0°C, the water in the tube cannot lose energy
78
Start
Ice and water V2
Volume
V1
(b )
(a ) Figure 18.33
76
77
erusserP
Three equal-length straight rods, of aluminum, Invar, and steel, all at 20.0°C, form an equilateral triangle with hinge pins at the vertices. At what temperature will the angle opposite the Invar rod be 59.95°? See Appendix E for needed trigonometric formulas and Table 18.3.1 for needed data.
1
Problem 80.
p SSM A sample of gas undergoes a transition from an initial state a to a final state b 3p /2 by three different paths (pro- 2 a cesses), as shown in the p-V 1 p b diagram in Fig. 18.34, where 3 V b = 5.00V i . The energy trans- p /2 ferred to the gas as heat in process 1 is 10p i V i . In terms of V V V p i V i , what are (a) the energy transferred to the gas as heat in Figure 18.34 Problem 81. process 2 and (b) the change in internal energy that the gas undergoes in process 3?
81
i
i
i
i
b
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C HAP T ER 18 T EMP ERAT U RE, HEAT , AND T HE F IRST L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
A copper rod, an aluminum rod, and a brass rod, each of 6.00 m length and 1.00 cm diameter, are placed end to end with the aluminum rod between the other two. The free end of the copper rod is maintained at water’s boiling point, and the free end of the brass rod is maintained at water’s freezing point. What is the steady-state temperature of (a) the copper–aluminum junction and (b) the aluminum–brass junction? 82
SSM The temperature of a Pyrex disk is changed from 10.0°C to 60.0°C. Its initial radius is 8.00 cm; its initial thickness is 0.500 cm. Take these data as being exact. What is the change in the volume of the disk? (See Table 18.3.1.)
83
BIO (a) Calculate the rate at which body heat is conducted through the clothing of a skier in a steady-state process, given that the body surface area is 1.8 m 2 , and the clothing is 1.0 cm thick; the skin surface temperature is 33°C and the outer surface of the clothing is at 1.0°C; the thermal conductivity of the cloth- ing is 0.040 W/m · K. (b) If, after a fall, the skier’s clothes became soaked with water of thermal conductivity 0.60 W/m · K, by how much is the rate of conduction multiplied?
84
SSM A 2.50 kg lump of aluminum is heated to 92.0°C and then dropped into 8.00 kg of water at 5.00°C. Assuming that the lump–water system is thermally isolated, what is the system’s equilibrium temperature?
85
A glass window pane is exactly 20 cm by 30 cm at 10°C. By how much has its area increased when its temperature is 40°C, assuming that it can expand freely? 86
BIO A recruit can join the semi-secret “300 F” club at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station only when the outside tem- perature is below −70°C. On such a day, the recruit first basks in a hot sauna and then runs outside wearing only shoes. (This is, of course, extremely dangerous, but the rite is effectively a protest against the constant danger of the cold.) Assume that upon stepping out of the sauna, the recruit’s skin temperature is 102°F and the walls, ceiling, and floor of the sauna room have a temperature of 30°C. Estimate the recruit’s surface area, and take the skin emissivity to be 0.80. (a) What is the approximate net rate P net at which the recruit loses energy via thermal radiation exchanges with the room? Next, assume that when outdoors, half the recruit’s surface area exchanges thermal radiation with the sky at a tempera- ture of −25°C and the other half exchanges thermal radiation with the snow and ground at a temperature of −80°C. What is the approximate net rate at which the recruit loses energy via thermal radiation exchanges with (b) the sky and (c) the snow and ground?
87
A steel rod at 25.0°C is bolted at both ends and then cooled. At what temperature will it rupture? Use Table 12.3.1. 88
BIO An athlete needs to lose weight and decides to do it by “pumping iron.” (a) How many times must an 80.0 kg weight be lifted a distance of 1.00 m in order to burn off 1.00 lb of fat, assuming that that much fat is equivalent to 3500 Cal? (b) If the weight is lifted once every 2.00 s, how long does the task take?
89
Soon after Earth was formed, heat released by the decay of radioactive elements raised the average internal tempera- ture from 300 to 3000 K, at about which value it remains today. Assuming an average coefficient of volume expansion of 3.0 × 10 −5 K −1 , by how much has the radius of Earth increased since the planet was formed? 90
It is possible to melt ice by rubbing one block of it against another. How much work, in joules, would you have to do to get 1.00 g of ice to melt? 91
A rectangular plate of glass initially has the dimensions 0.200 m by 0.300 m. The coefficient of linear expansion for the glass is 9.00 × 10 −6 /K. What is the change in the plate’s area if its temperature is increased by 20.0 K? −3 93 Suppose that you intercept 5.0 × 10 of the energy radiated by a hot sphere that has a radius of 0.020 m, an emissivity of 0.80, and a surface temperature of 500 K. How much energy do you intercept in 2.0 min? 94 A thermometer of mass 0.0550 kg and of specific heat 0.837 kJ/kg · K reads 15.0°C. It is then completely immersed in 0.300 kg of water, and it comes to the same final temperature as the water. If the thermometer then reads 44.4°C, what was the temperature of the water before insertion of the thermometer? 95 A sample of gas expands from p V 1 = 1.0 m 3 and p 1 = 40 Pa to A V 2 = 4.0 m 3 and p 2 = 10 Pa along p 1 path B in the p-V diagram in Fig. 18.35. It is then compressed B back to V 1 along either path A or path C. Compute the net work done C by the gas for the complete cycle p2 along (a) path BA and (b) path BC. 92
V
V1 V2 Figure 18.36 shows a compos- 0 Figure 18.35 Problem 95. ite bar of length L = L 1 + L 2 and consisting of two materials. L1 L2 One material has length L 1 and coefficient of linear expansion 1 ; the other has L length L 2 and coefficient Figure 18.36 Problem 96. of linear expansion 2 . (a) What is the coefficient of linear expansion for the composite bar? For a particular com- posite bar, L is 52.4 cm, material 1 is steel, and material 2 is brass. If = 1.3 × 10 −5 /C°, what are the lengths (b) L 1 and (c) L 2? 97 On finding your stove out of order, you decide to boil the water for a cup of tea by shaking it in a Thermos flask. Suppose that you use tap water at 19°C, the water falls 32 cm each shake, and you make 27 shakes each minute. Neglecting any loss of thermal energy by the flask, how long (in minutes) must you shake the flask until the water reaches 100°C? 98 The p-V diagram in Fig. 18.37 p shows two paths along which a sam- ple of gas can be taken from state a p 2 to state b, where V b = 3.0V 1 . Path 1 2 requires that energy equal to 5.0p 1 V 1 be transferred to the gas as heat. p 1 a b 1 Path 2 requires that energy equal to 5.5p 1 V 1 be transferred to the gas as V heat. What is the ratio p 2 /p 1 ? V1 V 99 Density change. The density ρ Figure 18.37 Problem 98. of something is the ratio of its mass m to its volume V. If the volume is temperature dependent, so is the density. Show that a small change in density ∆ρ with a small increase ∆T in temperature is approximately given by Δ ρ = −βρ ΔT,
96
b
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where β is the coefficient of volume expansion. Explain the minus sign.
altering the rate at which it produces energy. If it becomes cov- ered with snow, it can increase that production so that its ther- mal radiation melts the snow to re-expose the plant to sunlight. Let’s model a skunk cabbage with a cylinder of height h = 5.0 cm and radius R = 1.5 cm and assume it is surrounded by a snow wall at temperature T env = −3.0°C (Fig. 18.39). If the emissivity ε is 0.80, what is the net rate of energy exchange via thermal radia- tion between the plant’s curved side and the snow?
Two rods. (a) Show that if the lengths of two rods of dif- ferent solids are inversely proportional to their respective coef- ficients of linear expansion at the same initial temperature, the difference in length between them will be constant at all tem- peratures. What should be the lengths of (b) a steel and (c) a brass rod at 0.00°C so that at all temperatures their difference in length is 0.30 m? 100
Rail expansions. Steel railroad rails are laid when the tem- perature is 0° C. What gap should be left between rail sections so that they just touch when the temperature rises to 42° C? The sections are 12.0 m long and the coefficient of linear expansion for steel is 11 × 10 −6 / C° . 105
101
BIO Candy bar energy. A candy bar has a marked nutri- tional value of 350 Cal. How many kilowatt-hours of energy will it deliver to the body as it is digested?
103
Skunk cabbage. Unlike most other plants, a skunk cab- bage can regulate its internal temperature (set at T = 22°C) by 104 BIO
segamI ytteG/fidraT nnaD/AWL
Heating ice. A 15.0 kg sample of ice is initially at a tem- perature of −20° C. Then 7.0 × 10 6 J is added as heat to the sample, which is otherwise isolated. What then is the sample’s temperature? 102
Martian thermal expansion. Near the equator on Mars, the temperature can range from −73° C at night to 20° C during the day. If a hut is constructed with steel beams of length 4.40 m, what would be the change in beam length from night to day? The coefficient of linear expansion for steel is 11 × 10 −6 / C° . 106
Suspended ball. A ball of radius 2.00 cm, temperature 280 K, and emissivity 0.800 is suspended in an environment of tem- perature 300 K. What is the net rate of energy transfer via radia- tion between the ball and the environment? 107
BIO Thermal emission from forehead. Noncontact thermom- eters (Fig. 18.40) are used to quickly measure the temperature of a person, to monitor for fever from an infection. They measure the power of the radiation from a surface, usually the forehead, in the infrared range, which is just outside the visible light range. Skin has an emissivity ε = 0.97. What is the total power (infrared and vis- ible) of the radiation per unit area when the temperature is (a) 97.0°F (a common early morning temper- ature), (b) 99.0°F (a common late afternoon temperature), and (c) 103°F (a temperature indicating infection)?
108
moc.kcotsrettuhS/ngiseD_PzG
Ice skating. A long- standing explanation of ice skating (Fig. 18.38) is that the ice is slippery beneath the skate because the weight of the skater creates sufficient stress (pressure) beneath the skate to melt the ice, thus lubricating the skate–ice con- tact area. At temperature T = −1° C, the pressure required to melt ice is 1.4 × 10 7 N/m 2 . At that temperature, if a skater with weight F g = 800 N stands evenly on both skates, with Figure 18.38 Problem 101. each contact area A = 14.3 mm 2 , what is the stress σ beneath each skate? (The result appears to support the pressure-melting explanation of ice skating, but the catch is that this is a static calculation whereas ice skating involves moving skates, perhaps rapidly. More promising explanations involve friction melting of the ice by a skate, with the skate not contacting the ice but being supported by meltwater beneath it.)
577
Figure 18.40
Problem 108.
Composite slab conduction. A composite slab with face area A = 26 ft 2 consists of 2.0 in. of rock wool and 0.75 in. of white pine. The thermal resistances for a 1.0 in. slab are 109
R rw = 3.3 ft 2 ⋅ ° F ⋅ h/Btu, R
The temperature difference between the slab faces is 65 F°. What is the rate of heat transfer through the slab?
h
Figure 18.39
R wp = 1.3 ft 2 ⋅ ° F ⋅ h/Btu.
Problem 104.
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The Kinetic Theory of Gases 19.1 AVOGADRO’S NUMBER Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
19.1.1 Identify Avogadro’s number
N A.
m of M of the molecules in the sample, the number of moles n in the sample, and Avogadro’s number N A.
19.1.3 Apply the relationships between the mass
19.1.2 Apply the relationship between the number
n
of moles , the number of molecules
N A.
a sample, the molar mass
N, and
Avogadro’s number
Key Ideas ●
The kinetic theory of gases relates the macroscopic
●
properties of gases (for example, pressure and temper-
m of the individual
A mole is related to the mass
molecules of the substance by
ature) to the microscopic properties of gas molecules
M = mN A .
(for example, speed and kinetic energy). ●
N A (Avogadro’s
One mole of a substance contains
number) elementary units (usually atoms or molecules), where
N A is found experimentally to be
N A = 6.02 × 10 23 mol −1
n contained in a s ample of M sam , cons is ting of N molecules , is related to the molar mas s M of the molecules and to Av oga- dro’s number N A as giv en by ●
(Avogadro’s number).
The number of moles
mas s
M sam _____ M N = _____ n = ___ = sam . N A M mN A
M of any substance is the mass of
One molar mass
one mole of the substance.
What Is Physics?
One of the main subjects in thermodynamics is the physics of gases. A gas con- sists of atoms (either individually or bound together as molecules) that fill their container’s volume and exert pressure on the container’s walls. We can usually assign a temperature to such a contained gas. These three variables associated with a gas—volume, pressure, and temperature—are all a consequence of the motion of the atoms. The volume is a result of the freedom the atoms have to spread throughout the container, the pressure is a result of the collisions of the atoms with the container’s walls, and the temperature has to do with the kinetic energy of the atoms. The kinetic theory of gases, the focus of this chapter, relates the motion of the atoms to the volume, pressure, and temperature of the gas. Applications of the kinetic theory of gases are countless. Automobile engi- neers are concerned with the combustion of vaporized fuel (a gas) in the auto- mobile engines. Food engineers are concerned with the production rate of the fermentation gas that causes bread to rise as it bakes. Beverage engineers are concerned with how gas can produce the head in a glass of beer or shoot a cork from a champagne bottle. Medical engineers and physiologists are concerned with calculating how long a scuba diver must pause during ascent to eliminate nitrogen gas from the bloodstream (to avoid the bends). Environmental scientists are concerned with how heat exchanges between the oceans and the atmosphere can affect weather conditions. The first step in our discussion of the kinetic theory of gases deals with measur- ing the amount of a gas present in a sample, for which we use Avogadro’s number.
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19.2 ID EAL GASES
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Avogadro’s Number
When our thinking is slanted toward atoms and molecules, it makes sense to measure the sizes of our samples in moles. If we do so, we can be certain that we are comparing samples that contain the same number of atoms or molecules. The mole is one of the seven SI base units and is defined as follows: One mole is the number of atoms in a 12 g sample of carbon-12.
The obvious question now is: “How many atoms or molecules are there in a mole?” The answer is determined experimentally and, as you saw in Chapter 18, is N A = 6.02 × 10 23 mol −1
(Avogadro’s number),
(19.1.1)
−1
where mol represents the inverse mole or “per mole,” and mol is the abbre- viation for mole. The number N A is called Avogadro’s number after Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro (1776 –1856), who suggested that all gases occupying the same volume under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of atoms or molecules. The number of moles n contained in a sample of any substance is equal to the ratio of the number of molecules N in the sample to the number of molecules N A in 1 mol: N . n = ___ N A
(19.1.2)
(Caution: The three symbols in this equation can easily be confused with one another, so you should sort them with their meanings now, before you end in “N-confusion.”) We can find the number of moles n in a sample from the mass M sam of the sample and either the molar mass M (the mass of 1 mol) or the molecular mass m (the mass of one molecule): M sam M sam n = _____ = _____ . M mN A
(19.1.3)
In Eq. 19.1.3, we used the fact that the mass M of 1 mol is the product of the mass m of one molecule and the number of molecules N A in 1 mol: M = mN A.
(19.1.4)
Checkpoint 19.1.1
If hydrogen H is collected from space (where it is monatomic) and forced into a con- tainer (where it forms H 2 molecules), is the number of moles multiplied by 2, divided by 2, or unchanged?
19.2 IDEAL GASES Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
19.2.1 Identify why an ideal gas is said to be ideal. 19.2.2 Apply either of the two forms of the ideal gas law, written in terms of the number of moles
N.
n or the
number of molecules
R and the
Boltzmann constant . 19.2.4 Identify that the temperature in the ideal gas law must be in kelvins.
expans ion of a gas and a cons tant-temperature contraction. 19.2.6 Identify the term isotherm.
19.2.3 Relate the ideal gas constant
k
p-V diagrams for a constant-temperature
19.2.5 Sketch
19.2.7 Calculate the work done by a gas , including the algebraic s ign, for an expans ion and a co n- traction along an is otherm. 19.2.8 For an isothermal process, identify that the change in internal energy
∆E is zero and that the
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C HAP T ER 19 T HE KINET IC T HEORY OF GASES
energy
Q transferred as heat is equal to the work W
p-V diagram, sketch a constant-pressure
19.2.10 On a
done. 19.2.9 On a
process and determine the work done in terms of
p-V diagram, sketch a constant-volume
area on the diagram.
process and identify the amount of work done in terms of area on the diagram.
Key Ideas ●
p V, and temperature T are related by
k is
An ideal gas is one for which the pressure ,
volume
pV = nRT
where the Boltzmann constant
R = 1.38 × 10 −23 J / K. k = ___ N A
(ideal gas law).
n is the number of moles of the gas present and R is a constant (8.31 J/mol · K) called the gas constant. Here
●
The ideal gas law can also be written as
●
The work done by an ideal gas during an isothermal
(constant-temperature) change from volume volume
V f is
V f W = nRT ln __ V i
pV = NkT,
V i to
(ideal gas, isothermal process).
Ideal Gases
Our goal in this chapter is to explain the macroscopic properties of a gas—such as its pressure and its temperature—in terms of the behavior of the molecules that make it up. However, there is an immediate problem: which gas? Should it be hydrogen, oxygen, or methane, or perhaps uranium hexafluoride? They are all different. Experimenters have found, though, that if we confine 1 mol sam- ples of various gases in boxes of identical volume and hold the gases at the same temperature, then their measured pressures are almost the same, and at lower densities the differences tend to disappear. Further experiments show that, at low enough densities, all real gases tend to obey the relation pV = nRT
(ideal gas law),
(19.2.1)
in which p is the absolute (not gauge) pressure, n is the number of moles of gas present, and T is the temperature in kelvins. The symbol R is a constant called the gas constant that has the same value for all gases—namely, R = 8.31 J/mol · K.
(19.2.2)
Equation 19.2.1 is called the ideal gas law. Provided the gas density is low, this law holds for any single gas or for any mixture of different gases. (For a mixture, n is the total number of moles in the mixture.) We can rewrite Eq. 19.2.1 in an alternative form, in terms of a constant called the Boltzmann constant k, which is defined as R 8.31 J/mol ⋅ K k = _ = ___________ = 1.38 × 10 −23 J/K. N A 6.02 × 10 23 mol –1
(19.2.3)
This allows us to write R = kN A . Then, with Eq. 19.1.2 (n = N/N A), we see that nR = Nk.
(19.2.4)
Substituting this into Eq. 19.2.1 g ives a second expression for the ideal gas law: pV = NkT
(ideal gas law).
(19.2.5)
(Caution: Note the difference between the two expressions for the ideal gas law— Eq. 19.2.1 involves the number of moles n, and Eq. 19.2.5 involves the number of molecules N.) You may well ask, “What is an ideal gas, and what is so ‘ideal’ about it?” The answer lies in the simplicity of the law (Eqs. 19.2.1 and 19.2.5) that governs its macro- scopic properties. Using this law—as you will see—we can deduce many properties
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19.2 ID EAL GASES
Suppose we put an ideal gas in a piston–cylinder arrangement like those in Chapter 18. Suppose also that we allow the gas to expand from an initial volume V i to a final volume V f while we keep the temperature T of the gas constant. Such a process, at constant temperature, is called an isothermal expansion (and the reverse is called an isothermal compression). On a p-V diagram, an isotherm is a curve that connects points that have the same temperature. Thus, it is a graph of pressure versus volume for a gas whose tempera- ture T is held constant. For n moles of an ideal gas, it is a graph of the equation 1 = (a constant) __ 1 . p = nRT __ (19.2.6) V V Figure 19.2.2 shows three isotherms, each corresponding to a different (constant) value of T. (Note that the values of T for the isotherms increase upward to the right.) Superimposed on the middle isotherm is the path followed by a gas during an isothermal expansion from state i to state f at a constant temperature of 310 K. To find the work done by an ideal gas during an isothermal expansion, we start with Eq. 18.5.2, W =
V i
p dV.
V f
V i
V f
dV = nRT ln V . _____ V [ ]
(19.2.9)
V i
By evaluating the expression in brackets at the limits and then using the rela- tionship ln a − ln b = ln(a/b), we find that V f W = nRT ln __ V i
The expansion is along an isotherm (the gas has constant temperature). p
i
(19.2.7)
This is a general expression for the work done during any change in volume of any gas. For an ideal gas, we can use Eq. 19.2.1 ( pV = nRT ) to substitute for p, obtaining V f nRT dV. W = _____ (19.2.8) V V i Because we are considering an isothermal expansion, T is constant, so we can move it in front of the integral sign to write W = nRT
(a) Before and (b) after images of a large steel tank crushed by atmospheric pressure after inter- nal steam cooled and condensed. Figure 19.2.1
Work Done by an Ideal Gas at Constant Temperature
V f
moc.emilsrotcod.www fo ysetruoC
of the ideal gas in a simple way. Although there is no such thing in nature as a truly ideal gas, all real gases approach the ideal state at low enough densities— that is, under conditions in which their molecules are far enough apart that they do not interact with one another. Thus, the ideal gas concept allows us to gain useful insights into the limiting behavior of real gases. Figure 19.2.1 g ives a dramatic example of the ideal gas law. A stainless- steel tank with a volume of 18 m 3 was filled with steam at a temperature of 110°C through a valve at one end. The steam supply was then turned off and the valve closed, so that the steam was trapped inside the tank (Fig. 19.2.1a). Water from a fire hose was then poured onto the tank to rapidly cool it. Within less than a minute, the enormously sturdy tank was crushed (a ) (Fig. 19.2.1b), as if some giant invisible creature from a grade B science fic- tion movie had stepped on it during a rampage. Actually, it was the atmosphere that crushed the tank. As the tank was cooled by the water stream, the steam cooled and much of it condensed, which means that the number N of gas molecules and the temperature T of the gas inside the tank both decreased. Thus, the right side of Eq. 19.2.5 decreased, and because volume V was constant, the gas pressure p on the left side also decreased. The gas pressure decreased so much that the exter- nal atmospheric pressure was able to crush the tank’s steel wall. Figure 19.2.1 was staged, but this type of crushing sometimes occurs in industrial FCP (b ) accidents (photos and videos can be found on the Web).
(ideal gas, isothermal process).
(19.2.10)
T
= 320 K
T
= 310 K
T
= 300 K
f
V
Three isotherms on a p-V diagram. The path shown along the middle isotherm represents an isothermal expansion of a gas from an initial state i to a final state f. The path from f to i along the iso- therm would represent the reverse process—that is, an isothermal compression. Figure 19.2.2
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C HAP T ER 19 T HE KINET IC T HEORY OF GASES
Recall that the symbol ln specifies a natural logarithm, which has base e. For an expansion, V f is greater than V i , so the ratio V f /V i in Eq. 19.2.10 is greater than unity. The natural logarithm of a quantity greater than unity is positive, and so the work W done by an ideal gas during an isothermal expansion is positive, as we expect. For a compression, V f is less than V i , so the ratio of volumes in Eq. 19.2.10 is less than unity. The natural logarithm in that equation—hence the work W—is negative, again as we expect. Work Done at Constant Volume and at Constant Pressure
Equation 19.2.14 does not give the work W done by an ideal gas during every thermodynamic process. Instead, it gives the work only for a process in which the temperature is held constant. If the temperature varies, then the symbol T in Eq. 19.2.8 c annot be moved in front of the integral symbol as in Eq. 19.2.9, a nd thus we do not end up with Eq. 19.2.10. However, we can always go back to Eq. 19.2.7 to find the work W done by an ideal gas (or any other gas) during any process, such as a constant-volume process and a constant-pressure process. If the volume of the gas is constant, then Eq. 19.2.7 y ields W = 0
(19.2.11)
(constant-volume process).
If, instead, the volume changes while the pressure p of the gas is held constant, then Eq. 19.2.7 becomes W = p(V f − V i ) = p ∆V
(constant-pressure p rocess).
(19.2.12)
Checkpoint 19.2.1
An ideal gas has an initial pressure of 3 pressure units and an initial volume of 4 volume units. The table gives the final pressure and volume of the gas (in those same units) in five processes. Which processes start and end on the same isotherm?
Sample Problem 19.2.1
KEY IDEA Because the gas is ideal, we can use the ideal gas law to relate its parameters, both in the initial state i and in the final state f.
Note here that if we converted the given initial and final volumes from liters to the proper units of cubic meters, the multiplying conversion factors would cancel out of Eq. 19.2.13. The same would be true for conversion fac- tors that convert the pressures from atmospheres to the proper pascals. However, to convert the given tempera- tures to kelvins requires the addition of an amount that would not cancel and thus must be included. Hence, we must write T i = (273 + 20) K = 293 K
From Eq. 19.2.1 we can write
p i V i = nRT i
and
a b c d e 12 6 5 4 1 1 2 7 3 12
Ideal gas and changes of temperature, volume, and pressure
A cylinder contains 12 L of oxygen at 20°C and 15 atm. The temperature is raised to 35°C, and the volume is reduced to 8.5 L. What is the final pressure of the gas in atmospheres? A ssume that the gas is ideal.
Calculations:
p V
p f V f = nRT f .
and
Dividing the second equation by the first equation and solv- ing for p f yields p i T f V i p f = _____ . T i V f
(19.2.13)
T f = (273 + 35) K = 308 K.
Inserting the given data into Eq. 19.2.13 then yields (15 atm )(308 K )(12 L ) p f = __________________ = 22 atm. (Answer) (293 K )(8.5 L )
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583
19.3 P RESSU RE, T EMP ERAT U RE, AND RMS SP EED
Sample Problem 19.2.2
Work by an ideal gas
One mole of oxygen (assume it to be an ideal gas) expands at a constant temperature T of 310 K from an initial vol- ume V i of 12 L to a final volume V f of 19 L. How much work is done by the gas during the expansion?
KEY IDEA
You can show that if the expansion is now reversed, with the gas undergoing an isothermal compression from 19 L to 12 L, the work done by the gas will be −1180 J. Thus, an external force would have to do 1180 J of work on the gas to compress it.
Generally we find the work by integrating the gas pres- sure with respect to the gas volume, using Eq. 19.2.7. However, because the gas here is ideal and the expansion is isothermal, that integration leads to Eq. 19.2.10.
i
2.0
Calculation:
= 1180 J.
(Answer)
The expansion is graphed in the p-V diagram of Fig. 19.2.3. The work done by the gas during the expansion is represented by the area beneath the curve if.
The shaded area rep- resents the work done by 1 mol of oxygen in expand- ing from V i to V f at a temperature T of 310 K. Figure 19.2.3
)mta( erusserP
Therefore, we can write V f W = nRT ln __ V i 19 L = (1 mol )(8.31 J / m ol ⋅ K )(310 K ) ln _____ 12 L
3.0
f T
= 310 K
1.0 W
Vi
0
Vf
10 20 Volume (L)
30
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19.3 PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND RMS SPEED Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
19.3.1 Identify that the pressure on the interior walls of
root-mean-square speed
a gas container is due to the molecular collisions with the walls.
speed
v avg .
v rms and the average
19.3.4 Relate the pressure of an ideal gas to the rms speed
19.3.2 Relate the pressure on a container wall to the momentum of the gas molecules and the time inter-
v rms of the molecules.
19.3.5 For an ideal gas, apply the relationship between
T and the rms speed v rms and M of the molecules.
the gas temperature
vals between their collisions with the wall.
molar mass
19.3.3 For the molecules of an ideal gas, relate the
Key Ideas ●
In terms of the speed of the gas molecules, the pres-
n moles of an ideal gas is
sure exerted by
nMv 2 rms p = ________ , 3V
_
where
of the molecules,
M is the molar mass, and V is the
volume. ●
The rms speed can be written in terms of the
temperature as
v rms = √ (v 2 ) avg is the root-mean-square speed
_____
3RT . v rms = √ ____ M
Pressure, Temperature, and RMS Speed
Here is our first kinetic theory problem. Let n moles of an ideal gas be confined in a cubical box of volume V, as in Fig. 19.3.1. The walls of the box are held at temperature T. What is the connection between the pressure p exerted by the gas on the walls and the speeds of the molecules?
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584
C HAP T ER 19 T HE KINET IC T HEORY OF GASES
y
Normal to shaded wall
v
m L
x L z
L
A cubical box of edge length L, containing n moles of an ideal gas. A molecule of mass m and → velocity v is about to collide with the shaded wall of area L 2 . A normal to that wall is shown. Figure 19.3.1
The molecules of gas in the box are moving in all directions and with various speeds, bumping into one another and bouncing from the walls of the box like balls in a racquetball court. We ignore (for the time being) collisions of the mol- ecules with one another and consider only elastic collisions with the walls. Figure 19.3.1 shows a typical gas molecule, of mass m and velocity → v , that is about to collide with the shaded wall. Because we assume that any collision of a molecule with a wall is elastic, when this molecule collides with the shaded wall, the only component of its velocity that is changed is the x component, and that component is reversed. This means that the only change in the particle’s momen- tum is along the x axis, and that change is ∆p x = (−mv x) − (mv x) = −2mv x . Hence, the momentum ∆p x delivered to the wall by the molecule during the col- lision is +2mv x . (Because in this book the symbol p represents both momentum and pressure, we must be careful to note that here p represents momentum and is a vector quantity.) The molecule of Fig. 19.3.1 will hit the shaded wall repeatedly. The time ∆t between collisions is the time the molecule takes to travel to the opposite wall and back again (a distance 2L) at speed v x . Thus, ∆t is equal to 2L/v x . (Note that this result holds even if the molecule bounces off any of the other walls along the way, because those walls are parallel to x and so cannot change v x .) Therefore, the aver- age rate at which momentum is delivered to the shaded wall by this single molecule is 2
Δ p x _____ 2mv x ____ mv ____ = = x . Δt
2L/ vx
L
→ From Newton’s second law ( F = d → p / dt), the rate at which momentum is delivered to the wall is the force acting on that wall. To find the total force, we must add up the contributions of all the molecules that strike the wall, allowing for the possibility that they all have different speeds. Dividing the magnitude of the total force F x by the area of the wall (= L 2 ) then gives the pressure p on that wall, where now and in the rest of this discussion, p represents pressure. Thus, using the expression for ∆p x /∆t, we can write this pressure as F x _______________________________ mv 2 / L + mv x2 2 / L + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + mv x2 N / L p = ______ = x1 2 L L 2 m v 2 + v 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ +v 2 , = _____ x2 xN ) (L 3 ) ( x1
(19.3.1)
where N is the number of molecules in the box. Since N = nN A , there are nN A terms in the second set of parentheses of Eq. 19.3.1. We can replace that quantity by nN A ( v x 2 ) avg , where ( v x 2 ) avg is the average value of the square of the x components of all the molecular speeds. Equation 19.3.1 then becomes nmN A 2 p = ______ ( v x ) avg . L 3 However, mN A is the molar mass M of the gas (that is, the mass of 1 mol of the gas). Also, L 3 is the volume of the box, so nM ( v x2 ) avg p = _________ . (19.3.2) V For any molecule, v 2 = v x2 + v y2 + v z2 . Because there are many molecules and because they are all moving in random directions, the average v alues of the 1 2 squares of their velocity components are equal, so that v x2 = _ 3 v . Thus, Eq. 19.3.2 becomes nM( v 2 ) avg p = _________ . (19.3.3) 3V The square root of (v 2 ) avg is a kind of average speed, called the root-mean- square speed of the molecules and symbolized by v rms . Its name describes it rather well: You square each speed, you find the mean (that is, the average) of all these /
585
19.3 P RESSU RE, T EMP ERAT U RE, AND RMS SP EED
_
squared speeds, and then you take the square root of that mean. With √ ( v 2 ) avg = v rms , we can then write Eq. 19.3.3 a s nMV r2 ms p = _______ . 3V
Table 19.3.1 Some RMS Speeds at
Gas
Molar Mass (10 −3 kg/mol)
v rms (m/s)
2.02 4.0
1920 1370
18.0 28.0 32.0
645 517 483
44.0
412
64.1
342
Hydrogen (H 2 ) Helium (He) Water vapor (H 2 O) Nitrogen (N 2) Oxygen (O 2 ) Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 )
_____
3RT . v rms = √ ____ M
(19.3.5)
Table 19.3.1 shows some rms speeds calculated from Eq. 19.3.5. The speeds are surprisingly high. For hydrogen molecules at room temperature (300 K), the rms speed is 1920 m/s, or 4300 mi/h—faster than a speeding bullet! On the sur- face of the Sun, where the temperature is 2 × 10 6 K, the rms speed of hydrogen molecules would be 82 times greater than at room temperature were it not for the fact that at such high speeds, the molecules cannot survive collisions among themselves. Remember too that the rms speed is only a kind of average speed; many molecules move much faster than this, and some much slower. The speed of sound in a gas is closely related to the rms speed of the mol- ecules of that gas. In a sound wave, the disturbance is passed on from molecule to molecule by means of collisions. The wave cannot move any faster than the “average” speed of the molecules. In fact, the speed of sound must be somewhat less than this “average” m olecular speed because not all molecules are moving in exactly the same direction as the wave. As examples, at room temperature, the rms speeds of hydrogen and nitrogen molecules are 1920 m/s and 517 m/s, respectively. The speeds of sound in these two gases at this temperature are 1350 m/s a nd 350 m/s, respectively. A question often arises: If molecules move so fast, why does it take as long as a minute or so before you can smell perfume when someone opens a bottle across a room? The answer is that, as we shall discuss in Module 19.5, each perfume molecule may have a high speed but it moves away from the bottle only very slowly because its repeated collisions with other molecules prevent it from mov- ing directly across the room to you. Checkpoint 19.3.1
The following gives the temperatures and molar masses (in terms of a basic amount M 0 ) for three gases. Rank the gases according to their rms speeds, greatest first.
Gas A B C
T 400 K 360 K 280 K
a
For convenience, we often set room temperature equal to 300 K even though (at 27°C or 81°F) that represents a fairly warm room.
M 4M 0 3M 0 2M 0
Average and rms values
Here are five numbers: 5, 11, 32, 67, and 89.
Calculation:
(a) What is the average v alue n avg of these numbers? Calculation:
= 300 K) a
(19.3.4)
This tells us how the pressure of the gas (a purely macroscopic quantity) depends on the speed of the molecules (a purely microscopic quantity). We can turn Eq. 19.3.4 around and use it to calculate v rms . Combining Eq. 19.3.4 with the ideal gas law ( pV = nRT ) leads to
Sample Problem 19.3.1
Room Temperature (T
We find this from
5 + 11 + 32 + 67 + 89 = 40.8. n avg = __________________ 5
We find this from
_______________________
n rms =
+ 11 + 32 + 67 + 89 √ 5 _______________________ 5 2
2
= 52.1. (Answer)
(b) What is the rms value n rms of these numbers?
2
2
2
(Answer)
The rms value is greater than the average value because the larger numbers—being squared—are rela- tively more important in forming the rms value.
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C HAP T ER 19 T HE KINET IC T HEORY OF GASES
19.4 TRANSLATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
19.4.1 For an ideal gas, relate the average kinetic
19.4.3 Identify that a measurement of a gas tempera-
energy of the molecules to their rms speed.
ture is effectively a measurement of the average
19.4.2 Apply the relationship between the average
kinetic energy of the gas molecules.
kinetic energy and the temperature of the gas.
Key Ideas ●
The average translational kinetic energy per molecule
●
The average translational kinetic energy is related to
the temperature of the gas:
in an ideal gas is
3 K avg = _ kT. 2
1 2 K avg = _ mv rms . 2
Translational Kinetic Energy
We again consider a single molecule of an ideal gas as it moves around in the box of Fig. 19.3.1, but we now assume that its speed changes when it collides with 1 mv 2 . Its average other molecules. Its translational kinetic energy at any instant is _ 2 translational kinetic energy over the time that we watch it is 1 2 1 2 1 2 _ _ K avg = ( _ 2 mv ) avg = 2 m ( v ) a vg = 2 mv rms ,
(19.4.1)
in which we make the assumption that the average speed of the molecule dur- ing our observation is the same as the average speed of all the molecules at any given time. (Provided the total energy of the gas is not changing and provided we observe our molecule for long enough, this assumption is appropriate.) Substi- tuting for v rms from Eq. 19.3.5 leads to 1 3RT ____ K avg = ( _ 2 m) M . However, M/m, the molar mass divided by the mass of a molecule, is simply Avogadro’s number. Thus, ____ . K avg = 3RT 2N A Using Eq. 19.2.3 (k = R/N A), we can then write 3 K avg = _ kT. 2
(19.4.2)
This equation tells us something unexpected: At a given temperature T, all ideal gas molecules—no matter what their mass— 3 have the same average translational kinetic energy—namely, _ 2 kT. When we measure the temperature of a gas, we are also measuring the average transla- tional kinetic energy of its molecules.
Checkpoint 19.4.1
A gas mixture consists of molecules of types 1, 2, and 3, with molecular masses m 1 > m 2 > m 3 . Rank the three types according to (a) average kinetic energy and (b) rms speed, greatest first.
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19.5 MEAN F REE P AT H
587
19.5 MEAN FREE PATH Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
19.5.1 Identify what is meant by mean free path.
path, the diameter of the molecules, and the number
19.5.2 Apply the relationship between the mean free
of molecules per unit volume.
Key Idea ●
The mean free path
λ of a gas molecule is its average path length between
collisions and is given by
1 λ = ___________ , _ 2 √ 2 π d N/ V where
N/V is the number of molecules per unit volume and d is the molecular
diameter.
Mean Free Path
We continue to examine the motion of molecules in an ideal gas. Figure 19.5.1 shows the path of a typical molecule as it moves through the gas, changing both speed and direction abruptly as it collides elastically with other molecules. Between collisions, the molecule moves in a straight line at constant speed. Although the figure shows the other molecules as stationary, they are (of course) also moving. One useful parameter to describe this random motion is the mean free path of the molecules. As its name implies, is the average distance traversed by a molecule between collisions. We expect to vary inversely with N/V, the num- ber of molecules per unit volume (or density of molecules). The larger N/V is, the more collisions there should be and the smaller the mean free path. We also expect to vary inversely with the size of the molecules—with their diameter d, say. (If the molecules were points, as we have assumed them to be, they would never collide and the mean free path would be infinite.) Thus, the larger the molecules are, the smaller the mean free path. We can even predict that should vary (inversely) as the square of the molecular diameter because the cross section of a molecule—not its diameter—determines its effective target area. The expression for the mean free path does, in fact, turn out to be _ 1 λ = ____________ √ 2 π d 2 N/ V
A molecule traveling through a gas, colliding with other gas molecules in its path. Although the other molecules are shown as sta- tionary, they are also moving in a similar fashion. Figure 19.5.1
(19.5.1)
(mean free path).
To justify Eq. 19.5.1, we focus attention on a single molecule and assume—as Fig. 19.5.1 suggests—that our molecule is traveling with a constant speed v and that all the other molecules are at rest. Later, we shall relax this assumption. We assume further that the molecules are spheres of diameter d. A collision will then take place if the centers of two molecules come within a distance d of each other, as in Fig. 19.5.2a. Another, more helpful way to look at the situation (a) A collision occurs when the centers of two molecules come within a distance d of each other, d being the molec- ular diameter. (b) An equivalent but more convenient representation is to think of the moving molecule as having a radius d and all other molecules as being points. The condition for a collision is unchanged. Figure 19.5.2
d m
m
m
d
d
(a)
2d
m
(b )
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588
C HAP T ER 19 T HE KINET IC T HEORY OF GASES
2d
v Δt
In time ∆t the moving molecule effectively sweeps out a cylinder of length v ∆t and radius d. Figure 19.5.3
is to consider our single molecule to have a radius of d and all the other molecules to be points, as in Fig. 19.5.2b. This does not change our criterion for a collision. As our single molecule zigzags through the gas, it sweeps out a short cylin- der of cross-sectional area d 2 between successive collisions. If we watch this molecule for a time interval ∆t, it moves a distance v ∆t, where v is its assumed speed. Thus, if we align all the short cylinders swept out in interval ∆t, we form a composite cylinder (Fig. 19.5.3) of length v ∆t and volume ( d 2 )(v ∆t). The number of collisions that occur in time ∆t is then equal to the number of (point) molecules that lie within this cylinder. Since N/V is the number of molecules per unit volume, the number of mole- cules in the cylinder is N/V times the volume of the cylinder, or (N/V )( d 2 v ∆t ). This is also the number of collisions in time ∆t. The mean free path is the length of the path (and of the cylinder) divided by this number: length of path during Δt ___________ v Δt λ = ________________________ ≈ number of collisions in Δt πd 2 v Δt N/ V 1 . = _______ πd 2 N/ V
(19.5.2)
This equation is only approximate because it is based on the assumption that all the molecules except one are at rest. In fact, all the molecules are moving; when this is taken properly into account, Eq. 19.5.1 results. Note that it differs _ from the (approximate) Eq. 19.5.2 only by a factor of 1/ √ 2 . The approximation in Eq. 19.5.2 involves the two v symbols we canceled. The v in the numerator is v avg , the mean speed of the molecules relative to the container. The v in the denominator is v rel , the mean speed of our single mol- ecule relative to the other molecules, which are moving. It is this latter average speed that determines the number of collisions. A detailed calculation, _ taking into account the actual speed distribution of the molecules, gives v rel = √ 2 vavg and _ thus the factor √ 2 . The mean free path of air molecules at sea level is about 0.1 m. At an altitude of 100 km, the density of air has dropped to such an extent that the mean free path rises to about 16 cm. At 300 km, the mean free path is about 20 km. A problem faced by those who would study the physics and chemistry of the upper atmosphere in the laboratory is the unavailability of containers large enough to hold gas samples (of Freon, carbon dioxide, and ozone) that simulate upper atmospheric conditions.
Checkpoint 19.5.1
One mole of gas A, with molecular diameter 2d 0 and average molecular speed v 0 , is placed inside a certain container. One mole of gas B, with molecular diameter d 0 and average molecular speed 2v 0 (the molecules of B are smaller but faster), is placed in an identical container. Which gas has the greater average collision rate within its container?
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19.6 T HE D IST RIBU T ION OF MOL EC U L AR SP EED S
Sample Problem 19.5.1
589
Mean free path, average speed, collision frequency
(a) What is the mean free path for oxygen molecules at temperature T = 300 K and pressure p = 1.0 atm? Assume that the molecular diameter is d = 290 pm and the gas is ideal.
KEY IDEA Each oxygen molecule moves among other moving oxy- gen molecules in a zigzag path due to the resulting collisions. Thus, we use Eq. 19.5.1 for the mean free path. We first need the number of molecules per unit volume, N/V. Because we assume the gas is ideal, we can use the ideal gas law of Eq. 19.2.5 ( pV = NkT ) to write N/V = p/kT. Substituting this into Eq. 19.5.1, we find Calculation:
collisions for any given molecule? At what rate does the mol- ecule collide; that is, what is the frequency f of its collisions?
KEY IDEAS (1) Between collisions, the molecule travels, on average, the mean free path at speed v. (2) The average rate or frequency at which the collisions occur is the inverse of the time t between collisions. From the first key idea, the average time between collisions is Calculations:
1.1 × 10 m distance = ___ λ = ___________ t = ________ v speed 450 m / s −7
= 2.44 × 10 −10 s ≈ 0.24 ns.
1 kT λ = ___________ = ________ _ 2 _ 2 √ 2 πd N/ V √ 2 πd p −23
(1.38 × 10 J/K )(300 K) _________ = ________________________ _ 2 √ 2 π (2.9 × 10 −10 m) (1.01 × 10 5 Pa) = 1.1 × 10 −7 m.
This tells us that, on average, a ny given oxygen molecule has less than a nanosecond between collisions. From the second key idea, the collision frequency is 1 = ________ 1 _____ = 4.1 × 10 9 s −1 . f = __ t 2.44 × 10 −10 s
(Answer)
This is about 380 molecular diameters. (b) Assume the average speed of the oxygen molecules is v = 450 m/s. What is the average time t between successive
(Answer)
(Answer)
This tells us that, on average, a ny given oxygen molecule makes about 4 billion collisions per second.
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19.6 THE DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
19.6.1 Explain how Maxwell’s speed distribution law is used to find the fraction of molecules with speeds in a certain speed range.
showing the probability distribution versus speed and indicating the relative positions of the average
speed
used to find the average speed, the rms speed, and the most probable speed.
19.6.2 Sketch a graph of Maxwell’s speed distribution,
speed
19.6.3 Explain how Maxwell’s speed distribution is
v avg , the most probable speed v P , and the rms v rms .
T and molar mass M, calculate the average speed v a vg , the most probable speed v v rms . P, and the rms speed
19.6.4 For a given temperature
Key Ideas ●
The Maxwell speed distribution
_____
P(v) is a function
v avg =
P(v) dv gives the fraction of molecules with speeds in the interval dv at speed v: such that
3/2
the molecules of a gas are
(average speed),
_____
2
Three measures of the distribution of speeds among
____
____ v P = √ 2RT M
M 2 −Mv /2RT P(v ) = 4 π(_____ . 2 πRT ) v e ●
√ 8RT πM
(most probable speed),
_____
and
____ v rms = √ 3RT M
(rms speed).
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590
C HAP T ER 19 T HE KINET IC T HEORY OF GASES
The Distribution of Molecular Speeds
The root-mean-square speed v rms gives us a general idea of molecular speeds in a gas at a given temperature. We often want to know more. For example, what fraction of the molecules have speeds greater than the rms value? What fraction have speeds greater than twice the rms value? To answer such questions, we need to know how the possible values of speed are distributed among the molecules. Figure 19.6.1a shows this distribution for oxygen molecules at room temperature (T = 300 K); Fig. 19.6.1b compares it with the distribution at T = 80 K. In 1852, Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell first solved the problem of finding the speed distribution of gas molecules. His result, known as Maxwell’s speed distribution law, is 3/2
M 2 −Mv /2RT P(v ) = 4 π(_____ . 2 πRT ) v e 2
(19.6.1)
Here M is the molar mass of the gas, R is the gas constant, T is the gas temper- ature, and v is the molecular speed. It is this equation that is plotted in Fig. 19.6.1a, b. The quantity P(v) in Eq. 19.6.1 a nd Fig. 19.6.1 is a probability distri- bution function: For any speed v, the product P(v) dv (a dimensionless quantity) is the fraction of molecules with speeds in the interval dv centered on speed v. As Fig. 19.6.1a shows, this fraction is equal to the area of a strip with height P(v) and width dv. The total area under the distribution curve corresponds to the fraction of the molecules whose speeds lie between zero and infinity. All molecules fall into this category, so the value of this total area is unity; that is, ∞
P(v) dv = 1.
(19.6.2)
0
The fraction (frac) of molecules with speeds in an interval of, say, v 1 to v 2 is then v 2
frac = P(v) dv.
(19.6.3)
v 1
Average, RMS, and Most Probable Speeds
In principle, we can find the average speed v avg of the molecules in a gas with the following procedure: We weight each value of v in the distribution; that is, we multiply it by the fraction P(v) dv of molecules with speeds in a differential
A
4.0
)m/s 3 – 01( )v ( P
2.0
T
)m/s 3 – 01( )v ( P
(a)
3.0
v P v rms
0
Area = P (v) dv
v avg
1.0
0
200
dv
400
600 800 Speed (m/s)
1000
= 80 K
2.0
1200
T
(a) The Maxwell speed distribution for oxy- gen molecules at T = 300 K. The three characteristic speeds are marked. (b) The curves for 300 K and 80 K. Note that the molecules move more slowly at the lower temperature. Because these are probability distributions, the area under each curve has a numerical value of unity.
= 300 K
1.0
Figure 19.6.1
0 (b )
0
200
400
600 800 Speed (m/s)
1000
1200
/
19.6 T HE D IST RIBU T ION OF MOL EC U L AR SP EED S
591
interval dv centered on v. Then we add up all these values of v P(v) dv. The result is v avg . In practice, we do all this by evaluating ∞
v avg = v P(v) dv. 0
(19.6.4)
Substituting for P(v) from Eq. 19.6.1 a nd using generic integral 20 from the list of integrals in Appendix E, we find _____
v avg =
8RT √ ____ πM
(average speed).
(19.6.5)
Similarly, we can find the average of the square of the speeds (v 2 ) avg with ∞
(v 2 ) avg = v 2 P(v ) dv. 0
(19.6.6)
Substituting for P(v) from Eq. 19.6.1 and using generic integral 16 from the list of integrals in Appendix E, we find 3RT . ( v 2 ) avg = ____ M
(19.6.7)
The square root of (v 2 ) avg is the root-mean-square speed v rms . Thus, _____
3RT v rms = √ ____ M
(rms speed),
(19.6.8)
which agrees with Eq. 19.3.5. The most probable speed v P is the speed at which P(v) is maximum (see Fig. 19.6.1a). To calculate v P , we set dP/dv = 0 (the slope of the curve in Fig. 19.6.1a is zero at the maximum of the curve) and then solve for v. Doing so, we find _____
2RT v P = √ ____ M
(most probable speed).
(19.6.9)
A molecule is more likely to have speed v P than any other speed, but some molecules will have speeds that are many times v P. These molecules lie in the high-speed tail of a distribution curve like that in Fig. 19.6.1a. Such higher speed molecules make possible both rain and sunshine (without which we could not exist): Rain The speed distribution of water molecules in, say, a pond at summer- time temperatures can be represented by a curve similar to that of Fig. 19.6.1a. Most of the molecules lack the energy to escape from the surface. However, a few of the molecules in the high-speed tail of the curve can do so. It is these water molecules that evaporate, making clouds and rain possible. As the fast water molecules leave the surface, carrying energy with them, the temperature of the remaining water is maintained by heat transfer from the surroundings. Other fast molecules—produced in particularly favorable collisions— quickly take the place of those that have left, and the speed distribution is maintained. Sunshine Let the distribution function of Eq. 19.6.1 now refer to protons in the core of the Sun. The Sun’s energy is supplied by a nuclear fusion process that starts with the merging of two protons. However, protons repel each other because of their electrical charges, and protons of average speed do not have enough kinetic energy to overcome the repulsion and get close enough to merge. Very fast protons with speeds in the high-speed tail of the distribution curve can do so, however, and for that reason the Sun can shine. Checkpoint 19.6.1
For any given temperature, rank the three measures of speed—v avg , v P , and v rms — greatest first.
/
592
C HAP T ER 19 T HE KINET IC T HEORY OF GASES
Sample Problem 19.6.1
Speed distribution in a gas
In oxygen (molar mass M = 0.0320 kg/mol) at room tem- perature (300 K), what fraction of the molecules have speeds in the interval 599 to 601 m/s?
KEY IDEAS
The total area under the plot of P(v) in Fig. 19.6.1a is the total fraction of molecules (unity), and the area of the thin gold strip (not to scale) is the fraction we seek. Let’s evaluate frac in parts: frac = (4 )(A)(v 2 )(e B )(∆v),
1. The speeds of the molecules are distributed over a wide range of values, with the distribution P(v) of Eq. 19.6.1. 2. The fraction of molecules with speeds in a differential interval dv is P(v) dv. 3. For a larger interval, the fraction is found by integrat- ing P(v) over the interval. 4. However, the interval ∆v = 2 m/s here is small compared to the speed v = 600 m/s on which it is centered.
where
Because ∆v is small, we can avoid the inte- gration by approximating the fraction as
Substituting A and B into Eq. 19.6.10 y ields
Calculations:
M _____
3/2
frac = P(v ) Δv = 4π( v e 2πRT )
Sample Problem 19.6.2
2 −Mv 2 /2RT
Δv.
3/2
0.0320 kg/mol M 3/2 = _____________________________ A = ( _____ ((2 π)(8.31 J / m ol ⋅ K)(300 K) ) 2 πRT ) = 2.92 × 10 −9 s 3 / m 3 (0.0320 kg/mol) (600 m/ s) 2 Mv 2 = − _______________________ and B = − ____ 2RT (2)(8.31 J/mol ⋅ K)(300 K) = −2.31. frac = (4 )(A)(v 2 )(e B )(∆v)
= (4 )(2.92 × 10 −9 s 3 /m 3 )(600 m/s) 2 (e −2.31 )(2 m/s) = 2.62 × 10 −3 = 0.262%.
(Answer)
Average speed, rms speed, most probable speed
The molar mass M of oxygen is 0.0320 kg/mol.
Calculation:
We end up with Eq. 19.6.8, which gives us _____
(a) What is the average speed v avg of oxygen gas mole- cules at T = 300 K?
3RT v rms = √ ____ M
______________________
KEY IDEA
=
To find the average speed, we must weight speed v with the distribution function P(v) of Eq. 19.6.1 a nd then inte- grate the resulting expression over the range of possible speeds (from zero to the limit of an infinite speed). Calculation:
(19.6.10)
We end up with Eq. 19.6.5, which gives us _____
8 (8.31 J/mol ⋅ K )(300 K ) ______________________
π(0.0320 kg/mol )
= 445 m / s.
(Answer)
KEY IDEA
______________________
√
= 483 m / s.
This result, plotted in Fig. 19.6.1a, is greater than v avg because the greater speed values influence the calculation more when we integrate the v 2 values than when we inte- grate the v values. (c) What is the most probable speed v P at 300 K?
8RT v avg = √ ____ πM =
3(8.31 J/mol ⋅ K)(300 K)
√ ______________________ 0.0320 kg / m ol
(Answer)
This result is plotted in Fig. 19.6.1a. (b) What is the root-mean-square speed v rms at 300 K?
KEY IDEA To find v rms , we must first find (v 2 ) avg by weighting v 2 with the distribution function P(v) of Eq. 19.6.1 a nd then inte- grating the expression over the range of possible speeds. Then we must take the square root of the result.
Speed v P corresponds to the maximum of the distribution function P(v), which we obtain by setting the derivative dP/dv = 0 and solving the result for v. Calculation:
We end up with Eq. 19.6.9, which gives us _____
2RT v P = √ ____ M ______________________ 2 (8.31 J/mol ⋅ K )(300 K ) = ______________________ 0.0320 kg/mol
√
= 395 m / s.
(Answer)
This result is also plotted in Fig. 19.6.1a.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
/
19.7 T HE MOL AR SP EC IF IC HEAT S OF AN ID EAL GAS
593
19.7 THE MOLAR SPECIFIC HEATS OF AN IDEAL GAS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
19.7.1 Identify that the internal energy of an ideal mona-
entirely into the internal energy (the random trans-
tomic gas is the sum of the translational kinetic ener-
lational motion) but that in a constant-pressure
gies of its atoms.
process energy also goes into the work done to
19.7.2 Apply the relationship between the internal
E int of a monatomic ideal gas, the number of moles n, and the gas temperature T. energy
expand the gas. 19.7.7 Identify that for a given change in temperature, the change in the internal energy of an ideal gas is
19.7.3 Distinguish between monatomic, diatomic, and
the same for any process and is most easily calcu-
polyatomic ideal gases. 19.7.4 For monatomic, diatomic, and polyatomic ideal gases, evaluate the molar specific heats for a constant-volume process and a constant-pressure process.
lated by assuming a constant-volume process. 19.7.8 For an ideal gas, apply the relationship between
Q , number of moles n, and temperature change ∆T , using the appropriate molar specific heat. 19.7.9 Between two isotherms on a p-V diagram, heat
19.7.5 Calculate a molar specific heat at constant pres-
sketch a constant-volume process and a constant-
C p by adding R to the molar specific heat at constant volume C V, and explain why (physically) C p sure
is greater.
pressure process, and for each identify the work done in terms of area on the graph. 19.7.10 Calculate the work done by an ideal gas for a
19.7.6 Identify that the energy transferred to an ideal gas as heat in a constant-volume process goes
constant-pressure process. 19.7.11 Identify that work is zero for constant volume.
Key Ideas ●
C V of a gas at constant vol-
The molar specific heat
pressure is defined to be
Q C p = _____ , n ΔT
ume is defined as
Q ΔE int C V = _____ = _____ , n ΔT n ΔT Q is the energy transferred as heat to or from n moles of the gas, ∆T is the resulting temperature change of the gas, and ∆E int is the result- in which
in which
Q, n, and ΔT are defined as above. C p is also
given by
C p = C V + R.
a sample of
●
●
For an ideal monatomic gas,
3 C V = _ R = 12.5 J/mol ⋅ K. 2 ●
C p of a gas at constant
The molar specific heat
n moles of an ideal gas,
For
ing change in the internal energy of the gas.
E int = nC VT
(ideal gas).
n moles of a confined ideal gas undergo a temper- ature change ∆T due to any process, the change in the ● If
internal energy of the gas is
∆E int = nC V ∆T
(ideal gas, any process).
The Molar Specific Heats of an Ideal Gas
In this module, we want to derive from molecular considerations an expression for the internal energy E int of an ideal gas. In other words, we want an expression for the energy associated with the random motions of the atoms or molecules in the gas. We shall then use that expression to derive the molar specific heats of an ideal gas. Internal Energy E
int
Let us first assume that our ideal gas is a monatomic gas (individual atoms rather than molecules), such as helium, neon, or argon. Let us also assume that the internal energy E int is the sum of the translational kinetic energies of the atoms. (Quantum theory disallows rotational kinetic energy for individual atoms.) The average translational kinetic energy of a single atom depends only on the 3 kT. A sample of n moles of gas temperature and is given by Eq. 19.4.2 as K avg = _ 2 such a gas contains nN A atoms. The internal energy E int of the sample is then 3 E int = (nN A )K avg = (nN A ) (_ kT ). 2
(19.7.1) /
594
C HAP T ER 19 T HE KINET IC T HEORY OF GASES
Using Eq. 19.2.3 (k = R/N A), we can rewrite this as 3 E int = _ nRT 2
Pin
(monatomic ideal gas).
(19.7.2)
Pin
The internal energy E int of an ideal gas is a function of the gas temperature only; it does not depend on any other variable.
Q
T
Thermal reservoir (a )
p +
Δ p
The temperature increase is done without changing the volume.
f
With Eq. 19.7.2 in hand, we are now able to derive an expression for the molar specific heat of an ideal gas. Actually, we shall derive two expressions. One is for the case in which the volume of the gas remains constant as energy is transferred to or from it as heat. The other is for the case in which the pres- sure of the gas remains constant as energy is transferred to or from it as heat. The symbols for these two molar specific heats are C V and C p , respectively. (By convention, the capital letter C is used in both cases, even though C V and C p represent types of specific heat and not heat capacities.) Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume
erusserP
p i T + V
Δ T
T
Volume (b )
(a) The temperature of an ideal gas is raised from T to T + ∆T in a constant-volume process. Heat is added, but no work is done. (b) The process on a p-V diagram. Figure 19.7.1
Figure 19.7.1a shows n moles of an ideal gas at pressure p and temperature T, confined to a cylinder of fixed volume V. This initial state i of the gas is marked on the p-V diagram of Fig. 19.7.1b. Suppose now that you add a small amount of energy to the gas as heat Q by slowly turning up the temperature of the thermal reservoir. The gas temperature rises a small amount to T + ∆T, and its pressure rises to p + ∆p, bringing the gas to final state f. In such experiments, we would find that the heat Q is related to the temperature change ∆T by Q = nC V ∆T
(constant volume),
(19.7.3)
where C V is a constant called the molar specific heat at constant volume. Substi- tuting this expression for Q into the first law of thermodynamics as given by Eq. 18.5.3 (∆E int = Q − W ) yields ∆E int = nC V ∆T − W.
(19.7.4)
With the volume held constant, the gas cannot expand and thus cannot do any work. Therefore, W = 0, and Eq. 19.7.4 g ives us Table 19.7.1 Molar Specific Heats at
Constant Volume
Molecule Monatomic
Example 2
He Ar
Ideal Real
12.5 12.6 5 _ R = 20.8
Ideal Real
Polyatomic
3 R = 12.5 _
Ideal Real
Diatomic
C V (J/mol · K)
2
N 2 O 2
20.7 20.8 3R = 24.9
NH 4 CO 2
29.0 29.7
ΔE int C V = _____ . n ΔT
(19.7.5)
From Eq. 19.7.2, the change in internal energy must be 3 Δ E int = _ nR ΔT. 2
(19.7.6)
Substituting this result into Eq. 19.7.5 y ields _ R = 12.5 J/mol ⋅ K C V = 3 2
(monatomic gas).
(19.7.7)
As Table 19.7.1 shows, this prediction of the kinetic theory (for ideal gases) agrees very well with experiment for real monatomic gases, the case that we have assumed. The (predicted and) experimental values of C V for diatomic gases (which have molecules with two atoms) and polyatomic gases (which have mol- ecules with more than two atoms) are greater than those for monatomic gases for reasons that will be suggested in Module 19.8. Here we make the prelimi- nary assumption that the C V values for diatomic and polyatomic gases a re greater than for monatomic gases because the more complex molecules can rotate and thus have rotational kinetic energy. So, when Q is transferred to a diatomic or
/
19.7 T HE MOL AR SP EC IF IC HEAT S OF AN ID EAL GAS
polyatomic gas, only part of it goes into the translational kinetic energy, increasing the temperature. (For now we neglect the possibility of also put- ting energy into oscillations of the molecules.) We can now generalize Eq. 19.7.2 for the internal energy of any ideal gas 3 by substituting C V for _ R; we get 2 (any ideal gas).
(19.7.8)
This equation applies not only to an ideal monatomic gas but also to diatomic and polyatomic ideal gases, provided the appropriate value of C V is used. Just as with Eq. 19.7.2, we see that the internal energy of a gas depends on the temperature of the gas but not on its pressure or density. When a confined ideal gas undergoes temperature c hange ∆T, then from either Eq. 19.7.5 or Eq. 19.7.8 the resulting change in its internal energy is ∆E int = nC V ∆T
(ideal gas, any process).
The paths are different, but the change in the internal energy is the same.
f
3
erusserP
E int = nC VT
595
f
1
f
2
i
T +
Δ T
T
Volume
Three paths represent- ing three different processes that take an ideal gas from an initial state i at temperature T to some final state f at temperature T + ∆T. The change ∆E int in the internal energy of the gas is the same for these three processes and for any others that result in the same change of temperature.
(19.7.9)
Figure 19.7.2
This equation tells us: A change in the internal energy E int of a confined ideal gas depends on only the change in the temperature, not on what type of process produces the change.
As examples, consider the three paths between the two isotherms in the p-V diagram of Fig. 19.7.2. Path 1 represents a constant-volume process. Path 2 represents a constant-pressure process (we examine it next). Path 3 represents a process in which no heat is exchanged with the system’s environment (we discuss this in Module 19.9). Although the values of heat Q and work W associated with these three paths differ, as do p f and V f , the values of ∆E int associated with the three paths are identical and are all given by Eq. 19.7.9, because they all involve the same temperature change ∆T. Therefore, no matter what path is actually taken between T and T + ∆T, we can always use path 1 and Eq. 19.7.9 to compute ∆E int easily.
W
Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure
We now assume that the temperature of our ideal gas is increased by the same small amount ∆T as previously but now the necessary energy (heat Q) is added with the gas under constant pressure. An experiment for doing this is shown in Fig. 19.7.3a; the p-V diagram for the process is plotted in Fig. 19.7.3b. From such experiments we find that the heat Q is related to the temperature change ∆T by Q = nC p ∆T
(constant pressure),
(a )
(19.7.12)
erusserP
We next replace each term in Eq. 19.7.11. For ∆E int , we substitute from Eq. 19.7.9. For Q, we substitute from Eq. 19.7.10. To replace W, we first note that since the pressure remains constant, Eq. 19.2.12 tells us that W = p ∆V. Then we note that, using the ideal gas equation ( pV = nRT ), we can write
T
The temperature increase is done without changing the pressure.
(19.7.10)
where C p is a constant called the molar specific heat at constant pressure. This C p is greater than the molar specific heat at constant volume C V , because energy must now be supplied not only to raise the temperature of the gas but also for the gas to do work—that is, to lift the weighted piston of Fig. 19.7.3a. To relate molar specific heats C p and C V , we start with the first law of thermodynamics (Eq. 18.5.3): ∆E int = Q − W. (19.7.11)
W = p ∆V = nR ∆T.
Q
Thermal reservoir
p
f i T + p V
(b )
Δ V
Δ T
T V +
Δ V
Volume
(a) The temperature of an ideal gas is raised from T to T + ∆T in a constant-pressure pro- cess. Heat is added and work is done in lifting the loaded piston. (b) The process on a p-V diagram. The work p ∆V is given by the shaded area. Figure 19.7.3
/
596
C HAP T ER 19 T HE KINET IC T HEORY OF GASES
Monatomic
Diatomic
__ 7 nR ΔT 2
The relative values of Q for a mona- tomic gas (left side) and a diatomic gas undergo- ing a constant-volume process (labeled “con V”) and a constant-pressure process (labeled “con p”). The transfer of the energy into work W and internal energy (∆E int ) is noted.
Q
@ con p W
Figure 19.7.4
__ 5 nR ΔT 2
Q
@ con p
Q
@ con V
ΔEint
__ 3 2 nR ΔT
Q
rotation trans
ΔEint
W W
rotation trans
ΔEint
W
trans
@ con V ΔEint
trans
Making these substitutions in Eq. 19.7.11 and then dividing through by n ∆T, we find C V = C p − R and then C p = C V + R.
(19.7.13)
This prediction of kinetic theory agrees well with experiment, not only for mona- tomic gases but also for gases in general, as long as their density is low enough so that we may treat them as ideal. The left side of Fig. 19.7.4 shows the relative values of Q for a monatomic 3 gas undergoing either a constant-volume process (Q = _ nR ΔT ) or a constant- 2 5 _ pressure process (Q = 2 nR ΔT ) . Note that for the latter, the value of Q is higher by the amount W, the work done by the gas in the expansion. Note also that for the constant-volume process, the energy a dded as Q goes entirely into the change in internal energy ∆E int and for the constant-pressure process, the energy added as Q goes into both ∆E int and the work W. p
Checkpoint 19.7.1
The figure here shows five paths traversed by a gas on a p-V diagram. Rank the paths according to the change in internal energy of the gas, greatest first.
1
2
3
4
5
T3
T2
T1 V
Sample Problem 19.7.1
Monatomic gas, heat, internal energy, and work
A bubble of 5.00 mol of helium is submerged at a certain depth in liquid water when the water (and thus the helium) undergoes a temperature increase ∆T of 20.0 C° at constant pressure. As a result, the bubble expands. The helium is monatomic and ideal. (a) How much energy is added to the helium as heat dur- ing the increase and expansion?
KEY IDEA Heat Q is related to the temperature change ∆T by a molar specific heat of the gas. Because the pressure p is held constant during the addition of energy, we use the molar specific Calculations:
heat at constant pressure C p and Eq. 19.7.10, Q = nC p ∆T,
(19.7.14)
to find Q. To evaluate C p we go to Eq. 19.7.13, which tells us that for any ideal gas, C p = C V + R. Then from Eq. 19.7.7, we know that for any monatomic gas (like the helium here), C V = 3 2 _ R. Thus, Eq. 19.7.14 g ives us 3 5 Q = n(C V + R) ΔT = n (_ R + R ) ΔT = n (_ R ΔT 2 2 )
= (5.00 mol )(2.5 )(8.31 J/mol ⋅ K )(20.0 C° ) = 2077.5 J ≈ 2080 J.
(Answer)
(b) What is the change ∆E int in the internal energy of the helium during the temperature increase?
/
19.8 D EGREES OF F REED OM AND MOL AR SP EC IF IC HEAT S
KEY IDEA Because the bubble expands, this is not a constant-volume process. However, the helium is nonetheless confined (to the bubble). Thus, the change ∆E int is the same as would occur in a constant-volume process with the same tem- perature change ∆T. We can now easily find the constant-volume change ∆E int with Eq. 19.7.9: Calculation:
3 ΔE int = nC V ΔT = n (_ 2 R ) ΔT
= (5.00 mol )(1.5 )(8.31 J/mol ⋅ K )(20.0 C° ) = 1246.5 J ≈ 1250 J.
(Answer)
(c) How much work W is done by the helium as it expands against the pressure of the surrounding water during the temperature increase?
KEY IDEAS The work done by any gas expanding against the pressure from its environment is given by Eq. 19.2.7, which tells us to integrate p dV. When the pressure is constant (as here),
597
we can simplify that to W = p ∆V. When the gas is ideal (as here), we can use the ideal gas law (Eq. 19.2.1) to write p ∆V = nR ∆T. Calculation:
We end up with
W = nR ΔT = (5.00 mol )(8.31 J/mol ⋅ K )(20.0 C° ) = 831 J. (Answer) Because we happen to know Q and ∆E int , we can work this problem another way: We can account for the energy c hanges of the gas with the first law of ther- modynamics, writing Another way:
W = Q − ∆E int = 2077.5 J − 1246.5 J = 831 J.
(Answer)
Let’s follow the energy. Of the 2077.5 J transferred to the helium as heat Q, 831 J goes into the work W required for the expansion and 1246.5 J goes into the internal energy E int , which, for a monatomic gas, is entirely the kinetic energy of the atoms in their transla- tional motion. These several results are suggested on the left side of Fig. 19.7.4. The transfers:
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
19.8 DEGREES OF FREEDOM AND MOLAR SPECIFIC HEATS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
19.8.1 Identify that a degree of freedom is associated
19.8.4 Identify that at low temperatures a diatomic gas
with each way a gas can store energy (translation,
has energy in only translational motion, at higher tem-
rotation, and oscillation).
peratures it also has energy in molecular rotation, and
_ 19.8.2 Identify that an energy of 2
kT per molecule is
1
associated with each degree of freedom. 19.8.3 Identify that a monatomic gas can have an inter- nal energy consisting of only translational motion.
at even higher temperatures it can also have energy in molecular oscillations. 19.8.5 Calculate the molar specific heat for monatomic and diatomic ideal gases in a constant-volume pro- cess and a constant-pressure process.
Key Ideas ●
We find
C V by using the equipartition of energy
theorem, which states that every degree of freedom of a molecule (that is, every independent way it can store energy) has associated with it—on average—an
1 1 _ kT per molecule ( = _ RT per mole).
energy
2
●
If
2
f is the number of degrees of freedom, then
E int = ( f /2)nRT and
f C V = ( __ ) R = 4.16f J/mol ⋅ K. 2 ● For monatomic gases f = 3 (three translational degrees); for diatomic gases f = 5 (three translational and two rotational degrees).
Degrees of Freedom and Molar Specific Heats 3 As Table 19.7.1 shows, the prediction that C V = _ R agrees with experiment for 2 monatomic gases but fails for diatomic and polyatomic gases. Let us try to explain the discrepancy by considering the possibility that molecules with more than one atom can store internal energy in forms other than translational kinetic energy.
/
598
C HAP T ER 19 T HE KINET IC T HEORY OF GASES
Table 19.8.1 Degrees of Freedom for Various Molecules
Degrees of Freedom Molecule
Example
Translational
Rotational
Total ( f )
He O 2 CH 4
3 3 3
0 2 3
3 5 6
Monatomic Diatomic Polyatomic
He (a ) He
O
O (b ) O 2 H
C
H
H
H
(c ) CH 4
Models of molecules as used in kinetic theory: (a) helium, a typical monatomic molecule; (b) oxygen, a typical diatomic molecule; and (c) methane, a typical polyatomic molecule. The spheres represent atoms, and the lines between them represent bonds. Two rotation axes are shown for the oxygen molecule. Figure 19.8.1
Predicted Molar Specific Heats C V (Eq. 19.8.1)
C p = C V + R
_ 3 2
R
5 R _
_ 5 R 2
_ 7 R
3R
4R
2 2
Figure 19.8.1 shows common models of helium (a monatomic molecule, con- taining a single atom), oxygen (a diatomic molecule, containing two atoms), and methane (a polyatomic molecule). From such models, we would assume that all three types of molecules can have translational motions (say, moving left–right and up–down) and rotational motions (spinning about an axis like a top). In addition, we would assume that the diatomic and polyatomic molecules can have oscillatory motions, with the atoms oscillating slightly toward and away from one another, as if attached to opposite ends of a spring. To keep account of the various ways in which energy can be stored in a gas, James Clerk Maxwell introduced the theorem of the equipartition of energy: Every kind of molecule has a certain number f of degrees of freedom, which are independent ways in which the molecule can store energy. Each such degree of freedom has associated with it—on average—an energy of _ 1 2 kT per molecule (or 1 _ 2 RT per mole).
Let us apply the theorem to the translational and rotational motions of the molecules in Fig. 19.8.1. (We discuss oscillatory motion below.) For the transla- tional motion, superimpose an xyz coordinate system on any gas. The molecules will, in general, have velocity components along all three axes. Thus, gas mole- cules of all types have three degrees of translational freedom (three ways to move _ in translation) and, on average, a n associated energy of 3 ( 1 2 kT) per molecule. For the rotational motion, imagine the origin of our xyz coordinate system at the center of each molecule in Fig. 19.8.1. In a gas, each molecule should be able to rotate with an angular velocity component along each of the three axes, so each gas should have three degrees of rotational freedom and, on average, an additional 1 kT ) per molecule. However, e xperiment shows this is true only for the energy of 3 ( _ 2 polyatomic molecules. According to quantum theory, the physics dealing with the allowed motions and energies of molecules and atoms, a monatomic gas molecule does not rotate and so has no rotational energy (a single atom cannot rotate like a top). A diatomic molecule can rotate like a top only about axes perpendicular to the line connecting the atoms (the axes are shown in Fig. 19.8.1b) and not about that line itself. Therefore, a diatomic molecule can have only two degrees of rotational _ freedom and a rotational energy of only 2 ( 1 2 kT) per molecule. To extend our analysis of molar specific heats (C p and C V in Module 19.7) to ideal diatomic and polyatomic gases, it is necessary to retrace the derivations of 3 nRT ) with E = ( f/2) that analysis in detail. First, we replace Eq. 19.7.2 ( Ei nt = _ int 2 nRT, where f is the number of degrees of freedom listed in Table 19.8.1. D oing so leads to the prediction f C V = ( __ ) R = 4.16f J/mol ⋅ K, 2
(19.8.1)
which agrees—as it must—with Eq. 19.7.7 for monatomic gases ( f = 3). As Table 19.7.1 shows, this prediction also agrees with experiment for diatomic gases ( f = 5), but it is too low for polyatomic gases ( f = 6 for molecules comparable to CH 4).
/
19.8 D EGREES OF F REED OM AND MOL AR SP EC IF IC HEAT S
599
Checkpoint 19.8.1
Here are three gases with the same value of n that will undergo constant-volume pro- cesses with the same temperature change of ΔT = 10 C°. 1. Monatomic gas 2. Diatomic gas without rotation 3. Diatomic gas with rotation (a) Rank the processes according to the value of the molar specific heat at constant volume C V , greatest first. (b) Next, rank them according to the value of the change ΔK tran in the translational kinetic energy, greatest first. (c) Now rank them according to the value of the change ΔE int in the internal energy, greatest first.
Sample Problem 19.8.1
Diatomic gas, heat, temperature, internal energy
We transfer 1000 J as heat Q to a diatomic gas, allowing the gas to expand with the pressure held constant. The gas molecules each rotate around an internal axis but do not oscillate. How much of the 1000 J goes into the increase of the gas’s internal energy? O f that amount, how much goes into ∆K tran (the kinetic energy of the translational motion of the molecules) and ∆K rot (the kinetic energy of their rotational motion)?
KEY IDEAS 1. The transfer of energy as heat Q to a gas under con- stant pressure is related to the resulting temperature increase ∆T via Eq. 19.7.10 (Q = nC p ∆T ). 2. Because the gas is diatomic with molecules undergoing rotation but not oscillation, the molar specific heat is, 7 from Fig. 19.7.4 a nd Table 19.8.1, Cp = _ 2 R. 3. The increase ∆E int in the internal energy is the same as would occur with a constant-volume process result- ing in the same ∆T. Thus, from Eq. 19.7.9, ∆E int = nC V ∆T. From Fig. 19.7.4 a nd Table 19.8.1, we see that 5 R. C V = _ 2 4. For the same n and ∆T, ∆E int is greater for a diatomic gas than for a monatomic gas because additional energy is required for rotation. Let’s first get the temperature change ∆T due to the transfer of energy as heat. From Eq. 19.7.10, sub- _ stituting 7 2 R for C p , we have Increase in E int :
Q ΔT = ____ . 7 _ 2 nR
(19.8.2)
We next find ΔE int from Eq. 19.7.9, substituting the molar _ R) for a constant-volume process specific heat C V (= 5 2 and using the same ΔT. Because we are dealing with a
diatomic gas, let’s call this change ΔE int,dia . Equation 19.7.9 g ives us Q 5 5 R ____ = _ Q ΔE int,dia = nC V ΔT = n _ 2 ( _ 7 nR ) 7 2 = 0.71428Q = 714.3 J.
(Answer)
In words, about 71% of the energy transferred to the gas goes into the internal energy. The rest goes into the work required to increase the volume of the gas, as the gas pushes the walls of its container outward. If we were to increase the temperature of a monatomic gas (with the same value of n) by the amount given in Eq. 19.8.2, the internal energy would change by a smaller amount, call it ∆E int, mon , because rotational motion is not involved. To calculate that smaller amount, we still use Eq. 19.7.9 but now we substitute the value of C V for a monatomic gas—namely, CV = _ 3 2 R. So, Increases in K:
_ R ΔT. ΔE int,mon = n 3 2
Substituting for ∆T from Eq. 19.8.2 leads us to Q 3 3 ____ = _ ΔE int,mon = n _ 2 R ( _ 7 Q ) n 7 R 2 = 0.42857Q = 428.6 J. For the monatomic gas, all this energy would go into the kinetic energy of the translational motion of the atoms. The important point here is that for a diatomic gas with the same values of n and ∆T, the same amount of energy goes into the kinetic energy of the translational motion of the molecules. The rest of ∆E int,dia (that is, the additional 285.7 J) goes into the rotational motion of the molecules. Thus, for the diatomic gas, ∆K trans = 428.6 J and ∆K rot = 285.7 J. (Answer)
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600
C HAP T ER 19 T HE KINET IC T HEORY OF GASES
4
A Hint of Quantum Theory
7/2
We can improve the agreement of kinetic theory with experi- ment by including the oscillations of the atoms in a gas of 5/2 diatomic or polyatomic molecules. For example, the two atoms in the O 2 molecule of Fig. 19.8.1b can oscillate toward and away 2 Rotation from each other, with the interconnecting bond acting like a 3/2 spring. However, e xperiment shows that such oscillations occur 1 only at relatively high temperatures of the gas—the motion is Translation “turned on” only when the gas molecules have relatively large energies. Rotational motion is also subject to such “turning 0 on,” but at a lower temperature. 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10 000 Temperature (K) Figure 19.8.2 is of help in seeing this turning on of rotational Figure 19.8.2 C V /R versus temperature motion and oscillatory motion. The ratio C V /R for diatomic for (diatomic) hydrogen gas. Because hydrogen gas (H 2) is plotted there against temperature, with the temperature rotational and oscillatory motions scale logarithmic to cover several orders of magnitude. Below about 80 K, we begin at certain energies, only transla- find that C V /R = 1.5. This result implies that only the three translational degrees tion is possible at very low tempera- of freedom of hydrogen are involved in the specific heat. tures. As the temperature increases, As the temperature increases, the value of C V /R gradually increases to 2.5, rotational motion can begin. At still implying that two additional degrees of freedom have become involved. Quantum higher temperatures, oscillatory theory shows that these two degrees o f freedom are associated with the rotational motion can begin. motion of the hydrogen molecules and that this motion requires a certain mini- mum amount of energy. At very low temperatures (below 80 K), the molecules do not have enough energy to rotate. As the temperature increases from 80 K, first a few molecules and then more and more of them obtain enough energy to rotate, and the value of C V /R increases, until all of the molecules are rotating and C V /R = 2.5. Similarly, quantum theory shows that oscillatory motion of the molecules requires a certain (higher) minimum amount of energy. This minimum amount is not met until the molecules reach a temperature of about 1000 K, as shown in Fig. 19.8.2. As the temperature increases beyond 1000 K, more and more mol- ecules have enough energy to oscillate and the value of C V /R increases, until all of the molecules are oscillating and C V /R = 3.5. (In Fig. 19.8.2, the plotted curve stops at 3200 K because there the atoms of a hydrogen molecule oscillate so much that they overwhelm their bond, and the molecule then dissociates into two sepa- rate atoms.) The turning on of the rotation and vibration of the diatomic and polyatomic molecules is due to the fact that the energies of these motions are quantized, that is, restricted to certain values. There is a lowest allowed value for each type of motion. Unless the thermal agitation of the surrounding molecules provides those lowest amounts, a molecule simply cannot rotate or vibrate. 3
Oscillation
R
/ VC
19.9 THE ADIABATIC EXPANSION OF AN IDEAL GAS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
19.9.1 On a
p-V diagram, sketch an adiabatic expan-
sion (or contraction) and identify that there is no heat exchange
Q with the environment.
19.9.2 Identify that in an adiabatic expansion, the gas does work on the environment, decreasing the gas’s internal energy, and that in an adiabatic contrac- tion, work is done on the gas, increasing the internal energy.
19.9.3 In an adiabatic expansion or contraction, relate the initial pressure and volume to the final pressure and volume. 19.9.4 In an adiabatic expansion or contraction, relate the initial temperature and volume to the final tem- perature and volume. 19.9.5 Calculate the work done in an adiabatic process by integrating the pressure with respect to volume.
/
19.9 T HE AD IABAT IC EXP ANSION OF AN ID EAL GAS
19.9.6 Identify that a free expansion of a gas into a
by the first law of thermodynamics, the internal
vacuum is adiabatic but no work is done and thus,
energy and temperature of the gas do not change.
Key Ideas ●
When an ideal gas undergoes a slow adiabatic vol-
ume change (a change for which
pV = a constant
Q = 0),
601
in which
(= C p /C V) is the ratio of molar specific heats
for the gas.
(adiabatic process),
●
For a free expansion,
pV = a constant.
The Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas
We saw in Module 17.2 that sound waves are propagated through air and other gases as a series of compressions and expansions; these variations in the transmission medium take place so rapidly that there is no time for energy to be transferred from one part of the medium to another as heat. As we saw in Module 18.5, a process for which Q = 0 is an adiabatic process. We can ensure that Q = 0 either by carrying out the process very quickly (as in sound waves) or by doing it (at any rate) in a well-insulated container. Figure 19.9.1a shows our usual insulated cylinder, now containing an ideal gas and resting on an insulating stand. By removing mass from the piston, we can allow the gas to expand adiabatically. As the volume increases, both the pressure and the temperature drop. We shall prove next that the relation between the pressure and the volume during such an adiabatic process is pV = a constant
(19.9.1)
(adiabatic process),
in which = C p /C V , the ratio of the molar specific heats for the gas. On a p-V diagram such as that in Fig. 19.9.1b, the process occurs along a line (called an adiabat) that has the equation p = (a constant)/V . Since the gas goes from an initial state i to a final state f, we can rewrite Eq. 19.9.1 a s p i V i = p f V f (adiabatic process). (19.9.2) To write an equation for an adiabatic process in terms of T and V, we use the ideal gas equation ( pV = nRT ) to eliminate p from Eq. 19.9.1, finding nRT γ _____ ( V ) V = a constant.
We slowly remove lead shot, allowing an expansion without any heat transfer. W
Adiabat (Q = 0) erusserP
i
Insulation
f
Isotherms: 700 K 500 K 300 K
Volume (a )
(b )
(a) The volume of an ideal gas is increased by removing mass from the piston. The process is adiabatic (Q = 0). (b) The process proceeds from i to f along an adiabat on a p-V diagram. Figure 19.9.1
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602
C HAP T ER 19 T HE KINET IC T HEORY OF GASES
Because n and R are constants, we can rewrite this in the alternative form TV −1 = a constant
(adiabatic process),
(19.9.3)
in which the constant is different from that in Eq. 19.9.1. When the gas goes from an initial state i to a final state f, we can rewrite Eq. 19.9.3 a s −1 T i V i −1 = T fV (adiabatic process). (19.9.4) f Understanding adiabatic processes a llows you to understand why popping the cork on a cold bottle of champagne or the tab on a cold can of soda causes a slight fog to form at the opening of the container. At the top of any unopened carbon- ated drink sits a gas of carbon dioxide and water vapor. Because the pressure of that gas is much greater than atmospheric pressure, the gas expands out into the atmosphere when the container is opened. Thus, the gas volume increases, but that means the gas must do work pushing against the atmosphere. Because the expansion is rapid, it is adiabatic, and the only source of energy for the work is the internal energy of the gas. Because the internal energy decreases, the tempera- ture of the gas also decreases a nd so does the number of water molecules that can remain as a vapor. So, lots of the water m olecules condense into tiny drops of fog. Proof of Eq. 19.9.1
Suppose that you remove some shot from the piston of Fig. 19.9.1a, allowing the ideal gas to push the piston and the remaining shot upward and thus to increase the volume by a differential amount dV. Since the volume change is tiny, we may assume that the pressure p of the gas on the piston is constant during the change. This assumption allows us to say that the work dW done by the gas during the volume increase is equal to p dV. From Eq. 18.5.4, the first law of thermodynam- ics can then be written as dE int = Q − p dV.
(19.9.5)
Since the gas is thermally insulated (and thus the expansion is adiabatic), we substitute 0 for Q. Then we use Eq. 19.7.9 to substitute nC V dT for dE int . With these substitutions, and after some rearranging, we have p n dT = − ___ dV. ( C V )
(19.9.6)
Now from the ideal gas law ( pV = nRT ) we have p dV + V dp = nR dT.
(19.9.7)
Replacing R with its equal, C p − C V, in Eq. 19.9.7 y ields p dV + V dp n dT = ____________ . C p − C V
(19.9.8)
Equating Eqs. 19.9.6 a nd 19.9.8 a nd rearranging then give C p ___ dp dV = 0. ___ ___ p +
( C V ) V
Replacing the ratio of the molar specific heats with integral 5 in Appendix E) yield
and integrating (see
ln p + ln V = a constant. Rewriting the left side as ln pV and then taking the antilog of both sides, we find pV = a constant. (19.9.9)
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603
19.9 T HE AD IABAT IC EXP ANSION OF AN ID EAL GAS
Free Expansions
Recall from Module 18.5 that a free expansion of a gas is an adiabatic process with no work or change in internal energy. Thus, a free expansion differs from the adiabatic process described by Eqs. 19.9.1 through 19.9.9, in which work is done and the internal energy changes. Those equations then do not apply to a free expansion, even though such an expansion is adiabatic. Also recall that in a free expansion, a gas is in equilibrium only at its initial and final points; thus, we can plot only those points, but not the expansion itself, on a p-V diagram. In addition, because ∆E int = 0, the temperature of the final state must be that of the initial state. Thus, the initial and final points on a p-V diagram must be on the same isotherm, and instead of Eq. 19.9.4 we have T i = T f
(free expansion).
(19.9.10)
If we next assume that the gas is ideal (so that pV = nRT ), then because there is no change in temperature, there can be no change in the product pV. Thus, instead of Eq. 19.9.1 a free expansion involves the relation p i V i = p f V f
Sample Problem 19.9.1
(free expansion).
(19.9.11)
Work done by a gas in an adiabatic expansion
Initially an ideal diatomic gas has pressure p i = 2.00 × 10 5 Pa and volume V i = 4.00 × 10 −6 m 3 . How much work W does it do, and what is the change ∆E int in its internal energy if it expands adiabatically to volume V f = 8.00 × 10 −6 m 3 ? Throughout the process, the molecules have rotation but not oscillation.
this expression into Eq. 19.9.12 a nd integrating lead us to v
v
f f W = p dV = V −γ p i V iγ dV
v i
v i
v f
1 p V γ V − γ+1 V f = p i V i γ V −γ dV = ______ ]V − γ + 1 i i [ i v i 1 p V γ V −γ+1 − V −γ +1 . = ______ i ] − γ + 1 i i [ f
KEY IDEAS (1) In an adiabatic expansion, no heat is exchanged between the gas and its environment, and the energy for the work done by the gas comes from the internal energy. (2) The final pressure and volume are related to the initial pressure and volume by Eq. 19.9.2 (p i V i γ = p f V γf ). (3) The work done by a gas in any process can be calculated by integrating the pressure with respect to the volume (the work is due to the gas pushing the walls of its container outward). We want to calculate the work by filling out this integration, Calculations:
v f
W = p dV, v i
(19.9.12)
but we first need an expression for the pressure as a func- tion of volume (so that we integrate the expression with respect to volume). So, let’s rewrite Eq. 19.9.2 with indefi- nite symbols (dropping the subscripts f ) as 1 p V γ = V −γ p V γ. p = ___ (19.9.13) i i V γ i i The initial quantities are given constants but the pres- sure p is a function of the variable volume V. Substituting
(19.9.14)
Before we substitute in given data, we must determine the ratio of molar specific heats for a gas of diatomic molecules with rotation but no oscillation. From Table 19.8.1 we find C
7 _ R
p 2 γ = ___ = ____ = 1.4. 5 C _ V
R
(19.9.15)
2
We can now write the work done by the gas as the follow- ing (with volume in cubic meters a nd pressure in pascals): 1 (2.00 × 10 5 )(4.00 × 10 −6 ) 1.4 W = ________ −1.4 + 1 × [(8.00 × 10 −6 ) −1.4+1 − (4.00 × 10 −6 ) −1.4+1 ] = 0.48 J.
(Answer)
The first law of thermodynamics (Eq. 18.5.3) tells us that ∆E int = Q − W. Because Q = 0 in the adiabatic expansion, we see that ∆E int = −0.48 J.
(Answer)
With this decrease in internal energy, the gas tempera- ture must also decrease because of the expansion.
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C HAP T ER 19 T HE KINET IC T HEORY OF GASES
Sample Problem 19.9.2
Adiabatic expansion, free expansion
Initially, 1 mol of oxygen (assumed to be an ideal gas) has temperature 310 K and volume 12 L. We will allow it to expand to volume 19 L. (a) What would be the final temperature if the gas expands adiabatically? Oxygen (O 2) is diatomic and here has rotation but not oscillation.
KEY IDEAS 1. When a gas expands against the pressure of its envi- ronment, it must do work. 2. When the process is adiabatic (no energy is transferred as heat), then the energy required for the work can come only from the internal energy of the gas. 3. Because the internal energy decreases, the tempera- ture T must also decrease. We can relate the initial and final tempera- tures and volumes with Eq. 19.9.4: Calculations:
T i V iγ −1 = T f V fγ −1 .
(19.9.16)
Because the molecules are diatomic and have rotation but not oscillation, we can take the molar specific heats from Table 19.8.1. Thus,
Problem-Solving Tactics
7 _ R
C
p ___ = 1.40. γ = ___ = 2 _ C 5 2 R
V
Solving Eq. 19.9.16 for T f and inserting known data then yield (310 K )(12 L ) 1.40−1 T i V iγ −1 _________________ T f = ______ = (19 L ) 1.40−1 V f γ−1 0.40
12 = (310 K ) ( _ 19 )
= 258 K.
(Answer)
(b) What would be the final temperature and pressure if, instead, the gas expands freely to the new volume, from an initial pressure of 2.0 Pa?
KEY IDEA The temperature does not change in a free expansion because there is nothing to change the kinetic energy of the molecules. Calculation:
Thus, the temperature is T f = T i = 310 K.
(Answer)
We find the new pressure using Eq. 19.9.11, which gives us V i 12 L = 1.3 Pa. p f = p i __ = (2.0 Pa ) _____ V f 19 L
(Answer)
A Graphical Summary of Four Gas Processes
erusserP
In this chapter we have discussed four special processes that an ideal gas can undergo. An example of each (for a monatomic ideal gas) is shown in Fig. 19.9.2, a nd some associated characteristics a re given in Table 19.9.1, includ- ing two process names (isobaric and isochoric) that we have not used but that you might see in other courses.
i
1 2 3
4 f
f f f
Checkpoint 19.9.1
Rank paths 1, 2, and 3 in Fig. 19.9.2 according to the energy transfer to the gas as heat, greatest first.
700 K 500 K 400 K
Volume
A p-V diagram representing four special pro- cesses for an ideal monatomic gas. Figure 19.9.2
Table 19.9.1 Four Special Processes
Some Special Results Path in Fig. 19.9.2 1 2 3 4
Constant Quantity
Process Type
p T pV , TV −1 V
Isobaric Isothermal Adiabatic Isochoric
(∆E int = Q − W and ∆E int = nC V ∆T for all paths) Q = nC p ∆T; W = p ∆V Q = W = nRT ln(V f /V i ); ∆E int = 0 Q = 0; W = −∆E int Q = ∆E int = nC V ∆T; W = 0
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/
REV IEW & SU MMARY
605
Review & Summary The kinetic theory of gases relates the macroscopic properties of gases (for example, pres- sure and temperature) to the microscopic properties of gas mol- ecules (for example, speed and kinetic energy). Kinetic Theory of Gases
One mole of a substance contains N A (Avogadro’s number) elementary units (usually atoms or molecules), where N A is found experimentally to be Avogadro’s Number
N A = 6.02 × 10 23 mol −1
(Avogadro’s number).
(19.1.1)
One molar mass M of any substance is the mass of one mole of the substance. It is related to the mass m of the individual mole- cules of the substance by M = mN A .
(19.1.4)
The number of moles n contained in a sample of mass M sam , consisting of N molecules, is given by M sam _____ M N = _____ n = ___ = sam . N A M mN A
(19.1.2, 19.1.3)
An ideal gas is one for which the pressure p, volume V, and temperature T are related by Ideal Gas
pV = nRT (ideal gas law).
(19.2.1)
Here n is the number of moles of the gas present and R is a con- stant (8.31 J/mol · K) called the gas constant. The ideal gas law can also be written as pV = NkT, (19.2.5) where the Boltzmann constant k is R = 1.38 × 10 −23 J / K. k = ___ N A
(19.2.3)
The work done by an ideal gas during an isothermal (constant-temperature) change from volume V i to volume V f is V f W = nRT ln __ (ideal gas, isothermal process). (19.2.10) V i Work in an Isothermal Volume Change
The pressure exerted by n moles of an ideal gas, in terms of the speed of its molecules, is Pressure, Temperature, and Molecular Speed
2
nMVrms p = _______ , _
3V
(19.3.4)
where v rms = √ (v 2 ) avg is the root-mean-square speed of the molecules of the gas. With Eq. 19.2.1 this gives _____
3RT . v rms = √ ____ M
(19.3.5)
The average transla- tional kinetic energy K avg per molecule of an ideal gas is Temperature and Kinetic Energy
3 kT. K avg = _ 2
(19.4.2)
The mean free path of a gas molecule is its average path length between collisions and is given by Mean Free Path
_ 1 λ = ____________ , √ 2 π d 2 N/ V
(19.5.1)
where N/V is the number of molecules per unit volume and d is the molecular diameter. The Maxwell speed distri- bution P(v) is a function such that P(v) dv gives the fraction of molecules with speeds in the interval dv at speed v: Maxwell Speed Distribution
3/2
M P(v) = 4π( ______ v 2 e −Mv /2RT . 2πRT ) 2
(19.6.1)
Three measures of the distribution of speeds among the mol- ecules of a gas are _____
8RT v avg = √ ____ πM
(average speed),
(19.6.5)
_____
2RT v P = √ ____ (19.6.9) M (most probable speed), and the rms speed defined above in Eq. 19.3.5. The molar specific heat C V of a gas at constant volume is defined as Molar Specific Heats
Q ΔE int C V = _____ = _____ , (19.7.3, 19.7.5) n ΔT n ΔT in which Q is the energy transferred as heat to or from a sample of n moles of the gas, ∆T is the resulting temperature change of the gas, and ∆E int is the resulting change in the internal energy of the gas. For an ideal monatomic gas, 3 C V = _ 2 R = 12.5 J/mol ⋅ K.
(19.7.7)
The molar specific heat C p of a gas at constant pressure is defined to be Q C p = _____ , n ΔT
(19.7.10)
in which Q, n, and ∆T are defined as above. C p is also given by C p = C V + R.
(19.7.13)
For n moles of an ideal gas, E int = nC V T
(ideal gas).
(19.7.8)
If n moles of a confined ideal gas undergo a temperature change ∆T due to any process, the change in the internal energy of the gas is ∆E int = nC V ∆T
(ideal gas, any process).
(19.7.9)
The equipartition of energy theorem states that every degree of freedom of a molecule has an 1 _ _ energy 1 2 kT per molecule ( = 2 RT per mole). If f is the number of degrees of freedom, then E int = (f/2)nRT and Degrees of Freedom and CV
f
C V = ( _ R = 4.16f J/mol ⋅ K. 2)
(19.8.1)
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606
C HAP T ER 19 T HE KINET IC T HEORY OF GASES
For monatomic gases f = 3 (three translational degrees); for diatomic gases f = 5 (three translational and two rotational degrees). When an ideal gas undergoes an adia- batic volume change (a change for which Q = 0), Adiabatic Process
pV = a constant (adiabatic process),
(19.9.1)
in which (= C p /C V ) is the ratio of molar specific heats for the gas. For a free expansion, however, pV = a constant.
Questions For four situations for an a b c d ideal gas, the table gives the −50 +35 −15 +20 energy transferred to or from Q the gas as heat Q and either W −50 +35 the work W done by the gas W −40 +40 on or the work W on done on the gas, all in joules. Rank the four situations in terms of the temperature change of the gas, most positive first. 1
In the p-V diagram of Fig. 19.1, the gas does 5 J of work when taken along isotherm ab and 4 J when taken along adiabat bc. What is the change in the internal energy of the gas when it is taken along the straight path from a to c? 2
p
A certain amount of energy is p to be transferred as heat to 1 mol 1 of a monatomic gas (a) at constant 2 pressure and (b) at constant vol- 3 ume, and to 1 mol of a diatomic 4 gas (c) at constant pressure and V (d) at constant volume. Figure 19.3 shows four paths from an ini- Figure 19.3 Question 5. tial point to four final points on a p-V diagram for the two gases. Which path goes with which pro- cess? (e) Are the molecules of the diatomic gas rotating? 5
The dot in Fig. 19.2b represents the initial state of a gas, and the isotherm through the dot divides the p-V diagram into regions 1 and 2. For the following processes, determine whether the change ∆E int in the internal energy of the gas is positive, negative, or zero: (a) the gas moves up along the isotherm, (b) it moves down along the isotherm, (c) it moves to anywhere in region 1, and (d) it moves to anywhere in region 2. 6
a
b
c
For a temperature increase of V ∆T 1, a certain amount of an ideal Figure 19.1 Question 2. gas requires 30 J when heated at constant volume and 50 J when heated at constant pressure. How much work is done by the gas in the second situation? 3
The dot in Fig. 19.2a represents the initial state of a gas, and the vertical line through the dot divides the p-V diagram into regions 1 and 2. For the following processes, determine whether the work W done by the gas is positive, negative, or zero: (a) the gas moves up along the vertical line, (b) it moves down along the vertical line, (c) it moves to anywhere in region 1, and (d) it moves to anywhere in region 2. 4
(a) Rank the four paths of Fig. 19.9.2 according to the work done by the gas, greatest first. (b) Rank paths 1, 2, and 3 according to the change in the internal energy of the gas, most positive first and most negative last. 7
The dot in Fig. 19.2c represents the initial state of a gas, and the adiabat through the dot divides the p-V diagram into regions 1 and 2. For the following processes, determine whether the corresponding heat Q is positive, negative, or zero: (a) the gas moves up along the adiabat, (b) it moves down along the adiabat, (c) it moves to anywhere in region 1, and (d) it moves to anywhere in region 2. 8
An ideal diatomic gas, with molecular rotation but without any molecular oscillation, loses a certain amount of energy as heat Q. Is the resulting decrease in the internal energy of the gas greater if the loss occurs in a constant-volume process or in a constant-pressure process? 9
p
p
1
p
2
2
2
1
1
V
(a)
(b )
Figure 19.2
V
Questions 4, 6, and 8.
Does the temperature of an ideal gas increase, decrease, or stay the same during (a) an isothermal expansion, (b) an expansion at constant pressure, (c) an adiabatic expansion, and (d) an increase in pressure at constant volume? 10
V
(c )
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 19.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard
BIO Flying
Circus of Physics
Avogadro’s Number
Find the mass in kilograms of 7.50 × 10 24 atoms of arsenic, which has a molar mass of 74.9 g/mol. 1 E
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
E Gold has a molar mass of 197 g/mol. (a) How many moles of gold are in a 2.50 g sample of pure gold? (b) How many atoms are in the sample?
2
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P ROBL EMS
Module 19.2
Ideal Gases
Oxygen gas having a volume of 1000 cm 3 at 40.0°C and 1.01 × 10 5 Pa expands until its volume is 1500 cm 3 and its pressure is 1.06 × 10 5 Pa. Find (a) the number of moles of oxygen present and (b) the final temperature of the sample. 3
E
SSM
E A quantity of ideal gas at 10.0°C and 100 kPa occupies a volume of 2.50 m 3 . (a) How many moles of the gas are present? (b) If the pressure is now raised to 300 kPa and the tempera- ture is raised to 30.0°C, how much volume does the gas occupy? Assume no leaks.
4
E The best laboratory vacuum has a pressure of about 1.00 × 10 −18 atm, or 1.01 × 10 −13 Pa. How many gas molecules are there per cubic centimeter in such a vacuum at 293 K?
5
Suppose 1.80 mol of an ideal gas is taken from a volume of 3.00 m 3 to a volume of 1.50 m 3 via an isothermal compression at 30°C. (a) How much energy is transferred as heat during the compression, and (b) is the transfer to or from the gas? 7 E
E Compute (a) the number of moles and (b) the number of molecules in 1.00 cm 3 of an ideal gas at a pressure of 100 Pa and a temperature of 220 K.
the chamber reached the hatch and clamped to the hull, the crew could escape into the chamber. During the descent, air was released from tanks to prevent water from flooding the cham- ber. Assume that the interior air pressure matched the water pressure at depth h as given by p 0 + gh, where p 0 = 1.000 atm is the surface pressure and = 1024 kg/m 3 is the density of seawa- ter. Assume a surface temperature of 20.0°C and a submerged water temperature of −30.0°C. (a) What is the air volume in the chamber at the surface? (b) If air had not been released from the tanks, what would have been the air volume in the chamber at depth h = 80.0 m? (c) How many moles of air were needed to be released to maintain the original air volume in the chamber? GO A sample of an ideal gas is taken through the cyclic process abca shown in Fig. 19.4. The scale of the vertical axis is set by p b = 7.5 kPa and p ac = 2.5 kPa. At point a, T = 200 K. (a) How many moles of gas are in the sample? What are (b) the temperature of the gas at point b, (c) the temperature of the gas at point c, and (d) the net energy added to the gas as heat during the cycle? 13 M
An automobile tire has a volume of 1.64 × 10 −2 m 3 and con- tains air at a gauge pressure (pressure above atmospheric pres- sure) of 165 kPa when the temperature is 0.00°C. What is the gauge pressure of the air in the tires when its temperature rises to 27.0°C and its volume increases to 1.67 × 10 −2 m 3 ? Assume atmospheric pressure is 1.01 × 10 5 Pa. A container encloses 2 mol of an ideal gas that has molar mass M 1 and 0.5 mol of a second ideal gas that has molar mass M 2 = 3M 1 . What fraction of the total pressure on the container wall is attributable to the second gas? (The kinetic theory expla- nation of pressure leads to the experimentally discovered law of partial pressures for a mixture of gases that do not react chemi- cally: The total pressure exerted by the mixture is equal to the sum of the pressures that the several gases would exert separately if each were to occupy the vessel alone. The molecule–vessel collisions of one type would not be altered by the presence of another type.)
b
pb
pa c
a
c
1.0 3.0 Volume (m 3) Figure 19.4
Problem 13.
In the temperature range 310 K to 330 K, the pressure p of a certain nonideal gas is related to volume V and temperature T by 14 M
T − (0.006 62 J/K 2 ) ___ T 2 . p = (24.9 J/K ) __ V V
8
9 E
)aPk( erusserP
FCP Water bottle in a hot car. In the American Southwest, the temperature in a closed car parked in sunlight during the summer can be high enough to burn flesh. Suppose a bottle of water at a refrigerator temperature of 5.00°C is opened, then closed, and then left in a closed car with an internal tempera- ture of 75.0°C. Neglecting the thermal expansion of the water and the bottle, find the pressure in the air pocket trapped in the bottle. (The pressure can be enough to push the bottle cap past the threads that are intended to keep the bottle closed.)
6 E
607
How much work is done by the gas if its temperature is raised from 315 K to 325 K while the pressure is held constant? Suppose 0.825 mol of an ideal gas undergoes an isother- mal expansion as energy is added to it as heat Q. If Fig. 19.5 shows the final volume V f versus Q, what is the gas tempera- ture? The scale of the vertical axis is set by V fs = 0.30 m 3 , and the scale of the horizontal axis is set by Q s = 1200 J. 15 M
10 E
)3m( f
V
3 CALC SSM Air that initially occupies 0.140 m at a gauge pressure of 103.0 kPa is expanded isothermally to a pressure of 101.3 kPa and then cooled at constant pressure until it reaches its initial volume. Compute the work done by the air. (Gauge pressure is the difference between the actual pressure and atmospheric pressure.)
Vf s
0
11 M
M BIO FCP GO Submarine rescue. When the U.S. subma- rine Squalus became disabled at a depth of 80 m, a cylindrical chamber was lowered from a ship to rescue the crew. The cham- ber had a radius of 1.00 m and a height of 4.00 m, was open at the bottom, and held two rescuers. It slid along a guide cable that a diver had attached to a hatch on the submarine. Once
12
Figure 19.5
Problem 15.
Q
(J)
Qs
An air bubble of volume 20 cm 3 is at the bottom of a lake 40 m deep, where the temperature is 4.0°C. The bubble rises to the surface, which is at a temperature of 20°C. Take the tem- perature of the bubble’s air to be the same as that of the sur- rounding water. Just as the bubble reaches the surface, what is its volume? 16 H
GO Container A in Fig. 19.6 holds an ideal gas at a pres- sure of 5.0 × 10 5 Pa and a temperature of 300 K. It is connected by a thin tube (and a closed valve) to container B, with four 17 H
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608
C HAP T ER 19 T HE KINET IC T HEORY OF GASES
times the volume of A. Container B holds the same ideal gas at a pressure of 1.0 × 10 5 Pa and a temperature of 400 K. The valve is opened to allow the pressures to equalize, but the temperature of each container is maintained. What then is the pressure? Module 19.3
E The mean free path of nitrogen molecules at 0.0°C and 1.0 atm is 0.80 × 10 −5 cm. At this temperature and pressure there are 2.7 × 10 19 molecules/cm 3 . What is the molecular diameter?
30
M In a certain particle accelerator, protons travel around a circular path of diameter 23.0 m in an evacuated chamber, whose residual gas is at 295 K and 1.00 × 10 −6 torr pressure. (a) Calculate the number of gas molecules per cubic centimeter at this pressure. (b) What is the mean free path of the gas mol- ecules if the molecular diameter is 2.00 × 10 −8 cm?
31
A B
Figure 19.6
Problem 17.
Pressure, Temperature, and RMS Speed
The temperature and pressure in the Sun’s atmosphere are 2.00 × 10 6 K and 0.0300 Pa. Calculate the rms speed of free elec- trons (mass 9.11 × 10 −31 kg) there, assuming they are an ideal gas. 18 E
E (a) Compute the rms speed of a nitrogen molecule at 20.0°C. The molar mass of nitrogen molecules (N 2 ) is given in Table 19.3.1. At what temperatures will the rms speed be (b) half that value and (c) twice that value?
19
E Calculate the rms speed of helium atoms at 1000 K. See Appendix F for the molar mass of helium atoms.
20
E SSM The lowest possible temperature in outer space is 2.7 K. What is the rms speed of hydrogen molecules at this tem- perature? (The molar mass is given in Table 19.3.1.)
M At 20°C and 750 torr pressure, the mean free paths for argon gas (Ar) and nitrogen gas (N 2 ) are Ar = 9.9 × 10 −6 cm and N 2 = 27.5 × 10 −6 cm. (a) Find the ratio of the diameter of an Ar atom to that of an N 2 molecule. What is the mean free path of argon at (b) 20°C and 150 torr, and (c) −40°C and 750 torr?
32
Module 19.6
The Distribution of Molecular Speeds
E The speeds of 10 molecules are 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, . . . , 11 km/s. What are their (a) average speed and (b) rms speed?
33
SSM
The speeds of 22 particles are as follows (N i represents the number of particles that have speed v i ): 34 E
21
Find the rms speed of argon atoms at 313 K. See Appendix F for the molar mass of argon atoms.
N i v i (cm/s)
22 E
A beam of hydrogen molecules (H 2 ) is directed toward a wall, at an angle of 55° with the normal to the wall. Each molecule in the beam has a speed of 1.0 km/s and a mass of 3.3 × 10 −24 g. The beam strikes the wall over an area of 2.0 cm 2 , at the rate of 10 23 molecules per second. What is the beam’s pressure on the wall? 23
M
Module 19.4
Translational Kinetic Energy
Determine the average value of the translational kinetic energy of the molecules of an ideal gas at temperatures (a) 0.00°C and (b) 100°C. What is the translational kinetic energy per mole of an ideal gas at (c) 0.00°C and (d) 100°C? 25
E
What is the average translational kinetic energy of nitrogen molecules at 1600 K? 26 E
Water standing in the open at 32.0°C evaporates because of the escape of some of the surface molecules. The heat of vaporization (539 cal/g) is approximately equal to εn, where ε is the average energy of the escaping molecules and n is the num- ber of molecules per gram. (a) Find ε. (b) What is the ratio of ε to the average kinetic energy of H 2 O molecules, assuming the latter is related to temperature in the same way as it is for gases? 27 M
Mean Free Path
At what frequency would the wavelength of sound in air be equal to the mean free path of oxygen molecules at 1.0 atm pressure and 0.00°C? The molecular diameter is 3.0 × 10 −8 cm.
6
8
2
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
What are (a) v avg , (b) v rms , and (c) v P ? Ten particles are moving with the following speeds: four at 200 m/s, two at 500 m/s, and four at 600 m/s. Calculate their (a) average and (b) rms speeds. (c) Is v rms > v avg ? 35 E
The most probable speed of the molecules in a gas at tem- perature T 2 is equal to the rms speed of the molecules at tem- perature T 1 . Find T 2 /T 1 . 36 M
SSM Figure 19.7 shows a hypothetical speed distribution for a sample of N gas particles (note that P(v) = 0 for speed v > 2v 0). What are the values of (a) av 0 , (b) v avg /v 0 , and (c) v rms /v 0 ? (d) What fraction of the particles has a speed between 1.5v 0 and 2.0v 0 ?
37 M
a
0
v 0 Speed
Figure 19.7
2v 0
Problem 37.
Figure 19.8 gives the probability distribution for nitrogen gas. The scale of the horizontal axis is set by v s = 1200 m/s. What are the (a) gas temperature and (b) rms speed of the molecules? 38 M
) v(P
Module 19.5
4
) v(P
At 273 K and 1.00 × 10 −2 atm, the density of a gas is 1.24 × 10 −5 g/cm 3 . (a) Find v rms for the gas molecules. (b) Find the molar mass of the gas and (c) identify the gas. See Table 19.3.1. 24 M
2
28 E
SSM The atmospheric density at an altitude of 2500 km is about 1 molecule/cm 3 . (a) Assuming the molecular diameter of 2.0 × 10 −8 cm, find the mean free path predicted by Eq. 19.5.1. (b) Explain whether the predicted value is meaningful.
29 E
0
v s v (m/s) Figure 19.8
Problem 38.
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P ROBL EMS
At what temperature does the rms speed of (a) H 2 (molec- ular hydrogen) and (b) O 2 (molecular oxygen) equal the escape speed from Earth (Table 13.5.1)? At what temperature does the rms speed of (c) H 2 and (d) O 2 equal the escape speed from the Moon (where the gravitational acceleration at the surface has magnitude 0.16g)? Considering the answers to parts (a) and (b), should there be much (e) hydrogen and (f) oxygen high in Earth’s upper atmosphere, where the temperature is about 1000 K? 39 M
Two containers are at the same temperature. The first contains gas with pressure p 1 , molecular mass m 1 , and rms speed v rms1 . The second contains gas with pressure 2.0p 1 , molecular mass m 2 , and average speed v avg2 = 2.0v rms1 . Find the mass ratio m 1 /m 2 . 40
M
A hydrogen molecule (diameter 1.0 × 10 −8 cm), traveling at the rms speed, escapes from a 4000 K furnace into a chamber con- taining cold argon atoms (diameter 3.0 × 10 −8 cm) at a density of 4.0 × 10 19 atoms/cm 3 . (a) What is the speed of the hydrogen mol- ecule? (b) If it collides with an argon atom, what is the closest their centers can be, considering each as spherical? (c) What is the initial number of collisions per second experienced by the hydrogen molecule? (Hint: Assume that the argon atoms are stationary. Then the mean free path of the hydrogen molecule is given by Eq. 19.5.2 and not Eq. 19.5.1.) 41 M
Module 19.7
The Molar Specific Heats of an Ideal Gas
What is the internal energy of 1.0 mol of an ideal mona- tomic gas at 273 K? 42
E
GO The temperature of 3.00 mol of an ideal diatomic gas is increased by 40.0 C° without the pressure of the gas changing. The molecules in the gas rotate but do not oscillate. (a) How much energy is transferred to the gas as heat? (b) What is the change in the internal energy of the gas? (c) How much work is done by the gas? (d) By how much does the rotational kinetic energy of the gas increase? 43 M
)aPk( erusserP
M GO One mole of an ideal b a p diatomic gas goes from a to c along the diagonal path in Fig. 19.9. The scale of the vertical axis p c is set by p ab = 5.0 kPa and p c = 2.0 kPa, and the scale of the horizon- tal axis is set by V bc = 4.0 m 3 and V V V a = 2.0 m 3 . During the transition, Volume (m 3) (a) what is the change in internal Figure 19.9 Problem 44. energy of the gas, and (b) how much energy is added to the gas as heat? (c) How much heat is required if the gas goes from a to c along the indirect path abc?
44
ab
c
a
bc
M The mass of a gas molecule can be computed from its specific heat at constant volume c V . (Note that this is not C V . ) Take c V = 0.075 cal/g · C° for argon and calculate (a) the mass of an argon atom and (b) the molar mass of argon.
45
M Under constant pressure, the temperature of 2.00 mol of an ideal monatomic gas is raised 15.0 K. What are (a) the work W done by the gas, (b) the energy transferred as heat Q, (c) the change ∆E int in the internal energy of the gas, and (d) the change ∆K in the average kinetic energy per atom?
46
The temperature of 2.00 mol of an ideal monatomic gas is raised 15.0 K at constant volume. What are (a) the work W done 47 M
609
by the gas, (b) the energy transferred as heat Q, (c) the change ∆E int in the internal energy of the gas, and (d) the change ∆K in the average kinetic energy per atom? GO When 20.9 J was added as heat to a particular ideal gas, the volume of the gas changed from 50.0 cm 3 to 100 cm 3 while the pressure remained at 1.00 atm. (a) By how much did the internal energy of the gas change? If the quantity of gas present was 2.00 × 10 −3 mol, find (b) C p and (c) C V . 48 M
M SSM A container holds a mixture of three nonreact- ing gases: 2.40 mol of gas 1 with C V1 = 12.0 J/mol · K, 1.50 mol of gas 2 with C V2 = 12.8 J/mol · K, and 3.20 mol of gas 3 with C V3 = 20.0 J/mol · K. What is C V of the mixture?
49
Module 19.8
Degrees of Freedom and Molar Specific
Heats
We give 70 J as heat to a diatomic gas, which then expands at constant pressure. The gas molecules rotate but do not oscil- late. By how much does the internal energy of the gas increase? 50 E
E When 1.0 mol of oxygen (O 2) gas is heated at constant pressure starting at 0°C, how much energy must be added to the gas as heat to double its volume? (The molecules rotate but do not oscillate.)
51
GO Suppose 12.0 g of oxygen (O 2 ) gas is heated at con- stant atmospheric pressure from 25.0°C to 125°C. (a) How many moles of oxygen are present? (See Table 19.3.1 for the molar mass.) (b) How much energy is transferred to the oxygen as heat? (The molecules rotate but do not oscillate.) (c) What fraction of the heat is used to raise the internal energy of the oxygen? 52 M
M SSM Suppose 4.00 mol of an ideal diatomic gas, with molecular rotation but not oscillation, experienced a tempera- ture increase of 60.0 K under constant-pressure conditions. What are (a) the energy transferred as heat Q, (b) the change ∆E int in internal energy of the gas, (c) the work W done by the gas, and (d) the change ∆K in the total translational kinetic energy of the gas?
53
Module 19.9
The Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas
We know that for an adiabatic process pV = a constant. Evaluate “a constant” for an adiabatic process involving exactly 2.0 mol of an ideal gas passing through the state having exactly p = 1.0 atm and T = 300 K. Assume a diatomic gas whose mol- ecules rotate but do not oscillate. 54 E
A certain gas occupies a volume of 4.3 L at a pressure of 1.2 atm and a temperature of 310 K. It is compressed adiabati- cally to a volume of 0.76 L. Determine (a) the final pressure and (b) the final temperature, assuming the gas to be an ideal gas for which = 1.4. 55 E
Suppose 1.00 L of a gas with = 1.30, initially at 273 K and 1.00 atm, is suddenly compressed adiabatically to half its initial volume. Find its final (a) pressure and (b) temperature. (c) If the gas is then cooled to 273 K at constant pressure, what is its final volume? 56 E
M The volume of an ideal gas is adiabatically reduced from 200 L to 74.3 L. The initial pressure and temperature are 1.00 atm and 300 K. The final pressure is 4.00 atm. (a) Is the gas monatomic, diatomic, or polyatomic? (b) What is the final tem- perature? (c) How many moles are in the gas?
57
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610
C HAP T ER 19 T HE KINET IC T HEORY OF GASES
M GO Figure 19.10 shows two paths that may be taken by a gas from an initial point i to a final point f. Path 1 consists of an isothermal expansion (work is 50 J in magnitude), an adia- batic expansion (work is 40 J in magnitude), an isothermal compression (work is 30 J in magnitude), and then an adia- batic compression (work is 25 J in magnitude). What is the change in the internal energy of the gas if the gas goes from point i to point f along path 2?
59
p i
Path 1 Isothermal f
Adiabatic
Path 2
V
Figure 19.10
Problem 59.
Adiabatic wind. The normal airflow over the Rocky Mountains is west to east. The air loses much of its moisture content and is chilled as it climbs the western side of the mountains. When it descends on the eastern side, the increase in pressure toward lower altitudes causes the tem- perature to increase. The flow, then called a chinook wind, can rapidly raise the air temperature at the base of the moun- tains. Assume that the air pressure p depends on altitude y according to p = p 0 exp (−ay), where p 0 = 1.00 atm and a = 1.16 × 10 −4 m −1 . Also assume that the ratio of the molar 4 specific heats is γ = _ 3 . A parcel of air with an initial tempera- ture of −5.00°C descends adiabatically from y 1 = 4267 m to y = 1567 m. What is its temperature at the end of the descent? M
GO
FCP
M GO A gas is to be expanded from initial state i to final state f along either path 1 or path 2 on a p-V diagram. Path 1 consists of three steps: an isothermal expansion (work is 40 J in magnitude), an adiabatic expansion (work is 20 J in magnitude), and another isothermal expansion (work is 30 J in magnitude). Path 2 consists of two steps: a pressure reduction at constant vol- ume and an expansion at constant pressure. What is the change in the internal energy of the gas along path 2?
61
GO An ideal diatomic gas, with rotation but no oscillation, undergoes an adiabatic compression. Its initial pressure and vol- ume are 1.20 atm and 0.200 m 3 . Its final pressure is 2.40 atm. How much work is done by the gas? 62 H
H Figure 19.11 shows a cycle undergone by 1.00 mol of an ideal monatomic gas. The temperatures are T 1 = 300 K, T 2 = 600 K, and T 3 = 455 K. For 1 → 2, what are (a) heat Q, (b) the change in internal energy ∆E int , and (c) the work done
63
2 Adiabatic 1
3
Volume Figure 19.11
Problem 63.
Additional Problems
Calculate the work done by an external agent during an isothermal compression of 1.00 mol of oxygen from a volume of 22.4 L at 0°C and 1.00 atm to a volume of 16.8 L. 64
An ideal gas undergoes an adiabatic compression from p = 1.0 atm, V = 1.0 × 10 6 L, T = 0.0°C to p = 1.0 × 10 5 atm, V = 1.0 × 10 3 L. (a) Is the gas monatomic, diatomic, or poly- atomic? (b) What is its final temperature? (c) How many moles of gas are present? What is the total translational kinetic energy per mole (d) before and (e) after the compression? (f) What is the ratio of the squares of the rms speeds before and after the compression? 65
An ideal gas consists of 1.50 mol of diatomic molecules that rotate but do not oscillate. The molecular diameter is 250 pm. The gas is expanded at a constant pressure of 1.50 × 10 5 Pa, with a transfer of 200 J as heat. What is the change in the mean free path of the molecules? 66
Isothermal
60
W? For 2 → 3, what are (d) Q, (e) ∆E int , and (f) W? For 3 → 1, what are (g) Q, (h) ∆E int , and (i) W? For the full cycle, what are (j) Q, (k) ∆E int , and (l) W? The initial pressure at point 1 is 1.00 atm (= 1.013 × 10 5 Pa). What are the (m) volume and (n) pressure at point 2 and the (o) volume and (p) pressure at point 3?
erusserP
GO FCP Opening champagne. In a bottle of champagne, the pocket of gas (primarily carbon dioxide) between the liquid and the cork is at pressure of p i = 5.00 atm. When the cork is pulled from the bottle, the gas undergoes an adiabatic expan- sion until its pressure matches the ambient air pressure of 1.00 4 atm. Assume that the ratio of the molar specific heats is γ = _ 3 . If the gas has initial temperature T i = 5.00°C, what is its tem- perature at the end of the adiabatic expansion? 58 M
An ideal monatomic gas initially has a temperature of 330 K and a pressure of 6.00 atm. It is to expand from volume 500 cm 3 to volume 1500 cm 3 . If the expansion is isothermal, what are (a) the final pressure and (b) the work done by the gas? If, instead, the expansion is adiabatic, what are (c) the final pressure and (d) the work done by the gas? 67
In an interstellar gas cloud at 50.0 K, the pressure is 1.00 × 10 −8 Pa. Assuming that the molecular diameters of the gases in the cloud are all 20.0 nm, what is their mean free path? 68
SSM The envelope and basket of a hot-air balloon have a combined weight of 2.45 kN, and the envelope has a capacity (volume) of 2.18 × 10 3 m 3 . When it is fully inflated, what should be the temperature of the enclosed air to give the balloon a lifting capacity (force) of 2.67 kN (in addition to the balloon’s weight)? Assume that the surrounding air, at 20.0°C, has a weight per unit volume of 11.9 N/m 3 and a molecular mass of 0.028 kg/mol, and is at a pressure of 1.0 atm.
69
An ideal gas, at initial temperature T 1 and initial volume 2.0 m 3 , is expanded adiabatically to a volume of 4.0 m 3 , then expanded isothermally to a volume of 10 m 3 , and then com- pressed adiabatically back to T 1 . What is its final volume? 70
SSM The temperature of 2.00 mol of an ideal monatomic gas is raised 15.0 K in an adiabatic process. What are (a) the work W done by the gas, (b) the energy transferred as heat Q, (c) the change ∆E int in internal energy of the gas, and (d) the change ∆K in the average kinetic energy per atom?
71
At what temperature do atoms of helium gas have the same rms speed as molecules of hydrogen gas at 20.0°C? (The molar masses are given in Table 19.3.1.) 72
/
P ROBL EMS
SSM At what frequency do molecules (diameter 290 pm) collide in (an ideal) oxygen gas (O 2 ) at temperature 400 K and pressure 2.00 atm?
73
(a) What is the number of molecules per cubic meter in air at 20°C and at a pressure of 1.0 atm (= 1.01 × 10 5 Pa)? (b) What is the mass of 1.0 m 3 of this air? Assume that 75% of the mol- ecules are nitrogen (N 2 ) and 25% are oxygen (O 2 ). 74
The temperature of 3.00 mol of a certain gas with C V = 6.00 cal/mol · K is to be raised 50.0 K. If the process is at constant vol- ume, what are (a) the energy transferred as heat Q, (b) the work W done by the gas, (c) the change ∆E int in internal energy of the gas, and (d) the change ∆K in the total translational kinetic energy? If the process is at constant pressure , what are (e) Q, (f) W, (g) ∆E int , and (h) ∆K? If the process is adiabatic, what are (i) Q, (j) W, (k) ∆E int , and (l) ∆K? 75
During a compression at a constant pressure of 250 Pa, the volume of an ideal gas decreases from 0.80 m 3 to 0.20 m 3 . The initial temperature is 360 K, and the gas loses 210 J as heat. What are (a) the change in the internal energy of the gas and (b) the final temperature of the gas? 76
CALC SSM Figure 19.12 shows a hypothetical speed dis- tribution for particles of a certain gas: P(v) = Cv 2 for 0 v 0 . Find (a) an expression for C in terms of v 0 , (b) the average speed of the par- ticles, and (c) their rms speed.
77
)v(P 0 Figure 19.12
Speed
v 0
Problem 77.
(a) An ideal gas initially at pressure p 0 undergoes a free expansion until its volume is 3.00 times its initial volume. What then is the ratio of its pressure to p 0 ? (b) The gas is next slowly and adiabatically compressed back to its original volume. The pressure after compression is (3.00) 1/3 p 0 . Is the gas monatomic, diatomic, or polyatomic? (c) What is the ratio of the average kinetic energy per molecule in this final state to that in the initial state? 78
An ideal gas undergoes isothermal compression from an initial volume of 4.00 m 3 to a final volume of 3.00 m 3 . There is 3.50 mol of the gas, and its temperature is 10.0°C. (a) How much work is done by the gas? (b) How much energy is transferred as heat between the gas and its environment? 79
SSM
Oxygen (O 2 ) gas at 273 K and 1.0 atm is confined to a cubical container 10 cm on a side. Calculate ∆U g /K avg , where ∆U g is the change in the gravitational potential energy of an oxygen molecule falling the height of the box and K avg is the molecule’s average translational kinetic energy. 80
(a) What is the volume occupied by 1.00 mol of an ideal gas at standard conditions—that is, 1.00 atm (= 1.01 × 10 5 Pa) and 273 K? (b) Show that the number of molecules per cubic centimeter (the Loschmidt number) at standard conditions is 2.69 × 10 9 . 82
SSM A sample of ideal gas expands from an initial pressure and volume of 32 atm and 1.0 L to a final volume of 4.0 L. The initial temperature is 300 K. If the gas is monatomic and the expansion isothermal, what are the (a) final pressure p f , (b) final temperature T f , and (c) work W done by the gas? If the gas is monatomic and the expansion adiabatic, what are (d) p f , (e) T f , and (f) W? If the gas is diatomic and the expansion adiabatic, what are (g) p f , (h) T f , and (i) W?
83
An ideal gas with 3.00 mol is initially in state 1 with pres- sure p 1 = 20.0 atm and volume V 1 = 1500 cm 3 . First it is taken to state 2 with pressure p 2 = 1.50p 1 and volume V 2 = 2.00V 1 . Then it is taken to state 3 with pressure p 3 = 2.00p 1 and volume V 3 = 0.500V 1 . What is the temperature of the gas in (a) state 1 and (b) state 2? (c) What is the net change in internal energy from state 1 to state 3? 84
Uranium diffusion. To enhance the effectiveness of the nuclear fission of uranium, the highly fissionable U-235 iso- tope must be separated from the less readily fissionable U-238 isotope. One way to do this is to form the uranium into a gas (UF 6 ) and allow it to diffuse repeatedly through a porous bar- rier (up 4000 times). The lighter molecule will diffuse faster, the effectiveness of the barrier being determined by a separation factor α, defined as the ratio of the two rms speeds. What is the separation factor for the two kinds of uranium hexafluoride gas molecules? 85
Opening a freezer door. Initially a household freezer com- partment is filled with air at room temperature T i = 27.0°C. Then the door is closed and the cooling in the walls is turned on until the air temperature is at the recommended value of T f = −18.0°C. The door has height h = 0.600 m and width w = 0.760 m, with hinges on the left edge (and thus with a rotation axis there) and a handle on the right edge. Assume that the freezer is air- tight. What are (a) the pressure difference Δp between the inside and outside of the door, (b) the net force F on the door from that pressure difference, and (c) the force F a needed to open the door by pulling on the handle perpendicular to the door? 86
Work in adiabatic expansion. Determine the work done by any ideal gas (monatomic, diatomic, or polyatomic) during an adiabatic expansion from volume V i and pressure p i to volume V f and pressure p f by apply- ing W = ∫ p dV and pV γ = a constant. (b) Show that the result is equivalent to −Δ Eint ,where the change in internal energy is given by Δ Eint = nC V ΔT. 87
Champagne cork pop- ping. When the cork on a champagne bottle is pulled out, the carbon dioxide gas (CO 2 ) above the liq- uid undergoes adiabatic expansion as it pushes its way out into the air. If the bottle was initially at temperature T i = 20.0°C and the gas pressure was initially at pressure 88
otohP kcotS ymalA/yarB yaJ
An ideal gas is taken through a complete cycle in three steps: adiabatic expansion with work equal to 125 J, isothermal contraction at 325 K, and increase in pressure at constant vol- ume. (a) Draw a p-V diagram for the three steps. (b) How much energy is transferred as heat in step 3, and (c) is it transferred to or from the gas? 81
611
Figure 19.13
Problem 88.
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C HAP T ER 19 T HE KINET IC T HEORY OF GASES
p i = 7.5 atm, what is the temperature of the gas at the end of the expansion? The decrease in temperature causes water mole- cules in the gas to condense, forming a fog of tiny water drops (Fig. 19.13). At what temperature is the average translational kinetic energy of a molecule in a gas equal to 4.0 × 10 −19 J? 89
Champagne cork flight. When a champagne bottle is opened, the cork shoots vertically upward from the bottle into the air due to the pressure difference between the 7.5 atm of the carbon dioxide gas beneath it and the atmospheric air pres- sure. The cork has mass m = 9.1 g and cross-sectional area A = 2.5 cm 2 , and the cork’s acceleration (assumed constant) lasts for time interval Δt = 1.2 ms. Neglecting air resistance during 90
the flight and assuming the release is outdoors (no ceiling), how high will the cork fly? Most probable speed. A container holds a gas of molecular hydrogen (H 2 ) at a temperature of 250 K. What are (a) the most probable speed v P of the molecules and (b) the maximum value P max of the probability distribution function P(v)? (c) With a graphing calculator or computer math package, determine what percentage of the molecules have speeds between 0.500v P and 1.50v P . The temperature is then increased to 500 K. What are (d) the most probable speed v P of the molecules and (e) the maximum value P max of the probability distribution function P(v)? Did (f) v P and (g) P max increase, decrease, or remain the same during the temperature increase? 91
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H
A
P
T
E
R
2
0
Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
20.1 ENTROPY Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
20.1.1 Identify the second law of thermodynamics: If a
ΔT that is small T, apply the relationship between the entropy change ΔS , the transferred heat Q , and the average temperature T a vg
20.1.5 For a temperature change
process occurs in a closed system, the entropy of
relative to the temperature
the system increases for irreversible processes and remains constant for reversible processes; it never decreases.
(in kelvins).
20.1.2 Identify that entropy is a state function (the value
20.1.6 For an ideal gas, apply the relationship between
ΔS and the initial and final
for a particular state of the system does not depend
the entropy change
on how that state is reached).
values of the pressure and volume.
20.1.3 Calculate the change in entropy for a process by
20.1.7 Identify that if a process is an irreversible one,
integrating the inverse of the temperature (in kelvins) with respect to the heat
the integration for the entropy change must be
Q transferred during the
done for a reversible process that takes the system
process.
between the same initial and final states as the
20.1.4 For a phase change with a constant-temperature process, apply the relationship between the entropy change
irreversible process. 20.1.8 For stretched rubber, relate the elastic force to
ΔS, the total transferred heat Q, and the T (in kelvins).
the rate at which the rubber’s entropy changes with
temperature
the change in the stretching distance.
Key Ideas ●
An irreversible process is one that cannot be
Q is the energy transferred as heat to or from the T is the temperature of
Here
reversed by means of small changes in the environ-
system during the process, and
ment. The direction in which an irreversible process
the system in kelvins during the process.
ΔS of the sys-
proceeds is set by the change in entropy tem undergoing the process. Entropy
S is a state prop-
●
For a reversible isothermal process, the expression
for an entropy change reduces to
erty (or state function) of the system; that is, it depends
Q ΔS = S f − S i = __ . T
only on the state of the system and not on the way in which the system reached that state. The entropy pos- tulate states (in part): If an irreversible process occurs in a closed system, the entropy of the system always
●
When the temperature change
after the process, the entropy change can be approxi-
increases.
ΔS for an irreversible process that takes a system from an initial state i to a final state f is exactly equal to the entropy change ΔS for
mated as
any reversible process that takes the system between
where
●
ΔT of a system is
small relative to the temperature (in kelvins) before and
The entropy change
those same two states. We can compute the latter (but not the former) with
f
ΔS = S f − S i =
i
dQ ___ . T
Q ΔS = S f − S i ≈ ____ , T avg T avg is the system’s average temperature during
the process. ●
When an ideal gas changes reversibly from an initial
T i and volume V i to a final state
state with temperature
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614
C HAP T ER 20 ENT ROP Y AND T HE SEC OND L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
T f and volume V f, the change ΔS in
with temperature
occurs in a closed system, the entropy of the system
the entropy of the gas is
increases for irreversible processes and remains con-
V f T f ΔS = S f − S i = nR ln ___ + nC V ln __ . V i T i
●
stant for reversible processes. It never decreases. In equation form,
The second law of thermodynamics, which is an
extension of the entropy postulate, states: If a process
ΔS ≥ 0.
What Is Physics?
Time has direction, the direction in which we age. We are accustomed to many one-way processes—that is, processes that can occur only in a certain sequence (the right way) and never in the reverse sequence (the wrong way). An egg is dropped onto a floor, a pizza is baked, a car is driven into a lamppost, large waves erode a sandy beach—these one-way processes are irreversible, meaning that they cannot be reversed by means of only small changes in their environment. One goal of physics is to understand why time has direction and why one-way processes are irreversible. Although this physics might seem disconnected from the practical issues of everyday life, it is in fact at the heart of any engine, such as a car engine, because it determines how well an engine can run. The key to understanding why one-way processes c annot be reversed involves a quantity known as entropy.
Irreversible Processes and Entropy
The one-way character of irreversible processes is so pervasive that we take it for granted. If these processes were to occur spontaneously (on their own) in the wrong way, we would be astonished. Yet none of these wrong-way events would violate the law of conservation of energy. For example, if you were to wrap your hands around a cup of hot coffee, you would be astonished if your hands got cooler and the cup got warmer. That is obviously the wrong way for the energy transfer, but the total energy of the closed system (hands + cup of coffee) would be the same as the total energy if the process had run in the right way. For another example, if you popped a helium balloon, you would be astonished if, later, all the helium molecules were to gather together in the original shape of the balloon. That is obviously the wrong way for molecules to spread, but the total energy of the closed system (molecules + room) would be the same as for the right way. Thus, changes in energy within a closed system do not set the direction of irreversible processes. Rather, that direction is set by another property that we shall discuss in this chapter—the change in entropy ΔS of the system. The change in entropy of a system is defined later in this module, but we can here state its central property, often called the entropy postulate: If an irreversible process occurs in a closed system, the entropy S of the system always increases; it never decreases.
Entropy differs from energy in that entropy does not obey a conservation law. The energy of a closed system is conserved; it always remains constant. For irreversible processes, the entropy of a closed system always increases. Because of this prop- erty, the change in entropy is sometimes called “the arrow of time.” For example, we associate the explosion of a popcorn kernel with the forward direction of time and with an increase in entropy. The backward direction of time (a video run
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20.1 ENT ROP Y
backwards) would correspond to the exploded popcorn re-forming the original kernel. Because this backward process would result in an entropy decrease, it never happens. There are two equivalent ways to define the change in entropy of a system: (1) in terms of the system’s temperature and the energy the system gains or loses as heat, and (2) by counting the ways in which the atoms or molecules that make up the system can be arranged. We use the first approach in this module and the second in Module 20.4.
615
Stopcock closed
System
Vacuum
Insulation (a) Initial state i
Change in Entropy
Let’s approach this definition of change in entropy by looking again at a pro- cess that we described in Modules 18.5 and 19.9: the free expansion of an ideal gas. Figure 20.1.1a shows the gas in its initial equilibrium state i, confined by a closed stopcock to the left half of a thermally insulated container. If we open the stopcock, the gas rushes to fill the entire container, eventually reaching the final equilibrium state f shown in Fig. 20.1.1b. This is an irreversible process; all the molecules of the gas will never return to the left half of the container. The p-V plot of the process, in Fig. 20.1.2, shows the pressure and volume of the gas in its initial state i and final state f. Pressure and volume are state properties, properties that depend only on the state of the gas and not on how it reached that state. Other state properties are temperature and energy. We now assume that the gas has still another state property—its entropy. Furthermore, we define the change in entropy S f − S i of a system during a process that takes the system from an initial state i to a final state f as f
dQ ΔS = S f − S i = ____ t T
(change in entropy defined).
(20.1.1)
Stopcock open
(b ) Final state f
The free expansion of an ideal gas. (a) The gas is con- fined to the left half of an insulated container by a closed stopcock. (b) When the stopcock is opened, the gas rushes to fill the entire container. This process is irreversible; that is, it does not occur in reverse,�� with the gas spontaneously collecting itself in the left half of the container. Figure 20.1.1
i
erusserP
Here Q is the energy transferred as heat to or from the system during the pro- cess, and T is the temperature of the system in kelvins. Thus, an entropy change depends not only on the energy transferred as heat but also on the temperature a t which the transfer takes place. Because T is always positive, the sign of ΔS is the same as that of Q. We see from Eq. 20.1.1 that the SI unit for entropy and entropy change is the joule per kelvin. There is a problem, however, in applying Eq. 20.1.1 to the free expansion of Fig. 20.1.1. A s the gas rushes to fill the entire container, the pressure, temperature, and volume of the gas fluctuate unpredictably. In other words, they do not have a sequence of well-defined equilibrium values during the intermediate stages of the change from initial state i to final state f. Thus, we cannot trace a pressure–volume path for the free expansion on the p-V plot of Fig. 20.1.2, and we cannot find a relation between Q and T that allows us to integrate as Eq. 20.1.1 requires. However, if entropy is truly a state property, the difference in entropy between states i and f must depend only on those states and not at all on the way the system went from one state to the other. Suppose, then, that we replace the irreversible free expansion of Fig. 20.1.1 with a reversible process that connects states i and f. With a reversible process we can trace a pressure–volume path on a p-V plot, and we can find a relation between Q and T that allows us to use Eq. 20.1.1 to obtain the entropy change. We saw in Module 19.9 that the temperature of an ideal gas does not change during a free expansion: T i = T f = T. Thus, points i and f in Fig. 20.1.2 must be on the same isotherm. A convenient replacement process is then a reversible isother- mal expansion from state i to state f, which actually proceeds along that isotherm. Furthermore, because T is constant throughout a reversible isothermal expan- sion, the integral of Eq. 20.1.1 is greatly simplified.
Irreversible process
f
Volume
A p-V diagram showing the initial state i and the final state f of the free expansion of Fig. 20.1.1. The intermediate states of the gas cannot be shown because they are not equilibrium states. Figure 20.1.2
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616
C HAP T ER 20 ENT ROP Y AND T HE SEC OND L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
Insulation
Lead shot
Q T
Thermal reservoir
Control knob
Figure 20.1.3 shows how to produce such a reversible isothermal expansion. We confine the gas to an insulated cylinder that rests on a thermal reservoir maintained at the temperature T. We begin by placing just enough lead shot on the movable piston so that the pressure and volume of the gas are those of the initial state i of Fig. 20.1.1a. We then remove shot slowly (piece by piece) until the pressure and volume of the gas are those of the final state f of Fig. 20.1.1b. The temperature of the gas does not change because the gas remains in thermal contact with the reservoir throughout the process. The reversible isothermal expansion of Fig. 20.1.3 is physically quite different from the irreversible free expansion of Fig. 20.1.1. H owever, both processes have the same initial state and the same final state and thus must have the same change in entropy. Because we removed the lead shot slowly, the intermediate states of the gas are equilibrium states, so we can plot them on a p-V diagram (Fig. 20.1.4). To apply Eq. 20.1.1 to the isothermal expansion, we take the constant tem- perature T outside the integral, obtaining f
1 dQ. ΔS = S f − S i = __ T i
(a) Initial state i
Reversible process
Because ∫ dQ = Q, where Q is the total energy transferred as heat during the process, we have Q ΔS = S f − S i = ___ T
Lead shot
(change in entropy, isothermal process).
(20.1.2)
To keep the temperature T of the gas constant during the isothermal expansion of Fig. 20.1.3, heat Q must have been energy transferred from the reservoir to the gas. Thus, Q is positive and the entropy of the gas increases during the isothermal process and during the free expansion of Fig. 20.1.1. To summarize: To find the entropy change for an irreversible process, replace that process with any reversible process that connects the same initial and final states. Calculate the entropy change for this reversible process with Eq. 20.1.1.
T
(b ) Final state f
The isothermal expansion of an ideal gas, done in a reversible way. The gas has the same initial state i and same final state f as in the irreversible process of Figs. 20.1.1 and 20.1.2. Figure 20.1.3
i
When the temperature change ΔT of a system is small relative to the tem- perature (in kelvins) before and after the process, the entropy change can be approximated as Q ΔS = S f − S i ≈ _____ , (20.1.3) T avg where T avg is the average temperature of the system in kelvins during the process.
Checkpoint 20.1.1
Water is heated on a stove. Rank the entropy changes of the water as its temperature rises (a) from 20°C to 30°C, (b) from 30°C to 35°C, and (c) from 80°C to 85°C, greatest first.
Isotherm
erusserP
f T
Entropy as a State Function
Volume
A p-V diagram for the reversible isothermal expansion of Fig. 20.1.3. The intermediate states, which are now equilibrium states, are shown. Figure 20.1.4
We have assumed that entropy, like pressure, energy, a nd temperature, is a prop- erty of the state of a system and is independent of how that state is reached. That entropy is indeed a state function (as state properties are usually called) can be deduced only by experiment. However, we can prove it is a state func- tion for the special and important case in which an ideal gas is taken through a reversible process.
/
20.1 ENT ROP Y
617
To make the process reversible, it is done slowly in a series of small steps, with the gas in an equilibrium state at the end of each step. For each small step, the energy transferred as heat to or from the gas is dQ, the work done by the gas is dW, and the change in internal energy is dE int . These are related by the first law of thermodynamics in differential form (Eq. 18.5.4): dE int = dQ − dW. Because the steps are reversible, with the gas in equilibrium states, we can use Eq. 18.5.1 to replace dW with p dV and Eq. 19.7.9 to replace dE int with nC V dT. Solving for dQ then leads to dQ = p dV + nC V dT. Using the ideal gas law, we replace p in this equation with nRT/V. Then we divide each term in the resulting equation by T, obtaining dQ dV + nC ___ dT . ___ = nR ___ V T V T Now let us integrate each term of this equation between an arbitrary initial state i and an arbitrary final state f to get f
i
dQ ___ = T
f
f
dV dT ___ ___ nR V + nC V T . i i
The quantity on the left is the entropy change ΔS (= S f − S i) defined by Eq. 20.1.1. Substituting this and integrating the quantities on the right yield V f T f ΔS = S f − S i = nR ln ___ + nC V ln ___ . V i T i
(20.1.4)
Note that we did not have to specify a particular reversible process when we integrated. Therefore, the integration must hold for all reversible processes that take the gas from state i to state f. Thus, the change in entropy ΔS between the initial and final states of an ideal gas depends only on properties of the initial state (V i and T i) and properties of the final state (V f and T f ); ΔS does not depend on how the gas changes between the two states. a
An ideal gas has temperature T 1 at the initial state i shown in the p-V diagram here. The gas has a higher temperature T 2 at final states a and b, which it can reach along the paths shown. Is the entropy change along the path to state a larger than, smaller than, or the same as that along the path to state b?
Sample Problem 20.1.1
erusserP
Checkpoint 20.1.2
i
T2
T1 b
T2
Volume
Entropy change of two blocks coming to thermal equilibrium
Figure 20.1.5a shows two identical copper blocks of mass m = 1.5 kg: block L at temperature T iL = 60°C and block R at temperature T iR = 20°C. The blocks are in a thermally insulated box and are separated by an insulating shutter. When we lift the shutter, the blocks eventually come to the equilibrium temperature Tf = 40°C (Fig. 20.1.5b). What is the net entropy change of the two-block system during this irreversible process? The specific heat of copper is 386 J/kg · K.
KEY IDEA To calculate the entropy change, we must find a revers- ible process that takes the system from the initial state of Fig. 20.1.5a to the final state of Fig. 20.1.5b. We can calcu- late the net entropy change ΔS rev of the reversible process using Eq. 20.1.1, a nd then the entropy change for the irre- versible process is equal to ΔS rev .
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C HAP T ER 20 ENT ROP Y AND T HE SEC OND L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
For the reversible process, we need a ther- mal reservoir whose temperature can be changed slowly (say, by turning a knob). We then take the blocks through the following two steps, illustrated in Fig. 20.1.6. Calculations:
With the reservoir’s temperature set at 60°C, put block L on the reservoir. (Since block and reservoir are at the same temperature, they are already in thermal equilibrium.) Then slowly lower the temperature of the reservoir and the block to 40°C. As the block’s tempera- ture changes by each increment dT during this process, energy dQ is transferred as heat from the block to the reservoir. Using Eq. 18.4.3, we can write this transferred energy as dQ = mc dT, where c is the specific heat of cop- per. According to Eq. 20.1.1, the entropy change ΔS L of block L during the full temperature change from initial temperature T iL (= 60°C = 333 K) to final temperature T f (= 40°C = 313 K) is Step
1:
f
T f
Movable shutter Insulation Warm
Cool
Ti L
Ti R
Tf
Tf
L
R
L
R
Irreversible process
(a)
(b )
(a) In the initial state, two copper blocks L and R, identical except for their temperatures, are in an insulating box and are separated by an insulating shutter. (b) When the shut- ter is removed, the blocks exchange energy as heat and come to a final state, both with the same temperature T f . Figure 20.1.5
Insulation L
R
T f
dQ mc dT = mc ____ dT Δ S L = ____ = _______ T T T i T iL T iL T f = mc ln ____ . T iL
Q
Reservoir (a ) Step 1
Q
(b ) Step 2
The blocks of Fig. 20.1.5 can proceed from their initial state to their final state in a reversible way if we use a reservoir with a controllable temperature (a) to extract heat reversibly from block L and (b) to add heat reversibly to block R. Figure 20.1.6
Inserting the given data yields 313 K Δ S L = (1.5 kg)(386 J/kg ⋅ K) ln ______ 333 K = −35.86 J/K. With the reservoir’s temperature now set at 20°C, put block R on the reservoir. Then slowly raise the tem- perature of the reservoir and the block to 40°C. With the same reasoning used to find ΔS L , you can show that the entropy change ΔS R of block R during this process is Step 2:
313 K Δ S R = (1.5 kg)(386 J/kg ⋅ K) ln ______ 293 K = +38.23 J/K. The net entropy change ΔS rev of the two-block system undergoing this two-step reversible process is then
Sample Problem 20.1.2
ΔS rev = ΔS L + ΔS R = −35.86 J/K + 38.23 J/K = 2.4 J/K. Thus, the net entropy change ΔS irrev for the two-block sys- tem undergoing the actual irreversible process is ΔS irrev = ΔS rev = 2.4 J/K.
(Answer)
This result is positive, in accordance with the entropy postulate.
Entropy change of a free expansion of a gas
Suppose 1.0 mol of nitrogen gas is confined to the left side of the container of Fig. 20.1.1a. You open the stopcock, and the volume of the gas doubles. What is the entropy change of the gas for this irreversible process? Treat the gas as ideal.
KEY IDEAS (1) We can determine the entropy change for the irrevers- ible process by calculating it for a reversible process that provides the same change in volume. (2) The temperature of the gas does not change in the free expansion. Thus, the reversible process should be an isothermal expansion— namely, the one of Figs. 20.1.3 and 20.1.4.
From Table 19.9.1, the energy Q added as heat to the gas as it expands isothermally at temperature T from an initial volume V i to a final volume V f is Calculations:
V f Q = nRT ln ___ , V i in which n is the number of moles of gas present. From Eq. 20.1.2 the entropy change for this reversible process in which the temperature is held constant is V f Q nRT ln( Vf / Vi ) ΔS rev = __ = ______________ = nR ln ___ . T T V i
/
20.1 ENT ROP Y
Substituting n = 1.00 mol and V f /V i = 2, we find V f Δ S rev = nR ln ___ = (1.00 mol)(8.31 J / m ol ⋅ K)(ln 2) V i = +5.76 J/K.
619
Thus, the entropy change for the free expansion (and for all other processes that connect the initial and final states shown in Fig. 20.1.2) is ΔS irrev = ΔS rev = +5.76 J/K.
(Answer)
Because ΔS is positive, the entropy increases, in accor- dance with the entropy postulate.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Here is a puzzle. In the process of going from (a) to (b) in Fig. 20.1.3, the entropy change of the gas (our system) is positive. However, because the process is revers- ible, we can also go from (b) to (a) by, say, gradually adding lead shot to the piston, to restore the initial gas volume. To maintain a constant temperature, we need to remove energy as heat, but that means Q is negative and thus the entropy change is also. Doesn’t this entropy decrease violate the entropy postulate: Entropy always increases? No, because the postulate holds only for irreversible processes in closed systems. Here, the process is not irreversible and the system is not closed (because of the energy transferred to and from the reservoir as heat). However, if we include the reservoir, a long with the gas, as part of the system, then we do have a closed system. Let’s check the change in entropy of the enlarged system gas + reservoir for the process that takes it from (b) to (a) in Fig. 20.1.3. During this reversible process, energy is transferred as heat from the gas to the reservoir—that is, from one part of the enlarged system to another. Let |Q| repre- sent the absolute value (or magnitude) of this heat. With Eq. 20.1.2, we can then calculate separately the entropy changes for the gas (which loses |Q|) and the reservoir (which gains |Q|). We get |Q | ΔS gas = − ___ T | Q | ΔS res = + ____ . T
and
The entropy change of the closed system is the sum of these two quantities: 0. With this result, we can modify the entropy postulate to include both revers- ible and irreversible processes:
If a process occurs in a closed system, the entropy of the system increases for irreversible processes and remains constant for reversible processes. It never decreases.
Although entropy may decrease in part of a closed system, there will always be an equal or larger entropy increase in another part of the system, so that the entropy of the system as a whole never decreases. This fact is one form of the second law of thermodynamics and can be written as ΔS ≥ 0
(second law of thermodynamics),
(20.1.5)
where the greater-than sign applies to irreversible processes and the equals sign to reversible processes. Equation 20.1.5 applies only to closed systems.
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C HAP T ER 20 ENT ROP Y AND T HE SEC OND L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
In the real world almost all processes are irreversible to some extent because of friction, turbulence, and other factors, so the entropy of real closed systems undergoing real processes always increases. Processes in which the system’s entropy remains constant are always idealizations. Force Due to Entropy
To understand why rubber resists being stretched, let’s write the first law of thermodynamics dE = dQ − dW for a rubber band undergoing a small increase in length dx as we stretch it between our hands. The force from the rubber band has magnitude F, is directed inward, and does work dW = −F dx during length increase dx. From Eq. 20.1.2 (ΔS = Q/T), small changes in Q and S at constant temperature are related by dS = dQ/T, or dQ = T dS. So, now we can rewrite the first law as dE = T dS + F dx.
(20.1.6)
To good approximation, the change dE in the internal energy of rubber is 0 if the total stretch of the rubber band is not very much. Substituting 0 for dE in Eq. 20.1.6 leads us to an expression for the force from the rubber band: dS . F = −T ___ dx
Coiled
(a )
Uncoiled (b )
F
F
A section of a rub- ber band (a) unstretched and (b) stretched, and a polymer within it (a) coiled and (b) uncoiled. Figure 20.1.7
(20.1.7)
This tells us that F is proportional to the rate dS/dx at which the rubber band’s entropy changes during a small change dx in the rubber band’s length. Thus, you can feel the effect of entropy on your hands as you stretch a rubber band. To make sense of the relation between force and entropy, let’s consider a simple model of the rubber material. Rubber consists of cross-linked polymer chains (long molecules with cross links) that resemble three-dimensional zig-zags (Fig. 20.1.7). When the rubber band is at its rest length, the polymers are coiled up in a spaghetti-like arrangement. Because of the large disorder of the molecules, this rest state has a high value of entropy. When we stretch a rubber band, we uncoil many of those polymers, aligning them in the direction of stretch. Because the alignment decreases the disorder, the entropy of the stretched rubber band is less. That is, the change dS/dx in Eq. 20.1.7 is a negative quantity because the entropy decreases with stretching. Thus, the force on our hands from the rubber band is due to the tendency of the polymers to return to their former disordered FCP state and higher value of entropy.
20.2 ENTROPY IN THE REAL WORLD: ENGINES Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
20.2.1 Identify that a heat engine is a device that extracts energy from its environment in the form of heat and does useful work and that in an ideal heat engine, all processes are reversible, with no wasteful energy transfers.
p-V diagram for the cycle of a Carnot
20.2.2 Sketch a
engine, indicating the direction of cycling, the nature
done in the cycle, and the heat transferred during each process (including algebraic sign). 20.2.3 Sketch a Carnot cycle on a temperature–entropy diagram, indicating the heat transfers. 20.2.4 Determine the net entropy change around a Carnot cycle. 20.2.5 Calculate the efficiency
εC of a Carnot engine in
of the processes involved, the work done during
terms of the heat transfers and also in terms of the
each process (including algebraic sign), the net work
temperatures of the reservoirs.
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20.2 ENT ROP Y IN T HE REAL WORL D : ENGINES
20.2.6 Identify that there are no perfect engines in
621
p-V diagram for the cycle of a Stirling
20.2.7 Sketch a
Q from a high- temperature reservoir goes entirely into the work W which the energy transferred as heat
engine, indicating the direction of cycling, the nature of the processes involved, the work done during each
done by the engine.
process (including algebraic sign), the net work done in the cycle, and the heat transfers during each process.
Key Ideas ●
An engine is a device that, operating in a cycle,
Q H | from a high-temperature reservoir and does a certain amount of work | W|. The extracts energy as heat |
efficiency
ε of any engine is defined as
energy we get |W | ε = ________________ = _____ . energy we pay for | Q H| ●
In an ideal engine, all processes are reversible and
no wasteful energy transfers occur due to, say, friction and turbulence. ●
in which
T H and T L are the temperatures of the high-
and low-temperature reservoirs, respectively. Real engines always have an efficiency lower than that of a Carnot engine. Ideal engines that are not Carnot engines also have efficiencies lower than that of a Carnot engine. ●
A perfect engine is an imaginary engine in which
energy extracted as heat from the high-temperature reservoir is converted completely to work. Such an engine would violate the second law of thermodynam-
A Carnot engine is an ideal engine that follows the
cycle of Fig. 20.2.2. Its efficiency is
T L | Q L | ɛC = 1 − _____ = 1 − ___ , |Q H| T H
ics, which can be restated as follows: No series of processes is possible whose sole result is the absorp- tion of energy as heat from a thermal reservoir and the complete conversion of this energy to work.
Entropy in the Real World: Engines
A heat engine, or more simply, an engine, is a device that extracts energy from its environment in the form of heat and does useful work. At the heart of every engine is a working substance. In a steam engine, the working substance is water, in both its vapor and its liquid form. In an automobile engine the Schematic of working substance is a gasoline–air mixture. If an engine is to do work a Carnot engine on a sustained basis, the working substance must operate in a cycle; that is, the working substance must pass through a closed series of thermody- TH namic processes, called strokes, returning again and again to each state in Heat is QH its cycle. Let us see what the laws of thermodynamics can tell us about absorbed. the operation of engines. A Carnot Engine
We have seen that we can learn much about real gases by analyzing an ideal gas, which obeys the simple law pV = nRT. Although an ideal gas does not exist, any real gas approaches ideal behavior if its density is low enough. Similarly, we can study real engines by analyzing the behavior of an ideal engine.
W
Heat is lost.
Work is done by the engine.
QL
TL
The elements of a Carnot engine. The two black arrow- heads on the central loop suggest the working substance operating in a cycle, as if on a p-V plot. Energy |Q H | is transferred as heat from the high- temperature reservoir at temperature T H to the working substance. Energy |Q L | is transferred as heat from the working substance to the low-tem- perature reservoir at temperature T L . Work W is done by the engine (actu- ally by the working substance) on something in the environment. Figure 20.2.1
In an ideal engine, all processes are reversible and no wasteful energy transfers occur due to, say, friction and turbulence.
We shall focus on a particular ideal engine called a Carnot engine after the French scientist and engineer N. L. Sadi Carnot (pronounced “car-no”), who first proposed the engine’s concept in 1824. This ideal engine turns out to be the best (in principle) at using energy as heat to do useful work. Surprisingly, Carnot was able to analyze the performance of this engine before the first law of thermo- dynamics and the concept of entropy had been discovered. Figure 20.2.1 shows schematically the operation of a Carnot engine. During each cycle of the engine, the working substance absorbs energy |Q H | as heat from
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C HAP T ER 20 ENT ROP Y AND T HE SEC OND L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
a thermal reservoir at constant temperature T H and discharges energy |Q L| as heat to a second thermal reservoir at a constant lower temperature T L. Figure 20.2.2 shows a p-V plot of the Carnot cycle—the cycle followed by the working substance. A s indicated by the arrows, the cycle is traversed in the clockwise direction. Imagine the working substance to be a gas, confined to an insulating cylinder with a weighted, movable piston. The cylinder may be placed at will on either of the two thermal reservoirs, a s in Fig. 20.1.6, or on an insulating slab. Figure 20.2.2a shows that, if we place the cylinder in contact with the high-temperature reservoir at temperature T H , heat |Q H | is transferred to the working substance from this reservoir a s the gas undergoes an isothermal expansion from volume V a to volume V b . Similarly, with the working substance in contact with the low-temperature reservoir at temperature T L , heat |Q L | is transferred from the working substance to the low-temperature reservoir as the gas undergoes an isothermal compression from volume V c to volume V d (Fig. 20.2.2b). In the engine of Fig. 20.2.1, we assume that heat transfers to or from the work- ing substance can take place only during the isothermal processes ab and cd of Fig. 20.2.2. Therefore, processes bc and da in that figure, which connect the two isotherms at temperatures T H and T L , must be (reversible) adiabatic processes; that is, they must be processes in which no energy is transferred as heat. To ensure this, during processes bc and da the cylinder is placed on an insulating slab as the volume of the working substance is changed. During the processes ab and bc of Fig. 20.2.2a, the working substance is expanding and thus doing positive work as it raises the weighted piston. This work is represented in Fig. 20.2.2a by the area under curve abc. During the processes cd and da (Fig. 20.2.2b), the working substance is being compressed, which means that it is doing negative work on its environment or, equivalently, that its environment is doing work on it as the loaded piston descends. This work is represented by the area under curve cda. The net work per cycle, which is rep- resented by W in both Figs. 20.2.1 a nd 20.2.2, is the difference between these two areas and is a positive quantity equal to the area e nclosed by cycle abcda in Fig. 20.2.2. This work W is performed on some outside object, such as a load to be lifted.
A
Stages of a Carnot engine
Positive work is done.
QH
b
a
Adiabatic: no heat
erusserP
erusserP
A pressure– volume plot of the cycle followed by the working substance of the Carnot engine in Fig. 20.2.1. The cycle consists of two isothermal processes (ab and cd) and two adiabatic processes (bc and da). The shaded area enclosed by the cycle is equal to the work W per cycle done by the Carnot engine. Figure 20.2.2
Isothermal: heat is absorbed
a
b
W
W TH
d c
0
Volume
(a )
TL
Adiabatic: no heat
TH
QL
d
c
0
Negative work is done.
Volume
TL
Isothermal: heat is lost
(b )
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623
20.2 ENT ROP Y IN T HE REAL WORL D : ENGINES
H
a
erutarepmeT
W = |Q H| − | Q L| .
Q
b TH
T
Equation 20.1.1 (ΔS = ∫ dQ/T) tells us that any energy transfer as heat must involve a change in entropy. To see this for a Carnot engine, we can plot the Carnot cycle on a temperature–entropy (T-S) diagram as in Fig. 20.2.3. The lettered points a, b, c, and d there correspond to the lettered points in the p-V diagram in Fig. 20.2.2. The two horizontal lines in Fig. 20.2.3 c orrespond to the two isothermal processes of the cycle. Process ab is the isothermal expansion of the cycle. A s the working substance (reversibly) absorbs energy | Q H | as heat at constant temperature T H during the expansion, its entropy increases. Similarly, during the isothermal compression cd, the working sub- stance (reversibly) loses energy | Q L | as heat at constant temperature T L , and its entropy decreases. The two vertical lines in Fig. 20.2.3 correspond to the two adiabatic processes of the Carnot cycle. Because no energy is transferred as heat during the two pro- cesses, the entropy of the working substance is constant during them. The Work To calculate the net work done by a Carnot engine during a cycle, let us apply Eq. 18.5.3, the first law of thermodynamics (ΔE int = Q − W), to the working substance. That substance must return again and again to any arbitrarily selected state in the cycle. Thus, if X represents any state property of the working substance, such as pressure, temperature, v olume, internal energy, or entropy, we must have ΔX = 0 for every cycle. It follows that ΔE int = 0 for a complete cycle of the working substance. Recalling that Q in Eq. 18.5.3 is the net heat transfer per cycle and W is the net work, we can write the first law for this cycle (or any ideal cycle) as
d
c Q
TL
L
Entropy S
The Carnot cycle of Fig. 20.2.2 plotted on a temperature– entropy diagram. During processes ab and cd the temperature remains constant. During processes bc and da the entropy remains constant. Figure 20.2.3
(20.2.1)
Entropy Changes In a Carnot engine, there are two (and only two) reversible energy transfers as heat, and thus two changes in the entropy of the working substance—one at temperature T H and one at T L . The net entropy change per cycle is then |Q H| _____ | Q | (20.2.2) ΔS = ΔS H + ΔS L = _____ − L . T H T L
Here ΔS H is positive because energy |Q H | is added to the working substance as heat (an increase in entropy) and ΔS L is negative because energy |Q L | is removed from the working substance as heat (a decrease in entropy). Because entropy is a state function, we must have ΔS = 0 for a complete cycle. Putting ΔS = 0 in Eq. 20.2.2 requires that |Q H| |Q L| _____ = _____ .
T H
T L
(20.2.3)
Note that, because T H > T L, we must have |Q H| > |Q L|; that is, more energy is extracted as heat from the high-temperature reservoir than is delivered to the low-temperature reservoir. We shall now derive an expression for the efficiency of a Carnot engine. Efficiency of a Carnot Engine
The purpose of any engine is to transform as much of the extracted energy Q H into work as possible. We measure its success in doing so by its thermal efficiency ε, defined as the work the engine does per cycle (“energy we get”) divided by the energy it absorbs as heat per cycle (“energy we pay for”): |W| energy we get ε = ___________________ = _____ energy we pay for |Q | H
(efficiency, any engine).
(20.2.4)
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C HAP T ER 20 ENT ROP Y AND T HE SEC OND L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
Perfect engine: total conversion of heat to work
TH
Q
H
L=
| Q L| Q H | − |Q L| ɛ = |____________ = 1 − _____ . |Q | | Q | H
H
(20.2.5)
Using Eq. 20.2.3 for a Carnot engine, we can write this as W
Q
For any ideal engine we substitute for W from Eq. 20.2.1 to write Eq. 20.2.4 a s
T L ____ ɛC = 1 − T
(= Q H)
0
The elements of a perfect engine—that is, one that converts heat Q H from a high-temperature reservoir directly to work W with 100% efficiency. Figure 20.2.4
H
(efficiency, Carnot engine),
(20.2.6)
where the temperatures T L and T H are in kelvins. Because T L T L, the right side of this equation is negative and thus the net change in entropy per cycle for the closed system refrigerator + reservoirs is also negative. Because such a decrease in entropy violates the second law of ther- modynamics (Eq. 20.1.5), a perfect refrigerator does not exist. (If you want your refrigerator to operate, you must plug it in.) Here, then, is another way to state the second law of thermodynamics: No series of processes is possible whose sole result is the transfer of energy as heat from a reservoir at a given temperature to a reservoir at a higher temperature.
In short, there are no perfect refrigerators. Checkpoint 20.3.1
You wish to increase the coefficient of performance of an ideal refrigerator. You can do so by (a) running the cold chamber at a slightly higher temperature, (b) running the cold chamber at a slightly lower temperature, (c) moving the unit to a slightly warmer room, or (d) moving it to a slightly cooler room. The magnitudes of the tem- perature changes are to be the same in all four cases. List the changes according to the resulting coefficients of performance, greatest first.
The Efficiencies of Real Engines
Let εC be the efficiency of a Carnot engine operating between two given tem- peratures. Here we prove that no real engine operating between those tempera- tures can have an efficiency greater than εC . If it could, the engine would violate the second law of thermodynamics. Let us assume that an inventor, working in her garage, has constructed an engine X, which she claims has an efficiency εX that is greater than εC :
εX > εC
(20.3.4)
(a claim).
Let us couple engine X to a Carnot refrigerator, as in Fig. 20.3.3a. We adjust the strokes of the Carnot refrigerator so that the work it requires per cycle is just equal to that provided by engine X. Thus, no (external) work is performed on or by the combination engine + refrigerator of Fig. 20.3.3a, which we take as our system. If Eq. 20.3.4 is true, from the definition of efficiency (Eq. 20.2.4), we must have |W | |W| _____ > _____ , |Q′ H | |Q H| where the prime refers to engine X and the right side of the inequality is the efficiency of the Carnot refrigerator when it operates as an engine. This inequality requires that | Q H| > |Q′ H | .
(20.3.5)
TH
(a) Engine X drives a Carnot refrigerator. (b) If, as claimed, engine X is more effi- cient than a Carnot engine, then the combination shown in (a) is equivalent to the perfect refrig- erator shown here. This violates the second law of thermodynam- ics, so we conclude that engine X cannot be more efficient than a Carnot engine. Figure 20.3.3
Q' H
Engine
Q
H
Carnot refrigerator
Q
X
Perfect refrigerator
W
Q' L
Q
L
Q
TL
(a )
(b)
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20.4 A ST AT IST IC AL V IEW OF ENT ROP Y
629
Because the work done by engine X is equal to the work done on the Carnot refrigerator, we have, from the first law of thermodynamics as given by Eq. 20.2.1, | Q H| − | Q L | = |Q′ H | − |Q′ L |,
which we can write as | Q H| − |Q′ H | = |Q L| − | Q′ L | = Q.
(20.3.6)
Because of Eq. 20.3.5, the quantity Q in Eq. 20.3.6 m ust be positive. Comparison of Eq. 20.3.6 with Fig. 20.3.3 shows that the net effect of engine X and the Carnot refrigerator working in combination is to transfer energy Q as heat from a low-temperature reservoir to a high-temperature reservoir without the requirement of work. Thus, the combination acts like the perfect refrigerator of Fig. 20.3.2, whose existence is a violation of the second law of thermodynamics. Something must be wrong with one or more of our assumptions, and it can only be Eq. 20.3.4. We conclude that no real engine can have an efficiency greater than that of a Carnot engine when both engines work between the same two tem- peratures. At most, the real engine can have an efficiency equal to that of a Carnot engine. In that case, the real engine is a Carnot engine.
20.4 A STATISTICAL VIEW OF ENTROPY Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
20.4.1 Explain what is meant by the configurations of a
20.4.3 Identify that all microstates are equally probable
system of molecules.
but the configurations with more microstates are
20.4.2 Calculate the multiplicity of a given configuration.
more probable than the other configurations. 20.4.4 Apply Boltzmann’s entropy equation to calculate the entropy associated with a multiplicity.
Key Ideas ●
The entropy of a system can be defined in terms of
assumption of statistical mechanics is that all the micro-
the possible distributions of its molecules. For identical
states are equally probable. Thus, configurations with a
molecules, each possible distribution of molecules is
large multiplicity occur most often. When
called a microstate of the system. All equivalent micro-
(say,
states are grouped into a configuration of the system. The number of microstates in a configuration is the multiplicity ●
W of the configuration. N molecules that may be distributed
For a system of
N is very large N = 10 22 molecules or more), the molecules are nearly always in the configuration in which n 1 = n 2. ●
W of a configuration of a system and S of the system in that configuration are
The multiplicity
the entropy
related by Boltzmann’s entropy equation:
between the two halves of a box, the multiplicity is
S = k ln W ,
given by
N! , W = _______ n 1 ! n 2 ! in which
n 1 is the number of molecules in one half of n 2 is the number in the other half. A basic
the box and
where ●
−23
k = 1.38 × 10
When
J/K is the Boltzmann constant.
N is very large (the usual case), we can ln N! with Stirling’s approximation:
approximate
ln N! ≈ N(ln N) − N.
A Statistical View of Entropy
In Chapter 19 we saw that the macroscopic properties of gases can be explained in terms of their microscopic, or molecular, behavior. Such explanations are part of a study called statistical mechanics. Here we shall focus our attention on a single
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C HAP T ER 20 ENT ROP Y AND T HE SEC OND L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
(a )
Insulation
(b )
An insulated box con- tains six gas molecules. Each mol- ecule has the same probability of being in the left half of the box as in the right half. The arrangement in (a) corresponds to configuration III in Table 20.4.1, and that in (b) corre- sponds to configuration IV. Figure 20.4.1
problem, one involving the distribution of gas molecules between the two halves of an insulated box. This problem is reasonably simple to analyze, a nd it allows us to use statistical mechanics to calculate the entropy change for the free expansion of an ideal gas. You will see that statistical mechanics leads to the same entropy change as we would find using thermodynamics. Figure 20.4.1 shows a box that contains six identical (and thus indistinguish- able) molecules of a gas. At any instant, a given molecule will be in either the left or the right half of the box; because the two halves have equal volumes, the molecule has the same likelihood, or probability, of being in either half. Table 20.4.1 shows the seven possible configurations of the six molecules, each configuration labeled with a Roman numeral. For example, in configuration I, all six molecules are in the left half of the box (n 1 = 6) and none are in the right half (n 2 = 0). We see that, in general, a given configuration can be achieved in a number of different ways. We call these different arrangements of the molecules microstates. Let us see how to calculate the number of microstates that corre- spond to a given configuration. Suppose we have N molecules, distributed with n 1 molecules in one half of the box and n 2 in the other. (Thus n 1 + n 2 = N.) Let us imagine that we distribute the molecules “by hand,” one at a time. If N = 6, we can select the first molecule in six independent ways; that is, we can pick any one of the six molecules. We can pick the second molecule in five ways, by picking any one of the remaining five molecules; and so on. The total number of ways in which we can select all six mol- ecules is the product of these independent ways, or 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 720. In mathematical shorthand we write this product as 6! = 720, where 6! is pro- nounced “six factorial.” Your hand calculator can probably calculate factorials. For later use you will need to know that 0! = 1. (Check this on your calculator.) However, because the molecules are indistinguishable, these 720 arrange- ments are not all different. In the case that n 1 = 4 and n 2 = 2 (which is config- uration III in Table 20.4.1), for example, the order in which you put four molecules in one half of the box does not matter, because after y ou have put all four in, there is no way that you can tell the order in which you did so. The number of ways in which you can order the four molecules is 4! = 24. Similarly, the number of ways in which you can order two molecules for the other half of the box is simply 2! = 2. To get the number of different arrangements that lead to the (4, 2) split of configu- ration III, we must divide 720 by 24 and also by 2. We call the resulting quantity, which is the number of microstates that correspond to a given configuration, the multiplicity W of that configuration. Thus, for configuration III, 6! = ______ 720 = 15. W III = _____ 4 ! 2 ! 24 × 2 Thus, Table 20.4.1 tells us there are 15 independent microstates that correspond to configuration III. Note that, as the table also tells us, the total number of micro- states for six molecules distributed over the seven configurations is 64. Extrapolating from six molecules to the general case of N molecules, we have N! W = ________ n 1! n 2!
(multiplicity of configuration).
(20.4.1)
You should verify the multiplicities for all the configurations in Table 20.4.1. The basic assumption of statistical mechanics is that All microstates are equally probable.
In other words, if we were to take a great many snapshots of the six molecules as they jostle around in the box of Fig. 20.4.1 and then count the number of times
/
20.4 A ST AT IST IC AL V IEW OF ENT ROP Y
W
Table 20.4.1 Six Molecules in a Box
I II III IV V VI VII
6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Multiplicity W (number of microstates)
Calculation of W (Eq. 20.4.1)
Entropy 10 −23 J/K (Eq. 20.4.2)
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
6!/(6! 0!) = 1 6!/(5! 1!) = 6 6!/(4! 2!) = 15 6!/(3! 3!) = 20 6!/(2! 4!) = 15 6!/(1! 5!) = 6 6!/(0! 6!) = 1
0 2.47 3.74 4.13 3.74 2.47 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Total = 64
each microstate occurred, we would find that all 64 microstates would occur equally often. Thus the system will spend, on average, the same amount of time in each of the 64 microstates. Because all microstates are equally probable but different configurations have different numbers of microstates, the configurations are not all equally prob- able. In Table 20.4.1 configuration IV, with 20 microstates, is the most probable configuration, with a probability of 20/64 = 0.313. This result means that the sys- tem is in configuration IV 31.3% of the time. Configurations I and VII, in which all the molecules are in one half of the box, are the least probable, each with a probability of 1/64 = 0.016 or 1.6%. It is not surprising that the most probable configuration is the one in which the molecules are evenly divided between the two halves of the box, because that is what we expect at thermal equilibrium. However, it is surprising that there is any probability, however small, of finding all six molecules clustered in half of the box, with the other half empty. For large values of N there are extremely large numbers of microstates, but nearly all the microstates belong to the configuration in which the molecules are divided equally between the two halves of the box, as Fig. 20.4.2 indicates. Even though the measured temperature and pressure of the gas remain constant, the gas is churning away endlessly as its molecules “visit” all probable microstates with equal probability. However, because so few microstates lie outside the very narrow central configuration peak of Fig. 20.4.2, we might as well assume that the gas molecules are always divided equally between the two halves of the box. As we shall see, this is the configuration with the greatest entropy.
Sample Problem 20.4.1
setatsor cim fo re bmuN
Configuration Label n 1 n 2
631
Central configuration peak
0 25 50 75 100% Percentage of molecules in left half
For a large number of molecules in a box, a plot of the number of microstates that require various percentages of the molecules to be in the left half of the box. Nearly all the microstates correspond to an approximately equal sharing of the molecules between the two halves of the box; those microstates form the central configuration peak on the plot. For N ≈ 10 22 , the central configuration peak is much too narrow to be drawn on this plot. Figure 20.4.2
Microstates and multiplicity
Suppose that there are 100 indistinguishable molecules in the box of Fig. 20.4.1. H ow many microstates are associated with the configuration n 1 = 50 and n 2 = 50, and with the configuration n 1 = 100 and n 2 = 0? Interpret the results in terms of the relative probabilities of the two configurations.
KEY IDEA The multiplicity W of a configuration of indistinguishable molecules in a closed box is the number of independent microstates with that configuration, as given by Eq. 20.4.1.
Calculations:
Thus, for the (n 1 , n 2) configuration (50, 50),
N! = _______ 100 ! W = _______ n 1 ! n 2 ! 50 ! 50 ! 157
9.33 × 10 = ______________________ (3.04 × 10 64 )(3.04 × 10 64 ) = 1.01 × 10 29 .
(Answer)
Similarly, for the configuration (100, 0 ), we have N! = _______ 100 ! = __ 1 = __ 1 = 1. W = _______ n 1 ! n 2 ! 100 ! 0 ! 0 ! 1
(Answer)
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C HAP T ER 20 ENT ROP Y AND T HE SEC OND L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
mean i n g: Thus, a 50–50 distribution is more likely than a 100–0 distribution by the enormous fac- tor of about 1 × 10 29 . If you could count, at one per nanosecond, the number of microstates that correspond to the 50–50 distribution, it would take you about 3 × 10 12 years, w hich is about 200 times longer than the age of the universe. Keep in mind that the 100 molecules Th e
used in this sample problem is a very small number. Imagine what these calculated probabilities would be like for a mole of molecules, say about N = 10 24 . Thus, you need never worry about suddenly finding all the air molecules clustering in one corner of your room, with you gasping for air in another corner. So, you can breathe easy because of the physics of entropy.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Probability and Entropy
In 1877, Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann (the Boltzmann of Boltzmann’s constant k) derived a relationship between the entropy S of a configuration of a gas and the multiplicity W of that configuration. That relationship is S = k ln W
(Boltzmann’s entropy equation).
(20.4.2)
This famous formula is engraved on Boltzmann’s tombstone. It is natural that S and W should be related by a logarithmic function. The total entropy of two systems is the sum of their separate entropies. The proba- bility of occurrence of two independent systems is the product of their separate probabilities. Because ln ab = ln a + ln b, the logarithm seems the logical way to connect these quantities. Table 20.4.1 displays the entropies of the configurations of the six-molecule system of Fig. 20.4.1, c omputed using Eq. 20.4.2. Configuration IV, which has the greatest m ultiplicity, also has the greatest entropy. When you use Eq. 20.4.1 to calculate W, your calculator may signal “OVER- FLOW” if you try to find the factorial of a number greater than a few hundred. Instead, you can use Stirling’s approximation for ln N!: ln N! ≈ N(ln N) − N
(Stirling’s approximation).
(20.4.3)
The Stirling of this approximation was an English mathematician and not the Robert Stirling of engine fame.
Checkpoint 20.4.1
A box contains 1 mol of a gas. Consider two configurations: (a) each half of the box contains half the molecules and (b) each third of the box contains one-third of the molecules. Which configuration has more microstates?
Sample Problem 20.4.2
Entropy change of free expansion using microstates
In Sample Problem 20.1.1, we showed that when n moles of an ideal gas doubles its volume in a free expansion, the entropy increase from the initial state i to the final state f is S f − S i = nR ln 2. Derive this increase in entropy by using statistical mechanics.
KEY IDEA We can relate the entropy S of any given configuration of the molecules in the gas to the multiplicity W of micro- states for that configuration, using Eq. 20.4.2 (S = k ln W).
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633
We are interested in two configurations: the final configuration f (with the molecules occupying the full volume of their container in Fig. 20.1.1b) and the initial configuration i (with the molecules occupying the left half of the container). Because the molecules are in a closed container, we can calculate the multiplicity W of their microstates with Eq. 20.4.1. Here we have N mole- cules in the n moles of the gas. Initially, with the molecules all in the left half of the container, their (n 1, n 2) configura- tion is (N, 0). Then, Eq. 20.4.1 g ives their multiplicity as
Now, applying Eq. 20.4.3 to evaluate Eq. 20.4.4, we find that
N! = 1. W i = _____ N! 0 !
S f = nR ln 2.
Finally, with the molecules spread through the full vol- ume, their (n 1 , n 2) configuration is (N/2, N/2). Then, Eq. 20.4.1 g ives their multiplicity as
The change in entropy from the initial state to the final is thus S f − S i = nR ln 2 − 0
Calculations:
N! W f = ____________ . (N/ 2 ) ! (N/ 2 ) ! From Eq. 20.4.2, the initial and final entropies are and
S i = k ln W i = k ln 1 = 0 S f = k ln W f = k ln(N!) − 2k ln[(N/2)!]. (20.4.4)
In writing Eq. 20.4.4, we have used the relation a = ln a − 2 ln b. ln ___ b 2
S f = k ln(N!) − 2k ln[(N/2)!] = k[N(ln N) − N] − 2k[(N/2) ln(N/2) − (N/2)] = k[N(ln N) − N − N ln(N/2) + N] = k[N(ln N) − N(ln N − ln 2)] = Nk ln 2. (20.4.5) From Eq. 19.2.4 we can substitute nR for Nk, where R is the universal gas constant. Equation 20.4.5 then becomes
= nR ln 2,
(Answer)
which is what we set out to show. In the first sample problem of this chapter we calculated this entropy increase for a free expansion with thermodynamics by finding an equivalent reversible process and calculat- ing the entropy change for that process in terms of tem- perature and heat transfer. In this sample problem, we calculate the same increase in entropy with statistical mechanics using the fact that the system consists of mol- ecules. In short, the two, very different approaches give the same answer.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Review & Summary An irreversible process is one that cannot be reversed by means of small changes in the environ- ment. The direction in which an irreversible process proceeds is set by the change in entropy ΔS of the system undergoing the process. Entropy S is a state property (or state function) of the system; that is, it depends only on the state of the system and not on the way in which the system reached that state. The entropy postulate states (in part): If an irreversible process occurs in a closed system, the entropy of the system always increases. One-Way Processes
The entropy change ΔS for an irreversible process that takes a system from an initial state i to a final state f is exactly equal to the entropy change ΔS for any reversible process that takes the system between those same two states. We can compute the latter (but not the former) with
When the temperature change ΔT of a system is small relative to the temperature (in kelvins) before and after the process, the entropy change can be approximated as Q ΔS = S f − S i ≈ _____ , T avg
where T avg is the system’s average temperature during the process. When an ideal gas changes reversibly from an initial state with temperature T i and volume V i to a final state with tempera- ture T f and volume V f , the change ΔS in the entropy of the gas is
Calculating Entropy Change
f
dQ ΔS = S f − S i = ____ . i T
(20.1.1)
Here Q is the energy transferred as heat to or from the system during the process, and T is the temperature of the system in kelvins during the process. For a reversible isothermal process, Eq. 20.1.1 reduces to Q ΔS = S f − S i = ___ . (20.1.2) T
(20.1.3)
V f T f ΔS = S f − S i = nR ln ___ + nC V ln ___ . V i T i
(20.1.4)
This law, which is an extension of the entropy postulate, states: If a process occurs in a closed system, the entropy of the system increases for irreversible processes and remains constant for reversible pro- cesses. It never decreases. In equation form, The Second Law of Thermodynamics
ΔS ≥ 0.
(20.1.5)
An engine is a device that, operating in a cycle, extracts energy as heat |Q H | from a high-temperature reservoir and Engines
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634
C HAP T ER 20 ENT ROP Y AND T HE SEC OND L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
does a certain amount of work |W|. The efficiency ε of any engine is defined as energy we get |W| ε = _____________________ = ______ . (20.2.4) energy we pay for | Q H | In an ideal engine, all processes are reversible and no waste- ful energy transfers occur due to, say, friction and turbulence. A Carnot engine is an ideal engine that follows the cycle of Fig. 20.2.2. Its efficiency is T L | Q L | ɛ C = 1 − ______ = 1 − ____ , (20.2.5, 20.2.6) T H | Q H | in which T H and T L are the temperatures of the high- and low- temperature reservoirs, respectively. Real engines always have an efficiency lower than that given by Eq. 20.2.6. Ideal engines that are not Carnot engines also have lower efficiencies. A perfect engine is an imaginary engine in which energy extracted as heat from the high-temperature reservoir is converted completely to work. Such an engine would violate the second law of thermodynamics, which can be restated as follows: No series of processes is possible whose sole result is the absorption of energy as heat from a thermal reservoir and the complete conversion of this energy to work.
A perfect refrigerator is an imaginary refrigerator in which energy extracted as heat from the low-temperature reservoir is converted completely to heat discharged to the high-temperature reservoir, without any need for work. Such a refrigerator would violate the second law of thermodynamics, which can be restated as follows: No series of processes is possible whose sole result is the transfer of energy as heat from a reservoir at a given tem- perature to a reservoir at a higher temperature.
A refrigerator is a device that, operating in a cycle, has work W done on it as it extracts energy |Q L| as heat from a low-temperature reservoir. The coefficient of perfor- mance K of a refrigerator is defined as |Q L | what we want = _____ K = ___________________ . (20.3.1) what we pay for | W| A Carnot refrigerator is a Carnot engine operating in reverse. For a Carnot refrigerator, Eq. 20.3.1 becomes
in which n 1 is the number of molecules in one half of the box and n 2 is the number in the other half. A basic assumption of statistical mechanics is that all the microstates are equally probable. Thus, configurations with a large multiplicity occur most often. The multiplicity W of a configuration of a system and the entropy S of the system in that configuration are related by Boltzmann’s entropy equation:
Refrigerators
T L | Q L| K C = _____________ = __________ . | Q H | − | Q L | T H − T L
(20.3.2, 20.3.3)
The entropy of a sys- tem can be defined in terms of the possible distributions of its molecules. For identical molecules, each possible distribution of molecules is called a microstate of the system. All equivalent microstates are grouped into a configuration of the system. The number of microstates in a configuration is the multiplicity W of the configuration. For a system of N molecules that may be distributed between the two halves of a box, the multiplicity is given by Entropy from a Statistical View
N! , W = _________ n 1 ! n 2 !
(20.4.1)
S = k ln W,
(20.4.2)
where k = 1.38 × 10 −23 J/K is the Boltzmann constant.
Questions Point i in Fig. 20.1 represents the initial state of an ideal gas at temperature T. Taking algebraic signs into account, rank the entropy changes that the gas undergoes as it moves, successively and revers- ibly, from point i to points a, b, c, and d, greatest first.
An ideal monatomic gas at initial temperature T 0 (in kelvins) expands from initial volume V 0 to volume 2V 0 by each of the five processes indicated in the T-V diagram of Fig. 20.2. In which process is the expansion (a) isothermal, (b) isobaric (constant pressure), and (c) adiabatic? Explain your answers. (d) In which processes does the entropy of the gas decrease? 4
1
a
erusserP
d
b i
T c
T
+ ΔT
T
– ΔT
Volume
In four experiments, blocks Figure 20.1 Question 1. A and B, starting at different ini- tial temperatures, were brought together in an insulating box and allowed to reach a common final temperature. The entropy changes for the blocks in the four experiments had the follow- ing values (in joules per kelvin), but not necessarily in the order given. Determine which values for A go with which values for B. 2
A B
2.0T0
C
1.5T0
D
T0
A
E
0.63 T0
F
Values 8 −3
5 −8
3 −5
V0
9 −2
A gas, confined to an insulated cylinder, is compressed adiabatically to half its volume. Does the entropy of the gas increase, decrease, or remain unchanged during this process? 3
B
erutarepmeT
Block
2.5T0
Volume
Figure 20.2
2 V0
Question 4.
In four experiments, 2.5 mol of hydrogen gas undergoes reversible isothermal expansions, starting from the same vol- ume but at different temperatures. The corresponding p-V plots 5
/
P ROBL EMS
are shown in Fig. 20.3. Rank the situations according to the change in the entropy of the gas, greatest first.
635
Three Carnot engines operate between temperature limits of (a) 400 and 500 K, (b) 500 and 600 K, and (c) 400 and 600 K. Each engine extracts the same amount of energy per cycle from the high-temperature reservoir. Rank the magnitudes of the work done by the engines per cycle, greatest first. 8
p
a b
A box contains 100 c atoms in a configura- d tion that has 50 atoms V in each half of the Figure 20.3 Question 5. box. Suppose that you could count the differ- ent microstates associated with this configuration at the rate of 100 billion states per second, using a supercomputer. Without written calculation, guess how much computing time you would need: a day, a year, or much more than a year. 6
Does the entropy per cycle increase, decrease, or remain the same for (a) a Carnot engine, (b) a real engine, and (c) a perfect engine (which is, of course, impossible to build)? 7
An inventor claims to have invented four engines, each of which operates between constant-temperature reservoirs at 400 and 300 K. Data on each engine, per cycle of operation, are: engine A, Q H = 200 J, Q L = −175 J, and W = 40 J; engine B, Q H = 500 J, Q L = −200 J, and W = 400 J; engine C, Q H = 600 J, Q L = −200 J, and W = 400 J; engine D, Q H = 100 J, Q L = −90 J, and W = 10 J. Of the first and second laws of thermodynamics, which (if either) does each engine violate? 9
Does the entropy per cycle increase, decrease, or remain the same for (a) a Carnot refrigerator, (b) a real refrigerator, and (c) a perfect refrigerator (which is, of course, impossible to build)? 10
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 20.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard
BIO Flying Circus of Physics
Entropy
Suppose 4.00 mol of an ideal gas undergoes a reversible isothermal expansion from volume V 1 to volume V 2 = 2.00V 1 at temperature T = 400 K. Find (a) the work done by the gas and (b) the entropy change of the gas. (c) If the expan- sion is reversible and adiabatic instead of isothermal, what is the entropy change of the gas? 1
E
CALC
SSM
An ideal gas undergoes a reversible isothermal expansion at 77.0°C, increasing its volume from 1.30 L to 3.40 L. The entropy change of the gas is 22.0 J/K. How many moles of gas are present? 2 E
E A 2.50 mol sample of an ideal gas expands reversibly and isothermally at 360 K until its volume is doubled. What is the increase in entropy of the gas?
3
E Find (a) the energy absorbed as heat and (b) the change in entropy of a 2.00 kg block of copper whose temperature is increased reversibly from 25.0°C to 100°C. The specific heat of copper is 386 J/kg · K.
5
E (a) What is the entropy change of a 12.0 g ice cube that melts completely in a bucket of water whose temperature is just above the freezing point of water? (b) What is the entropy change of a 5.00 g spoonful of water that evaporates completely on a hot plate whose temperature is slightly above the boiling point of water?
6
M A 50.0 g block of copper whose temperature is 400 K is placed in an insulating box with a 100 g block of lead whose temperature is 200 K. (a) What is the equilibrium temperature of the two-block system? (b) What is the change in the internal
energy of the system between the initial state and the equilib- rium state? (c) What is the change in the entropy of the system? (See Table 18.4.1.) M At very low temperatures, the molar specific heat C V of many solids is approximately C V = AT 3 , where A depends on the particular substance. For aluminum, A = 3.15 × 10 −5 J/mol · K 4 . Find the entropy change for 4.00 mol of aluminum when its tem- perature is raised from 5.00 K to 10.0 K.
8
M CALC A 10 g ice cube at −10°C is placed in a lake whose temperature is 15°C. Calculate the change in entropy of the cube–lake system as the ice cube comes to thermal equilibrium with the lake. The specific heat of ice is 2220 J/kg · K. (Hint: Will the ice cube affect the lake temperature?)
9
M A CALC 60 364 g block is put in contact with a ther- 40 mal reservoir. The block is initially at a 20 lower temperature than the reservoir. T T Assume that the T (K) consequent transfer Figure 20.4 Problem 10. of energy as heat from the reservoir to the block is reversible. Figure 20.4 gives the change in entropy ΔS of the block until thermal equilibrium is reached. The scale of the horizontal axis is set by T a = 280 K and T b = 380 K. What is the specific heat of the block?
10
)K/J( SΔ
E How much energy must be transferred as heat for a reversible isothermal expansion of an ideal gas at 132°C if the entropy of the gas increases by 46.0 J/K?
4
7
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
a
b
SSM In an experiment, 200 g of aluminum (with a specific heat of 900 J/kg · K) at 100°C is mixed with 50.0 g of water at
11 M
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636
C HAP T ER 20 ENT ROP Y AND T HE SEC OND L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
20.0°C, with the mixture thermally isolated. (a) What is the equi- librium temperature? What are the entropy changes of (b) the aluminum, (c) the water, and (d) the aluminum–water system?
Δ Ss
)K/J( SΔ 0
0.8
1.6 Vf
Figure 20.5
2.4 (m 3)
3.2
4.0
Problem 12.
In the irreversible process of Fig. 20.1.5, let the initial temperatures of the identical blocks L and R be 305.5 and 294.5 K, respectively, and let 215 J be the energy that must be transferred between the blocks in order to reach equilibrium. For the reversible processes of Fig. 20.1.6, what is ΔS for (a) block L, (b) its reservoir, (c) block R, (d) its reservoir, (e) the two-block system, and (f) the system of the two blocks and the two reservoirs? 13
M
CALC (a) For 1.0 mol of a monatomic ideal gas taken through the cycle in Fig. 20.6, where V 1 = 4.00V 0 , what is W/p 0 V 0 as the gas goes from state a to state c along path abc? What is ΔE int /p 0 V 0 in going (b) from b to c and (c) through one full cycle? What is ΔS in going (d) from b to c and (e) through one full cycle?
14 M
erusserP
2 p0 p0
c
b
V0
V1
Volume
Figure 20.6
Problem 14.
A mixture of 1773 g of water and 227 g of ice is in an initial equilibrium state at 0.000°C. The mixture is then, in a revers- ible process, brought to a second equilibrium state where the water–ice ratio, by mass, is 1.00:1.00 at 0.000°C. (a) Calculate the entropy change of the system during this process. (The heat of fusion for water is 333 kJ/kg.) (b) The system is then returned to the initial equilibrium state in an irreversible process (say, by using a Bunsen burner). Calculate the entropy change of the sys- tem during this process. (c) Are your answers consistent with the second law of thermodynamics? An 8.0 g ice cube at −10°C is put into a Thermos flask containing 100 cm 3 of water at 20°C. By how much has the entropy of the cube–water sys- tem changed when equilibrium is reached? The specific heat of ice is 2220 J/kg · K. M
M
erusserP
In Fig. 20.7, where V 23 = 3.00V 1 , n moles of a diatomic ideal gas are taken through the 17
1
GO
Ts
0
Entropy (J/K)
Figure 20.8
Ss
Problem 18.
Suppose 1.00 mol of a monatomic ideal gas is taken from initial pressure p 1 and volume V 1 through two steps: (1) an iso- thermal expansion to volume 2.00V 1 and (2) a pressure increase to 2.00p 1 at constant volume. What is Q/p 1 V 1 for (a) step 1 and (b) step 2? What is W/p 1 V 1 for (c) step 1 and (d) step 2? For the full process, what are (e) ΔE int /p 1V 1 and (f) ΔS? The gas is returned to its initial state and again taken to the same final state but now through these two steps: (1) an isothermal compression to pressure 2.00p 1 and (2) a volume increase to 2.00V 1 at con- stant pressure. What is Q/p 1 V 1 for (g) step 1 and (h) step 2? What is W/p 1V 1 for (i) step 1 and (j) step 2? For the full process, what are (k) ΔE int /p 1 V 1 and (l) ΔS? 19 H
CALC Expand 1.00 mol of an monatomic gas initially at 5.00 kPa and 600 K from initial volume V i = 1.00 m 3 to final volume V f = 2.00 m 3 . At any instant during the expansion, the pressure p and volume V of the gas are related by p = 5.00 exp[(V i − V)/a], with p in kilopascals, V i and V in cubic meters, and a = 1.00 m 3 . What are the final (a) pressure and (b) tempera- ture of the gas? (c) How much work is done by the gas during the expansion? (d) What is ΔS for the expansion? (Hint: Use two simple reversible processes to find ΔS.)
20 H
a
15 M
16
GO A 2.0 mol sample of an ideal monatomic gas undergoes the reversible process shown in Fig. 20.8. The scale of the vertical axis is set by T s = 400.0 K and the scale of the horizontal axis is set by S s = 20.0 J/K. (a) How much energy is absorbed as heat by the gas? (b) What is the change in the internal energy of the gas? (c) How much work is done by the gas? 18 M
)K( erutarepmeT
M A gas sample undergoes a reversible isothermal expan- sion. Figure 20.5 gives the change ΔS in entropy of the gas versus the final volume V f of the gas. The scale of the vertical axis is set by ΔS s = 64 J/K. How many moles are in the sample?
12
cycle with the molecules rotating but not oscillating. What are (a) p 2 /p 1 , (b) p 3 /p 1 , and (c) T 3 /T 1 ? For path 1 → 2, what are (d) W/nRT 1 , (e) Q/nRT 1 , (f) ΔE int /nRT 1 , and (g) ΔS/nR? For path 2 → 3, what are (h) W/nRT 1 , (i) Q/nRT 1 , (j) ΔE int /nRT 1 , (k) ΔS/nR? For path 3 → 1, what are (l) W/nRT 1 , (m) Q/nRT 1 , (n) ΔE int /nRT 1 , and (o) ΔS/nR?
2 3
V1
Volume
Figure 20.7
CALC GO An insulated Thermos contains 130 g of water at 80.0°C. You put in a 12.0 g ice cube at 0°C to form a sys- tem of ice + original water. (a) What is the equilibrium tem- perature of the system? What are the entropy changes of the water that was originally the ice cube (b) as it melts and (c) as it warms to the equilibrium temperature? (d) What is the entropy change of the original water as it cools to the equi- librium temperature? (e) What is the net entropy change of the ice + original water system as it reaches the equilibrium temperature?
22 H
Isothermal Adiabatic
GO FCP Energy can be removed from water as heat at and even below the normal freezing point (0.0°C at atmospheric pressure) without causing the water to freeze; the water is then said to be supercooled. Suppose a 1.00 g water drop is super- cooled until its temperature is that of the surrounding air, which is at −5.00°C. The drop then suddenly and irreversibly freezes, transferring energy to the air as heat. What is the entropy change for the drop? (Hint: Use a three-step reversible process as if the water were taken through the normal freezing point.) The spe- cific heat of ice is 2220 J/kg · K. 21 H
V23
Problem 17.
/
637
P ROBL EMS
Module 20.2
Entropy in the Real World: Engines
A Carnot engine whose low-temperature reservoir is at 17°C has an efficiency of 40%. By how much should the temperature of the high-temperature reservoir be increased to increase the efficiency to 50%? 23
E
a range of T H . The scale of the vertical axis is set by Q Hs = 6.0 kJ. If T H is set at 550 K, what is Q H ? Q
)Jk( H Q
A Carnot engine absorbs 52 kJ as heat and exhausts 36 kJ as heat in each cycle. Calculate (a) the engine’s efficiency and (b) the work done per cycle in kilojoules. 24 E
E A Carnot engine has an efficiency of 22.0%. It operates between constant-temperature reservoirs differing in temperature by 75.0 C°. What is the temperature of the (a) lower-temperature and (b) higher-temperature reservoir?
25
In a hypothetical nuclear fusion reactor, the fuel is deu- terium gas at a temperature of 7 × 10 8 K. If this gas could be used to operate a Carnot engine with T L = 100°C, what would be the engine’s efficiency? Take both temperatures to be exact and report your answer to seven significant figures. 26
0 250
350
TH
Figure 20.10
(K)
Problem 32.
M In the first stage of a two-stage Carnot engine, energy is absorbed as heat Q 1 at temperature T 1 , work W 1 is done, and energy is expelled as heat Q 2 at a lower temperature T 2 . The second stage absorbs that energy as heat Q 2 , does work W 2 , and expels energy as heat Q 3 at a still lower temperature T 3 . Prove that the efficiency of the engine is (T 1 − T 3 )/T 1 .
28
GO Figure 20.9 shows a M c b reversible cycle through which V, p 1.00 mol of a monatomic ideal gas is taken. Assume that p = 2p 0 , V = 2V 0 , p 0 = 1.01 × 10 5 Pa, and V0 , p0 V 0 = 0.0225 m 3 . Calculate (a) the d a work done during the cycle, (b) the energy added as heat during stroke abc, and (c) the efficiency of the cycle. (d) What is the effi- Volume ciency of a Carnot engine oper- Figure 20.9 Problem 29. ating between the highest and lowest temperatures that occur in the cycle? (e) Is this greater than or less than the efficiency calculated in (c)? 29
M SSM Figure 20.11 shows a reversible cycle through which 1.00 mol of a monatomic ideal gas is taken. Volume V c = 8.00V b . Process bc is an adiabatic expan- sion, with p b = 10.0 atm and V b = 1.00 × 10 −3 m 3 . For the cycle, find (a) the energy added to the gas as heat, (b) the energy leav- ing the gas as heat, (c) the net work done by the gas, and (d) the efficiency of the cycle.
33
Adiabatic
c
a
Vb
Volume
Figure 20.11
Vc
Problem 33.
M GO An ideal gas (1.0 mol) is the working substance in an engine that operates on the cycle shown in Fig. 20.12. Pro- cesses BC and DA are reversible and adiabatic. (a) Is the gas monatomic, diatomic, or polyatomic? (b) What is the engine efficiency?
34
erusserP
p0
A B
erusserP
A 500 W Carnot engine operates between constant- temperature reservoirs at 100°C and 60.0°C. What is the rate at which energy is (a) taken in by the engine as heat and (b) exhausted by the engine as heat?
b
pb
erusserP
E SSM A Carnot engine operates between 235°C and 115°C, absorbing 6.30 × 10 4 J per cycle at the higher tempera- ture. (a) What is the efficiency of the engine? (b) How much work per cycle is this engine capable of performing?
p0
D
/32 V0
2 V0
C
8 V0 Volume
Figure 20.12
16 V0
Problem 34.
M
M
A Carnot engine is set up to produce a certain work W per cycle. In each cycle, energy in the form of heat Q H is transferred to the working substance of the engine from the higher-temperature thermal reservoir, which is at an adjustable temperature T H . The lower-temperature thermal reservoir is maintained at temperature T L = 250 K. Figure 20.10 gives Q H for 32 M
The cycle in Fig. 3.00 p1 20.13 represents the operation of a gasoline internal combus- tion engine. Volume V3 = 4.00V 1 . p1 Assume the gasoline–air intake mixture is an ideal gas with γ = 1.30. What are the ratios (a) T 2 /T 1 , (b) T 3 /T 1 , (c) T 4 /T 1 , (d) p 3 /p 1 , and (e) p 4 /p 1 ? (f) What is the engine efficiency? 35
H
CALC
erusserP
The efficiency of a particular car engine is 25% when the engine does 8.2 kJ of work per cycle. Assume the process is reversible. What are (a) the energy the engine gains per cycle as heat Q gain from the fuel combustion and (b) the energy the engine loses per cycle as heat Q lost ? If a tune-up increases the efficiency to 31%, what are (c) Q gain and (d) Q lost at the same work value? 31
300
E
27
30
Hs
GO
Module 20.3
Refrigerators
and Real Engines
2 Adiabatic 3
Spark 1 Adiabatic
Intake 4
V1
Figure 20.13
Volume
V3
Problem 35.
How much work must be done by a Carnot refrigerator to transfer 1.0 J as heat (a) from a reservoir at 7.0°C to one at 27°C, (b) from a reservoir at −73°C to one at 27°C, (c) from a reservoir 36 E
/
638
C HAP T ER 20 ENT ROP Y AND T HE SEC OND L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
at −173°C to one at 27°C, and (d) from a reservoir at −223°C to one at 27°C? SSM A heat pump is used to heat a building. The external temperature is less than the internal temperature. The pump’s coefficient of performance is 3.8, and the heat pump delivers 7.54 MJ as heat to the building each hour. If the heat pump is a Carnot engine working in reverse, at what rate must work be done to run it?
37 E
The electric motor of a heat pump transfers energy as heat from the outdoors, which is at −5.0°C, to a room that is at 17°C. If the heat pump were a Carnot heat pump (a Carnot engine work- ing in reverse), how much energy would be transferred as heat to the room for each joule of electric energy consumed? 38 E
E SSM A Carnot air conditioner takes energy from the thermal energy of a room at 70°F and transfers it as heat to the outdoors, which is at 96°F. For each joule of electric energy required to operate the air conditioner, how many joules are removed from the room?
39
E To make ice, a freezer that is a reverse Carnot engine extracts 42 kJ as heat at −15°C during each cycle, with coeffi- cient of performance 5.7. The room temperature is 30.3°C. How much (a) energy per cycle is delivered as heat to the room and (b) work per cycle is required to run the freezer?
40
M An air conditioner operating between 93°F and 70°F is rated at 4000 Btu/h cooling capacity. Its coefficient of perfor- mance is 27% of that of a Carnot refrigerator operating between the same two temperatures. What horsepower is required of the air conditioner motor?
41
The motor in a refrigerator has a power of 200 W. If the freezing compartment is at 270 K and the outside air is at 300 K, and assuming the efficiency of a Carnot refrigerator, what is the maximum amount of energy that can be extracted as heat from the freezing compartment in 10.0 min? 42 M
M GO Figure 20.14 represents a Carnot engine that works between temperatures T 1 = 400 K and T 2 = 150 K and drives a Car- not refrigerator that works between temper- atures T 3 = 325 K and T 4 = 225 K. What is the ratio Q 3/ Q 1?
43
T1 T3
Q1
Q
3
W
Q
Q
2
4
T4 T2
Refrigerator
(a) During each Engine cycle, a Carnot engine Figure 20.14 Problem 43. absorbs 750 J as heat from a high-temperature reservoir at 360 K, with the low-temperature reservoir at 280 K. How much work is done per cycle? (b) The engine is then made to work in reverse to function as a Carnot refrigerator between those same two reservoirs. During each cycle, how much work is required to remove 1200 J as heat from the low- temperature reservoir? 44 M
Module 20.4 45 E
A Statistical View of Entropy
Construct a table like Table 20.4.1 for eight molecules.
A box contains N identical gas molecules equally divided between its two halves. For N = 50, what are (a) the multiplicity 46 M
W of the central configuration, (b) the total number of micro- states, and (c) the percentage of the time the system spends in the central configuration? For N = 100, what are (d) W of the central configuration, (e) the total number of microstates, and (f) the percentage of the time the system spends in the central configuration? For N = 200, what are (g) W of the central config- uration, (h) the total number of microstates, and (i) the percent- age of the time the system spends in the central configuration? (j) Does the time spent in the central configuration increase or decrease with an increase in N? SSM A box contains N gas molecules. Consider the box to be divided into three equal parts. (a) By extension of Eq. 20.4.1, write a formula for the multiplicity of any given con- figuration. (b) Consider two configurations: configuration A with equal numbers of molecules in all three thirds of the box, and configuration B with equal numbers of molecules in each half of the box divided into two equal parts rather than three. What is the ratio W A /W B of the multiplicity of configuration A to that of configuration B? (c) Evaluate W A /W B for N = 100. (Because 100 is not evenly divisible by 3, put 34 molecules into one of the three box parts of configuration A and 33 in each of the other two parts.)
47 H
Additional Problems
Four particles are in the insulated box of Fig. 20.4.1. What are (a) the least multiplicity, (b) the greatest multiplic- ity, (c) the least entropy, and (d) the greatest entropy of the four-particle system? 48
A cylindrical copper rod of length 1.50 m and radius 2.00 cm is insulated to prevent heat loss through its curved surface. One end is attached to a thermal reservoir fixed at 300°C; the other is attached to a thermal reservoir fixed at 30.0°C. What is the rate at which entropy increases for the rod–reservoirs system? 49
Suppose 0.550 mol of an ideal gas is isothermally and reversibly expanded in the four situations given below. What is the change in the entropy of the gas for each situation? 50
Situation Temperature (K) Initial volume (cm 3 ) Final volume (cm 3 )
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
250 0.200 0.800
350 0.200 0.800
400 0.300 1.20
450 0.300 1.20
SSM As a sample of nitrogen gas (N 2 ) undergoes a tempera- ture increase at constant volume, the distribution of molecular speeds increases. That is, the probability distribution function P(v) for the molecules spreads to higher speed values, as sug- gested in Fig. 19.6.1b. One way to report the spread in P(v) is to measure the difference Δv between the most probable speed v P and the rms speed v rms . When P(v) spreads to higher speeds, Δv increases. Assume that the gas is ideal and the N 2 molecules rotate but do not oscillate. For 1.5 mol, an initial temperature of 250 K, and a final temperature of 500 K, what are (a) the initial difference Δv i , (b) the final difference Δv f , and (c) the entropy change ΔS for the gas?
51
Suppose 1.0 mol of a monatomic ideal gas initially at 10 L and 300 K is heated at constant volume to 600 K, allowed to expand isothermally to its initial pressure, and finally com- pressed at constant pressure to its original volume, pressure, and temperature. During the cycle, what are (a) the net energy 52
/
P ROBL EMS
entering the system (the gas) as heat and (b) the net work done by the gas? (c) What is the efficiency of the cycle?
TH Q' H
Suppose that a deep shaft were drilled in Earth’s crust near one of the poles, where the surface temperature is −40°C, to a depth where the temperature is 800°C. (a) What is the theoretical limit to the efficiency of an engine operating between these temperatures? (b) If all the energy released as heat into the low-temperature reservoir were used to melt ice that was initially at −40°C, at what rate could liquid water at 0°C be produced by a 100 MW power plant (treat it as an engine)? The specific heat of ice is 2220 J/kg · K; water’s heat of fusion is 333 kJ/kg. (Note that the engine can operate only between 0°C and 800°C in this case. Energy exhausted at −40°C cannot warm anything above −40°C.) 53
CALC
GO
What is the entropy change for 3.20 mol of an ideal mona- tomic gas undergoing a reversible increase in temperature from 380 K to 425 K at constant volume?
639
Engine X
QH
Ideal refrigerator
Q
Perfect refrigerator
W
Q' C
Q
C
Q
TC
(a )
(b ) Figure 20.16
Problem 61.
54
CALC
CALC FCP Figure 20.15 gives the force magnitude F versus stretch dis- tance x for a rubber band, with the scale of the F axis set by F s = 1.50 N and the scale of the x axis set by x s = 3.50 cm. The temperature is 2.00°C. When the rubber band is stretched by x = 1.70 cm, at what rate does the entropy of the rubber band change during a small additional stretch?
56
F
(N)
Fs
0
xs
x
(cm)
Figure 20.15
The temperature of Problem 56. 1.00 mol of a monatomic ideal gas is raised reversibly from 300 K to 400 K, with its volume kept constant. What is the entropy change of the gas? 57
58
CALC
Repeat Problem 57, with the pressure now kept constant.
CALC SSM A 0.600 kg sample of water is initially ice at tem- perature −20°C. What is the sample’s entropy change if its tem- perature is increased to 40°C?
59
A three-step cycle is undergone by 3.4 mol of an ideal diatomic gas: (1) the temperature of the gas is increased from 200 K to 500 K at constant volume; (2) the gas is then iso- thermally expanded to its original pressure; (3) the gas is then contracted at constant pressure back to its original volume. Throughout the cycle, the molecules rotate but do not oscillate. What is the efficiency of the cycle? 60
An inventor has built an engine X and claims that its efficiency of an ideal engine operating between the same two temperatures. Suppose you couple engine X to an ideal refrigerator (Fig. 20.16a) and adjust the cycle of engine X so that the work per cycle it provides equals the work per cycle required by the ideal refrigerator. Treat this combination as a sin- gle unit and show that if the inventor’s claim were true (if εX > ε), the combined unit would act as a perfect refrigerator (Fig. 20.16b), transferring energy as heat from the low-temperature reservoir to the high-temperature reservoir without the need for work. 61
εX is greater than the efficiency ε
CALC Suppose 2.00 mol 1 2 of a diatomic gas is taken 350 reversibly around the cycle shown in the T-S diagram of Fig. 20.17, where S 1 = 6.00 300 J/K and S 2 = 8.00 J/K. The 3 molecules do not rotate or oscillate. What is the energy transferred as heat Q for (a) path 1 → 2, (b) path 2 → 3, S1 S2 and (c) the full cycle? (d) Entropy ( J /K) What is the work W for the Figure 20.17 Problem 62. isothermal process? The vol- ume V 1 in state 1 is 0.200 m 3 . What is the volume in (e) state 2 and (f) state 3? What is the change ΔE int for (g) path 1 → 2, (h) path 2 → 3, and (i) the full cycle? (Hint: (h) can be done with one or two lines of calculation using Module 19.7 or with a page of calculation using Module 19.9.) (j) What is the work W for the adiabatic process?
62
)K( erutarepmeT
A 600 g lump of copper at 80.0°C is placed in 70.0 g of water at 10.0°C in an insulated container. (See Table 18.4.1 for specific heats.) (a) What is the equilibrium temperature of the copper–water system? What entropy changes do (b) the copper, (c) the water, and (d) the copper–water system undergo in reaching the equilibrium temperature? 55
CALC A three-step cycle is undergone reversibly by 4.00 mol of an ideal gas: (1) an adiabatic expansion that gives the gas 2.00 times its initial volume, (2) a constant-volume process, (3) an isothermal compression back to the initial state of the gas. We do not know whether the gas is monatomic or diatomic; if it is diatomic, we do not know whether the molecules are rotating or oscillating. What are the entropy changes for (a) the cycle, (b) process 1, (c) process 3, and (d) process 2?
63
(a) A Carnot engine operates between a hot reservoir at 320 K and a cold one at 260 K. If the engine absorbs 500 J as heat per cycle at the hot reservoir, how much work per cycle does it deliver? (b) If the engine working in reverse functions as a refrigerator between the same two reservoirs, how much work per cycle must be supplied to remove 1000 J as heat from the cold reservoir? 64
A 2.00 mol diatomic gas initially at 300 K undergoes this cycle: It is (1) heated at constant volume to 800 K, (2) then allowed to expand isothermally to its initial pressure, (3) then compressed at constant pressure to its initial state. Assuming the gas molecules neither rotate nor oscillate, find (a) the net energy transferred as heat to the gas, (b) the net work done by the gas, and (c) the efficiency of the cycle. 65
An ideal refrigerator does 150 J of work to remove 560 J as heat from its cold compartment. (a) What is the refrigerator’s 66
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C HAP T ER 20 ENT ROP Y AND T HE SEC OND L AW OF T HERMOD Y NAMIC S
coefficient of performance? (b) How much heat per cycle is exhausted to the kitchen? Suppose that 260 J is conducted from a constant- temperature reservoir at 400 K to one at (a) 100 K, (b) 200 K, (c) 300 K, and (d) 360 K. What is the net change in entropy ΔS net of the reservoirs in each case? (e) As the temperature difference of the two reservoirs decreases, does ΔS net increase, decrease, or remain the same? 67
An apparatus that liquefies helium is in a room maintained at 300 K. If the helium in the apparatus is at 4.0 K, what is the minimum ratio Q to /Q from , where Q to is the energy delivered as heat to the room and Q from is the energy removed as heat from the helium? 68
GO A brass rod is in thermal contact with a constant- temperature reservoir at 130°C at one end and a constant- temperature reservoir at 24.0°C at the other end. (a) Compute the total change in entropy of the rod–reservoirs system when 5030 J of energy is conducted through the rod, from one reser- voir to the other. (b) Does the entropy of the rod change? 69
CALC A 45.0 g block of tungsten at 30.0°C and a 25.0 g block of silver at −120°C are placed together in an insulated container. (See Table 18.4.1 for specific heats.) (a) What is the equilibrium temperature? What entropy changes do (b) the tungsten, (c) the silver, and (d) the tungsten–silver system undergo in reaching the equilibrium temperature?
70
Turbine. The turbine in a steam power plant takes steam from a boiler at 520° C and exhausts it into a condenser at 100° C. What is its maximum possible efficiency? 71
Heat pump. A heat pump can act as a refrigerator to heat a house by drawing heat from outside, doing some work, and discharging heat inside the house. At what minimum rate must 72
energy be supplied to the heat pump if the outside temperature is −10° C, the interior temperature is kept at 22° C, and the rate of heat delivery to the interior must be 16 kW to offset the nor- mal heat losses there? Stirling engine. Figure 20.2.6 is a p-V diagram for an ideal- ized version of a small Stirling engine, named for Reverend Rob- ert Stirling of the Church of Scotland, who proposed the scheme in 1816. The engine uses n = 8.1 × 10 −3 mol of an ideal gas, oper- ates between hot and cold heat reservoirs of temperatures T H = 95° C and T L = 24° C, and runs at the rate of 0.70 cycle per second. A cycle consists of an isothermal expansion (ab, from V a to 1.5V a ), an isothermal compression (cd), and two constant- volume processes (bc and da). (a) What is the engine’s net work per cycle? (b) What is the power of the engine? (c) What is the net heat transfer into the gas during a cycle? (d) What is the efficiency ε of the engine? 73
Automobile. An automobile engine with an efficiency ε of 22.0% operates at 95.0 cycles per second and does work at the rate of 120 hp. (a) How much work in joules does the engine do per cycle? (b) How much heat does the engine absorb (extract from the “reservoir”) per cycle? (c) How much heat is dis- carded by the engine per cycle and lost to the low-temperature reservoir? 74
Backward engine. An ideal engine has efficiency ε. Show that if you run it backward as an ideal refrigerator, the coeffi- cient of performance will be K = (1 − ε)/ε. 75
Refrigerator work and heat. A household refrigerator, whose coefficient of performance K is 4.70, extracts heat from the cold chamber at the rate of 250 J per cycle. (a) How much work per cycle is required to operate the refrigerator? (b) How much heat per cycle is discharged to the room, which forms the high-temperature reservoir of the refrigerator? 76
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A
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1
Coulomb’s Law
21.1 COULOMB’S LAW Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
21.1.1 Distinguish between being electrically neutral,
21.1.10 Identify that Coulomb’s law applies only to
negatively charged, and positively charged and
(point-like) particles and objects that can be treated
identify excess charge. 21.1.2 Distinguish between conductors, nonconductors
as particles. 21.1.11 If more than one force acts on a particle, find
(insulators), semiconductors, and superconductors.
the net force by adding all the forces as vectors, not
21.1.3 Describe the electrical properties of the particles inside an atom.
scalars. 21.1.12 Identify that a shell of uniform charge attracts
21.1.4 Identify conduction electrons and explain their
or repels a charged particle that is outside the shell
role in making a conducting object negatively or
as if all the shell’s charge were concentrated as a
positively charged. 21.1.5 Identify what is meant by “electrically isolated”
particle at the shell’s center. 21.1.13 Identify that if a charged particle is located
and by “grounding.”
inside a shell of uniform charge, there is no net elec-
21.1.6 Explain how a charged object can set up induced charge in a second object.
trostatic force on the particle from the shell. 21.1.14 Identify that if excess charge is put on a
21.1.7 Identify that charges with the same electrical
spherical conductor, it spreads out uniformly over
sign repel each other and those with opposite elec- trical signs attract each other.
the external surface area. 21.1.15 Identify that if two identical spherical conduc-
21.1.8 For either of the particles in a pair of charged
tors touch or are connected by conducting wire, any
particles, draw a free-body diagram, showing the electrostatic force (Coulomb force) on it and anchor-
excess charge will be shared equally. 21.1.16 Identify that a nonconducting object can have
ing the tail of the force vector on that particle.
any given distribution of charge, including charge at
21.1.9 For either of the particles in a pair of charged particles, apply Coulomb’s law to relate the mag-
interior points. 21.1.17 Identify current as the rate at which charge
nitude of the electrostatic force, the charge magni- tudes of the particles, and the separation between
moves through a point. 21.1.18 For current through a point, apply the relation-
the particles.
ship between the current, a time interval, and the amount of charge that moves through the point in that time interval.
Key Ideas ●
The strength of a particle’s electrical interaction with
objects around it depends on its electric charge (usu- ally represented as
q), which can be either positive or
negative. Particles with the same sign of charge repel each other, and particles with opposite signs of charge attract each other. ●
●
Conductors are materials in which a significant
number of electrons are free to move. The charged particles in nonconductors (insulators) are not free to move. ●
Electric current
passes a point:
An object with equal amounts of the two kinds of
charge is electrically neutral, whereas one with an
i is the rate dq/dt at which charge dq i = ___ . dt
imbalance is electrically charged and has an excess
●
charge.
electric force) between two charged particles. If the
Coulomb’s law describes the electrostatic force (or
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C HAP T ER 21 C OU L OMB’S L AW
q 1 and q 2 , are separated by dis-
particles have charges
r
tance , and are at rest (or moving only slowly) relative to each other, then the magnitude of the force acting on each due to the other is given by
|q 1 || q 2| 1 ______ F = _____ 4πε0 r 2
●
If multiple electrostatic forces act on a particle, the
individual forces. ●
ε0 = 8.85 × 10 −12 C 2 /N · m 2 is the permittivity constant. The ratio 1/4 πε0 is often replaced with the where
k = 8.99 ×
electrostatic constant (or Coulomb constant)
●
charge).
net force is the vector sum (not scalar sum) of the
(Coulomb’s law),
10 9 N · m 2 /C 2 .
of charge) or directly away from it (s ame s ign of
Shell theorem 1: A charged particle outside a shell
with charge uniformly distributed on its surface is attracted or repelled as if the shell’s charge were concentrated as a particle at its center. ●
Shell theorem 2: A charged particle inside a shell
with charge uniformly distributed on its surface has no
The electros tatic force v ector acting on a charged
particle due to a s econd charged particle is either directly toward the s econd particle (oppos ite s igns
net force acting on it due to the shell. ●
Charge on a conducting spherical shell spreads
uniformly over the (external) surface.
What Is Physics?
F
Glass Glass –F (a )
F
–F
Glass Plastic
(b )
(a) The two glass rods were each rubbed with a silk cloth and one was suspended by thread. When they are close to each other, they repel each other. (b) The plastic rod was rubbed with fur. When brought close to the glass rod, the rods attract each other.
You are surrounded by devices that depend on the physics of electromagnetism, which is the combination of electric and magnetic phenomena. This physics is at the root of computers, television, radio, telecommunications, household light- ing, and even the ability of food wrap to cling to a container. This physics is also the basis of the natural world. Not only does it hold together all the atoms and molecules in the world, it also produces lightning, auroras, and rainbows. The physics of electromagnetism was first studied by the early Greek philos- ophers, who discovered that if a piece of amber is rubbed and then brought near bits of straw, the straw will jump to the amber. We now know that the attraction between amber and straw is due to an electric force. The Greek philosophers also discovered that if a certain type of stone (a naturally occurring magnet) is brought near bits of iron, the iron will jump to the stone. We now know that the attraction between magnet and iron is due to a magnetic force. From these modest origins with the Greek philosophers, the sciences of electricity and magnetism developed separately for centuries—until 1820, in fact, when Hans Christian Oersted found a connection between them: An electric c ur- rent in a wire can deflect a magnetic compass needle. Interestingly enough, Oer- sted made this discovery, a big surprise, while preparing a lecture demonstration for his physics students. The new science of electromagnetism was developed further by workers in many countries. One of the best was Michael Faraday, a truly gifted experimenter with a talent for physical intuition and visualization. That talent is attested to by the fact that his collected laboratory notebooks do not contain a single equation. In the mid-nineteenth century, James Clerk Maxwell put Faraday’s ideas into mathematical form, introduced many new ideas of his own, and put electromag- netism on a sound theoretical basis. Our discussion of electromagnetism is spread through the next 16 chapters. We begin with electrical phenomena, and our first step is to discuss the nature of electric charge and electric force.
Figure 21.1.1
Electric Charge
Here are two demonstrations that seem to be magic, but our job here is to make sense of them. After rubbing a glass rod with a silk cloth (on a day when the humidity is low), we hang the rod by means of a thread tied around its center (Fig. 21.1.la). Then we rub a second glass rod with the silk cloth and bring it near
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21.1 C OU L OMB’S L AW
643
the hanging rod. The hanging rod magically m oves away. We can see that a force repels it from the second rod, but how? There is no contact with that rod, no breeze to push on it, and no sound wave to disturb it. In the second demonstration we replace the second rod with a plastic rod that has been rubbed with fur. This time, the hanging rod moves toward the nearby rod (Fig. 21.1.1b). Like the repulsion, this attraction occurs without any contact or obvious communication between the rods. In the next chapter we shall discuss how the hanging rod knows of the pres- ence of the other rods, but in this chapter let’s focus on just the forces that are involved. In the first demonstration, the force on the hanging rod was repulsive, and in the second, attractive. After a great many investigations, scientists figured out that the forces in these types of demonstrations are due to the electric charge that we set up on the rods when they are in contact with silk or fur. Electric charge is an intrinsic property of the fundamental particles that make up objects such as the rods, silk, and fur. That is, charge is a property that comes automati- cally with those particles wherever they exist. Two Types. There are two types of electric charge, named by the Ameri- can scientist and statesman Benjamin Franklin as positive charge and negative charge. He could have called them anything (such as cherry and walnut), but using algebraic signs as names comes in handy when we add up charges to find the net charge. In most everyday objects, such as a mug, there are about equal numbers of negatively charged particles and positively charged particles, and so the net charge is zero, the charge is said to be balanced, and the object is said to be electrically neutral (or just neutral for short). Excess Charge. Normally you are approximately neutral. However, if you live in regions where the humidity is low, you know that the charge on your body can become slightly unbalanced when you walk across certain carpets. Either you gain negative charge from the carpet (at the points of contact between your shoes with the carpet) and become negatively charged, or you lose negative charge and become positively charged. Either way, the extra charge is said to be an excess charge. You probably don’t notice it until you reach for a door handle or another person. Then, if your excess charge is enough, a spark leaps between you and the other object, eliminating your excess charge. Such sparking can be annoying and even somewhat painful. Such charging and discharging do not happen in humid conditions because the water in the air neutralizes your excess charge about as fast as you acquire it. Two of the grand mysteries in physics are (1) why does the universe have particles with electric charge (what is it, really?) a nd (2) why does electric charge come in two types (and not, say, one type or three types). We are still working on the answers. Nevertheless, with lots of experiments similar to our two demonstra- tions scientists discovered that Particles with the same sign of electrical charge repel each other, and particles with opposite signs attract each other.
In a moment we shall put this rule into quantitative form as Coulomb’s law of electrostatic force (or electric force) between charged particles. The term elec- trostatic is used to emphasize that, relative to each other, the charges are either stationary or moving only very slowly. Demos. Now let’s get back to the demonstrations to understand the motions of the rod as being something other than just magic. When we rub the glass rod with a silk cloth, a small amount of negative charge moves from the rod to the silk (a transfer like that between you and a carpet), leaving the rod with a small amount of excess positive charge. (Which way the negative charge moves is not obvious and requires a lot of experimentation.) We rub the silk over the rod to increase the number of contact points and thus the amount, still tiny, of trans- ferred charge. We hang the rod from the thread so as to electrically isolate it from
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C HAP T ER 21 C OU L OMB’S L AW
F
+++ ++++++++ + +
Glass
+ + +++++ ++++++++ + +
Glass –F
(a )
+++ Glass ++++++++ + + –F F – – –––– Plastic –––––––– – – (b )
(a) Two charged rods of the same sign repel each other. (b) Two charged rods of opposite signs attract each other. Plus signs indicate a positive net charge, and minus signs indicate a negative net charge. Figure 21.1.2
–– – – –––– – – + + + + Neutral copper +++++ + –F F – – ––––––––––– – – Charged plastic
A neutral copper rod is electrically isolated from its sur- roundings by being suspended on a nonconducting thread. Either end of the copper rod will be attracted by a charged rod. Here, conduction elec- trons in the copper rod are repelled to the far end of that rod by the negative charge on the plastic rod. Then that negative charge attracts the remaining positive charge on the near end of the copper rod, rotating the copper rod to bring that near end closer to the plastic rod. Figure 21.1.3
its surroundings (so that the surroundings cannot neutralize the rod by giving it enough negative charge to rebalance its charge). When we rub the second rod with the silk cloth, it too becomes positively charged. So when we bring it near the first rod, the two rods repel each other (Fig. 21.1.2a). Next, when we rub the plastic rod with fur, it gains excess negative charge from the fur. (Again, the transfer direction is learned through many e xperiments.) When we bring the plastic rod (with negative charge) near the hanging glass rod (with positive charge), the rods are attracted to each other (Fig. 21.1.2b). All this is subtle. You cannot see the charge or its transfer, only the results. Conductors and Insulators
We can classify materials generally according to the ability of charge to move through them. Conductors are materials through which charge can move rather freely; examples include metals (such as copper in common lamp wire), the human body, and tap water. Nonconductors—also called insulators—are materials through which charge cannot move freely; examples include rubber (such as the insulation on common lamp wire), plastic, glass, and chemically pure water. Semiconductors are materials that are intermediate between conductors and insulators; examples include silicon and germanium in computer chips. Superconductors are materials that are perfect conductors, allowing charge to move without any hindrance. In these chapters we discuss only conductors and insulators. Conducting Path. Here is an example of how conduction can eliminate excess charge on an object. If you rub a copper rod with wool, charge is trans- ferred from the wool to the rod. However, if you are holding the rod while also touching a faucet connected to metal piping, you cannot charge the rod in spite of the transfer. The reason is that you, the rod, and the faucet are all conduc- tors connected, via the plumbing, to Earth’s surface, which is a huge conductor. Because the excess charges put on the rod by the wool repel one another, they move away from one another by moving first through the rod, then through you, and then through the faucet and plumbing to reach Earth’s surface, where they can spread out. The process leaves the rod electrically neutral. In thus setting up a pathway of conductors between an object and Earth’s surface, we are said to ground the object, and in neutralizing the object (by eliminating an unbalanced positive or negative charge), we are said to discharge the object. If instead of holding the copper rod in your hand, you hold it by an insulating handle, you eliminate the conducting path to Earth, and the rod can then be charged by rubbing (the charge remains on the rod), as long as you do not touch it directly with your hand. Charged Particles. The properties of conductors and insulators are due to the structure and electrical nature of atoms. Atoms consist of positively charged protons, negatively charged electrons, and electrically neutral neutrons. The pro- tons and neutrons are packed tightly together in a central nucleus. The charge of a single electron and that of a single proton have the same magnitude but are opposite in sign. Hence, an electrically neutral atom con- tains equal numbers of electrons and protons. Electrons are held near the nucleus because they have the electrical sign opposite that of the protons in the nucleus and thus are attracted to the nucleus. Were this not true, there would be no atoms and thus no you. When atoms of a conductor like copper come together to form the solid, some of their outermost (and so most loosely held) electrons become free to wander about within the solid, leaving behind positively charged atoms ( positive ions). We call the mobile electrons conduction electrons. There are few (if any) free electrons in a nonconductor. Induced Charge. The experiment of Fig. 21.1.3 demonstrates the mobility of charge in a conductor. A negatively charged plastic rod will attract either end
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21.1 C OU L OMB’S L AW
of an isolated neutral copper rod. What happens is that many of the conduction electrons in the closer end of the copper rod are repelled by the negative charge on the plastic rod. Some of the conduction electrons move to the far end of the copper rod, leaving the near end depleted in electrons and thus with an unbal- anced positive charge. This positive charge is attracted to the negative charge in the plastic rod. Although the copper rod is still neutral, it is said to have an induced charge, which means that some of its positive and negative charges have been separated due to the presence of a nearby charge. Similarly, if a positively charged glass rod is brought near one end of a neutral copper rod, induced charge is again set up in the neutral copper rod but now the near end gains conduction electrons, becomes negatively charged, and is attracted to the glass rod, while the far end is positively charged. Note that only conduction electrons, with their negative charges, can move; positive ions are fixed in place. Thus, an object becomes positively charged only through the removal of negative charges.
A
– – – – – –– N2 + + + + + + +
B
Two pieces of a wintergreen candy as they fall away from each other. Electrons jumping from the negative surface of piece A to the positive surface of piece B collide with nitrogen (N 2 ) molecules in the air. Figure 21.1.4
Blue Flashes from a Wintergreen Candy
Indirect evidence for the attraction of charges with opposite signs can be seen with a wintergreen LifeSaver (the candy shaped in the form of a marine life- saver). If you adapt your eyes to darkness for about 15 minutes and then have a friend chomp on a piece of the candy in the darkness, you will see a faint blue flash from your friend’s mouth with each chomp. Whenever a chomp breaks a sugar crystal into pieces, each piece will probably end up with a different number of electrons. Suppose a crystal breaks into pieces A and B, with A ending up with Always draw the force more electrons on its surface than B (Fig. 21.1.4). This means that B has positive vector with the tail on ions (atoms that lost electrons to A) on its surface. Because the electrons on A are the particle. strongly attracted to the positive ions on B, some of those electrons jump across the gap between the pieces. The forces push the As A and B move away from each other, air (primarily nitrogen, N 2) flows (a ) particles apart. into the gap, and many of the jumping electrons collide with nitrogen molecules in the air, causing the molecules to emit ultraviolet light. You cannot see this type of light. However, the wintergreen molecules on the surfaces of the candy pieces absorb the ultraviolet light and then emit blue light, which you can see—it is the Here too. FCP blue light coming from your friend’s mouth. (b)
Coulomb’s Law
Now we come to the equation for Coulomb’s law, but first a caution. This equa- tion works for only charged particles (and a few other things that can be treated as particles). For extended objects, with charge located in many different places, we need more powerful techniques. So, here we consider just charged particles and not, say, two charged cats. If two charged particles are brought near each other, they each exert an elec- trostatic force on the other. The direction of the force vectors depends on the signs of the charges. If the particles have the same sign of charge, they repel each other. That means that the force vector on each is directly away from the other particle (Figs. 21.1.5a and b). If we release the particles, they accelerate away from each other. If, instead, the particles have opposite signs of charge, they attract each other. That means that the force vector on each is directly toward the other particle (Fig. 21.1.5c). If we release the particles, they accelerate toward each other. The equation for the electrostatic forces acting on the particles is called Coulomb’s law after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, whose experiments in 1785 led him to it. Let’s write the equation in vector form and in terms of the particles shown in Fig. 21.1.6, where particle 1 has charge q 1 and particle 2 has charge q 2.
But here the forces pull the particles together.
(c )
Two charged particles repel each other if they have the same sign of charge, either (a) both positive or (b) both negative. (c) They attract each other if they have opposite signs of charge. Figure 21.1.5
F
r q1
ˆr
q2
The electrostatic force on particle 1 can be described in terms of a unit vector r ̂ along an axis through the two particles, radially away from particle 2. Figure 21.1.6
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C HAP T ER 21 C OU L OMB’S L AW
(These symbols can represent either positive or negative charge.) Let’s also focus on particle 1 and write the force acting on it in terms of a unit vector r ̂ that points along a radial axis extending through the two particles, radially away from par- ticle 2. (As with other unit vectors, r ̂ has a magnitude of exactly 1 and no unit; its purpose is to point, like a direction arrow on a street sign.) With these decisions, we write the electrostatic force as q 1 q 2 F = k _____ r ̂ (Coulomb’s law), (21.1.1) r 2 →
where r is the separation between the particles and k is a positive constant called the electrostatic constant or the Coulomb constant. (We’ll discuss k below.) Let’s first check the direction of the force on particle 1 as given by Eq. 21.1.1. If q 1 and q 2 have the same sign, then the product q 1q 2 gives us a positive result. So, Eq. 21.1.1 tells us that the force on particle 1 is in the direction of r ̂. That checks, because particle 1 is being repelled from particle 2. Next, if q 1 and q 2 have opposite signs, the product q 1 q 2 gives us a negative result. So, now Eq. 21.1.1 tells ̂ us that the force on particle 1 is in the direction opposite r . That checks because particle 1 is being attracted toward particle 2.
Checkpoint 21.1.1
The figure shows five A C C D B pairs of plates: A, B, and D are charged plastic plates and C is an electrically neutral B A D A D copper plate. The elec- trostatic forces between the pairs of plates are shown for three of the pairs. For the remaining two pairs, do the plates repel or attract each other?
An Aside. Here is something that is very curious. The form of Eq. 21.1.1 is the same as that of Newton’s equation (Eq. 13.1.3) for the gravitational force between two particles with masses m 1 and m 2 and separation r : m 1 m 2 F = G ______ r ̂ (Newton’s law), (21.1.2) r 2 where G is the gravitational constant. Although the two types of forces are wildly different, both equations describe inverse square laws (the 1/r 2 dependences) that involve a product of a property of the interacting particles—the charge in one case and the mass in the other. However, the laws differ in that gravitational forces are always attractive but electrostatic forces may be either attractive or repulsive, depending on the signs of the charges. This difference arises from the fact that there is only one type of mass but two types of charge. Unit. The SI unit of charge is the coulomb. For practical reasons having to do with the accuracy of measurements, the coulomb unit is derived from the SI unit ampere for electric current i. We shall discuss current in detail in Chapter 26, but here let’s just note that current i is the rate dq/dt at which charge moves past a point or through a region: dq i = ___ (electric current). (21.1.3) dt Rearranging Eq. 21.1.3 a nd replacing the symbols with their units (coulombs C, amperes A, a nd seconds s) we see that →
1 C = (1 A)(1 s).
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647
Force Magnitude. For historical reasons (and because doing so simplifies many other formulas), the electrostatic constant k in Eq. 21.1.1 is often written as 1/4πε0 . Then the magnitude of the electrostatic force in Coulomb’s law becomes |q 1| |q 2| 1 ______ F = _____ 4πε0 r 2
(Coulomb’s law).
(21.1.4)
The constants in Eqs. 21.1.1 a nd 21.1.4 have the value 1 = 8.99 × 10 9 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 k = _____ . 4 πε0
(21.1.5)
The quantity ε0 , called the permittivity constant, sometimes appears separately in equations and is ε0 = 8.85 × 10 −12 C 2 /N ⋅ m 2 . (21.1.6)
Working a Problem. Note that the charge magnitudes appear in Eq. 21.1.4, which gives us the force magnitude. So, in working problems in this chapter, we use Eq. 21.1.4 to find the magnitude of a force on a chosen particle due to a sec- ond particle and we separately determine the direction of the force by consider- ing the charge signs of the two particles. Multiple Forces. As with all forces in this book, the electrostatic force obeys the principle of superposition. Suppose we have n charged particles near a chosen particle called particle 1; then the net force on particle 1 is given by the vector sum →
→
→
→
→
→
F 1,net = F 12 + F 13 + F 14 + F 15 + . . . + F 1n ,
(21.1.7)
→
in which, for example, F 14 is the force on particle 1 due to the presence of particle 4. This equation is the key to many of the homework problems, so let’s state it in words. If you want to know the net force acting on a chosen charged particle that is surrounded by other charged particles, first clearly identify that chosen particle and then find the force on it due to each of the other particles. Draw those force vectors in a free-body diagram of the chosen particle, with the tails anchored on the particle. (That may sound trivial, but failing to do so easily leads to errors.) Then add all those forces as vectors a ccording to the rules of Chapter 3, not as scalars. (You cannot just willy-nilly add up their magnitudes.) The result is the net force (or resultant force) acting on the particle. Although the vector nature of the forces makes the homework problems harder than if we simply had scalars, be thankful that Eq. 21.1.7 works. If two force vectors did not simply add but for some reason amplified each other, the world would be very difficult to understand and manage. Shell Theories. Analogous to the shell theories for the gravitational force (Module 13.1), we have two shell theories for the electrostatic force: Shell theory 1. A charged particle outside a shell with charge uniformly distrib- uted on its surface is attracted or repelled as if the shell’s charge were concen- trated as a particle at its center.
Shell theory 2. A charged particle inside a shell with charge uniformly distrib- uted on its surface has no net force acting on it due to the shell.
(In the first theory, we assume that the charge on the shell is much greater than the particle’s charge. Thus the presence of the particle has negligible effect on the distribution of charge on the shell.)
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C HAP T ER 21 C OU L OMB’S L AW
Spherical Conductors
If excess charge is placed on a spherical shell that is made of conducting material, the excess charge spreads uniformly over the (external) surface. For example, if we place excess electrons on a spherical metal shell, those electrons repel one another and tend to move apart, spreading over the available surface until they are uniformly dis- tributed. That arrangement maximizes the distances between all pairs of the excess electrons. According to the first shell theorem, the shell then will attract or repel an external charge as if all the excess charge on the shell were concentrated at its center. If we remove negative charge from a spherical metal shell, the resulting pos- itive charge of the shell is also spread uniformly over the surface of the shell. For example, if we remove n electrons, there are then n sites of positive charge (sites missing an electron) that are spread uniformly over the shell. According to the first shell theorem, the shell will again attract or repel an external charge as if all the shell’s excess charge were concentrated at its center. Checkpoint 21.1.2
The figure shows two e p p protons (symbol p) and one electron (symbol e) on an axis. On the central proton, what is the direction of (a) the force due to the electron, (b) the force due to the other proton, and (c) the net force?
Sample Problem 21.1.1
Finding the net force due to two other particles
This sample problem actually contains three examples, to build from basic stuff to harder stuff. In each we have the same charged particle 1. First there is a single force acting on it (easy stuff). Then there are two forces, but they are just in opposite directions (not too bad). Then there are again two forces but they are in very different directions
A
(ah, now we have to get serious about the fact that they are vectors). The key to all three examples is to draw the forces correctly before you reach for a calculator, other- wise you may be calculating nonsense on the calculator. (Figure 21.1.7 is available in WileyPLUS as an animation with voiceover.)
y
This is the first arrangement. q1
q4
This is the second arrangement. q2
q1 x
q3
3 4
R
(a)
3 4 x
R
F 12
This is still the particle of interest. F 12
F 13 x
(d )
It is pushed away from particle 2.
It is pulled toward particle 3. It is pushed away from particle 2.
x
y
F 12
x
(b )
q2
(e )
(c )
This is the particle of interest.
This is the third arrangement.
θ
q1
q2
R
θ
F 14
This is still the particle of interest. x
It is pulled toward (f ) particle 4. It is pushed away from particle 2.
(a) Two charged particles of charges q 1 and q 2 are fixed in place on an x axis. (b) The free-body diagram for particle 1, showing the electrostatic force on it from particle 2. (c) Particle 3 included. (d) Free-body diagram for particle 1. (e) Particle 4 included. ( f ) Free- body diagram for particle 1. Figure 21.1.7
/
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21.1 C OU L OMB’S L AW
|q 1| |q 3| 1 ______ F 13 = _____ 3 2 R) 4πε0 ( _ 4
(a) Figure 21.1.7a shows two positively charged par- ticles fixed in place on an x axis. The charges are q 1 = 1.60 × 10 −19 C and q 2 = 3.20 × 10 −19 C, and the par- ticle separation is R = 0.0200 m . What are the magnitude and direction of the electrostatic force F 12 on particle 1 from particle 2?
= (8.99 × 10 9 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 )
→
(1.60 × 10 −19 C)(3.20 × 10 −19 C) × ____________________________ 2 _ ) 2 (0.0200 m) ( 3 4
KEY IDEAS
= 2.05 × 10 −24 N. →
Because both particles are positively charged, particle 1 is repelled by particle 2, with a force magnitude given by Eq. 21.1.4. Thus, the direction of force F 12 on particle 1 is away from particle 2, in the negative direction of the x axis, as indicated in the free-body diagram of Fig. 21.1.7b.
We can also write F 13 in unit-vector notation: F 13 = (2.05 × 10 −24 N) ˆi.
→
→
Using Eq. 21.1.4 with separation R substi- tuted for r, we can write the magnitude F 12 of this force as Two particles:
|q 1| |q 2| 1 ______ F 12 = _____ 4πε0 R 2
→
→
→
→
→
F 1, net = F 12 + F 13
= −(1.15 × 10 −24 N) ˆ i + (2.05 × 10 −24 N) ˆ i −25 ˆ = (9.00 × 10 N) i. (Answer)
→
Thus, F 1, net has the following magnitude and direction (relative to the positive direction of the x axis):
= (8.99 × 10 9 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 ) (1.60 × 10 −19 C)(3.20 × 10 −19 C) × _____________________________ (0.0200 m ) 2 = 1.15 × 10 −24 N.
→
Thus, force F 12 has the following magnitude and direction (relative to the positive direction of the x axis): 1.15 × 10 −24 N and 180°.
(Answer)
→
We can also write F 12 in unit-vector notation as F 12 = −(1.15 × 10 −24 N) ˆ i.
→
(Answer)
(b) Figure 21.1.7c is identical to Fig. 21.1.7a except that particle 3 now lies on the x axis between particles 1 and 2. Particle 3 has charge q 3 = −3.20 × 10 −19 C and is at a 3 distance _ R from particle 1. What is the net electrostatic 4 force F 1, net on particle 1 due to particles 2 and 3? →
9.00 × 10 −25 N and 0°.
The presence of particle 3 does not alter the electrostatic force on particle 1 from particle 2. Thus, force F 12 still acts on particle 1. Similarly, the force F 13 that acts on particle 1 due to particle 3 is not affected by the presence of particle 2. Because particles 1 and 3 have charge of opposite signs, particle 1 is attracted to particle 3. Thus, force F 13 is directed toward particle 3, as indicated in the free-body diagram of Fig. 21.1.7d. →
→
→
→
To find the magnitude of F 13 , we can rewrite Eq. 21.1.4 a s
(Answer)
(c) Figure 21.1.7e is identical to Fig. 21.1.7a except that particle 4 is now included. It has charge q 4 = 3 R from particle 1, and −3.20 × 10 −19 C, is at a distance _ 4 lies on a line that makes an angle θ = 60° with the x axis. What is the net electrostatic force F 1, net on particle 1 due to particles 2 and 4? →
KEY IDEA →
→
The net force F 1 ,net is the vector sum of F 12 and a new force F 14 acting on particle 1 due to particle 4. Because particles 1 and 4 have charge of opposite signs, particle 1 is attracted to particle 4. Thus, force F 14 on particle 1 is directed toward particle 4, at angle θ = 60°, as indicated in the free-body diagram of Fig. 21.1.7f. →
→
Four particles:
KEY IDEA
Three particles:
→
The net force F 1, net on particle 1 is the vector sum of F 12 and F 13 ; that is, from Eq. 21.1.7, we can write the net force F 1, net on particle 1 in unit-vector notation as →
We can rewrite Eq. 21.1.4 a s
1 | q 1| | q 4| F 14 = _____ ______ 3 2 R) 4 πε0 ( _ 4
= (8.99 × 10 9 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 ) (1.60 × 10 −19 C)(3.20 × 10 −19 C) × ____________________________ 3 2 2 ( _ ) (0.0200 m) 4 = 2.05 × 10 −24 N. →
Then from Eq. 21.1.7, we can write the net force F 1,net on particle 1 as →
→
→
F 1, net = F 12 + F 14 .
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C HAP T ER 21 C OU L OMB’S L AW
→
→
Because the forces F 12 and F 14 are not directed along the same axis, we cannot sum simply by combining their mag- nitudes. Instead, we must add them as vectors, using one of the following methods. . Summing directly on a vector-capable c alcula- tor. For F 12 , we enter the magnitude 1.15 × 10 −24 and the angle 180°. For F 14 , we enter the magnitude 2.05 × 10 −24 and the angle 60°. Then we add the vectors.
. Summing components axis by axis. The sum of the x components gives us Method 3
F 1,net,x = F 12,x + F 14,x = F 12 + F 14 cos 60° = −1.15 × 10 −24 N + (2.05 × 10 −24 N)(cos 60°) = −1.25 × 10 −25 N.
Method 1
→
→
The sum of the y components gives us F 1,net,y = F 12,y + F 14,y = 0 + F 14 sin 60°
. Summing in unit-vector notation . First we rewrite F 14 as Method
= (2.05 × 10 −24 N)(sin 60°) = 1.78 × 10 −24 N.
2
→
F 14 = ( F 14 cos θ) ˆ i + ( F 14 sin θ) ˆ j.
→
−24
Substituting 2.05 × 10 becomes
→
N for F 14 and 60° for θ , this
−24 ˆ ˆ F 14 = (1.025 × 10 −24 N) i + (1.775 × 10 N) j.
→
→
______________
2 −24 F 1,net = √ F 2 N. (Answer) 1 ,net,x + F 1,net,y = 1.78 × 10 →
To find the direction of F 1,net we take
Then we sum: →
The net force F 1,net has the magnitude
F
1 ,net,y θ = tan −1 ______ = −86.0° . F
→
F 1, net = F 12 + F 14
1 ,net,x
= −(1.15 × 10 −24 N) ˆ i
→
However, this is an unreasonable result because F 1,net must have a direction between the directions of F 12 and F 14 . To correct θ, we add 180°, obtaining
−24 +(1.025 × 10 −24 N) ˆi + (1.775 × 10 N) ˆj ≈ (−1.25 × 10 −25 N) ˆ i + (1.78 × 10 −24 N) ˆ j.
→
→
(Answer)
−86.0° + 180° = 94.0°.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Checkpoint 21.1.3
The figure here shows three arrangements of an electron e and two protons p. (a) Rank the arrangements according to the magnitude of the net electrostatic force on the electron due to the protons, e largest first. (b) In situation c, is the angle between the net force on the electron and the line labeled d less than or more than 45°?
Sample Problem 21.1.2
e
D d
d
p
p
p
(a )
D
p
D
e
p (b )
d
p (c )
Equilibrium of two forces on a particle
Figure 21.1.8a shows two particles fixed in place: a particle of charge q 1 = +8q at the origin and a particle of charge q 2 = −2q at x = L. At what point (other than infinitely far away) can a proton be placed so that it is in equilibrium (the net force on it is zero)? Is that equilibrium stable or unsta- ble? (That is, if the proton is displaced, do the forces drive it back to the point of equilibrium or drive it farther away?)
This tells us that at the point we seek, the forces acting on the proton due to the other two particles must be of equal magnitudes, F 1 = F 2 , (21.1.9) and that the forces must have opposite directions. Because a proton has a positive charge, the proton and the particle of charge q 1 are of the same sign, and force F 1 on the proton must point away from q 1. Also, the proton and the particle of charge q 2 are of oppo- site signs, so force F 2 on the proton must point toward q 2. “Away from q 1” and “toward q opposite direc- 2” can be in tions only if the proton is located on the x axis. If the proton is on the x axis at any point between q 1 and q 2, such as point P in Fig. 21.1.8b, then F 1 and F 2 Reasoning:
→
KEY IDEA →
→
If F 1 is the force on the proton due to charge q 1 and F 2 is the force on the proton due to charge q 2, then the point we seek is where F 1 + F 2 = 0. Thus, →
→
→
→
F 1 = −F 2 .
(21.1.8)
→
→
→
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651
21.1 C OU L OMB’S L AW
are in the same direction and not in opposite directions Pushed away from q1, as required. If the proton is at any point on the x axis to pulled toward q 2. y y the left of q 1, such as point S in Fig. 21.1.8c, then F 1 and F 2 F2 are in opposite directions. However, Eq. 21.1.4 tells us q2 q1 q1 q2 x x that F 1 and F 2 cannot have equal magnitudes there: F 1 P L F must be greater than F 2, because F 1 1 is produced by a closer charge (with lesser r) of greater magnitude (8q versus 2q). (a ) (b ) The forces cannot cancel Finally, if the proton is at any point on the x axis to the (same direction). right of q 2, such as point R in Fig. 21.1.8d, then F 1 and F 2 y y are again in opposite directions. However, because now the F2 q1 q2 q1 q2 F2 charge of greater magnitude (q 1) is farther away from the x x proton than the charge of lesser magnitude, there is a point S R F1 F1 at which F 1 is equal to F 2. Let x be the coordinate of this point, and let q p be the charge of the proton. (c ) The forces cannot cancel (d ) The forces can cancel, Calculations: With Eq. 21.1.4, we can now rewrite Eq. (one is definitely larger). at the right distance. 21.1.9: Figure 21.1.8 (a) Two particles of charges q 1 and q 2 are fixed in 8qq p _____ 2qq p 1 _____ 1 ________ _____ place on an x axis, with separation L. (b)–(d) Three possible = . (21.1.10) 4πε0 x 2 4πε0 (x − L) 2 locations P, S, and R for a proton. At each location, F 1 is the force on the proton from particle 1 and F 2 is the force on the (Note that only the charge magnitudes appear in Eq. proton from particle 2. 21.1.10. We already decided about the directions of the forces in drawing Fig. 21.1.8d and do not want to include The equilibrium at x = 2L is unstable; that is, if the any positive or negative signs here.) Rearranging Eq. proton is displaced leftward from point R, then F 1 and F 2 21.1.10 g ives us both increase but F 2 increases more (because q 2 is closer x − L 2 = __ 1 . _____ than q ), and a net force will drive the proton farther left- ( x ) 4 1 ward. If the proton is displaced rightward, both F 1 and After taking the square roots of both sides, we find F 2 decrease but F 2 decreases more, and a net force will x − L = __ 1 then drive the proton farther rightward. In a stable equi- _____ x 2 librium, if the proton is displaced slightly, it returns to the and x = 2L. (Answer) equilibrium position. →
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Sample Problem 21.1.3
Charge sharing by two identical conducting spheres
In Fig. 21.1.9a, two identical, electrically isolated conduct- ing spheres A and B are separated by a (center-to-center) distance a that is large compared to the spheres. Sphere A has a positive charge of +Q, and sphere B is electrically neutral. Initially, there is no electrostatic force between the spheres. (The large separation means there is no induced charge.) (a) Suppose the spheres are connected for a moment by a conducting wire. The wire is thin enough so that any net charge on it is negligible. What is the electrostatic force between the spheres after the wire is removed?
KEY IDEAS (1) Because the spheres are identical, connecting them means that they end up with identical charges (same sign
q
=0
+Q /2
+Q /2
+Q /2
B
–Q / 2
a
A
+Q
(a )
+Q /2
(b )
(c )
–Q / 2 (d )
q
=0
(e )
Two small conducting spheres A and B. (a) To start, sphere A is charged positively. (b) Negative charge is transferred from B to A through a connecting wire. (c) Both spheres are then charged positively. (d) Negative charge is transferred through a grounding wire to sphere A. (e) Sphere A is then neutral. Figure 21.1.9
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C HAP T ER 21 C OU L OMB’S L AW
and same amount). (2) The initial sum of the charges (including the signs of the charges) must equal the final sum of the charges. When the spheres are wired together, the (negative) conduction electrons on B, which repel one another, have a way to move away from one another (along the wire to positively charged A, which attracts them— Fig. 21.1.9b). As B loses negative charge, it becomes posi- tively charged, and as A gains negative charge, it becomes less positively charged. The transfer of charge stops when the charge on B has increased to +Q/2 and the charge on A has decreased to +Q/2, which occurs when −Q/2 has shifted from B to A. After the wire has been removed (Fig. 21.1.9c), we can assume that the charge on either sphere does not dis- turb the uniformity of the charge distribution on the other sphere, because the spheres are small relative to their Reasoning:
separation. Thus, we can apply the first shell theorem to each sphere. By Eq. 21.1.4 with q 1 = q 2 = Q/2 and r = a, (Q / 2 )(Q/ 2 ) ______ Q 2 1 ___________ 1 __ F = _____ = . (Answer) 16πε0 ( a ) 4 πε0 a 2 The spheres, now positively charged, repel each other. (b) Next, suppose sphere A is grounded momentarily, and then the ground connection is removed. What now is the electrostatic force between the spheres? When we provide a conducting path between a charged object and the ground (which is a huge conduc- tor), we neutralize the object. Were sphere A negatively charged, the mutual repulsion between the excess electrons would cause them to move from the sphere to the ground. However, because sphere A is positively charged, electrons with a total charge of −Q/2 move from the ground up onto the sphere (Fig. 21.1.9d), leaving the sphere with a charge of 0 (Fig. 21.1.9e). Thus, the electrostatic force is again zero. Reasoning:
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
21.2 CHARGE IS QUANTIZED Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
21.2.1 Identify the elementary charge.
21.2.2 Identify that the charge of a particle or object must be a positive or negative integer times the elementary charge.
Key Ideas ●
Electric charge is quantized (restricted to certain
values). ●
elementary charge, which is the magnitude of the charge of the electron and proton (
≈ 1.602 × 10 −19 C ) .
ne, n is a positive or negative integer and e is the
The charge of a particle can be written as
where
Charge Is Quantized
In Benjamin Franklin’s day, electric charge was thought to be a continuous fluid—an idea that was useful for many purposes. However, we now know that fluids themselves, such as air and water, are not continuous but are made up of atoms and molecules; matter is discrete. Experiment shows that “electrical fluid” is also not continuous but is made up of multiples of a certain elementary charge. Any positive or negative charge q that can be detected can be written as q = ne,
n = ±1, ±2, ±3, . . . ,
(21.2.1)
in which e, the elementary charge, has the approximate value e = 1.602 × 10 −19 C.
(21.2.2)
The electron has a charge of −e and the proton has a charge of +e (Table 21.2.1). The neutron is electrically neutral with no charge. Those three particles are the
/
21.2 C HARGE IS QU ANT IZED
653
Table 21.2.1 The Charges of Three Particles and Their Antiparticles
Particle
Symbol
Electron Proton Neutron
e or e −
Charge −e +e 0
p n
Antiparticle
Symbol
Charge
Positron Antiproton Antineutron
e +
+e −e 0
_ p _ n
Table 21.2.2 The Charges of Two Quarks and Their Antiparticles
Quark
Symbol
Charge
Antiparticle
Up
u
2 + _ e 3
Antiup
Down
d
1 − _ 3 e
Antidown
Symbol _ u _ d
Charge 2 − _ e 3 1 + _ 3 e
only particles in your body and any common material. The electron does not con- sist of internal particles, but the proton and neutron consist of three quarks (Table 21.2.2). U ncommon particles consist of a quark and an antiquark or either three quarks or three antiquarks. The quarks and antiquarks have fractional charges of ±e/ 3 or ±2e/ 3 . However, because quarks cannot be detected individually and for historical reasons, we do not take their charge to be the elementary charge. You often see phrases—such as “the charge on a sphere,” “the amount of charge transferred,” and “the charge carried by the electron”—that suggest that charge is a substance. (Indeed, such statements have already a ppeared in this chap- ter.) You should, however, keep in mind what is intended: Particles are the sub- stance and charge happens to be one of their properties, just as mass is. When a physical quantity such as charge can have only discrete values rather than any value, we say that the quantity is quantized. It is possible, for example, to find a particle that has no charge at all or a charge of +10e or −6e, but not a particle with a charge of, say, 3.57e. The quantum of charge is small. In an ordinary 100 W lightbulb, for exam- ple, about 10 19 elementary charges enter the bulb every second and just as many leave. However, the graininess of electricity does not show up in such large-scale phenomena (the bulb does not flicker with each electron). Checkpoint 21.2.1
Initially, sphere A has a charge of −50e and sphere B has a charge of +20e. The spheres are made of conducting material and are identical in size. If the spheres then touch, what is the resulting charge on sphere A?
Sample Problem 21.2.1
Mutual electric repulsion in a nucleus
The nucleus in an iron atom has a radius of about 4.0 × 10 −15 m and contains 26 protons. (a) What is the magnitude of the repulsive electrostatic force between two of the protons that are separated by 4.0 × 10 −15 m?
KEY IDEA The protons can be treated as charged particles, so the magnitude of the electrostatic force on one from the other is given by Coulomb’s law.
Table 21.2.1 tells us that the charge of a pro- ton is +e. Thus, Eq. 21.1.4 g ives us Calculation:
2
1 __ e F = _____ 4 πε0 r 2 2 (8.99 × 10 9 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 )(1.602 × 10 −19 C) = ___________________________________ 2 (4.0 × 10 −15 m) = 14 N. (Answer) This is a small force to be acting on a mac- roscopic object like a cantaloupe, but an enormous force No explosion:
/
654
C HAP T ER 21 C OU L OMB’S L AW
to be acting on a proton. Such forces should explode the nucleus of any element but hydrogen (which has only one proton in its nucleus). However, they don’t, not even in nuclei with a great many protons. Therefore, there must be some enormous attractive force to counter this enor- mous repulsive electrostatic force. (b) What is the magnitude of the gravitational force between those same two protons?
KEY IDEA Because the protons are particles, the magnitude of the gravitational force on one from the other is given by Newton’s equation for the gravitational force (Eq. 21.1.2). With m p (= 1.67 × 10 −27 kg) representing the mass of a proton, Eq. 21.1.2 g ives us Calculation:
m p2 F = G ____ r 2
2
(6.67 × 10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 / kg 2 )(1.67 × 10 −27 kg) = _____________________________________ 2 (4.0 × 10 −15 m) = 1.2 × 10 −35 N. (Answer) This result tells us that the (attrac- tive) gravitational force is far too weak to counter the repulsive electrostatic forces between protons in a nucleus. Instead, the protons are bound together by an enormous force called (aptly) the strong nuclear force — a force that acts between protons (and neutrons) when they are close together, as in a nucleus. Although the gravitational force is many times weaker than the electrostatic force, it is more important in large-scale situations because it is always attractive. This means that it can collect many small bodies into huge bodies with huge masses, such as planets and stars, that then exert large gravitational forces. The electrostatic force, on the other hand, is repulsive for charges of the same sign, so it is unable to collect either positive charge or negative charge into large concentrations that would then exert large electrostatic forces. Weak versus strong:
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
21.3 CHARGE IS CONSERVED Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
21.3.1 Identify that in any isolated physical process,
21.3.3 Identify mass number and atomic number in
the net charge cannot change (the net charge is
terms of the number of protons, neutrons, and
always conserved).
electrons.
21.3.2 Identify an annihilation process of particles and a pair production of particles.
Key Ideas ●
The net electric charge of any isolated system is
always conserved. ●
●
If two charged particles appear as a result of a
pair production process, they have opposite signs of
If two charged particles undergo an annihilation
charge.
process, they have opposite signs of charge.
Charge Is Conserved
If you rub a glass rod with silk, a positive charge appears on the rod. Measure- ment shows that a negative charge of equal magnitude appears on the silk. This suggests that rubbing does not create charge but only transfers it from one body to another, upsetting the electrical neutrality of each body during the process. This hypothesis of conservation of charge, first put forward by Benjamin Franklin, has stood up under close examination, both for large-scale charged bodies and for atoms, nuclei, and elementary particles. No exceptions have ever been found.
/
21.3 C HARGE IS C ONSERV ED
655
Thus, we add electric charge to our list of quantities—including energy and both linear momentum and angular momentum—that obey a conservation law. Important examples of the conservation of charge occur in the radioactive decay of nuclei, said to be radionuclides. In the process, a nucleus transforms into (becomes) a different type of nucleus. For example, a uranium-238 nucleus 234 ( 238 92 U) transforms into a thorium-234 nucleus ( 90 Th) by emitting an alpha par- ticle. That particle can be symbolized with α, but because it has the same makeup as a helium-4 nucleus, it can also be symbolized with 4 2 He. In these symbols, we use the chemical notation for the element. The superscript is the mass number A that gives the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus (collectively called the nucleons), and the subscript is the atomic number or charge number Z that gives the number of protons. Appendix E gives the chemical symbols and the values of Z for all elements. We can write the alpha decay of uranium-238 as 238 234 4 92 U → 90 Th + 2 He.
(21.3.1)
The initial uranium nucleus is said to be the parent nucleus, and the resulting tho- rium nucleus is said to be the daughter nucleus. Note the conservation of charge: On the left the parent nucleus has 92 protons (and thus a charge of +92e), and on the right the two nuclei together have 92 protons (and thus the same charge). The mass number A is also conserved, but that is not our focus here. Another type of radioactive decay is electron capture in which a proton in a parent nucleus “captures” one of the inner electrons of the atom to form a neu- tron (which remains in the daughter nucleus) and to release a neutrino ν (which has no charge): p + e − → n + ν.
(21.3.2)
e − + e + → γ + γ
(annihilation).
(21.3.3)
In applying the conservation-of-charge principle, we must add the charges alge- braically, with due regard for their signs. In the annihilation process of Eq. 21.3.3 then, the net charge of the system is zero both before and after the event. Charge is conserved. In pair production, the converse of annihilation, charge is also conserved. In this process a gamma ray transforms into an electron and a positron:
γ → e − + e +
(pair production).
e
(21.3.4)
Figure 21.3.1 shows such a pair-production event that occurred in a bubble cham- ber. (This is a device in which a liquid is suddenly made hotter than its boiling point. If a charged particle passes through it, tiny vapor bubbles form along the particle’s trail.) A gamma ray entered the chamber from the bottom and at one point transformed into an electron and a positron. Because those new particles
e
yrotarobaL yelekreB ecnerwaL fo ysetruoC
The process reduces the atomic number Z by one, but the net charge is con- served: The net charge on the left is +e + (−e) = 0 and the net charge on the right is 0 + 0 = 0. After the capture, an outer electron can drop into the inner vacancy left by the captured electron. That transition can release a n x ray. Alternatively, it can provide the energy for another of the outer electrons to escape the atom, a process first discovered by Lise Meitner in 1922 and then independently by Pierre Auger in 1923. Today the process is used in cancer therapy: A radionuclide that undergoes electron capture is encapsulated and placed next to the cancer cells so that the Auger–Meitner electrons can lethally damage the cells and thus reduce the cancer. Another example of charge c onservation occurs when an electron e − (charge −e) and its antiparticle, the positron e + (charge +e), undergo an annihilation process, transforming into two gamma rays (high-energy light):
A photograph of trails of bubbles left in a bubble chamber by an electron and a positron. The pair of particles was produced by a gamma ray that entered the chamber directly from the bottom. Being electrically neutral, the gamma ray did not generate a telltale trail of bubbles along its path, as the elec- tron and positron did. Figure 21.3.1
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C HAP T ER 21 C OU L OMB’S L AW
were charged and moving, each left a trail of bubbles. (The trails were curved because a magnetic field had been set up in the chamber.) The gamma ray, being electrically neutral, left no trail. Still, you can tell exactly where it underwent pair production—at the tip of the curved V, which is where the trails of the electron and positron begin. PET Scans
A widely used method of obtaining images inside a human body is positron emis- sion tomography (PET). A beta-plus (positron) emitter is injected into a patient, where it will tend to collect in a tumor. When one of the nuclei emits a positron as a proton transforms to a neutron, that positron undergoes particle annihilation with an electron in the surrounding tissue within a micron of the nucleus (Eq. 21.3.3). We can approximate the total momentum of the positron and electron as being zero. From the conservation of momentum, the two gamma rays that are produced must also have a total momentum of zero, which requires that they travel away from their production site in opposite directions. A PET apparatus consists of gamma-ray detectors that are commonly arranged in a ring around the production site in the patient (Fig. 21.3.2a). When two detec- tors are triggered on opposite sides of the ring (Fig. 21.3.2b) within a narrow time interval, the system backtracks the gamma-ray paths to determine the location of the production site and thus the site of the tumor. An image of the site is built up as this determination is done repeatedly with gamma-ray pairs emitted in various directions into the ring.
mocsweN/sserP AMUZ/yvaN .S.U
Ring of detectors Tumor Gamma-ray pair (a)
(b )
(a) Patient in a PET scan apparatus. (b) Annihilation of a positron and electron sends gamma rays in opposite directions to the ring of detectors. Figure 21.3.2
Review & Summary The strength of a particle’s electrical inter- action with objects around it depends on its electric charge (usu- ally represented as q), which can be either positive or negative. Particles with the same sign of charge repel each other, and Electric Charge
particles with opposite signs of charge attract each other. An object with equal amounts of the two kinds of charge is elec- trically neutral, whereas one with an imbalance is electrically charged and has an excess charge.
/
QU EST IONS
Conductors are materials in which a significant number of electrons are free to move. The charged particles in nonconduc- tors (insulators) are not free to move. Electric current i is the rate dq/dt at which charge passes a point: dq i = ___ (electric current). (21.1.3) dt Coulomb’s Law Coulomb’s law describes the electrostatic force (or electric force) between two charged particles. If the particles have charges q 1 and q 2, are separated by distance r, and are at rest (or moving only slowly) relative to each other, then the magnitude of the force acting on each due to the other is given by q 1 ||q 2 | 1 |______ F = _____ (Coulomb’s law), 4πε 0 r 2
(21.1.4)
where ε0 = 8.85 × 10 −12 C 2 /N ⋅ m 2 is the permittivity constant. The ratio 1/4πε0 is often replaced with the electrostatic constant (or Coulomb constant) k = 8.99 × 10 9 N ⋅ m2 /C 2 . The electrostatic force vector acting on a charged particle due to a second charged particle is either directly toward the second particle (opposite signs of charge) or directly away from
657
it (same sign of charge). As with other types of forces, if multiple electrostatic forces act on a particle, the net force is the vector sum (not scalar sum) of the individual forces. The two shell theories for electrostatics are Shell theorem 1: A charged particle outside a shell with charge uniformly distributed on its surface is attracted or repelled as if the shell’s charge were concentrated as a par- ticle at its center. Shell theorem 2: A charged particle inside a shell with charge uniformly distributed on its surface has no net force acting on it due to the shell. Charge on a conducting spherical shell spreads uniformly over the (external) surface. Electric charge is quantized (restricted to certain values). The charge of a particle can be written as ne, where n is a positive or negative integer and e is the elementary charge, which is the magnitude of the charge of the electron and proton (≈ 1.602 × 10 −19 C). The Elementary Charge
The net electric charge of any isolated system is always conserved. Conservation of Charge
Questions Figure 21.1 shows (1) –e –e +e –e four situations in which five charged (2) particles are evenly +e +e +e –e spaced along an axis. The charge values are (3) –e –e +e +e indicated except for the central particle, (4) –e +e +e –e which has the same Figure 21.1 Question 1. charge in all four situ- ations. Rank the situations according to the magnitude of the net electrostatic force on the central particle, greatest first. 1
Figure 21.2 shows three pairs of identical spheres that are to be touched together and then separated. The initial charges on them are indicated. Rank the pairs according to (a) the mag- nitude of the charge transferred during touching and (b) the charge left on the positively charged sphere, greatest first. 2
+6 e
–4e
0
(1)
+2 e
–12e
(2) Figure 21.2
+14 e
(3)
Question 2.
Figure 21.3 shows four situations in which charged parti- cles are fixed in place on an axis. In which situations is there 3
+q
–3q
–q
(a) +3 q
+3 q (b )
–q (c ) Figure 21.3
–3 q
Question 3.
+q (d )
a point to the left of the particles where an electron will be in equilibrium? Figure 21.4 shows two –3 q –q charged particles on an axis. The charges are free to move. How- Figure 21.4 Question 4. ever, a third charged particle can be placed at a certain point such that all three particles are then in equilibrium. (a) Is that point to the left of the first two par- ticles, to their right, or between +4 q them? (b) Should the third par- ticle be positively or negatively –2 q +2 q –2 q charged? (c) Is the equilibrium +q stable or unstable? 4
r In Fig. 21.5, a central particle –7q –7q of charge −q is surrounded by R two circular rings of charged par- +q ticles. What are the magnitude and direction of the net electro- –2 q –2 q static force on the central par- +4 q ticle due to the other particles? Figure 21.5 Question 5. (Hint: Consider symmetry.)
5
A positively charged ball is brought close to an electrically neutral isolated conductor. The conductor is then grounded while the ball is kept close. Is the conductor charged posi- tively, charged negatively, or neutral if (a) the ball is first taken away and then the ground connection is removed and (b) the ground connection is first removed and then the ball is taken away? 6
Figure 21.6 shows three situations involving a charged particle and a uniformly charged spherical shell. The charges are given, and the radii of the shells are indicated. Rank the 7
/
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C HAP T ER 21 C OU L OMB’S L AW
situations according to the magnitude of the force on the par- ticle due to the presence of the shell, greatest first. +2q
–q
+6 q d
2R
R
+5Q
–4Q
/2 +8Q
(b )
(c )
R
(a ) Figure 21.6
Question 7.
Figure 21.7 shows four arrangements of charged particles. Rank the arrangements according to the magnitude of the net electrostatic force on the particle with charge +Q, greatest first. p
p
d
d
p
2d
+Q
(a )
+Q
e
2d (b)
e
d
d
+Q
e
2d
(c )
(d ) Figure 21.7
Question 8.
Figure 21.8 shows four situations in which particles of charge +q or −q are fixed in place. In each situation, the particles on the x axis are equidistant from the y axis. First, consider the middle particle in situation 1; the middle particle experiences an electrostatic force from each of the other two particles. (a) Are the magnitudes F of those forces the same or different? (b) Is the magnitude of the net force on the middle particle equal to, greater than, or less than 2F ? (c) Do the x components of the two forces add or cancel? (d) Do their y components add or can- cel? (e) Is the direction of the net force on the middle particle 9
y
Figure 21.10 shows three identical conducting bubbles A, B, and C floating in a conducting container that is grounded by a wire. The bubbles initially have the same charge. Bubble A bumps into the container’s ceiling and then into bubble B. Then bubble B bumps into bubble C, which then drifts to the container’s floor. When bubble C reaches the floor, a charge of −3e is transferred upward through the wire, from the ground to the container, as indicated. (a) What was the initial charge of each bubble? When (b) bubble A and (c) bubble B reach the floor, what is the charge transfer through the wire? (d) During this whole process, what is the total charge transfer through the wire? 11
e
p
2d
–7 q In Fig. 21.9, a +2 q +4 q central particle of charge −2q is surrounded by a square array of charged –5q –3 q particles, separated by either distance d or d/2 –2 q along the perimeter of +3 q the square. What are the magnitude and –3q –5 q direction of the net electrostatic force on +2 q the central particle due +4 q –7 q to the other particles? Figure 21.9 Question 10. (Hint: Consideration of symmetry can greatly reduce the amount of work required here.) 10
8
+Q
that of the canceling components or the adding components? (f) What is the direction of that net force? Now consider the remaining situations: What is the direction of the net force on the middle particle in (g) situation 2, (h) situation 3, and (i) situ- ation 4? (In each situation, consider the symmetry of the charge distribution and determine the canceling components and the adding components.)
A
B
Grounded conducting container
y
–q
+q +q
+q
x
+q
C
+q
(1)
(2)
y
y
x
– 3 e Figure 21.10
–q
Figure 21.11 shows four situations in which a central pro- ton is partially surrounded by protons or electrons fixed in place along a half-circle. The angles θ are identical; the angles ϕ are also. (a) In each situation, what is the direction of the net force on the central proton due to the other particles? (b) Rank the four situations according to the magnitude of that net force on the central proton, greatest first. 12
+q +q
Question 11.
–q
x
+q
(3)
–q (4)
Figure 21.8
Question 9.
x
/
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P ROBL EMS
y
p
p
p
y
ϕ ϕ
p
e
p
p
θ
ϕ ϕ
x
p
p
ϕ ϕ
x
p
p
p
θ ϕ ϕ
x
θ p
e
(1)
e
p e
θ
θ p
y
e
e p
θ
θ p
y
e
(2)
x
θ e
e
p
(3)
Figure 21.11
p
e (4)
Question 12.
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
BIO
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 21.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard Flying Circus of Physics
Coulomb’s Law
SSM Of the charge Q initially on a tiny sphere, a portion q is to be transferred to a second, nearby sphere. Both spheres can be treated as particles and are fixed with a certain separation. For what value of q/Q will the electrostatic force between the two spheres be maximized? E Identical isolated conducting spheres 1 and 2 have equal charges and are separated by a distance that is large compared with their diameters (Fig. 21.12a). The electrostatic force acting on sphere 2 due to sphere 1 is F . Suppose now that a third iden- tical sphere 3, having an insulating handle and initially neutral, is touched first to sphere 1 (Fig. 21.12b), then to sphere 2 (Fig. 21.12c), and finally removed (Fig. 21.12d). The electrostatic force that now acts on sphere 2 has magnitude F ʹ. What is the ratio F ʹ/F ?
2
→
1
2
F
1 3
(a )
1
2
(b )
2
–F'
1
2
F
'
3
(c )
(d ) Figure 21.12
Problem 2.
E SSM What must be the distance between point charge q 1 = 26.0 μC and point charge q 2 = −47.0 μC for the electrostatic force between them to have a magnitude of 5.70 N?
3
In the return stroke of a typical lightning bolt, a cur- rent of 2.5 × 10 4 A exists for 20 μs. How much charge is trans- ferred in this event? 4
E FCP
A particle of charge +3.00 × 10 −6 C is 12.0 cm distant from a second particle of charge −1.50 × 10 −6 C. Calculate the magni- tude of the electrostatic force between the particles. 5 E
1 E
–F
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
Two equally charged particles are held 3.2 × 10 −3 m apart and then released from rest. The initial acceleration of the first particle is observed to be 7.0 m/s 2 and that of the second to be 9.0 m/s 2 . If the mass of the first particle is 6.3 × 10 −7 kg, what are (a) the mass of the second particle and (b) the magnitude of the charge of each particle? 6
E
M In Fig. 21.13, three L12 L 23 x charged particles lie on an 1 2 3 x axis. Particles 1 and 2 are fixed in place. Particle 3 is free Figure 21.13 Problems 7 and 40. to move, but the net electrostatic force on it from particles 1 and 2 happens to be zero. If L 23 = L 12 , what is the ratio q 1 /q 2 ? 8 M In Fig. 21.14, three identical d A B conducting spheres initially have the following charges: sphere A, 4Q; sphere B, −6Q; and sphere C, 0. Spheres A and B are fixed in place, with a center-to-center sep- C aration that is much larger than the spheres. Two experiments Figure 21.14 Problem 8. are conducted. In experiment 1, sphere C is touched to sphere A and then (separately) to sphere B, and then it is removed. In experiment 2, starting with the same initial states, the procedure is reversed: Sphere C is touched to sphere B and then (sepa- rately) to sphere A, and then it is removed. What is the ratio of the electrostatic force between A and B at the end of experiment 2 to that at the end of experiment 1?
7
M SSM Two identical conducting spheres, fixed in place, attract each other with an electrostatic force of 0.108 N when their center-to-center separation is 50.0 cm. The spheres are then connected by a thin conducting wire. When the wire is
9
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C HAP T ER 21 C OU L OMB’S L AW
removed, the spheres repel each other with an electrostatic force of 0.0360 N. Of the initial charges on the spheres, with a positive net charge, what was (a) the negative charge on one of them and (b) the positive charge on the other? GO In Fig. 21.15, four par- M ticles form a square. The charges are q 1 = q 4 = Q and q 2 = q 3 = q. (a) What is Q/q if the net electro- static force on particles 1 and 4 is zero? (b) Is there any value of q that makes the net electrostatic force on each of the four particles zero? Explain. 10
y
1
2
a
a
a
3
4
a
x
M In Fig. 21.15, the particles Figure 21.15 have charges q 1 = −q 2 = 100 nC and Problems 10 and 11. q 3 = −q 4 = 200 nC, and distance a = 5.0 cm. What are the (a) x and (b) y components of the net electrostatic force on particle 3?
11
Two particles are fixed on an x axis. Particle 1 of charge 40 μC is located at x = −2.0 cm; particle 2 of charge Q is located at x = 3.0 cm. Particle 3 of charge magnitude 20 μC is released from rest on the y axis at y = 2.0 cm. What is the value of Q if the initial acceleration of particle 3 is in the positive direction of (a) the x axis and (b) the y axis? 13 M GO In Fig. 21.16, particle 1 y of charge +1.0 μ C and particle 2 of 2 1 charge −3.0 μC are held at separation x L = 10.0 cm on an x axis. If particle 3 L of unknown charge q 3 is to be located Figure 21.16 Problems such that the net electrostatic force 13, 19, 30, and 58. on it from particles 1 and 2 is zero, what must be the (a) x and (b) y coordinates of particle 3? 14 M Three particles are fixed on an x axis. Particle 1 of charge q 1 is at x = −a, and particle 2 of charge q 2 is at x = +a. If their net electrostatic force on particle 3 of charge +Q is to be zero, what must be the ratio q 1 /q 2 when particle 3 is at (a) x = +0.500a and (b) x = +1.50a? 12 M
M GO The charges and coordinates of two charged par- ticles held fixed in an xy plane are q 1 = +3.0 μC, x 1 = 3.5 cm, y 1 = 0.50 cm, and q 2 = −4.0 μC, x 2 = −2.0 cm, y 2 = 1.5 cm. Find the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the electrostatic force on particle 2 due to particle 1. At what (c) x and (d) y coordinates should a third particle of charge q 3 = +4.0 μ C be placed such that the net electrostatic force on particle 2 due to particles 1 and 3 is zero?
15
The scale of the x axis is set by x s = 8.0 cm. What are (a) the sign of charge q 1 and (b) the ratio q 2 /q 1 ? M In Fig. 21.18a, particles 1 1 and 2 have charge 20.0 μ C each d and are held at separation distance d 3 d = 1.50 m. (a) What is the magni- tude of the electrostatic force on d particle 1 due to particle 2? In Fig. 2 21.18b, particle 3 of charge 20.0 μC (b ) is positioned so as to complete an (a) equilateral triangle. (b) What is the Figure 21.18 Problem 17. magnitude of the net electrostatic force on particle 1 due to particles 2 and 3?
17
M In Fig. 21.19a, three posi- x A B C tively charged particles are fixed (a ) on an x axis. Particles B and C are so close to each other that x they can be considered to be B A C at the same distance from par- (b ) ticle A. The net force on particle Figure 21.19 Problem 18. A due to particles B and C is 2.014 × 10 −23 N in the negative direction of the x axis. In Fig. 21.19b, particle B has been moved to the opposite side of A but is still at the same distance from it. The net force on A is now 2.877 × 10 −24 N in the negative direction of the x axis. What is the ratio q C /q B ? 19 M SSM In Fig. 21.16, particle 1 of charge +q and particle 2 of charge +4.00q are held at separation L = 9.00 cm on an x axis. If particle 3 of charge q 3 is to be located such that the three par- ticles remain in place when released, what must be the (a) x and (b) y coordinates of particle 3, and (c) the ratio q 3 /q?
18
GO Figure 21.20a shows an arrangement of three charged particles separated by distance d. Particles A and C are fixed on the x axis, but particle B can be moved along a circle centered on particle A. During the movement, a radial line between A and B makes an angle θ relative to the positive direction of the x axis (Fig. 21.20b). The curves in Fig. 21.20c give, for two situations, the magnitude F net of the net electrostatic force on particle A due to the other particles. That net force is given as a function of angle θ and as a multiple of a basic amount F 0 . For example on curve 1, at θ = 180°, we see that F net = 2F 0 . (a) For the situ- ation corresponding to curve 1, what is the ratio of the charge of particle C to that of particle B (including sign)? (b) For the situation corresponding to curve 2, what is that ratio? 20 H
2
In Fig. 21.17a, particle 1 (of charge q 1 ) and particle 2 (of charge q 2 ) are fixed in place on an x axis, 8.00 cm apart. Particle 3 (of charge q 3 = +8.00 × 10 −19 C) is to be placed on the line between particles 1 and 2 so that they produce a net electro- static force F 3, net on it. Figure 21.17b gives the x component of that force versus the coordinate x at which particle 3 is placed. 16
M
GO
d
1
d x B
t enF
A
C
1
(a )
2
→
y
2 (a )
x
)N 3 2 – 01( F
1
1 0
θ
B
A
x
0
xs
–1 (b )
Figure 21.17
d
Problem 16.
x
0 0 °
C
(b)
(cm)
90 °
θ
180 °
(c ) Figure 21.20
Problem 20.
CALC GO A nonconducting spherical shell, with an inner radius of 4.0 cm and an outer radius of 6.0 cm, has charge spread nonuniformly through its volume between its inner and outer
21 H
/
661
P ROBL EMS
surfaces. The volume charge density is the charge per unit volume, with the unit coulomb per cubic meter. For this shell = b/r, where r is the distance in meters from the center of the shell and b = 3.0 μ C/m 2 . What is the net charge in the shell? 22 H GO Figure 21.21 shows an y arrangement of four charged par- 3 ticles, with angle θ = 30.0° and distance d = 2.00 cm. Particle 2 θ x has charge q 2 = +8.00 × 10 −19 C; θ d D 1 2 particles 3 and 4 have charges q 3 = q 4 = −1.60 × 10 −19 C. (a) 4 What is distance D between the origin and particle 2 if the net Figure 21.21 Problem 22. electrostatic force on particle 1 due to the other particles is zero? (b) If particles 3 and 4 were moved closer to the x axis but maintained their symmetry about that axis, would the required value of D be greater than, less than, or the same as in part (a)? GO In Fig. 21.22, par- H y ticles 1 and 2 of charge 1 q 1 = q 2 = +3.20 × 10 −19 C are on d a y axis at distance d = 17.0 cm x from the origin. Particle 3 of 3 charge q 3 = +6.40 × 10 −19 C is d moved gradually along the x axis 2 from x = 0 to x = +5.0 m. At what Figure 21.22 Problem 23. values of x will the magnitude of the electrostatic force on the third particle from the other two particles be (a) minimum and (b) maximum? What are the (c) minimum and (d) maximum magnitudes? 23
Module 21.2
Charge Is Quantized
E
E How many electrons would have to be removed from a coin to leave it with a charge of +1.0 × 10 −7 C? 26 E What is the magnitude of the electrostatic force between a singly charged sodium ion (Na + , of charge +e) and an adjacent singly charged chlorine ion (Cl − , of charge −e) in a salt crystal if their separation is 2.82 × 10 −10 m?
→
→
In Fig. 21.16, particles 1 and 2 are fixed in place on an x axis, at a separation of L = 8.00 cm. Their charges are q 1 = +e and q 2 = −27e. Particle 3 with charge q 3 = +4e is to be placed on the line between particles 1 and 2, so that they produce a net electrostatic force F 3, net on it. (a) At what coordinate should particle 3 be placed to minimize the magnitude of that force? (b) What is that minimum magnitude? 30 M
→
M Earth’s atmosphere is constantly bombarded by cosmic ray protons that originate somewhere in space. If the protons all passed through the atmosphere, each square meter of Earth’s surface would intercept protons at the average rate of 1500 pro- tons per second. What would be the electric current intercepted by the total surface area of the planet?
31
GO Figure 21.24a shows charged particles 1 and 2 that are fixed in place on an x axis. Particle 1 has a charge with a mag- nitude of |q 1 | = 8.00e. Particle 3 of charge q 3 = +8.00e is initially on the x axis near particle 2. Then particle 3 is gradually moved in the positive direction of the x axis. As a result, the magnitude of the net electrostatic force F 2, net on particle 2 due to particles 1 and 3 changes. Figure 21.24b gives the x component of that net force as a function of the position x of particle 3. The scale of the x axis is set by x s = 0.80 m. The plot has an asymptote of F 2, net = 1.5 × 10 −25 N as x → ∞. As a multiple of e and including the sign, what is the charge q 2 of particle 2? 32 M
→
2 y
1
25
E SSM The magnitude of the electrostatic force between two identical ions that are separated by a distance of 5.0 × 10 −10 m is 3.7 × 10 −9 N. (a) What is the charge of each ion? (b) How many electrons are “missing” from each ion (thus giving the ion its charge imbalance)? 28 E BIO FCP A current of 0.300 A through your chest can send your heart into fibrillation, ruining the normal rhythm of heartbeat and disrupting the flow y of blood (and thus oxygen) to 4 your brain. If that current persists for 2.00 min, how many conduc- x 1 3 tion electrons pass through your chest? 29 M GO In Fig. 21.23, particles 2 2 and 4, of charge −e, are fixed in place on a y axis, at y 2 = −10.0 cm Figure 21.23 Problem 29.
27
2
3
x
)N 5 2 – 01( t en ,2F
Two tiny, spherical water drops, with identical charges of −1.00 × 10 −16 C, have a center-to-center separation of 1.00 cm. (a) What is the magnitude of the electrostatic force act- ing between them? (b) How many excess electrons are on each drop, giving it its charge imbalance? 24
and y 4 = 5.00 cm. Particles 1 and 3, of charge −e, can be moved along the x axis. Particle 5, of charge +e, is fixed at the ori- gin. Initially particle 1 is at x 1 = −10.0 cm and particle 3 is at x 3 = 10.0 cm. (a) To what x value must particle 1 be moved to rotate the direction of the net electric force F net on particle 5 by 30° counterclockwise? (b) With particle 1 fixed at its new position, to what x value must you move particle 3 to rotate F net back to its original direction?
1 0 –1
(a )
x xs
0
(m)
(b )
Problem 32. 33 M Calculate the number of coulombs of positive charge in 250 cm 3 of (neutral) water. (Hint: A hydrogen atom contains one proton; an oxygen atom contains eight protons.) Figure 21.24
H GO Figure 21.25 shows y electrons 1 and 2 on an x axis and charged ions 3 and 4 of 3 –q identical charge −q and at 1 2 θ x identical angles θ. Electron 2 –e –e θ is free to move; the other three –q particles are fixed in place at 4 horizontal distances R from R R electron 2 and are intended to hold electron 2 in place. For Figure 21.25 Problem 34. physically possible values of q ≤ 5e, what are the (a) smallest, (b) second smallest, and (c) third smallest values of θ for which electron 2 is held in place?
34
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C HAP T ER 21 C OU L OMB’S L AW
H SSM In crystals of the salt cesium chloride, cesium ions Cs + form the eight corners of a cube and a chlorine ion Cl − is at the cube’s center (Fig. 21.26). The edge length of the cube is 0.40 nm. The Cs + ions are each deficient by one electron (and thus each has a charge of +e), and the Cl − ion has one excess electron (and thus has a charge of −e). (a) What is the magnitude of the net electrostatic force exerted on the Cl − ion by the eight Cs + ions at the corners of the cube? (b) If one of the Cs + ions is missing, the crystal is said to have a defect; what is the magnitude of the net electrostatic force exerted on the Cl − ion by the seven remaining Cs + ions?
35
Cl – Cs+
to solve this problem? (c) How many kilograms of hydrogen ions (that is, protons) would be needed to provide the positive charge calculated in (a)? In Fig. 21.29, two tiny conduct- ing balls of identical mass m and identical charge q hang from noncon- ducting threads of length L. Assume that θ is so small that tan θ can be replaced by its approximate equal, sin θ. (a) Show that 42
L
L
1/3
q 2 L x = ________ ( 2πε 0 mg)
gives the equilibrium separation x of the balls. (b) If L = 120 cm, m = 10 g, and x = 5.0 cm, what is |q|?
0.40 nm
θθ
q
q x
Figure 21.29 (a) Explain what happens to the Problems 42 and 43. balls of Problem 42 if one of them is discharged (loses its charge q to, say, the ground). (b) Find the new equilibrium separation x, using the given values of L and m and the computed value of | q|.
43
Figure 21.26
Module 21.3
Problem 35.
Charge Is Conserved
Electrons and positrons are produced by the nuclear trans- formations of protons and neutrons known as beta decay. (a) If a proton transforms into a neutron, is an electron or a positron produced? (b) If a neutron transforms into a proton, is an elec- tron or a positron produced? 36 E
E SSM Identify X in the following nuclear reactions: (a) 1 H + 9 Be → X + n; (b) 12 C + 1 H → X; (c) 15 N + 1 H → 4 He + X. Appendix F will help.
37
Additional Problems
GO Figure 21.27 shows four A B C identical conducting spheres that are actually well separated from one another. Sphere W (with an W initial charge of zero) is touched Figure 21.27 Problem 38. to sphere A and then they are sep- arated. Next, sphere W is touched to sphere B (with an initial charge of −32e) and then they are separated. Finally, sphere W is touched to sphere C (with an initial charge of +48e), and then they are separated. The final charge on sphere W is +18e. What was the initial charge on sphere A? 38
SSM In Fig. 21.28, particle 1 of charge +4e is above a floor by distance d 1 = 2.00 mm and parti- cle 2 of charge +6e is on the floor, at distance d 2 = 6.00 mm hori- zontally from particle 1. What is the x component of the electro- static force on particle 2 due to particle 1?
39
y
1 d1
2
x
d2
Figure 21.28
Problem 39.
In Fig. 21.13, particles 1 and 2 are fixed in place, but par- ticle 3 is free to move. If the net electrostatic force on particle 3 due to particles 1 and 2 is zero and L 23 = 2.00L 12 , what is the ratio q 1 /q 2 ? 40
(a) What equal positive charges would have to be placed on Earth and on the Moon to neutralize their gravitational attraction? (b) Why don’t you need to know the lunar distance 41
SSM How far apart must two protons be if the magnitude of the electrostatic force acting on either one due to the other is equal to the magnitude of the gravitational force on a proton at Earth’s surface?
44
How many megacoulombs of positive charge are in 1.00 mol of neutral molecular-hydrogen gas (H 2 )? 45
d d d In Fig. 21.30, four particles x are fixed along an x axis, sepa- 1 2 3 4 rated by distances d = 2.00 cm. Figure 21.30 Problem 46. The charges are q 1 = +2e, q 2 = −e, q 3 = +e, and q 4 = +4e, with e = 1.60 × 10 −19 C. In unit-vector notation, what is the net elec- trostatic force on (a) particle 1 and (b) particle 2 due to the other particles?
46
GO Point charges of +6.0 μC and −4.0 μC are placed on an x axis, at x = 8.0 m and x = 16 m, respectively. What charge must be placed at x = 24 m so that any charge placed at the ori- gin would experience no electrostatic force? 47
In Fig. 21.31, three identical con- A ducting spheres form an equilateral triangle of side length d = 20.0 cm. d d The sphere radii are much smaller than d, and the sphere charges are q A = −2.00 nC, q B = −4.00 nC, and B C q C = +8.00 nC. (a) What is the magni- d tude of the electrostatic force between Figure 21.31 spheres A and C? The following steps Problem 48. are then taken: A and B are connected by a thin wire and then disconnected; B is grounded by the wire, and the wire is then removed; B and C are connected by the wire and then disconnected. What now are the magnitudes of the electrostatic force (b) between spheres A and C and (c) between spheres B and C? 48
A neutron consists of one “up” quark of charge +2e/3 and two “down” quarks each having charge −e/3. If we assume that the down quarks are 2.6 × 10 −15 m apart inside the neu- tron, what is the magnitude of the electrostatic force between them? 49
/
P ROBL EMS
Figure 21.32 shows a long, nonconducting, massless rod of length L, pivoted at its center and balanced with a block of weight W at a distance x from the left end. At the left and right ends of the rod are attached small conducting spheres with posi- tive charges q and 2q, respectively. A distance h directly beneath each of these spheres is a fixed sphere with positive charge Q. (a) Find the distance x when the rod is horizontal and balanced. (b) What value should h have so that the rod exerts no vertical force on the bearing when the rod is horizontal and balanced? 50
L x
+q
Rod
Bearing
+2q
h
+Q
W
Figure 21.32
+Q
Problem 50.
CALC A charged nonconducting rod, with a length of 2.00 m and a cross-sectional area of 4.00 cm 2 , lies along the positive side of an x axis with one end at the origin. The volume charge den- sity is charge per unit volume in coulombs per cubic meter. How many excess electrons are on the rod if is (a) uniform, with a value of −4.00 μC/m 3 , and (b) nonuniform, with a value given by = bx 2 , where b = −2.00 μC/m 5 ?
51
A particle of charge Q is fixed at the origin of an xy coor- dinate system. At t = 0 a particle (m = 0.800 g, q = 4.00 μC) is located on the x axis at x = 20.0 cm, moving with a speed of 50.0 m/s in the positive y direction. For what value of Q will the moving particle execute circular motion? (Neglect the gravita- tional force on the particle.)
We know that the negative charge on the electron and the positive charge on the proton are equal. Suppose, however, that these magnitudes differ from each other by 0.00010%. With what force would two copper coins, placed 1.0 m apart, repel each other? Assume that each coin contains 3 × 10 22 copper atoms. (Hint: A neutral copper atom contains 29 protons and 29 electrons.) What do you conclude? 57
In Fig. 21.16, particle 1 of charge −80.0 μC and particle 2 of charge +40.0 μC are held at separation L = 20.0 cm on an x axis. In unit-vector notation, what is the net electrostatic force on particle 3, of charge q 3 = 20.0 μ C, if particle 3 is placed at (a) x = 40.0 cm and (b) x = 80.0 cm? What should be the (c) x and (d) y coordinates of particle 3 if the net electrostatic force on it due to particles 1 and 2 is zero? 58
59
What is the total charge in coulombs of 75.0 kg of electrons?
GO In Fig. 21.33, six charged particles surround particle 7 at radial distances of either d = 1.0 cm or 2d, as drawn. The charges are q 1 = +2e, q 2 = +4e, q 3 = +e, q 4 = +4e, q 5 = +2e, q 6 = +8e, q 7 = +6e, with e = 1.60 × 10 −19 C. What is the magnitude of the net electrostatic force on particle 7? 60
y
2
1
52
What would be the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two 1.00 C point charges separated by a distance of (a) 1.00 m and (b) 1.00 km if such point charges existed (they do not) and this configuration could be set up? 53
A charge of 6.0 μC is to be split into two parts that are then separated by 3.0 mm. What is the maximum possible magnitude of the electrostatic force between those two parts? 54
Of the charge Q on a tiny sphere, a fraction α is to be trans- ferred to a second, nearby sphere. The spheres can be treated as particles. (a) What value of α maximizes the magnitude F of the electrostatic force between the two spheres? What are the (b) smaller and (c) larger values of α that put F at half the maxi- mum magnitude? 55
BIO FCP If a cat repeatedly rubs against your cotton slacks on a dry day, the charge transfer between the cat hair and the cotton can leave you with an excess charge of −2.00 μ C. (a) How many electrons are transferred between you and the cat? You will gradually discharge via the floor, but if instead of waiting, you immediately reach toward a faucet, a painful spark can suddenly appear as your fingers near the faucet. (b) In that spark, do electrons flow from you to the faucet or vice versa? (c) Just before the spark appears, do you induce positive or neg- ative charge in the faucet? (d) If, instead, the cat reaches a paw toward the faucet, which way do electrons flow in the resulting spark? (e) If you stroke a cat with a bare hand on a dry day, you should take care not to bring your fingers near the cat’s nose or you will hurt it with a spark. Considering that cat hair is an insulator, explain how the spark can appear.
663
7
3
x
4
5 6
Problem 60.
Figure 21.33
Three charged particles form a triangle: Particle 1 with charge Q 1 = 80.0 nC is at xy coordinates (0, 3.00 mm), particle 2 with charge Q 2 is at (0, −3.00 mm), and particle 3 with charge q = 18.0 nC is at (4.00 mm, 0). In unit-vector notation, what is the electrostatic force on particle 3 due to the other two particles if Q 2 is equal to (a) 80.0 nC and (b) −80.0 nC? 61
SSM In Fig. 21.34, what are the (a) magnitude and (b) direc- tion of the net electrostatic force on particle 4 due to the other three particles? All four particles are fixed in the xy plane, and q 1 = −3.20 × 10 −19 C, q 2 = +3.20 × 10 −19 C, q 3 = +6.40 × 10 −19 C, q 4 = +3.20 × 10 −19 C, θ1 = 35.0°, d 1 = 3.00 cm, and d 2 = d 3 = 2.00 cm.
62
y
2
56
d2
θ1
4 d3
3
x
d1
1 Figure 21.34
Problem 62.
Charge of a penny. A U.S. penny has mass m = 3.11 g and contains equal amounts of positive and negative charge. Assume the coin is made entirely of copper (molar mass M = 63.5 g/mol, atomic number Z = 29). (a) What is the magnitude q of these charges? (b) If the charges could be concentrated into two sep- arate bundles held 100 m apart, what would be the attractive force between the bundles? 63
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664
C HAP T ER 21 C OU L OMB’S L AW
Quarks. What is the quark composition of (a) a proton, (b) a neutron, and (c) an antiproton? (The symbols can be in any order.) (d) When a nucleon undergoes beta-minus emission (see problem 67), what is the change in the quark composition? 64
Electrostatic and gravitational forces. The average distance r between the electron and the central proton in the hydrogen atom is 5.3 × 10 −11 m. What are the magnitudes of (a) the elec- trostatic force and (b) the gravitational force acting between the particles? (c) Can the latter account for holding the atom together? 65
BIO Electron capture in cancer therapy. Certain radionu- clides can decay by electron capture,
66
p + e − → n + ν, and then the daughter nuclei can release Auger–Meitner elec- trons. If the radionuclides are placed next to cancer cells, those released electrons can lethally damage the cells. What is the 125 daughter atom if the parent atom is (a) iodine 123 53 I, (b) iodine 53 I, and (c) gallium 67 Ga? 31 BIO Beta-minus decay in cancer therapy. Certain radionu- clides undergo beta-minus decay, in which a neutron transforms into a proton (which remains in the nucleus) and releases an electron and a neutrino: n → p + e − + ν.
67
If the radionuclides are placed next to a tumor, the released electrons can lethally damage the tumor. What is the daughter 67 atom if the parent atom is (a) iodine 131 53 I, (b) copper 29 Cu, and 90 (c) yttrium 39 Y? The first two are used for smaller tumors, the third for larger tumors. Smoke detectors. Many household smoke detectors (Fig. 21.35) contain radioactive americium-241 241 95 Am, which is an alpha emitter. The alpha particles ionize the air (they strip elec- trons from the air molecules) between two charged plates. The freed electrons then flow to the positively charged plate. Thus, there is an electrical current between the plates. If smoke particles enter the air, they reduce that current, which triggers an alarm. What is the daughter nucleus produced by the alpha decay? 68
BIO Alpha decay in cancer therapy. Certain radionuclides decay by emitting an alpha particle. To treat bone cancer, an alpha emitter such as radium 223 88 Ra is attached to a carrier mol- ecule that is then taken up by bone as though it were calcium. What is the daughter atom if the parent atom is (a) radium 223 88 Ra, 225 Ac? (b) radium 226 Ra, and (c) actinium 88 89
69
BIO Competitive decays in cancer diagnosis. Some radionu- clides can undergo either beta-plus decay or electron capture. What is the resulting daughter when carbon 11 6 C undergoes (a) beta-plus decay and (b) electron capture? What is the daughter when 18 9 F undergoes (c) beta-plus decay and (d) elec- tron capture?
70
Uranium fission. If a slow neutron is captured by a ura- nium-235 nucleus (a large nucleus), the nucleus can fission (split) into two intermediate-size nuclei and release two or three neutrons. Here is one possibility: 71
(a) 235 144 92 U + n → 56 Ba + (b) (c) + 3n.
What numbers go into superscript (a) and subscript (b), and what chemical symbol goes into position (c)? (d) The intermediate-size nuclei have too many neutrons to be stable and so they decay by beta-minus decays, in which a neutron becomes a proton and the nucleus emits an electron and a neutrino (which has no charge). See Problem 67. What daughter nucleus results from the decay of 144 56 Ba? BIO Gamma cameras. To image organs in a patient’s body, the patient is injected with a substance containing radioactive 99 molybdenum 99 42 Mo, which decays to technetium 43 Tc, and then slid into a gamma camera (Fig. 21.36). The technetium is pro- duced in a higher energy state but while in the gamma camera it reduces its energy by emitting a gamma ray. The patient is partially surrounded by an array of gamma-ray detectors that function much like a conventional camera capturing an image with visible light. The detection system produces an image of the patient showing the emission sites of the gamma rays. (Radio- nuclides that emit electrons, positrons, or alpha particles are not useful in deep imaging because those particles travel only a short distance through the body whereas the gamma rays can 99 escape and reach the detectors.) In the decay of 99 42 Mo to 43 Tc, what particle is emitted in addition to a neutrino?
72
moc.kcotsrettuhS/nigamS rteP
FR321/medgicanitsed Figure 21.35
Problem 68.
Figure 21.36
Problem 72.
/
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
2
2
Electric Fields
22.1 THE ELECTRIC FIELD Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
22.1.1 Identify that at every point in the space sur-
ev en though there is no contact between the
rounding a charged particle, the particle sets up an electric field
→
E , which is a vector quantity and thus
particles . 22.1.3 Explain how a small positive test charge is used
has both magnitude and direction.
(in principle) to measure the electric field at any
→
22.1.2 Identify how an electric field
E can be us ed
to explain how a charged particle can exert an
given point. 22.1.4 Explain electric field lines, including where they
→
electros tatic force
F on a s econd charged particle
originate and terminate and what their spacing represents.
Key Ideas ●
A charged particle sets up an electric field (a vector
●
Electric field lines help us visualize the direction and
quantity) in the surrounding space. If a second charged
magnitude of electric fields. The electric field vector at
particle is located in that space, an electrostatic force
any point is tangent to the field line through that point.
acts on it due to the magnitude and direction of the
The density of field lines in that region is proportional
field at its location.
to the magnitude of the electric field there. Thus,
→
E at any point is defined in terms of the electrostatic force F that would be exerted on a positive test charge q 0 placed there: ●
The electric field
closer field lines represent a stronger field.
→
→
F E = ___ q .
→
0
●
Electric field lines originate on positive charges and
terminate on negative charges. So, a field line extend- ing from a positive charge must end on a negative charge.
What Is Physics?
Figure 22.1.1 shows two positively charged particles. From the preceding chap- ter we know that an electrostatic force acts on particle 1 due to the presence of particle 2. We also know the force direction and, given some data, we can calculate the force magnitude. However, here is a leftover nagging question. How does particle 1 “know” of the presence of particle 2? That is, since the particles do not touch, how can particle 2 push on particle 1—how can there be such an action at a distance? One purpose of physics is to record observations about our world, such as the magnitude and direction of the push on particle 1. Another purpose is to provide an explanation of what is recorded. Our purpose in this chapter is to provide such an explanation to this nagging question about electric force at a distance. The explanation that we shall examine here is this: Particle 2 sets up an electric field at all points in the surrounding space, even if the space is a vacuum. If we place particle 1 at any point in that space, particle 1 knows of the presence of particle 2 because it is affected by the electric field particle 2 has already set up
+
+
q
q
1
2
How does charged particle 2 push on charged particle 1 when they have no contact? Figure 22.1.1
665 /
666
C HAP T ER 22 EL EC T RIC F IEL D S
at that point. Thus, particle 2 pushes on particle 1 not by touching it as you would push on a coffee mug by making contact. Instead, particle 2 pushes by means of the electric field it has set up. Our goals in this chapter are to (1) define electric field, (2) discuss how to calculate it for various arrangements of charged particles and objects, and (3) dis- cuss how an electric field can affect a charged particle (as in making it move).
F
+
+ + + Test charge q0 + + at point P ++ ++ + + Charged object
(a)
The rod sets up an electric f ield, which can create a force on the test charge.
E
+ ++ + + ++ ++ ++ P
Electric field at point P
→
(a) A positive test charge q 0 placed at point P near a charged object. An electrostatic force F acts on the test charge. (b) The electric field E at point P produced by the charged object. Figure 22.1.2
→
→
→
– – –
–
+ Positive
test charge
(a )
–
– – –
–
E
Electric f ield lines
→
F E = ___ q
→
–
F
– – –
A lot of different fields are used in science and engineering. For example, a tem- perature field for an auditorium is the distribution of temperatures we would find by measuring the temperature at many points within the auditorium. Similarly, we could define a pressure field in a swimming pool. Such fields are examples of scalar fields because temperature and pressure are scalar quantities, having only magnitudes and not directions. In contrast, an electric field is a vector field because it is responsible for conveying the information for a force, which involves both magnitude and direc- tion. This field consists of a distribution of electric field vectors E , one for each point in the space around a charged object. In principle, we can define E at some point near the charged object, such as point P in Fig. 22.1.2a, with this proce- dure: At P, we place a particle with a small positive charge q 0, called a test charge because we use it to test the field. (We want the charge to be small so that it does not disturb the object’s charge distribution.) We then measure the electrostatic force F that acts on the test charge. The electric field at that point is then →
(b )
– – –
The Electric Field
0
(22.1.1)
(electric field).
Because the test charge is positive, the two vectors in Eq. 22.1.1 are in the same direction, so the direction of E is the direction we measure for F . The mag- nitude of E at point P is F/q 0. As shown in Fig. 22.1.2b, we always represent an electric field with an arrow with its tail anchored on the point where the measure- ment is made. (This may sound trivial, but drawing the vectors any other way usually results in errors. Also, another common error is to mix up the terms force and field because they both start with the letter f. Electric force is a push or pull. Electric field is an abstract property set up by a charged object.) From Eq. 22.1.1, we see that the SI unit for the electric field is the newton per coulomb (N/C). We can shift the test charge around to various other points, to measure the electric fields there, so that we can figure out the distribution of the electric field set up by the charged object. That field exists independent of the test charge. It is something that a charged object sets up in the surrounding space (even vacuum), independent of whether we happen to come along to measure it. For the next several modules, we determine the field around charged par- ticles and various charged objects. First, however, let’s examine a way of visual- izing electric fields. →
→
→
(b )
(a) The electrostatic force F acting on a positive test charge near a sphere of uniform negative charge. (b) The electric field vector E at the location of the test charge, and the electric field lines in the space near the sphere. The field lines extend toward the negatively charged sphere. (They originate on distant positive charges.) Figure 22.1.3 →
→
Electric Field Lines
Look at the space in the room around you. Can you visualize a field of vectors throughout that space—vectors with different magnitudes and directions? As impossible as that seems, Michael Faraday, who introduced the idea of electric fields in the 19th century, found a way. He envisioned lines, now called electric field lines, in the space around any given charged particle or object. Figure 22.1.3 gives an example in which a sphere is uniformly covered with negative charge. If we place a positive test charge at any point near the sphere
/
22.1 T HE EL EC T RIC F IEL D
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + +
Positive test charge
+
+
F
+ + + +
(a)
+ + + +
+ + + +
667
+ + + + + + + + + + + (c )
+ +
E
(b )
(a) The force on a positive test charge near a very large, nonconducting sheet with uniform positive charge on one side. (b) The electric field vector E at the test charge’s location, and the nearby electric field lines, extending away from the sheet. (c) Side view. Figure 22.1.4
→
(Fig. 22.1.3a), we find that an electrostatic force pulls on it toward the center of the sphere. Thus at every point around the sphere, an electric field vector points radially inward toward the sphere. We can represent this electric field with elec- tric field lines as in Fig. 22.1.3b. At any point, such as the one shown, the direction of the field line through the point matches the direction of the electric vector at that point. The rules for drawing electric fields lines are these: (1) At any point, the electric field vector must be tangent to the electric field line through that point and in the same direction. (This is easy to see in Fig. 22.1.3 where the lines are straight, but we’ll see some curved lines soon.) (2) In a plane perpendicular to the field lines, the relative density of the lines represents the relative magnitude of the field there, with greater density for greater m agnitude. If the sphere in Fig. 22.1.3 were uniformly covered with positive charge, the electric field vectors at all points around it would be radially outward and thus so would the electric field lines. So, we have the following rule: Electric field lines extend away from positive charge (where they originate) and toward negative charge (where they terminate).
In Fig. 22.1.3b, they originate on distant positive charges that are not shown. For another example, Fig. 22.1.4a shows part of an infinitely large, noncon- ducting sheet (or plane) with a uniform distribution of positive charge on one side. If we place a positive test charge a t any point near the sheet (on either side), we find that the electrostatic force on the particle is outward and perpendicular to the sheet. The perpendicular orientation is reasonable because any force com- ponent that is, say, upward is balanced out by an equal component that is down- ward. That leaves only outward, and thus the electric field vectors a nd the electric field lines must also be outward and perpendicular to the sheet, as shown in Figs. 22.1.4b and c. Because the charge on the sheet is uniform, the field vectors and the field lines are also. Such a field is a uniform electric field, meaning that the electric field has the same magnitude and direction at every point within the field. (This is a lot easier to work with than a nonuniform field, where there is variation from point to point.) Of course, there is no such thing as an infinitely large sheet. That is just a way of saying that we are measuring the field at points close to the sheet relative to the size of the sheet and that we are not near an edge. Figure 22.1.5 shows the field lines for two particles with equal positive charges. Now the field lines are curved, but the rules still hold: (1) The electric
+ E
+
Field lines for two particles with equal positive charge. Doesn’t the pattern itself suggest that the particles repel each other? Figure 22.1.5
/
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C HAP T ER 22 EL EC T RIC F IEL D S
field vector at any given point must be tangent to the field line at that point and in the same direction, as shown for one vector, and (2) a closer spacing means a larger field magnitude. To imagine the full three-dimensional pattern of field lines around the particles, mentally rotate the pattern in Fig. 22.1.5 around the axis of symmetry, which is a vertical line through both particles. Checkpoint 22.1.1
Electric field lines extend across a lab experiment, from a charged plate on the right to a charged plate on the left. Is the left plate positively charged or negatively charged?
22.2 THE ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A CHARGED PARTICLE Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
22.2.1 In a sketch, draw a charged particle, indicate its
and the distance
→
E at that point, with its tail anchored on
field vector the point.
E, the charge magnitude |q |, r between the point and the
the field magnitude
sign, pick a nearby point, and then draw the electric
particle. 22.2.4 Identify that the equation given here for the
22.2.2 For a given point in the electric field of a
magnitude of an electric field applies only to a
charged particle, identify the direction of the field
particle, not an extended object.
→
E when the particle is positively charged and
vector
22.2.5 If more than one electric field is set up at a
when it is negatively charged.
point, draw each electric field vector and then find
22.2.3 For a given point in the electric field of a
the net electric field by adding the individual electric
charged particle, apply the relationship between
fields as vectors (not as scalars).
Key Ideas ●
ticle with charge
●
→
E set up by a par- q at distance r from the particle is q | 1 |___ E = _____ . 4 πε 0 r 2
The magnitude of the electric field
The electric field vectors set up by a positively
charged particle all point directly away from the
particle. Those set up by a negatively charged particle all point directly toward the particle. ●
If more than one charged particle sets up an electric
field at a point, the net electric field is the vector sum of the individual electric fields—electric fields obey the superposition principle.
The Electric Field Due to a Point Charge
To find the electric field due to a charged particle (often called a point charge), we place a positive test charge q 0 at any point near the particle, at distance r. From Coulomb’s law (Eq. 21.1.4), the force on the test charge due to the particle with charge q is qq 0 1 ____ F = _____ r ̂. 4 πε 0 r 2
→
→
As previously, the direction of F is directly away from the particle if q is positive (because q 0 is positive) and directly toward it if q is negative. From Eq. 22.1.1, we can now write the electric field set up by the particle (at the location of the test charge) as q F _____ 1 __ E = ___ q 0 = 4 πε r 2 r ̂ 0
→
→
(charged particle).
(22.2.1)
/
22.2 T HE EL EC T RIC F IEL D D U E T O A C HARGED P ART IC L E
669
→
Let’s think through the directions again. The direction of E matches that of the force on the positive test charge: directly away from the point charge if q is positive and directly toward it if q is negative. So, if given another charged particle, we can immediately determine the directions of the electric field vectors near it by just looking at the sign of the charge q. We can find the magnitude at any given distance r by converting Eq. 22.2.1 to a magnitude form: |q | 1 ___ E = _____ (22.2.2) (charged particle). 4πε0 r 2 We write |q | to avoid the danger of getting a negative E when q is negative, and then thinking the negative sign has something to do with direction. Equation 22.2.2 g ives magnitude E only. We must think about the direction separately. Figure 22.2.1 gives a number of electric field vectors at points around a positively charged particle, but be careful. Each vector represents the vector quantity at the point where the tail of the arrow is anchored. The vector is not something that stretches from a “here” to a “there” a s with a displacement vector. In general, if several electric fields are set up at a given point by several charged particles, we can find the net field by placing a positive test particle at the point and then writing out the force acting on it due to each particle, such as F 01 due to particle 1. Forces obey the principle of superposition, so we just add the forces as vectors:
+
→
→
→
→
→
F 0 = F 01 + F 02 + · · · + F 0n .
To change over to electric field, we repeatedly use Eq. 22.1.1 for each of the individual forces: →
→
→
→
F 0 ___ F 01 ___ F 02 F 0n ___ E = ___ q = q + q + · · · + q →
0
0
→
→
0
The electric field vec- tors at various points around a posi- tive point charge. Figure 22.2.1
0
→
= E 1 + E 2 + · · · + E n .
(22.2.3)
This tells us that electric fields also obey the principle of superposition. If you want the net electric field at a given point due to several particles, find the electric field due to each particle (such as E 1 due to particle 1) and then sum the fields as vectors. (As with electrostatic forces, you cannot just willy-nilly add up the mag- nitudes.) This addition of fields is the subject of many of the homework problems. →
Checkpoint 22.2.1
The figure here shows a proton p and an electron e on an x axis. What is the direction of the electric field due to the electron at (a) point S x and (b) point R? What is the direction of the net S e R p electric field at (c) point R and (d) point S?
Sample Problem 22.2.1
Net electric field due to three charged particles
Figure 22.2.2a shows three particles with charges q 1 = +2Q, q 2 = −2Q, and q 3 = −4Q, each a distance d from the origin. What net electric field E is produced at the origin? →
KEY IDEA
To find the magnitude of E 1 , which is due to q 1, we use Eq. 22.2.2, substituting d for r and 2Q for q and obtaining Magnitudes and directions:
→
→
Charges q 1, q q 3 produce electric field vectors E 1 , 2, and E 2 , and E 3 , respectively, at the origin, and the net electric field is the vector sum E = E 1 + E 2 + E 3 . To find this sum,
→
we first must find the magnitudes and orientations of the three field vectors.
→
→
→
→
→
2Q 1 ___ E 1 = _____ . 4πε0 d 2
/
670
C HAP T ER 22 EL EC T RIC F IEL D S
of them. Thus, the three electric fields produced at the origin by the three charged particles are oriented as in Fig. 22.2.2b. ( Caution: Note that we have placed the tails of the vectors at the point where the fields are to be evaluated; doing so decreases the chance of error. Error becomes very probable if the tails of the field vectors are placed on the particles creating the fields.)
y
q1
q3
d
d
30 °
30° 30 °
Find the net field at this empty point.
x
d
y
y
→
E3
30° 30°
Field away
E2 E1
(b )
We can now add the fields vectorially just as we added force vectors in Chapter 21. However, here we can use symmetry to simplify the procedure. From Fig. 22.2.2b, we see that electric fields E 1 and E 2 have the same direction. Hence, their vector sum has that direction and has the magnitude Adding the fields:
q2
(a )
E3
Field toward
30 ° 30 °
x
Field toward
2Q _____ 2Q 1 ___ E 1 + E 2 = _____ + 1 ___ 2 4πε0 d 4πε0 d 2 4Q 1 ___ = _____ , 4πε0 d 2
x
E1
(c )
+
E2
(a) Three particles with charges q 1 , q 2 , and q 3 are at the same distance d from the origin. (b) The electric field vectors E 1 , E 2 , and E 3 , at the origin due to the three particles. (c) The electric field vector E 3 and the vector sum E 1 + E 2 at the origin. Figure 22.2.2
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
Similarly, we find the magnitudes of E 2 and E 3 to be 2Q 4Q 1 ___ 1 ___ E 2 = _____ and E 3 = _____ . 2 d 4πε0 4 πε 0 d 2 We next must find the orientations of the three electric field vectors at the origin. Because q 1 is a posi- tive charge, the field vector it produces points directly away from it, and because q 2 and q 3 are both negative, the field vectors they produce point directly toward each
→
→
which happens to equal the magnitude of field E 3 . We must now combine two vectors, E 3 and the vector sum E 1 + E 2 , that have the same magnitude and that are oriented symmetrically about the x axis, as shown in Fig. 22.2.2c. From the symmetry of Fig. 22.2.2c, we realize that the equal y components of our two vectors cancel (one is upward and the other is downward) and the equal x components add (both are rightward). Thus, the net elec- tric field E at the origin is in the positive direction of the x axis and has the magnitude →
→
→
→
E = 2 E 3x = 2 E 3 cos 30° 4Q 6.93Q 1 ___ = (2) _____ (0.866) = _______ . (Answer) 2 4πε0 d 2 4 πε0 d
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
22.3 THE ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A DIPOLE Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
22.3.1 Draw an electric dipole, identifying the charges (sizes and signs), dipole axis, and direction of the electric dipole moment. 22.3.2 Identify the direction of the electric field at any given point along the dipole axis, including between the charges. 22.3.3 Outline how the equation for the electric field
magnitude decreases with increase in distance. That is, identify which drops off faster. 22.3.5 For an electric dipole, apply the relationship
p of the dipole moment, d between the charges, and the
between the magnitude the separation magnitude
q of either of the charges.
22.3.6 For any distant point along a dipole axis, apply
due to an electric dipole is derived from the equa-
the relationship between the electric field magni-
tions for the electric field due to the individual
tude
charged particles that form the dipole.
and either the dipole moment magnitude
22.3.4 For a single charged particle and an electric dipole, compare the rate at which the electric field
E, the distance z from the center of the dipole, p or the product of charge magnitude q and charge separation d .
/
671
22.3 T HE EL EC T RIC F IEL D D U E T O A D IP OL E
Key Ideas ●
qd _____ p 1 ___ E = _____ = 1 ___ , 2 πε0 z 3 2 πε0 z 3
An electric dipole consists of two particles with
q but opposite signs, separated by a small distance d. ● The electric dipole moment p has magnitude qd and charges of equal magnitude
where
→
points from the negative charge to the positive charge. ●
●
The magnitude of the electric field set up by an elec-
z is the distance between the point and the
center of the dipole. Because of the
1/z 3 dependence, the field magnitude
of an electric dipole decreases more rapidly with
tric dipole at a distant point on the dipole axis (which
distance than the field magnitude of either of the indi-
runs through both particles) can be written in terms of
vidual charges forming the dipole, which depends
qd or the magnitude p of the dipole
either the product
1/r 2 .
on
moment:
The Electric Field Due to an Electric Dipole
Figure 22.3.1 shows the pattern of electric field lines for two particles that have the same charge magnitude q but opposite signs, a very common and important arrangement known as an electric dipole . The particles are separated by distance d and lie along the dipole axis, an axis of symmetry a round which you can imagine rotating the pattern in Fig. 22.3.1. Let’s label that axis as a z axis. Here we restrict our interest to the magnitude and direction of the electric field E at an arbitrary point P along the dipole axis, at distance z from the dipole’s midpoint. Figure 22.3.2a shows the electric fields set up at P by each particle. The nearer particle with charge +q sets up field E (+) in the positive direction of the z axis (directly away from the particle). The farther particle with charge −q sets up a smaller field E (−) in the negative direction (directly toward the particle). We want the net field at P, as given by Eq. 22.2.3. H owever, because the field vectors are along the same axis, let’s simply indicate the vector directions with plus and minus signs, as we commonly do with forces along a single axis. Then we can write the magnitude of the net field at P as
+
→
E = E (+) − E (−)
E
–
The pattern of electric field lines around an electric dipole, with an electric field vector E shown at one point (tangent to the field line through that point). Figure 22.3.1
→
q q 1 ____ 1 ____ = _____ − _____ 2 4 πε0 r 2 4 πε r ( + ) 0 ( − ) q q = _____________ − _____________ . 1 2 1 2 _ 4 πε0 (z − 2 d) 4πε0 (z + _ d) 2
(22.3.1)
After a little algebra, we can rewrite this equation as q 1 1 E = _______ _________ − _________ . d 2 d 2 ___ 4πε0 z 2 ( 1 − ___ 1 + ) ( ) 2z 2z
(
)
(22.3.2)
After forming a common denominator and multiplying its terms, we come to q q 2d/ z d E = _______ ___________ = _______ ___________ . 2 2 2 2 2 d d ___ ___ 3 4 πε0 z 1 − 1 − 2 πε z 0 ( ( ( 2z ) ) ( 2z) )
(22.3.3)
We are usually interested in the electrical effect of a dipole only at distances that are large compared with the dimensions of the dipole—that is, at distances such that z ⪢ d. At such large distances, we have d /2z⪡ 1 in Eq. 22.3.3. Thus, in our approximation, we can neglect the d/2z term in the denominator, which leaves us with qd 1 ___ E = _____ . (22.3.4) 2πε0 z 3
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672
C HAP T ER 22 EL EC T RIC F IEL D S
The product qd, which involves the two intrinsic properties q and d of the dipole, is the magnitude p of a vector quantity known as the electric dipole moment p of the dipole. (The unit of p is the coulomb-meter.) Thus, we can write Eq. 22.3.4 a s
z E (+)
→
→
p 1 ___ E = _____ 2 πε0 z 3
P
E (–)
(22.3.5)
(electric dipole).
The direction of p is taken to be from the negative to the positive end of the r(+) dipole, as indicated in Fig. 22.3.2b. We can use the direction of p to specify the orientation of a dipole. z Up here the +q r(–) Equation 22.3.5 shows that, if we measure the electric field of a dipole only f ield dominates. at distant points, we can never find q and d separately; instead, we can find only their product. The field at distant points would be unchanged if, for example, + +q + q were doubled and d simultaneously halved. Although Eq. 22.3.5 holds only p for distant points along the dipole axis, it turns out that E for a dipole varies a s d Dipole 1/r 3 for all distant points, regardless of whether they lie on the dipole axis; here center r is the distance between the point in question and the dipole center. – –q – Inspection of Fig. 22.3.2 a nd of the field lines in Fig. 22.3.1 shows that the Down here the –q direction of E for distant points on the dipole axis is always the direction of f ield dominates. the dipole moment vector p . This is true whether point P in Fig. 22.3.2a is on (a ) (b ) the upper or the lower part of the dipole axis. Inspection of Eq. 22.3.2 shows that if you double the distance of a point from Figure 22.3.2 (a) An electric dipole. a dipole, the electric field at the point drops by a factor of 8. If you double the The electric field vectors E ( +) and distance from a single point charge, however (see Eq. 22.2.2), the electric field E (−) at point P on the dipole axis drops only by a factor of 4. Thus the electric field of a dipole decreases more result from the dipole’s two charges. Point P is at distances r (+) and r (−) rapidly with distance than does the electric field of a single charge. The physi- from the individual charges that cal reason for this rapid decrease in electric field for a dipole is that from dis- make up the dipole. (b) The dipole tant points a dipole looks like two particles that almost—but not quite—coincide. moment p of the dipole points from Thus, because they have charges of equal magnitude but opposite signs, their the negative charge to the positive electric fields at distant points almost—but not quite—cancel each other. →
→
→
→
→
→
→
charge.
Checkpoint 22.3.1
At a distant point on the dipole axis, how does the direction of the field vector E compare with the direction for the dipole moment vector p for a point (a) above the dipole and (b) below the dipole? →
→
Sample Problem 22.3.1
Electric dipole and atmospheric sprites
Sprites (Fig. 22.3.3a) are huge flashes that occur far above a large thunderstorm. They were seen for decades by pilots flying at night, but they were so brief and dim that most pilots figured they were just illusions. Then in the 1990s sprites were captured on video. They are still not well understood but are believed to be produced when especially powerful lightning occurs between the ground and storm clouds, particularly when the lightning transfers a huge amount of negative charge −q from the ground to the base of the clouds (Fig. 22.3.3b). Just after such a transfer, the ground has a complicated distribution of positive charge. However, we can model the electric field due to the charges in the clouds and the ground by assuming a vertical electric dipole that has charge −q at
cloud height h and charge +q at below-ground depth h (Fig. 22.3.3c). If q = 200 C and h = 6.0 km, what is the mag- nitude of the dipole’s electric field at altitude z 1 = 30 km somewhat above the clouds and altitude z 2 = 60 km some- FCP what above the stratosphere?
KEY IDEA We can approximate the magnitude E of an electric dipole’s electric field on the dipole axis with Eq. 22.3.4. Calculations:
We write that equation as q(2h) 1 _____ E = _____ , 2πε0 z 3
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22.4 T HE EL EC T RIC F IEL D D U E T O A L INE OF C HARGE
673
z
–q Cloud ASAN fo ysetruoC
(a)
h
Charge transfer (b )
h
– – – – – – Ground
+q
(c )
(a) Photograph of a sprite. (b) Lightning in which a large amount of negative charge is transferred from ground to cloud base. (c) The cloud–ground system modeled as a vertical electric dipole. Figure 22.3.3
where 2h is the separation between −q and +q in Fig. 22.3.3c. For the electric field at altitude z 1 = 30 km, we find 3
m) 1 (200 C)(2)(6.0 × 10 _____________________ E = _____ 3 3 2 πε0 (30 × 10 m) = 1.6 × 10 3 N / C.
(Answer)
Similarly, for altitude z 2 = 60 km, we find E = 2.0 × 10 2 N/C.
(Answer)
As we discuss in Module 22.6, when the magni- tude of an electric field exceeds a certain critical value
E c, the field can pull electrons out of atoms (ionize the atoms), and then the freed electrons can run into other atoms, causing those atoms to emit light. The value of E c depends on the density of the air in which the elec- tric field exists. At altitude z 2 = 60 km the density of the air is so low that E = 2.0 × 10 2 N/C exceeds E c, and thus light is emitted by the atoms in the air. That light forms sprites. Lower down, just above the clouds at z 1 = 30 km, the density of the air is much higher, E = 1.6 × 10 3 N/C does not exceed E c , and no light is emitted. Hence, sprites occur only far above storm clouds.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
22.4 THE ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A LINE OF CHARGE Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
22.4.1 For a uniform distribution of charge, find the
the line by splitting the distribution up into charge
λ for charge along a line, the surface charge density σ for charge on a surface, and the volume charge density ρ for charge in a
dq and then summing (by integration) dE set up at the point by
linear charge density
volume.
elements
the electric field vectors
→
each element. 22.4.3 Explain how symmetry can be used to simplify
22.4.2 For charge that is distributed uniformly along a
the calculation of the electric field at a point near a
line, find the net electric field at a given point near
line of uniformly distributed charge.
Key Ideas ●
The equation for the electric field set up by a particle
does not apply to an extended object with charge (said to have a continuous charge distribution). ●
To find the electric field of an extended object at a
point, we first consider the electric field set up by a charge element
dq in the object, where the element is
small enough for us to apply the equation for a particle.
Then we sum, via integration, components of the elec- tric fields ●
→
dE from all the charge elements.
Becaus e the indiv idual electric fields
→
dE hav e dif-
ferent magnitudes and point in different directions , we first s ee if s y mmetry allows us to cancel out any of the components of the fields, to s implify the integration.
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C HAP T ER 22 EL EC T RIC F IEL D S
The Electric Field Due to a Line of Charge
Table 22.4.1 Some Measures of
Electric Charge
Name Charge Linear charge density Surface charge density Volume charge density
Symbol
SI Unit
q
C
λ
C/m
σ
C/m 2
ρ
C/m 3
So far we have dealt with only charged particles, a single particle or a simple collection of them. We now turn to a much more challenging situation in which a thin (approximately one-dimensional) object such as a rod or ring is charged with a huge number of particles, more than we could ever even count. In the next module, we consider two-dimensional objects, such as a disk with charge spread over a surface. In the next chapter we tackle three-dimensional objects, such as a sphere with charge spread through a volume. Heads Up. Many students consider this module to be the most difficult in the book for a variety of reasons. There are lots of steps to take, a lot of vector fea- tures to keep track of, and after all that, we set up and then solve an integral. The worst part, however, is that the procedure can be different for different arrange- ments of the charge. Here, as we focus on a particular arrangement (a charged ring), be aware of the general approach, so that you can tackle other arrange- ments in the homework (such as rods and partial circles). Figure 22.4.1 shows a thin ring of radius R with a uniform distribution of positive charge along its circumference. It is made of plastic, which means that the charge is fixed in place. The ring is surrounded by a pattern of electric field lines, but here we restrict our interest to an arbitrary point P on the central axis (the axis through the ring’s center and perpendicular to the plane of the ring), at distance z from the center point. The charge of an extended object is often conveyed in terms of a charge density rather than the total charge. For a line of charge, we use the linear charge density λ (the charge per unit length), with the SI unit of coulomb per meter. Table 22.4.1 shows the other charge densities that we shall be using for charged surfaces and volumes. First Big Problem. So far, we have an equation for the electric field of a particle. (We can combine the field of several particles as we did for the electric dipole to generate a special equation, but we are still basically using Eq. 22.2.2.) Now take a look at the ring in Fig. 22.4.1. That clearly is not a particle and so Eq. 22.2.2 does not apply. So what do we do? The answer is to mentally divide the ring into differential elements of charge that are so small that we can treat them as though they are particles. Then we can apply Eq. 22.2.2. Second Big Problem. We now know to apply Eq. 22.2.2 to each charge ele- ment dq (the front d emphasizes that the charge is very small) and can write an expression for its contribution of electric field dE (the front d emphasizes that the contribution is very small). However, each such contributed field vector at P is in its own direction. How can we add them to get the net field at P? The answer is to split the vectors into components and then separately sum one set of components and then the other set. However, first we check to see if one set simply all cancels out. (Canceling out components saves lots of work.) Third Big Problem. There is a huge number of dq elements in the ring and thus a huge number of dE components to add up, even if we can cancel out one set of components. How can we add up more components than we could even count? The answer is to add them by means of integration. Do It. Let’s do all this (but again, be aware of the general procedure, not just the fine details). We arbitrarily pick the charge element shown in Fig. 22.4.1. Let ds be the arc length of that (or any other) dq element. Then in terms of the linear density λ (the charge per unit length), we have →
→
dq = λ ds.
(22.4.1)
An Element’s Field. This charge element sets up the differential electric field dE at P, at distance r from the element, as shown in Fig. 22.4.1. (Yes, we are →
/
675
22.4 T HE EL EC T RIC F IEL D D U E T O A L INE OF C HARGE
introducing a new symbol that is not given in the problem statement, but soon we shall replace it with “legal symbols.”) Next we rewrite the field equation for a particle (Eq. 22.2.2) in terms of our new symbols dE and dq, but then we replace dq using Eq. 22.4.1. The field magnitude due to the charge e lement is
z dE
θ P
dq _____ 1 ___ λ ds . dE = _____ = 1 ____ 2 4 πε 0 r 4πε0 r 2
(22.4.2)
θ
Notice that the illegal symbol r is the hypotenuse of the right triangle dis- played in Fig. 22.4.1. Thus, we can replace r by rewriting Eq. 22.4.2 a s
λ ds . 1 _________ dE = _____
(22.4.3)
4 πε 0 ( z + R ) 2
z r
2
Because e very c harge element has the same charge and the same distance from point P, Eq. 22.4.3 gives the field magnitude contributed by each of them. Figure 22.4.1 also tells us that each contributed dE leans at angle θ to the cen- tral axis (the z axis) and thus has components perpendicular and parallel to that axis. Canceling Components. Now comes the neat part, where we eliminate one set of those components. In Fig. 22.4.1, consider the charge element on the oppo- site side of the ring. It too contributes the field magnitude dE but the field vector leans at angle θ in the opposite direction from the vector from our first charge element, as indicated in the side view of Fig. 22.4.2. Thus the two perpendicular components cancel. All around the ring, this cancelation occurs for every charge element and its symmetric partner on the opposite side of the ring. So we can neglect all the perpendicular components. Adding Components. We have another big win here. All the remaining components are in the positive direction of the z axis, so we can just add them up as scalars. Thus we can already tell the direction of the net electric field at P: directly away from the ring. From Fig. 22.4.2, we see that the parallel components each have magnitude dE cos θ, but θ is another illegal symbol. We can replace cos θ with legal symbols by again using the right triangle in Fig. 22.4.1 to write →
z = _____________ z cos θ = __ . r ( z 2 + R 2 ) 1/2
(22.4.4)
Multiplying Eq. 22.4.3 by Eq. 22.4.4 gives us the parallel field component from each charge element: zλ 1 _____________ dE cos θ = _____ ds. 4πε0 ( z 2 + R 2 ) 3/2
+ + + + +
+
ds
+
+ + + + + + +
+
R + + + + + + +
+
+ + + + + + +
A ring of uniform posi- tive charge. A differential element of charge occupies a length ds (greatly exaggerated for clarity). This ele- ment sets up an electric field dE at point P. Figure 22.4.1
→
z dE dE
cos θ dE
θ θ
The electric fields set up at P by a charge element and its symmetric partner (on the opposite side of the ring). The components perpendicular to the z axis cancel; the parallel components add. Figure 22.4.2
(22.4.5)
Integrating. Because we must sum a huge number of these components, each small, we set up an integral that moves along the ring, from element to element, from a starting point (call it s = 0) through the full circumference (s = 2πR). Only the quantity s varies as we go through the elements; the other symbols in Eq. 22.4.5 remain the same, so we move them outside the integral. We find 2πR
zλ E = dE cos θ = _________________ 4πε0 ( z 2 + R 2 ) 3/2 0 zλ(2πR) = _______________ . 4 πε 0 ( z 2 + R 2 ) 3/2
ds (22.4.6)
This is a fine answer, but we can also switch to the total charge by using λ = q/(2πR):
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676
C HAP T ER 22 EL EC T RIC F IEL D S
qz E = ______________ 4 πε0 ( z 2 + R 2 ) 3/2
(charged ring).
(22.4.7)
If the charge on the ring is negative, instead of positive as we have assumed, the magnitude of the field at P is still given by Eq. 22.4.7. H owever, the electric field vector then points toward the ring instead of away from it. Let us check Eq. 22.4.7 for a point on the central axis that is so far away that z ⪢ R. For such a point, the expression z 2 + R 2 in Eq. 22.4.7 can be approximated as z 2 , and Eq. 22.4.7 becomes q 1 ___ E = _____ 4 πε 0 z 2
(charged ring at large distance).
(22.4.8)
This is a reasonable result because from a large distance, the ring “looks like” a point charge. If we replace z with r in Eq. 22.4.8, we indeed do have the magni- tude of the electric field due to a point charge, as given by Eq. 22.2.2. Let us next check Eq. 22.4.7 for a point at the center of the ring—that is, for z = 0. At that point, Eq. 22.4.7 tells us that E = 0. This is a reasonable result because if we were to place a test charge at the center of the ring, there would be no net electrostatic force acting on it; the force due to any element of the ring would be canceled by the force due to the element on the opposite side of the ring. By Eq. 22.1.1, if the force at the center of the ring were zero, the elec- tric field there would also have to be zero.
Sample Problem 22.4.1
Electric field of a charged circular rod
Figure 22.4.3a shows a plastic rod with a uniform charge −Q. It is bent in a 120° circular arc of radius r and sym- metrically placed across an x axis with the origin at the center of curvature P of the rod. In terms of Q and r, what is the electric field E due to the rod at point P? →
KEY IDEA Because the rod has a continuous charge distribution, we must find an expression for the electric fields due to differential elements of the rod and then sum those fields via calculus. Consider a differential element having arc length ds and located at an angle θ above the x axis (Figs. 22.4.3b and c). If we let λ represent the linear charge density of the rod, our element ds has a differential charge of magnitude dq = λ ds. (22.4.9) An element:
Our element produces a differential electric field dE at point P, which is a distance r from the element. Treating the element as a point charge, we can rewrite Eq. 22.2.2 to express the magnitude of dE as The element’s field: →
→
dq _____ λ ds . 1 ___ dE = _____ = 1 ____ 4 πε 0 r 2 4 πε0 r 2 →
(22.4.10)
The direction of dE is toward ds because charge dq is negative.
Our element has a symmetrically located (mirror image) element ds′ in the bottom half of the rod. The electric field dE ′ set up at P by ds′ also has the magnitude given by Eq. 22.4.10, but the field vector points toward ds′ as shown in Fig. 22.4.3d. If we resolve the electric field vectors of ds and ds′ into x and y compo- nents as shown in Figs. 22.4.3e and f, we see that their y components cancel (because they have equal magnitudes and are in opposite directions). We also see that their x components have equal magnitudes and are in the same direction. Symmetric partner:
→
Thus, to find the electric field set up by the rod, we need sum (via integration) only the x components of the differential electric fields set up by all the differential ele- ments of the rod. From Fig. 22.4.3f and Eq. 22.4.10, we can write the component dE x set up by ds as Summing:
1 __ λ cos θ ds. dE x = dE cos θ = _____ 4πε0 r 2
(22.4.11)
Equation 22.4.11 has two variables, θ and s. Before we can integrate it, we must eliminate one variable. We do so by replacing ds, using the relation ds = r dθ ,
in which dθ is the angle at P that includes arc length ds (Fig. 22.4.3g). With this replacement, we can integrate Eq. 22.4.11 over the angle made by the rod at P, from θ = −60° to θ = 60°; that will give us the field magnitude at P:
/
677
22.4 T HE EL EC T RIC F IEL D D U E T O A L INE OF C HARGE
This negatively charged rod is obviously not a particle. y
But we can treat this element as a particle. y
Plastic rod of charge –Q
A
Here is the f ield the element creates. y
y
ds
ds
ds
dE
60° P
r
x
60°
x
P
dE
θ
x
P
P
θ θ
x
dE'
Symmetric element ds' (a )
(b )
These y components just cancel, so neglect them.
(d )
(c )
Here is the f ield created by the symmetric element, same size and angle.
These x components add. Our job is to add all such components.
y
y ds
y
ds
dEy
dE
dE
P
θ θ
θ θ
x P
dE'
dEx
x
We use this to relate the element’s arc length to the angle that it subtends.
ds
d
θ
r
x P
dE'
Symmetric element ds'
Symmetric element ds'
(e )
(g)
(f )
Available in WileyPLUS as an animation with voiceover. (a) A plastic rod of charge −Q is a circular section of radius r and central angle 120°; point P is the center of curvature of the rod. (b)–(c) A differential element in the top half of the rod, at an angle θ to the x axis and of arc length ds, sets up a differential electric field dE at P. (d) An ele- ment ds′, symmetric to ds about the x axis, sets up a field dE ′ at P with the same magni- tude. (e)–( f ) The field components. (g) Arc length ds makes an angle dθ about point P. Figure 22.4.3
→
→
E = dE x =
60°
circle. Its arc length is then 2πr/3, and its linear charge density must be
1 __ λ cos θ r d θ _____
−60° 4 60°
πε 0 r
2
λ λ sin θ = ______ cos θ dθ = ______ 4 πε0 r −60° 4πε0 r λ [sin 60° − sin (−60° )] = ______ 4 πε0 r 1.73λ . = ______ 4 πε0 r
charge _____ Q 0.477Q λ = ______ = = _______ . r length 2 πr / 3
[ ]
60° −60°
Substituting this into Eq. 22.4.12 a nd simplifying give us
(If we had reversed the limits on the integration, we would have gotten the same result but with a minus sign. Since the integration gives only the magnitude of E , we would then have discarded the minus sign.) →
To evaluate λ, we note that the full rod subtends an angle of 120° and so is one-third of a full Charge density:
(1.73)(0.477Q) E = _____________ 4πε0 r 2 0.83Q = ______ . 4 πε0 r 2
(22.4.12)
(Answer)
→
The direction of E is toward the rod, along the axis of sym- metry of the charge distribution. We can write E in unit- vector notation as 0.83Q ̂ E = ______ i . 4 πε0 r 2 →
→
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C HAP T ER 22 EL EC T RIC F IEL D S
Problem-Solving Tactics
A Field Guide for Lines of Charge →
Here is a generic guide for finding the electric field E produced at a point P by a line of uniform charge, either circular or straight. The general strategy is to pick out an element dq of the charge, find dE due to that element, and integrate dE over the entire line of charge. →
→
If the line of charge is circular, let ds be the arc length of an element of the distribution. If the line is straight, run an x axis along it and let dx be the length of an element. Mark the element on a sketch.
Step 1.
Relate the charge dq of the element to the length of the element with either dq = λ ds or dq = λ dx. Consider dq and λ to be positive, even if the charge is actually negative. (The sign of the charge is used in the next step.)
Step 2.
→
Express the field dE produced at P by dq with Eq. 22.2.2, replacing q in that equation with either λ ds or λ dx. If the charge on the line is positive, then at P draw a vector dE that points directly away from dq. If the charge is negative, draw the vector pointing directly toward dq.
Step 3.
→
Always look for any symmetry in the situa- tion. If P is on an axis of symmetry of the charge distribution, resolve the field dE produced by dq into components that are perpendicular and parallel to the axis of symmetry. Then consider a second ele- ment dq′ that is located symmetrically to dq about the line of symmetry. A t P draw the vector dE ′ that this symmetrical e lement produces and resolve it into components. One of the components produced by dq is a canceling component; it is canceled by the corre- sponding component produced by dq′ and needs no further attention. The other component produced by dq is an adding component; it adds to the correspond- ing component produced by dq′. Add the adding components of all the elements via integration.
Step 4.
→
→
Here are four general types of uniform charge distributions, with strategies for the integral of step 4. Ring, with point P on (central) axis of symmetry, as in Fig. 22.4.1. In the expression for dE, replace r 2 with z 2 + R 2 , as in Eq. 22.4.3. Express the adding com- ponent of dE in terms of θ . That introduces cos θ , but θ is identical for all elements and thus is not a vari- able. Replace cos θ as in Eq. 22.4.4. Integrate over s, around the circumference of the ring.
Circular arc, with point P at the center of curva- ture, as in Fig. 22.4.4. Express the adding component of dE in terms of θ . That introduces either sin θ or cos θ. Reduce the resulting two variables s and θ to one, θ, by replacing ds with r d θ. Integrate over θ from one end of the arc to the other end. Straight line, with point P on an extension of the line, as in Fig. 22.4.4a. In the expression for dE, re- place r with x. Integrate over x, from end to end of the line of charge. Straight line, with point P at perpendicular dis- tance y from the line of charge, as in Fig. 22.4.4b. In the expression for dE, replace r with an expression involving x and y. If P is on the perpendicular bisector of the line of charge, find an expression for the adding component of dE . That will introduce either sin θ or cos θ . Reduce the resulting two variables x and θ to one, x, by replacing the trigonometric function with an expression (its definition) involving x and y. Inte- grate over x from end to end of the line of charge. If P is not on a line of symmetry, a s in Fig. 22.4.4c, set up an integral to sum the components dE x , and integrate over x to find E x . Also set up an integral to sum the components dE y, and integrate over x again to find E y . Use the components E x and E y in the usual way to find the magnitude E and the orientation of E . →
→
→
One arrangement of the integration limits gives a positive result. The reverse gives the same result with a minus sign; discard the minus sign. If the result is to be stated in terms of the total charge Q of the dis- tribution, replace λ with Q/L, in which L is the length of the distribution.
Step 6.
P
x
(a ) P
Step 5.
→
+ + + + + + + + +
P
y
+ + + + + + + + + (b )
y
x
+ + + + + + + + + (c )
x
(a) Point P is on an extension of the line of charge. (b) P is on a line of symmetry of the line of charge, at perpendicular distance y from that line. (c) Same as (b) except that P is not on a line of symmetry. Figure 22.4.4
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
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679
22.5 T HE EL EC T RIC F IEL D D U E T O A C HARGED D ISK
y
Checkpoint 22.4.1
The figure here shows three nonconducting rods, one circular and two straight. Each has a uniform charge of magnitude Q along its top half and another along its bottom half. For each rod, what is the direction of the net electric field at point P ?
y
–Q
y
+Q P
+Q P
x
+Q
P
x
+Q
(a )
x
–Q
(b )
(c )
22.5 THE ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A CHARGED DISK Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
22.5.1 Sketch a disk with uniform charge and indicate the direction of the electric field at a point on the central axis if the charge is positive and if it is negative.
used to find the equation for the electric field on the central axis of a uniformly charged disk. 22.5.3 For a point on the central axis of a uniformly charged disk, apply the relationship between the
22.5.2 Explain how the equation for the electric field on the central axis of a uniformly charged ring can be
σ
surface charge density , the disk radius
z to that point.
R, and the
distance
Key Idea ●
On the central axis through a uniformly charged disk,
z σ 1 − _________ _ E = ____ √ z 2 + R 2 ) 2 ε0 (
gives the electric field magnitude. Here
z is the dis- R
tance along the axis from the center of the disk, is the radius of the disk, and
σ is the surface charge
density.
The Electric Field Due to a Charged Disk
Now we switch from a line of charge to a surface of charge by examining the elec- tric field of a circular plastic disk, with a radius R and a uniform surface charge density σ (charge per unit area, Table 22.4.1) on its top surface. The disk sets up a pattern of electric field lines around it, but here we restrict our attention to the electric field at an arbitrary point P on the central axis, at distance z from the center of the disk, as indicated in Fig. 22.5.1. We could proceed as in the preceding module but set up a two-dimensional integral to include all of the field contributions from the two-dimensional distribu- tion of charge on the top surface. However, we can save a lot of work with a neat shortcut using our earlier work with the field on the central axis of a thin ring. We superimpose a ring on the disk as shown in Fig. 22.5.1, at an arbitrary radius r ≤ R. The ring is so thin that we can treat the charge on it as a charge element dq. To find its small contribution dE to the electric field at point P, we rewrite Eq. 22.4.7 in terms of the ring’s charge dq and radius r: dq z dE = ________________ . 4πε0 ( z2 + r 2 ) 3/2
dE
P
z
dr
r
R
(22.5.1)
The ring’s field points in the positive direction of the z axis. To find the total field at P, we are going to integrate Eq. 22.5.1 from the center of the disk at r = 0 out to the rim at r = R so that we sum all the dE contributions (by sweeping our arbitrary ring over the entire disk surface). However, that means we want to integrate with respect to a variable radius r of the ring.
A disk of radius R and uniform positive charge. The ring shown has radius r and radial width dr. It sets up a differential electric field dE at point P on its central axis. Figure 22.5.1
→
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680
C HAP T ER 22 EL EC T RIC F IEL D S
We get dr into the expression by substituting for dq in Eq. 22.5.1. Because the ring is so thin, call its thickness dr. Then its surface area dA is the product of its circumference 2πr and thickness dr. So, in terms of the surface charge density σ, we have dq = σ dA = σ (2πr dr).
(22.5.2)
After substituting this into Eq. 22.5.1 a nd simplifying slightly, we can sum all the dE contributions with R
−3/2 σz E = dE = ____ (z 2 + r 2 ) (2r) dr, 4 ε0 0
(22.5.3)
where we have pulled the constants (including z) out of the integral. To solve 3 , and this integral, we cast it in the form ∫ X m dX by setting X = (z 2 + r 2 ), m = − _ 2 dX = (2r) dr. For the recast integral we have m+1
m X ______ X dX = m + 1 ,
and so Eq. 22.5.3 becomes
R
σz (z 2 + r 2 ) −1/2 . E = ____ _____________ _ 4 ε − 1
[
0
2
] 0
(22.5.4)
Taking the limits in Eq. 22.5.4 a nd rearranging, we find z σ 1 − ___________ _________ E = ____ 2 ε0 ( √ z 2 + R 2 )
(charged disk)
(22.5.5)
as the magnitude of the electric field produced by a flat, circular, charged disk at points on its central axis. (In carrying out the integration, we assumed that z ≥ 0.) If we let R → ∞ while keeping z finite, the second term in the parentheses in Eq. 22.5.5 a pproaches zero, and this equation reduces to
σ E = ____ 2 ε0
(infinite sheet).
(22.5.6)
This is the electric field produced by an infinite sheet of uniform charge located on one side of a nonconductor such as plastic. The electric field lines for such a situation are shown in Fig. 22.1.4. We also get Eq. 22.5.6 if we let z → 0 in Eq. 22.5.5 while keeping R finite. This shows that at points very close to the disk, the electric field set up by the disk is the same as if the disk were infinite in extent. Checkpoint 22.5.1
In Fig. 22.5.1, as we sweep the ring outward, what happens to the ring’s contribution of electric field at point P?
22.6 A POINT CHARGE IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
22.6.1 For a charged particle placed in an external electric field (a field due to other charged objects), →
apply the relationship between the electric field
E
q , and the F that acts on the particle, and
at that point, the particle’s charge
field when the particle is positively charged and negatively charged. 22.6.2 Explain Millikan’s procedure of measuring the elementary charge.
→
electrostatic force
identify the relative directions of the force and the
22.6.3 Explain the general mechanism of ink-jet printing.
/
22.6 A P OINT C HARGE IN AN EL EC T RIC F IEL D
681
Key Ideas ●
q is placed in an external E , an electrostatic force F acts on the
If a particle with charge
electric field
→
→
particle:
●
If charge
q is positive, the force vector is in the same q is negative, the
direction as the field vector. If charge
force vector is in the opposite direction (the minus sign →
in the equation reverses the force vector from the field
→
F = qE .
vector).
A Point Charge in an Electric Field
In the preceding four modules we worked at the first of our two tasks: given a charge distribution, to find the electric field it produces in the surrounding space. Here we begin the second task: to determine what happens to a charged particle when it is in an electric field set up by other stationary or slowly moving charges. What happens is that an electrostatic force acts on the particle, as given by →
(22.6.1)
→
F = qE , →
in which q is the charge of the particle (including its sign) and E is the electric field that other charges have produced at the location of the particle. (The field is not the field set up by the particle itself; to distinguish the two fields, the field acting on the particle in Eq. 22.6.1 is often called the external field. A charged particle or object is not affected by its own electric field.) Equation 22.6.1 tells us
The electrostatic force F acting on a charged particle located in an external elec- tric field E has the direction of E if the charge q of the particle is positive and has the opposite direction if q is negative. →
→
→
Oil spray
Measuring the Elementary Charge
Equation 22.6.1 played a role in the measurement of the elementary charge e by American physicist Robert A. Millikan in 1910–1913. Figure 22.6.1 is a represen- tation of his apparatus. When tiny oil drops are sprayed into chamber A, some of them become charged, either positively or negatively, in the process. Consider a drop that drifts downward through the small hole in plate P 1 and into chamber C. Let us assume that this drop has a negative charge q. If switch S in Fig. 22.6.1 is open as shown, battery B has no electrical effect on chamber C. If the switch is closed (the connection between chamber C and the positive terminal of the battery is then complete), the battery causes an excess positive charge on conducting plate P 1 and an excess negative charge on conduct- ing plate P 2 . The charged plates set up a downward-directed electric field E in chamber C. According to Eq. 22.6.1, this field exerts a n electrostatic force on any charged drop that happens to be in the chamber a nd affects its motion. In particu- lar, our negatively charged drop will tend to drift upward. By timing the motion of oil drops with the switch opened and with it closed and thus determining the effect of the charge q, Millikan discovered that the values of q were always given by →
q = ne,
for n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . . ,
(22.6.2)
A Insulating chamber wall
P1 Oil drop
C
Microscope
P2 S
+
B
–
The Millikan oil-drop apparatus for measuring the elemen- tary charge e. When a charged oil drop drifted into chamber C through the hole in plate P 1 , its motion could be controlled by closing and opening switch S and thereby setting up or eliminating an electric field in cham- ber C. The microscope was used to view the drop, to permit timing of its motion. Figure 22.6.1
/
682
C HAP T ER 22 EL EC T RIC F IEL D S
Paper Input signals Def lecting plate E
G
C
Def lecting plate
Ink-jet printer. Drops shot from generator G receive a charge in charging unit C. An input signal from a computer controls the charge and thus the effect of field E on where the drop lands on the paper. Figure 22.6.2
→
in which e turned out to be the fundamental constant we call the elementary charge, 1.60 × 10 −19 C. Millikan’s experiment is convincing proof that charge is quantized, and he earned the 1923 Nobel Prize in physics in part for this work. Modern measurements of the elementary charge rely on a variety of interlocking experiments, all more precise than the pioneering experiment of Millikan. Ink-Jet Printing
The need for high-quality, high-speed printing has caused a search for an alternative to impact printing, such as occurs in an old typewriter. Building up letters by squirting tiny drops of ink at the paper is one such alternative. Figure 22.6.2 shows a negatively charged drop moving between two conducting deflecting plates, between which a uniform, downward-directed electric field E has been set up. The drop is deflected upward according to Eq. 22.6.1 and then strikes the paper at a position that is determined by the magnitudes of E and the charge q of the drop. In practice, E is held constant and the position of the drop is determined by the charge q delivered to the drop in the charging unit, through which the drop must pass before entering the deflecting system. The charging unit, in turn, is activated by electronic signals that encode the material to be printed. →
→
Electrical Breakdown and Sparking
ecruoS ecneicS/sivaD-traH madA
The metal wires are so charged that the electric fields they produce in the surrounding space cause the air there to undergo electrical breakdown. Figure 22.6.3
If the magnitude of an electric field in air exceeds a certain critical value E c, the air undergoes electrical breakdown, a process whereby the field removes e lectrons from the atoms in the air. The air then begins to conduct electric current because the freed electrons are propelled into motion by the field. As they move, they collide with any atoms in their path, causing those atoms to emit light. We can see the paths, commonly called sparks, taken by the freed electrons because of that emitted light. Figure 22.6.3 shows sparks above charged metal wires where the FCP electric fields due to the wires cause electrical breakdown of the air.
Checkpoint 22.6.1
(a) In the figure, what is the direction of the elec- trostatic force on the electron due to the external electric field shown? (b) In which direction will the electron accelerate if it is moving parallel to the y axis before it encounters the external field? (c) If, instead, the electron is initially moving right- ward, will its speed increase, decrease, or remain constant?
y
E
e
x
/
22.7 A D IP OL E IN AN EL EC T RIC F IEL D
Sample Problem 22.6.1
683
Motion of a charged particle in an electric field
Figure 22.6.4 shows the y deflecting plates of an ink- jet printer, with superim- Plate posed coordinate axes. m ,Q An ink drop with a mass E −10 x m of 1.3 × 10 kg and a 0 x = L negative charge of mag- Plate nitude Q = 1.5 × 10 −13 C enters the region between Figure 22.6.4 An ink drop of the plates, initially mov- mass m and charge magnitude ing along the x axis with Q is deflected in the electric speed v x = 18 m/s. The field of an ink-jet printer. length L of each plate is 1.6 cm. The plates are charged and thus produce an elec- tric field at all points between them. Assume that field E is downward directed, is uniform, and has a magnitude of 1.4 × 10 6 N/C. What is the vertical deflection of the drop at the far edge of the plates? (The gravitational force on the drop is small relative to the electrostatic force acting on the drop and can be neglected.)
electrostatic force of magnitude QE acts upward on the charged drop. Thus, as the drop travels parallel to the x axis at constant speed v x, it accelerates upward with some constant acceleration a y. Applying Newton’s second law (F = ma) for components along the y axis, we find that Calculations:
QE F ____ a y = __ m = m .
Let t represent the time required for the drop to pass through the region between the plates. During t the verti- cal and horizontal displacements of the drop are 1 2 y = _ and L = v xt, 2 a y t
→
KEY IDEA The drop is negatively charged and the electric field is directed downward. From Eq. 22.6.1, a constant
(22.6.3)
(22.6.4)
respectively. Eliminating t between these two equations and substituting Eq. 22.6.3 for a y, we find 2 QE L y = ______ 2mv 2 x 2 −13 (1.5 × 10 C)(1.4 × 10 6 N/C)(1.6 × 10 −2 m) = ________________________________________ (2)(1.3 × 10 −10 kg)(18 m/s) 2 = 6.4 × 10 −4 m = 0.64 mm.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
22.7 A DIPOLE IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
22.7.1 On a sketch of an electric dipole in an external
22.7.3 For an electric dipole in an external electric field,
electric field, indicate the direction of the field, the
relate the potential energy of the dipole to the work
direction of the dipole moment, the direction of the
done by a torque as the dipole rotates in the electric
electrostatic forces on the two ends of the dipole, and the direction in which those forces tend to
field. 22.7.4 For an electric dipole in an external electric field,
rotate the dipole, and identify the value of the net
calculate the potential energy by taking a dot product
force on the dipole.
of the dipole moment vector and the electric field
22.7.2 Calculate the torque on an electric dipole in an external electric field by evaluating a cross product of the dipole moment vector and the electric field
vector, in magnitude-angle notation and unit-vector notation. 22.7.5 For an electric dipole in an external electric field,
vector, in magnitude-angle notation and unit-vector
identify the angles for the minimum and maximum
notation.
potential energies and the angles for the minimum and maximum torque magnitudes.
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684
C HAP T ER 22 EL EC T RIC F IEL D S
Key Ideas ●
p E is given by a →
The torque on an electric dipole of dipole moment
●
→
when placed in an external electric field
If the dipole orientation changes, the work done by
the electric field is
cross product:
W = −ΔU.
τ = p × E . →
→
●
A potential energy
→
If the change in orientation is due to an external agent,
U is associated with the orienta-
W a = −W.
the work done by the agent is
tion of the dipole moment in the field, as given by a dot product:
→
U = − p ⋅ E . →
A Dipole in an Electric Field
We have defined the electric dipole moment p of an electric dipole to be a vector that points from the negative to the positive end of the dipole. As you will see, the behavior of a dipole in a uniform external electric field E can be described completely in terms of the two vectors E and p , with no need of any details about the dipole’s structure. A molecule of water (H 2O) is an electric dipole; Fig. 22.7.1 shows why. There the black dots represent the oxygen nucleus (having eight protons) and the two hydrogen nuclei (having one proton each). The colored enclosed areas represent the regions in which electrons can be located around the nuclei. In a water molecule, the two hydrogen atoms and the oxygen atom do not lie on a straight line but form an angle of about 105°, as shown in Fig. 22.7.1. A s a result, the molecule has a definite “oxygen side” and “hydrogen side.” More- over, the 10 electrons of the molecule tend to remain closer to the oxygen nucleus than to the hydrogen nuclei. This makes the oxygen side of the molecule slightly more negative than the hydrogen side and creates an electric dipole moment p that points along the symmetry axis of the molecule as shown. If the water mol- ecule is placed in an external electric field, it behaves as would be expected of the more abstract electric dipole of Fig. 22.3.2. To examine this behavior, we now consider such an abstract dipole in a uniform external electric field E , as shown in Fig. 22.7.2a. We assume that the dipole is a rigid structure that consists of two centers of opposite charge, each of magnitude q, sepa- rated by a distance d. The dipole moment p makes an angle θ with field E . Electrostatic forces act on the charged ends of the dipole. Because the electric field is uniform, those forces act in opposite directions (as shown in Fig. 22.7.2a) and with the same magnitude F = qE. Thus, because the field is uniform, the net force on the dipole from the field is zero and the center of mass of the dipole does not move. However, the forces on the charged ends do produce a net torque τ on the dipole about its center of mass. The center of mass lies on the line connect- ing the charged ends, at some distance x from one end and thus a distance d − x from the other end. From Eq. 10.6.1 (τ = rF sin ϕ), we can write the magnitude of the net torque τ as →
→
→
Positive side Hydrogen
Hydrogen p
→
→
105° Oxygen
→
Negative side
A molecule of H 2 O, showing the three nuclei (repre- sented by dots) and the regions in which the electrons can be located. The electric dipole moment p points from the (negative) oxygen side to the (positive) hydrogen side of the molecule. Figure 22.7.1
→
→
→
→
→
τ = Fx sin θ + F(d − x) sin θ = Fd sin θ. (22.7.1) We can also write the magnitude of τ in terms of the magnitudes of the elec- →
tric field E and the dipole moment p = qd. To do so, we substitute qE for F and p/q for d in Eq. 22.7.1, finding that the magnitude of τ is →
τ = pE sin θ .
(22.7.2)
We can generalize this equation to vector form as
τ
→
→
= p × E →
(22.7.3)
(torque on a dipole).
→
Vectors p and E are shown in Fig. 22.7.2b. The torque acting on a dipole tends to rotate p (hence the dipole) into the direction of field E , thereby reducing θ. →
→
→
/
685
22.7 A D IP OL E IN AN EL EC T RIC F IEL D
In Fig. 22.7.2, such rotation is clockwise. As we discussed in Chapter 10, we can represent a torque that gives rise to a clockwise rotation by including a minus sign with the magnitude of the torque. With that notation, the torque of Fig. 22.7.2 is
τ = −pE sin θ .
p
(22.7.4)
Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole
+q
d
F
θ
com
E
–q
Potential energy can be associated with the orientation of an electric dipole in –F an electric field. The dipole has its least potential energy when it is in its equi- librium orientation, which is when its moment p is lined up with the field E (a) (then τ = p × E = 0). It has greater potential energy in all other orientations. The dipole is being Thus the dipole is like a pendulum, which has its least gravitational potential torqued into alignment. energy in its equilibrium orientation—at its lowest point. To rotate the dipole or the pendulum to any other orientation requires work by some external agent. p θ E In any situation involving potential energy, we are free to define the zero- τ potential-energy configuration in an arbitrary way because only differences in (b ) potential energy have physical meaning. The expression for the potential energy of Figure 22.7.2 (a) An electric dipole in an electric dipole in an external electric field is simplest if we choose the potential a uniform external electric field E . energy to be zero when the angle θ in Fig. 22.7.2 is 90°. We then can find the poten- Two centers of equal but opposite tial energy U of the dipole at any other value of θ with Eq. 8.1.1 (ΔU = −W ) by charge are separated by distance d. calculating the work W done by the field on the dipole when the dipole is rotated to The line between them represents that value of θ from 90°. With the aid of Eq. 10.8.5 (W = ∫ τ d θ) and Eq. 22.7.4, we their rigid connection. (b) Field E causes a torque τ on the dipole. The find that the potential energy U at any angle θ is →
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
direction of τ is into the page, as represented by the symbol ⊗. →
U = −W = − Evaluating the integral leads to
θ
τ d θ =
90°
θ
90°
pE sin θ dθ .
U = −pE cos θ.
(22.7.5) (22.7.6)
We can generalize this equation to vector form as →
U = − p ⋅ E →
(potential energy of a dipole).
(22.7.7)
Equations 22.7.6 and 22.7.7 show us that the potential energy of the dipole is least (U = −pE) when θ = 0 ( p and E are in the same direction); the potential energy is greatest (U = pE) when θ = 180° ( p and E are in opposite directions). When a dipole rotates from an initial orientation θi to another orientation θf , the work W done on the dipole by the electric field is →
→
→
→
W = −ΔU = −(U f − U i ),
(22.7.8)
where U f and U i are calculated with Eq. 22.7.7. If the change in orientation is caused by an applied torque (commonly said to be due to an external agent), then the work W a done on the dipole by the applied torque is the negative of the work done on the dipole by the field; that is, W a = −W = (U f − U i).
(22.7.9)
Microwave Cooking
In liquid water, where molecules are relatively free to move around, the elec- tric field produced by each molecular dipole affects the surrounding dipoles. As a result, the molecules bond together in groups of two or three, because the negative (oxygen) end of one dipole and a positive (hydrogen) end of another dipole attract each other. Each time a group forms, electric potential energy is transferred to the random thermal motion of the group and the surrounding molecules. And each time collisions among the molecules break up a group, the transfer is reversed. The temperature of the water (which is associated with the average thermal motion) does not change because, on the average, the net trans- fer of energy is zero.
/
686
C HAP T ER 22 EL EC T RIC F IEL D S
Bond broken by rotation
Rotation due to torque
A group of three water molecules. A torque due to an oscil- lating electric field in a microwave oven breaks one of the bonds between the molecules and thus breaks up the group. Figure 22.7.3
Sample Problem 22.7.1
In a microwave oven, the story differs. When the oven is operated, the micro- waves produce (in the oven) an electric field that rapidly oscillates back and forth in direction. If there is water in the oven, the oscillating field exerts oscillating torques on the water m olecules, continually rotating them back and forth to align their dipole moments with the field direction. Molecules that are bonded as a pair can twist around their common bond to stay aligned, but molecules that are bonded in a group of three must break at least one of their two bonds (Fig. 22.7.3). The energy to break these bonds comes from the electric field, that is, from the microwaves. Then molecules that have broken away from groups can form new groups, transferring the energy they just gained into thermal energy. Thus, thermal energy is added to the water when the groups form but is not removed when the groups break apart, and the temperature of the water increases. Foods that contain water can be cooked in a microwave oven because of the heating of that water. If water molecules were not electric dipoles, this would not be so and FCP microwave ovens would be useless. Checkpoint 22.7.1
(1) +
The figure shows four orientations of an electric dipole in an external electric field. Rank the orientations according to (a) the magnitude of the torque on the dipole and (b) the potential energy (3) + of the dipole, greatest first.
+ (2)
θ θ
θ θ
E
+ (4)
Torque and energy of an electric dipole in an electric field
A neutral water molecule (H 2O) in its vapor state has an electric dipole moment of magnitude 6.2 × 10 −30 C · m. (a) How far apart are the molecule’s centers of positive and negative charge?
KEY IDEA The torque on a dipole is maximum when the angle θ between p and E is 90°. →
Calculation:
KEY IDEA A molecule’s dipole moment depends on the magnitude q of the molecule’s positive or negative charge and the charge separation d. There are 10 electrons and 10 protons in a neutral water molecule; so the magnitude of its dipole moment is p = qd = (10e)(d ), in which d is the separation we are seeking and e is the elementary charge. Thus, Calculations:
p 6.2 × 10 −30 C ⋅ m d = ____ = __________________ 10e (10)(1.60 × 10 −19 C) = 3.9 × 10 −12 m = 3.9 pm.
(Answer)
This distance is not only small, but it is also actually smaller than the radius of a hydrogen atom. (b) If the molecule is placed in an electric field of 1.5 × 10 4 N/C, what maximum torque can the field exert on it? (Such a field can easily be set up in the laboratory.)
→
Substituting θ = 90° in Eq. 22.7.2 y ields
τ = pE sin θ
= (6.2 × 10 −30 C ⋅ m)(1.5 × 10 4 N/C)(sin 90°) = 9.3 × 10 −26 N ⋅ m.
(Answer)
(c) How much work must an external agent do to rotate this molecule by 180° in this field, starting from its fully aligned position, for which θ = 0?
KEY IDEA The work done by an external agent (by means of a torque applied to the molecule) is equal to the change in the molecule’s potential energy due to the change in orientation. Calculation:
From Eq. 22.7.9, we find
W a = U 180° − U 0 = (−pE cos 180° ) − (−pE cos 0) = 2pE = (2)(6.2 × 10 −30 C ⋅ m)(1.5 × 10 4 N/C) = 1.9 × 10 −25 J.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
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687
QU EST IONS
Review & Summary To explain the electrostatic force between two charges, we assume that each charge sets up an electric field in the space around it. The force acting on each charge is then due to the electric field set up at its location by the other charge. Electric Field
The electric field E at any point is defined in terms of the electrostatic force F that would be exerted on a positive test charge q 0 placed there: →
Definition of Electric Field
→
→
F E = ___ q .
→
(22.1.1)
0
Electric field lines provide a means for visualizing the direction and magnitude of electric fields. The electric field vector at any point is tangent to a field line through that point. The density of field lines in any region is proportional to the magnitude of the electric field in that region. Field lines originate on positive charges and terminate on negative charges.
The electric field due to a continuous charge distribution is found by treating charge elements as point charges and then summing, via integration, the electric field vectors produced by all the charge elements to find the net vector. Field Due to a Continuous Charge Distribution
The electric field magni- tude at a point on the central axis through a uniformly charged disk is given by Field Due to a Charged Disk
z σ 1 − _________ _ E = ____ , 2 ( √ 2 ε0 z + R 2 )
Electric Field Lines
The magnitude of the elec- tric field E set up by a point charge q at a distance r from the charge is Field Due to a Point Charge
(22.5.5)
where z is the distance along the axis from the center of the disk, R is the radius of the disk, and σ is the surface charge density. When a point charge q is placed in an external electric field E , the elec- trostatic force F that acts on the point charge is Force on a Point Charge in an Electric Field
→
→
→
|q| 1 ___ E = _____ . 4πε0 r 2
(22.2.2)
→
(22.6.1)
→
F = qE .
→
→
Force F has the same direction as E if q is positive and the opposite direction if q is negative.
→
The direction of E is away from the point charge if the charge is positive and toward it if the charge is negative. An electric dipole con- sists of two particles with charges of equal magnitude q but opposite sign, separated by a small distance d. Their elec- tric dipole moment p has magnitude qd and points from the negative charge to the positive charge. The magnitude of the electric field set up by the dipole at a distant point on the dipole axis (which runs through both charges) is p 1 _____ E = _____ , (22.3.5) 2πε0 z 3 where z is the distance between the point and the center of the dipole. Field Due to an Electric Dipole
→
When an electric dipole of dipole moment p is placed in an electric field E , the field exerts a torque τ on the dipole: Dipole in an Electric Field
→
→
→
τ = p × E .
→
(22.7.3)
→
→
The dipole has a potential energy U associated with its orienta- tion in the field: (22.7.7)
U = − p ⋅ E . →
→
This potential energy is defined to be zero when p is perpen- dicular to E ; it is least (U = −pE) when p is aligned with E and greatest (U = pE) when p is directed opposite E . →
→
→
→
→
→
Questions Figure 22.1 shows three arrangements of electric field lines. In each arrangement, a proton is released from rest at point A and is then accelerated through point B by the electric field. Points A and B have equal separations in the three arrange- ments. Rank the arrangements according to the linear momen- tum of the proton at point B, greatest first. 1
A
B
(a )
A
B
(b ) Figure 22.1
Question 1.
A
B
(c )
Figure 22.2 shows +6 q two square arrays of charged particles. The squares, which are cen- tered on point P, are misaligned. The par- ticles are separated by –2 q either d or d/2 along the perimeters of the squares. What are the magnitude and direction of the net electric field +3 q at P?
–2q
2
In Fig. 22.3, two par- ticles of charge −q are 3
+2 q
–3q –q
+3 q
P
–q –3q
+2 q
–2q Figure 22.2
–q
+6 q
Question 2.
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688
C HAP T ER 22 EL EC T RIC F IEL D S
arranged symmetrically about the y y axis; each produces an electric P field at point P on that axis. (a) Are the magnitudes of the fields –q –q at P equal? (b) Is each electric x field directed toward or away d d from the charge producing it? (c) Is the magnitude of the net elec- Figure 22.3 Question 3. tric field at P equal to the sum of the magnitudes E of the two field vectors (is it equal to 2E )? (d) Do the x components of those two field vectors add or cancel? (e) Do their y components add or cancel? (f) Is the direction of the net field at P that of the canceling components or the adding components? (g) What is the direction of the net field? Figure 22.4 shows four situations in which four charged particles are evenly spaced to the left and right of a central point. The charge values are indicated. Rank the situations according to the magnitude of the net electric field at the central point, greatest first. 4
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
+e
–e
–e
+e
+e
+e
–e
–e
–e
+e
+e
+e
–e
–e d
+e d
d
–e d
Figure 22.4 Question 4. Figure 22.5 shows two charged particles fixed in place on an axis. (a) +q –3 q Where on the axis (other than at an infinite distance) is there a Figure 22.5 Question 5. point at which their net electric field is zero: between the charges, to their left, or to their right? (b) Is there a point of zero net electric field anywhere off the axis (other than at an infinite distance)?
5
In Fig. 22.6, two identical circular nonconducting rings are P1 P2 P3 centered on the same line with their planes perpendicular to the Ring A Ring B line. Each ring has charge that Figure 22.6 Question 6. is uniformly distributed along its circumference. The rings each produce electric fields at points along the line. For three situations, the charges on rings A and B are, respectively, (1) q 0 and q 0 , (2) −q 0 and −q 0 , and (3) −q 0 and q 0 . Rank the situations according to the magnitude of the net electric field at (a) point P 1 midway between the rings, (b) point P 2 at the center of ring B, and (c) point P 3 to the right of ring B, greatest first. 6
The potential energies associated with four orientations of an electric dipole in an electric field are (1) −5U 0 , (2) −7U 0 , (3) 3U 0 , and (4) 5U 0 , where U 0 is positive. Rank the orientations accord- ing to (a) the angle between the electric dipole moment p and the electric field E and (b) the magnitude of the torque on the electric dipole, greatest first.
Figure 22.7 shows two disks and a flat ring, each with the same uniform charge Q. Rank the objects according to the mag- nitude of the electric field they create at points P (which are at the same vertical heights), greatest first. 9
P
P
P
2R
R
(a )
R
(b)
2R
(c )
Figure 22.7
Question 9.
In Fig. 22.8, an electron e travels through a small hole in plate A and then toward plate B. A uniform electric field in e +q 2 the region between the plates then slows the electron without +q 1 –q3 deflecting it. (a) What is the n direction of the field? (b) Four A B other particles similarly travel Figure 22.8 Question 10. through small holes in either plate A or plate B and then into the region between the plates. Three have charges +q 1 , +q 2 , and −q 3 . The fourth (labeled n) is a neutron, which is electrically neutral. Does the speed of each of those four other particles increase, decrease, or remain the same in the region between the plates? 10
In Fig. 22.9a, a circular plastic rod with uniform charge +Q produces an electric field of magnitude E at the center of curva- ture (at the origin). In Figs. 22.9b, c, and d, more circular rods, each with identical uniform charges +Q, are added until the cir- cle is complete. A fifth arrangement (which would be labeled e) is like that in d except the rod in the fourth quadrant has charge −Q. Rank the five arrangements according to the magnitude of the electric field at the center of curvature, greatest first. 11
y
y
x
(a )
x
(b ) y
y
7
x
x
→
→
(a) In Checkpoint 22.7.1, if the dipole rotates from ori- entation 1 to orientation 2, is the work done on the dipole by the field positive, negative, or zero? (b) If, instead, the dipole rotates from orientation 1 to orientation 4, is the work done by the field more than, less than, or the same as in (a)?
(c )
8
(d ) Figure 22.9
Question 11.
When three electric dipoles are near each other, they each experience the electric field of the other two, and the 12
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three-dipole system has a certain potential energy. Figure 22.10 shows two arrangements in which three electric dipoles are side by side. (a ) (b ) Each dipole has the same magnitude of electric dipole moment, and the Figure 22.10 Question 12. spacings between adjacent dipoles are identical. In which arrangement is the potential energy of the three-dipole system greater?
(of length L/2) are straight, and points P are aligned with their midpoints. Rod c (of length L/2) forms a complete circle about point P. Rank the rods according to the magnitude of the elec- tric field they create at points P, greatest first. Figure 22.12 shows five protons that are launched in a uni- form electric field E ; the magnitude and direction of the launch velocities are indicated. Rank the protons according to the mag- nitude of their accelerations due to the field, greatest first. 14
→
Figure 22.11 shows three rods, each with the same charge Q spread uniformly along its length. Rods a (of length L) and b 13
P
P
P
L
L
(a)
/2
(b )
Figure 22.11
E
Question 13.
/2
L
3 m/s
5 m/s
b
d
e
c
a
10 m/s
(c )
7 m/s
16 m/s Figure 22.12
Question 14.
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 22.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard
BIO Flying Circus of Physics
The Electric Field
Sketch qualitatively the electric field lines both between and outside two concentric conducting spherical shells when a uniform positive charge q 1 is on the inner shell and a uniform negative charge −q 2 is on the outer. Consider the cases q 1 > q 2 , q 1 = q 2 , and q 1 0 is E net,x maximum? (b) If particle 2 has charge −q 2 = −3e, what is the value of that maximum?
10
y
–q 2 x
)C/N 8 – 01( x,t enE
+q 1
2 0
0
xs
–4 x (cm) (b )
(a ) Figure 22.17
In Fig. 22.21, the three particles are fixed in place and have charges q 1 = q 2 = +e and q 3 = +2e. Distance a = 6.00 μ m. What are the (a) magni- tude and (b) direction of the net elec- tric field at point P due to the particles?
Problem 10.
SSM Two charged particles are fixed to an x axis: Particle 1 of charge q 1 = 2.1 × 10 −8 C is at position x = 20 cm and particle 2 of charge q 2 = −4.00q 1 is at position x = 70 cm. At what coor- dinate on the axis (other than at infinity) is the net electric field produced by the two particles equal to zero?
11 M
GO Figure 22.18 shows M y an uneven arrangement of elec- p trons (e) and protons (p) on a e circular arc of radius r = 2.00 cm, with angles θ1 = 30.0°, θ2 = 50.0°, θ2 p θ3 = 30.0°, and θ4 = 20.0°. What p θ3 θ1 e θ4 are the (a) magnitude and (b) x direction (relative to the positive direction of the x axis) of the net Figure 22.18 Problem 12. electric field produced at the cen- ter of the arc? 12
y
1
15 M
a
P
2 3
x
a
Figure 22.21
Figure 22.22 shows a plas- Problem 15. tic ring of radius R = 50.0 cm. Two small charged beads are on the ring: Bead 1 of charge +2.00 μC y is fixed in place at the left side; Ring bead 2 of charge +6.00 μC can Bead 2 be moved along the ring. The R θ two beads produce a net electric x field of magnitude E at the center Bead 1 of the ring. At what (a) positive and (b) negative value of angle θ should bead 2 be positioned such that E = 2.00 × 10 5 N/C? Figure 22.22 Problem 16. 16
–2
L
zero? (b) Sketch the net electric field lines between and around the particles.
H
Two charged beads are on the plastic ring in Fig. 22.23a. Bead 2, which is not shown, is fixed in place on the ring, which has radius R = 60.0 cm. Bead 1, which is not fixed in place, is initially on the x axis at angle θ = 0°. It is then moved to the opposite side, at angle θ = 180°, through the first and second quadrants of the xy coordinate system. Figure 22.23b gives the x component of the net electric field produced at the origin by the two beads as a function of θ, and Fig. 22.23c gives the y component of that net electric field. The vertical axis scales are set by E xs = 5.0 × 10 4 N/C and E ys = −9.0 × 10 4 N/C. (a) At what angle θ is bead 2 located? What are the charges of (b) bead 1 and (c) bead 2? 17 H
y
Ring Figure 22.19 shows z Bead 1 a proton (p) on the central axis R p through a disk with a uniform θ x charge density due to excess electrons. The disk is seen from e e an edge-on view. Three of those e (a) electrons are shown: electron e c R R 90° 180 ° at the disk center and electrons E 0 θ Figure 22.19 Problem 13. e s at opposite sides of the disk, at radius R from the center. The proton is initially at distance z = R = 2.00 cm from the disk. At 0 θ that location, what are the magnitudes of (a) the electric field E c 90° 180 ° due to electron e c and (b) the net electric field E s,net due to elec- trons e s ? The proton is then moved to z = R/10.0. What then are (c ) E the magnitudes of (c) E c and (d) E s,net at the proton’s location? (b ) –E (e) From (a) and (c) we see that as the proton gets nearer to the Figure 22.23 Problem 17. disk, the magnitude of E c increases, as expected. Why does the Module 22.3 The Electric Field Due to a Dipole magnitude of E s,net from the two side electrons decrease, as we see from (b) and (d)? 18 M The electric field of an electric dipole along the dipole axis y is approximated by Eqs. 22.3.4 and 22.3.5. If a binomial expan- 14 M In Fig. 22.20, particle 1 of sion is made of Eq. 22.3.3, what is the next term in the expres- charge q 1 = −5.00q and particle 2 of sion for the dipole’s electric field along the dipole axis? That is, charge q 2 = +2.00q are fixed to an x what is E next in the expression q1 q2 x axis. (a) As a multiple of distance L qd 1 _____ L, at what coordinate on the axis is E = _____ + E next ? Figure 22.20 Problem 14. 2πε 0 z 3 the net electric field of the particles 13
M
GO
s
c
s
xs
)C/N 4 01( yE
→
)C/N 4 01( xE
→
→
→
xs
ys
→
→
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691
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M Figure 22.24 shows an electric dipole. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction (relative to the positive direction of the x axis) of the dipole’s electric field at point P, located at distance r ⪢ d?
19
+
+q
/2
d
y
x
r P
/2
d
–q
– Figure 22.24
Problem 19.
M Equations 22.3.4 and 22.3.5 are approximations of the magnitude of the electric field of an electric dipole, at points along the dipole axis. Consider a point P on that axis at distance z = 5.00d from the dipole center (d is the separa- tion distance between the particles of the dipole). Let E appr be the magnitude of the field at point P as approximated by Eqs. 22.3.4 and 22.3.5. Let E act be the actual magnitude. What is the ratio E appr /E act ?
20
z H SSM Electric quadrupole. Figure 22.25 shows a generic d d electric quadrupole. It consists of – – – + two dipoles with dipole moments + P –q –q +q that are equal in magnitude but +q opposite in direction. Show that the value of E on the axis of the –p +p quadrupole for a point P a dis- Figure 22.25 Problem 21. tance z from its center (assume z ⪢ d ) is given by
21
3Q E = _________ , 4πε0 z 4
The Electric Field Due to a Line of Charge
E Density, density, density. (a) A charge −300e is uniformly distributed along a circular arc of radius 4.00 cm, which subtends an angle of 40°. What is the linear charge density along the arc? (b) A charge −300e is uniformly distributed over one face of a circular disk of radius 2.00 cm. What is the surface charge den- sity over that face? (c) A charge −300e is uniformly distributed over the surface of a sphere of radius 2.00 cm. What is the sur- face charge density over that surface? (d) A charge −300e is uni- formly spread through the volume of a sphere of radius 2.00 cm. What is the volume charge density in that sphere?
22
E Figure 22.26 shows two par- allel nonconducting rings with their central axes along a common line. Ring 1 has uniform charge q 1 and radius R; ring 2 has uniform charge q 2 and the same radius R. The rings are separated by dis- tance d = 3.00R. The net electric
23
z CALC A thin nonconduct- ing rod with a uniform distribu- tion of positive charge Q is bent into a complete circle of radius R (Fig. 22.27). The central per- pendicular axis through the ring is a z axis, with the origin at the R center of the ring. What is the magnitude of the electric field Figure 22.27 Problem 24. due to the rod at (a) z = 0 and (b) z = ∞? (c) In terms of R, at what positive value of z is that magnitude maximum? (d) If R = 2.00 cm and Q = 4.00 μ C, what is the maximum magnitude?
24 M
M Figure 22.28 shows three y circular arcs centered on the 3R +9 Q origin of a coordinate system. –4Q 2R On each arc, the uniformly +Q distributed charge is given in R terms of Q = 2.00 μC. The radii x are given in terms of R = 10.0 cm. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction (relative to the pos- Figure 22.28 Problem 25. itive x direction) of the net elec- tric field at the origin due to the arcs?
25
GO In Fig. 22.29, a thin glass rod forms a semicircle of radius r = 5.00 cm. Charge is uniformly distributed along the rod, with +q = 4.50 pC in the upper half and −q = −4.50 pC in the lower half. What are the (a) magni- tude and (b) direction (relative to the positive direction of the x axis) of the electric field E at P, the center of the semicircle? 26 M
y
+q x
r
Ring 1
q1
Ring 2
q2
P R
R
GO In Fig. 22.30, two curved M plastic rods, one of charge +q and the other of charge −q, form a circle of radius R = 8.50 cm in an xy plane. The x axis passes through both of the connecting points, and the charge is distributed uniformly on both rods. If q = 15.0 pC, what are the (a) magni- tude and (b) direction (relative to the positive direction of the x axis) of the electric field E produced at P, the cen- ter of the circle?
Figure 22.29
Problem 26.
27
→
P
–q
→
in which Q (= 2qd 2 ) is known as the quadrupole moment of the charge distribution. Module 22.4
field at point P on the common line, at distance R from ring 1, is zero. What is the ratio q 1 /q 2 ?
y
+q
P
x
–q Figure 22.30
Problem 27.
M CALC Charge is uniformly distributed around a ring of radius R = 2.40 cm, and the resulting electric field magnitude E is measured along the ring’s central axis (perpendicular to the plane of the ring). At what distance from the ring’s center is E maximum?
28
GO Figure 22.31a shows a nonconducting rod with a uni- formly distributed charge +Q. The rod forms a half-circle with radius R and produces an electric field of magnitude E arc at its center of curvature P. If the arc is collapsed to a point at distance 29 M
R d
Figure 22.26
Problem 23.
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692
C HAP T ER 22 EL EC T RIC F IEL D S
R from P (Fig. 22.31b), by what factor is the magnitude of the electric field at P multiplied?
+Q
+Q
P
P
R
R
(a )
(b ) Figure 22.31
Problem 29.
GO Figure 22.32 shows M z two concentric rings, of radii P R and R′ = 3.00R, that lie on the same plane. Point P lies on D the central z axis, at distance D = 2.00R from the center of the rings. The smaller ring has R uniformly distributed charge R' +Q. In terms of Q, what is the uniformly distributed charge on the larger ring if the net electric field at P is zero? Figure 22.32 Problem 30. 31 M CALC SSM In Fig. 22.33, a nonconducting rod of –q length L = 8.15 cm has a charge P – x −q = −4.23 fC uniformly dis- a L tributed along its length. (a) What is the linear charge den- Figure 22.33 Problem 31. sity of the rod? What are the (b) magnitude and (c) direction (relative to the positive direction of the x axis) of the electric field produced at point P, at distance a = 12.0 cm from the rod? What is the electric field magnitude produced at distance a = 50 m by (d) the rod and (e) a particle of charge −q = −4.23 fC that we use to replace the rod? (At that distance, the rod “looks” like a particle.) 32 H CALC GO In Fig. 22.34, pos- y itive charge q = 7.81 pC is spread P uniformly along a thin noncon- ducting rod of length L = 14.5 cm. R What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction (relative to the posi- tive direction of the x axis) of the + + + + + + + + + x electric field produced at point L P, at distance R = 6.00 cm from the rod along its perpendicular Figure 22.34 Problem 32. bisector? 33 H CALC GO In Fig. 22.35, + + + + a “semi-infinite” nonconduct- ing rod (that is, infinite in one direction only) has uniform lin- ear charge density λ . Show that R the electric field E p at point P P makes an angle of 45° with the rod and that this result is inde- Figure 22.35 Problem 33. pendent of the distance R. (Hint: Separately find the component of E p parallel to the rod and the component perpendicular to the rod.) 30
–
–
→
–
→
Module 22.5
The Electric Field Due to a Charged Disk
A disk of radius 2.5 cm has a surface charge density of 5.3 μC/m 2 on its upper face. What is the magnitude of the electric field produced by the disk at a point on its central axis at distance z = 12 cm from the disk? 34
E
E SSM At what distance along the central perpendicular axis of a uniformly charged plastic disk of radius 0.600 m is the magnitude of the electric field equal to one-half the magnitude of the field at the center of the surface of the disk? 36 M A circular plastic disk with radius R = 2.00 cm has a uni- formly distributed charge Q = +(2.00 × 10 6 )e on one face. A cir- cular ring of width 30 μm is centered on that face, with the center of that width at radius r = 0.50 cm. In coulombs, what charge is contained within the width of the ring?
35
M Suppose you design an z z apparatus in which a uniformly P P charged disk of radius R is to produce an electric field. The field magnitude is most impor- tant along the central perpendic- ular axis of the disk, at a point P at distance 2.00R from the disk (Fig. 22.36a). Cost analysis sug- gests that you switch to a ring (a ) (b ) of the same outer radius R but Figure 22.36 Problem 37. with inner radius R / 2.00 (Fig. 22.36b). Assume that the ring will have the same surface charge density as the original disk. If you switch to the ring, by what percentage will you decrease the electric field magnitude at P?
37
M Figure 22.37a shows a circular disk that is uniformly charged. The central z axis is perpendicular to the disk face, with the origin at the disk. Figure 22.37b gives the magnitude of the electric field along that axis in terms of the maximum magnitude E m at the disk surface. The z axis scale is set by z s = 8.0 cm.What is the radius of the disk?
38
z
Em
0.5 Em 0 z
(a )
zs
(b ) Figure 22.37
Module 22.6
(cm)
Problem 38.
A Point Charge in an Electric Field
In Millikan’s experiment, an oil drop of radius 1.64 μm and density 0.851 g/cm 3 is suspended in chamber C (Fig. 22.6.1) when a downward electric field of 1.92 × 10 5 N/C is applied. Find the charge on the drop, in terms of e. 39
E
GO An electron with a speed of 5.00 × 10 8 cm/s enters an electric field of magnitude 1.00 × 10 3 N/C, traveling along a field line in the direction that retards its motion. (a) How far will the electron travel in the field before stopping momentarily, and (b) how much time will have elapsed? (c) If the region contain- ing the electric field is 8.00 mm long (too short for the electron to stop within it), what fraction of the electron’s initial kinetic energy will be lost in that region? 40 E
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SSM A charged cloud system produces an electric field in the air near Earth’s surface. A particle of charge −2.0 × 10 −9 C is acted on by a downward electrostatic force of 3.0 × 10 −6 N when placed in this field. (a) What is the magnitude of the elec- tric field? What are the (b) magnitude and (c) direction of the electrostatic force F el on a proton placed in this field? (d) What is the magnitude of the gravitational force F g on the proton? (e) What is the ratio F el /F g in this case?
41 E
→
→
Humid air breaks down (its molecules become ionized) in an electric field of 3.0 × 10 6 N/C. In that field, what is the magni- tude of the electrostatic force on (a) an electron and (b) an ion with a single electron missing? 42 E
SSM An electron is released from rest in a uniform elec- tric field of magnitude 2.00 × 10 4 N/C. Calculate the accelera- tion of the electron. (Ignore gravitation.)
43 E
E An alpha particle (the nucleus of a helium atom) has a mass of 6.64 × 10 −27 kg and a charge of +2e. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the electric field that will bal- ance the gravitational force on the particle?
44
E An electron on the axis of an electric dipole is 25 nm from the center of the dipole. What is the magnitude of the electrostatic force on the electron if the dipole moment is 3.6 × 10 −29 C · m? Assume that 25 nm is much larger than the separation of the charged particles that form the dipole.
45
An electron is accelerated eastward at 1.80 × 10 9 m/s 2 by an electric field. Determine the field (a) magnitude and (b) direction. 47 E SSM Beams of high-speed protons can be produced in “guns” using electric fields to accelerate the protons. (a) What acceleration would a proton experience if the gun’s electric field were 2.00 × 10 4 N/C? (b) What speed would the proton attain if the field accelerated the proton through a distance of 1.00 cm? 48 M In Fig. 22.38, an electron (e) is to e be released from rest on the central axis of a uniformly charged disk of radius R. The surface charge density on the disk is +4.00 μC/m 2 . What is the magnitude of the electron’s initial acceleration if it is released at a distance (a) R, (b) R/100, and (c) R/1000 from the center of the Figure 22.38 disk? (d) Why does the acceleration Problem 48. magnitude increase only slightly as the release point is moved closer to the disk? −5 49 M A 10.0 g block with a charge of +8.00 × 10 C is placed in an electric field E = (3000i ̂ − 600 ˆ j) N / C. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction (relative to the positive direction of the x axis) of the electrostatic force on the block? If the block is released from rest at the origin at time t = 0, what are its (c) x and (d) y coordinates at t = 3.00 s? 46 E
693
surface. Assume also that a spherical pollen grain of diameter 40.0 μm is electrically held on the surface of the bee because the bee’s charge induces a charge of −1.00 pC on the near side of the grain and a charge of +1.00 pC on the far side. (a) What is the magnitude of the net electrostatic force on the grain due to the bee? Next, assume that the bee brings the grain to a distance of 1.000 mm from the tip of a flower’s stigma and that the tip is a particle of charge −45.0 pC. (b) What is the magnitude of the net electrostatic force on the grain due to the stigma? (c) Does the grain remain on the bee or does it move to the stigma? An electron enters a region of uniform electric field with an initial velocity of 40 km/s in the same direction as the electric field, which has magnitude E = 50 N/C. (a) What is the speed of the electron 1.5 ns after entering this region? (b) How far does the electron travel during the 1.5 ns interval? 52 M
GO Two large parallel M Negative copper plates are 5.0 cm apart Positive plate p plate and have a uniform electric e field between them as depicted in Fig. 22.39. An electron is released from the negative plate E at the same time that a proton is released from the positive plate. Neglect the force of the particles Figure 22.39 Problem 53. on each other and find their dis- tance from the positive plate when they pass each other. (Does it surprise you that you need not know the electric field to solve this problem?) 53
GO In Fig. 22.40, an elec- y Detecting E tron is shot at an initial speed v0 screen of v 0 = 2.00 × 10 6 m/s, at angle θ0 x θ0 = 40.0° from an x axis. It moves through a uniform elec- tric field E = (5.00 N / C) ˆ j. A Figure 22.40 Problem 54. screen for detecting electrons is positioned parallel to the y axis, at distance x = 3.00 m. In unit- vector notation, what is the velocity of the electron when it hits the screen? 54 M
→
M A uniform electric field exists in a region between two oppositely charged plates. An electron is released from rest at the surface of the negatively charged plate and strikes the sur- face of the opposite plate, 2.0 cm away, in a time 1.5 × 10 −8 s. (a) What is the speed of the electron as it strikes the second plate? (b) What is the magnitude of the electric field E ?
55
→
→
M At some instant the velocity components of an elec- tron moving between two charged parallel plates are v x = 1.5 × 10 5 m/s and v y = 3.0 × 10 3 m/s. Suppose the electric field between the plates is uniform and given by E = (120 N / C) ˆ j. In unit-vector notation, what are (a) the electron’s acceleration in that field and (b) the electron’s velocity when its x coordinate has changed by 2.0 cm?
50
→
BIO FCP Assume that a honeybee is a sphere of diameter 1.000 cm with a charge of +45.0 pC uniformly spread over its
51 M
Module 22.7
A Dipole in an Electric Field
An electric dipole consists of charges +2e and −2e sepa- rated by 0.78 nm. It is in an electric field of strength 3.4 × 10 6 N/C. Calculate the magnitude of the torque on the dipole when the dipole moment is (a) parallel to, (b) perpendicular to, and (c) antiparallel to the electric field. 56 E
SSM An electric dipole consisting of charges of magnitude 1.50 nC separated by 6.20 μ m is in an electric field of strength 1100 N/C. What are (a) the magnitude of the electric dipole moment and (b) the difference between the potential energies for dipole orientations parallel and antiparallel to E ?
57 E
→
58 M A certain electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric field E of magnitude 20 N/C. Figure 22.41 gives the potential →
/
694
C HAP T ER 22 EL EC T RIC F IEL D S
energy U of the dipole versus the angle between E and the dipole moment p . The vertical axis scale is set by U s = 100 × 10 −28 J. What is the magnitude of p ? →
)J 8 2 – 01( U
→
Determine the magnitude of the electric field at x = 4.0 m on the x axis.
Us
→
θ
0
How much work is required –U to turn an electric dipole 180° in a uniform electric field of magni- Figure 22.41 Problem 58. tude E = 46.0 N/C if the dipole moment has a magnitude of p = 3.02 × 10 −25 C · m and the initial angle is 64°? 59 M
s
)m • N 8 2 – 01( τ
A certain electric dipole is τ placed in a uniform electric field E of magnitude 40 N/C. Figure 22.42 gives the magnitude τ of the torque on the dipole versus the angle θ between θ 0 field E and the dipole moment p . The vertical axis scale is set by τs = 100 × Figure 22.42 Problem 60. 10 −28 N ⋅ m. What is the magnitude of p ? 60
M
→
→
s
→
→
Find an expression for the oscillation frequency of an elec- tric dipole of dipole moment p and rotational inertia I for small amplitudes of oscillation about its equilibrium position in a uni- form electric field of magnitude E. 61 M
In Fig. 22.44, eight particles form a square in which distance d = 2.0 cm. The charges are q 1 = +3e, q 2 = +e, q 3 = −5e, q 4 = −2e, q 5 = +3e, q 6 = +e, q 7 = −5e, and q 8 = +e. In unit-vector notation, what is the net electric field at the square’s center? 68
q1
q2
q3
d
d
d
d
y
q8
x
q4
d
d
d d Two particles, each with a q6 q5 charge of magnitude 12 nC, are at q 7 two of the vertices of an equilat- Figure 22.44 eral triangle with edge length 2.0 m. Problem 68. What is the magnitude of the elec- tric field at the third vertex if (a) both charges are positive and (b) one charge is positive and the other is negative?
69
The following table gives the charge seen by Millikan at different times on a single drop in his experiment. From the data, calculate the elementary charge e. 70
→
Additional Problems
(a) What is the magnitude of an electron’s acceleration in a uniform electric field of magnitude 1.40 × 10 6 N/C? (b) How long would the electron take, starting from rest, to attain one- tenth the speed of light? (c) How far would it travel in that time? 62
A spherical water drop 1.20 μm in diameter is suspended in calm air due to a downward-directed atmospheric electric field of magnitude E = 462 N/C. (a) What is the magnitude of the gravitational force on the drop? (b) How many excess electrons does it have? 63
Three particles, each with positive charge Q, form an equi- lateral triangle, with each side of length d. What is the magnitude of the electric field produced by the particles at the midpoint of any side?
6.563 × 10 −19 C 8.204 × 10 −19 C 11.50 × 10 −19 C
In Fig. 22.43a, a R particle of charge +Q +Q θ/2 +Q P produces an electric field of magnitude E part θ/2 P R at point P, at distance R from the particle. In (a) (b ) Fig. 22.43b, that same amount of charge is Figure 22.43 Problem 65. spread uniformly along a circular arc that has radius R and subtends an angle θ. The charge on the arc produces an electric field of magnitude Earc at its center of curvature P. For what value of θ does E arc = 0.500E part ? (Hint: You will probably resort to a graphical solution.) A proton and an electron form two corners of an equilateral triangle of side length 2.0 × 10 −6 m. What is the magnitude of the net electric field these two particles produce at the third corner? 66
CALC A charge (uniform linear density = 9.0 nC/m) lies on a string that is stretched along an x axis from x = 0 to x = 3.0 m.
67
19.71 × 10 −19 C 22.89 × 10 −19 C 26.13 × 10 −19 C
A charge of 20 nC is uniformly distributed along a straight rod of length 4.0 m that is bent into a circular arc with a radius of 2.0 m. What is the magnitude of the electric field at the center of curvature of the arc? 71
An electron is constrained to the central axis of the ring of charge of radius R in Fig. 22.4.1, with z ⪡ R. Show that the elec- trostatic force on the electron can cause it to oscillate through the ring center with an angular frequency 72
_________
64
65
13.13 × 10 −19 C 16.48 × 10 −19 C 18.08 × 10 −19 C
eq ω = √ _________ , 4πε0 mR 3
where q is the ring’s charge and m is the electron’s mass. SSM The electric field in an xy plane produced by a positively charged particle is 7.2(4.0i ̂ + 3.0 ˆ j) N / C at the point ̂ (3.0, 3.0) cm and 100i N / C at the point (2.0, 0) cm. What are the (a) x and (b) y coordinates of the particle? (c) What is the charge of the particle?
73
(a) What total (excess) charge q must the disk in Fig. 22.5.1 have for the electric field on the surface of the disk at its center to have magnitude 3.0 × 10 6 N/C, the E value at which air breaks down electrically, producing sparks? Take the disk radius as 2.5 cm. (b) Suppose each surface atom has an effective cross- sectional area of 0.015 nm 2 . How many atoms are needed to make up the disk surface? (c) The y charge calculated in (a) results from 3 some of the surface atoms having x a a one excess electron. What fraction of these atoms must be so charged? 74
In Fig. 22.45, particle 1 (of charge +1.00 μ C), particle 2 (of charge +1.00 μC), and particle 3 (of 75
1
2 a
Figure 22.45
Problem 75.
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P ROBL EMS
charge Q) form an equilateral triangle of edge length a. For what value of Q (both sign and magnitude) does the net electric field produced by the particles at the center of the triangle vanish? In Fig. 22.46, an electric dipole swings from an initial orientation i ( θi = 20.0°) to a final orientation f (θf = 20.0°) in a uni- form external electric field E . The electric dipole moment is 1.60 × 10 −27 C · m; the field magnitude is 3.00 × 10 6 N/C. What is the change in the dipole’s potential energy? 76
→
E
pf
θ θ
f
695
the space between the plates with a horizontal speed of 3.9 × 10 7 m/s, what is the vertical displacement of Δy at the end of the plates? Electron shot at screen. In Fig. y 22.48, an electron is shot at an initial v0 speed of v 0 = 7.00 × 10 6 m/s, at angle θ0 x θ0 = 30.0° from an x axis. It moves in a region with uniform electric field E = (8.50 N/C) ˆ j. A screen for detect- Figure 22.48 Problem 82. ing electrons is positioned parallel to the y axis, at distance x = 2.50 m. (a) In unit-vector nota- tion, what is the velocity of the electron when it hits the screen? (b) When the electron reaches the screen, is it still traveling in the +y direction and what is its kinetic energy? 82
→ i
pi
A particle of charge −q 1 is at the ori- gin of an x axis. (a) At what location on Figure 22.46 the axis should a particle of charge −4q 1 Problem 76. be placed so that the net electric field is zero at x = 2.0 mm on the axis? (b) If, instead, a particle of charge +4q 1 is placed at that location, what is the direction (rela- tive to the positive direction of the x axis) of the net electric field at x = 2.0 mm? 77
Two particles, each of positive charge q, are fixed in place on a y axis, one at y = d and the other at y = −d. (a) Write an expression that gives the magnitude E of the net electric field at points on the x axis given by x = αd. (b) Graph E versus α for the range 0 q 2, or q 1 q 2 ʹ , or q 1 ʹ V 2 , or V 1 C 2 , to a battery, first individually, then in series, and then in paral- lel. Rank those arrangements according to the amount of charge stored, greatest first. 11
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 25.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard
BIO Flying Circus of Physics
Capacitance
The two metal objects in Fig. 25.7 have net charges of +70 pC and –70 pC, which result in a 20 V potential difference between them. (a) What is the capacitance of the system? (b) If the charges are changed to +200 pC and –200 pC, what does the capacitance become? (c) What does the potential difference become? 1
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
E
Figure 25.7
Problem 1.
E The capacitor in Fig. 25.8 has a capacitance of 25 μF and is initially uncharged. The battery provides a potential
2
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P ROBL EMS
difference of 120 V. After switch S is closed, how much charge will pass through it? Module 25.2
Calculating the
E In Fig. 25.12, find the equivalent capacitance of the combi- nation. Assume that C 1 = 10.0 μF, C 2 = 5.00 μF, and C 3 = 4.00 μF.
S
11
+ –
C C2
Capacitance
A parallel-plate capaci- Figure 25.8 Problem 2. tor has circular plates of 8.20 cm radius and 1.30 mm separation. (a) Calculate the capacitance. (b) Find the charge for a potential difference of 120 V. 3
E
783
SSM
The plates of a spherical capacitor have radii 38.0 mm and 40.0 mm. (a) Calculate the capacitance. (b) What must be the plate area of a parallel-plate capacitor with the same plate sepa- ration and capacitance?
C1
V
C3
4 E
What is the capacitance of a drop that results when two mercury spheres, each of radius R = 2.00 mm, merge? 5
E
You have two flat metal plates, each of area 1.00 m 2 , with which to construct a parallel-plate capacitor. (a) If the capac- itance of the device is to be 1.00 F, what must be the separa- tion between the plates? (b) Could this capacitor actually be constructed? 6 E
E If an uncharged parallel-plate d (pm) capacitor (capacitance C) is connected to a battery, one plate becomes nega- d tively charged as electrons move to the plate face (area A). In Fig. 25.9, the depth d from which the electrons come in the plate in a particular capac- itor is plotted against a range of values 0 V for the potential difference V of the V (V) battery. The density of conduction Figure 25.9 Problem 7. electrons in the copper plates is 8.49 × 10 28 electrons/m 3 . The vertical scale is set by d s = 1.00 pm, and the horizontal scale is set by V s = 20.0 V. What is the ratio C/A?
7
s
s
Module 25.3
Capacitors in Parallel and in Series
How many 1.00 μF capacitors must be connected in parallel to store a charge of 1.00 C with a potential of 110 V across the capacitors? 8 E
Each of the uncharged capaci- tors in Fig. 25.10 has a capacitance of 25.0 μF. A potential difference of V = 4200 V is established when the switch is closed. How many coulombs of charge then pass through meter A? 9 E
A C
C
Figure 25.12
Two parallel-plate capacitors, 6.0 μF each, are connected in parallel to a 10 V battery. One of the capacitors is then squeezed so that its plate separation is 50.0% of its initial value. Because of the squeezing, (a) how much additional charge is transferred to the capacitors by the battery and (b) what is the increase in the total charge stored on the capacitors? 12 M
SSM A 100 pF capacitor is charged to a potential differ- ence of 50 V, and the charging battery is disconnected. The capacitor is then connected in parallel with a second (initially uncharged) capacitor. If the potential difference across the first capacitor drops to 35 V, what is the capacitance of this second capacitor?
13 M
M GO In Fig. 25.13, the bat- tery has a potential difference of V = 10.0 V and the five capaci- tors each have a capacitance of 10.0 μ F. What is the charge on (a) capacitor 1 and (b) capacitor 2?
14
C2 C1
+ –
V
M GO In Fig. 25.14, a 20.0 V battery is connected across Figure 25.13 Problem 14. capacitors of capacitances C 1 = C 6 = 3.00 μ F and C 3 = C 5 = 2.00C 2 = 2.00C 4 = 4.00 μF. What are (a) the equivalent capacitance C eq of the capacitors and (b) the charge stored by C eq ? What are (c) V 1 and (d) q 1 of capaci- tor 1, (e) V 2 and (f) q 2 of capacitor 2, and (g) V 3 and (h) q 3 of capacitor 3?
15
C
V
C5
C2
C4 V
Figure 25.10 Problem 9. In Fig. 25.11, find the equivalent capacitance of the combination. Assume that C 1 is 10.0 μF, C 2 is 5.00 μ F, and C 3 is 4.00 μ F.
10
Problems 11, 17, and 38.
+ –
C3
E
C6 C1
Figure 25.14
C3 C2
Figure 25.11
Plot 1 in Fig. 25.15a gives the charge q that can be stored on capacitor 1 versus the electric potential V set up across it. The vertical scale is set by q s = 16.0 μC, and the horizontal scale is set by V s = 2.0 V. Plots 2 and 3 are similar plots for capacitors 2 and 3, respectively. Figure 25.15b shows a circuit with those three capacitors and a 6.0 V battery. What is the charge stored on capacitor 2 in that circuit? 16 M
C1 V
Problem 15.
Problems 10 and 34.
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784
C HAP T ER 25 C AP AC IT ANC E
qs
1
)C μ ( q
2
C1 V
3
0
C2
C3
Vs V
(V)
(a )
(b )
Figure 25.15
rotation. Consider a capacitor of n = 8 plates of alternating polarity, each plate having area A = 1.25 cm 2 and sepa- rated from adjacent plates by distance d = 3.40 mm. What is the maximum capacitance of the device?
M GO In Fig. 25.12, a potential difference of V = 100.0 V is applied across a capacitor arrangement with capacitances C 1 = 10.0 μF, C 2 = 5.00 μF, and C 3 = 4.00 μF. If capacitor 3 undergoes electrical breakdown so that it becomes equivalent to conduct- ing wire, what is the increase in (a) the charge on capacitor 1 and (b) the potential difference across capacitor 1?
17
Figure 25.16 shows a circuit section of four air-filled capacitors that is connected to a larger circuit. The graph below the section shows the electric potential V(x) as a function of position x along the lower part of the section, through capacitor 4. Similarly, the graph above the section shows the electric potential V(x) as a function of position x along the upper part of the section, through capacitors 1, 2, and 3. Capacitor 3 has a capacitance of 0.80 μ F. What are the capacitances of (a) capacitor 1 and (b) capacitor 2? 18 M
d A
Figure 25.18 Problem 20. In Fig. 25.19, the capacitances are C 1 = 1.0 μF and a C 2 = 3.0 μF; both capacitors are S1 charged to a potential difference ++ ++ –– –– C2 of V = 100 V but with opposite – – – – C 1 ++ ++ S2 polarity as shown. Switches S 1 and b S 2 are now closed. (a) What is now Figure 25.19 Problem 21. the potential difference between points a and b? What now is the charge on capacitor (b) 1 and (c) 2?
21
Problem 16.
A
M SSM
M In Fig. 25.20, V = 10 V, C 1 = 10 μF, and C 2 = C 3 = 20 μF. Switch S is first thrown to the left side until capacitor 1 reaches equilibrium. Then the switch is thrown to the right. When equilibrium is again reached, how much charge is on capacitor 1?
22
S V
C1
Figure 25.20
C2
C3
Problem 22.
M The capacitors in Fig. 25.21 are initially uncharged. The capaci- S a C2 tances are C 1 = 4.0 μF, C 2 = 8.0 μF, V C1 c C3 and C 3 = 12 μ F, and the battery’s b potential difference is V = 12 V. d When switch S is closed, how many Figure 25.21 Problem 23. electrons travel through (a) point a, (b) point b, (c) point c, and (d) point d? In the figure, do the elec- trons travel up or down through (e) point b and (f ) point c?
23
V
2V
5V
x
1
2
3
GO Figure 25.22 represents two P air-filled cylindrical capacitors con- C1 nected in series across a battery with V potential V = 10 V. Capacitor 1 has an C2 inner plate radius of 5.0 mm, an outer plate radius of 1.5 cm, and a length of Figure 25.22 Problem 24. 5.0 cm. Capacitor 2 has an inner plate radius of 2.5 mm, an outer plate radius of 1.0 cm, and a length of 9.0 cm. The outer plate of capacitor 2 is a conducting organic mem- brane that can be stretched, and the capacitor can be inflated to increase the plate separation. If the outer plate radius is increased to 2.5 cm by inflation, (a) how many electrons move through point P and (b) do they move toward or away from the battery? 24 M
4
) V(
12
V x
Figure 25.16
Problem 18.
GO In Fig. 25.17, the battery has potential difference V = 9.0 V, C 2 = 3.0 μF, C 4 = 4.0 μF, and all the capacitors are initially uncharged. When switch S is closed, a total charge of 12 μ C passes through point a and a total charge of 8.0 μ C passes through point b. What are (a) C 1 and (b) C 3 ? 19 M
S
C1
V
Figure 25.17
C2
a C3
b C4
Problem 19.
Figure 25.18 shows a variable “air gap” capacitor for man- ual tuning. Alternate plates are connected together; one group of plates is fixed in position, and the other group is capable of 20 M
GO In Fig. 25.23, two parallel- M plate capacitors (with air between the C1 C2 plates) are connected to a battery. 2 Capacitor 1 has a plate area of 1.5 cm and an electric field (between its plates) Figure 25.23 of magnitude 2000 V/m. Capacitor 2 has Problem 25. a plate area of 0.70 cm 2 and an electric field of magnitude 1500 V/m. What is the total charge on the two capacitors? 25
H GO Capacitor 3 in Fig. 25.24a is a variable capacitor (its capacitance C 3 can be varied). Figure 25.24b gives the electric potential V 1 across capacitor 1 versus C 3 . The horizontal scale is
26
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P ROBL EMS
set by C 3s = 12.0 μF. Electric potential V 1 approaches an asymp- tote of 10 V as C 3 → ∞. What are (a) the electric potential V across the battery, (b) C 1 , and (c) C 2 ? 10
V C2
C3
M Assume that a stationary electron is a point of charge. What is the energy density u of its electric field at radial dis- tances (a) r = 1.00 mm, (b) r = 1.00 μm, (c) r = 1.00 nm, and (d) r = 1.00 pm? (e) What is u in the limit as r → 0?
6 4
0 C3
( μF)
C 3s
(b ) Figure 25.24
Problem 26.
GO Figure 25.25 shows C1 C3 a 12.0 V battery and four uncharged capacitors of capacitances C 1 = 1.00 μF, S2 C 2 = 2.00 μF, C 3 = 3.00 μF, and C 4 = 4.00 μF. If only switch S 1 is closed, what is C2 C4 the charge on (a) capacitor 1, S1 (b) capacitor 2, (c) capacitor + – 3, and (d) capacitor 4? If both B switches are closed, what is Figure 25.25 Problem 27. the charge on (e) capacitor 1, (f ) capacitor 2, (g) capacitor 3, and (h) capacitor 4? 27 H
H GO Figure 25.26 displays a 12.0 V battery and 3 uncharged S capacitors of capacitances C 1 = C2 4.00 μ F, C 2 = 6.00 μF, and C 3 = + V0 – 3.00 μ F. The switch is thrown to C1 C3 the left side until capacitor 1 is fully charged. Then the switch is thrown to the right. What is the Figure 25.26 Problem 28. final charge on (a) capacitor 1, (b) capacitor 2, and (c) capacitor 3?
28
Module 25.4
Energy Stored in an Electric Field
What capacitance is required to store an energy of 10 kW · h at a potential difference of 1000 V? 29 E
How much energy is stored in 1.00 m 3 of air due to the “fair weather” electric field of magnitude 150 V/m? 30
E
A 2.0 μF capacitor and a 4.0 μF capacitor are con- nected in parallel across a 300 V potential difference. Calculate the total energy stored in the capacitors. 31
E
SSM
A parallel-plate air-filled capacitor having area 40 cm 2 and plate spacing 1.0 mm is charged to a potential difference of 600 V. Find (a) the capacitance, (b) the magnitude of the charge on each plate, (c) the stored energy, (d) the electric field between the plates, and (e) the energy density between the plates. 32
E
M A charged isolated metal sphere of diameter 10 cm has a potential of 8000 V relative to V = 0 at infinity. Calculate the energy density in the electric field near the surface of the sphere.
33
M In Fig. 25.11, a potential difference V = 100 V is applied across a capacitor arrangement with capacitances C 1 = 10.0 μ F,
34
M FCP As a safety engineer, Venting port you must evaluate the practice of storing flammable conducting liq- – – – – + – uids in nonconducting containers. –– ++ – –– –– –– + – – + + + + + + + ++ – h The company supplying a certain – – – – – – – liquid has been using a squat, cylin- r drical plastic container of radius Figure 25.27 Problem 36. r = 0.20 m and filling it to height h = 10 cm, which is not the con- tainer’s full interior height (Fig. 25.27). Your investigation reveals that during handling at the company, the exterior sur- face of the container commonly acquires a negative charge den- sity of magnitude 2.0 μC/m 2 (approximately uniform). Because the liquid is a conducting material, the charge on the container induces charge separation within the liquid. (a) How much negative charge is induced in the center of the liquid’s bulk? (b) Assume the capacitance of the central portion of the liquid relative to ground is 35 pF. What is the potential energy associ- ated with the negative charge in that effective capacitor? (c) If a spark occurs between the ground and the central portion of the liquid (through the venting port), the potential energy can be fed into the spark. The minimum spark energy needed to ignite the liquid is 10 mJ. In this situation, can a spark ignite the liquid?
36
2
(a )
C 2 = 5.00 μ F, and C 3 = 4.00 μ F. What are (a) charge q 3 , (b) potential difference V 3 , and (c) stored energy U 3 for capacitor 3, (d) q 1 , (e) V 1 , and (f) U 1 for capacitor 1, and (g) q 2 , (h) V 2 , and (i) U 2 for capacitor 2? 35
8 ) V( 1V
C1
785
SSM The parallel plates in a capacitor, with a plate area of 8.50 cm 2 and an air-filled separation of 3.00 mm, are charged by a 6.00 V battery. They are then disconnected from the bat- tery and pulled apart (without discharge) to a separation of 8.00 mm. Neglecting fringing, find (a) the potential difference between the plates, (b) the initial stored energy, (c) the final stored energy, and (d) the work required to separate the plates.
37 M
M In Fig. 25.12, a potential difference V = 100 V is applied across a capacitor arrangement with capacitances C 1 = 10.0 μF, C 2 = 5.00 μ F, and C 3 = 15.0 μ F. What are (a) charge q 3 , (b) potential difference V 3 , and (c) stored energy U 3 for capacitor 3, (d) q 1 , (e) V 1 , and (f) U 1 for capacitor 1, and (g) q 2 , (h) V 2 , and (i) U 2 for capacitor 2?
38
GO In Fig. 25.28, M A B C 1 = 10.0 μF, C 2 = 20.0 μF, C1 C2 C3 and C3 = 25.0 μF. If no capac- Figure 25.28 Problem 39. itor can withstand a poten- tial difference of more than 100 V without failure, what are (a) the magnitude of the maximum potential difference that can exist between points A and B and (b) the maximum energy that can be stored in the three-capacitor arrangement? 39
Module 25.5
Capacitor with a Dielectric
An air-filled parallel-plate capacitor has a capacitance of 1.3 pF. The separation of the plates is doubled, and wax is inserted between them. The new capacitance is 2.6 pF. Find the dielectric constant of the wax. 40
E
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786
C HAP T ER 25 C AP AC IT ANC E
E SSM A coaxial cable used in a transmission line has an inner radius of 0.10 mm and an outer radius of 0.60 mm. Cal- culate the capacitance per meter for the cable. Assume that the space between the conductors is filled with polystyrene.
41
E A parallel-plate air-filled capacitor has a capacitance of 50 pF. (a) If each of its plates has an area of 0.35 m 2 , what is the separation? (b) If the region between the plates is now filled with material having κ = 5.6, what is the capacitance?
42
Given a 7.4 pF air-filled capacitor, you are asked to convert it to a capacitor that can store up to 7.4 μJ with a maximum potential difference of 652 V. Which dielectric in Table 25.5.1 should you use to fill the gap in the capacitor if you do not allow for a margin of error? 43 E
M You are asked to construct a capacitor having a capaci- tance near 1 nF and a breakdown potential in excess of 10 000 V. You think of using the sides of a tall Pyrex drinking glass as a dielectric, lining the inside and outside curved surfaces with alu- minum foil to act as the plates. The glass is 15 cm tall with an inner radius of 3.6 cm and an outer radius of 3.8 cm. What are the (a) capacitance and (b) breakdown potential of this capacitor?
44
A certain parallel-plate capacitor is filled with a dielectric for which κ = 5.5. The area of each plate is 0.034 m 2 , and the plates are separated by 2.0 mm. The capacitor will fail (short out and burn up) if the electric field between the plates exceeds 200 kN/C. What is the maximum energy that can be stored in the capacitor? 45 M
M In Fig. 25.29, how much charge is stored on the parallel- plate capacitors by the 12.0 V bat- tery? One is filled with air, and the other is filled with a dielectric for which κ = 3.00; both capacitors have a plate area of 5.00 × 10 –3 m 2 and a plate separation of 2.00 mm.
46
C1
V
Figure 25.29
C2
Problem 46.
GO Figure 25.32 shows a M parallel-plate capacitor of plate A/2 A /2 area A = 10.5 cm 2 and plate sepa- κ2 d ration 2d = 7.12 mm. The left half κ1 2d of the gap is filled with material of κ3 d dielectric constant κ1 = 21.0; the top of the right half is filled with mate- rial of dielectric constant κ2 = 42.0; the bottom of the right half is filled Figure 25.32 Problem 50. with material of dielectric constant κ3 = 58.0. What is the capacitance? 50
Module 25.6
A parallel-plate capacitor has plates of area 0.12 m 2 and a separation of 1.2 cm. A battery charges the plates to a potential difference of 120 V and is then disconnected. A dielectric slab of thickness 4.0 mm and dielectric constant 4.8 is then placed sym- metrically between the plates. (a) What is the capacitance before the slab is inserted? (b) What is the capacitance with the slab in place? What is the free charge q (c) before and (d) after the slab is inserted? What is the magnitude of the electric field (e) in the space between the plates and dielectric and (f ) in the dielectric itself? (g) With the slab in place, what is the potential difference across the plates? (h) How much external work is involved in inserting the slab? 53 M
2 M Two parallel plates of area 100 cm are given charges of equal magnitudes 8.9 × 10 –7 C but opposite signs. The electric field within the dielectric material filling the space between the plates is 1.4 × 10 6 V/m. (a) Calculate the dielectric constant of the material. (b) Determine the magnitude of the charge induced on each dielectric surface.
Figure 25.30 shows a parallel-plate capacitor with a plate area A = 5.56 cm 2 and sepa- ration d = 5.56 mm. The left half of the gap is filled with material of dielectric constant κ1 = 7.00; the right half is filled with mate- rial of dielectric constant κ2 = 12.0. What is the capacitance?
55
48
SSM
M
A
/2
κ1
/2
κ2
Figure 25.30
Figure 25.31 shows a parallel-plate capacitor with a plate area A = 7.89 cm 2 and plate separation d = 4.62 mm. The top half of the gap is filled with mate- rial of dielectric constant κ1 = 11.0; the bottom half is filled with material of dielectric constant κ2 = 12.0. What is the capacitance? 49
A
d
Problem 48.
SSM
For the arrangement of Fig. 25.6.2, suppose that the battery remains connected while the dielectric slab is being introduced. Calculate (a) the capacitance, (b) the charge on the capacitor plates, (c) the electric field in the gap, and (d) the electric field in the slab, after the slab is in place.
54
M
E
52 E
A certain substance has a dielectric constant of 2.8 and a dielectric strength of 18 MV/m. If it is used as the dielec- tric material in a parallel-plate capacitor, what minimum area should the plates of the capacitor have to obtain a capacitance of 7.0 × 10 –2 μF and to ensure that the capacitor will be able to withstand a potential difference of 4.0 kV? 47
Dielectrics and Gauss’ Law
A parallel-plate capacitor has a capacitance of 100 pF, a plate area of 100 cm 2 , and a mica dielectric ( κ = 5.4) completely filling the space between the plates. At 50 V poten- tial difference, calculate (a) the electric field magnitude E in the mica, (b) the magnitude of the free charge on the plates, and (c) the magnitude of the induced surface charge on the mica. 51
M The space between two concentric conducting spherical shells of radii b = 1.70 cm and a = 1.20 cm is filled with a substance of dielectric constant κ = 23.5. A potential difference V = 73.0 V is applied across the inner and outer shells. Determine (a) the capacitance of the device, (b) the C1 free charge q on the inner shell, and (c) – + the charge q′ induced along the surface of V the inner shell.
Additional Problems
M
In Fig. 25.33, the battery potential difference V is 10.0 V and each of the seven capacitors has capacitance 10.0 μF. What is the charge on (a) capacitor 1 and (b) capacitor 2? 56
κ2 κ1 Figure 25.31
Problem 49.
d
C2
Figure 25.33
Problem 56.
SSM In Fig. 25.34, V = 9.0 V, C 1 = C 2 = 30 μF, and C 3 = C 4 = 15 μF. What is the charge on capacitor 4?
57
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P ROBL EMS
787
Energy outside conducting sphere. An isolated conducting sphere has radius R = 6.85 cm and charge q = 1.25 nC. (a) How much potential energy is stored in the electric field? (b) What is the energy density at the surface of the sphere? (c) What is the radius R 0 of an imaginary spherical surface such that one-half of the stored potential energy lies within it? 65
C1
C4 C3
V C2
Figure 25.34
Problem 57.
Shocking walk across a carpet. On a day with low humidity, you can become charged by walking over certain carpets (there is charge transfer between the carpet and your shoes). If a spark jumps between your hand and a metal doorknob when the sepa- ration is about 5.0 mm, you were probably at a potential of 15 kV relative to the doorknob. To determine your accumulated charge q, make the rough approximation your body can be represented by a uniformly charged conducting sphere with radius R = 25 cm in radius and isolated from its surroundings. What is q? 66
(a) If C = 50 μF in Fig. 25.35, what is the equivalent capacitance between points A and B? (Hint: First imagine that a battery is con- nected between those two points.) (b) Repeat for points A and D. 58
In Fig. 25.36, V = 12 V, C 1 = C 4 = 2.0 μF, C 2 = 4.0 μ F, and C 3 = 1.0 μ F. What is the charge on capacitor 4?
C A
2C
4C
B
D
6C
59
Figure 25.35
Problem 58.
C1 C2 FCP The chocolate crumb mys- tery. This story begins with Prob- lem 60 in Chapter 23. As part of the V investigation of the biscuit factory C3 C4 explosion, the electric potentials of the workers were measured as they emptied sacks of chocolate crumb Figure 25.36 Problem 59. powder into the loading bin, stirring up a cloud of the powder around themselves. Each worker had an electric potential of about 7.0 kV relative to the ground, which was taken as zero potential. (a) Assuming that each worker was effectively a capacitor with a typical capacitance of 200 pF, find the energy stored in that effective capacitor. If a single spark between the worker and any conducting object connected to the ground neutralized the worker, that energy would be transferred to the spark. According to measurements, a spark that could ignite a cloud of chocolate crumb powder, and thus set off an explosion, had to have an energy of at least 150 mJ. (b) Could a spark from a worker have set off an explosion in the cloud of powder in the loading bin? (The story continues with Problem 60 in Chapter 26.)
60
Figure 25.37 shows capacitor 1 (C 1 = 8.00 μF), P S C1 capacitor 2 (C 2 = 6.00 μF), C2 C4 V and capacitor 3 (C 3 = 8.00 C3 μF) connected to a 12.0 V battery. When switch S Figure 25.37 Problem 61. is closed so as to connect uncharged capacitor 4 (C 4 = 6.00 μF), (a) how much charge passes through point P from the battery and (b) how much charge shows up on capacitor 4? (c) Explain the discrepancy in those two results. 61
Two air-filled, parallel-plate capacitors are to be connected to a 10 V battery, first individually, then in series, and then in parallel. In those arrangements, the energy stored in the capaci- tors turns out to be, listed least to greatest: 75 μJ, 100 μJ, 300 μJ, and 400 μJ. Of the two capacitors, what is the (a) smaller and (b) greater capacitance?
Force and electrostatic stress. Module 8.3 relates force to potential energy: | F | = dU/dx. (a) Apply that relationship to a parallel-plate capacitor with charge q, plate area A, and plate separation x to find an expression for the magnitude of the force between the plates. (b) Evaluate the magnitude of that force for q = 6.00 µC and A = 2.50 cm 2 . (c) Electrostatic stress is the force per unit area | F / A| on either plate. Find an expression for the stress in terms of ε 0 and the magnitude E of the electric field between the plates. (d) Evaluate the stress for a potential differ- ence of 110 V and a plate separation of x = 2.00 mm. 67
CALC Thermal expansion of a capacitor. A capacitor is to be designed to operate, with constant capacitance, in an envi- ronment of fluctuating temperature. As shown in Fig. 25.38, the capacitor is a parallel-plate type with thin plastic “spacers” to keep the plates aligned. (a) Show that the rate of change of capacitance C with temperature T is given by
68
dC = C __ 1 ___ dA − __ 1 ___ dx , ___ ( ) dT
A dT
x dT
where A is the plate area and x the plate separation, both of which vary with a temperature change. (b) If the plates are alu- minum, what should be the coefficient of thermal expansion of the spacers in order that the capacitance not vary with tempera- ture? (Neglect the effect of the spacers on the capacitance.) x
A
Spacers
62
Coaxial cable. The inner and outer cylindrical conductors of a long coaxial cable have diameters a = 0.15 mm and b = 2.1 mm. What is the capacitance per unit length? 63
Earth’s capacitance. What is the capacitance of Earth, viewed as an isolated conducting sphere of radius 6370 km? 64
Figure 25.38
Problem 68.
Capacitors and diodes. An ideal diode allows negative charge (electrons) to move through it only in the direction oppo- site the schematic arrow in a circuit diagram. Figure 25.39 shows a circuit with two such ideal diodes and two identical capaci- tors C. A 100 V battery is connected across the input terminals a and b (the potential difference between them is 100 V). What is the output voltage V out if the battery’s positive terminal is con- nected to (a) a and then (b) b? 69
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788
C HAP T ER 25 C AP AC IT ANC E
C
Input
D
C
Output
b
Figure 25.39
Movable center section. Figure 25.41 shows two capacitors in series, with a rigid center section that can be moved vertically, either upward or downward. (a) The plate area A is the same for the capacitors. In terms of A, a, b, and ε0 , what is the equivalent capacitance C? (b) Evaluate C for A = 2.0 cm 2 , a = 7.0 mm, and b = 4.0 mm. (c) If the center section is moved downward (without touching the bottom plate), does C increase, decrease, or stay the same? 71
D a
Problem 69.
BIO The ability of a capacitor to store potential energy is the basis of defibrillator devices, which are used by emergency teams to stop the fibrillation of heart attack victims (Fig. 25.40). In the portable version, a battery charges a capacitor to a high potential difference, storing a large amount of energy in less than a minute. The battery maintains only a modest potential difference; an electronic circuit repeatedly uses that potential difference to greatly increase the potential difference of the capacitor. The power, or rate of energy transfer, during this pro- cess is also modest. Conducting leads (“paddles”) are placed on the victim’s chest. When a control switch is closed, the capaci- tor sends a portion of its stored energy from paddle to paddle through the victim. (a) If a 70 µF capacitor in a defibrillator is charged to 5.0 kV, what is the stored potential energy? (b) If 23% of that energy is sent through the chest in 2.0 ms, what is the power of the pulse?
70
a
Figure 25.41
b
Problem 71.
Spark danger in airborne dust. A person walking through airborne dust in, say, a cosmetic plant can possibly become dan- gerously charged by contact with the floor and various objects that are touched. Safety engineers often calculate the danger threshold for the electric potential on a person by modeling the person as a spherical capacitor of radius R = 1.8 m. What elec- tric potential corresponds to the threshold value U t = 150 mJ of stored energy at which a spark could ignite the dust and set off an explosion? 72
FR 321/vonomiliF vokaI Figure 25.40
Problem 70.
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C
H
A
P
T
E
R
2
6
Current and Resistance
26.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
26.1.1 Apply the definition of current as the rate at
26.1.3 Identify a junction in a circuit and apply the fact
which charge moves through a point, including solv-
that (due to conservation of charge) the total current
ing for the amount of charge that passes the point in
into a junction must equal the total current out of the
a given time interval. 26.1.2 Identify that current is normally due to the motion
junction. 26.1.4 Explain how current arrows are drawn in a
of conduction electrons that are driven by electric
schematic diagram of a circuit, and identify that the
fields (such as those set up in a wire by a battery).
arrows are not vectors.
Key Ideas ●
An electric current
i in a conductor is defined by dq i = ___ , dt
dq is the amount of positive charge that passes in time dt . where
●
By convention, the direction of electric current is
taken as the direction in which positive charge carriers would move even though (normally) only conduction electrons can move.
What Is Physics?
In the last five chapters we discussed electrostatics—the physics of stationary charges. In this and the next chapter, we discuss the physics of electric currents— that is, charges in motion. Examples of electric currents abound and involve many professions. Mete- orologists are concerned with lightning and with the less dramatic slow flow of charge through the atmosphere. Biologists, physiologists, and engineers work- ing in medical technology are concerned with the nerve currents that control muscles and especially with how those currents can be reestablished after spi- nal cord injuries. Electrical engineers are concerned with countless electrical systems, such as power systems, lightning protection systems, information stor- age systems, and music systems. Space engineers monitor and study the flow of charged particles from our Sun because that flow can wipe out telecommunica- tion systems in orbit and even power transmission systems on the ground. In addition to such scholarly work, almost every aspect of daily life now depends on information carried by electric currents, from stock trades to ATM transfers and from video entertainment to social networking. In this chapter we discuss the basic physics of electric currents and why they can be established in some materials but not in others. We begin with the mean- ing of electric current.
789 /
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C HAP T ER 26 C U RRENT AND RESIST ANC E
Electric Current
Although an electric current is a stream of moving charges, not all moving charges constitute an electric current. If there is to be an electric current through a given surface, there must be a net flow of charge through that surface. Two examples clarify our meaning.
(a )
i
i i
Battery i
+
–
i
(b )
(a) A loop of copper in electrostatic equilibrium. The entire loop is at a single potential, and the electric field is zero at all points inside the copper. (b) Adding a battery imposes an electric poten- tial difference between the ends of the loop that are connected to the terminals of the battery. The battery thus produces an electric field within the loop, from terminal to terminal, and the field causes charges to move around the loop. This movement of charges is a current i. Figure 26.1.1
1. The free electrons (conduction electrons) in an isolated length of copper wire are in random motion at speeds of the order of 10 6 m/s. If you pass a hypothetical plane through such a wire, conduction electrons pass through it in both directions at the rate of many billions per second—but there is no net transport of charge and thus no current through the wire. However, if you connect the ends of the wire to a battery, you slightly bias the flow in one direction, with the result that there now is a net transport of charge and thus an electric current through the wire. 2. The flow of water through a garden hose represents the directed flow of positive charge (the protons in the water molecules) at a rate of perhaps several million coulombs per second. There is no net transport of charge, however, because there is a parallel flow of negative charge (the electrons in the water molecules) of exactly the same amount moving in exactly the same direction. In this chapter we restrict ourselves largely to the study—within the frame- work of classical physics—of steady currents of conduction electrons moving through metallic conductors such as copper wires. As Fig. 26.1.1a reminds us, any isolated conducting loop—regardless of whether it has an excess charge—is all at the same potential. No electric field can exist within it or along its surface. Although conduction electrons are available, no net electric force acts on them and thus there is no current. If, as in Fig. 26.1.1b, we insert a battery in the loop, the conducting loop is no longer at a single potential. Electric fields act inside the material making up the loop, exerting forces on the conduction electrons, causing them to move and thus establishing a current. After a very short time, the electron flow reaches a constant value and the current is in its steady state (it does not vary with time). Figure 26.1.2 shows a section of a conductor, part of a conducting loop in which current has been established. If charge dq passes through a hypothetical plane (such as aaʹ) in time dt, then the current i through that plane is defined as dq i = ___ dt
(definition of current).
(26.1.1)
We can find the charge that passes through the plane in a time interval extending from 0 to t by integration: t
q = dq = i dt, 0
The current is the same in any cross section. a
b c
i
i
c' a'
b'
The current i through the conductor has the same value at planes aaʹ, bbʹ, and ccʹ. Figure 26.1.2
(26.1.2)
in which the current i may vary with time. Under steady-state conditions, the current is the same for planes aaʹ, bbʹ, and ccʹ and indeed for all planes that pass completely through the conductor, no matter what their location or orientation. This follows from the fact that charge is conserved. Under the steady-state conditions assumed here, an electron must pass through plane aaʹ for every electron that passes through plane ccʹ. In the same way, if we have a steady flow of water through a garden hose, a drop of water must leave the nozzle for every drop that enters the hose at the other end. The amount of water in the hose is a conserved quantity. The SI unit for current is the coulomb per second, or the ampere (A), which is an SI base unit: 1 ampere = 1 A = 1 coulomb per second = 1 C/s. The formal definition of the ampere is discussed in Chapter 29.
/
791
26.1 EL EC T RIC C U RRENT
Current, as defined by Eq. 26.1.1, is a scalar because both charge a nd time in that equation are scalars. Yet, as in Fig. 26.1.1b, we often represent a current with an arrow to indicate that charge is moving. Such arrows are not vectors, however, and they do not require vector addition. Figure 26.1.3a shows a con- ductor with current i 0 splitting at a junction into two branches. Because charge is conserved, the magnitudes of the currents in the branches must add to yield the magnitude of the current in the original conductor, so that i 0 = i 1 + i 2 .
The current into the junction must equal the current out (charge is conserved).
i1
i0 a
(26.1.3)
i2
As Fig. 26.1.3b suggests, bending or reorienting the wires in space does not change the validity of Eq. 26.1.3. Current arrows show only a direction (or sense) of flow along a conductor, not a direction in space.
(a )
i1
The Directions of Currents
In Fig. 26.1.1b we drew the current arrows in the direction in which positively charged particles would be forced to move through the loop by the electric field. Such positive charge carriers, as they are often called, would move away from the positive battery terminal and toward the negative terminal. Actually, the charge carriers in the copper loop of Fig. 26.1.1b are electrons and thus are nega- tively charged. The electric field forces them to move in the direction opposite the current arrows, from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. For his- torical reasons, however, we use the following convention:
i0 a i2
(b )
The relation i 0 = i 1 + i 2 is true at junction a no matter what the orientation in space of the three wires. Currents are scalars, not vectors. Figure 26.1.3
A current arrow is drawn in the direction in which positive charge carriers would move, even if the actual charge carriers are negative and move in the opposite direction.
We can use this convention because in most situations, the assumed motion of positive charge carriers in one direction has the same effect as the actual motion of negative charge carriers in the opposite direction. (When the effect is not the same, we shall drop the convention and describe the actual motion.)
Checkpoint 26.1.1
The figure here shows a portion of a circuit. What are the magnitude and direction of the current i in the lower right-hand wire?
1A 2A
2A
3A
2A 4A i
Sample Problem 26.1.1
Current is the rate at which charge passes a point
Water flows through a garden hose at a volume flow rate dV/dt of 450 cm 3 /s. What is the current of negative c harge?
KEY IDEAS The current i of negative charge is due to the electrons in the water m olecules moving through the hose. The current is the rate at which that negative charge passes through any plane that cuts completely across the hose.
We can write the current in terms of the number of molecules that pass through such a plane per second as Calculations:
i = or
charge per electron
(
electrons per molecule
)(
molecules per second
)(
)
dN . i = (e)(10) ___ dt
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792
C HAP T ER 26 C U RRENT AND RESIST ANC E
We substitute 10 electrons per molecule because a water (H 2O) molecule contains 8 electrons in the single oxygen atom and 1 electron in each of the two hydrogen atoms. We can express the rate dN/dt in terms of the given volume flow rate dV/dt by first writing molecules molecules moles = per unit per per second mole mass
(
) (
)(
)
volume mass × per unit per . volume second
(
)(
)
“Molecules per mole” is Avogadro’s number N A . “Moles per unit mass” is the inverse of the mass per mole, which is the molar mass M of water. “Mass per unit volume” is the (mass) density mass of water. The volume per second is the volume flow rate dV/dt. Thus, we have dN = N ___ dt
dV ___
1 ___
( M )ρ mass ( dt ) =
A
N Aρ mass ___ dV . ________ M
dt
Substituting this into the equation for i, we find −1 ___ . i = 10 e N AM ρmass dV dt
We know that Avogadro’s number N A is 6.02 × 10 23 mol- ecules/mol, or 6.02 × 10 23 mol –1 , and from Table 14.1.1 we know that the density of water mass under normal condi- tions is 1000 kg/m 3 . We can get the molar mass of water from the molar masses listed in Appendix F (in grams per mole): We add the molar mass of oxygen (16 g/mol) to twice the molar mass of hydrogen (1 g/mol), obtain- ing 18 g/mol = 0.018 kg/mol. So, the current of negative charge due to the electrons in the water is i = (10)(1.6 × 10 −19 C)(6.02 × 10 23 mol −1 ) × (0.018 kg/mol) −1 (1000 kg/m 3 )(450 × 10 −6 m 3 /s) = 2.41 × 10 7 C /s = 2.41 × 10 7 A = 24.1 MA.
(Answer)
This current of negative charge is exactly c ompensated by a current of positive charge associated with the nuclei of the three atoms that make up the water molecule. Thus, there is no net flow of charge through the hose.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
26.2 CURRENT DENSITY Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
26.2.1 Identify a current density and a current density
J
sity magnitude , and the area
26.2.2 For current through an area element on a cross section through a conductor (such as a wire), identify
i A.
relationship between the current , the current den-
vector.
26.2.5 Identify streamlines. 26.2.6 Explain the motion of conduction electrons in
→
dA .
the element’s area vector
26.2.3 Find the current through a cross section of a
terms of their drift speed. 26.2.7 Distinguish the drift speeds of conduction elec-
conductor by integrating the dot product of the cur-
trons from their random-motion speeds, including
→
rent density vector →
J and the element area vector
dA over the full cross section.
26.2.4 For the case where current is uniformly spread
relative magnitudes.
n
26.2.8 Identify charge carrier density .
J
26.2.9 Apply the relationship between current density ,
over a cross section in a conductor, apply the
n
charge carrier density , and charge carrier drift
v d .
speed
Key Ideas ●
Current →
sity
i (a scalar quantity) is related to current den-
J (a vector quantity) by
moving charges if they are positive and the opposite direction if they are negative. →
● →
→
i = J ⋅ dA , dA is a vector perpendicular to a surface ele- ment of area dA and the integral is taken over any →
J has the same direction as the velocity of the
→
v d in the direction of E . The drift velocity v d is related to the current density by
drift speed ●
→
→
J = ( ne) v d ,
surface cutting across the conductor. The current density
E is established in a conduc-
tor, the charge carriers (assumed positive) acquire a
→
where
When an electric field
where
→
ne is the carrier charge density.
/
26.2 C U RRENT D ENSIT Y
793
Current Density
Sometimes we are interested in the current i in a particular conductor. At other times we take a localized view and study the flow of charge through a cross sec- tion of the conductor at a particular point. To describe this flow, we can use the current density J , which has the same direction as the velocity of the moving charges if they are positive and the opposite direction if they are negative. For each element of the cross section, the magnitude J is equal to the current per unit area through that element. We can write the amount of current through the ele- ment as J ⋅ dA , where dA is the area vector of the element, perpendicular to the element. The total current through the surface is then
i
→
→
→
→
Streamlines represent- ing current density in the flow of charge through a constricted conductor. Figure 26.2.1
→
→
i = J ⋅ dA .
(26.2.1) →
→
If the current is uniform across the surface and parallel to dA , then J is also uni- form and parallel to dA . Then Eq. 26.2.1 becomes →
i = J dA = J dA = JA, i , J = __ A
so
(26.2.2)
where A is the total area of the surface. From Eq. 26.2.1 or 26.2.2 we see that the SI unit for current density is the ampere per square meter (A/m 2 ). In Chapter 22 we saw that we can represent an electric field with electric field lines. Figure 26.2.1 shows how current density can be represented with a similar set of lines, which we can call streamlines. The current, which is toward the right in Fig. 26.2.1, m akes a transition from the wider conductor at the left to the narrower conductor at the right. Because charge is conserved during the transition, the amount of charge and thus the amount of current cannot change. However, the current density does change—it is greater in the narrower conductor. The spacing of the streamlines suggests this increase in current density; streamlines that are closer together imply greater current density. Drift Speed
When a conductor does not have a current through it, its conduction electrons move randomly, with no net motion in any direction. When the conductor does have a current through it, these electrons actually still move randomly, but now they tend to drift with a drift speed v d in the direction opposite that of the applied electric field that causes the current. The drift speed is tiny compared with the speeds in the random motion. For example, in the copper conductors of household wiring, electron drift speeds are perhaps 10 –5 or 10 –4 m/s, whereas the random-motion speeds are around 10 6 m/s. We can use Fig. 26.2.2 to relate the drift speed v d of the conduction electrons in a current through a wire to the magnitude J of the current density in the wire. Positive charge carriers drift at speed v d in the direction of the applied elec- tric field E . By convention, the direction of the current density J and the sense of the current arrow are drawn in that same direction. Figure 26.2.2
Current is said to be due to positive charges that are propelled by the electric field.
→
→
i L
+
+
+
+
+
vd E
J
/
794
C HAP T ER 26 C U RRENT AND RESIST ANC E
For convenience, Fig. 26.2.2 shows the equivalent drift of positive charge carriers in the direction of the applied electric field E . Let us assume that these charge carriers a ll move with the same drift speed v d and that the current density J is uni- form across the wire’s cross-sectional area A. The number of charge carriers in a length L of the wire is nAL, where n is the number of carriers per unit volume. The total charge of the carriers in the length L, each with charge e, is then →
q = (nAL)e. Because the carriers all move along the wire with speed v d , this total charge moves through any cross section of the wire in the time interval L t = ___ v . d
Equation 26.1.1 tells us that the current i is the time rate of transfer of charge across a cross section, so here we have q nALe i = __ = ______ = nAev d. t L/ v d
(26.2.3)
Solving for v d and recalling Eq. 26.2.2 ( J = i/A), we obtain i = ___ J v d = ____ nAe ne or, extended to vector form, →
J = (ne) v d .
(26.2.4)
→
Here the product ne, whose SI unit is the coulomb per cubic meter (C/m 3 ), is the carrier charge density. For positive carriers, ne is positive and Eq. 26.2.4 predicts that J and v d have the same direction. For negative carriers, ne is negative a nd J and v d have opposite directions. →
→
→
→
Checkpoint 26.2.1
The figure shows conduction electrons moving leftward in a wire. Are the following leftward or rightward: (a) the current i, (b) the current density J , (c) the electric field E in the wire?
→
Sample Problem 26.2.1
→
Current density, uniform and nonuniform
(a) The current density in a cylindrical wire of radius R = 2.0 mm is uniform across a cross section of the wire and is J = 2.0 × 10 5 A/m 2 . What is the current through the outer portion of the wire between radial distances R/2 and R (Fig. 26.2.3a)?
the entire area), where
KEY IDEA
So, we rewrite Eq. 26.2.2 a s
Because the current density is uniform across the cross section, the current density J, the current i, and the cross- sectional area A are related by Eq. 26.2.2 (J = i/A). We want only the current through a reduced cross-sectional area Aʹ of the wire (rather than Calculations:
R 2 = π ____ 3 R 2 A ′ = πR 2 − π( __ ( 4 ) 2 )
π(0.0020 m) 2 = 9.424 × 10 −6 m 2 . = 3___ 4 i = JAʹ and then substitute the data to find i = (2.0 × 10 5 A/m 2 )(9.424 × 10 −6 m 2 ) = 1.9 A.
(Answer)
/
26.2 C U RRENT D ENSIT Y
(b) Suppose, instead, that the current density through a cross section varies with radial distance r as J = ar 2 , in which a = 3.0 × 10 11 A/m 4 and r is in meters. What now is the current through the same outer portion of the wire?
KEY IDEA Because the current density is not uniform across a cross section of the wire, we must resort to Eq. 26.2.1 (i = ∫ J ⋅ dA ) and integrate the current density over the portion of the wire from r = R/2 to r = R. →
→
We need to replace the differential area dA with something we can actually integrate between the limits r = R/2 and r = R. The simplest replacement (because J is given as a function of r) is the area 2 πr dr of a thin ring of circumference 2πr and width dr (Fig. 26.2.3b). We can then integrate with r as the variable of integration. Equation 26.2.1 then gives us →
→
i = J ⋅ dA = J dA R
R
= ar 2 2πr dr = 2 πa r 3 dr R/2
→
The current density vector J (along the wire’s length) and the differential area vector dA (per- pendicular to a cross section of the wire) have the same direction. Thus, Calculations:
→
→
→
J ⋅ dA = J dA cos 0 = J dA.
795
R/2
4 R
r πa R 4 − ___ R 4 = ___ 15 πaR 4 ___ = 2πa [ __ = 4 ] R/2 2 [ 16 ] 32 15 π(3.0 × 10 11 A/ m 4 4 = ___ )(0.0020 m) = 7.1 A. 32 (Answer)
A We want the current in the area between these two radii.
R
/2
If the current is nonuniform, we start with a ring that is so thin that we can approximate the current density as being uniform within it.
Its area is the product of the circumference and the width.
R dr
(a )
(b )
(c )
Our job is to sum the current in all rings from this smallest one ... (a) Cross section of a wire of radius R. If the current density is uniform, the current is just the product of the current density and the area. (b)–(e) If the current is nonuniform, we must first find the current through a thin ring and then sum (via integration) the cur- rents in all such rings in the given area.
The current within the ring is the product of the current density and the ring’s area. ... to this largest one.
Figure 26.2.3
R
(d )
R
/2
(e )
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796
C HAP T ER 26 C U RRENT AND RESIST ANC E
Sample Problem 26.2.2
In a current, the conduction electrons move very slowly
What is the drift speed of the conduction electrons in a copper wire with radius r = 900 μm when it has a uniform current i = 17 mA? Assume that each copper atom contrib- utes one conduction electron to the current and that the current density is uniform across the wire’s cross section.
KEY IDEAS
Taking copper’s molar mass M and density mass from Appendix F, we then have (with some conversions of units) (6.02 × 10 23 mol −1 )(8.96 × 10 3 kg / m 3 ) n = __________________________________ −3 63.54 × 10 kg / m ol = 8.49 × 10 28 electrons / m 3 n = 8.49 × 10 28 m –3 .
or →
1. The drift speed v d is related to the current density J and the number n of conduction electrons per unit volume according to Eq. 26.2.4, which we can write as J = nev d. 2. Because the current density is uniform, its magni- tude J is related to the given current i and wire size by Eq. 26.2.2 (J = i/A, where A is the cross-sectional area of the wire). 3. Because we assume one conduction electron per atom, the number n of conduction electrons per unit volume is the same as the number of atoms per unit volume. Let us start with the third idea by writing
Calculations:
atoms atoms n = per unit = per mole volume
(
) (
)(
moles per unit mass
)(
mass per unit . volume
)
The number of atoms per mole is just Avogadro’s num- ber N A (= 6.02 × 10 23 mol –1 ). Moles per unit mass is the inverse of the mass per mole, which here is the molar mass M of copper. The mass per unit volume is the (mass) density mass of copper. Thus, N A ρmass 1 ___ n = N A( = ________ . )ρ M mass M
Next let us combine the first two key ideas by writing i = nev . __
d A 2 Substituting for A with πr (= 2.54 × 10 –6 m 2 ) and solving for v d, we then find i v d = _______ ne(πr 2 ) 17 × 10 −3 A = ____________________________________________ 28 −3 (8.49 × 10 m )(1.6 × 10 −19 C)(2.54 × 10 −6 m 2 )
= 4.9 × 10 −7 m /s ,
(Answer)
which is only 1.8 mm/h, slower than a sluggish snail. You may well ask: “If the electrons drift so slowly, why do the room lights turn on so quickly when I throw the switch?” Confusion on this point results from not distinguishing between the drift speed of the electrons and the speed at which changes in the electric field con- figuration travel along wires. This latter speed is nearly that of light; electrons everywhere in the wire begin drift- ing almost at once, including into the lightbulbs. Similarly, when you open the valve on your garden hose with the hose full of water, a pressure wave travels along the hose at the speed of sound in water. The speed at which the water itself moves through the hose—measured perhaps with a dye marker—is much slower. Lights are fast:
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26.3 RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
26.3.1 Apply the relationship between the potential
V applied across an object, the object’s resistance R, and the resulting current i through the difference
object, between the application points. 26.3.2 Identify a resistor.
E set up at a point in a given material,
the material’s resistivity , and the resulting current
J
E, the potential difference V between the L.
two ends, and the wire’s length
and
26.3.5 Apply the relationship between resistivity
σ
conductivity . 26.3.6 Apply the relationship between an object’s
26.3.3 Apply the relationship between the electric field magnitude
magnitude
density magnitude at that point. 26.3.4 For a uniform electric field set up in a wire, apply the relationship between the electric field
R, the resistivity of its material , its L , and its cross-sectional area A.
resistance length
26.3.7 Apply the equation that approximately gives a
as a function of temperature T. versus tempera-
conductor’s resistivity
26.3.8 Sketch a graph of resistivity ture
T for a metal.
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26.3 RESIST ANC E AND RESIST IV IT Y
797
Key Ideas ●
R of a conductor is defined as V , R = __ i
The resistance
V is the potential difference across the conduc- tor and i is the current.
●
R of a conducting wire of length L
The resistance
and uniform cross section is
L , R = ρ __ A
where
●
and conductivity σ of a material are
related by
E is the magnitude of the applied electric field J is the magnitude of the current density.
The electric field and current density are related to
the resistivity by
E = ρ J .
→
for most materials changes with
The resistivity
relation between
where and
●
A is the cross-sectional area.
temperature. For many materials, including metals, the
1 = __ E ρ = __ σ J ,
●
where
The resistivity
→
and temperature T is approximated
by the equation
– 0 = 0 α (T – T 0 ). Here T 0 is a reference temperature, 0 is the resistivity at T 0, and α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity for the material.
Resistance and Resistivity
If we apply the same potential difference between the ends of geometrically simi- lar rods of copper and of glass, very different currents result. The characteristic of the conductor that enters here is its electrical resistance. We determine the resistance between any two points of a conductor by applying a potential dif- ference V between those points and measuring the current i that results. The resistance R is then V R = __ i
(definition of R).
(26.3.1)
The SI unit for resistance that follows from Eq. 26.3.1 is the volt per ampere. This combination occurs so often that we give it a special name, the ohm (symbol Ω); that is, 1 ohm = 1 Ω = 1 volt per ampere = 1 V/A.
TopFoto
An assortment of resis- tors. The circular bands are color- coding marks that identify the value of the resistance. Figure 26.3.1
(26.3.2)
A conductor whose function in a circuit is to provide a specified resistance is called a resistor (see Fig. 26.3.1). In a circuit diagram, we represent a resistor and a resistance with the symbol . If we write Eq. 26.3.1 a s V , i = __ R we see that, for a given V, the greater the resistance, the smaller the current. The resistance of a conductor depends on the manner in which the potential difference is applied to it. Figure 26.3.2, for example, shows a given potential difference applied in two different ways to the same conductor. As the current density streamlines suggest, the currents in the two cases—hence the measured resistances—will be different. Unless otherwise stated, we shall assume that any given potential difference is applied as in Fig. 26.3.2b.
(a )
(b )
Two ways of applying a potential difference to a conducting rod. The gray connectors are assumed to have negligible resistance. When they are arranged as in (a) in a small region at each rod end, the measured resistance is larger than when they are arranged as in (b) to cover the entire rod end. Figure 26.3.2
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C HAP T ER 26 C U RRENT AND RESIST ANC E
As we have done several times in other connections, we often wish to take a general view and deal not with particular objects but with materials. Here we do so by focusing not on the potential difference V across a particular Temperature Coefficient resistor but on the electric field E at a point in a resistive material. Instead of of Resistivity, dealing with the current i through the resistor, we deal with the current den- sity J at the point in question. Instead of the resistance R of an object, we deal α (K –1 ) with the resistivity of the material:
Table 26.3.1 Resistivities of Some
°
Materials at Room Temperature (20 C)
→
Material
Resistivity, (Ω · m)
Typical Metals Silver 1.62 × 10 –8 Copper 1.69 × 10 –8 Gold 2.35 × 10 –8 Aluminum 2.75 × 10 –8 Manganin a 4.82 × 10 –8 Tungsten 5.25 × 10 –8 Iron 9.68 × 10 –8 Platinum 10.6 × 10 –8
→
E ρ = __ J
4.1 × 10 –3 4.3 × 10 –3 4.0 × 10 –3 4.4 × 10 –3 0.002 × 10 –3 4.5 × 10 –3 6.5 × 10 –3 3.9 × 10 –3
Typical Semiconductors Silicon, pure 2.5 × 10 3 Silicon, n-type b 8.7 × 10 –4 Silicon, p-type c 2.8 × 10 –3
(definition of ).
(26.3.3)
(Compare this equation with Eq. 26.3.1.) If we combine the SI units of E and J according to Eq. 26.3.3, we get, for the unit of , the ohm-meter (Ω · m): unit (E) _____ V m = Ω ⋅ m. ________ = V / m = __ unit ( J)
–70 × 10 –3
A / m 2
A
(Do not confuse the ohm-meter, the unit of resistivity, with the ohmmeter, which is an instrument that measures resistance.) Table 26.3.1 lists the resis- tivities of some materials. We can write Eq. 26.3.3 in vector form as E = ρ J .
→
Typical Insulators Glass 10 10 –10 14 Fused quartz ∼10 16
→
(26.3.4)
Equations 26.3.3 a nd 26.3.4 hold only for isotropic materials—materials whose electrical properties are the same in all directions. We often speak of the conductivity σ of a material. This is simply the reciprocal of its resistivity, so
a
An alloy specifically designed to have a small value of α. b Pure silicon doped with phosphorus impurities to a charge carrier density of 10 23 m –3 . c Pure silicon doped with aluminum impurities to a charge carrier density of 10 23 m –3 .
1 σ = __ ρ
(definition of σ).
(26.3.5)
The SI unit of conductivity is the reciprocal ohm-meter, (Ω · m) –1 . The unit name mhos per meter is sometimes used (mho is ohm backwards). The defini- tion of σ allows us to write Eq. 26.3.4 in the alternative form J = σ E .
→
→
(26.3.6)
Calculating Resistance from Resistivity
We have just made an important distinction: Resistance is a property of an object. Resistivity is a property of a material.
Current is driven by a potential difference. L i
i
A V
A potential difference V is applied between the ends of a wire of length L and cross section A, establishing a current i. Figure 26.3.3
If we know the resistivity of a substance such as copper, we can calculate the resistance of a length of wire made of that substance. Let A be the cross- sectional area of the wire, let L be its length, and let a potential difference V exist between its ends (Fig. 26.3.3). If the streamlines representing the current density are uniform throughout the wire, the electric field and the current den- sity will be constant for all points within the wire and, from Eqs. 24.6.5 and 26.2.2, will have the values E = V/L and J = i/A.
(26.3.7)
We can then combine Eqs. 26.3.3 a nd 26.3.7 to write E = ____ V/ L . ρ = __ J i / A
(26.3.8)
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26.3 RESIST ANC E AND RESIST IV IT Y
799
However, V/i is the resistance R, which allows us to recast Eq. 26.3.8 a s L . R = ρ __ A
(26.3.9)
Equation 26.3.9 can be applied only to a homogeneous isotropic conductor of uniform cross section, with the potential difference applied as in Fig. 26.3.2b. The macroscopic quantities V, i, and R are of greatest interest when we are making electrical measurements on specific conductors. They are the quantities that we read directly on meters. We turn to the microscopic quantities E, J, and when we are interested in the fundamental electrical properties of materials. Checkpoint 26.3.1
The figure here shows three cylindrical copper conductors along with their face areas and lengths. Rank them according to the current through them, greatest first, when the same potential difference V is placed across their lengths. L
A
_ 2
1.5 L
_ 2
A
(a )
L
/2
A
(b )
(c )
Variation with Temperature
The values of most physical properties vary with temperature, and resistivity is no exception. Figure 26.3.4, for example, shows the variation of this property for copper over a wide temperature range. The relation between temperature and resistivity for copper—and for metals in general—is fairly linear over a rather broad temperature range. For such linear relations we can write an empirical approximation that is good enough for most engineering purposes:
– 0 = 0 α(T –T 0).
(26.3.10)
Here T 0 is a selected reference temperature and 0 is the resistivity at that tem- perature. Usually T 0 = 293 K (room temperature), for which 0 = 1.69 × 10 –8 Ω · m for copper. Because temperature enters Eq. 26.3.10 only as a difference, it does not mat- ter whether you use the Celsius or Kelvin scale in that equation because the sizes of degrees on these scales are identical. The quantity α in Eq. 26.3.10, called the temperature coefficient of resistivity, is chosen so that the equation gives good agreement with experiment for temperatures in the chosen range. Some values of α for metals are listed in Table 26.3.1. )m. Ω 8–
01( ytivitsiseR
erutarepmet m o oR
10 8 6 4 2 0
(T0, 0
Resistivity can depend on temperature.
ρ0)
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Temperature (K)
The resistivity of copper as a function of temperature. The dot on the curve marks a convenient reference point at temperature T 0 = 293 K and resistivity 0 = 1.69 × 10 –8 Ω · m. Figure 26.3.4
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C HAP T ER 26 C U RRENT AND RESIST ANC E
Sample Problem 26.3.1
Danger of ground current in a lightning strike
Figure 26.3.5a shows a person and a cow, each a radial dis- tance D = 60.0 m from the point where lightning of current I = 100 kA strikes the ground. The current spreads through the ground uniformly over a hemisphere centered on the strike point. The person’s feet are separated by radial dis- tance ∆r per = 0.50 m; the cow’s front and rear hooves are separated by radial distance ∆r cow = 1.50 m . The resistivity of the ground is ρgr = 100 Ω ⋅ m. The resistance both across the person, between left and right feet, and across the cow, between front and rear hooves, is R = 4.00 kΩ.
ΔV = −
D+Δr
D
E dr.
Substituting our expression for E and then integrating give us the potential difference: ΔV = −
ρ I 2 πr
D+Δr
D
ρ
I
D+Δr
gr gr 1 _ dr = − _ [ − _ r ] 2
2π
D
ρgr I 1 _ = _ ( _ − 1 2π D + Δr D )
(a) What is the current i p through the person?
ρgr I _ Δr = − _ . 2π D(D + Δr)
KEY IDEAS (1) The lightning strike sets up an electric field and an electric potential in the surrounding ground. (2) Because one foot is closer to the strike point than the other foot, a potential difference ∆V is set up across the person. (3) That ∆V drives a current i p through the person. Because the lightning’s current I spreads uniformly over a hemisphere in the ground, the current density at any given radius r from the strike point is, from Eq. 26.2.2 (J = i/A), Potential difference:
I , J = _ 2 πr 2
If one of the person’s feet is at radial distance D from the strike point and the other foot is at radial dis- tance D + ∆r, the potential difference between the feet is given by our result for ∆V. That potential difference drives a current i p through the person. To find that cur- rent, we use Eq. 26.3.1 (R = V/i), in which V represents the magnitude of ∆V. We can then write Current:
ρgr I _ V = _ 1 Δr _ i = _ . R 2π D(D + Δr) R Substituting known values, including the foot-to-foot separation ∆r per = 0.50 m, gives the current through the person:
where 2πr 2 is the area of the curved surface of a hemi- sphere. From Eq. 26.3.4 ( ρ = E/J), the magnitude of the electric field is then
ρgr I E = ρgr J = _2 . 2 πr →
From Eq. 24.2.4 (ΔV = −∫ E ⋅ d s ) , the potential differ- ence ∆V between a point at radial distance D and a point at radial distance D + ∆r is →
Victim
Victim I
r
D
D
(a)
Δrper
aicraG annA
Δrcow
(b)
(a) Current from a lightning strike spreads hemispherically through the ground and reaches a cow and a person, each located distance D from the strike point. The danger to them depends on the separation ∆r. (b) Marks left on turf by ground currents from a lightning strike. Figure 26.3.5
/
801
26.4 OHM’S L AW
(100 Ω ⋅ m)(100 kA) i p = _________________ 2π 0.50 m 1 _ × _______________________ (60.0 m)(60.0 m + 0.50 m) 4.00 kΩ = 0.0548 A = 54.8 mA.
(Answer)
This amount of current causes involuntary muscle con- traction; the person will collapse but probably soon recover. Note that the person could reduce the current an order of magnitude by standing with feet together so that ∆r is only a few centimeters.
(b) What is the current i c through the cow? We again use our result for current i but now ∆r is ∆r cow = 1.50 m . We now find that the current through the cow is Calculation:
i c = 0.162 A = 162 mA,
(Answer)
which is fatal. The cow is in more danger from the ground current because of its greater value of ∆r. The cow is, of course, unable to reduce its danger by standing with its hooves together (which would be a bizarre sight).
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26.4 OHM’S LAW Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
26.4.1 Distinguish between an object that obeys Ohm’s
26.4.4 For the conduction electrons in a conductor,
law and one that does not.
τ
explain the relationship between the mean free time ,
26.4.2 Distinguish between a material that obeys Ohm’s law and one that does not.
the effective speed, and the thermal (random) motion.
26.4.5 Apply the relationship between resistivity ,
n of conduction electrons, and the
26.4.3 Describe the general motion of a conduction
number density
electron in a current.
mean free time
τ of the electrons.
Key Ideas ●
A giv en dev ice (conductor, resistor, or any other
to an expression for the resistivity of a metal:
m . ρ = _____ e 2 nτ
electrical dev ice) obey s Ohm’s law if its res is tance
R (= V/i) is independent of the applied potential difference V.
Here
● A given material obeys Ohm’s law if its resistivity
and
(= E/J) is independent of the magnitude and direc- →
tion of the applied electric field ●
E .
The assumption that the conduction electrons in a
metal are free to move like the molecules in a gas leads
n is the number of free electrons per unit volume
τ is the mean time between the collisions of an
electron with the atoms of the metal. ●
τ
Metals obey Ohm’s law because the mean free time
is approximately independent of the magnitude
E of
any electric field applied to a metal.
Ohm’s Law
As we just discussed, a resistor is a conductor with a specified resistance. It has that same resistance no matter what the magnitude and direction ( polarity) of the applied potential difference are. Other conducting devices, however, might have resistances that change with the applied potential difference. Figure 26.4.1a shows how to distinguish such devices. A potential difference V is applied across the device being tested, and the resulting current i through the device is measured as V is varied in both magnitude and polarity. The polar- ity of V is arbitrarily taken to be positive when the left terminal of the device is
/
802
C HAP T ER 26 C U RRENT AND RESIST ANC E
V
+
–
?
i
i
(a )
)Am( tnerruC
+2 0
–2 –4
–2 0 +2 +4 Potential difference (V) (b )
Ohm’s law is an assertion that the current through a device is always directly proportional to the potential difference applied to the device.
)Am( tnerruC
+4 +2 0
–2
at a higher potential than the right terminal. The direction of the resulting cur- rent (from left to right) is arbitrarily assigned a plus sign. The reverse polarity of V (with the right terminal at a higher potential) is then negative; the current it causes is assigned a minus sign. Figure 26.4.1b is a plot of i versus V for one device. This plot is a straight line passing through the origin, so the ratio i/V (which is the slope of the straight line) is the same for all values of V. This means that the resistance R = V/i of the device is independent of the magnitude and polarity of the applied potential difference V. Figure 26.4.1c is a plot for another conducting device. Current can exist in this device only when the polarity of V is positive and the applied potential dif- ference is more than about 1.5 V. When current does exist, the relation between i and V is not linear; it depends on the value of the applied potential difference V. We distinguish between the two types of device by saying that one obeys Ohm’s law and the other does not.
–4
–2 0 +2 +4 Potential difference (V) (c )
(a) A potential differ- ence V is applied to the terminals of a device, establishing a current i. (b) A plot of current i versus applied potential difference V when the device is a 1000 Ω resistor. (c) A plot when the device is a semiconducting pn junction diode. Figure 26.4.1
(This assertion is correct only in certain situations; still, for historical reasons, the term “law” is used.) The device of Fig. 26.4.1b—which turns out to be a 1000 Ω resistor—obeys Ohm’s law. The device of Fig. 26.4.1c—which is called a pn junc- tion diode—does not. A conducting device obeys Ohm’s law when the resistance of the device is independent of the magnitude and polarity of the applied potential difference.
It is often contended that V = iR is a statement of Ohm’s law. That is not true! This equation is the defining equation for resistance, and it applies to all conducting devices, whether they obey Ohm’s law or not. If we measure the potential difference V across, and the current i through, any device, even a pn junction diode, we can find its resistance at that value of V as R = V/i. The essence of Ohm’s law, however, is that a plot of i versus V is linear; that is, R is independent of V. We can generalize this for conducting materials by using Eq. 26.3.4 ( E = ρ J ): →
→
A conducting material obeys Ohm’s law when the resistivity of the material is independent of the magnitude and direction of the applied electric field.
All homogeneous materials, whether they are conductors like copper or semi- conductors like pure silicon or silicon containing special impurities, obey Ohm’s law within some range of values of the electric field. If the field is too strong, however, there are departures from Ohm’s law in all cases. Checkpoint 26.4.1
The following table gives the current i (in amperes) through two devices for several values of potential difference V (in volts). From these data, determine which device does not obey Ohm’s law.
Device 1
Device 2
V
i
V
i
2.00 3.00 4.00
4.50 6.75 9.00
2.00 3.00 4.00
1.50 2.20 2.80
/
26.4 OHM’S L AW
803
A Microscopic View of Ohm’s Law
To find out why particular materials obey Ohm’s law, we must look into the details of the conduction process at the atomic level. Here we consider only conduction in metals, such as copper. We base our analysis on the free-electron model, in which we assume that the conduction electrons in the metal are free to move throughout the volume of a sample, like the molecules of a gas in a closed container. We also assume that the electrons collide not with one another but only with atoms of the metal. According to classical physics, the electrons should have a Maxwellian speed distribution somewhat like that of the molecules in a gas (Module 19.6), a nd thus the average e lectron speed should depend on the temperature. The motions of electrons are, however, governed not by the laws of classical physics but by those of quantum physics. As it turns out, an assumption that is much closer to the quantum reality is that conduction electrons in a metal move with a single effec- tive speed v eff , and this speed is essentially independent of the temperature. For copper, v eff ≈ 1.6 × 10 6 m/s. When we apply an electric field to a metal sample, the electrons modify their random motions slightly and drift very slowly—in a direction opposite that of the field—with an average drift speed v d. The drift speed in a typical metallic conductor is about 5 × 10 –7 m/s, less than the effective speed (1.6 × 10 6 m/s) by many orders of magnitude. Figure 26.4.2 suggests the relation between these two speeds. The gray lines show a possible random path for an electron in the absence of an applied field; the electron proceeds from A to B, making six collisions along the way. The green lines show how the same events might occur when an electric field E is applied. We see that the electron drifts steadily to the right, ending at Bʹ rather than at B. Figure 26.4.2 was drawn with the assumption that v d ≈ 0.02v eff . However, because the actual value is more like v d ≈ (10 –13 )v eff , the drift displayed in the figure is greatly e xaggerated. The motion of conduction electrons in an electric field E is thus a combina- tion of the motion due to random collisions and that due to E .When we consider all the free electrons, their random motions average to zero and make no con- tribution to the drift speed. Thus, the drift speed is due only to the effect of the electric field on the electrons. If an electron of mass m is placed in an electric field of magnitude E, the elec- tron will experience an acceleration given by Newton’s second law: F eE ___ (26.4.1) a = __ m = m . After a typical collision, each electron will—so to speak—completely lose its mem- ory of its previous drift velocity, starting fresh and moving off in a random direction. In the average time τ between collisions, the average electron will acquire a drift speed of v d = a τ. Moreover, if we measure the drift speeds of all the electrons at any instant, we will find that their average drift speed is also a τ. Thus, at any instant, on average, the electrons will have drift speed v d = aτ. Then Eq. 26.4.1 gives us eEτ . (26.4.2) v d = a τ = ____ m →
→
→
The gray lines show an electron mov- ing from A to B, making six collisions en route. The green lines show what the electron’s path might be in the presence of an applied electric field E . Note the steady drift in the direction of − E. (Actually, the green lines should be slightly curved, to represent the parabolic paths followed by the electrons between collisions, under the influence of an electric field.) Figure 26.4.2
→
→
B
A
B'
E
/
804
C HAP T ER 26 C U RRENT AND RESIST ANC E
→
Combining this result with Eq. 26.2.4 ( J = ne v d ), in magnitude form, yields →
J ____ eEτ v d = ___ ne = m ,
(26.4.3)
m E = _____ ( e 2 n τ ) J.
(26.4.4)
which we can write as
Comparing this with Eq. 26.3.4 ( E = ρ J ), in magnitude form, leads to →
→
m . ρ = _____ e 2 n τ
(26.4.5)
Equation 26.4.5 m ay be taken as a statement that metals obey Ohm’s law if we can show that, for metals, their resistivity is a constant, independent of the strength of the applied electric field E . Let’s consider the quantities in Eq. 26.4.5. We can reasonably assume that n, the number of conduction electrons per volume, is independent of the field, and m and e are constants. Thus, we only need to con- vince ourselves that τ , the average time (or mean free time) between collisions, is a constant, independent of the strength of the applied electric field. Indeed, τ can be considered to be a constant because the drift speed v d caused by the field is so much smaller than the effective speed v eff that the electron speed—and thus τ—is hardly affected by the field. Thus, because the right side of Eq. 26.4.5 is independent of the field magnitude, metals obey Ohm’s law. →
Sample Problem 26.4.1
Mean free time and mean free distance
(a) What is the mean free time τ between collisions for the conduction electrons in copper?
KEY IDEAS The mean free time τ of copper is approximately constant, and in particular does not depend on any electric field that might be applied to a sample of the copper. Thus, we need not consider any particular value of applied electric field. However, because the resistivity displayed by cop- per under an electric field depends on τ , we can find the mean free time τ from Eq. 26.4.5 ( = m/e 2 n τ). Calculations:
That equation gives us m . τ = _____ ne 2 ρ
(26.4.6)
The number of conduction electrons per unit volume in copper is 8.49 × 10 28 m –3 . We take the value of from Table 26.3.1. The denominator then becomes (8.49 × 10 28 m −3 )(1.6 × 10 −19 C) 2 (1.69 × 10 −8 Ω ⋅ m) = 3.67 × 10 −17 C 2 ⋅ Ω/ m 2 = 3.67 × 10 −17 kg /s, where we converted units as 2 2
2 kg ⋅ m /s ___ kg C ⋅ Ω = ______ C 2 ⋅ V = ________ C 2 ⋅ J / C = _________ ______ = s . 2 2 2 2 m m ⋅ A m ⋅ C /s m /s
Using these results and substituting for the electron mass m, we then have 9.1 × 10 −31 kg τ = _______________ = 2.5 × 10 −14 s. (Answer) 3.67 × 10 −17 kg /s (b) The mean free path of the conduction electrons in a conductor is the average distance traveled by an elec- tron between collisions. (This definition parallels that in Module 19.5 for the mean free path of molecules in a gas.) What is for the conduction electrons in copper, assuming that their effective speed v e ff is 1.6 × 10 6 m/s?
KEY IDEA The distance d any particle travels in a certain time t at a constant speed v is d = vt. Calculation:
For the electrons in copper, this gives us
λ = v eff τ
(26.4.7) 6
−14
= (1.6 × 10 m/s)(2.5 × 10 = 4.0 × 10 −8 m = 40 nm.
s) (Answer)
This is about 150 times the distance between nearest- neighbor atoms in a copper lattice. Thus, on the average, each c onduction electron passes m any c opper atoms before finally hitting one.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
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805
26.5 P OWER, SEMIC OND U C T ORS, SU P ERC OND U C T ORS
26.5 POWER, SEMICONDUCTORS, SUPERCONDUCTORS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
26.5.1 Explain how conduction electrons in a circuit
26.5.4 For a battery, apply the relationship between
lose energy in a resistive device. 26.5.2 Identify that power is the rate at which energy is
power
transferred from one type to another.
with a battery and a resistive device to relate the
26.5.3 For a resistive device, apply the relationships between power
R.
P , current i, voltage V, and
P, current i , and potential difference V.
26.5.5 Apply the conservation of energy to a circuit
energy transfers in the circuit. 26.5.6 Distinguish conductors, semiconductors, and
resistance
superconductors.
Key Ideas ●
The power
P, or rate of energy transfer, in an electri- V is
●
In a resistor, electric potential energy is converted to
cal device across which a potential difference
internal thermal energy via collisions between charge
maintained is
carriers and atoms. ●
P = iV. ●
Semiconductors are materials that have few conduc-
tion electrons but can become conductors when they are
If the device is a resistor, the power can also be
written as
doped with other atoms that contribute charge carriers. ●
2
V . P = i 2 R = ___ R
Superconductors are materials that lose all electri-
cal resistance. Most such materials require very low temperatures, but some become superconducting at temperatures as high as room temperature.
Power in Electric Circuits
Figure 26.5.1 shows a circuit consisting of a battery B that is connected by wires, which we assume have negligible resistance, to an unspecified conducting device. The device might be a resistor, a storage battery (a rechargeable bat- tery), a motor, or some other electrical device. The battery maintains a poten- tial difference of magnitude V across its own terminals and thus (because of the wires) across the terminals of the unspecified device, with a greater potential at terminal a of the device than at terminal b. Because there is an external conducting path between the two terminals of the battery, and because the potential differences set up by the battery are maintained, a steady current i is produced in the circuit, directed from terminal a to terminal b. The amount of charge dq that moves between those terminals in time interval dt is equal to i dt. This charge dq moves through a decrease in potential of magnitude V, and thus its electric potential energy decreases in magnitude by the amount dU = dq V = i dt V.
(26.5.1)
The principle of conservation of energy tells us that the decrease in electric potential energy from a to b is accompanied by a transfer of energy to some other form. The power P associated with that transfer is the rate of transfer dU/dt, which is given by Eq. 26.5.1 a s P = iV
(rate of electrical energy transfer).
The battery at the left supplies energy to the conduction electrons that form the current.
(26.5.2)
Moreover, this power P is also the rate at which energy is transferred from the battery to the unspecified device. If that device is a motor connected to a mechan- ical load, the energy is transferred as work done on the load. If the device is a storage battery that is being charged, the energy is transferred to stored chemical energy in the storage battery. If the device is a resistor, the energy is transferred to internal thermal energy, tending to increase the resistor’s temperature.
i
i i a
+ B –
? b
i
i
i
A battery B sets up a current i in a circuit containing an unspecified conducting device. Figure 26.5.1
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806
C HAP T ER 26 C U RRENT AND RESIST ANC E
The unit of power that follows from Eq. 26.5.2 is the volt-ampere (V · A). We can write it as J C J __ __ _ 1 V ⋅ A = (1 C )(1 s ) = 1 s = 1 W. As an electron moves through a resistor at constant drift speed, its average kinetic energy remains constant and its lost electric potential energy appears as thermal energy in the resistor and the surroundings. On a microscopic scale this energy transfer is due to collisions between the electron and the molecules of the resistor, which leads to an increase in the temperature of the resistor lat- tice. The mechanical e nergy thus transferred to thermal energy is dissipated (lost) because the transfer cannot be reversed. For a resistor or some other device with resistance R, we can combine Eqs. 26.3.1 (R = V/i) and 26.5.2 to obtain, for the rate of electrical energy dissipa- tion due to a resistance, either P = i 2 R 2
___ P = V R
or
(resistive dissipation)
(26.5.3)
(resistive dissipation).
(26.5.4)
Caution: We must be careful to distinguish these two equations from Eq. 26.5.2: P = iV applies to electrical energy transfers of all kinds; P = i 2 R and P = V 2 /R apply only to the transfer of electric potential energy to thermal energy in a device with resistance. Checkpoint 26.5.1
A potential difference V is connected across a device with resistance R, causing current i through the device. Rank the following variations according to the change in the rate at which electrical energy is converted to thermal energy due to the resis- tance, greatest change first: (a) V is doubled with R unchanged, (b) i is doubled with R unchanged, (c) R is doubled with V unchanged, (d) R is doubled with i unchanged.
Sample Problem 26.5.1
Rate of energy dissipation in a wire carrying current
(120 V) 2 V 2 = ________ P = ___ = 200 W. R 72 Ω
You are given a length of uniform heating wire made of a nickel–chromium–iron alloy called Nichrome; it has a resistance R of 72 Ω. At what rate is energy dissipated in each of the following situations? (1) A potential differ- ence of 120 V is applied across the full length of the wire. (2) The wire is cut in half, and a potential difference of 120 V is applied across the length of each half.
In situation 2, the resistance of each half of the wire is (72 Ω)/2, or 36 Ω. Thus, the dissipation rate for each half is
KEY IDEA
and that for the two halves is
Current in a resistive material produces a transfer of mechanical energy to thermal energy; the rate of transfer (dissipation) is given by Eqs. 26.5.2 to 26.5.4. Because we know the potential V and resis- tance R, we use Eq. 26.5.4, which yields, for situation 1, Calculations:
(Answer)
(120 V) 2 P′ = ________ = 400 W, 36 Ω P = 2Pʹ = 800 W.
(Answer)
This is four times the dissipation rate of the full length of wire. Thus, you might conclude that you could buy a heat- ing coil, cut it in half, and reconnect it to obtain four times the heat output. Why is this unwise? (What would happen to the amount of current in the coil?)
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26.5 P OWER, SEMIC OND U C T ORS, SU P ERC OND U C T ORS
807
Semiconductors
Semiconducting devices are at the heart of the microelectronic revolution that ushered in the information age. Table 26.5.1 compares the properties of silicon— a typical semiconductor—and copper—a typical metallic conductor. We see that silicon has many fewer charge carriers, a much higher resistivity, and a temperature coefficient of resistivity that is both large and negative. Thus, although the resistivity of copper increases with increasing temperature, that of pure silicon decreases. Pure silicon has such a high resistivity that it is effectively an insulator and thus not of much direct use in microelectronic circuits. However, its resistivity can be greatly reduced in a controlled way by adding minute amounts of specific “impurity” atoms in a process called doping. Table 26.3.1 g ives typical values of resistivity for silicon before and after doping with two different impurities. We can roughly explain the differences in resistivity (and thus in conductivity) between semiconductors, insulators, and metallic c onductors in terms of the ener- gies of their electrons. (We need quantum physics to explain in more detail.) In a metallic conductor such as copper wire, most of the electrons are firmly locked in place within the atoms; much energy would be required to free them so they could move and participate in an electric current. However, there are also some electrons that, roughly speaking, are only loosely held in place and that require only little energy to become free. Thermal energy can supply that energy, a s can an electric field applied across the conductor. The field would not only free these loosely held electrons but would also propel them along the wire; thus, the field would drive a current through the conductor. In an insulator, significantly greater energy is required to free electrons so they can move through the material. Thermal energy cannot supply enough en- ergy, and neither can any reasonable electric field applied to the insulator. Thus, no electrons are available to move through the insulator, and hence no current occurs even with an applied electric field. A semiconductor is like an insulator except that the energy required to free some electrons is not quite so great. More important, doping can supply electrons or positive charge carriers that are very loosely held within the material and thus are easy to get moving. Moreover, by controlling the doping of a semiconductor, we can control the density of charge carriers that can participate in a current and thereby can control some of its electrical properties. Most semiconducting devices, such as transistors and junction diodes, are fabricated by the selective doping of different regions of the silicon with impurity atoms of different kinds. Let us now look again at Eq. 26.4.5 for the resistivity of a conductor: m , ρ = _____ e 2 n τ
(26.5.5)
where n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume and τ is the mean time between collisions of the charge carriers. The equation also applies to semicon- ductors. Let’s consider how n and τ change as the temperature is increased. In a conductor, n is large but very nearly constant with any change in tem- perature. The increase of resistivity with temperature for metals (Fig. 26.3.4) is due to an increase in the collision rate of the charge carriers, which shows up in Eq. 26.5.5 a s a decrease in τ , the mean time between collisions. Table 26.5.1 Some Electrical Properties of Copper and Silicon
Property Type of material Charge carrier density, m –3 Resistivity, Ω · m Temperature coefficient of resistivity, K –1
Copper
Silicon
Metal 8.49 × 10 28 1.69 × 10 –8 +4.3 × 10 –3
Semiconductor 1 × 10 16 2.5 × 10 3 –70 × 10 –3
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808
C HAP T ER 26 C U RRENT AND RESIST ANC E
) Ω ( e cnatsiseR
In a semiconductor, n is small but increases very rapidly with temperature as the increased thermal agitation makes more charge carriers a vailable. This causes a decrease of resistivity with increasing temperature, as indicated by the nega- tive temperature coefficient of resistivity for silicon in Table 26.5.1. The same increase in collision rate that we noted for metals also occurs for semiconductors, but its effect is swamped by the rapid increase in the number of charge carriers.
0.16 0.08 0 0
2 4 6 Temperature (K)
The resistance of mer- cury drops to zero at a temperature of about 4 K. Figure 26.5.2
Courtesy of Shoji Tonaka/International Super- conductivity Technology Center, Tokyo, Japan
A disk-shaped magnet is levitated above a superconducting material that has been cooled by liquid nitrogen. The goldfish is along for the ride.
Superconductors
In 1911, D utch physicist Kamerlingh Onnes discovered that the resistivity of mer- cury absolutely disappears at temperatures below about 4 K (Fig. 26.5.2). This phenomenon of superconductivity is of vast potential importance in technology because it means that charge can flow through a superconducting conductor without losing its energy to thermal energy. Currents created in a superconduct- ing ring, for example, have persisted for several years without loss; the electrons making up the current require a force and a source of energy a t start-up time but not thereafter. Prior to 1986, the technological development of superconductivity was throt- tled by the cost of producing the extremely low temperatures required to achieve the effect. In 1986, however, new ceramic m aterials were discovered that become superconducting at considerably higher (and thus cheaper to produce) tempera- tures. Practical application of superconducting devices at room temperature may eventually become commonplace. Superconductivity is a phenomenon much different from conductivity. In fact, the best of the normal conductors, such as silver and copper, cannot become superconducting at any temperature, and the new ceramic superconductors are actually good insulators when they are not at low enough temperatures to be in a superconducting state. One explanation for superconductivity is that the electrons that make up the current move in coordinated pairs. One of the electrons in a pair may electri- cally distort the molecular structure of the superconducting material as it moves through, creating nearby a short-lived concentration of positive charge. The other electron in the pair may then be attracted toward this positive charge. Accord- ing to the theory, such coordination between electrons would prevent them from colliding with the molecules of the material and thus would eliminate electrical resistance. The theory worked well to explain the pre-1986, lower temperature superconductors, but new theories appear to be needed for the newer, higher temperature superconductors.
Review & Summary An electric current i in a conductor is defined by dq (26.1.1) i = ___ . dt Here dq is the amount of (positive) charge that passes in time dt through a hypothetical surface that cuts across the conductor. By convention, the direction of electric current is taken as the direction in which positive charge carriers would move. The SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A): 1 A = 1 C/s. Current
Current (a scalar) is related to current density J (a vector) by Current Density →
i = J ⋅ dA , →
→
(26.2.1)
where dA is a vector perpendicular to a surface element of area dA and the integral is taken over any surface cutting across the conductor. J has the same direction as the velocity of the mov- ing charges if they are positive and the opposite direction if they are negative. →
→
When an elec- tric field E is established in a conductor, the charge carriers (assumed positive) acquire a drift speed v d in the direction of E ; the velocity v d is related to the current density by Drift Speed of the Charge Carriers →
→
→
J = (ne) v d ,
→
→
(26.2.4)
where ne is the carrier charge density.
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809
QU EST IONS
Resistance of a Conductor
ductor is defined as
The resistance R of a con-
V (definition of R), R = __ i
(26.3.1)
where V is the potential difference across the conductor and i is the current. The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω): 1 Ω = 1 V/A. Similar equations define the resistivity and conductivity σ of a material: E __ ρ = __ 1 σ = J
(definitions of and σ),
(26.3.5, 26.3.3)
where E is the magnitude of the applied electric field. The SI unit of resistivity is the ohm-meter (Ω · m). Equation 26.3.3 cor- responds to the vector equation (26.3.4) E = ρ J . The resistance R of a conducting wire of length L and uni- form cross section is L , (26.3.9) R = ρ __ A where A is the cross-sectional area. →
→
with Temperature The resistivity for most materials changes with temperature. For many materials, including metals, the relation between and temperature T is approximated by the equation
defined by Eq. 26.3.3, is independent of the magnitude and direction of the applied electric field E . →
By assuming that the conduction electrons in a metal are free to move like the molecules of a gas, it is possible to derive an expression for the resistivity of a metal: Resistivity of a Metal
m . ρ = _____ e 2 nτ
Here n is the number of free electrons per unit volume and τ is the mean time between the collisions of an electron with the atoms of the metal. We can explain why metals obey Ohm’s law by pointing out that τ is essentially independent of the magni- tude E of any electric field applied to a metal. The power P, or rate of energy transfer, in an electrical device across which a potential difference V is maintained is Power
P = iV (rate of electrical energy transfer). Resistive Dissipation
write Eq. 26.5.2 as
Change of ρ
– 0 = 0 α(T – T 0 ). (26.3.10) Here T 0 is a reference temperature, 0 is the resistivity at T 0 , and α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity for the material.
A given device (conductor, resistor, or any other electrical device) obeys Ohm’s law if its resistance R, defined by Eq. 26.3.1 as V/i, is independent of the applied potential dif- ference V. A given material obeys Ohm’s law if its resistivity,
(26.4.5)
(26.5.2)
If the device is a resistor, we can
2
V P = i 2 R = ___ R (resistive dissipation).
(26.5.3, 26.5.4)
In a resistor, electric potential energy is converted to internal thermal energy via collisions between charge carriers and atoms. Semiconductors are materials that have few conduction electrons but can become conductors when they are doped with other atoms that contribute charge carriers. Semiconductors
Ohm’s Law
Superconductors are materials that lose all electrical resistance at low temperatures. Some materials are superconducting at surprisingly high temperatures. Superconductors
Questions Figure 26.1 shows cross sections through three long conduc- tors of the same length and material, with square cross sections of edge lengths as shown. Conductor B fits snugly within con- ductor A, and conductor C fits snugly within conductor B. Rank the following according to their end-to-end resistances, greatest first: the individual conductors and the combinations of A + B (B inside A), B + C (C inside B), and A + B + C (B inside A inside C).
4
1
√3
l
√2
l l
C B A
Figure 26.1
Question 1.
Figure 26.2 shows cross sections through three wires of identical length and material; the sides are given in millimeters. Rank the wires according to their resistance (measured end to end along each wire’s length), greatest first. 2
4 (a )
6
5 (b )
2
Figure 26.2
3 (c )
Question 2.
Figure 26.3 shows a rectan- 3L gular solid conductor of edge 2L lengths L, 2L, and 3L. A poten- tial difference V is to be applied uniformly between pairs of oppo- L site faces of the conductor as in Fig. 26.3.2b. (The potential dif- Figure 26.3 Question 3. ference is applied between the entire face on one side and the entire face on the other side.) First V is applied between the left–right faces, then between the top–bottom faces, and then between the front–back faces. Rank those pairs, greatest first, according to the following (within the conductor): (a) the magnitude of the electric field, (b) the current density, (c) the current, and (d) the drift speed of the electrons. 3
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810
C HAP T ER 26 C U RRENT AND RESIST ANC E
Figure 26.4 shows plots of the current i through a certain cross section of a wire over four different time periods. Rank the periods according to the net charge that passes through the cross section during the period, greatest first. 4
i
The following table gives the lengths of three copper rods, their diameters, and the potential differences between their ends. Rank the rods according to (a) the magnitude of the elec- tric field within them, (b) the current density within them, and (c) the drift speed of electrons through them, greatest first. 8
a c
d
b
0
t
Figure 26.4
Question 4.
Figure 26.5 shows four situations in which positive and nega- tive charges move horizontally and gives the rate at which each charge moves. Rank the situations according to the effective current through the regions, greatest first. 5
7 C/s
3 C/s
2 C/s
+ 4 C/s
(a )
5 C/s
(b ) Figure 26.5
6 C/s
+ (c )
+
1 C/s (d )
Question 5.
In Fig. 26.6, a wire that carries a current consists of three sec- tions with different radii. Rank 2R 0 R0 1.5 R 0 the sections according to the fol- lowing quantities, greatest first: (a) current, (b) magnitude of cur- A B C rent density, and (c) magnitude Figure 26.6 Question 6. of electric field. 6
Figure 26.7 gives the electric potential V(x) versus position x along a copper wire carrying cur- rent. The wire consists of three sections that differ in radius. Rank the three sections accord- ing to the magnitude of the (a) electric field and (b) current den- sity, greatest first. 7
V
x A
B
Figure 26.7
C
Question 7.
Rod
Length
Diameter
Potential Difference
1
L
3d
V
2
2L
d
2V
3
3L
2d
2V
Figure 26.8 gives the drift v speed v d of conduction electrons in a copper wire versus position x along the wire. The wire con- x sists of three sections that differ A B C in radius. Rank the three sections Figure 26.8 Question 9. according to the following quanti- ties, greatest first: (a) radius, (b) number of conduction electrons per cubic meter, (c) magnitude of electric field, (d) conductivity. 9
d
Three wires, of the same diameter, are connected in turn between two points maintained at a constant potential differ- ence. Their resistivities and lengths are and L (wire A), 1.2 and 1.2L (wire B), and 0.9 and L (wire C). Rank the wires according to the rate at which energy is transferred to thermal energy within them, greatest first. 10
Figure 26.9 gives, for three a wires of radius R, the current b density J(r) versus radius r, as J measured from the center of a c circular cross section through the wire. The wires are all made r R from the same material. Rank Figure 26.9 Question 11. the wires according to the mag- nitude of the electric field (a) at the center, (b) halfway to the surface, and (c) at the surface, greatest first. 11
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 26.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard
BIO Flying
Circus of Physics
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
Electric Current
During the 4.0 min a 5.0 A current is set up in a wire, how many (a) coulombs and (b) electrons pass through any cross sec- tion across the wire’s width? 1 E
An isolated conducting sphere has a 10 cm radius. One wire carries a current of 1.000 002 0 A into it. Another wire carries a current of 1.000 000 0 A out of it. How long would it take for the sphere to increase in potential by 1000 V?
M A charged belt, 50 cm wide, travels at 30 m/s between a source of charge and a sphere. The belt carries charge into the sphere at a rate corresponding to 100 μ A. Compute the surface charge density on the belt.
3
2 M
Module 26.2
Current Density
The (United States) National Electric Code, which sets maximum safe currents for insulated copper wires of various 4
E
/
P ROBL EMS
diameters, is given (in part) in the table. Plot the safe current density as a function of diameter. Which wire gauge has the maximum safe current density? (“Gauge” is a way of identifying wire diameters, and 1 mil = 10 –3 in.) Gauge Diameter, mils Safe current, A
10
12
14
16
18
204 162 129 102
4
81
64
51
40
20
15
6
3
70
6 50
8 35
25
is 470 km/s. (a) Find the current density of these protons. (b) If Earth’s magnetic field did not deflect the protons, what total current would Earth receive? GO How long does it take electrons to get from a car bat- tery to the starting motor? Assume the current is 300 A and the electrons travel through a copper wire with cross-sectional area 0.21 cm 2 and length 0.85 m. The number of charge carriers per unit volume is 8.49 × 10 28 m –3 . 13 M
A beam contains 2.0 × 10 8 doubly charged positive ions per cubic centimeter, all of which are moving north with a speed of 1.0 × 10 5 m/s. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the current density J ? (c) What additional quantity do you need to calculate the total current i in this ion beam?
Module 26.3
A certain cylindrical i wire carries current. We draw a circle of radius r r around its central axis in Fig. 26.10a to determine 2 0 r (a ) the current i within the 2 2 r (mm ) circle. Figure 26.10b shows ( b) current i as a function of Figure 26.10 Problem 6. r 2 . The vertical scale is set by i s = 4.0 mA, and the 2 horizontal scale is set by r 2 s = 4.0 mm . (a) Is the current density uniform? (b) If so, what is its magnitude?
15 E
5 E
SSM
→
6
E
)Am( i
s
s
A fuse in an electric circuit is a wire that is designed to melt, and thereby open the circuit, if the current exceeds a predeter- mined value. Suppose that the material to be used in a fuse melts when the current density rises to 440 A/cm 2 . What diameter of cylindrical wire should be used to make a fuse that will limit the current to 0.50 A? 7 E
A small but measurable current of 1.2 × 10 –10 A exists in a copper wire whose diameter is 2.5 mm. The number of charge carriers per unit volume is 8.49 × 10 28 m –3 . Assuming the cur- rent is uniform, calculate the (a) current density and (b) electron drift speed. 8
E
CALC The magnitude J(r) of the current density in a certain cylindrical wire is given as a function of radial distance from the center of the wire’s cross section as J(r) = Br, where r is in meters, J is in amperes per square meter, and B = 2.00 × 10 5 A/m 3 . This function applies out to the wire’s radius of 2.00 mm. How much current is contained within the width of a thin ring concen- tric with the wire if the ring has a radial width of 10.0 μm and is at a radial distance of 1.20 mm?
9 M
CALC The magnitude J of the current density in a certain lab wire with a circular cross section of radius R = 2.00 mm is given by J = (3.00 × 10 8 )r 2 , with J in amperes per square meter and radial distance r in meters. What is the current through the outer section bounded by r = 0.900R and r = R?
10 M
CALC What is the current in a wire of radius R = 3.40 mm if the magnitude of the current density is given by (a) J a = J 0r /R and (b) J b = J 0 (1 – r/R), in which r is the radial distance and J 0 = 5.50 × 10 4 A/m 2 ? (c) Which function maximizes the current density near the wire’s surface?
11 M
M Near Earth, the density of protons in the solar wind (a stream of particles from the Sun) is 8.70 cm –3 , and their speed
12
811
Resistance and Resistivity
A human being can be electrocuted if a current as small as 50 mA passes near the heart. An electrician working with sweaty hands makes good contact with the two conductors he is holding, one in each hand. If his resistance is 2000 Ω, what might the fatal voltage be? 14 E
BIO FCP
SSM A coil is formed by winding 250 turns of insulated 16-gauge copper wire (diameter = 1.3 mm) in a single layer on a cylindrical form of radius 12 cm. What is the resistance of the coil? Neglect the thickness of the insulation. (Use Table 26.3.1.) E Copper and aluminum are being considered for a high-voltage transmission line that must carry a current of 60.0 A. The resistance per unit length is to be 0.150 Ω/km. The densities of copper and aluminum are 8960 and 2600 kg/m 3 , respectively. Compute (a) the magnitude J of the current density and (b) the mass per unit length for a copper cable and (c) J and (d) for an aluminum cable.
16
A wire of Nichrome (a nickel–chromium–iron alloy com- monly used in heating elements) is 1.0 m long and 1.0 mm 2 in cross-sectional area. It carries a current of 4.0 A when a 2.0 V potential difference is applied between its ends. Calculate the conductivity σ of Nichrome. 17 E
A wire 4.00 m long and 6.00 mm in diameter has a resis- tance of 15.0 mΩ. A potential difference of 23.0 V is applied between the ends. (a) What is the current in the wire? (b) What is the magnitude of the current density? (c) Calculate the resistivity of the wire material. (d) Using Table 26.3.1, identify the material. 18 E
SSM What is the resistivity of a wire of 1.0 mm diameter, 2.0 m length, and 50 mΩ resistance?
19 E
A certain wire has a resistance R. What is the resistance of a second wire, made of the same material, that is half as long and has half the diameter? 20 E
A common flashlight bulb is rated at 0.30 A and 2.9 V (the values of the current and voltage under operating conditions). If the resistance of the tungsten bulb filament at room temper- ature (20°C) is 1.1 Ω, what is the temperature of the filament when the bulb is on? 21 M
BIO FCP Kiting during a storm. The legend that Benjamin Franklin flew a kite as a storm approached is only a legend—he was neither stupid nor suicidal. Suppose a kite string of radius 2.00 mm extends directly upward by 0.800 km and is coated with a 0.500 mm layer of water having resistivity 150 Ω · m. If the potential difference between the two ends of the string is 160 MV, what is the current through the water layer? The danger is not this current but the chance that the string draws a light- ning strike, which can have a current as large as 500 000 A (way beyond just being lethal).
22 M
/
812
C HAP T ER 26 C U RRENT AND RESIST ANC E
When 115 V is applied across a wire that is 10 m long and has a 0.30 mm radius, the magnitude of the current density is 1.4 × 10 8 A/m 2 . Find the resistivity of the wire. 23 M
M GO Figure 26.11a gives the magnitude E(x) of the elec- tric fields that have been set up by a battery along a resistive rod of length 9.00 mm (Fig. 26.11b). The vertical scale is set by E s = 4.00 × 10 3 V/m. The rod consists of three sections of the same material but with different radii. (The schematic diagram of Fig. 26.11b does not indicate the different radii.) The radius of section 3 is 2.00 mm. What is the radius of (a) section 1 and (b) section 2?
24
Es
)m/ V 3 01(
1
0
2 3 x
3
=0
x
= 9 mm
(mm)
6
(b )
9
Figure 26.11
M An electrical cable consists of 125 strands of fine wire, each having 2.65 μΩ resistance. The same potential difference is applied between the ends of all the strands and results in a total current of 0.750 A. (a) What is the current in each strand? (b) What is the applied potential difference? (c) What is the resistance of the cable?
31
M Earth’s lower atmosphere contains negative and positive ions that are produced by radioactive elements in the soil and cosmic rays from space. In a certain region, the atmospheric elec- tric field strength is 120 V/m and the field is directed vertically down. This field causes singly charged positive ions, at a density of 620 cm –3 , to drift downward and singly charged negative ions, at a density of 550 cm –3 , to drift upward (Fig. 26.14). The mea- sured conductivity of the air in that region is 2.70 × 10 –14 (Ω · m) –1 . Calculate (a) the magnitude of the current density and (b) the ion drift speed, assumed to be the same for positive and negative ions.
32
x
V
E
(a )
M If the gauge number of a wire is increased by 6, the diameter is halved; if a gauge number is increased by 1, the diameter decreases by the factor 2 1/6 (see the table in Problem 4). Knowing this, and knowing that 1000 ft of 10-gauge cop- per wire has a resistance of approximately 1.00 Ω, estimate the resistance of 25 ft of 22-gauge copper wire.
30
Problem 24.
M SSM A wire with a resistance of 6.0 Ω is drawn out through a die so that its new length is three times its original length. Find the resistance of the longer wire, assuming that the resistivity and density of the material are unchanged.
25
+ E
In Fig. 26.12a, a 9.00 V battery is connected to a resistive strip that consists of three sections with the same cross-sectional areas but different conductivities. Figure 26.12b gives the elec- tric potential V(x) versus position x along the strip. The horizon- tal scale is set by x s = 8.00 mm. Section 3 has conductivity 3.00 × 10 7 (Ω · m) –1 . What is the conductivity of section (a) 1 and (b) 2? 26 M
8 6 4
=0
V x
(a)
=
3
2
0 (b )
Figure 26.12
x
(mm)
xs
Problem 26.
SSM Two conductors are made of the same material and have the same length. Conductor A is a solid wire of diameter 1.0 mm. Conductor B is a hollow tube of outside diameter 2.0 mm and inside diameter 1.0 mm. What is the resistance ratio R A/ R B , measured between their ends?
Figure 26.13 gives the electric potential V(x) along a copper wire carrying uniform current, from a point of higher potential V s = 12.0 μ V at x = 0 to a point of zero potential at x s = 3.00 m. The wire has a radius of 2.00 mm. What is the current in the wire? GO
Vs
)V μ ( V
0 x
(m)
xs
Figure 26.13 Problem 28. A potential difference of 3.00 nV is set up across a 2.00 cm length of copper wire that has a radius of 2.00 mm. How much charge drifts through a cross section in 3.00 ms?
29
M
+
+ +
Problem 32.
M A block in the shape of a rectangular solid has a cross- sectional area of 3.50 cm 2 across its width, a front-to-rear length of 15.8 cm, and a resistance of 935 Ω. The block’s material con- tains 5.33 × 10 22 conduction electrons/m 3 . A potential difference of 35.8 V is maintained between its front and rear faces. (a) What is the current in the block? (b) If the current density is uniform, what is its magnitude? What are (c) the drift velocity of the conduction electrons and (d) the magnitude of the electric field in the block?
33
27 M
28 M
+
Figure 26.14
2
xs
+
1
) V( V
x
+
GO Figure 26.15 shows wire L section 1 of diameter D 1 = 4.00R D1 D2 and wire section 2 of diameter D 2 = (2) 2.00R, connected by a tapered sec- tion. The wire is copper and car- (1) ries a current. Assume that the Figure 26.15 Problem 34. current is uniformly distributed across any cross-sectional area through the wire’s width. The elec- tric potential change V along the length L = 2.00 m shown in sec- tion 2 is 10.0 μV. The number of charge carriers per unit volume is 8.49 × 10 28 m –3 . What is the drift speed of the conduction electrons in section 1? 34 H
CALC GO In Fig. 26.16, current is set up through a trun- cated right circular cone of resistivity 731 Ω · m, left radius
35 H
/
P ROBL EMS
a = 2.00 mm, right radius b = 2.30 mm, and length L = 1.94 cm. Assume that the current density is uniform across any cross sec- tion taken perpendicular to the length. What is the resistance of the cone? L
i
i a
b
Figure 26.16
Problem 35.
CALC BIO GO FCP Swim- ming during a storm. Figure 26.17 shows a swimmer at dis- tance D = 35.0 m from a light- ning strike to the water, with Δr current I = 78 kA. The water has resistivity 30 Ω · m, the width of the swimmer along a radial line D from the strike is 0.70 m, and his resistance across that width is Figure 26.17 Problem 36. 4.00 kΩ. Assume that the current spreads through the water over a hemisphere centered on the strike point. What is the current through the swimmer?
36 H
Module 26.4
Ohm’s Law
Show that, according to the free-electron model of electri- cal conduction in metals and classical physics, the resistivity of _ metals should be proportional to √ T , where T is the tempera- ture in kelvins. (See Eq. 19.6.5.) 37 M
Module 26.5
Power, Semiconductors, Superconductors
In Fig. 26.18a, a 20 Ω resistor is connected to a battery. Figure 26.18b shows the increase of thermal energy E th in the resistor as a function of time t. The vertical scale is set by E th,s = 2.50 mJ, and the horizontal scale is set by t s = 4.0 s. What is the electric potential across the battery? 38
E
E th, s
0 t
(a)
(s)
ts
(b ) Figure 26.18
Problem 38.
A certain brand of hot-dog cooker works by applying a potential difference of 120 V across opposite ends of a hot dog and allowing it to cook by means of the thermal energy produced. The current is 10.0 A, and the energy required to cook one hot dog is 60.0 kJ. If the rate at which energy is supplied is unchanged, how long will it take to cook three hot dogs simultaneously? 39
E
Thermal energy is produced in a resistor at a rate of 100 W when the current is 3.00 A. What is the resistance? 40 E
E SSM A 120 V potential difference is applied to a space heater whose resistance is 14 Ω when hot. (a) At what rate is
41
electrical energy transferred to thermal energy? (b) What is the cost for 5.0 h at US$0.05/kW · h? E In Fig. 26.19, a battery of poten- tial difference V = 12 V is connected to a resistive strip of resistance R = 6.0 Ω. V R When an electron moves through the strip from one end to the other, (a) in which direction in the figure does the Figure 26.19 electron move, (b) how much work is Problem 42. done on the electron by the electric field in the strip, and (c) how much energy is transferred to the thermal energy of the strip by the electron?
42
An unknown resistor is connected between the terminals of a 3.00 V battery. Energy is dissipated in the resistor at the rate of 0.540 W. The same resistor is then connected between the terminals of a 1.50 V battery. At what rate is energy now dissipated? 43 E
E A student kept his 9.0 V, 7.0 W radio turned on at full volume from 9:00 p.m. until 2:00 a.m. How much charge went through it?
44
SSM A 1250 W radiant heater is constructed to operate at 115 V. (a) What is the current in the heater when the unit is operating? (b) What is the resistance of the heating coil? (c) How much thermal energy is produced in 1.0 h?
45 E
GO A copper wire of cross-sectional area 2.00 × 10 –6 m 2 and length 4.00 m has a current of 2.00 A uniformly distributed across that area. (a) What is the magnitude of the electric field along the wire? (b) How much electrical energy is transferred to thermal energy in 30 min? 46 M
M A heating element is made by maintaining a potential difference of 75.0 V across the length of a Nichrome wire that has a 2.60 × 10 –6 m 2 cross section. Nichrome has a resistivity of 5.00 × 10 –7 Ω · m. (a) If the element dissipates 5000 W, what is its length? (b) If 100 V is used to obtain the same dissipation rate, what should the length be?
47
BIO FCP Exploding shoes. The rain-soaked shoes of a per- son may explode if ground current from nearby lightning vapor- izes the water. The sudden conversion of water to water vapor causes a dramatic expansion that can rip apart shoes. Water has density 1000 kg/m 3 and requires 2256 kJ/kg to be vaporized. If horizontal current lasts 2.00 ms and encounters water with resis- tivity 150 Ω · m, length 12.0 cm, and vertical cross-sectional area 15 × 10 –5 m 2 , what average current is required to vaporize the water?
48 M
)J m( ht E R
813
M A 100 W lightbulb is plugged into a standard 120 V outlet. (a) How much does it cost per 31-day month to leave the light turned on continuously? Assume electrical energy costs US$0.06/kW · h. (b) What is the resistance of the bulb? (c) What is the current in the bulb?
49
GO The current through the battery and resistors 1 and 2 in Fig. 26.20a is 2.00 A. Energy is transferred from the cur- rent to thermal energy E th in both resistors. Curves 1 and 2 in Fig. 26.20b give that thermal energy E th for resistors 1 and 2, respectively, as a function of time t. The vertical scale is set by E th,s = 40.0 mJ, and the horizontal scale is set by t s = 5.00 s. What is the power of the battery? 50 M
/
814
C HAP T ER 26 C U RRENT AND RESIST ANC E
Calculate (a) the current, (b) the magnitude of the current den- sity, (c) the magnitude of the electric field within the wire, and (d) the rate at which thermal energy will appear in the wire.
E th, s R1
)J m( ht E
R2
(a )
1
An 18.0 W device has 9.00 V across it. How much charge goes through the device in 4.00 h? 57
2
An aluminum rod with a square cross section is 1.3 m long and 5.2 mm on edge. (a) What is the resistance between its ends? (b) What must be the diameter of a cylindrical copper rod of length 1.3 m if its resistance is to be the same as that of the aluminum rod? 58
(b ) Figure 26.20
0 t
ts
(s)
Problem 50.
A cylindrical metal rod is 1.60 m long and 5.50 mm in diameter. The resistance between its two ends (at 20°C) is 1.09 × 10 –3 Ω. (a) What is the material? (b) A round disk, 2.00 cm in diameter and 1.00 mm thick, is formed of the same material. What is the resistance between the round faces, assuming that each face is an equipotential surface? 59
Wire C and wire C D D are made from different mate- rials and have length L C = L D = 1.0 m. The resistivity and diam- L L eter of wire C are 2.0 × 10 –6 Ω · m 2 3 and 1.00 mm, and those of wire D 1 Figure 26.21 Problem 51. –6 are 1.0 × 10 Ω · m and 0.50 mm. The wires are joined as shown in Fig. 26.21, and a current of 2.0 A is set up in them. What is the electric potential difference between (a) points 1 and 2 and (b) points 2 and 3? What is the rate at which energy is dissipated between (c) points 1 and 2 and (d) points 2 and 3? 51 M
GO
SSM
C
D
GO The current-density magnitude in a certain M CALC circular wire is J = (2.75 × 10 10 A/m 4 )r 2 , where r is the radial dis- tance out to the wire’s radius of 3.00 mm. The potential applied to the wire (end to end) is 60.0 V. How much energy is con- verted to thermal energy in 1.00 h? 52
A 120 V potential difference is applied to a space heater that dissipates 500 W during operation. (a) What is its resistance during operation? (b) At what rate do electrons flow through any cross section of the heater element? 53 M
GO Figure 26.22a (a ) H CALC x (m) 0 1.0 shows a rod of resistive material. dx The resistance per unit length (b ) of the rod increases in the posi- tive direction of the x axis. At any position x along the rod, the (c ) V resistance dR of a narrow (dif- ferential) section of width dx Figure 26.22 Problem 54. is given by dR = 5.00x dx, where dR is in ohms and x is in meters. Figure 26.22b shows such a narrow section. You are to slice off a length of the rod between x = 0 and some position x = L and then connect that length to a battery with potential difference V = 5.0 V (Fig. 26.22c). You want the current in the length to transfer energy to thermal energy at the rate of 200 W. At what position x = L should you cut the rod? 54
Additional Problems SSM A Nichrome heater dissipates 500 W when the applied potential difference is 110 V and the wire temperature is 800°C. What would be the dissipation rate if the wire temperature were held at 200°C by immersing the wire in a bath of cooling oil? The applied potential difference remains the same, and α for Nichrome at 800°C is 4.0 × 10 –4 K –1 .
55
A potential difference of 1.20 V will be applied to a 33.0 m length of 18-gauge copper wire (diameter = 0.0400 in.). 56
FCP The chocolate crumb mystery. This story begins with Problem 60 in Chapter 23 and continues through Chapters 24 and 25. The chocolate crumb powder moved to the silo through a pipe of radius R with uniform speed v and uniform charge density . (a) Find an expression for the current i (the rate at which charge on the powder moved) through a perpendicular cross section of the pipe. (b) Evaluate i for the conditions at the factory: pipe radius R = 5.0 cm, speed v = 2.0 m/s, and charge density = 1.1 × 10 –3 C/m 3 . If the powder were to flow through a change V in electric potential, its energy could be transferred to a spark at the rate P = iV. (c) Could there be such a transfer within the pipe due to the radial potential difference discussed in Problem 70 of Chapter 24? As the powder flowed from the pipe into the silo, the elec- tric potential of the powder changed. The magnitude of that change was at least equal to the radial potential difference within the pipe (as evaluated in Problem 70 of Chapter 24). (d) Assuming that value for the potential difference and using the current found in (b) above, find the rate at which energy could have been transferred from the powder to a spark as the powder exited the pipe. (e) If a spark did occur at the exit and lasted for 0.20 s (a reasonable expectation), how much energy would have been transferred to the spark? Recall from Problem 60 in Chapter 23 that a minimum energy transfer of 150 mJ is needed to cause an explosion. (f) Where did the powder explo- sion most likely occur: in the powder cloud at the unloading bin (Problem 60 of Chapter 25), within the pipe, or at the exit of the pipe into the silo?
60
SSM A steady beam of alpha particles (q = +2e) travel- ing with constant kinetic energy 20 MeV carries a current of 0.25 μA. (a) If the beam is directed perpendicular to a flat surface, how many alpha particles strike the surface in 3.0 s? (b) At any instant, how many alpha particles are there in a given 20 cm length of the beam? (c) Through what potential differ- ence is it necessary to accelerate each alpha particle from rest to bring it to an energy of 20 MeV?
61
A resistor with a potential difference of 200 V across it transfers electrical energy to thermal energy at the rate of 3000 W. What is the resistance of the resistor? 62
A 2.0 kW heater element from a dryer has a length of 80 cm. If a 10 cm section is removed, what power is used by the now shortened element at 120 V? 63
/
P ROBL EMS
A cylindrical resistor of radius 5.0 mm and length 2.0 cm is made of material that has a resistivity of 3.5 × 10 –5 Ω · m. What are (a) the magnitude of the current density and (b) the poten- tial difference when the energy dissipation rate in the resistor is 1.0 W? 64
A potential difference V is applied to a wire of cross- sectional area A, length L, and resistivity . You want to change the applied potential difference and stretch the wire so that the energy dissipation rate is multiplied by 30.0 and the current is multiplied by 4.00. Assuming the wire’s density does not change, what are (a) the ratio of the new length to L and (b) the ratio of the new cross-sectional area to A? 65
The headlights of a moving car require about 10 A from the 12 V alternator, which is driven by the engine. Assume the alter- nator is 80% efficient (its output electrical power is 80% of its input mechanical power), and calculate the horsepower the engine must supply to run the lights. 66
A 500 W heating unit is designed to operate with an applied potential difference of 115 V. (a) By what percentage will its heat output drop if the applied potential difference drops to 110 V? Assume no change in resistance. (b) If you took the variation of resistance with temperature into account, would the actual drop in heat output be larger or smaller than that calculated in (a)? 67
The copper windings of a motor have a resistance of 50 Ω at 20°C when the motor is idle. After the motor has run for sev- eral hours, the resistance rises to 58 Ω. What is the temperature of the windings now? Ignore changes in the dimensions of the windings. (Use Table 26.3.1.) 68
How much electrical energy is transferred to thermal energy in 2.00 h by an electrical resistance of 400 Ω when the potential applied across it is 90.0 V? 69
A caterpillar of length 4.0 cm crawls in the direction of elec- tron drift along a 5.2-mm-diameter bare copper wire that carries a uniform current of 12 A. (a) What is the potential difference between the two ends of the caterpillar? (b) Is its tail positive or negative relative to its head? (c) How much time does the cat- erpillar take to crawl 1.0 cm if it crawls at the drift speed of the electrons in the wire? (The number of charge carriers per unit volume is 8.49 × 10 28 m –3 .) 70
SSM (a) At what temperature would the resistance of a cop- per conductor be double its resistance at 20.0°C? (Use 20.0°C
71
815
as the reference point in Eq. 26.3.10; compare your answer with Fig. 26.3.4.) (b) Does this same “doubling temperature” hold for all copper conductors, regardless of shape or size? A steel trolley-car rail has a cross-sectional area of 56.0 cm 2 . What is the resistance of 10.0 km of rail? The resistivity of the steel is 3.00 × 10 –7 Ω · m. 72
A coil of current-carrying Nichrome wire is immersed in a liquid. (Nichrome is a nickel–chromium–iron alloy commonly used in heating elements.) When the potential difference across the coil is 12 V and the current through the coil is 5.2 A, the liq- uid evaporates at the steady rate of 21 mg/s. Calculate the heat of vaporization of the liquid (see Module 18.4). 73
GO The current density in a wire is uniform and has magni- tude 2.0 × 10 6 A/m 2 , the wire’s length is 5.0 m, and the density of conduction electrons is 8.49 × 10 28 m –3 . How long does an electron take (on the average) to travel the length of the wire? 74
A certain x-ray tube operates at a current of 7.00 mA and a potential difference of 80.0 kV. What is its power in watts? 75
A current is established in a gas discharge tube when a sufficiently high potential difference is applied across the two electrodes in the tube. The gas ionizes; electrons move toward the positive terminal and singly charged positive ions toward the negative terminal. (a) What is the current in a hydrogen dis- charge tube in which 3.1 × 10 18 electrons and 1.1 × 10 18 protons move past a cross-sectional area of the tube each second? (b) Is the direction of the current density J toward or away from the negative terminal? 76
→
Two drift speeds. One end of an aluminum wire with diam- eter 2.5 mm is welded to one end of a copper wire with diameter 1.8 mm. The composite carries a steady current i of 1.3 A. For points that are not next to the junction, what is the current den- sity in (a) the aluminum wire and (b) the copper wire? (c) What is the magnitude of the electric field in the copper? 77
Semiconductor. A strip of silicon has width w = 3.2 mm and thickness t = 250 µm and carries current i = 5.2 mA. The silicon is said to be an n-type semiconductor because it has been “doped” with a controlled phosphorus impurity. The pro- cess greatly increased n, the number of charge carriers per unit volume, to a value of 1.5 × 10 23 m −3 . What are (a) the current density, (b) the drift speed, and (c) the electric field magnitude in the strip? 78
/
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
2
7
Circuits
27.1 SINGLE-LOOP CIRCUITS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
27.1.1 Identify the action of an emf source in terms of the work it does. 27.1.2 For an ideal battery, apply the relationship between the emf, the current, and the power (rate of energy transfer). 27.1.3 Draw a schematic diagram for a single-loop circuit containing a battery and three resistors. 27.1.4 Apply the loop rule to write a loop equation that relates the potential differences of the circuit ele- ments around a (complete) loop. 27.1.5 Apply the resistance rule in crossing through a resistor.
27.1.10 Calculate the potential difference between any two points in a circuit. 27.1.11 Distinguish a real battery from an ideal battery and, in a circuit diagram, replace a real battery with an ideal battery and an explicitly shown resistance. 27.1.12 With a real battery in a circuit, calculate the potential difference between its terminals for cur- rent in the direction of the emf and in the opposite direction. 27.1.13 Identify what is meant by grounding a cir- cuit, and draw a schematic diagram for such a connection.
27.1.6 Apply the emf rule in crossing through an emf. 27.1.7 Identify that resistors in series have the same current, which is the same value that their equivalent resistor has.
27.1.14 Identify that grounding a circuit does not affect the current in a circuit. 27.1.15 Calculate the dissipation rate of energy in a real battery.
27.1.8 Calculate the equivalent of series resistors. 27.1.9 Identify that a potential applied to resistors wired in series is equal to the sum of the potentials
27.1.16 Calculate the net rate of energy transfer in a real battery for current in the direction of the emf and in the opposite direction.
across the individual resistors.
Key Ideas
â—An emf device does work on charges to maintain a
dW is the work the device does to force positive charge dq potential difference between its output terminals. If
from the negative to the positive terminal, then the emf (work per unit charge) of the device is
dW definition of â„). â„° = ____ ° ( dq â—An ideal emf device is one that lacks any internal
â—The change in potential in traversing an ideal emf device in the direction of the emf arrow is
–℠(emf rule). °
+â„; in the °
opposite direction it is
â—Conservation of energy leads to the loop rule: Loop Rule.
The algebraic sum of the changes in poten-
tial encountered in a complete traversal of any loop of a circuit must be zero.
Conservation of charge leads to the junction rule (Chapter 26):
resistance. The potential difference between its termi-
Junction Rule.
nals is equal to the emf.
junction must be equal to the sum of the currents leav-
â—A real emf device has internal resistance. The poten- tial difference between its terminals is equal to the emf only if there is no current through the device.
â—The change in potential in traversing a resistance R
– iR ; in the opposite +iR (resistance rule).
in the direction of the current is direction it is
The sum of the currents entering any
ing that junction .
and internal resistance â—When a real battery of emf â„°
r does work on the charge carriers in a current i through the battery, the rate P of energy transfer to the charge carriers is
P = iV,
816 /
27.1 SINGL E- L OOP C IRC U IT S
where
V is the potential across the terminals of the
817
P emf = i â„.°
battery.
â—The rate P r at which energy is dissipated as thermal energy in the battery is
P r = i 2 r. â—The rate P emf at which the chemical energy in the battery changes is
â—When resistances are in series, they have the same current. The equivalent resistance that can replace a series combination of resistances is
n
R eq = ∑ R j j=1
(n resistances in series ).
What Is Physics?
You are surrounded by electric circuits. You might take pride in the number of electrical devices you own and might even carry a mental list of the devices you wish you owned. Every one of those devices, as well as the electrical grid that powers your home, depends on modern electrical engineering. We cannot easily estimate the current financial worth of electrical engineering and its prod- ucts, but we can be certain that the financial worth continues to grow yearly as more and more tasks are handled electrically. Radios are now tuned electroni- cally instead of manually. Messages are now sent by email instead of through the postal system. Research journals are now read on a computer instead of in a library building, and research papers are now copied and filed electronically instead of photocopied and tucked into a filing cabinet. Indeed, you may be read- ing an electronic version of this book. The basic science of electrical e ngineering is physics. In this chapter we cover the physics of electric circuits that are combinations of resistors and batteries (and, in Module 27.4, capacitors). We restrict our discussion to circuits through which charge flows in one direction, which are called either direct-current circuits or DC circuits. We begin with the question: How can you get charges to flow?
“PumpingCharges †If you want to make charge carriers flow through a resistor, you must establish a potential difference between the ends of the device. One way to do this is to connect each end of the resistor to one plate of a charged capacitor. The trouble with this scheme is that the flow of charge acts to discharge the capacitor, quickly bringing the plates to the same potential. When that happens, there is no longer an electric field in the resistor, and thus the flow of charge stops. To produce a steady flow of charge, you need a “charge pump,â€a device that — by doing work on the charge carriers—maintains a potential difference between a pair of terminals. We call such a device an emf device, and the device is said to provide an emf â„,° which means that it does work on charge carriers. An emf device is sometimes called a seat of emf. The term emf comes from the outdated phrase electromotive force, which was adopted before scientists clearly understood the function of an emf device. In Chapter 26, we discussed the motion of charge carriers through a circuit in terms of the electric field set up in the circuit—the field produces forces that move the charge carriers. In this chapter we take a different approach: We discuss the motion of the charge carriers in terms of the required energy—an emf device supplies the energy for the motion via the work it does. A common emf device is the battery, used to power a wide variety of machines from wristwatches to submarines. The emf device that most influences our daily lives, however, is the electric generator, which, by means of electrical connections (wires) from a generating plant, creates a potential difference in our homes and workplaces. The emf devices known as solar cells, long familiar as the wing-like panels on spacecraft, also dot the countryside for domestic applications. Less
/
818
C HAP T ER 27 C IRC U IT S
familiar emf devices are the fuel cells that powered the space shuttles and the thermopiles that provide onboard electrical power for some spacecraft and for remote stations in Antarctica and elsewhere. An emf device does not have to be an instrument—living systems, ranging from electric eels and human beings to plants, have physiological emf devices. Although the devices we have listed differ widely in their modes of opera- tion, they all perform the same basic function—they do work on charge carriers and thus maintain a potential difference between their terminals.
a
i
a'
+ i
R
–
i
A simple electric circuit, in which a device of emf â„° does work on the charge carriers and maintains a steady current i in a resistor of resistance R. Figure 27.1.1
A
i
–+
A M
R
i
B –+ i
B
m
(a ) Work done by motor on mass m Chemical energy lost by B
Thermal energy produced by resistance R Chemical energy stored in A (b )
(a) In the circuit, â„B ° > â„A ° ; so battery B determines the direction of the current. (b) The energy transfers in the circuit. Figure 27.1.2
Work, Energy, and Emf
Figure 27.1.1 shows an emf device (consider it to be a battery) that is part of a simple circuit containing a single resistance R (the symbol for resistance and a resistor is ). The emf device keeps one of its terminals (called the positive terminal and often labeled +) at a higher electric potential than the other termi- nal (called the negative terminal and labeled – ). We can represent the emf of the device with an arrow that points from the negative terminal toward the positive terminal as in Fig. 27.1.1. A small circle on the tail of the emf arrow distinguishes it from the arrows that indicate current direction. When an emf device is not connected to a circuit, the internal chemistry of the device does not cause any net flow of charge carriers within it. However, when it is connected to a circuit as in Fig. 27.1.1, its internal chemistry causes a net flow of positive charge carriers from the negative terminal to the positive ter- minal, in the direction of the emf arrow. This flow is part of the current that is set up around the circuit in that same direction (clockwise in Fig. 27.1.1). Within the emf device, positive charge carriers move from a region of low electric potential and thus low electric potential energy (at the negative terminal) to a region of higher electric potential and higher electric potential energy (at the positive terminal). This motion is just the opposite of what the electric field between the terminals (which is directed from the positive terminal toward the negative terminal) would cause the charge carriers to do. Thus, there must be some source of energy within the device, enabling it to do work on the charges by forcing them to move as they do. The energy source may be chemical, as in a battery or a fuel cell. It may involve mechanical forces, as in an electric generator. Temperature differences may supply the energy, as in a thermopile; or the Sun may supply it, as in a solar cell. Let us now analyze the circuit of Fig. 27.1.1 from the point of view of work and energy transfers. In any time interval dt, a charge dq passes through any cross section of this circuit, such as aaʹ . This same amount of charge must enter the emf device at its low-potential end and leave at its high-potential end. The device must do an amount of work dW on the charge dq to force it to move in this way. We define the emf of the emf device in terms of this work: dW definition of â„)° . â„° = ____ ( dq
(27.1.1)
In words, the emf of an emf device is the work per unit charge that the device does in moving charge from its low-potential terminal to its high-potential terminal. The SI unit for emf is the joule per coulomb; in Chapter 24 we defined that unit as the volt. An ideal emf device is one that lacks any internal resistance to the internal movement of charge from terminal to terminal. The potential difference between the terminals of an ideal emf device is equal to the emf of the device. For exam- ple, an ideal battery with an emf of 12.0 V always has a potential difference of 12.0 V between its terminals.
/
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27.1 SINGL E- L OOP C IRC U IT S
A real emf device, such as any real battery, has internal resistance to the internal movement of charge. When a real emf device is not connected to a circuit, and thus does not have current through it, the potential difference between its terminals is equal to its emf. However, when that device has current through it, the potential difference between its terminals differs from its emf. We shall dis- cuss such real batteries near the end of this module. When an emf device is connected to a circuit, the device transfers energy to the charge carriers passing through it. This energy can then be transferred from the charge carriers to other devices in the circuit, for example, to light a bulb. Figure 27.1.2a shows a circuit containing two ideal rechargeable (storage) batteries A and B, a resistance R, and an electric motor M that can lift an object by using energy it obtains from charge carriers in the circuit. Note that the batteries are connected so that they tend to send charges around the circuit in opposite directions. The actual direction of the current in the circuit is determined by the battery with the larger emf, which happens to be battery B, so the chemical energy within battery B is decreasing as energy is transferred to the charge carriers passing through it. However, the chemical energy within battery A is increasing because the current in it is directed from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. Thus, battery B is charging battery A. Battery B is also providing energy to motor M and energy that is being dissipated by resistance R. Figure 27.1.2b shows all three energy transfers from battery B; each decreases that battery ’ chemical energy. s
Calculating the Current in a Single-Loop Circuit
We discuss here two equivalent ways to calculate the current in the simple single-loop circuit of Fig. 27.1.3; one method is based on energy conservation considerations, and the other on the concept of potential. The circuit consists of an ideal battery B with emf â„, a resistor of resistance R, and two connecting wires. (Unless otherwise ° indicated, we assume that wires in circuits have negligible resistance. Their function, then, is merely to provide pathways along which charge carriers can move.) Energy Method
Equation 26.5.3 (P = i 2 R) tells us that in a time interval dt an amount of energy given by i 2 R dt will appear in the resistor of Fig. 27.1.3 as thermal energy. As noted in Module 26.5, this energy is said to be dissipated. (Because we assume the wires to have negligible resistance, no thermal energy will appear in them.) Dur- ing the same interval, a charge dq = i dt will have moved through battery B, and the work that the battery will have done on this charge, according to Eq. 27.1.1, is dW = â„° dq = â„i dt. ° From the principle of conservation of energy, the work done by the (ideal) bat- tery must equal the thermal energy that appears in the resistor: â„i° dt = i 2 R dt.
The battery drives current through the resistor, from high potential to low potential. i
This gives us â„° = iR.
The emf â„° is the energy per unit charge transferred to the moving charges by the battery. The quantity iR is the energy per unit charge transferred from the mov- ing charges to thermal energy within the resistor. Therefore, this equation means that the energy per unit charge transferred to the moving charges is equal to the energy per unit charge transferred from them. Solving for i, we find â„° i = __ . R
(27.1.2)
Higher potential
+ – B
R
a
i
i
Lower potential
A single-loop circuit in which a resistance R is connected across an ideal battery B with emf â„. ° The resulting current i is the same throughout the circuit. Figure 27.1.3
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C HAP T ER 27 C IRC U IT S
Potential Method
Suppose we start at any point in the circuit of Fig. 27.1.3 and mentally proceed around the circuit in either direction, adding algebraically the potential differences that we encounter. Then when we return to our starting point, we must also have returned to our starting potential. Before actually doing so, we shall formalize this idea in a statement that holds not only for single-loop circuits such as that of Fig. 27.1.3 but also for any complete loop in a multiloop circuit, as we shall discuss in Module 27.2: LOOP RULE: The algebraic sum of the changes in potential encountered in a complete traversal of any loop of a circuit must be zero.
This is often referred to as Kirchhoff’ loop rule (or Kirchhoff s ’ voltage law), after s German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff. This rule is equivalent to saying that each point on a mountain has only one elevation above sea level. If you start from any point and return to it after walking around the mountain, the algebraic sum of the changes in elevation that you encounter must be zero. In Fig. 27.1.3, let us start at point a, whose potential is V a , and mentally walk clockwise around the circuit until we are back at a, keeping track of potential changes as we move. O ur starting point is at the low-potential terminal of the bat- tery. Because the battery is ideal, the potential difference between its terminals is equal to â„. When we pass through the battery to the high-potential terminal, the ° change in potential is +â„. ° As we walk along the top wire to the top end of the resistor, there is no potential change because the wire has negligible resistance; it is at the same potential as the high-potential terminal of the battery. So too is the top end of the resistor. When we pass through the resistor, however, the potential changes according to Eq. 26.3.1 (which we can rewrite as V = iR). Moreover, the potential must decrease because we are moving from the higher potential side of the resis- tor. Thus, the change in potential is – iR. We return to point a by moving along the bottom wire. Because this wire also has negligible resistance, we again find no potential change. Back at point a, the potential is again V a. Because we traversed a complete loop, our initial poten- tial, as modified for potential changes along the way, must be equal to our final potential; that is, V a + â„° – iR = V a. The value of V a cancels from this equation, which becomes â„° – iR = 0.
Solving this equation for i gives us the same result, i = â„/R, as the energy method ° (Eq. 27.1.2). If we apply the loop rule to a complete counterclockwise walk around the circuit, the rule gives us –℠+ iR = 0 ° and we again find that i = â„/R. Thus, ° you may mentally circle a loop in either direction to apply the loop rule. To prepare for circuits more complex than that of Fig. 27.1.3, let us set down two rules for finding potential differences as we move around a loop: RESISTANCE RULE: For a move through a resistance in the direction of the current, the change in potential is – iR; in the opposite direction it is +iR.
EMF RULE: For a move through an ideal emf device in the direction of the emf arrow, the change in potential is +â„; in the opposite direction it is ° –℠. °
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27.1 SINGL E- L OOP C IRC U IT S
821
i
Checkpoint 27.1.1
The figure shows the current i in a single-loop circuit with a battery B and a resistance R (and wires of negligible resistance). (a) Should the emf arrow at B a b c R be drawn pointing leftward or rightward? At points B a, b, and c, rank (b) the magnitude of the current, (c) the electric potential, and (d) the electric potential energy of the charge carriers, greatest first.
Other Single-Loop Circuits
Next we extend the simple circuit of Fig. 27.1.3 in two ways. Internal Resistance
Figure 27.1.4a shows a real battery, with internal resistance r , wired to an exter- nal resistor of resistance R. The internal resistance of the battery is the electrical resistance of the conducting materials of the battery a nd thus is an unremovable feature of the battery. In Fig. 27.1.4a, however, the battery is drawn as if it could be separated into an ideal battery with emf â„° and a resistor of resistance r . The order in which the symbols for these separated parts are drawn does not matter. i i
r
R
i
a
i
) V( laitnetoP
b
a
+
–
Real battery
b
a
r
R Vb
ir
iR
Va
Emf device
Va
Resistor
i
(a )
(b )
(a) A single-loop circuit containing a real battery having internal resistance r and emf â„. (b) The same circuit, now spread out in a line. The potentials encountered ° in traversing the circuit clockwise from a are also shown. The potential V a is arbitrarily assigned a value of zero, and other potentials in the circuit are graphed relative to V a . Figure 27.1.4
If we apply the loop rule clockwise beginning at point a, the changes in potential give us ℰ – ir – iR = 0.
(27.1.3)
â„° . i = _____ R + r
(27.1.4)
Solving for the current, we find
Note that this equation reduces to Eq. 27.1.2 if the battery is ideal—that is, if r = 0. Figure 27.1.4b shows graphically the changes in electric potential around the circuit. (To better link Fig. 27.1.4b with the closed circuit in Fig. 27.1.4a, imagine curling the graph into a cylinder with point a at the left overlapping point a at the right.) Note how traversing the circuit is like walking around a (potential) mountain back to your starting point—you return to the starting elevation. In this book, when a battery is not described as real or if no internal resis- tance is indicated, you can generally a ssume that it is ideal—but, of course, in the real world batteries are always real and have internal resistance.
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C HAP T ER 27 C IRC U IT S
i
Resistances in Series
b R1
+ –
i
R2
R3 a i
(a )
Series resistors and their equivalent have the same current (“ser-i†).
b
+ –
Figure 27.1.5a shows three resistances connected in series to an ideal battery with emf â„. This description has little to do with how ° the resistances are drawn. Rather, “in seriesâ€means that the resistances are wired one after another and that a potential difference V is applied across the two ends of the series. In Fig. 27.1.5a, the resistances a re connected one after a nother between a and b, and a potential difference is maintained across a and b by the battery. The potential differences that then exist across the resistances in the series produce identical currents i in them. In general, When a potential difference V is applied across resistances connected in series, the resistances have identical currents i. The sum of the potential differences across the resistances is equal to the applied potential difference V.
Note that charge moving through the series resistances can move along only a single route. If there are additional routes, so that the currents in different resis- tances are different, the resistances are not connected in series. R eq
i
Resistances connected in series can be replaced with an equivalent resistance R eq that has the same current i and the same total potential difference V as the actual resistances.
a
(b)
(a) Three resistors are connected in series between points a and b. (b) An equivalent circuit, with the three resistors replaced with their equivalent resistance R eq . Figure 27.1.5
You might remember that R eq and all the actual series resistances have the same current i with the nonsense word “ser-i.Figure †27.1.5b shows the equivalent resistance R eq that can replace the three resistances of Fig. 27.1.5a. To derive an expression for R eq in Fig. 27.1.5b, we apply the loop rule to both circuits. For Fig. 27.1.5a, starting at a and going clockwise around the cir- cuit, we find ℰ – iR 1 – iR 2 – iR 3 = 0, or
â„° i = ___________ . R 1 + R 2 + R 3
(27.1.5)
For Fig. 27.1.5b, with the three resistances replaced with a single equivalent resis- tance R eq , we find ℰ – iR eq = 0, ℰ . i = ____ R eq
or
(27.1.6)
Comparison of Eqs. 27.1.5 a nd 27.1.6 shows that R eq = R 1 + R 2 + R 3. The extension to n resistances is straightforward and is n
R eq = ∑ R j j=1
( n resistances in series ) .
(27.1.7)
Note that when resistances are in series, their equivalent resistance is greater than any of the individual resistances.
Checkpoint 27.1.2
In Fig. 27.1.5a, if R 1 > R 2 > R 3 , rank the three resistances according to (a) the current through them and (b) the potential difference across them, greatest first.
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27.1 SINGL E- L OOP C IRC U IT S
Potential Difference Between Two Points
We often want to find the potential difference between two points in a circuit. For example, in Fig. 27.1.6, what is the potential difference V b – V a between points a and b? To find out, let’ start at point a (at potential V s a ) and move through the battery to point b (at potential V b ) while keeping track of the potential changes we encounter. When we pass through the battery’ emf, the potential increases by s â„. When we pass ° through the battery’ internal resistance s r, we move in the direction of the current and thus the potential decreases by ir. We are then at the potential of point b and we have or
V b – V a = ℰ – ir.
(27.1.8)
To evaluate this expression, we need the current i. Note that the circuit is the same as in Fig. 27.1.4a, for which Eq. 27.1.4 g ives the current as â„° . i = _____ R + r
The internal resistance reduces the potential difference between the terminals. b
+
i
r
= 2.0 Ω
R
= 4.0 Ω
= 12 V a
V a + ℰ – ir = V b ,
823
–
i
Points a and b, which are at the terminals of a real battery, differ in potential. Figure 27.1.6
(27.1.9)
Substituting this equation into Eq. 27.1.8 g ives us V b −V a = ℰ −_____ ℰ r R + r ℰ R. = _____ R + r Now substituting the data given in Fig. 27.1.6, we have 12 V V b −V a = ___________ 4.0 Ω= 8.0 V. 4.0 Ω+ 2.0 Ω
(27.1.10)
(27.1.11)
Suppose, instead, we move from a to b counterclockwise, passing through resistor R rather than through the battery. Because we move opposite the current, the potential increases by iR. Thus, V a + iR = V b or
V b – V a = iR.
(27.1.12)
Substituting for i from Eq. 27.1.9, we again find Eq. 27.1.10. H ence, substitution of the data in Fig. 27.1.6 y ields the same result, V b – V a = 8.0 V. In general, To find the potential between any two points in a circuit, start at one point and traverse the circuit to the other point, following any path, and add algebraically the changes in potential you encounter. Potential Difference Across a Real Battery
In Fig. 27.1.6, points a and b are located at the terminals of the battery. Thus, the potential difference V b – V a is the terminal-to-terminal potential difference V across the battery. From Eq. 27.1.8, we see that V = ℰ – ir.
(27.1.13)
If the internal resistance r of the battery in Fig. 27.1.6 were zero, Eq. 27.1.13 tells us that V would be equal to the emf â„° of the battery—namely, 12 V. How- ever, because r = 2.0 Ω, Eq. 27.1.13 tells us that V is less than â„.° From Eq. 27.1.11, we know that V is only 8.0 V. Note that the result depends on the value of the current through the battery. If the same battery were in a different circuit and had a different current through it, V would have some other value. Grounding a Circuit
Figure 27.1.7a shows the same circuit as Fig. 27.1.6 except that here point a is directly connected to ground, as indicated by the common symbol . Grounding
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C HAP T ER 27 C IRC U IT S
b
+
i
r
b
= 2.0 Ω
R
+
= 12 V a
–
r
(a)
to ground.
= 2.0 Ω
R
= 4.0 Ω
= 12 V
i a
Figure 27.1.7
i
= 4.0 Ω
–
Ground is taken to be zero potential.
i
(b )
(a) Point a is directly connected to ground. (b) Point b is directly connected
a circuit usually means connecting the circuit to a conducting path to Earth’s surface (actually to the electrically c onducting moist dirt and rock below ground). Here, such a connection means only that the potential is defined to be zero at the grounding point in the circuit. Thus in Fig. 27.1.7a, the potential at a is defined to be V a = 0. Equation 27.1.11 then tells us that the potential at b is V b = 8.0 V. Figure 27.1.7b is the same circuit except that point b is now directly con- nected to ground. Thus, the potential there is defined to be V b = 0. Equation 27.1.11 now tells us that the potential at a is V a = – 8.0 V. Power, Potential, and Emf
When a battery or some other type of emf device does work on the charge c arri- ers to establish a current i, the device transfers energy from its source of energy (such as the chemical source in a battery) to the charge carriers. Because a real emf device has an internal resistance r, it also transfers energy to internal ther- mal energy v ia resistive dissipation (Module 26.5). Let us relate these transfers. The net rate P of energy transfer from the emf device to the charge carriers is given by Eq. 26.5.2: P = iV, (27.1.14) where V is the potential across the terminals of the emf device. From Eq. 27.1.13, we can substitute V = ℰ – ir into Eq. 27.1.14 to find P = i(ℰ – ir) = i ℰ – i 2 r.
(27.1.15)
From Eq. 26.5.3, we recognize the term i 2 r in Eq. 27.1.15 a s the rate P r of energy transfer to thermal energy within the emf device: P r = i 2 r
(internal dissipation rate).
(27.1.16)
Then the term i â„° in Eq. 27.1.15 must be the rate P emf at which the emf device transfers energy both to the charge carriers and to internal thermal energy. Thus, P emf = i â„° (power of emf device).
(27.1.17)
If a battery is being recharged, with a “wrong wayâ€current through it, the energy transfer is then from the charge carriers to the battery—both to the battery’ chemical s energy and to the energy dissipated in the internal resistance r. The rate of change of the chemical energy is given by Eq. 27.1.17, the rate of dissipation is given by Eq. 27.1.16, and the rate at which the carriers supply energy is given by Eq. 27.1.14. Checkpoint 27.1.3
A battery has an emf of 12 V and an internal resistance of 2 Ω. Is the terminal-to- terminal potential difference greater than, less than, or equal to 12 V if the current in the battery is (a) from the negative to the positive terminal, (b) from the positive to the negative terminal, and (c) zero?
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27.1 SINGL E- L OOP C IRC U IT S
Sample Problem 27.1.1
825
Single-loop circuit with two real batteries
The emfs and resistances in the circuit of Fig. 27.1.8a have the following values: â„1 ° = 4.4 V, â„2 ° = 2.1 V,
r 1 = 2.3 Ω, r 2 = 1.8 Ω, R = 5.5 Ω. (a) What is the current i in the circuit?
KEY IDEA
the two batteries. Because â„1 ° is greater than â„2 ° , battery 1 controls the direction of i, so the direction is clockwise. Let us then apply the loop rule by going counterclock- wise—against the current—and starting at point a. (These decisions about where to start and which way you go are arbitrary but, once made, you must be consistent with decisions about the plus and minus signs.) We find –℠° 1 + iR + ir 2 + â„2 ° = 0. 1 + ir
We can get an expression involving the current i in this single-loop circuit by applying the loop rule, in which we sum the potential changes around the full loop. Although knowing the direction of i is not necessary, we can easily determine it from the emfs of Calculations:
a i
1
Battery 1
2
r1
R
b
Battery 2
r2
i
= 0.2396 A ≠240 mA. ˆ
KEY IDEA i
r1
a
b
(Answer)
(b) What is the potential difference between the termi- nals of battery 1 in Fig. 27.1.8a?
c
(a )
1
Check that this equation also results if we apply the loop rule clockwise or start at some point other than a. Also, take the time to compare this equation term by term with Fig. 27.1.8b, which shows the potential changes graphi- cally (with the potential at point a arbitrarily taken to be zero). Solving the above loop equation for the current i, we obtain â„1 ° −℠2 ° __________________ 4.4 V −2.1 V i = _________ = R + r 1 + r 2 5.5 Ω+ 2.3 Ω+ 1.8 Ω
R
c
2
r2
a
We need to sum the potential differences between points a and b. Let us start at point b (effectively the negative terminal of battery 1) and travel clockwise through battery 1 to point a (effectively the positive ter- minal), keeping track of potential changes. We find that Calculations:
0
Va
Va
–1
) V( laitnetoP
–2
2= 1=
4.4 V
ir 2
iR
Vb ir 1
Resistor
Battery 2
(b)
(a) A single-loop circuit containing two real bat- teries and a resistor. The batteries oppose each other; that is, they tend to send current in opposite directions through the resistor. (b) A graph of the potentials, counterclockwise from point a, with the potential at a arbitrarily taken to be zero. (To better link the circuit with the graph, mentally cut the circuit at a and then unfold the left side of the circuit toward the left and the right side of the circuit toward the right.) Figure 27.1.8
which gives us V a −V b = âˆi’ r 1 + â„1 °
–5
Battery 1
V b – ir 1 + â„1 ° = V a ,
Vc
–3 –4
2.1 V
= âˆ(’0.2396 A) (2.3 Ω) + 4.4 V = +3.84 V ≠3.8 V, ˆ
(Answer)
which is less than the emf of the battery. You can verify this result by starting at point b in Fig. 27.1.8a and traversing the circuit counterclockwise to point a. We learn two points here. (1) The potential difference between two points in a circuit is independent of the path we choose to go from one to the other. (2) When the current in the battery is in the “properdirection, the terminal-to-terminal potential †dif- ference is low, that is, lower than the stated emf for the battery that you might find printed on the battery.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
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C HAP T ER 27 C IRC U IT S
27.2 MULTILOOP CIRCUITS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
27.2.1 Apply the junction rule.
current through the battery can be determined,
27.2.2 Draw a schematic diagram for a battery and
and then reverse the steps to find the currents and
three parallel resistors and distinguish it from a dia- gram with a battery and three series resistors. 27.2.3 Identify that resistors in parallel have the same
potential differences of the individual resistors. 27.2.7 If a circuit cannot be simplified by using equiva- lent resistors, identify the several loops in the circuit,
potential difference, which is the same value that
choose names and directions for the currents in
their equivalent resistor has.
the branches, set up loop equations for the various
27.2.4 Calculate the resistance of the equivalent resis- tor of several resistors in parallel.
loops, and solve these simultaneous equations for the unknown currents.
27.2.5 Identify that the total current through parallel resistors is the sum of the currents through the indi- vidual resistors.
27.2.8 In a circuit with identical real batteries in series, replace them with a single ideal battery and a single resistor.
27.2.6 For a circuit with a battery and some resistors
27.2.9 In a circuit with identical real batteries in parallel,
in parallel and some in series, simplify the circuit
replace them with a single ideal battery and a single
in steps by finding equivalent resistors, until the
resistor.
Key Idea
â—When resistances are in parallel, they have the same potential difference. The equivalent resistance that can replace a parallel combination of resis- tances is given by
n
1 = ∑ __ 1 (n resistances in parallel). ____ R eq
j=1 R j
Multiloop Circuits
The current into the junction must equal the current out (charge is conserved). 1
+ –
a
2
b
–+
c
Figure 27.2.1 shows a circuit containing more than one loop. For simplicity, we assume the batteries are ideal. There are two junctions in this circuit, at b and d, and there are three branches connecting these junctions. The branches are the left branch (bad), the right branch (bcd), and the central branch (bd). What are the currents in the three branches? We arbitrarily label the currents, using a different subscript for each branch. Current i 1 has the same value everywhere in branch bad, i 2 has the same value everywhere in branch bcd, and i 3 is the current through branch bd. The directions of the currents are assumed arbitrarily. Consider junction d for a moment: Charge comes into that junction via incoming currents i 1 and i 3 , and it leaves via outgoing current i 2. Because there is no variation in the charge at the junction, the total incoming current must equal the total outgoing current: i 1 + i 3 = i 2 .
i1
R1
i3
R3
R2
i2
(27.2.1)
You can easily check that applying this condition to junction b leads to exactly the same equation. Equation 27.2.1 thus suggests a general principle:
d
A multiloop circuit con- sisting of three branches: left-hand branch bad, right-hand branch bcd, and central branch bd. The circuit also consists of three loops: left-hand loop badb, right-hand loop bcdb, and big loop badcb. Figure 27.2.1
JUNCTION RULE: The sum of the currents entering any junction must be equal to the sum of the currents leaving that junction.
This rule is often called Kirchhoff’ junction s rule (or Kirchhoff’ current law). It s is simply a statement of the conservation of charge for a steady flow of charge— there is neither a buildup nor a depletion of charge at a junction. Thus, our basic
/
27.2 MU L T IL OOP C IRC U IT S
827
tools for solving complex circuits are the loop rule (based on the conservation of energy) and the junction rule (based on the conservation of charge). Equation 27.2.1 is a single equation involving three unknowns. To solve the circuit completely (that is, to find all three currents), we need two more equations involving those same unknowns. We obtain them by applying the loop rule twice. In the circuit of Fig. 27.2.1, we have three loops from which to choose: the left- hand loop (badb), the right-hand loop (bcdb), and the big loop (badcb). Which two loops we choose does not matter—let’ choose s the left-hand loop and the right-hand loop. If we traverse the left-hand loop in a counterclockwise direction from point b, the loop rule gives us â„1 ° – i 1 R 1 + i 3R 3 = 0.
(27.2.2)
If we traverse the right-hand loop in a counterclockwise direction from point b, the loop rule gives us – i 3 R 3 – i 2 R 2 – â„ 2 ° = 0.
(27.2.3)
We now have three equations (Eqs. 27.2.1, 27.2.2, and 27.2.3) in the three unknown currents, and they can be solved by a variety of techniques. If we had applied the loop rule to the big loop, we would have obtained (moving counterclockwise from b) the equation â„1 ° – i 1 R i 2 R â„ 2 ° = 0. 1 – 2 –
However, this is merely the sum of Eqs. 27.2.2 a nd 27.2.3. Resistances in Parallel
Figure 27.2.2a shows three resistances connected in parallel to an ideal battery of emf â„.° The term “in parallelâ€means that the resistances are directly wired together on one side and directly wired together on the other side, and that a potential difference V is applied across the pair of connected sides. Thus, all three resistances have the same potential difference V across them, producing a current through each. In general, When a potential difference V is applied across resistances connected in parallel, the resistances all have that same potential difference V.
In Fig. 27.2.2a, the applied potential difference V is maintained by the battery. In Fig. 27.2.2b, the three parallel resistances have been replaced with an equivalent resistance R eq .
Parallel resistors and their equivalent have the same potential difference (“par-V†). i
+ –
i
a
R1
b
i2
i1
i2
+
i3
R2
+ i3 (a )
i
i2
R3
i3
a
+ –
i
R eq
i
b
(b )
(a) Three resistors connected in parallel across points a and b. (b) An equivalent circuit, with the three resistors replaced with their equivalent resistance R eq . Figure 27.2.2
/
828
C HAP T ER 27 C IRC U IT S
Resistances connected in parallel can be replaced with an equivalent resistance R eq that has the same potential difference V and the same total current i as the actual resistances.
You might remember that R eq and all the actual parallel resistances have the same potential difference V with the nonsense word “par-V.†To derive an expression for R eq in Fig. 27.2.2b, we first write the current in each actual resistance in Fig. 27.2.2a as V , i = ___ V , and i = ___ V , i 1 = ___ 3 R 1 2 R 2 R 3 where V is the potential difference between a and b. If we apply the junction rule at point a in Fig. 27.2.2a and then substitute these values, we find 1 ___ 1 ___ 1 i = i 1 + i 2 + i 3 = V ___ ( R 1 + R 2 + R 3) .
(27.2.4)
If we replaced the parallel combination with the equivalent resistance R eq (Fig. 27.2.2b), we would have V . i = ____ (27.2.5) R eq Comparing Eqs. 27.2.4 a nd 27.2.5 leads to 1 = ___ 1 + ___ 1 + ___ 1 . ____ R eq
R 1
R 2
(27.2.6)
R 3
Extending this result to the case of n resistances, we have n
1 = ∑ __ 1 (n resistances in parallel). ____ R eq
(27.2.7)
j=1 R j
For the case of two resistances, the equivalent resistance is their product divided by their sum; that is, R 1 R 2 R eq = _______ . R 1 + R 2
(27.2.8)
Note that when two or more resistances are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance is smaller than any of the combining resistances. Table 27.2.1 summarizes the equivalence relations for resistors and capacitors in series and in parallel. Table 27.2.1 Series and Parallel Resistors and Capacitors
Series
Parallel
Series
Resistors n
R eq = ∑ R j Eq. 27.1.7 j=1
Same current through all resistors
Parallel Capacitors
n 1 1 = ∑ ____ __ Eq. 27.2.7 R eq j=1 R j Same potential difference across all resistors
n 1 = ∑ 1 Eq. 25.3.2 ____ __ C eq j=1 C j Same charge on all capacitors
n
C eq = ∑ C j Eq. 25.3.1 j=1
Same potential difference across all capacitors
Checkpoint 27.2.1
A battery, with potential V across it, is connected to a combination of two identical resistors and then has current i through it. What are the potential difference across and the current through either resistor if the resistors are (a) in series and (b) in parallel?
/
27.2 MU L T IL OOP C IRC U IT S
Sample Problem 27.2.1
829
Resistors in parallel and in series
Figure 27.2.3a shows a multiloop circuit containing one ideal battery and four resistances with the following values: R 1 = 20 Ω, R 2 = 20 Ω, ℰ = 12 V, R 3 = 30 Ω, R 4 = 8.0 Ω. (a) What is the current through the battery?
KEY IDEA
We can now redraw the circuit as in Fig. 27.2.3c; note that the current through R 23 must be i 1 because charge that moves through R 1 and R 4 must also move through R 23 . For this simple one-loop circuit, the loop rule (applied clockwise from point a as in Fig. 27.2.3d) yields +ℰ – i 1 R i 1 R i 1 R 1 – 2 3 – 4 = 0. Substituting the given data, we find 12 V – i 1 (20 Ω) – i 1 (12 Ω) – i 1 (8.0 Ω) = 0,
Noting that the current through the battery must also be the current through R 1, we see that we might find the current by applying the loop rule to a loop that includes R 1 because the current would be included in the poten- tial difference across R 1 . Either the left-hand loop or the big loop should do. Noting that the emf arrow of the battery points upward, so the current the battery supplies is clock- wise, we might apply the loop rule to the left-hand loop, clockwise from point a. With i being the current through the battery, we would get Incorrect method:
+ℰ – iR 1 – iR 2 – iR 4 = 0
(incorrect).
However, this equation is incorrect because it assumes that R 1 , R R 4 all have the same current i. 2, and Resistances R 1 and R do have the same current, because 4 the current passing through R 4 must pass through the bat- tery and then through R 1 with no change in value. How- ever, that current splits at junction point b —only part passes through R 2 , the rest through R 3. To distinguish the several currents in the circuit, we must label them individually as in Fig. 27.2.3b. Then, circling clockwise from a, we can write the loop rule for the left-hand loop as
which gives us _____ = 0.30 A. i 1 = 12 V 40 Ω
(b) What is the current i 2 through R 2?
KEY IDEAS (1) We must now work backward from the equivalent cir- cuit of Fig. 27.2.3d, where R 23 has replaced R 2 and R 3 . (2) Because R2 and R 3 are in parallel, they both have the same potential difference across them as R 23 . We know that the current through R 23 is i 1 = 0.30 A. Thus, we can use Eq. 26.3.1 (R = V/i) and Fig. 27.2.3e to find the potential difference V 23 across R 23 . Setting R 23 = 12 Ωf rom (a), we write Eq. 26.3.1 a s Working backward:
V 23 = i 1 R 2 3 = (0.30 A)(12 Ω) = 3.6 V. The potential difference across R 2 is thus also 3.6 V (Fig. 27.2.3f ), so the current i 2 in R 2 must be, by Eq. 26.3.1 a nd Fig. 27.2.3g, V 2 _____ i 2 = ___ = 3.6 V = 0.18 A. R 2 20 Ω
Dead-end method:
+ℰ – i 1 R i 2 R 2 – i 1 R 1 – 4 = 0. Unfortunately, this equation contains two unknowns, i 1 and i 2; we would need at least one more equation to find them. A much easier option is to simplify the circuit of Fig. 27.2.3b by finding equivalent resistances. Note carefully that R 1 and R 2 are not in series and thus cannot be replaced with an equivalent resistance. How- ever, R 2 and R 3 are in parallel, so we can use either Eq. 27.2.7 or Eq. 27.2.8 to find their equivalent resistance R 23 . From the latter, Successful method:
R 2 R 3 (20 Ω)(30 Ω) R 23 = _______ = ___________ = 12 Ω. R 2 + R 3 50 Ω
(Answer)
(Answer)
(c) What is the current i 3 through R 3?
KEY IDEAS We can answer by using either of two techniques: (1) Apply Eq. 26.3.1 as we just did. (2) Use the junction rule, which tells us that at point b in Fig. 27.2.3b, the incoming current i 1 and the outgoing currents i 2 and i 3 are related by i 1 = i 2 + i 3 . Rearranging this junction-rule result yields the result displayed in Fig. 27.2.3g: Calculation:
i 3 = i 1 – i 2 = 0.30 A – 0.18 A = 0.12 A.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
/
830
C HAP T ER 27 C IRC U IT S
A
The equivalent of parallel resistors is smaller. i1
i3
b R1
R3
+ –
R
R c
R3
+ –
i1 R
R4
4
a
= 20 Ω
R1
i2
R2
R4
b
1
+ –
R2
a
i1
b
c
a
c i1
(b )
(c )
Applying V = iR yields the potential difference.
Applying the loop rule yields the current. i1
= 0.30 A
i1
= 0.30 A
b R1
b
= 20 Ω
R1
+ –
= 12 V
i1
= 0.30 A = 12 Ω
R 23 R4
= 12 V
V 23
R4 c
i1
= 20 Ω
+ –
= 8.0 Ω
a
a i1
= 0.30 A (e )
= 0.30 A
Applying i = V/R yields the current.
i3
i1
= 0.30 A
i3
b
= 12 V
+ –
1 = 20
V
R
4 = 8.0
R3 i2
3.6 V
R
Ω
V3
= 30 Ω = 3.6 V
2 = 20
Ω
R1
= 20 Ω
R3 V
= 12 V
+ –
V
R4
2 = 3.6
i2
V
R2
= 0.30 A
(f )
= 30 Ω 3.6 V
3=
= 0.18 A = 20 Ω
= 8.0 Ω
c i1
= 0.12 A
b
Ω
2=
= 0.30 A = 12 Ω
R 23
c
= 0.30 A
Parallel resistors and their equivalent have the same V (“par-V†).
R
i1
= 3.6 V
= 8.0 Ω
(d )
i1
Ω
= 8.0 Ω
i1
(a)
23 = 12
c i1
= 0.30 A
(g)
(a) A circuit with an ideal battery. (b) Label the currents. (c) Replacing the parallel resistors with their equivalent. (d)–( g) Working backward to find the currents through the parallel resistors. Figure 27.2.3
/
27.2 MU L T IL OOP C IRC U IT S
Sample Problem 27.2.2
Many real batteries in series and in parallel in an electric fish
Electric fish can generate current with biological emf cells called electroplaques. In the South American eel they are arranged in 140 rows, each row stretching horizontally along the body and each containing 5000 cells, as sug- gested by Fig. 27.2.4a. Each electroplaque has an emf ℰ of 0.15 V and an internal resistance r of 0.25 Ω. The water surrounding the eel completes a circuit between the two ends of the electroplaque array, one end at the head of FCP the animal and the other near the tail. (a) If the surrounding water has resistance R w = 800 Ω, how much current can the eel produce in the water?
We first consider a single row. The total emf â„row ° along a row of 5000 electroplaques is the sum of the emfs: Calculations:
â„row ° = 5000â„° = (5000)(0.15 V) = 750 V.
The total resistance R row along a row is the sum of the internal resistances of the 5000 electroplaques: R row = 5000r = (5000)(0.25 Ω) = 1250 Ω. We can now represent each of the 140 identical rows as having a single emf â„row ° and a single resistance R row (Fig. 27.2.4b). In Fig. 27.2.4b, the emf between point a and point b on any row is â„row ° = 750 V. Because the rows are iden- tical and because they are all connected together at the left in Fig. 27.2.4b, all points b in that figure are at the
KEY IDEA We can simplify the circuit of Fig. 27.2.4a by replacing combinations of emfs and internal resistances with equiv- alent emfs and resistances.
First, reduce each row to one emf and one resistance. Electroplaque
831
+ –
+ –
Points with the same potential can be taken as though connected.
+ –
r
5000 electroplaques per row
750 V row
+ –
+ –
R row
+ –
+ –
b
row
140 rows
R row
+ – b
a
+ –
+ –
c
row
+ –
R row
+ – b
Rw
(a )
Rw
(b ) R row
Emfs in parallel act as a single emf. row a
= 750 V + –
Replace the parallel resistances with their equivalent.
R row
a
row
i
+ – b
R eq
c
b
c
R row Rw Rw
(c )
(d )
i
(a) A model of the electric circuit of an eel in water. Along each of 140 rows extending from the head to the tail of the eel, there are 5000 electroplaques. The surrounding water has resistance R w . (b) The emf â„row ° and resistance R row of each row. (c) The emf between points a and b is â„row ° . Between points b and c are 140 parallel resis- tances R row . (d) The simplified circuit. Figure 27.2.4
/
832
C HAP T ER 27 C IRC U IT S
same electric potential. Thus, we can consider them to be connected so that there is only a single point b. The emf between point a and this single point b is â„row ° = 750 V, so we can draw the circuit as shown in Fig. 27.2.4c. Between points b and c in Fig. 27.2.4c are 140 resis- tances R row = 1250 Ω, all in parallel. The equivalent resis- tance R eq of this combination is given by Eq. 27.2.7 a s
or
j=1 R j
R row
(Answer)
If the head or tail of the eel is near a fish, some of this current could pass along a narrow path through the fish, stunning or killing it.
KEY IDEA
R row ______ R eq = ____ = 1250 Ω= 8.93 Ω. 140 140
Replacing the parallel combination with R eq , we obtain the simplified circuit of Fig. 27.2.4d. Applying the loop rule to this circuit counterclockwise from point b, we have â„row ° – iR w – iR eq = 0.
Solving for i and substituting the known data, we find
Sample Problem 27.2.3
= 0.927 A ≠0.93 A. ˆ
(b) How much current i row travels through each row of Fig. 27.2.4a?
140
1 = ∑ __ 1 = 140 ____ 1 , ____ R eq
â„row ° 750 V i = ________ = _____________ R w + R eq 800 Ω+ 8.93 Ω
Because the rows are identical, the current into and out of the eel is evenly divided among them. Calculation:
Thus, we write
i = _______ 0.927 A = 6.6 × i row = ____ 10 âˆ3 ’ A. 140 140
(Answer)
Thus, the current through each row is small, so that the eel need not stun or kill itself when it stuns or kills a fish.
Multiloop circuit and simultaneous loop equations
Figure 27.2.5 shows a circuit whose elements have the following values: â„1 ° = 3.0 V, â„2 ° = 6.0 V, R 1 = 2.0 Ω, R 2 = 4.0 Ω. The three batteries are ideal batteries. Find the magnitude and direction of the current in each of the three branches.
i1
R1
1
+ –
Using arbitrarily chosen directions for the currents as shown in Fig. 27.2.5, we apply the junction rule at point a by writing i 3 = i 1 + i 2. (27.2.9) Junction rule:
An application of the junction rule at junction b gives only the same equation, so we next apply the loop rule to any two of the three loops of the circuit. We first arbitrarily choose the left-hand loop, arbitrarily start at point b, and arbitrarily traverse the loop in the clockwise direction, obtaining Left-hand loop:
– i 1 R 1 + â„1 ° – i 1 R (i 1 + i 2 )R 2 – â„ 2 ° = 0, 1 –
where we have used (i 1 + i 2 ) instead of i 3 in the middle branch. Substituting the given data and simplifying yield (27.2.10)
R
2
2
+ –
R1
It is not worthwhile to try to simplify this circuit, because no two resistors are in parallel, and the resistors that are in series (those in the right branch or those in the left branch) present no problem. So, our plan is to apply the junction and loop rules.
+ –
R1 i3
KEY IDEAS
i 1(8.0 Ω) + i 2 (4.0 Ω) = – 3.0 V.
i2 a
R1
2
b i1
i2
A multiloop circuit with three ideal batteries and five resistances. Figure 27.2.5
For our second application of the loop rule, we arbitrarily choose to traverse the right-hand loop counterclockwise from point b, finding Right-hand loop:
– i 2 R 1 + â„2 ° – i 2 R 1 – (i 1 + i 2)R â„ 2 ° = 0. 2 –
Substituting the given data and simplifying yield i 1(4.0 Ω) + i 2 (8.0 Ω) = 0.
(27.2.11)
We now have a system of two equations (Eqs. 27.2.10 a nd 27.2.11) in two unknowns (i 1 and i 2) to solve either “by handâ€(which is easy enough here) or with a “math package.â€(One solution technique is Cramer’ rule, given in Appendix E.) We find s Combining equations:
i 1 = – 0.50 A.
(27.2.12)
(The minus sign signals that our arbitrary choice of direc- tion for i 1 in Fig. 27.2.5 is wrong, but we must wait to correct it.) Substituting i 1 = – 0.50 A into Eq. 27.2.11 and solving for i 2 then give us i 2 = 0.25 A. (Answer)
/
27.4 RC C IRC U IT S
With Eq. 27.2.9 we then find that i 3 = i 1 + i 2 = – 0.50 A + 0.25 A = – 0.25 A. The positive answer we obtained for i 2 signals that our choice of direction for that current is correct. However, the nega- tive answers for i 1 and i 3 indicate that our choices for those
833
currents are wrong. Thus, as a last step here, we correct the answers by reversing the arrows for i 1 and i 3 in Fig. 27.2.5 and then writing i 1 = 0.50 A and i 3 = 0.25 A.
(Answer)
Always make any such correction as the last step and not before calculating all the currents. Caution:
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
27.3 THE AMMETER AND THE VOLTMETER Learning Objective After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
27.3.1 Explain the use of an ammeter and a voltmeter, including the resis- tance required of each in order not to affect the measured quantities.
Key Idea
â—Here are three measurement instruments used with
measures voltage (potential differences). A multimeter
circuits: An ammeter measures current. A voltmeter
can be used to measure current, voltage, or resistance.
i
The Ammeter and the Voltmeter
An instrument used to measure currents is called an ammeter. To measure the current in a wire, you usually have to break or cut the wire and insert the amme- ter so that the current to be measured passes through the meter. (In Fig. 27.3.1, ammeter A is set up to measure current i.) It is essential that the resistance R A of the ammeter be very much smaller than other resistances in the circuit. Oth- erwise, the very presence of the meter will change the current to be measured. A meter used to measure potential differences is called a voltmeter. To find the potential difference between any two points in the circuit, the voltmeter ter- minals are connected between those points without breaking or cutting the wire. (In Fig. 27.3.1, v oltmeter V is set up to measure the voltage across R 1.) It is essen- tial that the resistance R V of a voltmeter be very much larger than the resistance of any circuit element across which the voltmeter is connected. Otherwise, the meter alters the potential difference that is to be measured. Often a single meter is packaged so that, by means of a switch, it can be made to serve as either an ammeter or a voltmeter—and usually also as an ohmmeter, designed to measure the resistance of any element connected between its termi- nals. Such a versatile unit is called a multimeter.
+ –
R2
r c a
A
V
R1 b
i d
A single-loop circuit, showing how to connect an ammeter (A) and a voltmeter (V). Figure 27.3.1
27.4 RC CIRCUITS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
27.4.1 Draw schematic diagrams of charging and dis-
RC circuits.
charging
27.4.2 Write the loop equation (a differential equation) for a charging
RC circuit.
/
834
C HAP T ER 27 C IRC U IT S
27.4.3 Write the loop equation (a differential equation) for a discharging
RC circuit.
RC circuit, find the ’ current and potential s difference as func-
27.4.6 In a charging or discharging resistor
RC
27.4.4 For a capacitor in a charging or discharging
tions of time.
τ RC circuit and a discharging RC circuit, determine the capacitor’ charge and poten- s
circuit, apply the relationship giving the charge as a
27.4.7 Calculate the capacitive time constant .
function of time.
27.4.8 For a charging
27.4.5 From the function giving the charge as a func-
RC circuit, ’ potential difference s as a function
tion of time in a charging or discharging
tial difference at the start of the process and then a
find the capacitor
long time later.
of time.
Key Ideas
â—When an emf â„° is applied to a resistance R and
â—When a capacitor discharges through a resistance R,
capacitance
the charge on the capacitor decays according to
C in series, the charge on the capacitor
increases according to
– t/RC
q = C â„(1 ° – e in which
)
– t/RC q = q 0e
(charging a capacitor),
C â„° = q 0 is the equilibrium (final) charge and
â—During the discharging, the current is
RC = Ï„is the capacitive time constant of the circuit. â—During the charging, the current is
dq â„° e âˆt’/RC i = ___ = ( __ dt R )
a
b
+ –
(discharging a capacitor).
dq q 0 âˆt/RC i = ___ = âˆ( ’ ____ e ’ RC ) dt
(discharging a capacitor).
(charging a capacitor).
S
RC Circuits R
C
In preceding modules we dealt only with circuits in which the currents did not vary with time. Here we begin a discussion of time-varying currents. Charging a Capacitor
When switch S is closed on a, the capacitor is charged through the resistor. When the switch is afterward closed on b, the capacitor discharges through the resistor. Figure 27.4.1
The capacitor of capacitance C in Fig. 27.4.1 is initially uncharged. To charge it, we close switch S on point a. This completes an RC series circuit consisting of the capacitor, an ideal battery of emf â„, and a resistance R. ° From Module 25.1, we already know that as soon as the circuit is complete, charge begins to flow (current exists) between a capacitor plate and a battery terminal on each side of the capacitor. This current increases the charge q on the plates and the potential difference V C (= q/C) across the capacitor. When that potential difference equals the potential difference across the battery (which here is equal to the emf â„), the current is zero. From Eq. 25.1.1 ° (q = CV ), the equilib- rium (final) charge on the then fully charged capacitor is equal to C â„.° Here we want to examine the charging process. In particular we want to know how the charge q(t) on the capacitor plates, the potential difference V C(t) across the capacitor, and the current i(t) in the circuit vary with time during the charging process. We begin by applying the loop rule to the circuit, traversing it clockwise from the negative terminal of the battery. We find q â„° −iR −__ = 0. C
(27.4.1)
The last term on the left side represents the potential difference across the capac- itor. The term is negative because the capacitor’ top plate, which is connected to s the battery ’ positive terminal, is at a higher potential than the lower plate. Thus, s there is a drop in potential as we move down through the capacitor. We cannot immediately solve Eq. 27.4.1 because it contains two variables, i and q. However, those variables are not independent but are related by dq i = ___ . dt
(27.4.2)
/
835
27.4 RC C IRC U IT S
Substituting this for i in Eq. 27.4.1 a nd rearranging, we find dq q R ___ + __ = â„° (charging equation). dt C
(27.4.3)
This differential equation describes the time variation of the charge q on the capacitor in Fig. 27.4.1. To solve it, we need to find the function q(t) that satis- fies this equation and also satisfies the condition that the capacitor be initially uncharged; that is, q = 0 at t = 0. We shall soon show that the solution to Eq. 27.4.3 is q = C â„(1 ° – e – t/RC )
(charging a capacitor).
(27.4.4)
(Here e is the exponential base, 2.718 . . . , and not the elementary charge.) Note that Eq. 27.4.4 does indeed satisfy our required initial condition, because at t = 0 t/RC the term e – is unity; so the equation gives q = 0. Note also that as t goes to t/RC infinity (that is, a long time later), the term e – goes to zero; so the equation gives the proper value for the full (equilibrium) charge on the capacitor—namely, q = C â„.° A plot of q(t) for the charging process is given in Fig. 27.4.2a. The derivative of q(t) is the current i(t) charging the capacitor: dq â„° e âˆt/RC ’ i = ___ = ( __ dt R )
(charging a capacitor).
(27.4.5)
A plot of i(t) for the charging process is given in Fig. 27.4.2b. Note that the current has the initial value â„/R and ° that it decreases to zero as the capacitor becomes fully charged.
The capacitor’ charge s grows as the resistor’s current dies out.
A capacitor that is being charged initially acts like ordinary connecting wire relative to the charging current. A long time later, it acts like a broken wire.
q ’ V C = __ = â„(1 ° −e âˆt/RC ) C
(charging a capacitor).
(27.4.6)
This tells us that V C = 0 at t = 0 and that V C = â„° when the capacitor becomes fully charged as t →⠈ž.
μ
By combining Eq. 25.1.1 (q = CV ) and Eq. 27.4.4, we find that the potential difference V C(t) across the capacitor during the charging process is
)C ( q
12
C
8 4 0
2
6
4 6 8 Time (ms) (a )
10
)Am( i
/R
4
The Time Constant
The product RC that appears in Eqs. 27.4.4, 2 7.4.5, a nd 27.4.6 has the dimensions of time (both because the argument of an exponential must be dimensionless and because, in fact, 1.0 Ωà — 1.0 F = 1.0 s). The product RC is called the capacitive time constant of the circuit and is represented with the symbol Ï„: Ï„= RC (time constant).
(27.4.7)
From Eq. 27.4.4, we can now see that at time t = Ï„(= RC), the charge on the initially uncharged capacitor of Fig. 27.4.1 has increased from zero to q = C â„(°1 – e – 1 ) = 0.63C â„.°
(27.4.8)
In words, during the first time constant Ï„the charge has increased from zero to 63% of its final value C â„.° In Fig. 27.4.2, the small triangles along the time
2 0
2
4 6 8 Time (ms) (b)
10
(a) A plot of Eq. 27.4.4, which shows the buildup of charge on the capacitor of Fig. 27.4.1. (b) A plot of Eq. 27.4.5, which shows the decline of the charging current in the circuit of Fig. 27.4.1. The curves are plotted for R = 2000 Ω, C = 1 μ F, and ℰ = 10 V; the small triangles represent successive intervals of one time constant τ. Figure 27.4.2
/
836
C HAP T ER 27 C IRC U IT S
axes mark successive intervals of one time constant during the charging of the capacitor. The charging times for RC circuits are often stated in terms of τ. For example, a circuit with τ= 1 μ s charges quickly while one with τ= 100 s charges much more slowly. Discharging a Capacitor
Assume now that the capacitor of Fig. 27.4.1 is fully charged to a potential V 0 equal to the emf â„° of the battery. At a new time t = 0, switch S is thrown from a to b so that the capacitor can discharge through resistance R. How do the charge q(t) on the capacitor and the current i(t) through the discharge loop of capacitor and resistance now vary with time? The differential equation describing q(t) is like Eq. 27.4.3 except that now, with no battery in the discharge loop, â„° = 0. Thus, dq q R ___ + __ = 0 dt C
(discharging equation).
(27.4.9)
The solution to this differential equation is t/RC q = q 0 e –
(discharging a capacitor),
(27.4.10)
where q 0 (= CV 0) is the initial charge on the capacitor. You can verify by substitu- tion that Eq. 27.4.10 is indeed a solution of Eq. 27.4.9. Equation 27.4.10 tells us that q decreases exponentially with time, at a rate that is set by the capacitive time constant Ï„= RC. At time t = Ï„, the capacitor’s – 1 charge has been reduced to q 0e , or about 37% of the initial value. Note that a greater Ï„means a greater discharge time. Differentiating Eq. 27.4.10 g ives us the current i(t): dq q 0 âˆt/RC i = ___ = −( ____ e ’ dt RC )
(discharging a capacitor).
(27.4.11)
This tells us that the current also decreases exponentially with time, at a rate set by τ. The initial current i 0 is equal to q 0 /RC. Note that you can find i 0 by simply applying the loop rule to the circuit at t = 0; just then the capacitor’s initial potential V 0 is connected across the resistance R, so the current must be i 0 = V 0 /R = (q The minus sign in Eq. 27.4.11 can be ignored; it 0 /C)/R = q 0 /RC. merely means that the capacitor’ charge q is decreasing. s Derivation of Eq. 27.4.4
To solve Eq. 27.4.3, we first rewrite it as dq ____ q __ ___ + = â„° . dt RC R
(27.4.12)
The general solution to this differential equation is of the form at q = q p + Ke – ,
(27.4.13)
where q p is a particular solution of the differential equation, K is a constant to be evaluated from the initial conditions, and a = 1/RC is the coefficient of q in Eq. 27.4.12. To find q p , we set dq/dt = 0 in Eq. 27.4.12 (corresponding to the final condition of no further charging), let q = q p, and solve, obtaining q p = C â„.°
(27.4.14)
To evaluate K, we first substitute this into Eq. 27.4.13 to get at q = C ℰ + Ke – .
/
837
27.4 RC C IRC U IT S
Then substituting the initial conditions q = 0 and t = 0 yields 0 = C â„° + K, or K = – C â„. Finally, with the values of q ° p , a, and K inserted, Eq. 27.4.13 becomes t/RC q = C â„° – C â„e °â€“ ,
which, with a slight modification, is Eq. 27.4.4.
Checkpoint 27.4.1
The table gives four sets of values for the circuit elements in Fig. 27.4.1. Rank the sets according to (a) the initial current (as the switch is closed on a) and (b) the time required for the current to decrease to half its initial value, greatest first.
ℰ (V) R ( Ω) C ( μ F)
1
2
3
4
12 2 3
12 3 2
10 10 0.5
10 5 2
Sample Problem 27.4.1
Discharging an RC circuit to avoid a fire in a race car pit stop
As a car rolls along pavement, electrons move from the pavement first onto the tires and then onto the car body. RU THRU E TH IVE DR DRIV The car stores this excess charge and the associated elec- tric potential energy as if the car body were one plate of a capacitor and the pavement were the other plate (Fig. 27.4.3a). When the car stops, it discharges its excess Tire resistance Effective charge and energy through the tires, just as a capacitor capacitance ( a ) can discharge through a resistor. If a conducting object comes within a few centimeters of the car before the car is discharged, the remaining energy can be suddenly trans- R tire R tire C R tire R tire C R ferred to a spark between the car and the object. Suppose the conducting object is a fuel dispenser. The spark will (b ) (c ) not ignite the fuel and cause a fire if the spark energy is Figure 27.4.3 (a) A charged car and less than the critical value U fire = 50 mJ. U the pavement acts like a capacitor When the car of Fig. 27.4.3a stops at time t = 0, the that can discharge through the tires. car–ground potential difference is V 0 = 30 kV. The car– (b) The effective circuit of the car– 100 GΩ ground capacitance is C = 500 pF, and the resistance of pavement capacitor, with four tire 10 GΩ each tire is R tire = 100 G Ω. How much time does the car resistances R tire connected in parallel. Uï¬ re take to discharge through the tires to drop below the criti- (c) The equivalent resistance R of 0.94 9.4 FCP cal value U fire ? the tires. (d) The electric potential
6
KEY IDEAS (1) At any time t, a capacitor’ stored s electric potential energy U is related to its stored charge q according to Eq. 25.4.1 (U = q 2 /2C). (2) While a capacitor is discharg- ing, the charge decreases with time according to Eq. – t/RC 27.4.10 (q = q 0e ).
energy U in the car–pavement (d ) capacitor decreases during discharge.
t
(s)
We can treat the tires as resistors that are connected to one another at their tops via the car body and at their bottoms via the pavement. Figure 27.4.3b shows how the four resistors are connected in parallel Calculations:
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838
C HAP T ER 27 C IRC U IT S
across the car’ capacitance, and s Fig. 27.4.3c shows their equivalent resistance R. From Eq. 27.2.7, R is given by
Taking the natural logarithms of both sides, we obtain 2U , âˆ____ ’ 2t = ln _____ 2 RC CV 0
(
1 = ____ 1 + ____ 1 + ____ 1 + ____ 1 , __ R
R tire
R tire
R tire
R tire
R tire _________ 10 9 Ω= 25 or R = ____ = 100 × × 10 9 Ω. (27.4.15) 4 4 When the car stops, it discharges its excess charge and energy through R. We now use our two key ideas to ana- lyze the discharge. Substituting Eq. 27.4.10 into Eq. 25.4.1 gives 2
âˆt’/ RC 2
2U . t = âˆ____ ’RC ln _____ 2 ) 2 (CV 0
or
2 (CV 0) CV 2 0 âˆ2’ t/RC U = _______ e âˆ2’ t/ RC = _____ e , 2C 2
2U . e âˆ2’ t/ RC = ____ CV 2 0
or
(27.4.17)
(27.4.18)
Substituting the given data, we find that the time the car takes to discharge to the energy level U fire = 50 mJ is ’ (25 × 10 9 Ω)(500 × 10 âˆ12 F) t = âˆ________________________ ’ 2
2(50 × 10 âˆ3 ’ J) × ln _________________________ ’ 10 âˆ12 F)(30 × 10 3 V) 2 (500 ×
q ( q 0 e ) U = ___ = __________
2C 2C 2 q 0 âˆ2’ t/ RC = ___ e . (27.4.16) 2C From Eq. 25.1.1 (q = CV ), we can relate the initial charge q 0 on the car to the given initial potential difference V 0 : q 0 = CV 0 . Substituting this equation into Eq. 27.4.16 brings us to
)
(
)
= 9.4 s.
(Answer)
This car requires at least 9.4 s before fuel can be brought safely near it. A pit crew cannot wait that long. So the tires include some type of conducting material (such as carbon black) to lower the tire resistance a nd thus increase the discharge rate. Figure 27.4.3d shows the stored energy U versus time t for tire resistances of R = 100 G Ω (our value) and R = 10 G Ω. Note how much more rapidly a car discharges to level U fire with the lower R value. Fire or no fire:
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Review & Summary An emf device does work on charges to maintain a potential difference between its output terminals. If dW is the work the device does to force positive charge dq from the nega- tive to the positive terminal, then the emf (work per unit charge) of the device is Emf
dW â„° = ____ ° dq (definition of â„).
(27.1.1)
Conservation of charge gives us the junction rule: The sum of the currents entering any junc- tion must be equal to the sum of the currents leaving that junction. Junction Rule.
The current in a single-loop circuit containing a single resistance R and an emf device with emf â„° and internal resistance r is Single-Loop Circuits
â„° , i = _____ R + r
The volt is the SI unit of emf as well as of potential difference. An ideal emf device is one that lacks any internal resistance. The potential difference between its terminals is equal to the emf. A real emf device has internal resistance. The potential dif- ference between its terminals is equal to the emf only if there is no current through the device.
which reduces to i = â„/R for an ideal emf device with r = 0. °
The change in potential in traversing a resistance R in the direction of the current is – iR; in the opposite direction it is +iR (resistance rule). The change in potential in traversing an ideal emf device in the direction of the emf arrow is +â„; in the opposite direction it is ° –℠(emf rule). Conservation ° of energy leads to the loop rule:
where V is the potential across the terminals of the battery. The rate P r at which energy is dissipated as thermal energy in the battery is
Analyzing Circuits
The algebraic sum of the changes in potential encountered in a complete traversal of any loop of a circuit must be zero. Loop Rule.
(27.1.4)
When a real battery of emf â„° and internal resistance r does work on the charge carriers in a current i through the bat- tery, the rate P of energy transfer to the charge carriers is P = iV, (27.1.14) Power
P r = i 2 r.
(27.1.16)
The rate P emf at which the chemical energy in the battery changes is P emf = i â„. °
(27.1.17)
/
QU EST IONS
When resistances are in series, they have the same current. The equivalent resistance that can replace a series combination of resistances is
q = C â„(1 ° – e – t/RC ) (charging a capacitor),
Series Resistances
n
R eq = ∑ R j (n resistances in series).
(27.1.7)
j=1
When resistances are in parallel, they have the same potential difference. The equivalent resis- tance that can replace a parallel combination of resistances is given by n
R eq
(27.2.7)
j=1 R j
(27.4.4)
in which C â„° = q 0 is the equilibrium (final) charge and RC = Ï„is the capacitive time constant of the circuit. During the charging, the current is dq â„° âˆt’/RC i = ___ = (__ (charging a capacitor). (27.4.5) R )e dt
Parallel Resistances
1 = ∑ __ 1 (n resistances in parallel). ____
839
When a capacitor discharges through a resistance R, the charge on the capacitor decays according to t/RC q = q 0 e – (discharging a capacitor).
(27.4.10)
During the discharging, the current is
When an emf â„° is applied to a resistance R and capacitance C in series, as in Fig. 27.4.1 with the switch at a, the charge on the capacitor increases according to
dq q 0 âˆt’/RC i = ___ = âˆ(’ ____ (discharging a capacitor). RC )e dt (27.4.11)
RC Circuits
Questions (a) In Fig. 27.1a, with R 1 > R 2 , is the potential difference across R 2 more than, less than, or equal to that across R 1? (b) Is the current through resistor R 2 more than, less than, or equal to that through resistor R 1 ? 1
For each circuit in Fig. 27.3, are the resistors connected in series, in parallel, or neither? 5
– +
+ –
R1
+ –
– +
R3
R2
– +
R3
(a )
(a )
R1
R2
(b ) Figure 27.3
(b )
(c )
Question 5.
Res-monster maze. In Fig. 27.4, all the resistors have a resistance of 4.0 Ω and all the (ideal) batteries have an emf of 4.0 V. What is the current through resistor R? (If you can find the proper loop through this maze, you can answer the question with a few seconds of mental calculation.) 6
R1
– +
R3 R1
(c )
+ –
R2 R
3
(d ) R2
Figure 27.1
Questions 1 and 2.
(a) In Fig. 27.1a, are resistors R 1 and R 3 in series? (b) Are resistors R 1 and R 2 in parallel? (c) Rank the equivalent resis- tances of the four circuits shown in Fig. 27.1, greatest first. 2
R
You are to connect resistors R 1 and R 2 , with R 1 > R 2 , to a battery, first individually, then in series, and then in parallel. Rank those arrangements according to the amount of current through the battery, greatest first. 3
In Fig. 27.2, a circuit consists + – of a battery and two uniform R1 R2 resistors, and the section lying x along an x axis is divided into five a b c d e segments of equal lengths. (a) Assume that R 1 = R 2 and rank Figure 27.2 Question 4. the segments according to the magnitude of the average electric field in them, greatest first. (b) Now assume that R 1 > R 2 and then again rank the segments. (c) What is the direction of the electric field along the x axis? 4
Figure 27.4
Question 6.
A resistor R 1 is wired to a battery, then resistor R 2 is added in series. Are (a) the potential difference across R 1 and (b) the current i 1 through R 1 now more than, less than, or the same as previously? (c) Is the equivalent resistance R 12 of R 1 and R 2 more than, less than, or equal to R 1 ? 7
What is the equivalent resistance of three resistors, each of resistance R, if they are connected to an ideal battery (a) in 8
/
840
C HAP T ER 27 C IRC U IT S
series with one another and (b) in parallel with one another? (c) Is the potential difference across the series arrangement greater than, less than, or equal to that across the parallel arrangement? Two resistors are wired to a battery. (a) In which arrange- ment, parallel or series, are the potential differences across each resistor and across the equivalent resistance all equal? (b) In which arrangement are the currents through each resistor and through the equivalent resistance all equal? 9
Cap-monster maze. In Fig. 27.5, all the capacitors have a capacitance of 6.0 μ F, and all the batteries have an emf of 10 V. What is the charge on capacitor C? (If you can find the proper loop through this maze, you can answer the question with a few seconds of mental calculation.) 10
R 1 ? (d) Is the total current through R 1 and R 2 together more than, less than, or equal to the current through R 1 previously? After the switch in Fig. 27.4.1 is closed on point a, there is current i through resistance R. Figure 27.6 gives that current for four sets of values of R and capacitance C: (1) R 0 and C 0 , (2) 2R 0 and C 0 , (3) R 0 and 2C 0 , (4) 2R 0 and 2C 0 . Which set goes with which curve? 12
i
c
d
a b
t Figure 27.7 shows three sec- Figure 27.6 Question 12. tions of circuit that are to be con- nected in turn to the same battery via a switch as in Fig. 27.4.1. The resistors are all identical, as are the capacitors. Rank the sections according to (a) the final (equilibrium) charge on the capacitor and (b) the time required for the capacitor to reach 50% of its final charge, greatest first.
13
C
(1)
Figure 27.5
(2)
Question 10.
Initially, a single resistor R 1 is wired to a battery. Then resistor R 2 is added in parallel. Are (a) the potential differ- ence across R 1 and (b) the current i 1 through R 1 now more than, less than, or the same as previously? (c) Is the equivalent resistance R 12 of R 1 and R 2 more than, less than, or equal to 11
(3) Figure 27.7
Question 13.
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor
’ discretion) in s WileyPLUS
Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
BIO
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 27.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard Flying
Circus of Physics
Single-Loop Circuits
SSM
In Fig. 27.9, the ideal bat- teries have emfs â„1 ° = 150 V and â„2 ° = 50 V and the resistances are R 1 = 3.0 Ω and R 2 = 2.0 Ω. If the potential at P is 100 V, what is it at Q? 2
E
R1
– +
A car battery with a 12 V emf and an internal resistance of 0.040 Ωi s being charged with a current of 50 A. What are (a) the potential difference V across the terminals, (b) the rate P r of energy dissipation inside the battery, and (c) the rate P emf of energy conversion to chemical form? When the battery is used to supply 50 A to the starter motor, what are (d) V and (e) P r ? 3 E
In Fig. 27.8, the ideal bat- R1 teries have emfs â„1 ° = 12 V and â„2 ° = 6.0 V. What are (a) the current, the + R2 2 dissipation rate in (b) resistor 1 (4.0 Ω) – 1 and (c) resistor 2 (8.0 Ω), and the energy transfer rate in (d) battery 1 –+ and (e) battery 2? Is energy being Figure 27.8 Problem 1. supplied or absorbed by (f) battery 1 Q and (g) battery 2? 1 E
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
1
2
– +
R2 P
Figure 27.9
Problem 2.
GO Figure 27.10 shows a circuit of four resistors that are connected to a larger circuit. The graph below the circuit shows the electric potential V(x) as a function of position x along the lower branch of the circuit, through resistor 4; the potential V A is 12.0 V. The graph above the circuit shows the electric potential V(x) versus position x along the upper branch of the circuit, through resistors 1, 2, and 3; the potential differences are ΔV B = 2.00 V and ΔV C = 5.00 V. Resistor 3 has a resistance of 200 Ω. What is the resistance of (a) resistor 1 and (b) resis- tor 2? 4 E
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841
P ROBL EMS
V
ΔVB
copper wires. Each wire has length 20.0 cm and radius 1.00 mm. In dealing with such circuits in this chapter, we generally neglect the potential differences along the wires and the transfer of energy to thermal energy in them. Check the validity of this neglect for the circuit of Fig. 27.13: What is the poten- tial difference across (a) the resistor and (b) each of the two sections of wire? At what rate is energy lost to thermal energy in (c) the resistor and (d) each section of wire?
ΔVC
0
x
1
2
3
4
Wire 1
R
Wire 2 Figure 27.13
Problem 12.
A 10-km-long underground Conducting path cable extends east to west and West East consists of two parallel wires, each of which has resistance 13 Ω/km. An electrical short develops at x distance x from the west end Figure 27.14 Problem 13. when a conducting path of resis- tance R connects the wires (Fig. 27.14). The resistance of the wires and the short is then 100 Ωw hen measured from the east end and 200 Ωwhen measured from the west end. What are (a) x and (b) R? 13 M
Figure 27.10
Problem 4.
) V( V
VA
0
x
A 5.0 A current is set up in a circuit for 6.0 min by a rechargeable battery with a 6.0 V emf. By how much is the chemical energy of the battery reduced? 5
E
E A standard flashlight battery can deliver about 2.0 W Â h of · energy before it runs down. (a) If a battery costs US$0.80, what is the cost of operating a 100 W lamp for 8.0 h using batteries? (b) What is the cost if energy is provided at the rate of US$0.06 per kilowatt-hour?
6
E A wire of resistance 5.0 Ω is connected to a battery whose emf ℰ is 2.0 V and whose internal resistance is 1.0 Ω. In 2.0 min, how much energy is (a) transferred from chemical form in the battery, (b) dissipated as thermal energy in the wire, and (c) dissipated as thermal energy in the battery?
7
GO In Fig. 27.15a, both batteries have emf ℰ = 1.20 V and the external resistance R is a variable resistor. Figure 27.15b gives the electric potentials V between the terminals of each battery as functions of R: Curve 1 corresponds to battery 1, and curve 2 cor- responds to battery 2. The horizontal scale is set by R s = 0.20 Ω. What is the internal resistance of (a) battery 1 and (b) battery 2? 14 M
+ –
2
+ –
R
2
V
(a) In electron-volts, how much work does an ideal battery with a 12.0 V emf do on an electron that passes through the bat- tery from the positive to the negative terminal? (b) If 3.40 × 10 18 electrons pass through each second, what is the power of the battery in watts?
1
1
0.5 ) V(
A certain car battery with a 12.0 V emf has an initial charge of 120 A Âh. Assuming · that the potential across the terminals stays constant until the battery is completely discharged, for how many hours can it deliver energy at the rate of 100 W? 8 E
0 Rs
9 E
(a) In Fig. 27.11, what value must R have if the current in the circuit is to be 1.0 mA? Take â„1 ° = 2.0 V, â„2 ° = 3.0 V, and r 1 = r 2 = 3.0 Ω. (b) What is the rate at which thermal energy appears in R? 10
R
(a)
(Ω)
(b )
Figure 27.15 Problem 14. The current in a single-loop circuit with one resistance R is 5.0 A. When an additional resistance of 2.0 Ωis inserted in series with R, the current drops to 4.0 A. What is R?
15 M
M
1
+ –
+ –
r1
2
r2
R
Figure 27.11 Problem 10. M SSM In Fig. 27.12, cir- cuit section AB absorbs energy i at a rate of 50 W when cur- rent i = 1.0 A through it is in X A B the indicated direction. Resis- R tance R = 2.0 Ω. (a) What is the Figure 27.12 Problem 11. potential difference between A and B? Emf device X lacks internal resistance. (b) What is its emf? (c) Is point B connected to the positive terminal of X or to the negative terminal?
11
Figure 27.13 shows a resistor of resistance R = 6.00 Ωcon- nected to an ideal battery of emf ℰ = 12.0 V by means of two 12 M
–0.3
A solar cell generates a potential difference of 0.10 V when a 500 Ωresistor is connected across it, and a potential difference of 0.15 V when a 1000 Ωresistor is substituted. What are the (a) inter- nal resistance and (b) emf of the solar cell? (c) The area of the cell is 5.0 cm 2 , and the rate per unit area at which it receives energy from light is 2.0 mW/cm 2 . What is the efficiency of the cell for converting light energy to thermal energy in the 1000 Ωexternal resistor? 16 H
H SSM In Fig. 27.16, battery 1 has emf â„1 ° = 12.0 V and internal resistance r 1 = 0.016 Ω and bat- + tery 2 has emf â„2 ° = 12.0 V and internal r resistance r 2 = 0.012 Ω. The batteries 1 –1 R are connected in series with an external + r2 resistance R. (a) What R value makes the 2 – terminal-to-terminal potential difference Figure 27.16 of one of the batteries zero? (b) Which battery is that? Problem 17.
17
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842
C HAP T ER 27 C IRC U IT S
Module 27.2
Multiloop Circuits
In Fig. 27.2.1, what is the potential difference V d – V c between points d and c if â„1 ° = 4.0 V, â„2 ° = 1.0 V, R 1 = R 2 = 10 Ω, and R 3 = 5.0 Ω, and the batteries are ideal? 18
E
A total resistance of 3.00 Ωi s to be produced by connect- ing an unknown resistance to a 12.0 Ωr esistance. (a) What must be the value of the unknown resistance, and (b) should it be connected in series or in parallel? 19 E
When resistors 1 and 2 are connected in series, the equiva- lent resistance is 16.0 Ω. When they are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance is 3.0 Ω. What are (a) the smaller resis- tance and (b) the larger resistance of these two resistors? 20 E
E Four 18.0 Ω resistors are connected in parallel across a 25.0 V ideal battery. What is the current through the battery?
21
Figure 27.17 shows five 5.00 Ω resistors. Find the equivalent resis- tance between points (a) F and H and (b) F and G. (Hint: For each pair of points, imagine that a bat- tery is connected across the pair.) 22 E
R F
H
R
E
Nine copper wires of length l and diameter d are connected in parallel to form a single composite conductor of resistance R. What must be the diameter D of a single copper wire of length l if it is to have the same resistance? E
2
3
Problem 23.
R1
E
Problem 24.
M Figure 27.20 shows a bat- R tery connected across a uniform Sliding resistor R 0 . A sliding contact can x contact move across the resistor from x = 0 at the left to x = 10 cm at R0 the right. Moving the contact changes how much resistance is to the left of the contact and how + – much is to the right. Find the rate at which energy is dissipated in Figure 27.20 Problem 26. resistor R as a function of x. Plot the function for ℰ = 50 V, R = 2000 Ω, and R 0 = 100 Ω.
Side flash. Figure 27.21 indicates one reason no one should stand under a tree during a lightning storm. If lightning comes down the side of the tree, a portion can jump over to the person, especially if the current on the tree reaches a dry region on the bark and thereafter must travel through air M
BIO
FCP
R2
2 3
(b )
0 i
is
(mA)
Problem 28. 29 M In Fig. 27.23, R 1 = 6.00 Ω , R 2 = 18.0 Ω, and the ideal battery + – R1 has emf â„° = 12.0 V. What are the (a) size and (b) direction (left R2 or right) of current i 1 ? (c) How much energy is dissipated by all R2 i1 four resistors in 1.00 min? R2 30 M GO In Fig. 27.24, the ideal batteries have emfs â„1 ° = 10.0 V Figure 27.23 Problem 29. and â„2 ° = 0.500â„1 ° , and the resis- tances are each 4.00 Ω. What is R1 R2 the current in (a) resistance 2 and (b) resistance 3? + + Figure 27.22
26
27
R1
b
SSM
R3
R3
(a )
R2
+ –
Figure 27.19
Problem 27.
1 + –
+ –
R2
Figure 27.21
Problem 22.
R1
D
h
Vs
1
Figure 27.18
d
The ideal battery in Fig. 27.22a has emf â„° = 6.0 V. Plot 1 in Fig. 27.22b gives the electric potential difference V that can appear across resistor 1 versus the current i in that resistor when the resistor is individually tested by putting a variable potential across it. The scale of the V axis is set by V s = 18.0 V, and the scale of the i axis is set by i s = 3.00 mA. Plots 2 and 3 are similar plots for resistors 2 and 3, respectively, when they are individu- ally tested by putting a variable potential across them. What is the current in resistor 2 in the circuit of Fig. 27.22a?
+ –
a
I
28 M
G
Figure 27.17
Lightning current
) V( V
In Fig. 27.19, R1 = R 2 = 4.00 Ω and R 3 = 2.50 Ω. Find the equiva- lent resistance between points D and E. (Hint: Imagine that a battery is connected across those points.) 24 E
25
R
R
In Fig. 27.18, R 1 = 100 Ω, R 2 = 50 Ω, and the ideal batteries have emfs â„1 ° = 6.0 V, â„2 ° = 5.0 V, and â„3 ° = 4.0 V. Find (a) the current in resistor 1, (b) the cur- rent in resistor 2, and (c) the potential difference between points a and b. 23
R
to reach the ground. In the fig- ure, part of the lightning jumps through distance d in air and then travels through the person (who has negligible resistance relative to that of air because of the highly conducting salty fluids within the body). The rest of the current travels through air alongside the tree, for a distance h. If d/h = 0.400 and the total current is I = 5000 A, what is the current through the person?
R3 1 2 – In Fig. 27.25, the – ideal batteries have emfs â„1 ° = 5.0 V and â„2 ° = 12 V, the resis- tances are each 2.0 Ω, and the Figure 27.24 Problems 30, 41, and 88. potential is defined to be zero at the grounded point of the circuit. What are potentials (a) V 1 and (b) V 2 at the indicated points?
31 M
SSM
GO
Both batteries in Fig. 27.26a are ideal. Emf â„1 ° of battery 1 has a fixed value, but emf â„2 ° of bat- tery 2 can be varied between 1.0 V and 10 V. The plots in Fig. 27.26b give the currents through the two batteries as a function of â„2 ° . 32 M
+ –
1
V2
Figure 27.25
+ –
2
V1
Problem 31.
/
843
P ROBL EMS
The vertical scale is set by i s = 0.20 A. You must decide which plot corresponds to which battery, but for both plots, a nega- tive current occurs when the direction of the current through the battery is opposite the direction of that battery’ emf. What are s (a) emf â„1 ° , (b) resistance R 1 , and (c) resistance R 2 ?
2
(a )
R1
+ –
)A( tnerruC
+ –
R2
1
0
5
(b )
2
Problem 32.
10
(V)
GO In Fig. 27.27, the current in resistance 6 is i 6 = 1.40 A and the resistances are R 1 = R 2 = R 3 = 2.00 Ω, R 4 = 16.0 Ω, R 5 = 8.00 Ω, and R 6 = 4.00 Ω. What is the emf of the ideal battery? 33 M
+ –
R1
R2
R5
R3
i6
R4
Figure 27.27
R6
Problem 33.
M
S + –
R1
S + –
R2
R3 R1
(a )
GO
R2
R3
+ –
Problem 37.
Figure 27.31
R2
Box
R1 A
B
R3
i
Figure 27.32
CALC GO In Fig. 27.33, two batteries with an emf ℰ = 12.0 V and an internal resis- tance r = 0.300 Ω are connected in parallel across a resistance R. (a) For what value of R is the dissipation rate in the resistor a maxi- mum? (b) What is that maximum?
Problem 38.
Two identical batteries of emf ℰ = 12.0 V and internal resistance r = 0.200 Ω are to be connected to an external resistance R, either in parallel (Fig. 27.33) or in series (Fig. 27.34). If R = 2.00r, what is the current i in the external resistance in the (a) parallel and (b) series arrangements? (c) For which arrangement is i greater? If R = r/2.00, what is i in the external resistance in the (d) parallel arrangement and + – (e) series arrangement? (f) For r which arrangement is i greater now? M
+ – r
+ –
GO
r
R
Figure 27.33
Problems 39 and 40.
+ – r
R In Fig. 27.24, â„1 ° = 3.00 V, â„2 ° = 1.00 V, R 1 = 4.00 Ω, R 2 = 2.00 Ω, R 3 = 5.00 Ω, and both bat- Figure 27.34 Problem 40. teries are ideal. What is the rate at which energy is dissipated in (a) R 1 , (b) R 2 , and (c) R 3 ? What is the power of (d) battery 1 and (e) battery 2?
A
GO
In Fig. 27.30, â„1 ° = 6.00 V, â„2 ° = 12.0 V, R 1 = 100 Ω, R2 = 200 Ω, and R 3 = 300 Ω. One point of the circuit is grounded (V = 0). What are the (a) size and (b) direction (up or down) of the current through resistance 1, the (c) size and (d) direction (left or right) of the cur- rent through resistance 2, and the (e) size and (f) direction of the 36 M
R1
39 M
41
Problem 34.
In Fig. 27.29, ℰ = 12.0 V, R 1 = 2000 Ω, R 2 = 3000 Ω, and R 3 = 4000 Ω. What are the poten- tial differences (a) V A – V B , (b) V B – V C , (c) V C – V D , and (d) V A – V C ? 35 M
R2
(b ) Figure 27.28
M Figure 27.32 shows a sec- tion of a circuit. The resistances are R 1 = 2.0 Ω, R 2 = 4.0 Ω, and R 3 = 6.0 Ω, and the indicated current is i = 6.0 A. The electric potential difference between points A and B that connect the section to the rest of the circuit is V A – V B = 78 V. (a) Is the device represented by “Boxabsorbing †or providing energy to the circuit, and (b) at what rate?
40
The resistances in Figs. 27.28a and b are all 6.0 Ω, and the batteries are ideal 12 V batteries. (a) When switch S in Fig. 27.28a is closed, what is the change in the electric poten- tial V 1 across resistor 1, or does V 1 remain the same? (b) When switch S in Fig. 27.28b is closed, what is the change in V 1 across resistor 1, or does V 1 remain the same? 34
GO In Fig. 27.31, the resis- tances are R 1 = 2.00 Ω, R 2 = 5.00 Ω, and the battery is ideal. What value of R 3 maximizes the dissipation rate in resistance 3? 37
38
is
â€is“
Figure 27.26
current through resistance 3? (g) What is the electric potential at point A?
M
M In Fig. 27.35, an array of n parallel resistors is connected in series to a resistor and an ideal bat- tery. All the resistors have the same resistance. If an identical resistor were added in parallel to the par- allel array, the current through the battery would change by 1.25%. What is the value of n?
42 R2
R1
C
+ –
B R3 R1
R2 D
Figure 27.29
Problem 35.
A
R
R
R
n resistors in parallel
Figure 27.35
Problem 42.
You are given a number of 10 Ωr esistors, each capable of dissipating only 1.0 W without being destroyed. What is the minimum number of such resistors that you need to combine in series or in parallel to make a 10 Ωr esistance that is capable of dissipating at least 5.0 W? 43 M
+ –
R2
1
R3 R1
2
+ –
M GO In Fig. 27.36, R , R 4 = 1 = 100 Ω, R 2 = R 3 = 50.0 Ω 75.0 Ω, and the ideal battery has emf ℰ = 6.00 V. (a) What is the
44 Figure 27.30
Problem 36.
/
844
C HAP T ER 27 C IRC U IT S
equivalent resistance? What is i in (b) resistance 1, (c) resistance R1 2, (d) resistance 3, and (e) resis- R4 + tance 4? R2 R3 – 45 M In Fig. 27.37, the resistances are R 1 = 1.0 Ω and R 2 = 2.0 Ω, Figure 27.36 and the ideal batteries have emfs Problems 44 and 48. â„1 ° = 2.0 V and â„2 ° = â„3 ° = 4.0 V. What are the (a) size and (b) R1 R1 direction (up or down) of the a current in battery 1, the (c) size + and (d) direction of the current 3 – R2 + in battery 2, and the (e) size and – 1 (f) direction of the current in bat- R1 + tery 3? (g) What is the potential R1 – 2 difference V a – V b ? b
In Fig. 27.38a, resistor 3 is a Figure 27.37 Problem 45. variable resistor and the ideal bat- tery has emf ℰ = 12 V. Figure 27.38b gives the current i through the battery as a function of R 3 . The horizontal scale is set by R 3s = 20 Ω. The curve has an asymptote of 2.0 mA as R 3 → ∞. What are (a) resistance R 1 and (b) resistance R 2 ? 46 M
6 )Am( i
4
R1
+ –
R2
R3
2 0 R3
(a )
R 3s
(Ω)
(b ) Figure 27.38
H SSM A copper wire of radius a = 0.250 mm has an alu- minum jacket of outer radius b = 0.380 mm. There is a current i = 2.00 A in the composite wire. Using Table 26.3.1, calculate the current in (a) the copper and (b) the aluminum. (c) If a potential difference V = 12.0 V between the ends maintains the current, what is the length of the composite wire?
(a) In Fig. 27.39, what cur- rent does the ammeter read if â„° = 5.0 V (ideal battery), R 1 = 2.0 Ω, R 2 = 4.0 Ω, and R 3 = 6.0 Ω? (b) The ammeter and battery are now interchanged. Show that the ammeter reading is unchanged. M In Fig. 27.40, R 1 = 2.00R, the ammeter resistance is zero, and the battery is ideal. What multiple of â„/R gives the current ° in the ammeter?
50
A
The Ammeter
49 M
M In Fig. 27.3.1, assume that ℰ = 3.0 V, r = 100 Ω, R 1 = 250 Ω, and R 2 = 300 Ω. If the voltmeter resistance R V is 5.0 kΩ, what percent error does it introduce into the mea- surement of the potential difference across R 1 ? Ignore the presence of the ammeter.
+ –
R2 R3 R1
Figure 27.39
Problem 49.
+ –
A R
Figure 27.40
R
R
Problem 50.
A
S Starting motor
S
M When the lights of a car are switched on, an ammeter in series with them reads 10.0 A and a volt- meter connected across them reads 12.0 V (Fig. 27.43). When the elec- tric starting motor is turned on, the ammeter reading drops to 8.00 A and the lights dim somewhat. If the internal resistance of the bat- tery is 0.0500 Ω and that of the ammeter is negligible, what are (a) the emf of the battery and (b) the current through the starting motor when the lights are on?
V
54
M In Fig. 27.44, R s is to be adjusted in value by moving the sliding contact across it until points a and b are brought to the same potential. (One tests for this condition by momentarily connecting a sensitive ammeter
55 R1
Lights
–
+
GO In Fig. 27.36, the resistors have the values R 1 = 7.00 Ω, R 2 = 12.0 Ω, and R 3 = 4.00 Ω, and the ideal battery’ emf s is ℰ = 24.0 V. For what value of R 4 will the rate at which the bat- tery transfers energy to the resistors equal (a) 60.0 W, (b) the maximum possible rate P max , and (c) the minimum possible rate P min ? What are (d) P max and (e) P min ? 48 H
and the Voltmeter
M A simple ohmmeter is made by connecting a 1.50 V 0–1.00 mA flashlight battery in series with – a resistance R and an ammeter + that reads from 0 to 1.00 mA, as R shown in Fig. 27.42. Resistance R is adjusted so that when the clip leads are shorted together, Figure 27.42 Problem 52. the meter deflects to its full-scale value of 1.00 mA. What external resistance across the leads results in a deflection of (a) 10.0%, (b) 50.0%, and (c) 90.0% of full scale? (d) If the ammeter has a resistance of 20.0 Ωa nd the internal resistance of the battery is negligible, what is the value of R?
52
53
Problem 46.
47
Module 27.3
M In Fig. 27.41, a voltmeter A of resistance R V = 300 Ω and R an ammeter of resistance R A = 3.00 Ωa re being used to measure V a resistance R in a circuit that also R0 contains a resistance R 0 = 100 Ω and an ideal battery with an emf + – of ℰ = 12.0 V. Resistance R is given by R = V/i, where V is the Figure 27.41 Problem 51. potential across R and i is the ammeter reading. The voltmeter reading is Vʹ , which is V plus the potential difference across the ammeter. Thus, the ratio of the two meter readings is not R but only an apparent resistance Rʹ = Vʹ /i. If R = 85.0 Ω, what are (a) the ammeter reading, (b) the voltmeter reading, and (c) Rʹ ? (d) If R A is decreased, does the dif- ference between Rʹ and R increase, decrease, or remain the same?
51
r
Figure 27.43
Problem 54. a
R2
R1
Sliding contact
Rs
Rx
b R0
Figure 27.44
+
–
Problem 55.
/
845
P ROBL EMS
between a and b; if these points are at the same potential, the ammeter will not deflect.) Show that when this adjustment is made, the following relation holds: R x = R s R 2 /R 1 . An unknown resistance (R x ) can be measured in terms of a standard (R s ) using this device, which is called a Wheatstone bridge. In Fig. 27.45, a voltmeter A of resistance R V = 300 Ω and an R ammeter of resistance R A = 3.00 Ω are being used to measure a resis- V tance R in a circuit that also con- R0 tains a resistance R 0 = 100 Ω and an ideal battery of emf ℰ = 12.0 V. + – Resistance R is given by R = V/i, where V is the voltmeter reading Figure 27.45 Problem 56. and i is the current in resistance R. However, the ammeter reading is not i but rather iʹ , which is i plus the current through the voltmeter. Thus, the ratio of the two meter readings is not R but only an apparent resistance Rʹ= V/i ʹ . If R = 85.0 Ω, what are (a) the ammeter reading, (b) the voltmeter reading, and (c) Rʹ ? (d) If R V is increased, does the difference between Rʹand R increase, decrease, or remain the same? 56
M
capacitor discharges completely through the lamp and the lamp flashes briefly. For a lamp with breakdown voltage V L = 72.0 V, wired to a 95.0 V ideal battery and a 0.150 μ F capacitor, what resistance R is needed for two flashes per second? M SSM In the circuit of Fig. 27.48, ℰ = 1.2 kV, C = 6.5 μ F, S R1 R 1 = R 2 = R 3 = 0.73 MΩ. With C R3 completely uncharged, switch S + R2 – is suddenly closed (at t = 0). At C t = 0, what are (a) current i 1 in resistor 1, (b) current i 2 in resis- tor 2, and (c) current i 3 in resistor Figure 27.48 Problem 63. 3? At t = ∞(that is, after many time constants), what are (d) i 1 , (e) i 2, and (f) i 3? What is the potential difference V 2 across resis- tor 2 at (g) t = 0 and (h) t = ∞? (i) Sketch V 2 versus t between these two extreme times.
63
A capacitor with an initial potential difference of 100 V is discharged through a resistor when a switch between them is closed at t = 0. At t = 10.0 s, the potential difference across the capacitor is 1.00 V. (a) What is the time constant of the circuit? (b) What is the potential difference across the capacitor at t = 17.0 s? 64 M
GO In Fig. 27.49, R 1 = M 10.0 kΩ, R 2 = 15.0 kΩ, C = 0.400 μ F, and the ideal battery has emf ℰ = 20.0 V. First, the switch is closed a long time so that the steady state is reached. Then the switch is opened at time t = 0. What is the current in resistor 2 at t = 4.00 ms? 65
Module 27.4
RC Circuits
Switch S in Fig. 27.46 is closed at time t = 0, to begin charging an initially uncharged capacitor of capacitance C = 15.0 μ F through a resistor of resis- tance R = 20.0 Ω. At what time is the potential across the capacitor equal to that across the resistor? 57 E
S R
+ –
C
Problems 57 and 96.
Figure 27.46
E In an RC series circuit, emf ℰ = 12.0 V, resistance R = 1.40 MΩ, and capacitance C = 1.80 μ F. (a) Calculate the time constant. (b) Find the maximum charge that will appear on the capacitor during charging. (c) How long does it take for the charge to build up to 16.0 μ C?
58
SSM What multiple of the time constant Ï„gives the time taken by an initially uncharged capacitor in an RC series circuit to be charged to 99.0% of its final charge?
59 E
A capacitor with initial charge q 0 is discharged through a resistor. What multiple of the time constant Ï„gives the time the capacitor takes to lose (a) the first one-third of its charge and (b) two-thirds of its charge? 60 E
A 15.0 kΩr esistor and a capacitor are connected in series, and then a 12.0 V potential difference is suddenly applied across them. The potential difference across the capacitor rises to 5.00 V in 1.30 μ s. (a) Calculate the time constant of the circuit. (b) Find the capacitance of the capacitor. 61 E
Figure 27.47 shows the cir- R cuit of a flashing lamp, like those attached to barrels at highway construction sites. The fluores- + C L cent lamp L (of negligible capaci- – tance) is connected in parallel across the capacitor C of an RC circuit. There is a current through Figure 27.47 Problem 62. the lamp only when the potential difference across it reaches the breakdown voltage V L ; then the 62 M
+ –
C R2 R1
Figure 27.49
Problem 65.
M Figure 27.50 displays two circuits with a charged capacitor that is to be discharged through C 1 R1 C2 R2 a resistor when a switch is closed. In Fig. 27.50a, R 1 = 20.0 Ω and (a ) C 1 = 5.00 μ F. In Fig. 27.50b, R 2 = (b ) 10.0 Ω and C 2 = 8.00 μ F. The Figure 27.50 Problem 66. ratio of the initial charges on the two capacitors is q 02 /q 01 = 1.50. At time t = 0, both switches are closed. At what time t do the two capacitors have the same charge?
66
M The potential difference between the plates of a leaky (meaning that charge leaks from one plate to the other) 2.0 μ F capacitor drops to one-fourth its initial value in 2.0 s. What is the equivalent resistance between the capacitor plates?
67
A 1.0 μ F capacitor with an initial stored energy of 0.50 J is discharged through a 1.0 MΩr esistor. (a) What is the initial charge on the capacitor? (b) What is the current through the resistor when the discharge starts? Find an expression that gives, as a function of time t, (c) the potential difference V C across the capacitor, (d) the potential difference V R across the resistor, and (e) the rate at which thermal energy is produced in the resistor. 68 M
CALC GO A 3.00 MΩr esistor and a 1.00 μ F capacitor are connected in series with an ideal battery of emf ℰ = 4.00 V. At 1.00 s after the connection is made, what is the rate at which (a) the charge of the capacitor is increasing, (b) energy is being stored in the capacitor, (c) thermal energy is appearing in the resistor, and (d) energy is being delivered by the battery?
69 H
/
846
C HAP T ER 27 C IRC U IT S
batteries are ideal and have an emf of 10 V? (Hint: This can be answered using only mental calculation.)
Additional Problems
Each of the six real batteries in Fig. 27.51 has an emf of 20 V and a resistance of 4.0 Ω. (a) What is the cur- rent through the (external) resistance R = 4.0 Ω? (b) What is the potential differ- ence across each battery? (c) What is the power of each battery? (d) At what rate does each battery transfer energy to inter- nal thermal energy? 70
GO
R
Figure 27.51
Problem 70.
In Fig. 27.52, R 1 = 20.0 Ω, R 2 = 10.0 Ω, and the ideal battery a S1 S2 S3 has emf ℰ = 120 V. What is the current at point a if we close (a) only switch S 1 , (b) only switches – R1 R1 R1 S 1 and S 2 , and (c) all three + switches? R1 R2 R2 72 In Fig. 27.53, the ideal bat- tery has emf ℰ = 30.0 V, and the Figure 27.52 Problem 71. resistances are R 1 = R 2 = 14 Ω, R 3 = R 4 = R 5 = 6.0 Ω, R 6 = 2.0 Ω, and R 7 = 1.5 Ω. What are cur- rents (a) i 2 , (b) i 4 , (c) i 1 , (d) i 3 , and (e) i 5 ? 71
i2
R1
i4
R2
R7
+ – i3
Figure 27.53
R3
R4
BIO FCP Suppose that, while you are sitting in a chair, charge separation between your clothing and the chair puts you at a potential of 200 V, with the capacitance between you and the chair at 150 pF. When you stand up, the increased separation between your body and the chair decreases the capacitance to 10 pF. (a) What then is the potential of your body? That poten- tial is reduced over time, as the charge on you drains through your body and shoes (you are a capacitor discharging through a resistance). Assume that the resistance along that route is 300 GΩ. If you touch an electrical component while your potential is greater than 100 V, you could ruin the component. (b) How long must you wait until your potential reaches the safe level of 100 V? If you wear a conducting wrist strap (Fig. 27.55) that is connected to ground, your potential does not increase as much when you stand up; you also discharge more rapidly because the resistance through the grounding connection is much less than through your body and shoes. (c) Suppose that when you stand up, your potential is 1400 V and the chair-to-you capacitance is 10 pF. What resistance in that wrist-strap grounding connection will allow you to discharge to 100 V in 0.30 s, which is less time than you would need to reach for, say, your computer?
75
i1
i5
R5
R6
otohP kcotS ymalA/llawnroC otohP
Problem 72. SSM Wires A and B, having equal lengths of 40.0 m and equal diameters of 2.60 mm, are connected in series. A potential difference of 60.0 V is applied between the ends of the composite wire. The resistances are R A = 0.127 Ω and R B = 0.729 Ω. For wire A, what are (a) magnitude J of the current density and (b) potential difference V? (c) Of what type material is wire A made (see Table 26.3.1)? For wire B, what are (d) J and (e) V? (f) Of what type material is B made? 74 What are the (a) size and (b) direction (up or down) of current i in Fig. 27.54, where all resistances are 4.0 Ωa nd all
73
Figure 27.55
Problem 75. Wrist strap to discharge static electric charge.
GO In Fig. 27.56, the ideal batteries have emfs â„1 ° = 20.0 V, â„2 ° = 10.0 V, and â„3 ° = 5.00 V, and the resistances are each 2.00 Ω. What are the (a) size and (b) direction (left or right) 76
–+ 1
+ –
i
+ –
3
2
i1
Figure 27.54
Problem 74.
Figure 27.56
Problem 76.
/
P ROBL EMS
of current i 1 ? (c) Does battery 1 supply or absorb energy, and (d) what is its power? (e) Does battery 2 supply or absorb energy, and (f) what is its power? (g) Does battery 3 supply or absorb energy, and (h) what is its power? SSM A temperature-stable resistor is made by connecting a resistor made of silicon in series with one made of iron. If the required total resistance is 1000 Ωi n a wide temperature range around 20˚ C, what should be the resistance of the (a) silicon resistor and (b) iron resistor? (See Table 26.3.1.)
77
In Fig. 27.3.1, assume that ℰ = 5.0 V, r = 2.0 Ω, R 1 = 5.0 Ω, and R 2 = 4.0 Ω. If the ammeter resistance R A is 0.10 Ω, what percent error does it introduce into the measurement of the cur- rent? Assume that the voltmeter is not present. 78
An initially uncharged capacitor C is fully charged by a device of constant emf â„° connected in series with a resistor R. (a) Show that the final energy stored in the capaci- tor is half the energy supplied by the emf device. (b) By direct integration of i 2 R over the charging time, show that the thermal energy dissipated by the resistor is also half the energy supplied by the emf device. 79
SSM
CALC
In Fig. 27.57, R 1 = 5.00 Ω, R 2 = 10.0 Ω, R 3 = 15.0 Ω, C 1 = 5.00 μ F, C 2 = 10.0 μ F, and the ideal battery has emf ℰ = 20.0 V. Assuming that the circuit is in the steady state, what is the total energy stored in the two capacitors? 80
In Fig. 27.1.5a, find the potential difference across R 2 if ℰ = 12 V, R 1 = 3.0 Ω, R 2 = 4.0 Ω, and R 3 = 5.0 Ω. 81
C1
R2
C2
R1
+ –
Figure 27.57
Problem 80.
In Fig. 27.1.8a, calculate the potential difference between a and c by considering a path that contains R, r 1 , and â„1 ° . 82
SSM A controller on an electronic arcade game consists of a variable resistor connected across the plates of a 0.220 μ F capacitor. The capacitor is charged to 5.00 V, then discharged through the resistor. The time for the potential difference across the plates to decrease to 0.800 V is measured by a clock inside the game. If the range of discharge times that can be han- dled effectively is from 10.0 μ s to 6.00 ms, what should be the (a) lower value and (b) higher value of the resistance range of the resistor?
83
An automobile gasoline R indicator Indicator gauge is shown schematically in Fig. 27.58. The indicator (on the dashboard) has a resistance of Tank + 10 Ω. The tank unit is a float con- – 12 V unit nected to a variable resistor whose resistance varies linearly with the Connected R tank volume of gasoline. The resistance through chassis is 140 Ω when the tank is empty and 20 Ω when the tank is full. Find the current in the circuit when Figure 27.58 Problem 84. the tank is (a) empty, (b) half-full, and (c) full. Treat the battery as ideal. 84
The starting motor of a car is turning too slowly, and the mechanic has to decide whether to replace the motor, the cable, or the battery. The car’ manual says s that the 12 V 85
SSM
battery should have no more than 0.020 Ωi nternal resistance, the motor no more than 0.200 Ω resistance, and the cable no more than 0.040 Ωr esistance. The mechanic turns on the motor and measures 11.4 V across the battery, 3.0 V across the cable, and a current of 50 A. Which part is defective? Two resistors R 1 and R 2 may be connected either in series or in parallel across an ideal battery with emf â„. We desire the ° rate of energy dissipation of the parallel combination to be five times that of the series combination. If R 1 = 100 Ω, what are the (a) smaller and (b) larger of the two values of R 2 that result in that dissipation rate? 86
The circuit of Fig. 27.59 shows a capacitor, two ideal bat- teries, two resistors, and a switch S. Initially S has been open for a long time. If it is then closed for a long time, what is the change in the charge on the capacitor? Assume C = 10 μ F, â„1 ° = 1.0 V, â„2 ° = 3.0 V, R 1 = 0.20 Ω, and R 2 = 0.40 Ω. 87
S
– +
1
– +
2 C
R1
R2
Figure 27.59
Problem 87.
In Fig. 27.24, R 1 = 10.0 Ω, R 2 = 20.0 Ω, and the ideal batteries have emfs â„1 ° = 20.0 V and â„2 ° = 50.0 V. What value of R 3 results in no current through battery 1? 88
In Fig. 27.60, R = 10 Ω. What is the equivalent resistance between points A and B? (Hint: This circuit section might look 4.0 R simpler if you first assume that points A and B are connected to a battery.)
2.0 R
89
R3
847
B
R
6.0 R 3.0 R
(a) In Fig. 27.1.4a, show A that the rate at which energy is Figure 27.60 Problem 89. dissipated in R as thermal energy is a maximum when R = r. (b) Show that this maximum power is P = â„2 ° /4r. 90
CALC
In Fig. 27.61, the ideal bat- teries have emfs â„1 ° = 12.0 V and â„2 ° = 4.00 V, and the resistances are each 4.00 Ω. What are the (a) size and (b) direction (up or down) of i 1 and the (c) size and (d) direction of i 2 ? (e) Does bat- tery 1 supply or absorb energy, and (f) what is its energy transfer rate? (g) Does battery 2 supply or absorb energy, and (h) what is its energy transfer rate? 91
Figure 27.62 shows a portion of a circuit through which there is a current I = 6.00 A. The resis- tances are R 1 = R 2 = 2.00R 3 = 2.00R 4 = 4.00 Ω. What is the cur- rent i 1 through resistor 1?
+ –
i2
1
i1
– +
Figure 27.61
2
Problem 91. I
92
Thermal energy is to be generated in a 0.10 Ωr esistor at the rate of 10 W by connecting the resistor to a battery whose
R3
i1
R1
R2
R4
93
I
Figure 27.62
Problem 92.
/
848
C HAP T ER 27 C IRC U IT S
emf is 1.5 V. (a) What potential difference must exist across the resistor? (b) What must be the internal resistance of the battery? Figure 27.63 shows three 20.0 Ω resistors. Find the equiva- lent resistance between points (a) A and B, (b) A and C, and (c) B and C. (Hint: Imagine that a bat- tery is connected between a given pair of points.) 94
R1
(gliomas)
i
C B
R2
A
Figure 27.63
Problem 94.
(white matter)
Figure 27.65
Problem 98.
Wire for electric heater. You are to construct a heating coil but will first test two wires, both of length L = 10 cm and diameter d = 2.5 mils (a mil is a common unit that is 1/1000 of an inch): Wire 1 consists of copper with resistivity Ï 1 = 1.7 × 10 âˆ8’ Ω⋅ m and wire 2 consists of Nichrome (an alloy of nickel and chromium) with resistivity Ï 2 = 1.1 × 10 âˆ6 ’ Ω⋅ m. You will put a potential difference of V = 110 V across four arrangements of the wires. What power will be dissipated as heat for (a) wire 1 alone, (b) wire 2 alone, (c) wires 1 and 2 in series, and (d) wires 1 and 2 in parallel? 99
A 120 V power line is protected by a 15 A fuse. What is the maximum number of 500 W lamps that can be simultaneously operated in parallel on this line without “blowingthe †fuse because of an excess of current? 95
Figure 27.46 shows an ideal battery of emf ℰ = 12 V, a resis- tor of resistance R = 4.0 Ω, and an uncharged capacitor of capac- itance C = 4.0 μ F. After switch S is closed, what is the current through the resistor when the charge on the capacitor is 8.0 μ C? 96
Circuit cube. Figure 27.64 shows a cube made of 12 resis- tors, each of resistance R. What is the equivalent resistance R 12 that the combination would present to a battery attached across points 1 and 2? (Although this problem can be attacked by “brute forceâ€methods using the loop and junction rules and solving multiple simultaneous equations, the symmetry of the connections suggests that there must be a slicker method. Hint: If two points in a circuit have the same potential, the currents in the circuit do not change if you connect those points with a wire. There will be no current in the wire because there is no potential difference between its ends. So, you can replace those two ends with a single point.) 97
Leaping electric eel. Electric eels are known to leap at peo- ple and animals to shock them. In a recent research experiment, a juvenile electric eel was allowed to leap to a volunteer’ arm in s order to measure the current set up along the arm. Figure 27.66a is a photo of the eel striking the arm with the clenched hand immersed in the water. (The strikes always caused the volunteer to withdraw the arm.) Figure 27.66b gives a circuit diagram of eel, arm, and water. The emf generated by the eel is 200 V. The resistance of the eel’ body is R s , the resistance from 1 = 1000 Ω the front of the eel down along its body’ surface to the water is s 100
5 1 8
4
Input 2
ainataC neK
6 7 3 Figure 27.64
(a)
Problem 97.
Brain resistances. An active area of research involves measuring the resistivities of brain tissue and brain tumors, to aid in certain types of surgeries and in the placement of deep- brain electrodes for treatment of epilepsy and Parkinson’ dis- s ease. One concern is the determination of an electric current through adjacent tumor and healthy tissue. Figure 27.65 shows one research group’ simple model of the electric pathway for s a current i through the resistance R 1 = 160 Ωo f gliomas (which accounts for about 30% of all brain tumors) and resistance R 2 = 372 Ωo f healthy white matter. In a living brain, what per- cent of the current is through (a) the gliomas and (b) the white matter? If the same arrangement is in a cadaver in which form- aldehyde increases each resistance by 2700 Ω, what percent of the current is through (c) the gliomas and (d) the white matter? The results reveal that studies on cadavers must be adjusted to account for the electrical properties of a living brain. 98
R3
R1
R4
i1
i
R2
(b )
Problem 100. (a) An eel leaping up to a vol- unteer’ arm in an experiment. (b) Circuit diagram for eel s shocking the arm. (After Kenneth C. Catania, Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University) Figure 27.66
/
P ROBL EMS
849
R 3 = 2.3 kΩ, the resistance along the arm from the strike point to the water is R 4 = 2.2 kΩ, and the resistance of the current’s return path through the water is R 2 = 400 Ω. Find (a) the cur- rent i generated by the eel and (b) the current i 1 along the arm. (c) How much power was delivered to the arm? Gasoline tanker truck. When gasoline is loaded onto a tanker truck or dispensed from it into an underground tank at a gasoline station, great care must be taken so that a spark from electrostatic charges does not ignite the vapor. That charge is produced by the sloshing of the gasoline as it moves through hoses or when the truck travels along a road. For gasoline vapor, the critical value for the spark energy is U critical = 24 mJ. To avoid fire and explosion, the truck must be grounded before gasoline is poured into it or poured out of it. The grounding is by means of a conducting cable with a resistance of 10 Ω, with one end buried in the ground and the other clipped to the truck (Fig. 27.67). If a truck has a 600 pF capacitance and an initial poten- tial energy of 2.25 J, how much time is required to discharge the truck to the critical value of potential energy? 101
kcarefaS
Problem 101. A grounding cable runs from truck into post and then down into the ground.
Figure 27.67
/
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
2
8
Magnetic Fields →
28.1 MAGNETIC FIELDS AND THE DEFINITION OF B Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
28.1.1 Distinguish an electromagnet from a permanent
(2) determining what effect the charge
magnet.
q has on the
direction.
28.1.2 Identify that a magnetic field is a vector quantity
→
28.1.6 Find the magnetic force
and thus has both magnitude and direction.
F B acting on a moving
charged particle by evaluating the cross product →
q ( v × B ) in unit-vector notation and magnitude- →
28.1.3 Explain how a magnetic field can be defined in terms of what happens to a charged particle moving
angle notation. →
F B must
through the field.
28.1.7 Identify that the magnetic force vector
28.1.4 For a charged particle mov ing through a
always be perpendicular to both the velocity vec- →
v and the magnetic field vector B .
→
uniform magnetic field, apply the relations hip
tor
F B, charge q , s peed v , B, and the angle ϕ between the directions of the v elocity v ector v and the mag - netic field v ector B . between force magnitude
28.1.8 Identify the effect of the magnetic force on the
field magnitude
→
particle’s speed and kinetic energy. 28.1.9 Identify a magnet as being a magnetic dipole.
→
28.1.10 Identify that opposite magnetic poles attract
28.1.5 For a charged particle sent through a uniform magnetic field, find the direction of the magnetic
each other and like magnetic poles repel each other. 28.1.11 Explain magnetic field lines, including where
→
force
F B by (1) applying the right-hand rule to v × B and →
they originate and terminate and what their spacing
→
find the direction of the cross product
represents.
Key Ideas ●
When a charged particle moves through a magnetic →
field
B , a magnetic force acts on the particle as
●
The right-hand rule for cross products gives the →
v × B . The sign of q then determines whether F B is in the same direction as v × B or in the →
direction of →
given by
→
→
opposite direction. →
→
F B = q ( v × B ),
where
→
→
●
The magnitude of
F B = | q| vB sin ϕ,
q is the particle’s charge (sign included) and v
is the particle’s velocity.
F B is given by
→
where
ϕ is the angle between v and B . →
→
What Is Physics?
As we have discussed, one major goal of physics is the study of how an electric field can produce an electric force on a charged object. A closely related goal is the study of how a magnetic field can produce a magnetic force on a (moving) charged particle or on a magnetic object such as a magnet. Y ou may already have a hint of what a magnetic field is if you have ever attached a note to a refrigerator door with a small magnet or accidentally erased a credit card by moving it near a magnet. The magnet acts on the door or credit card via its magnetic field. The applications of magnetic fields and magnetic forces are countless and changing rapidly every year. Here are just a few examples. For decades, the
850 /
→
28.1 MAGNET IC F IEL D S AND T HE D EF INIT ION OF B
851
segamI ytteG/etybkcotS
entertainment industry depended on the magnetic recording of music and images on audiotape and videotape. Although digital technology has largely replaced magnetic recording, the industry still depends on the magnets that control CD and DVD players a nd computer hard drives; magnets a lso drive the speaker cones in headphones, TVs, computers, and telephones. A modern car comes equipped with dozens of magnets because they are required in the motors for engine igni- tion, automatic window control, sunroof control, and windshield wiper control. Most security alarm systems, doorbells, and automatic door latches employ mag- nets. In short, you are surrounded by magnets. The science of magnetic fields is physics; the application of magnetic fields is engineering. Both the science and the application begin with the question “What produces a magnetic field?” Using an electromagnet to collect and transport scrap metal at a steel mill. Figure 28.1.1
What Produces a Magnetic Field? →
Because an electric field E is produced by an electric charge, we might reasonably expect that a magnetic field B is produced by a magnetic charge. Although indi- vidual magnetic charges (called magnetic monopoles) are predicted by certain theories, their existence has not been confirmed. How then are magnetic fields produced? There are two ways. One way is to use moving electrically charged particles, such as a current in a wire, to make an electromagnet. The current produces a magnetic field that can be used, for example, to control a computer hard drive or to sort scrap metal (Fig. 28.1.1). In Chapter 29, we discuss the magnetic field due to a current. The other way to produce a magnetic field is by means of elementary par- ticles such as electrons because these particles have an intrinsic magnetic field around them. That is, the magnetic field is a basic characteristic of each particle just as mass and electric charge (or lack of charge) are basic characteristics. As we discuss in Chapter 32, the magnetic fields of the electrons in certain materials add together to give a net magnetic field around the material. Such addition is the reason why a permanent magnet, the type used to hang refrigerator notes, has a permanent magnetic field. In other materials, the magnetic fields of the electrons cancel out, giving no net magnetic field surrounding the material. Such cancella- tion is the reason you do not have a permanent field around your body, which is good because otherwise you might be slammed up against a refrigerator door every time you passed one. Our first job in this chapter is to define the magnetic field B . We do so by using the experimental fact that when a charged particle moves through a mag- netic field, a magnetic force F B acts on the particle. →
→
→
→
The Definition of B →
We determined the electric field E at a point by putting a test particle of charge q at rest at that point and measuring the electric force F E acting on the particle. We then defined E as →
→
→
F E E = ___ q .
(28.1.1)
→
→
If a magnetic monopole were available, we could define B in a similar way. Because such particles have not been found, we must define B in another way, in terms of the magnetic force F B exerted on a moving electrically charged test particle. Moving Charged Particle. In principle, we do this by firing a charged par- ticle through the point at which B is to be defined, using various directions and speeds for the particle and determining the force F B that acts on the particle at →
→
→
→
/
852
C HAP T ER 28 MAGNET IC F IEL D S
that point. After many such trials we would find that when the particle’s veloc- ity v is along a particular axis through the point, force F B is zero. For all other directions of v , the magnitude of F B is always proportional to v sin ϕ , where ϕ is the angle between the zero-force axis and the direction of v . Furthermore, the direction of F B is always perpendicular to the direction of v . (These results sug- gest that a cross product is involved.) The Field. We can then define a magnetic field B to be a vector quantity that is directed along the zero-force axis. We can next measure the magnitude of F B when v is directed perpendicular to that axis and then define the magnitude of B in terms of that force magnitude: →
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
F B B = ____ , | q|v where q is the charge of the particle. We can summarize all these results with the following vector equation: →
(28.1.2)
→
F B = q v × B ; →
→
that is, the force F B on the particle is equal to the charge q times the cross product of its velocity v and the field B (all measured in the same reference frame). U sing Eq. 3.3.5 for the cross product, we can write the magnitude of F B as →
→
→
F B = |q| vB sin ϕ,
(28.1.3)
where ϕ is the angle between the directions of velocity v and magnetic field B . →
→
Finding the Magnetic Force on a Particle →
Equation 28.1.3 tells us that the magnitude of the force F B acting on a particle in a magnetic field is proportional to the charge q and speed v of the particle. Thus, the force is equal to zero if the charge is zero or if the particle is stationary. Equation 28.1.3 a lso tells us that the magnitude of the force is zero if v and B are either parallel (ϕ = 0°) or antiparallel (ϕ = 180°), a nd the force is at its maximum when v and B are perpendicular to each other. Directions. Equation 28.1.2 tells us all this plus the direction of F B . From Module 3.3, we know that the cross product v × B in Eq. 28.1.2 is a vector that is perpendicular to the two vectors v and B . The right-hand rule (Figs. 28.1.2a through c) tells us that the thumb of the right hand points in the direction of v × B when the fingers sweep v into B . If q is positive, then (by Eq. 28.1.2) the force F B has the same sign as v × B and thus must be in the same direction; that is, for positive q, F B is directed along the thumb (Fig. 28.1.2d). If q is negative, then the →
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
Cross
v
into B to get the new vector
v × B
.
v × B
v × B
v B
v × B FB
B
(a )
Force on negative particle
Force on positive particle
B
(b )
B
B
(c )
(d )
FB
(e )
(a)–(c) The right-hand rule (in which v is swept into B through the smaller angle ϕ between them) gives the direction of v × B as the direction of the thumb. (d) If q is positive, then the direction of F B = q v × B is in the direction of v × B . (e) If q is negative, then the direction of F B is opposite that of v × B . →
→
Figure 28.1.2
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
/
→
28.1 MAGNET IC F IEL D S AND T HE D EF INIT ION OF B
→
853
→
→
ecruoS ecneicS/yrotarobaL yelekreB ecnerwaL
force F B and cross product v × B have opposite signs and thus must be in opposite directions. For negative q, F B is directed opposite the thumb (Fig. 28.1.2e). Heads up: Neglect of this effect of negative q is a very common error on exams. Regardless of the sign of the charge, however, →
e
The force F B acting on a charged particle moving with velocity v through a magnetic field B is always perpendicular to v and B . →
→
→
e
→
→
→
e
→
Thus, F B never has a component parallel to v . This means that F B cannot change the particle’s speed v (and thus it cannot change the particle’s kinetic energy). The force can change only the direction of v (and thus the direction of travel); only in this sense can F B accelerate the particle. To develop a feeling for Eq. 28.1.2, consider Fig. 28.1.3, which shows some tracks left by charged particles moving rapidly through a bubble chamber. The chamber, which is filled with liquid hydrogen, is immersed in a strong uniform magnetic field that is directed out of the plane of the figure. An incoming gamma ray particle—which leaves no track because it is uncharged—transforms into an electron (spiral track marked e – ) and a positron (track marked e + ) while it knocks an electron out of a hydrogen atom (long track marked e – ). Check with Eq. 28.1.2 and Fig. 28.1.2 that the three tracks made by these two negative particles and one positive particle curve in the proper directions. Unit. The SI unit for B that follows from Eqs. 28.1.2 a nd 28.1.3 is the newton per coulomb-meter per second. For convenience, this is called the tesla (T): →
→
→
The tracks of two elec- trons (e – ) and a positron (e + ) in a bubble chamber that is immersed in a uniform magnetic field that is directed out of the plane of the page. Figure 28.1.3
→
newton 1 tesla = 1 T = 1 _______________________ . (coulomb)(meter/second)
Table 28.1.1 Some Approximate
Magnetic Fields
Recalling that a coulomb per second is an ampere, we have newton N . 1 T = 1 _______________________ = 1 _____ (coulomb/second)(meter) A ⋅ m
(28.1.4)
→
An earlier (non-SI) unit for B , still in common use, is the gauss (G), and 1 tesla = 10 4 gauss.
(28.1.5)
Table 28.1.1 lists the magnetic fields that occur in a few situations. Note that Earth’s magnetic field near the planet’s surface is about 10 –4 T (= 100 μT or 1 G).
At surface of neutron star Near big electromagnet Near small bar magnet At Earth’s surface In interstellar space Smallest value in magnetically shielded room
10 8 T 1.5 T 10 –2 T 10 –4 T 10 –10 T 10 –14 T
Checkpoint 28.1.1
The figure shows three situations in which a charged particle with velocity v travels through a uniform mag- netic field B . In each situation, what is the direction of the magnetic force F B on the particle?
y
y
y B
B
→
v
+
x
x
x
→
→
z
z
v
z
v
B
(a)
(b )
(c )
Magnetic Field Lines
We can represent magnetic fields with field lines, as we did for electric fields. Similar rules apply: (1) The direction of the tangent to a magnetic field line at any point gives the direction of B at that point, and (2) the spacing of the lines →
/
854
C HAP T ER 28 MAGNET IC F IEL D S
→
N S
(a )
uaedrariG epaC ,ytisrevinU etatS iruossiM tsaehtuoS ,nonnaC drahciR .rD fo ysetruoC
(b )
(a) The magnetic field lines for a bar magnet. (b) A “cow magnet”—a bar magnet that is intended to be slipped down into the rumen of a cow to prevent acci- dentally ingested bits of scrap iron from reaching the cow’s intestines. The iron filings at its ends reveal the magnetic field lines. Figure 28.1.4
represents the magnitude of B —the magnetic field is stronger where the lines are closer together, and conversely. Figure 28.1.4a shows how the magnetic field near a bar magnet (a permanent magnet in the shape of a bar) can be represented by magnetic field lines. The lines all pass through the magnet, and they all form closed loops (even those that are not shown closed in the figure). The external magnetic e ffects of a bar magnet are strongest near its ends, where the field lines are most closely spaced. Thus, the magnetic field of the bar magnet in Fig. 28.1.4b collects the iron filings mainly near the two ends of the magnet. Two Poles. The (closed) field lines enter one end of a magnet and exit the other end. The end of a magnet from which the field lines emerge is called the north pole of the magnet; the other end, where field lines enter the magnet, is called the south pole. Because a magnet has two poles, it is said to be a magnetic dipole. The magnets we use to fix notes on refrigerators are short bar magnets. Figure 28.1.5 shows two other common shapes for magnets: a horseshoe magnet and a magnet that has been bent around into the shape of a C so that the pole faces are facing each other. (The magnetic field between the pole faces can then be approximately uniform.) Regardless of the shape of the magnets, if we place two of them near each other we find: Opposite magnetic poles attract each other, and like magnetic poles repel each other.
When you hold two magnets near each other with your hands, this attraction or repulsion seems almost magical because there is no contact between the two to visibly justify the pulling or pushing. As we did with the electrostatic force between two charged particles, we explain this noncontact force in terms of a field that you cannot see, here the magnetic field. Earth has a magnetic field that is produced in its core by still unknown mechanisms. On Earth’s surface, we can detect this magnetic field with a com- pass, which is essentially a slender bar magnet on a low-friction pivot. This bar magnet, or this needle, turns because its north-pole end is attracted toward the Arctic region of Earth. Thus, the south pole of Earth’s magnetic field must be located toward the Arctic. Logically, we then should call the pole there a south pole. However, because we call that direction north, we are trapped into the statement that Earth has a geomagnetic north pole in that direction. With more careful measurement we would find that in the Northern Hemi- sphere, the magnetic field lines of Earth generally point down into Earth and toward the Arctic. In the Southern Hemisphere, they generally point up out of Earth and away from the Antarctic—that is, away from Earth’s geomagnetic south pole.
N N
S S
(a)
The field lines run from the north pole to the south pole.
(b )
(a) A horseshoe magnet and (b) a C-shaped magnet. (Only some of the external field lines are shown.) Figure 28.1.5
/
855
28.2 C ROSSED F IEL D S: D ISC OV ERY OF T HE EL EC T RON
Sample Problem 28.1.1
Magnetic force on a moving charged particle
→
A uniform magnetic field B , with magnitude 1.2 mT, is directed vertically upward throughout the volume of a laboratory chamber. A proton with kinetic energy 5.3 MeV enters the chamber, moving horizontally from south to north. What magnetic deflecting force acts on the proton as it enters the chamber? The proton mass is 1.67 × 10 –27 kg. (Neglect Earth’s magnetic field.)
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
To find the magnitude of F B , we can use Eq. 28.1.3 (F B = |q|vB sin ϕ ) provided we first find the proton’s speed v. We can find v from the given kinetic 1 2 energy because K = _ 2 mv . Solving for v, we obtain Magnitude:
v = √ m
→
→
Because the proton is charged and moving through a magnetic field, a magnetic force F B can act on it. Because the initial direction of the proton’s velocity is not along a magnetic field line, F B is not simply zero.
_______________________________
2K = ___
→
To find the direction of F B , we use the fact that F B has the direction of the cross product q v × B . Because the charge q is positive, F B must have the same direction as v × B , which can be determined with the right-hand rule for cross products (as in Fig. 28.1.2d). We know that v is directed horizontally from south to north and B is directed vertically up. The right-hand rule shows us that the deflecting force F B must be directed horizon- tally from west to east, as Fig. 28.1.6 shows. (The array of dots in the figure represents a magnetic field directed out of the plane of the figure. An array of Xs would have rep- resented a magnetic field directed into that plane.) If the charge of the particle were negative, the mag- netic deflecting force would be directed in the opposite direction—that is, horizontally from east to west. This is predicted automatically by Eq. 28.1.2 if we substitute a negative value for q. Direction:
→
KEY IDEAS
___
F B _____________ 6.1 × 10 −15 N 12 2 a = ___ m = 1.67 × 10 −27 kg = 3.7 × 10 m/s .
−13
× 10 J/MeV) √ (2)(5.3 MeV)(1.60 1.67 × 10 kg
_______________________________
N
−27
v
= 3.2 × 10 7 m/s.
Path of proton B
Equation 28.1.3 then yields
W
F B = |q |vB sin ϕ
−19
= (1.60 × 10
7
C)(3.2 × 10 m/s)
FB
E
S
−3
× (1.2 × 10 T)(sin 90°) = 6.1 × 10 −15 N.
+
An overhead view of a proton moving from south to north with velocity v in a chamber. A magnetic field is directed vertically upward in the chamber, as represented by the array of dots (which resemble the tips of arrows). The proton is deflected toward the east. Figure 28.1.6
(Answer )
This may seem like a small force, but it acts on a particle of small mass, producing a large acceleration; namely,
→
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
28.2 CROSSED FIELDS: DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
28.2.1 Describe the experiment of J. J. Thomson.
28.2.3 In situations where the magnetic force and elec-
28.2.2 For a charged particle moving through a mag-
tric force on a particle are in opposite directions,
netic field and an electric field, determine the net
determine the speeds at which the forces cancel,
force on the particle in both magnitude-angle nota-
the magnetic force dominates, and the electric force
tion and unit-vector notation.
dominates.
Key Ideas ●
If a charged particle moves through a region contain-
●
If the fields are perpendicular to each other, they are
ing both an electric field and a magnetic field, it can
said to be crossed
be affected by both an electric force and a magnetic
fields .
●
force.
speed will result in no deflection of the particle.
If the forces are in opposite directions, a particular
/
856
C HAP T ER 28 MAGNET IC F IEL D S
Crossed Fields: Discovery of the Electron →
→
Both an electric field E and a magnetic field B can produce a force on a charged par- ticle. When the two fields are perpendicular to each other, they are said to be crossed fields. Here we shall examine what happens to charged particles—namely, electrons— as they move through crossed fields. We use as our example the experiment that led to the discovery of the electron in 1897 by J. J. Thomson at Cambridge University. Two Forces. Figure 28.2.1 shows a modern, simplified version of Thomson’s experimental apparatus—a cathode ray tube (which is like the picture tube in an old-type television set). Charged particles (which we now know as electrons) are emitted by a hot filament at the rear of the evacuated tube and are accelerated by an applied potential difference V. After they pass through a slit in screen C, they form a narrow beam. They then pass through a region of crossed E and B fields, headed toward a fluorescent screen S, where they produce a spot of light (on a television screen the spot is part of the picture). The forces on the charged par- ticles in the crossed-fields region can deflect them from the center of the screen. By controlling the magnitudes and directions of the fields, Thomson could thus control where the spot of light appeared on the screen. Recall that the force on a negatively charged particle due to an electric field is directed opposite the field. Thus, for the arrangement of Fig. 28.2.1, electrons are forced up the page by electric field E and down the page by magnetic field B ; that is, the forces are in opposition. Thomson’s procedure was equivalent to the following series of steps. →
→
→
→
1. Set E = 0 and B = 0 and note the position of the spot on screen S due to the undeflected beam. →
2. Turn on E and measure the resulting beam deflection. 3. Maintaining E , now turn on B and adjust its value until the beam returns to the undeflected position. (With the forces in opposition, they can be made to cancel.) →
→
We discussed the deflection of a charged particle moving through an electric field E between two plates (step 2 here) in Sample Problem 22.6.1. We found that the deflection of the particle at the far end of the plates is →
| q| EL 2 y = _______ , 2mv 2
(28.2.1)
where v is the particle’s speed, m its mass, and q its charge, and L is the length of the plates. We can apply this same equation to the beam of electrons in Fig. 28.2.1; if need be, we can calculate the deflection by measuring the deflection of the beam on screen S and then working back to calculate the deflection y at the end of the plates. (Because the direction of the deflection is set by the sign of the particle’s charge, Thomson was able to show that the particles that were lighting up his screen were negatively c harged.) Canceling Forces. When the two fields in Fig. 28.2.1 a re adjusted so that the two deflecting forces cancel (step 3), we have from Eqs. 28.1.1 a nd 28.1.3 |q| E = |q |vB sin (90° ) = | q| vB A modern version of J. J. Thomson’s apparatus for mea- suring the ratio of mass to charge for the electron. An electric field E is established by connecting a bat- tery across the deflecting-plate ter- minals. The magnetic field B is set up by means of a current in a system of coils (not shown). The magnetic field shown is into the plane of the figure, as represented by the array of Xs (which resemble the feathered ends of arrows). Figure 28.2.1
+
→
E
B
Spot of light
Filament Screen C
→
–
Screen S Glass envelope
V
To vacuum pump /
857
28.3 C ROSSED F IEL D S: T HE HAL L EF F EC T
E v = __ B
or
(28.2.2)
(opposite forces canceling).
Thus, the crossed fields allow us to measure the speed of the charged particles pass- ing through them. Substituting Eq. 28.2.2 for v in Eq. 28.2.1 a nd rearranging y ield 2 2
m = _____ B L , ___ |q |
(28.2.3)
2yE
in which all quantities on the right can be measured. Thus, the crossed fields allow us to measure the ratio m/|q| of the particles moving through Thomson’s apparatus. (Caution: Equation 28.2.2 applies only when the electric and magnetic forces are in opposite directions. You might see other situations in the homework problems.) Thomson claimed that these particles are found in all matter. He also claimed that they are lighter than the lightest known atom (hydrogen) by a factor of more than 1000. (The exact ratio proved later to be 1836.15.) His m/| q| measurement, coupled with the boldness of his two claims, is considered to be the “discovery of the electron.”
Checkpoint 28.2.1
The figure shows four directions for the velocity vector v of a positively charged particle moving through a uniform electric field E (directed out of the page and represented with an encircled dot) and a uniform magnetic field B . (a) Rank directions 1, 2, and 3 according to the magnitude of the net force on the particle, greatest first. (b) Of all four directions, which might result in a net force of zero?
2
→
v
→
B
v
1
→
+
v
E
3
v
4
28.3 CROSSED FIELDS: THE HALL EFFECT Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
28.3.1 Describe the Hall effect for a metal strip carry-
28.3.4 Apply the relationship between charge-carrier
n
B, V.
ing current, explaining how the electric field is set up
number density , magnetic field magnitude
and what limits its magnitude.
current , and Hall-effect potential difference
28.3.2 For a conducting strip in a Hall-effect situation,
i
28.3.5 Apply the Hall-effect results to a conducting
draw the vectors for the magnetic field and electric
object moving through a uniform magnetic field,
field. For the conduction electrons, draw the vectors
identifying the width across which a Hall-effect
for the velocity, magnetic force, and electric force.
potential difference
V is set up and calculating V.
28.3.3 Apply the relationship between the Hall potential difference
V, the electric field magnitude E, and the d.
width of the strip
Key Ideas →
B is applied to a conducting strip carrying current i, with the field per- ●
When a uniform magnetic field
pendicular to the direction of the current, a Hall-effect potential difference
V is set up across the strip.
→
where ●
l is the thickness of the strip (parallel to B ).
When a conductor moves through a uniform magnetic →
field
B at speed v, the Hall-effect potential difference V
across it is
→
●
The electric force
F E on the charge carriers is then F B on them.
V = vBd,
→
balanced by the magnetic force ●
The number density
be determined from
n of the charge carriers can then Bi , n = ____ Vle
d is the width perpendicular to both velocity v and field B . →
where
→
/
858
C HAP T ER 28 MAGNET IC F IEL D S
i
Crossed Fields: The Hall Effect
i
d
+ ×
×
×
×
×
B
×
×
×
×
B
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
× + ×
×
×
×
vd
w oL
× FB
×
+
hgiH
×
vd
E
+
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
FE
+
F
×
× B ×
×
×
×
As we just discussed, a beam of electrons in a vacuum can be deflected by a magnetic field. Can the drifting conduction electrons in a copper wire also be deflected by a magnetic field? In 1879, Edwin H. Hall, then a 24-year-old grad- uate student at the Johns Hopkins University, showed that they can. This Hall effect allows us to find out whether the charge carriers in a conductor are posi- tively or negatively charged. Beyond that, we can measure the number of such carriers per unit volume of the conductor. Figure 28.3.1a shows a copper strip of width d, carrying a current i whose conventional direction is from the top of the figure to the bottom. The charge carriers are electrons and, as we know, they drift (with drift speed v d) in the opposite direction, from bottom to top. At the instant shown in Fig. 28.3.1a, an external magnetic field B , pointing into the plane of the figure, has just been turned on. From Eq. 28.1.2 we see that a magnetic deflecting force F B will act on each drifting electron, pushing it toward the right edge of the strip. As time goes on, electrons move to the right, mostly piling up on the right edge of the strip, leaving uncompensated positive charges in fixed positions at the left edge. The separation of positive charges on the left edge and negative charges on the right edge produces an electric field E within the strip, pointing from left to right in Fig. 28.3.1b. This field exerts an electric force F E on each electron, tend- ing to push it to the left. Thus, this electric force on the electrons, which opposes the magnetic force on them, begins to build up. Equilibrium. An equilibrium quickly develops in which the electric force on each electron has increased enough to match the magnetic force. When this happens, as Fig. 28.3.1b shows, the force due to B and the force due to E are in balance. The drifting electrons then move along the strip toward the top of the page at velocity v d with no further collection of electrons on the right edge of the strip and thus no further increase in the electric field E . A Hall potential difference V is associated with the electric field across strip width d. From Eq. 24.2.7, the magnitude of that potential difference is →
→
i
i
(a )
(b )
→
i
→
E
+
×
×
B
×
×
× × + × ×
×
×
× + ×
×
FE
+
hgiH
w oL ×
+
FB
×
× × + × v × × d
→
→
→
V = Ed. i
(c )
A strip of copper car- rying a current i is immersed in a magnetic field B . (a) The situation immediately after the magnetic field is turned on. The curved path that will then be taken by an elec- tron is shown. (b) The situation at equilibrium, which quickly follows. Note that negative charges pile up on the right side of the strip, leav- ing uncompensated positive charges on the left. Thus, the left side is at a higher potential than the right side. (c) For the same current direction, if the charge carriers were positively charged, they would pile up on the right side, and the right side would be at the higher potential. Figure 28.3.1
→
→
(28.3.1)
By connecting a voltmeter across the width, we can measure the potential dif- ference between the two edges of the strip. Moreover, the voltmeter can tell us which edge is at higher potential. For the situation of Fig. 28.3.1b, we would find that the left edge is at higher potential, which is consistent with our assumption that the charge carriers are negatively charged. For a moment, let us make the opposite assumption, that the charge carriers in current i are positively charged (Fig. 28.3.1c). Convince yourself that as these charge carriers move from top to bottom in the strip, they are pushed to the right edge by F B and thus that the right edge is at higher potential. Because that last statement is con- tradicted by our voltmeter reading, the charge carriers must be negatively charged. Number Density. Now for the quantitative part. When the electric and mag- netic forces are in balance (Fig. 28.3.1b), Eqs. 28.1.1 a nd 28.1.3 g ive us →
eE = ev d B.
(28.3.2)
From Eq. 26.2.4, the drift speed v d is J = ____ i , v d = ___ ne neA
(28.3.3)
in which J (= i/A) is the current density in the strip, A is the cross-sectional area of the strip, and n is the number density of charge carriers (number per unit volume). In Eq. 28.3.2, substituting for E with Eq. 28.3.1 and substituting for v d with Eq. 28.3.3, we obtain Bi , n = ____ Vle
(28.3.4)
/
28.3 C ROSSED F IEL D S: T HE HAL L EF F EC T
859
in which l (= A/d) is the thickness of the strip. With this equation we can find n from measurable quantities. Drift Speed. It is also possible to use the Hall effect to measure directly the drift speed v d of the charge carriers, which you may recall is of the order of centi- meters per hour. In this clever experiment, the metal strip is moved mechanically through the magnetic field in a direction opposite that of the drift velocity of the charge carriers. The speed of the moving strip is then adjusted until the Hall potential difference vanishes. At this condition, with no Hall effect, the velocity of the charge carriers with respect to the laboratory frame must be zero, so the velocity of the strip must be equal in magnitude but opposite the direction of the velocity of the negative charge carriers. Moving Conductor. When a conductor begins to move at speed v through a magnetic field, its conduction electrons do also. They are then like the moving conduction electrons in the current in Figs. 28.3.1a and b, and an electric field E and potential difference V are quickly set up. As with the current, equilibrium of the electric and magnetic forces is established, but we now write that condition in terms of the conductor’s speed v instead of the drift speed v d in a current as we did in Eq. 28.3.2:
→
eE = evB. Substituting for E with Eq. 28.3.1, we find that the potential difference is V = vBd.
(28.3.5)
Such a motion-caused circuit potential difference can be of serious concern in some situations, such as when a conductor in an orbiting satellite moves through Earth’s magnetic field. However, if a conducting line (said to be an electrody- namic tether) dangles from the satellite, the potential produced along the line might be used to maneuver the satellite. Magnetohydrodynamic Drive
The dead-quiet “caterpillar drive” for submarines in the movie The Hunt for Red October is based on a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) drive: As the ship moves forward, seawater flows through multiple channels in a structure built around the rear of the hull. Figure 28.3.2 shows the essential features of a MHD chan- nel. Magnets, positioned along opposite sides of the channel with opposite poles facing each other, create a horizontal magnetic field within the channel. The top and bottom plates set up an electric field that drives a current down through the (conducting) water. The setup is then like the traditional Hall effect, and a mag- netic force on the current propels the water toward the rear of the channel, thus propelling the ship forward. A full-scale ship using the MHD effect was built in the early 1 990s in Japan (Fig. 28.3.3). Plans to build small-scale ships are available on the Web.
otohP kcotS ymalA/namriaF mloclaM
South pole
North pole North pole
South pole
Flow of seawater
The essential features of the silent drive for ships and submarines. Figure 28.3.2
The Yamato-1 was a full-scale ship driven by the magnetohydrodynamic effect. Figure 28.3.3
/
860
C HAP T ER 28 MAGNET IC F IEL D S
Checkpoint 28.3.1
The figure shows a rectangular conducting block in a uniform magnetic field. For edge lengths, we have L x > L z > L y . We can move the block at v = 4 cm/s along the x axis, the y axis, or the z axis. Rank those direction choices according to the Hall potential that would be set up across the block, greatest first.
Sample Problem 28.3.1
z
x
Lz
Lx
When the cube first begins to move through the magnetic field, its electrons do also. Because each electron has charge q and is moving through a magnetic field with velocity v , the magnetic force F B acting on the electron is given by Eq. 28.1.2. Because q is negative, the direction of F B is opposite the cross product v × B , which is in the positive direction of the x axis (Fig. 28.3.4b). Thus, F B acts in the negative direction of the x axis, toward the left face of the cube (Fig. 28.3.4c). Most of the electrons are fixed in place in the atoms of the cube. However, because the cube is a metal, it con- tains conduction electrons that are free to move. Some of those conduction electrons are deflected by F B to the left cube face, making that face negatively charged and
→
→
→
Because the cube is moving through a magnetic field B , a magnetic force F B acts on its charged particles, including its conduction electrons.
This is the crossproduct result. y
v d
This is the magnetic force on an electron. y
d d
(b )
(a )
– – –
v × B FB
x
This is the resulting electric field.
y
y
+ + +
x
x
FB
(e )
FE
(f )
x
x
(d )
More migration creates a greater electric field.
The forces now balance. No more electrons move to the left face.
y
E
+ + +
(c )
B
The weak electric field creates a weak electric force.
Electrons are forced to the left face, leaving the right face positive. y
v × B
x
→
→
→
y
→
→
KEY IDEA
A
→
→
(a) Which cube face is at a lower electric potential and which is at a higher electric potential because of the motion through the field?
E
Ly
Reasoning:
→
– – –
B
Potential difference set up across a moving conductor
Figure 28.3.4a shows a solid metal cube, of edge length d = 1.5 cm, m oving in the positive y direction at a constant velocity v of magnitude 4.0 m/s. The cube moves through a uniform magnetic field B of magnitude 0.050 T in the positive z direction.
z
y
– – – – –
y
E
(g )
+ + + + +
x
FB
FE
x
(h )
(a) A solid metal cube moves at constant velocity through a uniform mag- netic field. (b)–(d) In these front views, the magnetic force acting on an electron forces the electron to the left face, making that face negative and leaving the opposite face positive. (e)–( f ) The resulting weak electric field creates a weak electric force on the next electron, but it too is forced to the left face. Now (g) the electric field is stronger and (h) the electric force matches the magnetic force. Figure 28.3.4
/
28.4 A C IRC U L AT ING C HARGED P ART IC L E
leaving the right face positively charged (Fig. 28.3.4d). This charge separation produces an electric field E directed from the positively charged right face to the neg- atively charged left face (Fig. 28.3.4e). Thus, the left face is at a lower electric potential, and the right face is at a higher electric potential. →
(b) What is the potential difference between the faces of higher and lower electric potential?
KEY IDEAS →
1. The electric field E created by the charge separation produces an electric force F E = qE on each electron (Fig. 28.3.4f ). Because q is negative, this force is directed opposite the field E —that is, rightward. Thus on each electron, F E acts toward the right and F B acts toward the left. →
→
→
→
→
2. When the cube had just begun to move through the magnetic field and the charge separation had just begun, the magnitude of E began to increase from zero. Thus, the magnitude of F E also began to increase from zero and was initially smaller than the magnitude of F B . During this early stage, the net force on any electron was dominated by F B , which continuously moved additional electrons to the left cube face, increasing the charge separation between the left and right cube faces (Fig. 28.3.4g). →
→
→
→
861
3. However, as the charge separation increased, eventu- ally magnitude F E became e qual to magnitude F B (Fig. 28.3.4h). Because the forces were in opposite direc- tions, the net force on any electron was then zero, and no additional electrons were moved to the left cube face. Thus, the magnitude of F E could not increase further, and the electrons were then in equilibrium. →
We seek the potential difference V between the left and right cube faces after equilibrium was reached (which occurred quickly). We can obtain V with Eq. 28.3.1 (V = Ed) provided we first find the magnitude E of the electric field at equilibrium. We can do so with the equa- tion for the balance of forces (F E = F B). For F E, we substitute |q|E, and then for F B, we substi- tute |q|vB sin ϕ from Eq. 28.1.3. From Fig. 28.3.4a, we see that the angle ϕ between velocity vector v and magnetic field vector B is 90°; thus sin ϕ = 1 and F E = F B yields Calculations:
→
→
|q |E = | q| vB sin 90° = |q |vB.
This gives us E = vB; so V = Ed becomes V = vBd. Substituting known values tells us that the potential dif- ference between the left and right cube faces is V = (4.0 m/s )(0.050 T )(0.015 m ) = 0.0030 V = 3.0 mV.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
28.4 A CIRCULATING CHARGED PARTICLE Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
28.4.1 For a charged particle moving through a uniform
field, sketch the path and indicate the magnetic field
magnetic field, identify under what conditions it will
vector, the velocity vector, the result of the cross
travel in a straight line, in a circular path, and in a
product of the velocity and field vectors, and the
helical path.
magnetic force vector.
28.4.2 For a charged particle in uniform circular motion due to a magnetic force, start with Newton’s second law and derive an expression for the orbital radius
r
B and the particle’s mass m , charge magnitude q , and speed v. in terms of the field magnitude
28.4.3 For a charged particle moving along a circular path in a uniform magnetic field, calculate and relate speed, centripetal force, centripetal acceleration, radius, period, frequency, and angular frequency, and identify which of the quantities do not depend on speed. 28.4.4 For a positive particle and a negative particle moving along a circular path in a uniform magnetic
28.4.5 F o r a charg ed particle mo v ing in a helical path in a mag netic field, s ketch the path and indi- cate the mag netic field, the pitch, the radius o f curv ature, the v elo city co mpo nent parallel to the field, and the v elo city co mpo nent perpendicular to the field. 28.4.6 For helical motion in a magnetic field, apply the relationship between the radius of curvature and one of the velocity components. 28.4.7 For helical motion in a magnetic field, iden- tify pitch
p and relate it to one of the velocity
components.
/
862
C HAP T ER 28 MAGNET IC F IEL D S
Key Ideas
m and charge mag- |q| moving with velocity v perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B will travel in a circle. ●
A charged particle with mass
nitude
●
→
→
●
f
The frequency of revolution , the angular frequency
ω, and the period of the motion T are given by | q| B ω = __ 1 = ____ f = ___ . 2 π T 2πm
Applying Newton’s second law to the circular motion
yields
2
mv , | q|vB = ____ r
from which we find the radius
●
r of the circle to be
mv . r = ____
If the velocity of the particle has a component paral-
lel to the magnetic field, the particle moves in a helical →
B .
path about field vector
|q |B
A Circulating Charged Particle
If a particle moves in a circle at constant speed, we can be sure that the net force acting on the particle is constant in magnitude and points toward the center of the circle, always perpendicular to the particle’s velocity. Think of a stone tied to a string and whirled in a circle on a smooth horizontal surface, or of a satel- lite moving in a circular orbit around Earth. In the first case, the tension in the string provides the necessary force and centripetal acceleration. In the second case, Earth’s gravitational attraction provides the force and acceleration. Figure 28.4.1 shows another example: A beam of electrons is projected into a chamber by an electron gun G. The electrons enter in the plane of the page with speed v and then move in a region of uniform magnetic field B directed out of that plane. As a result, a magnetic force F B = q v × B continuously deflects the electrons, and because v and B are always perpendicular to each other, this →
→
→
→
→
→
v
B F
B
reklaW lraeJ ysetruoC
G
Electrons circulating in a chamber containing gas at low pressure (their path is the glowing circle). A uniform magnetic field B , pointing directly out of the plane of the page, fills the chamber. Note the radially directed magnetic force F B ; for circular motion to occur, F B must point toward the center of the circle. Use the right- hand rule for cross products to confirm that F B = q v × B gives F B the proper direction. (Don’t forget the sign of q.) Figure 28.4.1
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
/
28.4 A C IRC U L AT ING C HARGED P ART IC L E
863
deflection causes the electrons to follow a circular path. The path is visible in the photo because atoms of gas in the chamber emit light when some of the circulat- ing electrons collide with them. We would like to determine the parameters that characterize the circular motion of these electrons, or of any particle of charge magnitude |q| and mass m moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B at speed v. From Eq. 28.1.3, the force acting on the particle has a magnitude of |q|vB. From Newton’s second law ( F = m a ) applied to uniform circular motion (Eq. 6.3.2), →
→
we have
→
v 2 , F = m __ r
(28.4.1)
2
mv . | q | v B = ____ r
(28.4.2)
Solving for r, we find the radius of the circular path as mv r = ____ |q |B
(radius).
(28.4.3)
The period T (the time for one full revolution) is equal to the circumference divided by the speed: 2πr = ___ 2 π ____ mv = ____ 2πm T = ___ v v |q |B |q| B
(period).
(28.4.4)
The frequency f (the number of revolutions per unit time) is | q|B 1 = ____ f = __ (frequency). T 2 πm
(28.4.5)
The angular frequency ω of the motion is then |q |B ω = 2πf = ____ m (angular frequency).
(28.4.6)
The quantities T, f, and ω do not depend on the speed of the particle (provided the speed is much less than the speed of light). Fast particles move in large cir- cles and slow ones in small circles, but all particles with the same charge-to-mass ratio |q|/m take the same time T (the period) to complete one round trip. Using Eq. 28.1.2, y ou can show that if you are looking in the direction of B , the direction of rotation for a positive particle is always counterclockwise, and the direction for a negative particle is always clockwise. →
Helical Paths
If the velocity of a charged particle has a component parallel to the (uniform) mag- netic field, the particle will move in a helical path about the direction of the field vector. Figure 28.4.2a, for example, shows the velocity vector v of such a particle resolved into two components, one parallel to B and one perpendicular to it: →
→
v ∥ = v cos ϕ and v ⊥ = v sin ϕ .
(28.4.7)
The parallel component determines the pitch p of the helix—that is, the distance between adjacent turns (Fig. 28.4.2b). The perpendicular component determines the radius of the helix and is the quantity to be substituted for v in Eq. 28.4.3. Figure 28.4.2c shows a charged particle spiraling in a nonuniform magnetic field. The more closely spaced field lines at the left and right sides indicate that the magnetic field is stronger there. When the field at an end is strong enough, the particle “reflects” from that end. Electrons and protons are trapped in this way in Earth’s magnetic field, forming the Van Allen radiation belts, which loop well above Earth’s atmosphere between Earth’s north and south geomagnetic poles. These particles bounce back and forth, from one end of this magnetic bottle to the other, within a few seconds.
/
864
C HAP T ER 28 MAGNET IC F IEL D S
The velocity component perpendicular to the field causes circling, which is stretched upward by the parallel component.
p
B
Particle
Spiral path
B
v
B
F
ϕ
B
v
ϕ v⊥
v ǀ ǀ
FB
B
ϕ
v⊥
+
q
q
FB
v ǀ ǀ
+
(a )
r
(c )
(b )
(a) A charged particle moves in a uniform magnetic field B , the particle’s velocity v making an angle ϕ with the field direction. (b) The particle follows a helical path of radius r and pitch p. (c) A charged particle spiraling in a nonuniform magnetic field. (The particle can become trapped in this magnetic bot- tle, spiraling back and forth between the strong field regions at either end.) Note that the magnetic force vectors at the left and right sides have a component pointing toward the center of the figure. Figure 28.4.2
→
→
When a large solar flare shoots additional energetic electrons and protons into the radiation belts, an electric field is produced in the region where electrons normally reflect. This field eliminates the reflection and instead drives electrons down into the atmosphere, where they collide with atoms and molecules of air, causing the air to emit light. This light forms the aurora or northern lights, a cur- tain of light that hangs down to an altitude of about 100 km (Fig. 28.4.3). Green light is emitted by oxygen atoms, and pink light is emitted by nitrogen molecules, but often the light is so dim that only white light can be perceived. This curtain of light can be seen on dark nights in the middle to high latitudes. It is not just local; it may be 200 km high and 4000 km long, stretching around Earth in an arc. However, it is only about 100 m thick (north to south) because the paths of the electrons producing it converge as they spiral down the converging magnetic field lines (Fig. 28.4.4).
yabaxiP/segam i51/09namatyalokin
An aurora is a curtain of light that is produced by extraterrestrial electrons.
Electron path
Converging magnetic field lines
Geomagnetic north pole
Auroral oval
Figure 28.4.3
The auroral oval surrounding Earth’s geo- magnetic north pole (which is currently located near northwestern Greenland). Magnetic field lines converge toward that pole. Electrons moving toward Earth are “caught by” and spiral around these lines, entering the atmosphere at middle to high latitudes and producing auroras within the oval. Figure 28.4.4
/
865
28.4 A C IRC U L AT ING C HARGED P ART IC L E
Checkpoint 28.4.1
The figure here shows the circular paths of two particles that travel at the same speed in a uniform magnetic field B , which is directed into the page. One particle is a proton; the other is an electron (which is less massive). (a) Which particle follows the smaller circle, and (b) does that particle travel clockwise or counterclockwise? →
Sample Problem 28.4.1
B
Helical motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field
An electron with a kinetic energy of 22.5 eV moves into a region of uniform magnetic field B of magnitude 4.55 × 10 –4 T. The angle between the directions of B and the electron’s velocity v is 65.5°. What is the pitch of the helical path taken by the electron?
Calculations:
→
2 πm . p = v ∥T = (v cos ϕ) ____ |q |B
→
→
KEY IDEAS
(28.4.8)
Calculating the electron’s speed v from its kinetic energy, we find that v = 2.81 × 10 6 m/s, and so Eq. 28.4.8 g ives us p = (2.81 × 10 6 m/s)(cos 65.5° )
(1) The pitch p is the distance the electron travels parallel to the magnetic field B during one period T of circulation. (2) The period T is given by Eq. 28.4.4 for any nonzero angle between v and B .
2π(9.11 × 10 −31 kg) × ___________________________ (1.60 × 10 −19 C)(4.55 × 10 −4 T) = 9.16 cm. (Answer)
→
→
→
Using Eqs. 28.4.7 a nd 28.4.4, we find
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Sample Problem 28.4.2
Uniform circular motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field
Figure 28.4.5 shows the essentials of a mass spectrom- eter, which can be used to measure the mass of an ion; an ion of mass m (to be measured) and charge q is pro- duced in source S. The initially stationary ion is acceler- ated by the electric field due to a potential difference V. The ion leaves S and enters a separator chamber in which a uniform magnetic field B is perpendicular to the path of the ion. A wide detector lines the bottom wall of the chamber, and the B causes the ion to move in a semicircle and thus strike the detector. Suppose that B = 80.000 m T, V = 1000.0 V, and ions of charge q = +1.6022 × 10 –19 C strike the detector at a point that lies at x = 1.6254 m . What is the mass m of the individual ions, in atomic mass units (Eq. 1.3.1: 1 u = 1.6605 × 10 –27 kg)?
B r
Detector
→
x
→
KEY IDEAS (1) Because the (uniform) magnetic field causes the (charged) ion to follow a circular path, we can relate the ion’s mass m to the path’s radius r with Eq. 28.4.3 (r = mv/|q|B). From Fig. 28.4.5 we see that r = x/2 (the radius is half the diameter). From the problem statement, we know the magnitude B of the magnetic field. However, we lack the ion’s speed v in the magnetic field after the ion has been accelerated due to the potential difference V.
– V
+q
+ S
A positive ion is accelerated from its source S by a potential difference V, enters a chamber of uniform magnetic field B , travels through a semicircle of radius r, and strikes a detector at a distance x. Figure 28.4.5
→
(2) To relate v and V, we use the fact that mechanical e nergy (E mec = K + U) is conserved during the acceleration. When the ion emerges from the source, its kinetic energy is approximately zero. At the end of 1 the acceleration, its kinetic energy is _ mv 2 . Also, during 2 the acceleration, the positive ion moves through a change Finding speed:
/
866
C HAP T ER 28 MAGNET IC F IEL D S
____
in potential of –V. Thus, because the ion has positive charge q, its potential energy changes by –qV. If we now write the conservation of mechanical energy as
_____
Solving this for m and substituting the given data yield
1 _ mv 2 − qV = 0 2
B 2 qx 2 m = ______ 8V 2 (0.080 0 00 T) 2 (1.6022 × 10 −19 C)(1.6254 m) = _______________________________________ 8(1000.0 V)
____
2qV v = √ ____ m .
or Finding
mass:
28.4.3 g ives us
2 2mV _____ . x = 2r = __ B √ q
Thus,
ΔK + ΔU = 0,
we get
_____
2qV __ mv = ___ m √ ____ 2mV . r = ___ = 1 √ _____ q qB qB m B
(28.4.9)
Substituting this value for v into Eq.
= 3.3863 × 10 −25 kg = 203.93 u.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
28.5 CYCLOTRONS AND SYNCHROTRONS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
28.5.1 Describe how a cyclotron works, and in a sketch
28.5.3 For a cyclotron, apply the relationship between
indicate a particle’s path and the regions where the
the particle’s mass and charge, the magnetic field,
kinetic energy is increased.
and the frequency of circling.
28.5.2 Identify the resonance condition.
28.5.4 Distinguish between a cyclotron and a synchrotron.
Key Ideas ●
In a cyclotron, charged particles are accelerated by
electric forces as they circle in a magnetic field.
●
A synchrotron is needed for particles accelerated to
nearly the speed of light.
Cyclotrons and Synchrotrons
Beams of high-energy particles, such as high-energy electrons and protons, have been enormously useful in probing atoms and nuclei to reveal the funda- mental structure of matter. Such beams were instrumental in the discovery that atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons and in the discovery that protons and neutrons consist of quarks and gluons. Because electrons and protons are charged, they can be accelerated to the required high energy if they move through large potential differences. The required acceleration distance is reasonable for electrons (low mass) but unreasonable for protons (greater m ass). A clever solution to this problem is first to let protons and other massive particles move through a modest potential difference (so that they gain a mod- est amount of energy) and then use a magnetic field to cause them to circle back and move through a modest potential difference again. If this procedure is repeated thousands of times, the particles end up with a very large energy. Here we discuss two accelerators that employ a magnetic field to repeatedly bring particles back to an accelerating region, where they gain more and more energy until they finally emerge a s a high-energy beam. The Cyclotron
Figure 28.5.1 is a top view of the region of a cyclotron in which the particles (protons, say) circulate. The two hollow D-shaped objects (each open on its
/
28.5 C Y C L OT RONS AND SY NC HROT RONS
straight edge) are made of sheet copper. These dees, as they are called, are part of an electrical oscillator that alternates the electric potential difference across the gap between the dees. The electrical signs of the dees are alternated so that the electric field in the gap alternates in direction, first toward one dee and then toward the other dee, back and forth. The dees are immersed in a large magnetic field directed out of the plane of the page. The magnitude B of this field is set via a control on the electromagnet producing the field. Suppose that a proton, injected by source S at the center of the cyclotron in Fig. 28.5.1, initially moves toward a negatively charged dee. It will accelerate toward this dee and enter it. Once inside, it is shielded from electric fields by the copper walls of the dee; that is, the electric field does not enter the dee. The magnetic field, however, is not screened by the (nonmagnetic) copper dee, so the proton moves in a circular path whose radius, which depends on its speed, is given by Eq. 28.4.3 (r = mv/|q|B). Let us assume that at the instant the proton emerges into the center gap from the first dee, the potential difference between the dees is reversed. Thus, the pro- ton again faces a negatively charged dee and is again accelerated. This process continues, the circulating proton always being in step with the oscillations of the dee potential, until the proton has spiraled out to the edge of the dee system. There a deflector plate sends it out through a portal. Frequency. The key to the operation of the cyclotron is that the frequency f at which the proton circulates in the magnetic field (and that does not depend on its speed) must be equal to the fixed frequency f osc of the electrical oscilla- tor, or f = f osc
(resonance condition).
867
The protons spiral outward in a cyclotron, picking up energy in the gap. Dee
Dee
S
Beam
Deflector plate Oscillator
The elements of a cyclo- tron, showing the particle source S and the dees. A uniform magnetic field is directed up from the plane of the page. Circulating protons spi- ral outward within the hollow dees, gaining energy every time they cross the gap between the dees. Figure 28.5.1
(28.5.1)
This resonance condition says that, if the energy of the circulating proton is to increase, energy must be fed to it at a frequency f osc that is equal to the natural frequency f at which the proton circulates in the magnetic field. Combining Eqs. 28.4.5 ( f = |q|B/2πm) and 28.5.1 a llows us to write the reso- nance condition as | q|B = 2π mf osc .
(28.5.2)
The oscillator (we assume) is designed to work at a single fixed frequency f osc . We then “tune” the cyclotron by varying B until Eq. 28.5.2 is satisfied, and then many protons circulate through the magnetic field, to emerge a s a beam. The Proton Synchrotron
At proton energies above 50 MeV, the conventional cyclotron begins to fail because one of the assumptions of its design—that the frequency of revolu- tion of a charged particle circulating in a magnetic field is independent of the particle’s speed—is true only for speeds that are much less than the speed of light. At greater proton speeds (above about 10% of the speed of light), we must treat the problem relativistically. According to relativity theory, as the speed of a circulating proton approaches that of light, the proton’s frequency of revolu- tion decreases steadily. Thus, the proton gets out of step with the cyclotron’s oscillator—whose frequency remains fixed at f osc —and eventually the energy of the still circulating proton stops increasing. There is another problem. For a 500 GeV proton in a magnetic field of 1.5 T, the path radius is 1.1 km. The corresponding magnet for a conventional cyclotron of the proper size would be impossibly expensive, the area of its pole faces being about 4 × 10 6 m 2 . The proton synchrotron is designed to meet these two difficulties. The magnetic field B and the oscillator frequency f osc , instead of having fixed val- ues as in the conventional cyclotron, are made to vary with time during the
/
868
C HAP T ER 28 MAGNET IC F IEL D S
accelerating cycle. When this is done properly, (1) the frequency of the circulat- ing protons remains in step with the oscillator at all times, and (2) the protons follow a circular—not a spiral—path. Thus, the magnet need extend only along that circular path, not over some 4 × 10 6 m 2 . The circular path, however, still must be large if high energies are to be achieved.
Checkpoint 28.5.1
A cyclotron is in operation with a certain magnetic field B and with three types of particles continuously introduced by sources near the center. The particles have the same charge but different masses: m 1 > m 2 > m 3 . (a) Rank the particle types accord- ing to the oscillation frequency required for resonance, greatest first. (b) Now rank the particle types according to their exit speeds when their particular resonance is reached, greatest first.
Sample Problem 28.5.1
Cyclotrons and neutron beam therapy
One promising weapon in the battle against certain can- cers, such as salivary gland malignancies, is fast-neutron therapy in which a beam of high-energy (hence, fast) neu- trons is directed into a cancerous region. The high-energy neutrons break bonds in the DNA of the cancer cells, causing the cells to die and thus eliminating the cancer. However, neutrons are electrically neutral and thus can- not be accelerated by an electric field along a long path to reach high speeds, and a medical center cannot house such a long path. The answer is to use a cyclotron to accelerate charged particles to high speeds and then arrange for the exiting beam to crash into a beryllium target immediately in front of the cancerous region (Fig. 28.5.2). The ener- getic collisions produce fast neutrons. The technique was explored soon after cyclotrons were invented in the 1930s but did not catch wide atten- tion until 1966 when it was used at the Hammersmith Hospital in London. There deuterons (hydrogen ions with mass m = 3.34 × 10 −27 kg) crashed into a beryllium target after being accelerated in a cyclotron with radius r = 76.0 cm and operating frequency f osc = 8.20 MHz. The neutrons had energies of about 6 MeV.
2 πmf osc (2 π)(3.34 × 10 −27 kg)(8.20 × 10 6 Hz) B = _______ = _________________________________ |q | 1.60 × 10 −19 C = 1.0755 T ≈ 1.08 T.
(Answer)
(b) What is the resulting kinetic energy of the deuterons leaving the cyclotron?
KEY IDEAS (1) The kinetic energy of a deuteron leaving the cyclotron is the same as the energy it has just before leaving, when it was traveling in a circular path with a radius approxi- mately e qual to the radius r of the cyclotron dees. (2) We can find the speed v of the deuteron in that circu- lar path with Eq. 28.4.3 (r = mv/| q| B).
ecruoS ecneicS/balimreF
(a) What is the magnitude of the magnetic field needed for the deuterons to be accelerated in the cyclotron?
KEY IDEA For a given oscillator frequency f osc , the magnetic field magnitude B required to accelerate a charged particle in a cyclotron depends on the ratio m/| q| of mass to charge for the particle, according to Eq. 28.5.2. For deuterons and the oscillator frequency f osc = 8.20 MHz, we find Calculation:
Because it is invisible, a beam of neu- trons from the portal at the right is aligned via laser crosshairs, seen superimposed on the patient. Figure 28.5.2
/
28.6 MAGNET IC F ORC E ON A C U RRENT - C ARRY ING WIRE
Solving that equation for v and then sub- stituting known data, we find Calculations:
This speed corresponds to a kinetic energy of 2
1 K = _ mv 2
−27 _ = 1 kg)(3.9155 × 10 7 m/s) 2 2 (3.34 × 10
−19
r | q |B (0.760 m )(1.60 × 10 C)(1.0755 T) v = _____ = _______________________________ m
−12
3.34 × 10 −27 kg
7
7
= 3.9155 × 10 m/s ≈ 3.92 × 10 m/s.
869
= 2.56 × 10
J,
(Answer)
or about 16 MeV.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
28.6 MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
28.6.1 For the situation where a current is perpen-
28.6.3 Apply the right-hand rule for cross products to
dicular to a magnetic field, sketch the current, the
find the direction of the magnetic force on a current
direction of the magnetic field, and the direction of the magnetic force on the current (or wire carrying
in a magnetic field. 28.6.4 For a current in a magnetic field, calculate →
F B with a cross product of the length vector L and the field vector B , in
the current).
the magnetic force →
28.6.2 For a current in a magnetic field, apply the rela- tionship between the magnetic force magnitude
F B, the current i, the length of the wire L, and the angle ϕ between the length vector L and the field vector B .
→
magnitude-angle and unit-vector notations. 28.6.5 Describe the procedure for calculating the force
→
on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field if the
→
wire is not straight or if the field is not uniform.
Key Ideas ●
A straight wire carrying a current
→
i in a uniform mag-
netic field experiences a sideways force →
→
→
→
→
●
F B = i L × B . →
●
→
d F B = i d L × B .
i d L in a mag-
The direction of the length vector
i
→
L or d L is that of
the current .
The force acting on a current element
netic field is
Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire
We have already seen (in connection with the Hall effect) that a magnetic field exerts a sideways force on electrons moving in a wire. This force must then be transmitted to the wire itself, because the conduction electrons cannot escape sideways out of the wire. In Fig. 28.6.1a, a vertical wire, carrying no current and fixed in place at both ends, extends through the gap between the vertical pole faces of a mag- net. The magnetic field between the faces is directed outward from the page. In Fig. 28.6.1b, a current is sent upward through the wire; the wire deflects to the right. In Fig. 28.6.1c, we reverse the direction of the current and the wire deflects to the left. Figure 28.6.2 shows what happens inside the wire of Fig. 28.6.1b. We see one of the conduction electrons, drifting downward with an assumed drift speed v d. Equation 28.1.3, in which we must put ϕ = 90°, tells us that a force F B of magnitude →
/
870
C HAP T ER 28 MAGNET IC F IEL D S
A force acts on a current through a B field.
i
B
i
i
B
B
=0
i
i
ev dB must act on each such electron. From Eq. 28.1.2 we see that this force must be directed to the right. We expect then that the wire as a whole will experience a force to the right, in agreement with Fig. 28.6.1b. If, in Fig. 28.6.2, we were to reverse either the direction of the magnetic field or the direction of the current, the force on the wire would reverse, being directed now to the left. Note too that it does not matter whether we consider negative charges drifting downward in the wire (the actual case) or positive charges drift- ing upward. The direction of the deflecting force on the wire is the same. We are safe then in dealing with a current of positive charge, as we usually do in dealing with circuits. Find the Force. Consider a length L of the wire in Fig. 28.6.2. A ll the conduc- tion electrons in this section of wire will drift past plane xx in Fig. 28.6.2 in a time t = L/v d . Thus, in that time a charge given by L q = it = i ___ v d will pass through that plane. Substituting this into Eq. 28.1.3 y ields iL v B sin 90°, F B = qv d B sin ϕ = ___ v d d
(a )
(b )
(c )
A flexible wire passes between the pole faces of a mag- net (only the farther pole face is shown). (a) Without current in the wire, the wire is straight. (b) With upward current, the wire is deflected rightward. (c) With downward cur- rent, the deflection is leftward. The connections for getting the current into the wire at one end and out of it at the other end are not shown. Figure 28.6.1
or
F B = iLB.
(28.6.1)
Note that this equation gives the magnetic force that acts on a length L of straight wire carrying a current i and immersed in a uniform magnetic field B that is per- pendicular to the wire. If the magnetic field is not perpendicular to the wire, as in Fig. 28.6.3, the magnetic force is given by a generalization of Eq. 28.6.1: →
→
→
→
F B = i L × B
(force on a current).
(28.6.2)
→
Here L is a length vector that has magnitude L and is directed along the wire segment in the direction of the (conventional) current. The force magnitude F B is F B = iLB sin ϕ ,
(28.6.3)
where ϕ is the angle between the directions of L and B . The direction of F B is that of the cross product L × B because we take current i to be a positive quan- tity. Equation 28.6.2 tells us that F B is always perpendicular to the plane defined by vectors L and B , as indicated in Fig. 28.6.3. Equation 28.6.2 is equivalent to Eq. 28.1.2 in that either can be taken as the defining equation for B . In practice, we define B from Eq. 28.6.2 because it is much easier to measure the magnetic force acting on a wire than that on a single moving charge. Crooked Wire. If a wire is not straight or the field is not uniform, we can imagine the wire broken up into small straight segments and apply Eq. 28.6.2 →
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
A close-up view of a section of the wire of Fig. 28.6.1b. The current direction is upward, which means that electrons drift downward. A magnetic field that emerges from the plane of the page causes the electrons and the wire to be deflected to the right. Figure 28.6.2
B
L
FB
i
vd x
x
/
871
28.6 MAGNET IC F ORC E ON A C U RRENT - C ARRY ING WIRE
to each segment. The force on the wire as a whole is then the vector sum of all the forces on the segments that make it up. In the differential limit, we can write →
→
The force is perpendicular to both the field and the length. FB
(28.6.4)
→
dF B = i dL × B ,
and we can find the resultant force on any given arrangement of currents by integrating Eq. 28.6.4 over that arrangement. In using Eq. 28.6.4, bear in mind that there is no such thing as an isolated current-carrying wire segment of length dL. There must always be a way to intro- duce the current into the segment at one end and take it out at the other end.
ϕ
i
B
L
A wire carrying current i makes an angle ϕ with magnetic field B . The wire has length L in the field and length vector L (in the direction of the current). A magnetic force F B = iL × B acts on the wire. Figure 28.6.3
→
→
y
Checkpoint 28.6.1
The figure shows a current i through a wire in a uniform magnetic field B , as well as the magnetic force F B acting on the wire. The field is oriented so that the force is maximum. In what direction is the field?
→
→
→
→
i
→
Sample Problem 28.6.1
x
z
FB
Magnetic force on a wire carrying current
A straight, horizontal length of copper wire has a current i = 28 A through it. What are the magnitude and direc- tion of the minimum magnetic field B needed to suspend the wire—that is, to balance the gravitational force on it? The linear density (mass per unit length) of the wire is 46.6 g/m.
FB
→
KEY IDEAS
L
A wire (shown in cross section) carrying current out of the page. Figure 28.6.4
B
mg
→
(1) Because the wire carries a current, a magnetic force F B can act on the wire if we place it in a magnetic field B . To balance the downward gravitational force F g on the wire, we want F B to be directed upward (Fig. 28.6.4). (2) The direction of F B is related to the directions of B and the wire’s length vector L by Eq. 28.6.2 ( F B = iL × B ). →
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
Because L is directed horizontally (and the current is taken to be positive), Eq. 28.6.2 and the right-hand rule for cross products tell us that B must be horizontal and rightward (in Fig. 28.6.4) to give the required upward F B . The magnitude of F B is F B = iLB sin ϕ (Eq. 28.6.3). Because we want F B to balance F g , we want Calculations:
→
→
→
for F B to balance F g . Thus, we need to maximize sin ϕ in Eq. 28.6.5. To do so, we set ϕ = 90°, thereby arranging for B to be perpendicular to the wire. We then have sin ϕ = 1, so Eq. 28.6.5 y ields →
→
→
(m/L)g mg B = ________ = _______ . i iL sin ϕ
(28.6.6)
We write the result this way because we know m/L, the linear density of the wire. Substituting known data then gives us
(28.6.5)
(46.6 × 10 −3 kg/m)(9.8 m/s 2 ) B = _________________________ 28 A −2 (Answer) = 1.6 × 10 T.
where mg is the magnitude of F g and m is the mass of the wire. We also want the minimal field magnitude B
This is about 160 times the strength of Earth’s magnetic field.
→
→
iLB sin ϕ = mg, →
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
/
872
C HAP T ER 28 MAGNET IC F IEL D S
28.7 TORQUE ON A CURRENT LOOP Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
28.7.1 Sketch a rectangular loop of current in a mag-
28.7.2 For a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field,
netic field, indicating the magnetic forces on the four
apply the relationship between the torque magni-
sides, the direction of the current, the normal vec-
tude , the number of turns
tor
n , and the direction in which a torque from the
→
τ N, the area of each turn A, the current i, the magnetic field magnitude B, and the angle θ between the normal vector n and the magnetic field vector B . →
forces tends to rotate the loop.
→
Key Ideas ●
Various magnetic forces act on the sections of a
current-carrying coil lying in a uniform external mag-
N is the number of turns in the coil, A is the area i is the current, B is the field magnitude, and θ is the angle between the magnetic field B and the normal vector to the coil n . where
of each turn,
→
netic field, but the net force is zero.
→
●
The net torque acting on the coil has a magnitude
given by
τ = NiAB sin θ ,
Torque on a Current Loop
Much of the world’s work is done by electric motors. The forces behind this work are the magnetic forces that we studied in the preceding section—that is, the forces that a magnetic field exerts on a wire that carries a current. Figure 28.7.1 shows a simple motor, consisting of a single current-carrying loop immersed in a magnetic field B . The two magnetic forces F and −F pro- duce a torque on the loop, tending to rotate it about its central axis. Although many essential details have been omitted, the figure does suggest how the action of a magnetic field on a current loop produces rotary motion. Let us analyze that action. Figure 28.7.2a shows a rectangular loop of sides a and b, carrying current i through uniform magnetic field B . We place the loop in the field so that its long sides, labeled 1 and 3, are perpendicular to the field direction (which is into the page), but its short sides, labeled 2 and 4, are not. Wires to lead the cur- rent into and out of the loop are needed but, for simplicity, are not shown. To define the orientation of the loop in the magnetic field, we use a nor- mal vector n that is perpendicular to the plane of the loop. Figure 28.7.2b shows a right-hand rule for finding the direction of n . Point or curl the fingers of your right hand in the direction of the current at any point on the loop. Your extended thumb then points in the direction of the normal vector n . In Fig. 28.7.2c, the normal vector of the loop is shown at an arbitrary angle θ to the direction of the magnetic field B . We wish to find the net force and net torque acting on the loop in this orientation. Net Torque. The net force on the loop is the vector sum of the forces acting on its four sides. For side 2 the vector L in Eq. 28.6.2 points in the direction of the current and has magnitude b. The angle between L and B for side 2 (see Fig. 28.7.2c) is 90° – θ . Thus, the magnitude of the force acting on this side is →
→
→
→
F
i
→
→
N
i
S B
–F
The elements of an electric motor. A rectangular loop of wire, carrying a current and free to rotate about a fixed axis, is placed in a magnetic field. Magnetic forces on the wire produce a torque that rotates it. A commutator (not shown) reverses the direction of the current every half-revolution so that the torque always acts in the same direction. Figure 28.7.1
→
→
→
→
F 2 = ibB sin(90° – θ ) = ibB cos θ. →
→
(28.7.1) →
You can show that the force F 4 acting on side 4 has the same magnitude as F 2 but the opposite direction. Thus, F 2 and F 4 cancel out exactly. Their net force is →
→
/
28.7 T ORQU E ON A C U RRENT L OOP
F1
Side 1
F1 i
i
n
F2
Side 4
θ
i
b
n
Side 1
Side 2
τ
F4
Side 1
Side 4
873
Side 2
Side 2
b
Side 3
Side 3
Rotation
B F3
(a )
B
(b )
a
(c )
F3
A rectangular loop, of length a and width b and carrying a current i, is located in a uniform magnetic field. A torque τ acts to align the normal vector n with the direction of the field. (a) The loop as seen by looking in the direction of the magnetic field. (b) A perspective of the loop showing how the right- hand rule gives the direction of n , which is perpendicular to the plane of the loop. (c) A side view of the loop, from side 2. The loop rotates as indicated. Figure 28.7.2
zero and, because their common line of action is through the center of the loop, their net torque is also zero. The situation is different for sides 1 and 3. For them, L is perpendicular to B , so the forces F 1 and F 3 have the common magnitude iaB. Because these two forces have opposite directions, they do not tend to move the loop up or down. However, as Fig. 28.7.2c shows, these two forces do not share the same line of action; so they do produce a net torque. The torque tends to rotate the loop so as to align its normal vector n with the direction of the magnetic field B . That torque has moment arm (b/2) sin θ about the central axis of the loop. The magni- tude τʹ of the torque due to forces F 1 and F 3 is then (see Fig. 28.7.2c) →
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
b sin θ + iaB b __ τ′ = ( iaB __ ) ( 2 sin θ) = iabB sin θ . 2
(28.7.2)
→
→
Coil. Suppose we replace the single loop of current with a coil of N loops, or turns. Further, suppose that the turns are wound tightly enough that they can be approximated as all having the same dimensions and lying in a plane. Then the turns form a flat coil, and a torque τʹ with the magnitude given in Eq. 28.7.2 a cts on each of them. The total torque on the coil then has magnitude
τ = Nτ ʹ = NiabB sin θ = (NiA)B sin θ,
(28.7.3)
in which A (= ab) is the area enclosed by the coil. The quantities in parentheses (NiA) are grouped together because they are all properties of the coil: its number of turns, its area, a nd the current it carries. Equation 28.7.3 holds for all flat coils, no matter what their shape, provided the magnetic field is uniform. For example, for the common circular coil, with radius r, we have
τ = (Ni πr 2 )B sin θ.
(28.7.4)
Normal Vector. Instead of focusing on the motion of the coil, it is simpler to keep track of the vector n , which is normal to the plane of the coil. Equation 28.7.3 tells us that a current-carrying flat coil placed in a magnetic field will tend to rotate so that n has the same direction as the field. In a motor, the current in the coil is reversed as n begins to line up with the field direction, so that a torque continues to rotate the coil. This automatic reversal of the current is done via a commutator that electrically connects the rotating coil with the stationary con- tacts on the wires that supply the current from some source. →
→
→
Checkpoint 28.7.1
You are going to form a (single) loop with a wire that is 10 cm long. The loop will have current i and will be in a uniform magnetic field B, with the normal vector perpendicular to B . In order to maximize the magnitude τ of the torque on the loop, which shape should the loop have: (a) square, (b) rectangle, 4 cm by 1 cm, (c) rect- angle, 3 cm by 2 cm, (d) circle? →
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C HAP T ER 28 MAGNET IC F IEL D S
28.8 THE MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
28.8.1 Identify that a current-carrying coil is a magnetic
μ
→
dipole with a magnetic dipole moment the direction of the normal vector
vector
that has
B , in
→
and the external magnetic field vector
magnitude-angle notation and unit-vector notation.
n , as given by a
→
μ
→
28.8.7 For a magnetic dipole in an external magnetic
right-hand rule.
field, identify the dipole orientations at which the
28.8.2 For a current-carrying coil, apply the relationship between the magnitude
torque magnitude is minimum and maximum.
μ of the magnetic dipole
moment, the number of turns
i
28.8.8 For a magnetic dipole in an external magnetic
N, the area A of each
field, apply the relationship between the orienta-
U, the dipole moment magnitude μ, the B, and the angle θ
turn, and the current .
tion energy
28.8.3 On a sketch of a current-carrying coil, draw
external magnetic field magnitude
the direction of the current, and then use a right-
between the dipole moment vector
hand rule to determine the direction of the magnetic dipole moment vector
netic field vector
μ .
→
B .
28.8.9 Calculate the orientation energy
28.8.4 For a magnetic dipole in an external magnetic
τ
magnitude , the dipole moment magnitude the magnetic field magnitude
B .
→
μ
→
U by taking a
μ and the B , in magnitude-angle →
→
external magnetic field vector
μ,
and unit-vector notations.
B, and the angle θ
between the dipole moment vector
and the mag-
dot product of the dipole moment vector
field, apply the relationship between the torque
netic field vector
μ
→
→
28.8.10 Identify the orientations of a magnetic dipole
and the mag-
in an external magnetic field that give the minimum and maximum orientation energies.
28.8.5 Identify the convention of assigning a plus or
28.8.11 For a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field,
U to the work W a done
minus sign to a torque according to the direction of
relate the orientation energy
rotation.
by an external torque as the dipole rotates in the
28.8.6 Calculate the torque on a magnetic dipole by
magnetic field.
evaluating a cross product of the dipole moment
Key Ideas ●
A coil (of area
A and N turns, carrying current i ) in B will experience a torque τ →
●
→
a uniform magnetic field
The orientation energy of a magnetic dipole in a
magnetic field is
U(θ) = − μ · B . →
given by
τ
→
Here
μ
→
= μ × B . →
→
●
→
If an external agent rotates a magnetic dipole from
an initial orientation
θi to some other orientation θf and
the dipole is stationary both initially and finally, the
is the magnetic dipole moment of the coil,
W a done on the dipole by the agent is
μ = NiA and direction given by the
work
with magnitude
W a = ΔU = U f – U i.
right-hand rule.
The Magnetic Dipole Moment
As we have just discussed, a torque acts to rotate a current-carrying coil placed in a magnetic field. In that sense, the coil behaves like a bar magnet placed in the magnetic field. Thus, like a bar magnet, a current-carrying coil is said to be a mag- netic dipole. Moreover, to account for the torque on the coil due to the magnetic field, we assign a magnetic dipole moment μ to the coil. The direction of μ is that of the normal vector n to the plane of the coil and thus is given by the same right- hand rule shown in Fig. 28.7.2. That is, grasp the coil with the fingers of your right hand in the direction of current i; the outstretched thumb of that hand gives the direction of μ . The magnitude of μ is given by →
→
→
→
→
μ = NiA
(magnetic moment),
(28.8.1)
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875
28.8 T HE MAGNET IC D IP OL E MOMENT
in which N is the number of turns in the coil, i is the current through the coil, and A is the area enclosed by each turn of the coil. From this equation, with i in amperes and A in square meters, we see that the unit of μ is the ampere-square meter (A · m 2 ). Torque. Using μ , we can rewrite Eq. 28.7.3 for the torque on the coil due to a magnetic field a s →
The magnetic moment vector attempts to align with the magnetic field.
→
τ = μB sin θ ,
τ
(28.8.3)
→
which reminds us very much of the corresponding equation for the torque exerted by an electric field on an electric dipole—namely, Eq. 22.7.3:
τ
→
→
= p × E . →
i
Highest energy
= μ × B , →
μ
i
→
→
μ
(28.8.2)
in which θ is the angle between the vectors μ and B . We can generalize this to the vector relation →
B
Lowest energy
The orientations of highest and lowest energy of a magnetic dipole (here a coil carry- ing current) in an external magnetic field B . The direction of the current i gives the direction of the magnetic dipole moment μ via the right-hand rule shown for n in Fig. 28.7.2b. Figure 28.8.1
→
→
→
In each case the torque due to the field—either magnetic or electric—is equal to the vector product of the corresponding dipole moment and the field vector. Energy. A magnetic dipole in an external magnetic field has an energy that depends on the dipole’s orientation in the field. For electric dipoles we have shown (Eq. 22.7.7) that U(θ) = − p ⋅ E . →
→
In strict analogy, we can write for the magnetic case U (θ) = − μ ⋅ B . →
(28.8.4)
→
In each case the energy due to the field is equal to the negative of the scalar prod- uct of the corresponding dipole moment and the field vector. A magnetic dipole has its lowest energy (= – μB cos 0 = – μB) when its dipole moment μ is lined up with the magnetic field (Fig. 28.8.1). It has its highest energy (= −μB cos 180° = +μB) when μ is directed opposite the field. From Eq. 28.8.4, with U in joules and B in teslas, we see that the unit of μ can be the joule per tesla (J/T) instead of the ampere-square m eter as suggested by Eq. 28.8.1. Work. If an applied torque (due to “an external agent”) rotates a magnetic dipole from an initial orientation θi to another orientation θf , then work W a is done on the dipole by the applied torque. If the dipole is stationary before and after the change in its orientation, then work W a is →
→
→
→
W a = U f – U i ,
(28.8.5)
where U f and U i are calculated with Eq. 28.8.4. So far, we have identified only a current-carrying coil and a permanent magnet as a magnetic dipole. However, a rotating sphere of charge is also a magnetic dipole, as is Earth itself (approximately). Finally, most subatomic par- ticles, including the electron, the proton, and the neutron, have magnetic dipole moments. As you will see in Chapter 32, all these quantities can be viewed as current loops. For comparison, some approximate magnetic dipole moments are shown in Table 28.8.1. Language. Some instructors refer to U in Eq. 28.8.4 a s a potential energy a nd relate it to work done by the magnetic field when the orientation of the dipole changes. Here we shall avoid the debate and say that U is an energy associated with the dipole orientation.
Table 28.8.1 Some Magnetic
Dipole Moments
Small bar magnet Earth Proton Electron
5 J/T 8.0 × 10 22 J/T 1.4 × 10 –26 J/T 9.3 × 10 –24 J/T
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C HAP T ER 28 MAGNET IC F IEL D S
Checkpoint 28.8.1
The figure shows four orientations, at angle θ, of a magnetic dipole moment μ in a magnetic field. Rank the orientations according to (a) the magnitude of the torque on the dipole and (b) the orientation energy of the dipole, greatest first. →
1
4
Sample Problem 28.8.1
μ
μ
θ θ
θ θ
μ
μ
2 B
3
Rotating a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field
Figure 28.8.2 shows a circular coil with 250 turns, an area A of 2.52 × 10 –4 m 2 , and a current of 100 μA. The coil is at rest in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude B = 0.85 T, with its magnetic dipole moment μ initially aligned with B .
its initial orientation, so that μ is perpendicular to B and the coil is again at rest?
(a) In Fig. 28.8.2, what is the direction of the current in the coil?
The work W a done by the applied torque would be equal to the change in the coil’s orientation energy due to its change in orientation.
→
→
Imagine cupping the coil with your right hand so that your right thumb is outstretched in the direction of μ . The direction in which your fingers curl around the coil is the direction of the current in the coil. Thus, in the wires on the near side of the coil—those we see in Fig. 28.8.2—the current is from top to bottom. Right-hand rule:
→
(b) How much work would the torque applied by an external agent have to do on the coil to rotate it 90° from
→
→
KEY IDEA
Calculations:
From Eq. 28.8.5 (W a = U f – U i), we find
W a = U(90°) − U(0°) = − μB cos 90° − (− μB cos 0°) = 0 + μB = μB. Substituting for μ from Eq. 28.8.1 (μ = NiA), we find that W a = (NiA) B
μ
= (250)(100 × 10 −6 A)(2.52 × 10 −4 m 2 )(0.85 T)
= 5.355 × 10 −6 J ≈ 5.4 μJ.
B
A side view of a circular coil carrying a current and oriented so that its magnetic dipole moment is aligned with magnetic field B . Figure 28.8.2
→
(Answer)
Similarly, we can show that to change the orientation by another 90°, so that the dipole moment is opposite the field, another 5.4 μJ is required.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Review & Summary A magnetic field B is defined in terms of the force F B acting on a test particle with charge q moving through the field with velocity v :
potential difference V across the strip. The polarities of the sides indicate the sign of the charge carriers.
(28.1.2)
A Charged Particle Circulating in a Magnetic Field
→
→
Magnetic Field B →
→
F B = q v × B .
→
→
→
The SI unit for B is the tesla (T): 1 T = 1 N/(A · m) = 10 4 gauss. →
When a conducting strip carrying a current i is placed in a uniform magnetic field B , some charge carriers (with charge e) build up on one side of the conductor, creating a The Hall Effect
→
A charged particle with mass m and charge magnitude |q| mov- ing with velocity v perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B will travel in a circle. Applying Newton’s second law to the cir- cular motion yields →
→
mv 2
|q|vB = ____ r ,
(28.4.2)
/
QU EST IONS
from which we find the radius r of the circle to be mv . r = ____ |q|B
→
(28.4.3)
A straight wire carrying a current i in a uniform magnetic field experiences a sideways force →
(28.6.2)
→
F B = iL × B . →
The force acting on a current element i d L in a magnetic field is →
→
τ = μ × B .
→
(28.8.3)
→
→
Here μ is the magnetic dipole moment of the coil, with magni- tude μ = NiA and direction given by the right-hand rule. →
(28.4.6, 28.4.5, 28.4.4)
Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire
→
A coil (of area A and N turns, carrying current i) in a uniform magnetic field B will experience a torque τ given by Torque on a Current-Carrying Coil
The frequency of revolution f, the angular frequency ω, and the period of the motion T are given by |q|B ω = __ 1 = ____ f = ___ . 2π T 2πm
877
→
(28.6.4)
→
d FB = i d L × B . →
The orienta- tion energy of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field is Orientation Energy of a Magnetic Dipole
U(θ) = − μ ⋅ B . →
(28.8.4)
→
If an external agent rotates a magnetic dipole from an initial orientation θi to some other orientation θf and the dipole is sta- tionary both initially and finally, the work W a done on the dipole by the agent is
→
The direction of the length vector L or d L is that of the current i.
W a = ΔU = U f – U i .
(28.8.5)
Questions Figure 28.1 shows three situations in which a positively charged particle moves at velocity v through a uniform mag- netic field B and experiences a magnetic force F B . In each situation, determine whether the orientations of the vectors are physically reasonable. 1
→
→
→
v
v FB
B
FB
B
FB
(b ) Figure 28.1
e
d
v B
(a )
Figure 28.4 shows the path of a particle through six regions of uniform magnetic field, where the path is either a half-circle or a quarter-circle. Upon leaving the last region, the particle travels between two charged, parallel plates and is deflected toward the plate of higher potential. What is the direction of the magnetic field in each of the six regions? 4
(c )
c
Question 1.
a f
Figure 28.2 shows a wire Wire that carries current to the right i through a uniform magnetic field. 1 3 It also shows four choices for the 2 4 direction of that field. (a) Rank Choices for B the choices according to the mag- Figure 28.2 Question 2. nitude of the electric potential difference that would be set up across the width of the wire, greatest first. (b) For which choice is the top side of the wire at higher potential than the bottom side of the wire? 2
Figure 28.3 shows a metallic, y rectangular solid that is to move at a certain speed v through the uniform B magnetic field B . The dimensions of the solid are multiples of d, as shown. 2 d x d You have six choices for the direc- 3d tion of the velocity: parallel to x, y, z or z in either the positive or negative Figure 28.3 Question 3. direction. (a) Rank the six choices according to the potential difference set up across the solid, greatest first. (b) For which choice is the front face at lower potential? 3
→
b
Figure 28.4
Question 4.
In Module 28.2, we discussed a charged particle moving through crossed fields with the forces F E and F B in opposi- tion. We found that the particle moves in a straight line (that is, neither force dominates the motion) if its speed is given by Eq. 28.2.2 (v = E/B). Which of the two forces dominates if the speed of the particle is (a) v E/B? 5
→
→
Figure 28.5 shows crossed uniform electric and magnetic fields E and B and, at a certain instant, the velocity vectors of 6
→
→
B
7
8
4
3
5 9 Figure 28.5
1
2
E
6
10
Question 6.
/
878
C HAP T ER 28 MAGNET IC F IEL D S
the 10 charged particles listed in Table 28.1. (The vectors are not drawn to scale.) The speeds given in the table are either less than or greater than E/B (see Question 5). Which particles will move out of the page toward you after the instant shown in Fig. 28.5? Table 28.1 Question 6
Particle
Charge
Speed
1
+
Less
6
–
Greater
2
+
Greater
7
+
Less
3
+
Less
8
+
Greater
4
+
Greater
9
–
Less
5
–
Less
10
–
Greater
the rest are half-circles. Table 28.2 gives the masses, charges, and speeds of 11 particles that take these paths through the field in the directions shown. Which path in the figure corresponds to which particle in the table? (The direction of the magnetic field can be determined by means of one of the paths, which is unique.)
Particle Charge Speed Table 28.2 Question 10
Figure 28.6 shows the path of B1 an electron that passes through two regions containing uniform magnetic fields of magnitudes B 1 and B 2 . Its B 2 path in each region is a half-circle. (a) Which field is stronger? (b) What is the direction of each field? (c) Is the time spent by the electron in the B 1 Figure 28.6 Question 7. region greater than, less than, or the same as the time spent in the B 2 region? 7
→
→
Figure 28.7 shows the path of an electron in a region of uni- form magnetic field. The path consists of two straight sections, each between a pair of uni- formly charged plates, and two half-circles. Which plate is at the higher electric potential in (a) the Figure 28.7 Question 8. top pair of plates and (b) the bot- tom pair? (c) What is the direction of the magnetic field?
Particle
Mass
Charge Speed
1
2m
q
2
m
2q
v
3
m/2
q
2v
v
4
3m
3q
3v
5
2m
q
2v
6
m
–q
2v
7
m
–4q
v
8
m
–q
v
9
2m
–2q
3v
10
m
–2q
8v
11
3m
0
3v
8
(a) In Checkpoint 28.8.1, if the dipole moment μ is rotated from orientation 2 to orientation 1 by an external agent, is the work done on the dipole by the agent positive, negative, or zero? (b) Rank the work done on the dipole by the agent for these three rotations, greatest first: 2 → 1, 2 → 4, 2 → 3. →
9
Particle roundabout. Figure 28.8 shows 11 paths through a region of uniform magnetic field. One path is a straight line; 10
In Fig. 28.9, a charged par- ticle enters a uniform magnetic B field B with speed v 0 , moves through a half-circle in time T 0 , and then leaves the field. (a) Is the charge positive or negative? (b) Is the final speed of the par- Figure 28.9 Question 11. ticle greater than, less than, or equal to v 0 ? (c) If the initial speed had been 0.5v 0 , would the time spent in field B have been greater than, less than, or equal to T 0 ? (d) Would the path have been a half-circle, more than a half-circle, or less than a half-circle? 11
→
→
Figure 28.10 gives snapshots for three situations in which a positively charged particle passes through a uniform magnetic field B . The velocities v of the particle differ in orientation in the three snapshots but not in magnitude. Rank the situations according to (a) the period, (b) the frequency, and (c) the pitch of the particle’s motion, greatest first. 12
→
e
k
h
f i
→
b
c
B
d
Figure 28.8
Question 10.
a
g
(1) Figure 28.10
B
v
v
v j
B
(2)
(3)
Question 12.
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P ROBL EMS
879
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
BIO
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 28.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard Flying Circus of Physics
→
Magnetic Fields and the Definition of B
V1
A proton traveling at 23.0° with respect to the direc- tion of a magnetic field of strength 2.60 mT experiences a mag- netic force of 6.50 × 10 –17 N. Calculate (a) the proton’s speed and (b) its kinetic energy in electron-volts. 1 E
An electron that has an instantaneous velocity of
d
Figure 28.11
V2
Problem 9.
v = (2.0 × 10 6 m/s) ˆ i + (3.0 × 10 6 m/s) ˆ j
is moving through the uniform magnetic field B = (0.030 T) ˆ i − (0.15 T) ˆ j. (a) Find the force on the electron due to the magnetic field. (b) Repeat your calculation for a proton having the same velocity. →
→
→
→
→
→
→
M GO An electron moves through a uniform magnetic field given by B = B x ˆ i + (3.0 Bx ) ˆ j. At a particular instant, the electron has velocity v = (2.0 ˆ i + 4.0 ˆ j) m/s and the magnetic force acting on it is (6.4 × 10 −19 N)k ̂ . Find B x .
5
→
→
GO A proton moves through a uniform magnetic field M given by B = (10 ˆ i − 20 ˆ j + 30k ̂ ) mT. At time t 1 , the proton has ˆ ̂ a velocity given by v = v xˆ i + v and the magnetic yj + (2.0 km/s)k force on the proton is F B = (4.0 × 10 −27 N) ˆ i + (2.0 × 10 −27 N) ˆ j. At that instant, what are (a) v x and (b) v y ? 6
→
→
→
Module 28.2
M A proton travels through uniform magnetic and electric fields. The magnetic field is B = −2.50 ˆ i mT. At one instant the velocity of the proton is v = 2000 ˆ j m/s. At that instant and in unit-vector notation, what is the net force acting on the pro- ton if the electric field is (a) 4.00k ̂ V/m, (b) −4.00k ̂ V/m, and (c) 4.00 ˆ i V/m?
10
→
Crossed Fields: Discovery of the Electron
An electron has an initial velocity of (12.0 ˆ j + 15.0k ̂ ) km/s and a constant acceleration of (2.00 × 10 12 m/s 2 ) ˆ i in a region in which uniform electric and magnetic fields are present. If B = (400 μT) ˆ i, find the electric field E . E
→
→
An electric field of 1.50 kV/m and a perpendicular magnetic field of 0.400 T act on a moving electron to produce no net force. What is the electron’s speed? 8 E
E In Fig. 28.11, an electron accelerated from rest through potential difference V 1 = 1.00 kV enters the gap between two parallel plates having separation d = 20.0 mm and potential dif- ference V 2 = 100 V. The lower plate is at the lower potential. Neglect fringing and assume that the electron’s velocity vector is perpendicular to the electric field vector between the plates.
GO An ion source is producing 6 Li ions, which have M charge +e and mass 9.99 × 10 –27 kg. The ions are accelerated by a potential difference of 10 kV and pass horizontally into a region in which there is a uniform vertical magnetic field of mag- nitude B = 1.2 T. Calculate the strength of the electric field, to be set up over the same region, that will allow the 6 Li ions to pass through without any deflection. 11
GO At time t 1 , an electron 2 is sent along the positive direc- tion of an x axis, through both an 1 electric field E and a magnetic field B , with E directed parallel 0 0 v to the y axis. Figure 28.12 gives the y component F net,y of the –1 net force on the electron due to the two fields, as a function of the –2 electron’s speed v at time t 1 . The v (m/s) scale of the velocity axis is set by Figure 28.12 Problem 12. v s = 100.0 m/s. The x and z com- ponents of the net force are zero at t 1 . Assuming B x = 0, find (a) the magnitude E and (b) B in unit-vector notation. 12 H
)N 9 1 – 01( y,t enF
E An alpha particle travels at a velocity v of magnitude 550 m/s through a uniform magnetic field B of magnitude 0.045 T. (An alpha particle has a charge of +3.2 × 10 –19 C and a mass of 6.6 × 10 –27 kg.) The angle between v and B is 52°. What is the magnitude of (a) the force F B acting on the particle due to the field and (b) the acceleration of the particle due to F B ? (c) Does the speed of the particle increase, decrease, or remain the same?
4
In unit-vector notation, what uniform magnetic field allows the electron to travel in a straight line in the gap?
→
→
9
x
E
3 E
7
y
SSM
A particle of mass 10 g and charge 80 μC moves through a uniform magnetic field, in a region where the free-fall accel- eration is −9.8 ˆ j m/s 2 . The velocity of the particle is a constant ˆ 20 i km/s, which is perpendicular to the magnetic field. What, then, is the magnetic field? 2
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
→
→
→
s
→
Module 28.3
Crossed Fields: The Hall Effect
A strip of copper 150 μm thick and 4.5 mm wide is placed in a uniform magnetic field B of magni- tude 0.65 T, with B perpendicular to v the strip. A current i = 23 A is then sent through the strip such that a Hall potential difference V appears B x y across the width of the strip. Calcu- late V. (The number of charge car- riers per unit volume for copper is 8.47 × 10 28 electrons/m 3 .) 13 E
→
→
E A metal strip 6.50 cm long, 0.850 cm wide, and 0.760 mm thick moves with constant velocity v
14
→
Figure 28.13
Problem 14.
/
880
C HAP T ER 28 MAGNET IC F IEL D S
through a uniform magnetic field B = 1.20 mT directed perpen- dicular to the strip, as shown in Fig. 28.13. A potential difference of 3.90 μV is measured between points x and y across the strip. Calculate the speed v. y
→
dy
→
x dz dx z
Problems 15 and 16.
Figure 28.14
Figure 28.14 shows a metallic block, with its faces par- allel to coordinate axes. The block is in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 0.020 T. One edge length of the block is 25 cm; the block is not drawn to scale. The block is moved at 3.0 m/s paral- lel to each axis, in turn, and the resulting potential difference V that appears across the block is measured. With the motion parallel to the y axis, V = 12 mV; with the motion parallel to the z axis, V = 18 mV; with the motion parallel to the x axis, V = 0. What are the block lengths (a) d x , (b) d y , and (c) d z ? 16 H
GO
Module 28.4
A Circulating Charged Particle
An alpha particle can be produced in certain radioactive decays of nuclei and consists of two protons and two neutrons. The particle has a charge of q = +2e and a mass of 4.00 u, where u is the atomic mass unit, with 1 u = 1.661 × 10 –27 kg. Suppose an alpha particle travels in a circular path of radius 4.50 cm in a uniform magnetic field with B = 1.20 T. Calculate (a) its speed, (b) its period of revolution, (c) its kinetic energy, and (d) the potential difference through which it would have to be acceler- ated to achieve this energy. 17 E
E GO In Fig. 28.15, a particle moves along a circle in a region of uniform magnetic field of magnitude B = 4.00 mT. The particle is either a proton or an electron (you must decide which). It experiences a magnetic force of magnitude 3.20 × 10 –15 N. What are (a) the particle’s speed, (b) the radius of the circle, and (c) the period of the motion?
18
rs
0
V V
1/2
Figure 28.17
(V
1/2
1/2 s
)
Problem 20.
E SSM An electron of kinetic energy 1.20 keV circles in a plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field. The orbit radius is 25.0 cm. Find (a) the electron’s speed, (b) the magnetic field magnitude, (c) the circling frequency, and (d) the period of the motion.
21
E In a nuclear experiment a proton with kinetic energy 1.0 MeV moves in a circular path in a uniform magnetic field. What energy must (a) an alpha particle (q = +2e, m = 4.0 u) and (b) a deuteron (q = +e, m = 2.0 u) have if they are to circulate in the same circular path?
22
What uniform magnetic field, applied perpendicular to a beam of electrons moving at 1.30 × 10 6 m/s, is required to make the electrons travel in a circular arc of radius 0.350 m? 23 E
E An electron is accelerated from rest by a potential dif- ference of 350 V. It then enters a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 200 mT with its velocity perpendicular to the field. Calculate (a) the speed of the electron and (b) the radius of its path in the magnetic field.
24
(a) Find the frequency of revolution of an electron with an energy of 100 eV in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 35.0 μT. (b) Calculate the radius of the path of this electron if its velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic field. 25 E
B
Figure 28.15
Problem 18.
M In Fig. 28.18, a charged particle moves into a region of uniform magnetic field B , goes through half a circle, and then B exits that region. The particle is either a proton or an electron (you Figure 28.18 Problem 26. must decide which). It spends 130 ns in the region. (a) What is the magnitude of B ? (b) If the par- ticle is sent back through the magnetic field (along the same initial path) but with 2.00 times its previous kinetic energy, how much time does it spend in the field during this trip?
26
→
A certain particle is sent into a uniform magnetic field, with the particle’s velocity vector perpendicular to the direction 19
E An electron is acceler- ated from rest through potential difference V and then enters a region of uniform magnetic field, where it undergoes uniform cir- cular motion. Figure 28.17 gives the radius r of that motion versus V 1/2 . The vertical axis scale is set by r s = 3.0 mm, and the horizon- tal axis scale is set by V 1/2 s = 40.0 V 1/2 . What is the magnitude of the magnetic field?
20
)mm( r
GO A conducting rectangu- lar solid of dimensions d x = 5.00 m, d y = 3.00 m, and d z = 2.00 m moves with a constant velocity v = (20.0 m/s) ˆ i through a uniform magnetic field B = (30.0 mT) ˆ j (Fig. 28.14). What are the result- ing (a) electric field within the solid, in unit-vector notation, and (b) potential difference across the solid? 15 M
of the field. Figure 28.16 gives the period T of the particle’s motion versus the inverse of the field magnitude B. The vertical axis scale is set by T s = 40.0 ns, and the horizontal axis scale is set −1 by B −1 s = 5.0 T . What is the ratio m/q of the particle’s mass to the magnitude of its charge?
E
Ts
→
)sn( T
M A mass spectrometer (Fig. 28.4.5) is used to separate uranium ions of mass 3.92 × 10 –25 kg and charge 3.20 × 10 –19 C from related species. The ions are accelerated through a poten- tial difference of 100 kV and then pass into a uniform magnetic field, where they are bent in a path of radius 1.00 m. After traveling through 180° and passing through a slit of width 1.00 mm and height 1.00 cm, they are collected in a cup. (a) What is the magnitude of the (perpendicular) magnetic field in
27
–1
0 B
–1
Figure 28.16
–1
(T )
Problem 19.
Bs
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P ROBL EMS
the separator? If the machine is used to separate out 100 mg of material per hour, calculate (b) the current of the desired ions in the machine and (c) the thermal energy produced in the cup in 1.00 h. A particle undergoes uniform circular motion of radius 26.1 μm in a uniform magnetic field. The magnetic force on the particle has a magnitude of 1.60 × 10 –17 N. What is the kinetic energy of the particle? 28
An electron follows a helical path in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 0.300 T. The pitch of the path is 6.00 μm, and the magnitude of the magnetic force on the electron is 2.00 × 10 –15 N. What is the electron’s speed? GO In Fig. 28.19, an elec- M B1 tron with an initial kinetic energy of 4.0 keV enters region 1 at time t = 0. Region 1 That region contains a uniform mag- netic field directed into the page, with magnitude 0.010 T. The electron goes Region 2 through a half-circle and then exits B2 region 1, headed toward region 2 across a gap of 25.0 cm. There is an electric Figure 28.19 potential difference ΔV = 2000 V Problem 30. across the gap, with a polarity such that the electron’s speed increases uniformly as it traverses the gap. Region 2 contains a uniform magnetic field directed out of the page, with magnitude 0.020 T. The electron goes through a half- circle and then leaves region 2. At what time t does it leave? 30
M A particular type of fundamental particle decays by transforming into an electron e – and a positron e + . Suppose the decaying particle is at rest in a uniform magnetic field B of mag- nitude 3.53 mT and the e – and e + move away from the decay point in paths lying in a plane perpendicular to B . How long after the decay do the e – and e + collide?
31
→
→
7
A source injects an electron of speed v = 1.5 × 10 m/s into a uniform magnetic field of magnitude B = 1.0 × 10 –3 T. The velocity of the electron makes an angle θ = 10° with the direc- tion of the magnetic field. Find the distance d from the point of injection at which the electron next crosses the field line that passes through the injection point. 32 M
SSM A positron with kinetic energy 2.00 keV is projected into a uniform magnetic field B of magnitude 0.100 T, with its velocity vector making an angle of 89.0° with B . Find (a) the period, (b) the pitch p, and (c) the radius r of its helical path.
33 M
→
→
An electron follows a helical path in a uniform magnetic field given by B = (20 ˆ i − 50 ˆ j − 30k ̂ ) mT. At time t = 0, the elec- tron’s velocity is given by v = (20 ˆ i − 30 ˆ j + 50k ̂) m/s. (a) What is the angle ϕ between v and B ? The electron’s velocity changes with time. Do (b) its speed and (c) the angle ϕ change with time? (d) What is the radius of the helical path? 34 M
→
→
→
Module 28.5
→
Cyclotrons and Synchrotrons
M A proton circulates in a cyclotron, beginning approxi- mately at rest at the center. Whenever it passes through the gap between dees, the electric potential difference between the dees is 200 V. (a) By how much does its kinetic energy increase with each passage through the gap? (b) What is its kinetic energy as it completes 100 passes through the gap? Let r 100 be the radius of the proton’s circular path as it completes those 100 passes and
35
enters a dee, and let r 101 be its next radius, as it enters a dee the next time. (c) By what percentage does the radius increase when it changes from r 100 to r 101 ? That is, what is r 101 − r 100 percentage increase = ________ 100%? r 100
M
29 M
881
A cyclotron with dee radius 53.0 cm is operated at an oscil- lator frequency of 12.0 MHz to accelerate protons. (a) What magnitude B of magnetic field is required to achieve resonance? (b) At that field magnitude, what is the kinetic energy of a proton emerging from the cyclotron? Suppose, instead, that B = 1.57 T. (c) What oscillator frequency is required to achieve resonance now? (d) At that frequency, what is the kinetic energy of an emerging proton? 36 M
Estimate the total path length traveled by a deuteron in a cyclotron of radius 53 cm and operating frequency 12 MHz dur- ing the (entire) acceleration process. Assume that the accelerat- ing potential between the dees is 80 kV. 37 M
In a certain cyclotron a proton moves in a circle of radius 0.500 m. The magnitude of the magnetic field is 1.20 T. (a) What is the oscillator frequency? (b) What is the kinetic energy of the proton, in electron-volts? 38 M
Module 28.6
Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire
A horizontal power line carries a current of 5000 A from south to north. Earth’s magnetic field (60.0 μ T) is directed toward the north and inclined downward at 70.0° to the hori- zontal. Find the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the magnetic force on 100 m of the line due to Earth’s field. 39 E
SSM
A wire 1.80 m long carries a current of 13.0 A and makes an angle of 35.0° with a uniform magnetic field of magnitude B = 1.50 T. Calculate the magnetic force on the wire. 40 E
E A 13.0 g wire of length L = 62.0 cm is suspended by a pair of flexible leads in a uniform mag- netic field of magnitude 0.440 T (Fig. 28.20). What are the (a) mag- nitude and (b) direction (left or right) of the current required to remove the tension in the support- ing leads?
41
The bent wire shown in Fig. 28.21 lies in a uniform magnetic field. Each straight section is 2.0 m long and makes an angle of θ = 60° with the x axis, and the wire carries a current of 2.0 A. What is the net magnetic force on the wire in unit-vector notation if the magnetic field is given by (a) 4.0k ̂ T and (b) 4.0 ˆ i T? 42 E
L
Figure 28.20
Problem 41.
y
θ
i
x
θ
i
Figure 28.21 Problem 42. A single-turn current loop, carrying a current of 4.00 A, is in the shape of a right triangle with sides 50.0, 120, and 130 cm. The loop is in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 75.0 mT whose direction is parallel to the current in the 130 cm side of the loop. What is the magnitude of the magnetic force on (a) the 130 cm side, (b) the 50.0 cm side, and (c) the 120 cm side? (d) What is the magnitude of the net force on the loop?
43
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C HAP T ER 28 MAGNET IC F IEL D S
M CALC Figure 28.22 shows a wire ring of radius a = 1.8 cm i that is perpendicular to the gen- a eral direction of a radially sym- metric, diverging magnetic field. B The magnetic field at the ring is θ everywhere of the same magni- Figure 28.22 Problem 44. tude B = 3.4 mT, and its direction at the ring everywhere makes an angle θ = 20° with a normal to the plane of the ring. The twisted lead wires have no effect on the problem. Find the magnitude of the force the field exerts on the ring if the ring carries a current i = 4.6 mA.
44
A wire 50.0 cm long carries a 0.500 A current in the positive direction of an x axis through a magnetic field B = (3.00 mT) ˆ j + (10.0 mT)k ̂ . In unit-vector notation, what is the magnetic force on the wire? 45 M
→
In Fig. 28.23, a metal wire of mass m = 24.1 mg can slide with negligible friction on two horizontal parallel rails separated by distance d = 2.56 cm. The track lies in a vertical uniform magnetic field of magnitude 56.3 mT. At time t = 0, device G is connected to the rails, producing a constant current i = 9.13 mA in the wire and rails (even as the wire moves). At t = 61.1 ms, what are the wire’s (a) speed and (b) direction of motion (left or right)? 46 M
i
B B
m
G
d i i
Figure 28.23
Problem 46.
GO A 1.0 kg copper rod rests on two horizontal rails H 1.0 m apart and carries a current of 50 A from one rail to the other. The coefficient of static friction between rod and rails is 0.60. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) angle (relative to the vertical) of the smallest magnetic field that puts the rod on the verge of sliding? 47
CALC GO A long, rigid conductor, lying along an x axis, carries a current of 5.0 A in the negative x direction. A magnetic ˆ field B is present, given by B = 3.0 ˆ i + 8.0 x2 j, with x in meters and B in milliteslas. Find, in unit-vector notation, the force on the 2.0 m segment of the conductor that lies between x = 1.0 m and x = 3.0 m.
loop with a constant current equal to the ratio of the electron’s charge magnitude to the period of the motion. If the circle lies in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude B = 7.10 mT, what is the maximum possible magnitude of the torque produced on the loop by the field? Figure 28.25 shows a wood B cylinder of mass m = 0.250 kg and length L = 0.100 m, with N = 10.0 turns of wire wrapped L m around it longitudinally, so that i the plane of the wire coil contains the long central axis of the cylin- der. The cylinder is released on a plane inclined at an angle θ to the θ horizontal, with the plane of the coil parallel to the incline plane. Figure 28.25 Problem 51. If there is a vertical uniform mag- netic field of magnitude 0.500 T, what is the least current i through the coil that keeps the cylinder from rolling down the plane? 51 M
M In Fig. 28.26, a rectangular loop carrying current lies in the plane of a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 0.040 T. The loop consists of a single turn of flexible conducting wire that is wrapped around a flexible mount such x that the dimensions of the rectangle Figure 28.26 can be changed. (The total length of the Problem 52. wire is not changed.) As edge length x is varied from approximately zero to its maximum value of approximately 4.0 cm, the magnitude τ of the torque on the loop changes. The maximum value of τ is 4.80 × 10 –8 N · m. What is the current in the loop?
52
Prove that the relation τ = NiAB sin θ holds not only for the rectangular loop of Fig. 28.7.2 but also for a closed loop of any shape. (Hint: Replace the loop of arbitrary shape with an assembly of adjacent long, thin, approximately rectangular loops that are nearly equivalent to the loop of arbitrary shape as far as the distribution of current is concerned.) 53 M
48 H
→
→
→
Module 28.7
Torque on a Current Loop
SSM Figure 28.24 shows a rectangular 20-turn coil of wire, of dimensions 10 cm by 5.0 cm. It carries a current of 0.10 A and is hinged along one long side. It is mounted in the xy plane, at angle θ = 30° to the direction of a uni- form magnetic field of magnitude 0.50 T. In unit-vector notation, what is the torque acting on the coil about the hinge line?
49 E
y
i
Hinge line
θ z
Figure 28.24
x
B
Problem 49.
An electron moves in a circle of radius r = 5.29 × 10 –11 m with speed 2.19 × 10 6 m/s. Treat the circular path as a current 50 M
Module 28.8
The Magnetic Dipole Moment
A magnetic dipole with a dipole moment of magnitude 0.020 J/T is released from rest in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 52 mT. The rotation of the dipole due to the mag- netic force on it is unimpeded. When the dipole rotates through the orientation where its dipole moment is aligned with the magnetic field, its kinetic energy is 0.80 mJ. (a) What is the ini- y tial angle between the dipole moment and the magnetic field? i (b) What is the angle when the i dipole is next (momentarily) at r2 rest? 54
E
Two concentric, circular wire loops, of radii r 1 = 20.0 cm and r 2 = 30.0 cm, are located in an xy plane; each car- ries a clockwise current of 7.00 A (Fig. 28.27). (a) Find the mag- nitude of the net magnetic dipole 55
E
x
SSM
r1
Figure 28.27
Problem 55.
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E A circular wire loop of radius 15.0 cm carries a current of 2.60 A. It is placed so that the normal to its plane makes an angle of 41.0° with a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 12.0 T. (a) Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment of the loop. (b) What is the magnitude of the torque acting on the loop?
56
The magnetic dipole moment of Earth has magnitude 8.00 × 10 22 J/T. Assume that this is produced by charges flowing in Earth’s molten outer core. If the radius of their circular path is 3500 km, calculate the current they produce. E
A current loop, carrying a current of 5.0 A, is in the shape of a right triangle with sides 30, 40, and 50 cm. The loop is in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 80 mT whose direction is parallel to the current in the 50 cm side of the loop. Find the magnitude of (a) the magnetic dipole moment of the loop and (b) the torque on the loop. 59 E
M Figure 28.28 shows a current loop ABCDEFA carrying a current i = 5.00 A. The sides of the loop are parallel to the coordinate axes shown, with AB = 20.0 cm, BC = 30.0 cm, and FA = 10.0 cm. In unit-vector notation, what is the magnetic dipole moment of this loop? (Hint: Imag- ine equal and opposite currents i in the line segment AD; then treat the two rectangular loops ABCDA and ADEFA.)
60
E
C
D
i
z
0
0
i 2s
– μ net,s
μ
2
1
i 2 (mA) (b )
(a )
57 E
58
s
t en
SSM A circular coil of 160 turns has a radius of 1.90 cm. (a) Calculate the current that results in a magnetic dipole moment of magnitude 2.30 A · m2 . (b) Find the maximum mag- nitude of the torque that the coil, carrying this current, can expe- rience in a uniform 35.0 mT magnetic field.
μ net,
)2 m • A 5 – 01(
moment of the system. (b) Repeat for reversed current in the inner loop.
Figure 28.30
Problem 62.
A circular loop of wire having a radius of 8.0 cm carries a current of 0.20 A. A vector of unit length and parallel to the dipole moment μ of the loop is given by 0.60 ˆ i − 0.80 ˆ j. (This unit vector gives the orientation of the magnetic dipole moment vec- tor.) If the loop is located in a uniform magnetic field given by B = (0.25 T) ˆ i + (0.30 T)k ̂ , find (a) the torque on the loop (in unit-vector notation) and (b) the orientation energy of the loop. 63 M
→
→
GO Figure 28.31 gives the orientation energy U of a M magnetic dipole in an external magnetic field B , as a function of angle ϕ between the directions of B and the dipole moment. The vertical axis scale is set by U s = 2.0 × 10 −4 J. The dipole can be rotated about an axle with negligible friction in order to change ϕ. Counterclockwise rotation from ϕ = 0 yields positive values of ϕ, and clockwise rotations yield negative values. The dipole is to be released at angle ϕ = 0 with a rotational kinetic energy of 6.7 × 10 –4 J, so that it rotates counterclockwise. To what maximum value of ϕ will it rotate? (In the language of Module 8.3, what value ϕ is the turning point in the potential well of Fig. 28.31?) 64
→
→
F i B
U
A
x
Figure 28.28
(10 –4 J)
y
Us
Problem 60.
M SSM The coil in Fig. 28.29 carries current i = 2.00 A in the direction indicated, is parallel to an xz plane, has 3.00 turns and an area of 4.00 × 10 –3 m 2 , and lies in a uniform magnetic field B = (2.00 ˆ i − 3.00 ˆ j − 4.00k ̂ ) mT. What are (a) the orienta- tion energy of the coil in the magnetic field and (b) the torque (in unit-vector notation) on the coil due to the magnetic field?
ϕ
–180 °
61
–Us
→
Figure 28.31
180 °
Problem 64.
M SSM A wire of length 25.0 cm carrying a current of 4.51 mA is to be formed into a circular coil and placed in a uniform magnetic field B of magnitude 5.71 mT. If the torque on the coil from the field is maximized, what are (a) the angle between B and the coil’s magnetic dipole moment and (b) the number of turns in the coil? (c) What is the magnitude of that maximum torque?
65
→
y
→
x i
z
Figure 28.29
Problem 61.
Additional Problems CALC A proton of charge +e and mass m enters a uniform magnetic field B = B ˆ i with an initial velocity v = v 0x ˆ i + v 0y ˆ j. Find an expression in unit-vector notation for its velocity v at any later time t.
66
→
In Fig. 28.30a, two concentric coils, lying in the same plane, carry currents in opposite directions. The current in the larger coil 1 is fixed. Current i 2 in coil 2 can be varied. Figure 28.30b gives the net magnetic moment of the two-coil system as a function of i 2 . The vertical axis scale is set by μnet,s = 2.0 × 10 −5 A ⋅ m 2 , and the horizontal axis scale is set by i 2s = 10.0 mA. If the current in coil 2 is then reversed, what is the magnitude of the net magnetic moment of the two-coil system when i 2 = 7.0 mA? 62 M
GO
→
→
A stationary circular wall clock has a face with a radius of 15 cm. Six turns of wire are wound around its perimeter; the wire carries a current of 2.0 A in the clockwise direction. The clock is located where there is a constant, uniform external mag- netic field of magnitude 70 mT (but the clock still keeps perfect time). At exactly 1:00 p.m., the hour hand of the clock points in 67
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C HAP T ER 28 MAGNET IC F IEL D S
the direction of the external magnetic field. (a) After how many minutes will the minute hand point in the direction of the torque on the winding due to the magnetic field? (b) Find the torque magnitude. CALC A wire lying along a y axis from y = 0 to y = 0.250 m carries a current of 2.00 mA in the negative direction of the axis. The wire fully lies in a nonuniform magnetic field that is given by ˆ B = (0.300 T/m) yˆ i + (0.400 T/m)y j. In unit-vector notation, what is the magnetic force on the wire?
68
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Atom 1 of mass 35 u and atom 2 of mass 37 u are both singly ionized with a charge of +e. After being introduced into a mass spectrometer (Fig. 28.4.5) and accelerated from rest through a potential difference V = 7.3 kV, each ion follows a circular path in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude B = 0.50 T. What is the distance Δx between the points where the ions strike the detector? 69
An electron with kinetic energy 2.5 keV moving along the positive direction of an x axis enters a region in which a uniform electric field of magnitude 10 kV/m is in the negative direction of the y axis. A uniform magnetic field B is to be set up to keep the electron moving along the x axis, and the direction of B is to be chosen to minimize the required magnitude of B . In unit- vector notation, what B should be set up? 70
→
→
→
→
Physicist S. A. Goudsmit devised a method for measuring the mass of heavy ions by timing their period of revolution in a known magnetic field. A singly charged ion of iodine makes 7.00 rev in a 45.0 mT field in 1.29 ms. Calculate its mass in atomic mass units. 71
A beam of electrons whose kinetic energy is K emerges from a thin-foil “window” at the end of an accelerator tube. A metal plate Foil Electron beam at distance d from this window is window perpendicular to the direction of Plate the emerging beam (Fig. 28.32). Tube d (a) Show that we can prevent the beam from hitting the plate if we Figure 28.32 Problem 72. apply a uniform magnetic field such that 72
_____
B ≥
√ e 2 d 2
→
At time t = 0, an electron with kinetic energy 12 keV moves through x = 0 in the positive direction of an x axis that is parallel to the horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field B . The field’s vertical component is downward and has magnitude 55.0 μT. (a) What is the magnitude of the electron’s acceleration due to B ? (b) What is the electron’s distance from the x axis when the electron reaches coordinate x = 20 cm? SSM
→
→
A particle with charge 2.0 C moves through a uniform magnetic field. At one instant the velocity of the particle is (2.0 ˆ i + 4.0 ˆ j + 6.0k ̂) m/s and the magnetic force on the particle is ˆ ˆ (4.0 i − 20 j + 12k ̂ ) N. The x and y components of the magnetic field are equal. What is B ? 74
GO
→
A proton, a deuteron (q = +e, m = 2.0 u), and an alpha par- ticle (q = +2e, m = 4.0 u) all having the same kinetic energy 75
→
Bainbridge’s mass spectrome- S1 ter, shown in Fig. 28.33, separates S2 ions having the same velocity. The ions, after entering through slits, S 1 + – and S 2 , pass through a velocity B Plate selector composed of an electric P P' field produced by the charged r B' plates P and Pʹ, and a magnetic field B perpendicular to the elec- tric field and the ion path. The ions that then pass undeviated through Figure 28.33 Problem 76. the crossed E and B fields enter into a region where a second magnetic field B ′ exists, where they are made to follow circular paths. A photographic plate (or a modern detector) registers their arrival. Show that, for the ions, q/m = E/rBBʹ, where r is the radius of the circular orbit. 76
→
→
→
→
SSM In Fig. 28.34, an electron y moves at speed v = 100 m/s along B an x axis through uniform electric v and magnetic fields. The magnetic x field B is directed into the page Figure 28.34 Problem 77. and has magnitude 5.00 T. In unit- vector notation, what is the electric field?
77
→
(a) In Fig. 28.3.1, show that the ratio of the Hall electric field magnitude E to the magnitude E C of the electric field responsible for moving charge (the current) along the length of the strip is E = ____ B , ___ E C neρ 78
where ρ is the resistivity of the material and n is the number den- sity of the charge carriers. (b) Compute this ratio numerically for Problem 13. (See Table 26.3.1.) SSM A proton, a deuteron (q = +e, m = 2.0 u), and an alpha particle (q = +2e, m = 4.0 u) are accelerated through the same potential difference and then enter the same region of uniform magnetic field B , moving perpendicular to B . What is the ratio of (a) the proton’s kinetic energy K p to the alpha particle’s kinetic energy K α and (b) the deuteron’s kinetic energy K d to K α? If the radius of the proton’s circular path is 10 cm, what is the radius of (c) the deuteron’s path and (d) the alpha particle’s path?
79
→
2mK , _____
in which m and e are the electron mass and charge. (b) How should B be oriented? 73
→
enter a region of uniform magnetic field B , moving perpendicu- lar to B . What is the ratio of (a) the radius r d of the deuteron path to the radius r p of the proton path and (b) the radius r α of the alpha particle path to r p ?
→
An electron is moving at 7.20 × 10 6 m/s in a magnetic field of strength 83.0 mT. What are the (a) maximum and (b) mini- mum magnitude of the force acting on the electron due to the field? (c) At one point the electron has an acceleration of mag- nitude 4.90 × 10 14 m/s 2 . What is the angle between the electron’s velocity and the magnetic field? 80
A 5.0 μC particle moves through a region containing the ˆ mT and the uniform electric field uniform magnetic field −20 i 300 ˆ j V/m. At a certain instant the velocity of the particle is (17 ˆ i − 11 ˆ j + 7.0k ̂ ) km/s. At that instant and in unit-vector nota- tion, what is the net electromagnetic force (the sum of the elec- tric and magnetic forces) on the particle? 81
In a Hall-effect experiment, a current of 3.0 A sent length- wise through a conductor 1.0 cm wide, 4.0 cm long, and 10 μm 82
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P ROBL EMS
thick produces a transverse (across the width) Hall potential dif- ference of 10 μV when a magnetic field of 1.5 T is passed perpen- dicularly through the thickness of the conductor. From these data, find (a) the drift velocity of the charge carriers and (b) the number density of charge carriers. (c) Show on a diagram the polarity of the Hall potential difference with assumed current and magnetic field directions, assuming also that the charge carriers are electrons. SSM A particle of mass 6.0 g moves at 4.0 km/s in an xy plane, in a region with a uniform magnetic field given by 5.0 i ˆ mT. At one instant, when the particle’s velocity is directed 37° counter- clockwise from the positive direction of the x axis, the magnetic force on the particle is 0.48k ̂ N. What is the particle’s charge?
83
CALC A wire lying along an x axis from x = 0 to x = 1.00 m carries a current of 3.00 A in the positive x direction. The wire is immersed in a nonuniform magnetic field that is given by B = 2 ) x 2 ˆ (4.00 T/m 2 ) x 2 ˆi − (0.600 T/m j. In unit-vector notation, what is the magnetic force on the wire? ˆ ˆ ̂ 85 At one instant, v = (− 2.00 i + 4.00 j − 6.00k ) m/s is the veloc- ity of a proton in a uniform magnetic field B = (2.00 ˆ i − 4.00 ˆ j + ̂ 8.00k )T . At that instant, what are (a) the magnetic force F acting on the proton, in unit-vector notation, (b) the angle between v and F , and (c) the angle between v and B ? 86 An electron has velocity v = (32 ˆ i + 40 ˆ j) km/s as it enters a ˆ uniform magnetic field B = 60 i μT. What are (a) the radius of the helical path taken by the electron and (b) the pitch of that path? (c) To an observer looking into the magnetic field region from the entrance point of the electron, does the electron spiral clockwise or counterclockwise as it moves?
84
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
CALC Force on a curved wire. Figure 28.35 shows a length of wire with a central semicircular arc of radius R, placed in a uni- form magnetic field B that points out of the plane of the figure. The
87
→
Wire R L
Figure 28.35
L
Problem 87.
885
current in the wire is i. What is the resultant magnetic force F on the wire? →
First cyclotron. In 1930, E. O. Lawrence invented the cyclo- tron at the University of California at Berkeley. Over the years he built larger and larger ones, but his first one had a diameter d of only 5.0 in. and accelerated protons to an energy of K = 80 keV. What were (a) the magnitude B of the magnetic field and (b) the speed of the protons? 88
BIO Artery Hall effect. A small neodymium magnet pro- duces a magnetic field of magnitude B = 0.40 T across the coro- nary artery of a patient. Electrodes are positioned on opposite sides of the artery, which has a diameter of d = 4.00 mm. The Hall voltage is measured as the charged ions in the blood flow through the artery. What is the flow speed v when the voltage is (a) 0.288 mV and (b) 0.656 mV?
89
Deuteron breakup. A deuteron in a cyclotron is moving in a magnetic field with B = 1.5 T and an orbit radius r = 50 cm. Because of a grazing collision with a target, the deuteron breaks up, with negligible loss of kinetic energy, into a neutron and a proton. Assume that the deuteron energy is shared equally by the neutron and proton at breakup. After the breakup, what are the speed and path description (straight line or radius of curva- ture) of (a) the neutron and (b) the proton? 90
Satellite thrusters. The satellites in the SpaceX Starlink con- stellation use Hall-effect thrusters for orientation adjustments. The full mechanism of the thruster is complicated, but one main feature involves ionizing krypton atoms and then accelerating the freed electrons e − and the positive krypton ions Kr + before they enter a magnetic field. If they enter a 0.020 T field perpen- dicular to the field vector with speed 21 km/s, what is the radius of curvature of (a) the electrons (strongly deflected) and (b) the positive ions (barely deflected)? The difference in the deflec- tions separates the electrons and Kr + ions in the small confines of a satellite. The Kr mass is 1.39 × 10 −25 kg. 91
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T
E
R
2
9
Magnetic Fields Due to Currents
29.1 MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
29.1.1 Sketch a current-length element in a wire and indicate the direction of the magnetic field that it sets up at a given point near the wire. 29.1.2 For a given point near a wire and a given current-length element in the wire, determine the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field due to that element.
29.1.6 Identify that around a long straight wire carrying current, the magnetic field lines form circles. 29.1.7 For a point to one side of the end of a semi- infinite wire carrying current, apply the relationship between the magnetic field magnitude, the current, and the distance to the point. 29.1.8 For the center of curvature of a circular arc of
29.1.3 Identify the magnitude of the magnetic field set
wire carrying current, apply the relationship between
up by a current-length element at a point in line with
the magnetic field magnitude, the current, the radius
the direction of that element.
of curvature, and the angle subtended by the arc
29.1.4 For a point to one side of a long straight wire carrying current, apply the relationship between the
(in radians). 29.1.9 For a point to one side of a short straight wire
–Savart law to find
magnetic field magnitude, the current, and the dis-
carrying current, integrate the Biot
tance to the point.
the magnetic field set up at the point by the current.
29.1.5 For a point to one side of a long straight wire carrying current, use a right-hand rule to determine the direction of the field vector.
Key Ideas
â—The magnetic field set up by a current-carrying con- ductor can be found from the Biot
→
–Savart law. This law
d B to the field produced → by a current-length element i d s at a point P located a distance r from the current element is asserts that the contribution
→× μ0 id s r ̂ _______ d B = ___ (Biot–Savart law). 4π r 2
â—For a long straight wire carrying a current i, the Biot – Savart law gives, for the magnitude of the magnetic field at a perpendicular distance
μ 0 i B = ____ 2πR
→
‚ r Ìis a unit vector that points from the element toward P. The quantity μ 0 , called the permeability con- Here
R from the wire,
(long straight wire).
â—The magnitude of the magnetic field at the center
R and central angle Ï• (in i
of a circular arc, of radius
radians), carrying current , is
stant, has the value
4 π× 10 âˆ7’ T Âm/A · â‰1.26 ˆ × 10 âˆ6 ’ T Âm/A. ·
μ 0 i ϕ B = _____ 4 πR
(at center of circular arc).
What Is Physics?
One basic observation of physics is that a moving charged particle produces a magnetic field around itself. Thus a current of moving charged particles produces a magnetic field around the current. This feature of electromagnetism, which is the combined study of electric and magnetic effects, came as a surprise to the people who discovered it. Surprise or not, this feature has become enormously
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29.1 MAGNET IC F IEL D D U E T O A C U RRENT
important in everyday life because it is the basis of countless electromagnetic devices. For example, a magnetic field is produced in maglev trains and other devices used to lift heavy loads. Our first step in this chapter is to find the magnetic field due to the current in a very small section of current-carrying wire. Then we shall find the mag- netic field due to the entire wire for several different arrangements of the wire.
887
This element of current creates a magnetic field at P, into the page. id s
î€ ds
Ë r†
(into page)
dB
r P
Calculating the Magnetic Field Due to a Current
Figure 29.1.1 shows a wire of arbitrary shape carrying a current i. We want to → find the magnetic field B at a nearby point P. We first mentally divide the wire i into differential elements ds and then define for each element a length vector →that has length ds and whose direction is the direction of the current in ds. We d s → can then define a differential current-length element to be i d s ; we wish to calcu- → late the field d B produced at P by a typical current-length element. From experi- ment we find that magnetic fields, like electric fields, can be superimposed to find → a net field. Thus, we can calculate the net field B at P by summing, via integra- → tion, the contributions d B from all the current-length elements. However, this summation is more challenging than the process associated with electric fields because of a complexity; whereas a charge element dq producing an electric field → is a scalar, a current-length element i d s producing a magnetic field is a vector, being the product of a scalar and a vector. → Magnitude. The magnitude of the field d B produced at point P at distance r → by a current-length element i d s turns out to be μ0 _________ i ds sin θ, dB = ___ r 2 4π
Current distribution
A current-length ele- →produces a differential ment i d s → magnetic field d B at point P. The green × (the tail of an arrow) at the → dot for point P indicates that d B is directed into the page there. Figure 29.1.1
(29.1.1)
→and r , a unit ̂ where θ is the angle between the directions of d s vector that points from ds toward P. Symbol μ 0 is a constant, called the permeability constant, whose value is defined to be exactly
μ 10 âˆ7’ T Âm/A · ≠1.26 ˆ × 10 âˆ6 ’ T Âm /A. · 0 = 4π×
(29.1.2)
→
Direction. The direction of dB , shown as being into the page in Fig. 29.1.1, is
→ ̂ that of the cross product d s × r . We can therefore write Eq. 29.1.1 in vector form as → → μ 0 i d s × r ̂ (Biot–Savart ________ dB = ___ law). 4π r 2
(29.1.3)
This vector equation and its scalar form, Eq. 29.1.1, are known as the law of Biot and Savart (rhymes with “Leo and bazaar†The law, which ). is experimen- tally deduced, is an inverse-square law. We shall use this law to calculate the net → magnetic field B produced at a point by various distributions of current. Here is one easy distribution: If current in a wire is either directly toward or directly away from a point P of measurement, can you see from Eq. 29.1.1 that the magnetic field at P from the current is simply zero (the angle θ is either 0 Âfor ° toward or 180 Âfor away, and both ° result in sin θ = 0)? Magnetic Field Due to a Current in a Long Straight Wire
Shortly we shall use the law of Biot and Savart to prove that the magnitude of the magnetic field at a perpendicular distance R from a long (infinite) straight wire carrying a current i is given by μ 0 i B = ____ 2 πR
(long straight wire).
(29.1.4)
/
888
C HAP T ER 29 MAGNET IC F IEL D S D U E T O C U RRENT S
retneC tnempoleveD noitacudE fo ysetruoC
The magnetic ï¬ eld vector at any point is tangent to a circle. Wire with current into the page
B
B
Iron filings that have been sprinkled onto cardboard collect in concentric circles when current is sent through the central wire. The alignment, which is along magnetic field lines, is caused by the magnetic field produced by the current. Figure 29.1.3
The magnetic field lines produced by a current in a long straight wire form concentric circles around the wire. Here the current is into the page, as indicated by the × . Figure 29.1.2
The field magnitude B in Eq. 29.1.4 depends only on the current and the perpendicular distance R of the point from the wire. We shall show in our deriva- → tion that the field lines of B form concentric circles around the wire, as Fig. 29.1.2 shows and as the iron filings in Fig. 29.1.3 suggest. The increase in the spacing of the lines in Fig. 29.1.2 with increasing distance from the wire represents the 1/R → decrease in the magnitude of B predicted by Eq. 29.1.4. The lengths of the two → vectors B in the figure also show the 1/R decrease. Directions. Plugging values into Eq. 29.1.4 to find the field magnitude B at a given radius is easy. What is difficult for many students is finding the direction of → a field vector B at a given point. The field lines form circles around a long straight wire, and the field vector at any point on a circle must be tangent to the circle. That means it must be perpendicular to a radial line extending to the point from the wire. But there are two possible directions for that perpendicular vector, as shown in Fig. 29.1.4. One is correct for current into the figure, and the other is correct for current out of the figure. How can you tell which is which? Here is a simple right-hand rule for telling which vector is correct:
Curled–straight right-hand rule: Grasp the element in your right hand with your extended thumb pointing in the direction of the current. Your fingers will then naturally curl around in the direction of the magnetic field lines due to that element.
B
r
The magnetic field vec- → tor B is perpendicular to the radial line extending from a long straight wire with current, but which of the two perpendicular vectors is it? Figure 29.1.4
The result of applying this right-hand rule to the current in the straight wire of Fig. 29.1.2 is shown in a side view in Fig. 29.1.5a. To determine the direction of → the magnetic field B set up at any particular point by this current, mentally wrap your right hand around the wire with your thumb in the direction of the current. Let your fingertips pass through the point; their direction is then the direction of → the magnetic field at that point. In the view of Fig. 29.1.2, B at any point is tangent to a magnetic field line; in the view of Fig. 29.1.5, it is perpendicular to a dashed radial line connecting the point and the current. Proof of Equation 29.1.4
Figure 29.1.6, which is just like Fig. 29.1.1 except that now the wire is straight → and of infinite length, illustrates the task at hand. We seek the field B at point P, a perpendicular distance R from the wire. The magnitude of the differential
/
29.1 MAGNET IC F IEL D D U E T O A C U RRENT
i
B
B
i
(a )
889
The thumb is in the current’ direction. s The fingers reveal the field vector’s direction, which is tangent to a circle.
(b )
A right-hand rule gives the direction of the magnetic field due to a current → in a wire. (a) The situation of Fig. 29.1.2, seen from the side. The magnetic field B at any point to the left of the wire is perpendicular to the dashed radial line and directed into the page, in the direction of the fingertips, as indicated by the × . (b) If the current → is reversed, B at any point to the left is still perpendicular to the dashed radial line but now is directed out of the page, as indicated by the dot. Figure 29.1.5
→ magnetic field produced at P by the current-length element i d s located a dis- tance r from P is given by Eq. 29.1.1:
μ0 _________ i ds sin θ. dB = ___ 4Ï€ r 2 → → Ì ‚ ”namely, The direction of d B in Fig. 29.1.6 is that of the vector d s × r †directly into the page. → Note that d B at point P has this same direction for all the current-length elements into which the wire can be divided. Thus, we can find the magnitude of the magnetic field produced at P by the current-length elements in the upper half of the infinitely long wire by integrating dB in Eq. 29.1.1 from 0 to ∞. Now consider a current-length element in the lower half of the wire, one that →is above P. By Eq. 29.1.3, the magnetic field produced at P is as far below P as d s by this current-length element has the same magnitude and direction as that from → element i d s in Fig. 29.1.6. Further, the magnetic field produced by the lower half of the wire is exactly the same as that produced by the upper half. To find the → magnitude of the total magnetic field B at P, we need only multiply the result of our integration by 2. We get ∞ ∞ μ 0 i _______ sin θ ds . B = 2 dB = ___ (29.1.5) 2 Ï€ r 2 0 0 The variables θ, s, and r in this equation are not independent; Fig. 29.1.6 shows that they are related by
î€
î€
This element of current creates a magnetic field at P, into the page. ds
î€
ˆ r
r
s
dB R P i
Calculating the mag- netic field produced by a current i in → a long straight wire. The field d B at P associated with the current-length →is directed into the element i d s page, as shown. Figure 29.1.6
_
r = √s 2 + R 2 and
R . _ sin θ = sin( π−θ ) = _________ √s 2 + R 2
With these substitutions and integral 19 in Appendix E, Eq. 29.1.5 becomes ∞ μ 0 i ___________ R ds B = ___ 2 π 0 ( s 2 + R 2 ) 3/2
î€
∞ μ μ 0 i ___________ s 0 i = ____ = ____ , 2 2 1/2 2πR [ ( s + R ) ] 0 2 πR
(29.1.6)
as we wanted. Note that the magnetic field at P due to either the lower half or the upper half of the infinite wire in Fig. 29.1.6 is half this value; that is, μ 0 i B = ____ 4πR
(semi-infinite straight wire).
(29.1.7)
/
890
C HAP T ER 29 MAGNET IC F IEL D S D U E T O C U RRENT S
Magnetic Field Due to a Current in a Circular Arc of Wire
R C

i
ds
C
r
ˆ r (a )
(b )
i B C
(c )
The right-hand rule reveals the field’s direction at the center. (a) A wire in the shape of a circular arc with center C car- ries current i. (b) For any element of wire along the arc, the angle between → ‚ the directions of d s and r Ìis 90 °. (c) Determining the direction of the magnetic field at the center C due to the current in the wire; the field is out of the page, in the direction of the fingertips, as indicated by the colored dot at C. Figure 29.1.7
To find the magnetic field produced at a point by a current in a curved wire, we would again use Eq. 29.1.1 to write the magnitude of the field produced by a single current-length element, and we would again integrate to find the net field produced by all the current-length elements. That integration can be difficult, depending on the shape of the wire; it is fairly straightforward, however, when the wire is a circular arc and the point is the center of curvature. Figure 29.1.7a shows such an arc-shaped wire with central angle Ï•, radius R, →of the and center C, carrying current i. At C, each current-length element i d s wire produces a magnetic field of magnitude dB given by Eq. 29.1.1. Moreover, as Fig. 29.1.7b shows, no matter where the element is located on the wire, the angle θ →and r Ìis 90 ‚ between the vectors d s °; also, r = R. Thus, by substituting R for r and 90 Âfor ° θ in Eq. 29.1.1, we obtain μ μ0 ____ 0 __________ i ds sin 90 Â= ° ___ i ds . dB = ___ 4 Ï€ R 2 4 Ï€ R 2
(29.1.8)
The field at C due to each current-length element in the arc has this magnitude. → Directions. How about the direction of the differential field dB set up by an element? From above we know that the vector must be perpendicular to a radial line extending through point C from the element, either into the plane of Fig. 29.1.7a or out of it. To tell which direction is correct, we use the right-hand rule for any of the elements, as shown in Fig. 29.1.7c. Grasping the wire with the thumb in the direction of the current and bringing the fingers into the region near → C, we see that the vector dB due to any of the differential elements is out of the plane of the figure, not into it. Total Field. To find the total field at C due to all the elements on the arc, → we need to add all the differential field vectors d B . However, because the vec- tors are all in the same direction, we do not need to find components. We just sum the magnitudes dB as given by Eq. 29.1.8. Since we have a vast number of those magnitudes, we sum via integration. We want the result to indicate how the total field depends on the angle ϕ of the arc (rather than the arc length). So, in Eq. 29.1.8 we switch from ds to dϕ by using the identity ds = R d ϕ. The summa- tion by integration then becomes ϕ
μ iR d ϕ
μi
Ï•
0 ______ ____ ___ = 0 î€ d Ï•. î€ î€ 2 4Ï€R 0 0 4 Ï€ R
B = dB = Integrating, we find that
μ0 iϕ B = _____ 4 πR
(at center of circular arc).
(29.1.9)
Heads Up. Note that this equation gives us the magnetic field only at the center of curvature of a circular arc of current. When you insert data into the equation, you must be careful to express ϕ in radians rather than degrees. For example, to find the magnitude of the magnetic field at the center of a full circle of current, you would substitute 2 πrad for ϕ in Eq. 29.1.9, finding μ μi 0 i(2π) ___ B = _______ = 0 4 πR 2R
(at center of full circle).
(29.1.10)
Checkpoint 29.1.1
The figure shows three circuits consisting of concentric circular arcs (either half- or quarter-circles of radii r, 2r, and 3r. The circuits carry the same current. Rank them according to the magnitude of the magnetic field produced at the center of curvature (the dot), greatest first.
(a )
( b)
(c)
/
29.1 MAGNET IC F IEL D D U E T O A C U RRENT
Sample Problem 29.1.1
Magnetic field due to brain activity
Scientists, medical researchers, and physiologists would like to understand how the human brain works. For example, when you read this sentence, what part of your brain is activated? One of the recent research tools is magnetoencephalography (MEG), a procedure in which magnetic fields of a person’ brain s are monitored as the person performs a task such as reading (Fig. 29.1.8). The task activates part of the brain that processes reading, causing weak electrical pulses to be sent along conduct- ing paths between brain cells. As with any other current, each pulse produces a magnetic field. The magnetic fields detected by MEG are probably produced by pulses along the walls of the fissures (crevices) on the brain surface. Detecting the fields requires extremely sensitive instru- ments called SQUIDs (superconducting quantum inter- ference devices). In Fig. 29.1.9, what is the magnetic field at point P located a distance r = 2 cm from a pulse on a fissure wall, with the current i = 10 ÂA along a conducting µ path of length ds = 1 mm that is perpendicular to r? otohP kcotS ymalA/ecruoS egamI/nesukaR ytnoM
Figure 29.1.8
MEG apparatus.
Sample Problem 29.1.2
P r
A pulse along a fissure wall on the brain surface produces a magnetic field at point P at distance r. Figure 29.1.9
KEY IDEA The path length is short enough that we can apply the Biot–Savart law directly to find the magnetic field. Calculation:
We write the Biot–Savart law (Eq. 29.1.1) a s
μ0 _ i ds sin θ B = _ 4π r 2
(4π× 10 âˆ7 ’ T â‹… m/A) _______________________ (10 × 10 âˆ6 ’ A)(1 × 10 âˆ3 ’ m) sin 90 ° = ______________ âˆ2 ’ 4 Ï€ (2 × 10 m) 2 3 pT. ˆ = 2.5 × 10 âˆ1’ 2 T â‰
(Answer )
SQUIDs can measure fields of magnitude less than 1 pT, but care must be taken to eliminate other sources of vary- ing magnetic fields, such as an elevator in the building or even a truck in a nearby street.
Magnetic field off to the side of two long straight currents
Figure 29.1.10a shows two long parallel wires carrying currents i 1 and i 2 in opposite directions. What are the magnitude and direction of the net magnetic field at point P? Assume the following values: i 1 = 15 A, i 2 = 32 A, and d = 5.3 cm.
KEY IDEAS →
891
(1) The net magnetic field B at point P is the vector sum of the magnetic fields due to the currents in the two wires. (2) We can find the magnetic field due to any current by applying the Biot–Savart law to the current. For points near the current in a long straight wire, that law leads to Eq. 29.1.4.
In Fig. 29.1.10a, point P is distance R from both currents i 1 and i 2. Thus, Eq. 29.1.4 tells us → that at point P those currents produce magnetic fields B 1 → and B 2 with magnitudes Finding the vectors:
μ0 i 1 μ 0 i 2 . B 1 = ____ and B 2 = ____ 2 πR 2 πR
In the right triangle of Fig. 29.1.10a, note that the base angles (between sides R and d) are both 45 °. This allows us to write cos 45 Â= ° R/d and replace R with d cos 45 °. Then the field magnitudes B 1 and B 2 become μ μ0 i 2 0 i 1 . B 1 = ___________ and B 2 = ___________ 2 Ï€d cos 45 ° 2 Ï€d cos 45 °
/
892
C HAP T ER 29 MAGNET IC F IEL D S D U E T O C U RRENT S
(Note carefully the perpendicular symbol between vec- → tor B 1 and the line connecting point P and wire 1.) Repeating this analysis for the current in wire 2, we → find that B 2 is directed upward to the right as drawn in Fig. 29.1.10b.
y
P
B
R
R B2 d
i1
i2 B1
(a)
45°
The two currents create magnetic fields that must be added as vectors to get the net field.
→
45°
x
P
d i1
(b)
i2
(a) Two wires carry currents i 1 and i 2 in opposite directions (out of and into the page). Note the → → right angle at P. (b) The separate fields B 1 and B 2 are → combined vectorially to yield the net field B . Figure 29.1.10
→
We can now vectorially add B 1 → and B 2 to find the net magnetic field B at point P, either by using a vector-capable calculator or by resolving the vectors into components and then combining the com- → ponents of B . However, in Fig. 29.1.10b, there is a third → → method: Because B 1 and B 2 are perpendicular to each → other, they form the legs of a right triangle, with B as the hypotenuse. So, Adding

the
vectors:
_ _ μ0 2 ____________ 2 √i 2 B = √B + i 2 1 + B 2 = 2 Ï€d(cos 45 °) 1 2 âˆ7 ’
________________ 2
2
(4π× 10 T ⋅ m/A) √(15 A) + (32 A) = ____________________________________ (2π)(5.3 × 10 −2 m)(cos 45 °)
→
→
We want to combine B 1 and B 2 to find their vec- → tor sum, which is the net field B at P. To find the direc- → → tions of B 1 and B 2 , we apply the right-hand rule of Fig. 29.1.5 to each current in Fig. 29.1.10a. For wire 1, with current out of the page, we mentally grasp the wire with the right hand, with the thumb pointing out of the page. Then the curled fingers indicate that the field lines run counterclockwise. In particular, in the region of point P, they are directed upward to the left. Recall that the magnetic field at a point near a long, straight current- carrying wire must be directed perpendicular to a radial → line between the point and the current. Thus, B 1 must be directed upward to the left as drawn in Fig. 29.1.10b.
= 1.89 × 10 âˆ4 ’ T â‰190 ˆ μ T.
(Answer ) →
→
The angle Ï• between the directions of B and B 2 in Fig. 29.1.10b follows from B 1 Ï• = tan âˆ1 ’ ___ , B 2 which, with B 1 and B 2 as given above, yields i 1 15 A = 25°. Ï• = tan âˆ1’ __ = tan âˆ1 ’ _____ i 2 32 A →
The angle between B and the x axis shown in Fig. 29.1.10b is then Ï• + 45 Â= 25 ° Â+ 45 ° Â= 70 ° °.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
29.2 FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CURRENTS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
29.2.1 Given two parallel or antiparallel currents, find the magnetic field of the first current at the location of the second current and then find the force acting
29.2.2 Identify that parallel currents attract each other, and antiparallel currents repel each other. 29.2.3 Describe how a rail gun works.
on that second current.
Key Idea
â—Parallel wires carrying currents in the same direction attract each other, whereas parallel wires carrying cur- rents in opposite directions repel each other. The mag- nitude of the force on a length
L of either wire is
μ0 Li a i b F ba = i b LB a sin 90 Â= ° _______ , 2Ï€d where d is the wire separation, and i a and i b are the currents in the wires.
/
893
29.2 F ORC E BET WEEN T WO P ARAL L EL C U RRENT S
Force Between Two Parallel Currents
Two long parallel wires carrying currents exert forces on each other. Figure 29.2.1 shows two such wires, separated by a distance d and carrying currents i a and i b . Let us analyze the forces on these wires due to each other. We seek first the force on wire b in Fig. 29.2.1 due to the current in wire a. → That current produces a magnetic field B a , and it is this magnetic field that actu- ally causes the force we seek. To find the force, then, we need the magnitude and → → direction of the field B a at the site of wire b. The magnitude of B a at every point of wire b is, from Eq. 29.1.4, μ 0 i a B a = ____ (29.2.1) . 2 πd → The curled–straight right-hand rule tells us that the direction of B a at wire b is down, as Fig. 29.2.1 shows. Now that we have the field, we can find the force it → produces on wire b. Equation 28.6.2 tells us that the force F ba on a length L of → wire b due to the external magnetic field B a is →
→ →
F ba = i b L × B a ,
→
The field due to a at the position of b creates a force on b.
a d
F ba
b
L
ia
ib
Ba
L
(due to ia )
Two parallel wires car- rying currents in the same direction → attract each other. B a is the magnetic field at wire b produced by the cur- → rent in wire a. F ba is the resulting force acting on wire b because it car- → ries current in B a . Figure 29.2.1
(29.2.2) →
→
where L is the length vector of the wire. In Fig. 29.2.1, v ectors L and B a are per- pendicular to each other, and so with Eq. 29.2.1, we can write
→
μ 0 Li ai b F ba = i bLB ° _______ . a sin 90 Â= 2 Ï€d
(29.2.3) →
→
The direction of F ba is the direction of the cross product L × B a . Applying → → → the right-hand rule for cross products to L and B a in Fig. 29.2.1, we see that F ba is directly toward wire a, as shown. The general procedure for finding the force on a current-carrying wire is this:
Projectile Conducting fuse
To find the force on a current-carrying wire due to a second current-carrying wire, first find the field due to the second wire at the site of the first wire. Then find the force on the first wire due to that field.
i
i
Conducting rail
We could now use this procedure to compute the force on wire a due to the current in wire b. We would find that the force is directly toward wire b; hence, the two wires with parallel currents attract each other. Similarly, if the two cur- rents were antiparallel, we could show that the two wires repel each other. Thus,
(a)
F
Parallel currents attract each other, and antiparallel currents repel each other.
The force acting between currents in parallel wires is the basis for the defi- nition of the ampere, which is one of the seven SI base units. The definition, adopted in 1946, is this: The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight, parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, and placed 1 m apart in vacuum, would produce on each of these con- ductors a force of magnitude 2 × 10 âˆ7 ’ newton per meter of wire length.
Conducting gas i i B
i
(b )
(a) A rail gun, as a current i is set up in it. The current rapidly causes the conducting fuse to vaporize. (b) The current produces → a magnetic field B between the → rails, and the field causes a force F to act on the conducting gas, which is part of the current path. The gas propels the projectile along the rails, launching it. Figure 29.2.2
Rail Gun
The basics of a rail gun are shown in Fig. 29.2.2a. A large current is sent out along one of two parallel conducting rails, across a conducting “fuse(such as a narrow †piece of copper) between the rails, and then back to the current source along the second rail. The projectile to be fired lies on the far side of the fuse and fits loosely between the rails. Immediately a fter the current begins, the fuse element melts and vaporizes, creating a conducting gas between the rails where the fuse had been.
/
894
C HAP T ER 29 MAGNET IC F IEL D S D U E T O C U RRENT S
The curled–straight right-hand rule of Fig. 29.1.5 reveals that the currents in the rails of Fig. 29.2.2a produce magnetic fields that are directed downward → → between the rails. The net magnetic field B exerts a force F on the gas due to the current i through the gas (Fig. 29.2.2b). With Eq. 29.2.2 and the right-hand rule → for cross products, we find that F points outward along the rails. As the gas is forced outward along the rails, it pushes the projectile, accelerating it by as much as 5 × 10 6 g, and then launches it with a speed of 10 km/s, all within 1 ms. Someday rail guns may be used to launch materials into space from mining operations on the Moon or an asteroid.
Checkpoint 29.2.1
The figure here shows three long, straight, parallel, equally spaced wires with identical currents either into or out of the page. Rank the wires according to the magnitude of the force on each due to the currents in the other two wires, greatest first.
a
b
c
29.3 AMPERE’ LAW S Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
’ law to a loop that encircles s current. ’ law, s use a right-hand rule for
29.3.1 Apply Ampere 29.3.2 With Ampere
determining the algebraic sign of an encircled current. 29.3.3 For more than one current within an Amperian loop,
29.3.4 Apply Ampere
’ law s to a long straight wire with
current, to find the magnetic field magnitude inside and outside the wire, identifying that only the current encircled by the Amperian loop matters.
’ law. s
determine the net current to be used in Ampere
Key Idea
â—Ampere’ law states that s →
B ⋅ d → s = μ0 i enc ∮
(Ampere’ law). s
The line integral in this equation is evaluated around a closed loop called an Amperian loop. The current
i on the right side is the net current encircled
by the loop.
Ampere
’ Law s
We can find the net electric field due to any distribution of charges by first writing → the differential electric field dE due to a charge element and then summing the → contributions of dE from all the elements. However, if the distribution is compli- cated, we may have to use a computer. Recall, however, that if the distribution has planar, cylindrical, or spherical symmetry, we can apply Gauss’ law to find the net electric field with considerably less effort. Similarly, we can find the net magnetic field due to any distribution of currents → by first writing the differential magnetic field d B (Eq. 29.1.3) due to a current- → length element and then summing the contributions of d B from all the elements. Again we may have to use a computer for a complicated distribution. However, if the distribution has some symmetry, we may be able to apply Ampere ’ law to s find the magnetic field with considerably less effort. This law, which can be derived from the Biot–Savart law, has traditionally been credited to André-Marie Ampère
/
29.3 AMP ERE ’ LS AW
895
(1775 –1836), for whom the SI unit of current is named. However, the law actually was advanced by English physicist James Clerk Maxwell. Ampere ’ law is s →
B ⋅ d → s = μ 0 i e nc ∮
(29.3.1)
(Ampere’ law). s →
→ is to be The loop on the integral sign means that the scalar (dot) product B ⋅ d s integrated around a closed loop, called an Amperian loop. The current i enc is the net current encircled by that closed loop. → → To see the meaning of the scalar product B ⋅ d s and its integral, let us first apply Ampere ’ law to the general s situation of Fig. 29.3.1. The figure shows cross sections of three long straight wires that carry currents i 1 , i 2, and i 3 either directly into or directly out of the page. An arbitrary Amperian loop lying in the plane of the page encircles two of the currents but not the third. The counterclockwise direction marked on the loop indicates the arbitrarily chosen direction of integra- tion for Eq. 29.3.1. To apply Ampere ’ law, we mentally divide the loop s into differential vector → elements d s that are everywhere directed along the tangent to the loop in the → direction of integration. Assume that at the location of the element d s shown → in Fig. 29.3.1, the net magnetic field due to the three currents is B . Because the →due wires are perpendicular to the page, we know that the magnetic field at d s → → to each current is in the plane of Fig. 29.3.1; thus, their net magnetic field B at d s → must also be in that plane. However, we do not know the orientation of B within → → the plane. In Fig. 29.3.1, B is arbitrarily drawn at an angle θto the direction of d s . → → The scalar product B ⋅ d s on the left side of Eq. 29.3.1 is equal to B cos θds. Thus, Amperian Ampere ’ law can be written as s
Only the currents encircled by the loop are used in Ampere’ law.s
loop
→ →
B ⋅ d s = ∮ B cos θ ds = μ0 i enc . ∮
(29.3.2)
i1 i3
→
→ We can now interpret the scalar product B ⋅ d s as being the product of a length ds of the Amperian loop and the field component B cos θ tangent to the loop. Then we can interpret the integration as being the summation of all such products around the entire loop. Signs. When we can actually perform this integration, we do not need to → → know the direction of B before integrating. Instead, we arbitrarily assume B to be generally in the direction of integration (as in Fig. 29.3.1). Then we use the following curled–straight right-hand rule to assign a plus sign or a minus sign to each of the currents that make up the net encircled current i enc :
Curl your right hand around the Amperian loop, with the fingers pointing in the direction of integration. A current through the loop in the general direction of your outstretched thumb is assigned a plus sign, and a current generally in the opposite direction is assigned a minus sign.
î€
B
ds i2
Direction of integration
Ampere’ law applied s to an arbitrary Amperian loop that encircles two long straight wires but excludes a third wire. Note the directions of the currents. Figure 29.3.1
This is how to assign a sign to a current used in Ampere’ law.s +i1
→
Finally, we solve Eq. 29.3.2 for the magnitude of B . If B turns out positive, then → the direction we assumed for B is correct. If it turns out negative, we neglect the → minus sign and redraw B in the opposite direction. Net Current. In Fig. 29.3.2 we apply the curled–straight right-hand rule for Ampere ’ law to the situation of Fig. 29.3.1. s With the indicated counterclockwise direction of integration, the net current encircled by the loop is i enc = i 1 −i 2.
Direction of integration
A right-hand rule for Ampere’ law, to determine the s signs for currents encircled by an Amperian loop. The situation is that of Fig. 29.3.1. Figure 29.3.2
(Current i 3 is not encircled by the loop.) We can then rewrite Eq. 29.3.2 a s B cos θ ds = μ0 ( i 1 −i 2). ∮
â €2“ i
(29.3.3)
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896
C HAP T ER 29 MAGNET IC F IEL D S D U E T O C U RRENT S
All of the current is encircled and thus all is used in Ampere’ law.s
Wire surface
Amperian loop
r
i B
( θ = 0) ds
Using Ampere’ law to s find the magnetic field that a current i produces outside a long straight wire of circular cross section. The Amperian loop is a concentric circle that lies outside the wire. Figure 29.3.3
You might wonder why, since current i 3 contributes to the magnetic-field mag- nitude B on the left side of Eq. 29.3.3, it is not needed on the right side. The answer is that the contributions of current i 3 to the magnetic field cancel out because the integration in Eq. 29.3.3 is made around the full loop. In contrast, the contribu- tions of an encircled current to the magnetic field do not cancel out. We cannot solve Eq. 29.3.3 for the magnitude B of the magnetic field because for the situation of Fig. 29.3.1 we do not have enough information to simplify and solve the integral. However, we do know the outcome of the integration; it must be equal to μ 0 (i 1 −i 2), the value of which is set by the net current passing through the loop. We shall now apply Ampere ’ law to two situations in which symmetry s does allow us to simplify and solve the integral, hence to find the magnetic field. Magnetic Field Outside a Long Straight Wire with Current
Figure 29.3.3 shows a long straight wire that carries current i directly out of the → page. Equation 29.1.4 tells us that the magnetic field B produced by the cur- rent has the same magnitude at all points that are the same distance r from the → wire; that is, the field B has cylindrical symmetry about the wire. We can take advantage of that symmetry to simplify the integral in Ampere ’ law (Eqs. 29.3.1 s and 29.3.2) if we encircle the wire with a concentric circular Amperian loop of radius r, as in Fig. 29.3.3. The magnetic field then has the same magnitude B at → every point on the loop. We shall integrate counterclockwise, so that d s has the direction shown in Fig. 29.3.3. → We can further simplify the quantity B cos θ in Eq. 29.3.2 by noting that B → → → is tangent to the loop at every point along the loop, as is d s . Thus, B and d s are either parallel or antiparallel at each point of the loop, and we shall arbitrarily → → assume the former. Then at every point the angle θ between d s and B is 0 °, so cos θ = cos 0 Â= 1. The integral in Eq. 29.3.2 ° then becomes →
→ B ⋅ d s = ∮ B cos θ ds = B ∮ ds = B(2πr). ∮
Note that ∮ ds is the summation of all the line segment lengths ds around the circular loop; that is, it simply gives the circumference 2πr of the loop. Our right-hand rule gives us a plus sign for the current of Fig. 29.3.3. The right side of Ampere ’ law becomes + s μ 0 i, and we then have
Only the current encircled by the loop is used in Ampere’ law.s B
ds
Wire surface
r
B(2πr) = μ 0 i, μ 0 i or B = ___ (29.3.4) (outside straight wire). 2 πr With a slight change in notation, this is Eq. 29.1.4, which we derived earlier—with considerably more effort—using the law of Biot and Savart. In addition, because → the magnitude B turned out positive, we know that the correct direction of B must be the one shown in Fig. 29.3.3.
i
Magnetic Field Inside a Long Straight Wire with Current
R
Amperian loop
Using Ampere’ law to s find the magnetic field that a current i produces inside a long straight wire of circular cross section. The current is uniformly distributed over the cross section of the wire and emerges from the page. An Amperian loop is drawn inside the wire. Figure 29.3.4
Figure 29.3.4 shows the cross section of a long straight wire of radius R that carries a uniformly distributed current i directly out of the page. Because the current is → uniformly distributed over a cross section of the wire, the magnetic field B pro- duced by the current must be cylindrically symmetrical. Thus, to find the magnetic field at points inside the wire, we can again use an Amperian loop of radius r, as → shown in Fig. 29.3.4, where now r r. The circuits have the same current through them and the same angle between the two radial lengths. Rank the circuits according to the magnitude of the net magnetic field at the center, greatest first. 1
Figure 29.3 shows four arrangements in which long parallel wires carry equal currents directly into or out of the page at the corners of identical squares. Rank the arrangements according to the magnitude of the net magnetic field at the center of the square, greatest first. 3
(a) (a )
(b ) Figure 29.1
(c )
Question 1.
Figure 29.2 represents a snap- i shot of the velocity vectors of four electrons near a wire car- rying current i. The four veloci- v1 v2 ties have the same magnitude; velocity → v 2 is directed into the page. Electrons 1 and 2 are at the v 3 same distance from the wire, as v4 are electrons 3 and 4. Rank the Figure 29.2 Question 2. electrons according to the mag- nitudes of the magnetic forces on them due to current i, greatest first. 2
(b ) Figure 29.3
(c )
(d )
Question 3.
Figure 29.4 shows cross sec- P i1 i2 tions of two long straight wires; Figure 29.4 Question 4. the left-hand wire carries current i 1 directly out of the page. If the net magnetic field due to the two currents is to be zero at point P, (a) should the direction of current i 2 in the right-hand wire be directly into or out of the page, and (b) should i 2 be greater than, less than, or equal to i 1 ? 4
Figure 29.5 shows three circuits consisting of straight radial lengths and concentric circular arcs (either half- or quarter- circles of radii r, 2r, and 3r). The circuits carry the same current. Rank them according to the magnitude of the magnetic field produced at the center of curvature (the dot), greatest first. 5
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906
C HAP T ER 29 MAGNET IC F IEL D S D U E T O C U RRENT S
Figure 29.9 shows four circu- lar Amperian loops (a, b, c, d) and, in cross section, four long c circular conductors (the shaded a regions), all of which are con- b d centric. Three of the conductors are hollow cylinders; the central conductor is a solid cylinder. The currents in the conductors are, Figure 29.9 Question 9. from smallest radius to largest radius, 4 A out of the page, 9 A into the page, 5 A out of the page, and 3 A into the page. Rank the Amperian loops accord- → → ing to the magnitude of ∮ B ⋅ d s around each, greatest first. 9
(a )
(b ) Figure 29.5
(c )
Question 5.
Figure 29.6 gives, as a function of radial distance r, the mag- nitude B of the magnetic field inside and outside four wires (a, b, c, and d), each of which carries a current that is uniformly distributed across the wire’ cross section. Overlapping portions s of the plots (drawn slightly separated) are indicated by double labels. Rank the wires according to (a) radius, (b) the magnitude of the magnetic field on the surface, and (c) the value of the cur- rent, greatest first. (d) Is the magnitude of the current density in wire a greater than, less than, or equal to that in wire c? 6
Figure 29.10 shows four identical currents i and five Ampe- rian paths (a through e) encircling them. Rank the paths accord- → → ing to the value of ∮ B ⋅ d s taken in the directions shown, most positive first. 10
i
i
i
a
(a ) b
B
,
a
,
c
a c
b
,
b
,
(b ) (c )
d
c d
(d ) r
Figure 29.6
(e )
Question 6.
Figure 29.7 shows four circular Amperian loops (a, b, c, d) concentric with a wire whose current is directed out of the page. The current is uni- form across the wire’ circular s cross section (the shaded region). Rank the loops according to the magnitude of → → ∮ B ⋅ d s around each, greatest first.
i
7
Figure 29.10 a
c
b
d
Figure 29.7
Question 7.
Figure 29.8 shows four arrangements in which long, parallel, equally spaced wires carry equal currents directly into or out of the page. Rank the arrangements according to the magnitude of the net force on the central wire due to the currents in the other wires, greatest first. 8
(a )
Question 10.
Figure 29.11 shows three arrangements of three long straight wires carrying equal currents directly into or out of the page. (a) Rank the arrangements according to the magnitude of the net force on wire A due to the currents in the other wires, greatest first. (b) In arrangement 3, is the angle between the net force on wire A and the dashed line equal to, less than, or more than 45°? 11
D d
d
A
D A
(1)
(2)
(b )
A D
(c )
d
(d )
(3) Figure 29.8
Question 8.
Figure 29.11
Question 11.
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor
’ discretion) in s WileyPLUS
Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 29.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard
BIO Flying
Circus of Physics
Magnetic Field Due to a Current
A surveyor is using a magnetic compass 6.1 m below a power line in which there is a steady current of 100 A. (a) What is the 1 E
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
magnetic field at the site of the compass due to the power line? (b) Will this field interfere seriously with the compass reading? The horizontal component of Earth’ magnetic field at the site is 20 s μ T.
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907
P ROBL EMS
E Figure 29.12a shows an ele- ment of length ds = 1.00 μ m in a very long straight wire carry- ing current. The current in that element sets up a differential → magnetic field dB at points in the surrounding space. Figure 29.12b gives the magnitude dB of the field for points 2.5 cm from the element, as a function of angle θ between the wire and a straight line to the point. The vertical scale is set by dB s = 60.0 pT. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field set up by the entire wire at perpendicular distance 2.5 cm from the wire?
In Fig. 29.17, two semicircular arcs have radii R 2 = 7.80 cm and R 1 = 3.15 cm, carry current i = 0.281 A, and have the same center of curvature C. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction (into or out of the page) of the net mag- netic field at C?
2
8 E
î€
Wire
ds
(a )
)Tp( Bd  /2 î€ (rad)

E
(b )
SSM
A straight conductor carrying current i = 5.0 A splits into identi- cal semicircular arcs as shown in Fig. 29.13. What is the magnetic field at the center C of the result- ing circular loop? 4 E
i
i C
Figure 29.13 Problem 4. In Fig. 29.14, a current i = 10 A is set up in a long hairpin con- ductor formed by bending a wire R into a semicircle of radius R = a b i 5.0 mm. Point b is midway between the straight sections and so dis- Figure 29.14 Problem 5. tant from the semicircle that each straight section can be approximated as being an infinite wire. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction (into or out of the → → page) of B at a and the (c) magnitude and (d) direction of B at b?
5
R1 C
Figure 29.17
Problem 8.
SSM Two long straight wires are parallel and 8.0 cm apart. They are to carry equal currents such that the magnetic field at a point halfway between them has magnitude 300 μ T. (a) Should the currents be in the same or opposite directions? (b) How much current is needed? E In Fig. 29.18, a wire forms a i i R semicircle of radius R = 9.26 cm and two (radial) straight segments each of C L L length L = 13.1 cm. The wire carries Figure 29.18 Problem 10. current i = 34.8 mA. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction (into or out of the page) of the net magnetic field at the semicircle’ center of curvature C? s
10
Figure 29.12 Problem 2. At a certain location in the Philippines, Earth’ magnetic field of 39 s μ T is horizontal and directed due north. Suppose the net field is zero exactly 8.0 cm above a long, straight, horizontal wire that carries a con- stant current. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the current?
3
i
9 E
dB s
0
R2
i
E
In Fig. 29.15, point P is at perpendicular distance R = 2.00 cm from a very long straight wire carrying a current. The magnetic → field B set up at point P is due to contributions from all the iden- → tical current-length elements i d s along the wire. What is the distance s to the element making (a) the greatest contribution to → field B and (b) 10.0% of the greatest contribution? 6 E
In Fig. 29.19, two long straight wires are perpendicular to the page and separated by distance d 1 = 0.75 cm. Wire 1 carries 6.5 A into the page. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction (into or out of the page) of the current in wire 2 if the net magnetic field due to the two currents is zero at point P located at distance d 2 = 1.50 cm from wire 2?
Wire 1
11 E
In Fig. 29.20, two long straight wires at separation d = 16.0 cm carry currents i 1 = 3.61 mA and i 2 = 3.00i 1 out of the page. (a) Where on the x axis is the net magnetic field equal to zero? (b) If the two currents are dou- bled, is the zero-field point shifted toward wire 1, shifted toward wire 2, or unchanged?
d1
Wire 2 d2
P
Figure 29.19
12 E
Problem 11.
y
i1
i2
x
d
Figure 29.20
Problem 12.
CALC In Fig. 29.21, point P 1 is at distance R = 13.1 cm on the perpendicular bisector of a straight wire of length L = 18.0 cm carrying current i = 58.2 mA. (Note that the wire is not long.) What is the magnitude of the magnetic field at P 1 due to i?
13 M
P
1
R
P
P
2
R
i R
Figure 29.21 s
Figure 29.15
Wire
Problem 6.
E GO In Fig. 29.16, two circular arcs have radii a = 13.5 cm and b = a 10.7 cm, subtend angle θ = 74.0°, carry current i = 0.411 A, and share i i the same center of curvature P. What î€ b are the (a) magnitude and (b) direc- tion (into or out of the page) of the P net magnetic field at P? Figure 29.16 Problem 7.
7
Problems 13 and 17.
L
M Equation 29.1.4 gives the magnitude B of the magnetic field set up by a current in an infinitely long straight wire, at a point P at perpendicular distance R from the wire. Suppose that point P is actually at perpendicular distance R from the midpoint of a wire with a finite length L. Using Eq. 29.1.4 to cal- culate B then results in a certain percentage error. What value must the ratio L/R exceed if the percentage error is to be less than 1.00%? That is, what L/R gives
14
(B from Eq. 29.1.4) −(B actual) _____________________________ (100%) = 1.00%? (B actual)
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908
C HAP T ER 29 MAGNET IC F IEL D S D U E T O C U RRENT S
Figure 29.22 shows two cur- î€ rent segments. The lower segment i2 carries a current of i 1 = 0.40 A and includes a semicircular arc with P radius 5.0 cm, angle 180°, and cen- ter point P. The upper segment i1 carries current i 2 = 2i 1 and includes a circular arc with radius 4.0 cm, Figure 29.22 Problem 15. angle 120°, and the same center point P. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the → net magnetic field B at P for the indicated current directions? → What are the (c) magnitude and (d) direction of B if i 1 is reversed? 15 M
In Fig. 29.21, point P 2 is at perpendicular distance R = 25.1 cm from one end of a straight wire of length L = 13.6 cm carrying current i = 0.693 A. (Note that the wire is not long.) What is the magnitude of the magnetic field at P 2 ? 17
M
CALC
A current is set up in a wire loop consisting of a semicircle of radius 4.00 cm, a smaller con- centric semicircle, and two radial (a ) (b ) straight lengths, all in the same plane. Figure 29.24a shows the Figure 29.24 Problem 18. arrangement but is not drawn to scale. The magnitude of the magnetic field produced at the center of curvature is 47.25 μ T. The smaller semicircle is then flipped over (rotated) until the loop is again entirely in the same plane (Fig. 29.24b). The magnetic field produced at the (same) center of curvature now has magnitude 15.75 μ T, and its direction is reversed from the initial magnetic field. What is the radius of the smaller semicircle? M One long wire lies along an x axis and carries a current of 30 A in the positive x direction. A second long wire is perpendicular to the xy plane, passes through the point (0, 4.0 m, 0), and carries a current of 40 A in the positive z direction. What is the magnitude of the resulting magnetic field at the point (0, 2.0 m, 0)?
19
M In Fig. 29.25, part of a y long insulated wire carrying cur- rent i = 5.78 mA is bent into a x i C circular section of radius R = i i 1.89 cm. In unit-vector notation, P what is the magnetic field at the Figure 29.25 Problem 20. center of curvature C if the cir- cular section (a) lies in the plane of the page as shown and (b) is perpendicular to the plane of the page after being rotated 90° counterclockwise as indicated?
20
P
d2
Figure 29.26
Problem 21.
GO Figure 29.27a shows, in cross section, two long paral- lel wires carrying current and separated by distance L. The ratio i 1 /i 2 of their currents is 4.00; the directions of the currents are not indicated. Figure 29.27b shows the y component B y of their net magnetic field along the x axis to the right of wire 2. The vertical scale is set by B ys = 4.0 nT, and the horizontal scale is set by x s = 20.0 cm. (a) At what value of x > 0 is B y maximum? (b) If i 2 = 3 mA, what is the value of that maximum? What is the direction (into or out of the page) of (c) i 1 and (d) i 2 ? 22 M
y Bys
1
2 x
0
0
xs
â€B“ys
L
SSM
18 M
d1
)Tn( yB
M GO In Fig. 29.23, two concentric circular loops of wire 2 1 carrying current in the same direction lie in the same plane. Loop 1 has radius 1.50 cm and Figure 29.23 Problem 16. carries 4.00 mA. Loop 2 has radius 2.50 cm and carries 6.00 mA. Loop 2 is to be rotated about → a diameter while the net magnetic field B set up by the two loops at their common center is measured. Through what angle must loop 2 be rotated so that the magnitude of that net field is 100 nT?
16
M GO Figure 29.26 shows two very long straight wires (in cross section) that each carry a current of 4.00 A directly out of the page. Distance d 1 = 6.00 m and distance d 2 = 4.00 m. What is the magnitude of the net mag- netic field at point P, which lies on a perpendicular bisector to the wires?
21
x
(a )
(cm)
(b ) Figure 29.27
Problem 22.
Figure 29.28 shows a snap- shot of a proton moving at veloc- →= âˆ2 ity v ( ’ 00 m / s ) j Ì‚toward a long straight wire with current i = 350 mA. At the instant shown, the proton’ distance from the wire is s d = 2.89 cm. In unit-vector nota- tion, what is the magnetic force on the proton due to the current? 23 M
y
v
d
x i
Figure 29.28
Problem 23.
y
Figure 29.29 shows, in cross section, four thin wires that 4 are parallel, straight, and very d long. They carry identical cur- d d rents in the directions indicated. x 1 3 Initially all four wires are at dis- d tance d = 15.0 cm from the origin 2 of the coordinate system, where → they create a net magnetic field B . (a) To what value of x must you Figure 29.29 move wire 1 along the x axis in Problem 24. → order to rotate B counterclock- wise by 30°? (b) With wire 1 in that new position, to what value → of x must you move wire 3 along the x axis to rotate B by 30° back to its initial orientation? 24 M
GO
SSM A wire with current i = 3.00 A is shown in Fig. 29.30. Two semi-infinite straight sections, both tangent to the same circle, are con- nected by a circular arc that has a central angle θ and runs along the circumference of the circle. The arc
25 M
i R
î€ i
Connecting arc Figure 29.30
Problem 25.
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909
P ROBL EMS
and the two straight sections all lie in the same plane. If B = 0 at the circle’ center, what is s θ? M GO In Fig. 29.31a, wire 1 consists of a circular arc and two radial lengths; it carries current i 1 = 0.50 A in the direction indicated. Wire 2, shown in cross section, is long, straight, and perpendicular to the plane of the figure. Its distance from the center of the arc is equal to the radius R of the arc, and it carries a current i 2 that can be varied. The two currents set up a net → magnetic field B at the center of the arc. Figure 29.31b gives the 2 plotted versus the square of square of the field’ magnitude B s the current i 2 . The vertical scale is set by B 2 10 âˆ1’ 0 T 2 . s = 10.0 × 2 What angle is subtended by the arc?
26
2
Bs
â€
)2T01“ 01( 2 B
i1
i2 R
0
2
i2
(a )
1 (A 2)
2
(b ) Figure 29.31
Problem 26.
M In Fig. 29.32, two long straight wires (shown in cross sec- tion) carry the currents i 1 = 30.0 mA and i 2 = 40.0 mA directly out of the page. They are equal dis- tances from the origin, where they → set up a magnetic field B . To what value must current i 1 be changed in → order to rotate B 20.0Âclockwise? °
27
1
Problems 29, 37, and 40.
Figure 29.34
y
î€1 i2
Figure 29.32
Problem 27.
(a ) Bxs
B ys
)T ( yB
)T (

xB
0 0 °
90° î€1
0
â€B“ys 0°
180 °
90 ° î€1
B i 2s
i2
(A)
(c )
H In Fig. 29.36, length a is 4.7 cm (short) and current i is 13 A. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction (into or out of the page) of the magnetic field at point P?
(b )
Problem 28.
The current-carrying wire loop in Fig. 29.37a lies all in one plane and consists of a semi- circle of radius 10.0 cm, a smaller semicircle with the same center, and two radial lengths. The smaller 32
H
180 °
Problem 30.
31
M SSM In Fig. 29.34, four long straight wires are perpen- dicular to the page, and their cross sections form a square of edge length a = 20 cm. The currents are out of the page in wires
29
x
x
0
Figure 29.33
Wire 1
i1
Figure 29.35
(a )
x
GO Two long straight thin wires with current lie against an equally long plastic cylinder, at radius R = 20.0 cm from the cylinder’ central axis. Figure 29.35a shows, in cross section, the s cylinder and wire 1 but not wire 2. With wire 2 fixed in place, wire 1 is moved around the cylinder, from angle θ1 = 0Âto angle ° θ1 = 180°, through the first and second quadrants of the xy coor- → dinate system. The net magnetic field B at the center of the cylinder is measured as a function of θ1 . Figure 29.35b gives the x component B x of that field as a function of θ1 (the vertical scale is set by B xs = 6.0 μ T), and Fig. 29.35c gives the y component B y (the vertical scale is set by B ys = 4.0 μ T). (a) At what angle θ2 is wire 2 located? What are the (b) size and (c) direction (into or out of the page) of the current in wire 1 and the (d) size and (e) direction of the current in wire 2?
(b )
R __ 2
3
a
30 H
i1
i2
a
4
GO
R
2
a
a

M
y
y
Figure 29.33a shows two wires, each carrying a cur- rent. Wire 1 consists of a circular arc of radius R and two radial lengths; it carries current i 1 = 2.0 A in the direction indicated. Wire 2 is long and straight; it carries a current i 2 that can be varied; and it is at distance R/2 from the center of the arc. The → net magnetic field B due to the two currents is measured at the center of curvature of the arc. Figure 29.33b is a plot of the com- → ponent of B in the direction perpendicular to the figure as a function of current i 2. The horizontal scale is set by i 2s = 1.00 A. What is the angle subtended by the arc? 28
1 and 4 and into the page in wires 2 and 3, and each wire carries 20 A. In unit-vector notation, what is the net magnetic field at the square’ center? s
a
a P
i
2a
GO
a
Figure 29.36
Problem 31.
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910
C HAP T ER 29 MAGNET IC F IEL D S D U E T O C U RRENT S
semicircle is rotated out of that plane by angle θ, until it is per- pendicular to the plane (Fig. 29.37b). Figure 29.37c gives the magnitude of the net magnetic field at the center of curvature versus angle θ. The vertical scale is set by B a = 10.0 μ T and B b = 12.0 μ T. What is the radius of the smaller semicircle? y
Bb x

)T (
z
Ba
(b )
0
x
 /4 î€(rad)
 /2
(c )
z
Figure 29.37
Problem 32.
Figure 29.39 shows, in y cross section, two long straight wires held against a plastic cyl- Wire 2 inder of radius 20.0 cm. Wire 1 î€2 x carries current i 1 = 60.0 mA out of the page and is fixed in place Wire 1 at the left side of the cylinder. Wire 2 carries current i 2 = 40.0 mA out of the page and can be Figure 29.39 Problem 34. moved around the cylinder. At what (positive) angle θ2 should wire 2 be positioned such that, at the origin, the net magnetic field due to the two currents has magnitude 80.0 nT? H
Force Between Two Parallel Currents
Figure 29.40 shows y wire 1 in cross section; the wire is long and straight, carries a cur- 1 d1 rent of 4.00 mA out of the page, 2 and is at distance d 1 = 2.40 cm x from a surface. Wire 2, which is d2 parallel to wire 1 and also long, Figure 29.40 Problem 35. is at horizontal distance d 2 = 5.00 cm from wire 1 and carries a current of 6.80 mA into the page. What is the x component of the magnetic force per unit length on wire 2 due to wire 1? 35
E
SSM
M In Fig. 29.41, five long parallel wires in an xy plane are separated by distance d = 8.00 cm, have lengths of 10.0 m, and carry identical currents of 3.00 A out of the page. Each wire experiences a magnetic force due to the currents in the other
36
3
d
4
d
d
5
y
d
GO Figure 29.42a shows, in cross section, three current- carrying wires that are long, straight, and parallel to one another. Wires 1 and 2 are fixed in place on an x axis, with separation d. Wire 1 has a current of 0.750 A, but the direction of the current is not given. Wire 3, with a current of 0.250 A out of the page, can be moved along the x axis to the right of wire 2. As wire 3 → is moved, the magnitude of the net magnetic force F 2 on wire 2 due to the currents in wires 1 and 3 changes. The x component of that force is F 2x and the value per unit length of wire 2 is F 2x /L 2 . Figure 29.42b gives F 2x /L 2 versus the position x of wire 3. The plot has an asymptote F 2x /L 2 = âˆ0’ .627 μ N/m as x →⠈žThe hori- . zontal scale is set by x s = 12.0 cm. What are the (a) size and (b) direction (into or out of the page) of the current in wire 2?
1.0
y
1
2 d
GO
Module 29.2
2
GO In Fig. 29.34, four long Figure 29.41 Problems 36 straight wires are perpendicular and 39. to the page, and their cross sec- tions form a square of edge length a = 13.5 cm. Each wire carries 7.50 A, and the currents are out of the page in wires 1 and 4 and into the page in wires 2 and 3. In unit-vector notation, what is the net magnetic force per meter of wire length on wire 4?
3
)m/N ( 2 L/x2F
H CALC SSM Figure 29.38 y shows a cross section of a long thin ribbon of width w = 4.91 P x cm that is carrying a uniformly d w distributed total current i = 4.61 μ A into the page. In unit-vector Figure 29.38 Problem 33. notation, what is the magnetic → field B at a point P in the plane of the ribbon at a distance d = 2.16 cm from its edge? (Hint: Imagine the ribbon as being con- structed from many long, thin, parallel wires.)
33
34
1
38 M
B
y
z
37 M
μ
(a )
wires. In unit-vector notation, what is the net magnetic force on (a) wire 1, (b) wire 2, (c) wire 3, (d) wire 4, and (e) wire 5?
x
0.5 0
0
xs
–0.5 x
(a)
(cm)
(b ) Figure 29.42
Problem 38.
GO In Fig. 29.41, five long parallel wires in an xy plane are separated by distance d = 50.0 cm. The currents into the page are i 1 = 2.00 A, i 3 = 0.250 A, i 4 = 4.00 A, and i 5 = 2.00 A; the cur- rent out of the page is i 2 = 4.00 A. What is the magnitude of the net force per unit length acting on wire 3 due to the currents in the other wires? 39 M
In Fig. 29.34, four long straight wires are perpendicular to the page, and their cross sections form a square of edge length a = 8.50 cm. Each wire carries 15.0 A, and all the currents are out of the page. In unit-vector notation, what is the net magnetic force per meter of wire length on wire 1? 40 M
In Fig. 29.43, a long straight wire carries a current i 1 = 30.0 A and a rectangular loop carries current i 2 = 20.0 A. Take the dimensions to be a = 1.00 cm, b = 8.00 cm, and L = 30.0 cm. In unit- vector notation, what is the net force on the loop due to i 1? 41 H
Ampere’ Law s In a particular region there is a uniform current density of 15 A/m 2 in the positive z direction.
i1
a
y b
Module 29.3 42
x
i2
E
L
Figure 29.43
Problem 41.
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911
P ROBL EMS
→
→ when that line integral is calculated What is the value of ∮ B ⋅ d s along a closed path consisting of the three straight-line segments from (x, y, z) coordinates (4d, 0, 0) to (4d, 3d, 0) to (0, 0, 0) to (4d, 0, 0), where d = 20 cm? a E Figure 29.44 shows a cross section r across a diameter of a long cylindrical con- ductor of radius a = 2.00 cm carrying uni- form current 170 A. What is the magnitude of the current’ magnetic field at radial dis- s tance (a) 0, (b) 1.00 cm, (c) 2.00 cm (wire’s Figure 29.44 Problem 43. surface), and (d) 4.00 cm?
43
Figure 29.45 shows two closed paths wrapped around two conducting loops carrying currents i 1 = 5.0 A and i 2 = 3.0 A. What is the value of the integral → → ∮ B ⋅ d s for (a) path 1 and (b) path 2? 44
E
i1
i2
1
Problem 44.
SSM Each of the eight conductors in Fig. 29.46 carries 2.0 A of current into or out of the page. Two paths are indicated for → → the line integral ∮ B ⋅ d s . What is the value of the integral for (a) path 1 and (b) path 2?
1
2
Problem 45.
Eight wires cut the page per- pendicularly at the points shown in Fig. 29.47. A wire labeled with the integer k (k = 1, 2, . . . , 8) car- ries the current ki, where i = 4.50 mA. For those wires with odd k, the current is out of the page; for those with even k, it is into → → the page. Evaluate ∮ B ⋅ d s along the closed path indicated and in the direction shown. 46 E
4
6
7
1
M
→
A Current-Carrying Coil as a Magnetic
Dipole Figure 29.47
Problem 46.
CALC
In Fig. 29.48, a long circular pipe with outside radius R = 2.6 cm carries a (uniformly distributed) current i = 8.00 mA into the page. A wire runs par- allel to the pipe at a distance of 3.00R from center to center. Find the (a) mag- nitude and (b) direction (into or out of the page) of the current in the wire such that the net magnetic field at point P has the same magnitude as the net mag- netic field at the center of the pipe but is in the opposite direction. 48 M
An electron is shot into one end of a solenoid. As it enters the uniform magnetic field within the solenoid, its speed is 800 m/s and its velocity vector makes an angle of 30° with the central axis of the solenoid. The solenoid carries 4.0 A and has 8000 turns along its length. How many revolutions does the electron make along its helical path within the solenoid by the time it emerges from the solenoid’ opposite end? (In s a real solenoid, where the field is not uniform at the two ends, the number of revolutions would be slightly less than the answer here.) 54 M
Module 29.5
The current den- sity J inside a long, solid, cylindrical wire of radius a = 3.1 mm is in the direction of the central axis, and its magnitude varies lin- early with radial distance r from the axis according to J = J 0 r/a, where J 0 = 310 A/m 2 . Find the magni- tude of the magnetic field at (a) r = 0, Wire (b) r = a/2, and (c) r = a. 47
A long solenoid has 100 turns/cm and carries current i. An electron moves within the solenoid in a circle of radius 2.30 cm perpendicular to the solenoid axis. The speed of the electron is 0.0460c (c = speed of light). Find the current i in the solenoid. 53 M
SSM A long solenoid with 10.0 turns/cm and a radius of 7.00 cm carries a current of 20.0 mA. A current of 6.00 A exists in a straight conductor located along the central axis of the sole- noid. (a) At what radial distance from the axis will the direction of the resulting magnetic field be at 45.0Âto the axial direction? ° (b) What is the magnitude of the magnetic field there?
8 5
E A 200-turn solenoid having a length of 25 cm and a diameter of 10 cm carries a current of 0.29 A. Calculate the mag- → nitude of the magnetic field B inside the solenoid.
51
55 M
3 2
A solenoid that is 95.0 cm long has a radius of 2.00 cm and a winding of 1200 turns; it carries a current of 3.60 A. Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic field inside the solenoid. 50 E
E A solenoid 1.30 m long and 2.60 cm in diameter carries a current of 18.0 A. The magnetic field inside the solenoid is 23.0 mT. Find the length of the wire forming the solenoid.
45 E
Figure 29.46
Solenoids and Toroids
A toroid having a square cross section, 5.00 cm on a side, and an inner radius of 15.0 cm has 500 turns and carries a cur- rent of 0.800 A. (It is made up of a square solenoid—instead of a round one as in Fig. 29.4.1—bent into a doughnut shape.) What is the magnetic field inside the toroid at (a) the inner radius and (b) the outer radius? 49 E
52
2 Figure 29.45
Module 29.4
R
P
R
R
Pipe Figure 29.48
Problem 48.
E Figure 29.49 shows an arrangement known as a Helm- holtz coil. It consists of two circu- lar coaxial coils, each of 200 turns and radius R = 25.0 cm, separated by a distance s = R. The two coils carry equal currents i = 12.2 mA in the same direction. Find the magnitude of the net magnetic field at P, midway between the coils.
56
y i
i
x
P R
s
Figure 29.49
Problems 56 and 87.
E SSM A student makes a short electromagnet by wind- ing 300 turns of wire around a wooden cylinder of diameter d = 5.0 cm. The coil is connected to a battery producing a current of 4.0 A in the wire. (a) What is the magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment of this device? (b) At what axial distance z ⪢d will the magnetic field have the magnitude 5.0 μ T (approximately one-tenth that of Earth’ magnetic field)? s
57
Figure 29.50a shows a length of wire carrying a current i and bent into a circular coil of one turn. In Fig. 29.50b the same 58 E
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912
C HAP T ER 29 MAGNET IC F IEL D S D U E T O C U RRENT S
length of wire has been bent to give a coil of two turns, each of half the original radius. (a) If B a and B b are the magnitudes of the magnetic fields at the centers of the two coils, what is the ratio B b /B a ? (b) What is the ratio μ b /μ a of the dipole moment magnitudes of the coils?
length 10 cm. (a) Taking the path to be a combination of three square current loops (bcfgb, abgha, and cdefc), find the net mag- netic moment of the path in unit-vector notation. (b) What is the magnitude of the net magnetic field at the xyz coordinates of (0, 5.0 m, 0)?
i i
Additional Problems
(a )
E SSM What is the magnitude Figure 29.50 Problem 58. of the magnetic dipole moment → μof the solenoid described in Problem 51?
59
In Fig. 29.51a, two circular loops, with different currents but the same radius of 4.0 cm, are centered on a y axis. They are initially separated by distance L = 3.0 cm, with loop 2 positioned at the origin of the axis. The currents in the two loops produce a net magnetic field at the origin, with y compo- nent B y. That component is to be measured as loop 2 is gradu- ally moved in the positive direction of the y axis. Figure 29.51b gives B y as a function of the position y of loop 2. The curve approaches an asymptote of B y = 7.20 μ T as y →⠈žThe horizon- . tal scale is set by y s = 10.0 cm. What are (a) current i 1 in loop 1 and (b) current i 2 in loop 2? 60
M
GO
y
20 μ
0 L
1
)T ( yB
2
0
0
ys
y
(a)
(cm)
(b )
M In Fig. 29.52, current i = 56.2 mA is set up in a loop hav- Figure 29.52 Problem 62. ing two radial lengths and two semicircles of radii a = 5.72 cm y and b = 9.36 cm with a common g center P. What are the (a) mag- nitude and (b) direction (into or f out of the page) of the magnetic b field at P and the (c) magnitude c and (d) direction of the loop’s magnetic dipole moment? x h
62
In Fig. 29.53, a conductor carries 6.0 A along the closed path abcdefgha running along 8 of the 12 edges of a cube of edge
î€
Figure 29.54
Problem 64.
A cylindrical cable of radius 8.00 mm carries a current of 25.0 A, uniformly spread over its cross-sectional area. At what distance from the center of the wire is there a point within the wire where the magnetic field magnitude is 0.100 mT? 65
Two long wires lie in an xy plane, and each carries a current in the positive direction of the x axis. Wire 1 is at y = 10.0 cm and carries 6.00 A; wire 2 is at y = 5.00 cm and carries 10.0 A. (a) → In unit-vector notation, what is the net magnetic field B at the → origin? (b) At what value of y does B = 0? (c) If the current in → wire 1 is reversed, at what value of y does B = 0? 66
e z
a d
Figure 29.53
A long straight wire carries a current of 50 A. An electron, traveling at 1.0 × 10 7 m/s, is 5.0 cm from the wire. What is the magnitude of the magnetic force on the electron if the electron velocity is directed (a) toward the wire, (b) parallel to the wire in the direction of the current, and (c) perpendicular to the two directions defined by (a) and (b)? 68
Problem 60.
A circular loop of radius 12 cm carries a current of 15 A. A flat coil of radius 0.82 cm, having 50 turns and a current of 1.3 A, is concentric with the loop. The plane of the loop is per- pendicular to the plane of the coil. Assume the loop’ mag- s i netic field is uniform across the coil. What is the magni- tude of (a) the magnetic field b produced by the loop at its center and (b) the torque on the P coil due to the loop? a
M
P
Two wires, both of length L, are formed into a circle and a square, and each carries current i. Show that the square produces a greater magnetic field at its center than the circle produces at its center.
61 M
63
i
67
–40
Figure 29.51
In Fig. 29.54, a closed loop carries current i = 200 mA. The loop consists of two radial straight wires and two concentric circular arcs of radii 2.00 m and 4.00 m. The angle θ is π/4 rad. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direc- tion (into or out of the page) of the net magnetic field at the center of curvature P? 64
(b )
Problem 63.
Three long wires are paral- a lel to a z axis, and each carries a current of 10 A in the posi- tive z direction. Their points of intersection with the xy plane y form an equilateral triangle with sides of 50 cm, as shown in x Fig. 29.55. A fourth wire (wire b) b passes through the midpoint of Figure 29.55 Problem 69. the base of the triangle and is parallel to the other three wires. If the net magnetic force on wire a is zero, what are the (a) size and (b) direction (+z or âˆz) ’ of the current in wire b? 69
Figure 29.56 shows a closed loop with current i = 2.00 A. The loop consists of a half-circle of radius 4.00 m, two quarter-circles each of radius 2.00 m, and three radial straight wires. What is the magnitude of the net magnetic field at the common center of the circular sections? 70
i
Figure 29.56
Problem 70.
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P ROBL EMS
A 10-gauge bare copper wire (2.6 mm in diameter) can carry a current of 50 A without overheating. For this current, what is the magnitude of the magnetic field at the surface of the wire? 71
A long vertical wire carries an unknown current. Coaxial with the wire is a long, thin, cylindrical conducting surface that carries a current of 30 mA upward. The cylindrical surface has a radius of 3.0 mm. If the magnitude of the magnetic field at a point 5.0 mm from the wire is 1.0 μ T, what are the (a) size and (b) direction of the current in the wire? 72
Figure 29.57 shows a cross section of a long cylindrical conductor of radius a = 4.00 cm containing a long cylindrical hole of radius b = 1.50 cm. The central axes of the cylinder and hole are parallel and are dis- tance d = 2.00 cm apart; current i = 5.25 A is uniformly distributed over the tinted area. (a) What is the magnitude of the magnetic field at the center of the hole? (b) Discuss the two special cases b = 0 and d = 0. 73
a b
Figure 29.57
Problem 73.
The magnitude of the magnetic field at a point 88.0 cm from the central axis of a long straight wire is 7.30 μ T. What is the current in the wire? SSM Figure 29.58 shows a wire z segment of length Δs = 3.0 cm, cen- tered at the origin, carrying current i = 2.0 A in the positive y direction Δs (as part of some complete circuit). y To calculate the magnitude of the → magnetic field B produced by the i segment at a point several meters x from the origin, we can use B = Figure 29.58 Problem 75. 2 ( μ 0 /4Ï€)i Δs (sin θ)/r as the Biot– Savart law. This is because r and θ are essentially constant over → the segment. Calculate B (in unit-vector notation) at the (x, y, z) coordinates (a) (0, 0, 5.0 m), (b) (0, 6.0 m, 0), (c) (7.0 m, 7.0 m, 0), and (d) (âˆ3’ .0 m, âˆ4’ .0 m, 0).
75
GO Figure 29.59 shows, in P cross section, two long parallel y wires spaced by distance d = 10.0 x cm; each carries 100 A, out of the page in wire 1. Point P is on a per- 2 pendicular bisector of the line con- 1 d necting the wires. In unit-vector Figure 29.59 Problem 76. notation, what is the net magnetic field at P if the current in wire 2 is (a) out of the page and (b) into the page? 76
A long wire carrying 100 A is perpendicular to the magnetic field lines of a uniform magnetic field of
A long, hollow, cylindrical conductor (with inner radius 2.0 mm and outer radius 4.0 mm) carries a current of 24 A distributed uniformly across its cross section. A long thin wire that is coaxial with the cylinder carries a current of 24 A in the opposite direction. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field (a) 1.0 mm, (b) 3.0 mm, and (c) 5.0 mm from the central axis of the wire and cylinder? 79
A long wire is known to have a radius greater than 4.0 mm and to carry a current that is uniformly distributed over its cross section. The magnitude of the magnetic field due to that current is 0.28 mT at a point 4.0 mm from the axis of the wire, and 0.20 mT at a point 10 mm from the axis of the wire. What is the radius of the wire? 80
CALC SSM Figure 29.61 B P shows a cross section of an infi- nite conducting sheet carrying a x current per unit x-length of λ; the B P' current emerges perpendicularly out of the page. (a) Use the Biot– Figure 29.61 Problems 81 and 85. Savart law and symmetry to show that for all points P above the → sheet and all points P′ below it, the magnetic field B is parallel to the sheet and directed as shown. (b) Use Ampere’ law s to → 1 prove that B = _ μ λ at all points P and P ′ . 2 0
Figure 29.62 shows, in cross section, two long parallel wires that are separated by distance d = 18.6 cm. Each carries 4.23 A, out of the page in wire 1 and into the page in wire 2. In unit-vector notation, what is the net magnetic field at point P at distance R = 34.2 cm, due to the two currents? 82
y
1 _1_ 2d P
x
R
_1_ 2d
2
Transcranial magnetic stimula- Figure 29.62 Problem 82. tion. Since 1985, research has been conducted on treating chronic depression, Parkinson’ disease, s and other brain malfunctions by applying pulsed magnetic fields from coils near the scalp to force neurons several centi- meters deep to discharge (Fig. 29.63). Consider the simple situ- ation of a flat coil with radius r = 5.0 cm and number of turns N = 14. What is the peak magnetic field magnitude at the target distance z = 4.0 cm along the central axis when the peak current is i = 4000 A? 83
otohP kcotS ymalA/cnI sserP AMUZ
77
78
magnitude 5.0 mT. At what distance from the wire is the net magnetic field equal to zero?
81 d
74
In Fig. 29.60, two infinitely long wires carry equal currents i. Each follows a 90Âarc on the circumference ° of the same circle of radius R. Show → that the magnetic field B at the center → of the circle is the same as the field B a distance R below an infinite straight wire carrying a current i to the left.
913
i R i
Figure 29.60
Problem 77. Figure 29.63
Problem 83.
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C HAP T ER 29 MAGNET IC F IEL D S D U E T O C U RRENT S
CALC Spinning charged disk. A thin plastic disk of radius R has a charge Q uniformly spread over its surface. It is spinning with angular speed ωabout its central axis. (a) In terms of μ 0 and the given symbols, what is the magnitude of the magnetic field at the center of the disk? (Hint: The rotating disk is equivalent to an array of current loops around the center.) (b) What is the magnetic dipole moment of the disk?
84
Solenoid as a cylinder. Treat an ideal solenoid as a thin cylindrical conductor, whose current per unit length, measured parallel to the cylinder axis, is λ. By doing so, show that the magnitude of the magnetic field inside an ideal solenoid can be written as B = μ 0 λ. This is the value of the change in B that you encounter as you move from inside the solenoid to outside, through the solenoid wall. Show that this same change occurs as you move through an infinite plane current sheet such as that of Fig. 29.61. Is this equality surprising? 85
Collecting charged particles in a toroid. An interesting (and frustrating) effect occurs when one attempts to confine a collec- tion of electrons and positive ions (a plasma) in the magnetic field of a toroid. Particles whose motion is perpendicular to the magnetic field will not execute circular paths because the field strength varies with radial distance from the axis of the toroid. This effect, which is shown (exaggerated) in Fig. 29.64, causes particles of opposite sign to drift in opposite directions parallel to the axis of the toroid. (a) What is the sign of the charge on the particle whose path is sketched in the figure? (b) If the particle 86
path has a radius of curvature of 11.0 cm when its average radial distance from the axis of the toroid is 125 cm, what will be the radius of curvature when the particle is an average radial dis- tance of 110 cm from the axis? Helmholtz coils. Figure 29.49 shows two circular coax- ial coils of N turns and radius R. They have equal currents i and separation s. (a) Show that the first derivative of the magnitude of the net magnetic field of the coils (dB/dx) vanishes at the midpoint P regardless of the value of s. Why would you expect this result from symmetry? (b) Show that the second derivative (d 2 B/dx 2 ) also vanishes at P if s = R. This accounts for the uni- formity of B near P in that special case. 87 CALC
CALC Figure 29.65 is an idealized schematic drawing of a rail gun. Projectile P sits between two wide rails of circular cross section; a source of current sends current through the rails and through the (conducting) projectile (a fuse is not used). (a) Let w be the distance between the rails, R the radius of each rail, and i the current. Show that the force on the projectile is directed to the right along the rails and is given approximately by
88
i 2 μ 0 w + R . F = ____ ln ______ 2π R (b) If the projectile starts from the left end of the rails at rest, find the speed v at which it is expelled at the right. Assume that i = 450 kA, w = 12 mm, R = 6.7 cm, L = 4.0 m, and the projectile mass is 10 g. L
Particle path Magnetic field line
Magnetic field line
i R
Source
v
P i
i
w R
125 cm Figure 29.64
Problem 86.
Figure 29.65
Problem 88.
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C
H
A
P
T
E
R
3
0
Induction and Inductance
30.1 FARADAY’S LAW AND LENZ’S LAW Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
30.1.1 Identify that the amount of magnetic field pierc-
30.1.6 Identify that an induced current in a conducting
ing a surface (not skimming along the surface) is the magnetic flux
Φ B through the surface.
loop is driven by an induced emf. 30.1.7 Apply Faraday’s law, which is the relationship
30.1.2 Identify that an area vector for a flat surface is a
between an induced emf in a conducting loop and
vector that is perpendicular to the surface and that
the rate at which magnetic flux through the loop
has a magnitude equal to the area of the surface. 30.1.3 Identify that any surface can be divided into area
changes. 30.1.8 Extend Faraday’s law from a loop to a coil with
elements (patch elements) that are each small enough
multiple loops.
→
dA to be assigned
and flat enough for an area vector
30.1.9 Identify the three general ways in which the
to it, with the vector perpendicular to the element and having a magnitude equal to the area of the element. 30.1.4 Calculate the magnetic flux
magnetic flux through a coil can change. 30.1.10 Use a right-hand rule for Lenz’s law to
Φ B through a
determine the direction of induced emf and induced
surface by integrating the dot product of the mag- →
current in a conducting loop.
→
B and the area vector dA (for patch
netic field vector
30.1.11 Identify that when a magnetic flux through a
elements) over the surface, in magnitude-angle nota-
loop changes, the induced current in the loop sets
tion and unit-vector notation.
up a magnetic field to oppose that change.
30.1.5 Identify that a current is induced in a conducting
30.1.12 If an emf is induced in a conducting loop
loop while the number of magnetic field lines inter-
containing a battery, determine the net emf and
cepted by the loop is changing.
calculate the corresponding current in the loop.
Key Ideas ●
Φ B through an area A in a mag- B is defined as
The magnetic flux →
netic field
→
and an emf are produced in the loop; this process is called induction. The induced emf is
dΦ B ℰ = − ____ dt
→
Φ B = B ⋅ dA , where the integral is taken over the area. The SI unit of
2
1 Wb = 1 T ⋅ m . B is perpendicular to the area and uniform over it,
magnetic flux is the weber, where
●
If the loop is replaced by a closely packed coil of
If
dΦ B ℰ = − N ____ . dt
the flux is
Φ B = BA ● If the magnetic flux
→
→
( B ⊥ A, B uniform).
Φ B through an area bounded by
a closed conducting loop changes with time, a current
N
turns, the induced emf is
→
●
(Faraday’s law).
●
An induced current has a direction such that the mag-
netic field due
to the current
opposes the change in the
magnetic flux that induces the current. The induced emf has the same direction as the induced current.
What Is Physics?
In Chapter 29 we discussed the fact that a current produces a magnetic field. That fact came as a surprise to the scientists who discovered the effect. Perhaps even more surprising was the discovery of the reverse effect: A magnetic field can
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C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
produce an electric field that can drive a current. This link between a magnetic field and the electric field it produces (induces) is now called Faraday’s law of induction. The observations by Michael Faraday and other scientists that led to this law were at first just basic science. Today, however, applications of that basic science are almost everywhere. For example, induction is the basis of the electric guitars that revolutionized early rock and still drive heavy metal and punk today. It is also the basis of the electric generators that power cities and transportation lines and of the huge induction furnaces that are commonplace in foundries where large amounts of metal must be melted rapidly. Before we get to applications like the electric guitar, we must examine two simple experiments about Faraday’s law of induction. Two Experiments
The magnet’s motion creates a current in the loop. S N
Let us examine two simple experiments to prepare for our discussion of Faraday’s law of induction. First Experiment. Figure 30.1.1 shows a conducting loop connected to a sensitive ammeter. Because there is no battery or other source of emf included, there is no current in the circuit. However, if we move a bar magnet toward the loop, a current suddenly appears in the circuit. The current disappears when the magnet stops. If we then move the magnet away, a current again suddenly appears, but now in the opposite direction. If we experimented for a while, we would discover the following: 1. A current appears only if there is relative motion between the loop and the magnet (one must move relative to the other); the current disappears when the relative motion between them ceases.
An ammeter registers a current in the wire loop when the magnet is moving with respect to the loop. Figure 30.1.1
+ –
S
Closing the switch causes a current in the left-hand loop. An ammeter registers a current in the left-hand wire loop just as switch S is closed (to turn on the current in the right-hand wire loop) or opened (to turn off the current in the right-hand loop). No motion of the coils is involved. Figure 30.1.2
2. Faster motion produces a greater c urrent. 3. If moving the magnet’s north pole toward the loop causes, say, clockwise current, then moving the north pole away causes counterclockwise current. Moving the south pole toward or away from the loop also causes currents, but in the reversed directions. The current produced in the loop is called an induced current; the work done per unit charge to produce that current (to move the conduction electrons that constitute the current) is called an induced emf; and the process of producing the current and emf is called induction. Second Experiment. For this experiment we use the apparatus of Fig. 30.1.2, with the two conducting loops close to each other but not touching. If we close switch S, to turn on a current in the right-hand loop, the meter suddenly and briefly registers a current—an induced current—in the left-hand loop. If we then open the switch, another sudden and brief induced current appears in the left- hand loop, but in the opposite direction. We get an induced current (and thus an induced emf) only when the current in the right-hand loop is changing (either turning on or turning off) and not when it is constant (even if it is large). The induced emf and induced current in these experiments are apparently caused when something changes—but what is that “something”? Faraday knew. Faraday’s Law of Induction
Faraday realized that an emf and a current can be induced in a loop, as in our two experiments, by changing the amount of magnetic field passing through the loop. He further realized that the “amount of magnetic field” can be visualized in terms of the magnetic field lines passing through the loop. Faraday’s law of induc- tion, stated in terms of our experiments, is this: An emf is induced in the loop at the left in Figs. 30.1.1 and 30.1.2 when the num- ber of magnetic field lines that pass through the loop is changing.
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30.1 F ARAD AY ’S L AW AND L ENZ’S L AW
917
The actual number of field lines passing through the loop does not matter; the values of the induced emf and induced current are determined by the rate at which that number changes. In our first experiment (Fig. 30.1.1), the magnetic field lines spread out from the north pole of the magnet. Thus, as we move the north pole closer to the loop, the number of field lines passing through the loop increases. That increase appar- ently causes conduction electrons in the loop to move (the induced current) and provides energy (the induced emf) for their motion. When the magnet stops mov- ing, the number of field lines through the loop no longer changes and the induced current and induced emf disappear. In our second experiment (Fig. 30.1.2), when the switch is open (no current), there are no field lines. However, when we turn on the current in the right-hand loop, the increasing current builds up a magnetic field around that loop and at the left-hand loop. While the field builds, the number of magnetic field lines through the left-hand loop increases. As in the first experiment, the increase in field lines through that loop apparently induces a current and an emf there. When the current in the right-hand loop reaches a final, steady value, the number of field lines through the left-hand loop no longer changes, and the induced current and induced emf disappear. A Quantitative Treatment
To put Faraday’s law to work, we need a way to calculate the amount of magnetic field that passes through a loop. In Chapter 23, in a similar situation, we needed to calculate the amount of electric field that passes through a surface. There we defined an electric flux Φ E = ∫ E ⋅ dA . Here we define a magnetic flux: Suppose a loop enclosing an area A is placed in a magnetic field B . Then the magnetic flux through the loop is →
→
→
→
→
Φ B = B ⋅ dA
(magnetic flux through area A).
(30.1.1)
→
As in Chapter 23, dA is a vector of magnitude dA that is perpendicular to a differential area dA. As with electric flux, we want the component of the field that pierces the surface (not skims along it). The dot product of the field and the area vector automatically gives us that piercing component. Special Case. As a special case of Eq. 30.1.1, suppose that the loop lies in a plane and that the magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of the loop. Then we can write the dot product in Eq. 30.1.1 as B dA cos 0° = B dA. If the magnetic field is also uniform, then B can be brought out in front of the integral sign. The remaining ∫dA then gives just the area A of the loop. Thus, Eq. 30.1.1 reduces to Φ B = BA
( B ⊥ area A, B uniform). →
→
(30.1.2)
Unit. From Eqs. 30.1.1 a nd 30.1.2, we see that the SI unit for magnetic flux is the tesla-square meter, which is called the weber (abbreviated Wb): 1 weber = 1 Wb = 1 T ⋅ m 2 .
(30.1.3)
Faraday’s Law. With the notion of magnetic flux, we can state Faraday’s
law in a more quantitative and useful way:
The magnitude of the emf ℰ induced in a conducting loop is equal to the rate at which the magnetic flux Φ B through that loop changes with time.
As you will see below, the induced emf ℰ tends to oppose the flux change, so Faraday’s law is formally written as
/
918
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
dΦ B ℰ = − ____ dt
(Faraday’s law),
(30.1.4)
with the minus sign indicating that opposition. We often neglect the minus sign in Eq. 30.1.4, seeking only the magnitude of the induced emf. If we change the magnetic flux through a coil of N turns, an induced emf appears in every turn and the total emf induced in the coil is the sum of these individual induced emfs. If the coil is tightly wound (closely packed), so that the same magnetic flux Φ B passes through all the turns, the total emf induced in the coil is dΦ B ℰ = −N ____ (30.1.5) (coil of N turns). dt Here are the general means by which we can change the magnetic flux through a coil: 1. Change the magnitude B of the magnetic field within the coil. 2. Change either the total area of the coil or the portion of that area that lies within the magnetic field (for example, by expanding the coil or sliding it into or out of the field). →
3. Change the angle between the direction of the magnetic field B and the plane of the coil (for example, by rotating the coil so that field B is first perpendicu- lar to the plane of the coil and then is along that plane). →
Checkpoint 30.1.1
The graph gives the magnitude B(t) of a uniform magnetic field that exists throughout a conduct- ing loop, with the direction of the field perpen- dicular to the plane of the loop. Rank the five regions of the graph according to the magnitude of the emf induced in the loop, greatest first.
Sample Problem 30.1.1
t a
b
c
d
e
Induced emf in coil due to a solenoid
The long solenoid S shown (in cross section) in Fig. 30.1.3 has 220 turns/cm and carries a current i = 1.5 A; its diam- eter D is 3.2 cm. At its center we place a 130-turn closely packed coil C of diameter d = 2.1 cm. The current in the solenoid is reduced to zero at a steady rate in 25 ms. What is the magnitude of the emf that is induced in coil C while the current in the solenoid is changing? S
i
KEY IDEAS 1. Because it is located in the interior of the solenoid, coil C lies within the magnetic field produced by current i in the solenoid; thus, there is a magnetic flux Φ B through coil C. 2. Because current i decreases, flux Φ B also decreases. 3. As Φ B decreases, e mf ℰ is induced in coil C. 4. The flux through each turn of coil C depends on the area A and orientation of that turn in the solenoid’s magnetic field B . Because B is uniform and directed perpendicu- lar to area A, the flux is given by Eq. 30.1.2 (Φ B = BA). →
C
Axis
i
A coil C is located inside a solenoid S, which carries current i. Figure 30.1.3
B
→
5. The magnitude B of the magnetic field in the interior of a solenoid depends on the solenoid’s current i and its number n of turns per unit length, according to Eq. 29.4.3 (B = μ0 in).
/
30.1 F ARAD AY ’S L AW AND L ENZ’S L AW
Because coil C consists of more than one turn, we apply Faraday’s law in the form of Eq. 30.1.5 (ℰ = –N dΦ B/dt), where the number of turns N is 130 and dΦ B/dt is the rate at which the flux changes. Because the current in the solenoid decreases at a steady rate, flux Φ B also decreases at a steady rate, and so we can write dΦ B/dt as ΔΦ B/Δt. Then, to evaluate ΔΦ B, we need the final and initial flux values. The final flux Φ B,f is zero because the final current in the solenoid is zero. To find the initial flux Φ B,i , we note that area A is _ 1 π d 2 (= 3.464 × 10 −4 m 2 ) and the number n is 220 turns/ 4 cm, or 22 000 turns/m. Substituting Eq. 29.4.3 into Eq. 30.1.2 then leads to Calculations:
Φ B,i = BA = (μ0 in)A
= (4π × 10 −7 T ⋅ m / A ) (1.5 A )(22 000 turns / m ) × (3.464 × 10 −4 m 2 )
919
Now we can write Φ − Φ dt Δt Δt −5 (0 − 1.44 × 10 Wb) = ___________________ −3 25 × 10 s = −5.76 × 10 −4 Wb/s
dΦ B ΔΦ B,f B,i B _________ ____ = ____ =
= −5.76 × 10 −4 V. We are interested only in magnitudes; so we ignore the minus signs here and in Eq. 30.1.5, writing dΦ B ℰ = N ____ = (130 turns)(5.76 × 10 −4 V) dt = 7.5 × 10 −2 V = 75 mV.
(Answer)
= 1.44 × 10 −5 Wb.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Lenz’s Law
Soon after Faraday proposed his law of induction, Heinrich Friedrich Lenz devised a rule for determining the direction of an induced current in a loop: An induced current has a direction such that the magnetic field due to the current opposes the change in the magnetic flux that induces the current.
Furthermore, the direction of an induced emf is that of the induced current. The key word in Lenz’s law is “opposition.” Let’s apply the law to the motion of the north pole toward the conducting loop in Fig. 30.1.4. 1. Opposition to Pole Movement. The approach of the magnet’s north pole in Fig. 30.1.4 increases the magnetic flux through the loop and thereby induces a current in the loop. From Fig. 29.5.1, we know that the loop then acts as a magnetic dipole with a south pole and a north pole, and that its magnetic dipole moment μ is directed from south to north. To oppose the magnetic flux increase being caused by the approaching magnet, the loop’s north pole (and thus μ ) must face toward the approaching north pole so as to repel it (Fig. 30.1.4). Then the curled–straight right-hand rule for μ (Fig. 29.5.1) tells us that the current induced in the loop must be counterclockwise in Fig. 30.1.4. If we next pull the magnet away from the loop, a current will again be induced in the loop. Now, however, the loop will have a south pole facing the retreating north pole of the magnet, so as to oppose the retreat. Thus, the induced current will be clockwise.
S
The magnet’s motion creates a magnetic dipole that opposes the motion.
→
→
N N
μ
→
2. Opposition to Flux Change. In Fig. 30.1.4, with the magnet initially distant, no magnetic flux passes through the loop. As the north pole of the magnet then nears the loop with its magnetic field B directed downward, the flux through the loop increases. To oppose this increase in flux, the induced current i must set up its own field B ind directed upward inside the loop, as shown in Fig. 30.1.5a; then the upward flux of field B ind opposes the increasing downward flux of field B . The curled–straight right-hand rule of Fig. 29.5.1 then tells us that i must be counterclockwise in Fig. 30.1.5a. →
→
→
→
i
S
Lenz’s law at work. As the magnet is moved toward the loop, a current is induced in the loop. The current produces its own magnetic field, with magnetic dipole moment μ oriented so as to oppose the motion of the magnet. Thus, the induced current must be counter- clockwise as shown. Figure 30.1.4
→
/
920
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
Heads Up. The flux of B ind always opposes the change in the flux of B , but B ind →
→
→
→
is not always opposite B . For example, if we next pull the magnet away from the loop in Fig. 30.1.4, the magnet’s flux Φ B is still downward through the loop, but it is now decreasing. The flux of B ind must now be downward inside the loop, to oppose that decrease (Fig. 30.1.5b). Thus, B ind and B are now in the same direc- tion. In Figs. 30.1.5c and d, the south pole of the magnet approaches and retreats from the loop, again with opposition to change. →
→
A
→
Increasing the external Decreasing the external Increasing the external Decreasing the external field B induces a current field B induces a current field B induces a current field B induces a current with a field B ind that with a field Bind that with a field B ind that with a field Bind that opposes the change. opposes the change. opposes the change. opposes the change. B ind
B ind
The induced current creates this field, trying to offset the change.
B
B
i
i
B
The fingers are in the current’s direction; the thumb is in the induced field’s direction.
i B
i B ind
B ind
B ind
B ind
B
B
i
i
i B
B
i B ind
B ind
B
B ind
i
i
B
B
i B
(a )
B ind
i B ind
B ind
(b )
(c)
(d )
The direction of the current i induced in a loop is such that the current’s magnetic field B ind opposes the change in the magnetic field B inducing i. The field B ind is always directed opposite an increasing field B (a, c) and in the same direction as a decreasing field B (b, d). The curled–straight right-hand rule gives the direction of the induced current based on the direction of the induced field. Figure 30.1.5
→
→
→
→
→
Electric Guitars
Figure 30.1.6 shows a Fender ® Stratocaster ® , one type of electric guitar. Whereas an acoustic guitar depends for its sound on the acoustic resonance produced in the hollow body of the instrument by the oscillations of the strings, an electric guitar is a solid instrument, so there is no body resonance. Instead, the oscilla- tions of the metal strings are sensed by electric “pickups” that send signals to an amplifier and a set of speakers.
/
921
30.1 F ARAD AY ’S L AW AND L ENZ’S L AW
FR 321/redluM njitraM
The basic construction of pickup is shown in Fig. 30.1.7. Wire connecting the instrument to the amplifier is coiled around a small magnet. The magnetic field of the magnet produces a north and south pole in the section of the metal string just above the magnet. That section of string then has its own magnetic field. When the string is plucked and thus made to oscillate, its motion relative to the coil changes the flux of its magnetic field through the coil, inducing a current in the coil. As the string oscillates toward and away from the coil, the induced current changes direction at the same frequency as the string’s oscillations, thus relaying the frequency of oscillation to the amplifier and speaker. On a Stratocaster, there are three groups of pickups, placed at the near end of the strings (on the wide part of the body). The group closest to the near end better detects the high-frequency oscillations of the strings; the group farthest from the near end better detects the low-frequency oscillations. By throwing a toggle switch on the guitar, the musician can select which group or which pair of groups will send signals to the amplifier and speakers. To gain further control over his music, the legendary Jimi Hendrix some- times rewrapped the wire in the pickup coils of his guitar to change the number of turns. In this way, he altered the amount of emf induced in the coils and thus their relative sensitivity to string oscillations. Even without this additional measure, you can see that the electric guitar offers far more control over the sound that is produced than can be obtained with an acoustic guitar.
Figure 30.1.6
guitar.
A Fender ® Stratocaster ®
Metal guitar string N S
Checkpoint 30.1.2
The figure shows three situations in which identical circular conducting loops are in uniform magnetic fields that are either increasing (Inc) or decreasing (Dec) in mag- nitude at identical rates. In each, the dashed line coincides with a diameter. Rank the situations according to the magnitude of the current induced in the loops, greatest first.
N Coil
Magnet To amplifier
S Inc
Inc
Dec
Inc
Dec
Inc
(a )
(b )
(c )
Sample Problem 30.1.2
A side view of an elec- tric guitar pickup. When the metal string (which acts like a magnet) is made to oscillate, it causes a varia- tion in magnetic flux that induces a current in the coil. Figure 30.1.7
Induced emf and current due to a changing uniform B field
Figure 30.1.8 shows a conducting loop consisting of a half-circle of radius r = 0.20 m and three straight sections. The half-circle lies in a uniform magnetic field B that is directed out of the page; the field magnitude is given by B = 4.0t 2 + 2.0t + 3.0, with B in teslas and t in seconds. An ideal battery with emf ℰ bat = 2.0 V is connected to the loop. The resistance of the loop is 2.0 Ω.
2. The flux through the loop depends on how much of the loop’s area lies within the flux and how the area is oriented in the magnetic field B .
(a) What are the magnitude and direction of the emf ℰ ind induced around the loop by field B at t = 10 s?
4. The induced field B ind (due to the induced current) must always oppose the change in the magnetic flux.
→
→
KEY IDEAS 1. According to Faraday’s law, the magnitude of ℰ ind is equal to the rate dΦ B/dt at which the magnetic flux through the loop changes.
→
→
3. Because B is uniform and is perpendicular to the plane of the loop, the flux is given by Eq. 30.1.2 (Φ B = BA). (We don’t need to integrate B over the area to get the flux.)
Using Eq. 30.1.2 and realizing that only the field magnitude B changes in time (not the area A), we rewrite Faraday’s law, Eq. 30.1.4, a s dΦ B ______ d(BA) dB . ℰ ind = ____ = = A ___ dt dt dt Magnitude:
/
922
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
To find the direction of ℰ ind , we first note that in Fig. 30.1.8 the flux through the loop is out of the page and increasing. Because the induced field B ind (due to the induced current) must oppose that increase, it must be into the page. Using the curled–straight right-hand rule (Fig. 30.1.5c), we find that the induced current is clock- wise around the loop, and thus so is the induced emf ℰ ind . Direction:
r
/2
r
– + bat
A battery is connected to a conducting loop that includes a half-circle of radius r lying in a uniform magnetic field. The field is directed out of the page; its magnitude is changing. Figure 30.1.8
Because the flux penetrates the loop only within the half- 1 π r 2 . Substituting this circle, the area A in this equation is _ 2 and the given expression for B yields dB = ___ πr 2 __ d (4.0t 2 + 2.0t + 3.0) ℰ ind = A ___ dt 2 dt πr 2 (8.0t + 2.0). = ___ 2 At t = 10 s, then,
π (0.20 m ) 2 ℰ ind = __________ [8.0(10) + 2.0 ] 2 = 5.152 V ≈ 5.2 V. (Answer)
Sample Problem 30.1.3
(b) What is the current in the loop at t = 10 s?
KEY IDEA The point here is that two emfs tend to move charges around the loop. The induced emf ℰ ind tends to drive a cur- rent clockwise around the loop; the battery’s emf ℰ bat tends to drive a current counterclockwise. Because ℰ ind is greater than ℰ bat , the net emf ℰ net is clockwise, and thus so is the current. To find the current at t = 10 s, we use Eq. 27.1.2 (i = ℰ/R): Calculation:
ℰ net _________ ℰ − ℰ bat i = ____ = ind R R 5.152 V − 2.0 V = 1.58 A ≈ 1.6 A. (Answer) = ______________ 2.0 Ω
Induced emf due to a changing nonuniform B field
Figure 30.1.9 shows a rectangular loop of wire immersed in a nonuniform and varying magnetic field B that is per- pendicular to and directed into the page. The field’s mag- nitude is given by B = 4t 2 x 2 , with B in teslas, t in seconds, and x in meters. (Note that the function depends on both time and position.) The loop has width W = 3.0 m and height H = 2.0 m. What are the magnitude and direction of the induced emf ℰ around the loop at t = 0.10 s? →
If the field varies with position, we must integrate to get the flux through the loop. y
dA
H B
KEY IDEAS
dx
2. The changing flux induces an emf ℰ in the loop accord- ing to Faraday’s law, which we can write as ℰ = dΦ B/dt. 3. To use that law, we need an expression for the flux Φ B at any time t. However, because B is not uniform over the area enclosed by the loop, we cannot use Eq. 30.1.2 (Φ B = BA) to find that expression; instead we must use Eq. 30.1.1 ( ΦB = ∫ B ⋅ dA ). →
→
→
In Fig. 30.1.9, B is perpendicular to the plane of the loop (and hence parallel to the differential Calculations:
x
W
→
1. Because the magnitude of the magnetic field B is changing with time, the magnetic flux Φ B through the loop is also changing.
We start with a strip so thin that we can approximate the field as being uniform within it.
A closed conducting loop, of width W and height H, lies in a nonuniform, varying magnetic field that points directly into the page. To apply Faraday’s law, we use the ver- tical strip of height H, width dx, and area dA. Figure 30.1.9
→
area vector dA ); so the dot product in Eq. 30.1.1 gives B dA. Because the magnetic field varies with the coordi- nate x but not with the coordinate y, we can take the dif- ferential area dA to be the area of a vertical strip of height H and width dx (as shown in Fig. 30.1.9). Then dA = H dx, and the flux through the loop is Φ B = B ⋅ dA = B dA = BH dx = 4t 2 x 2 H dx. →
→
/
30.2 IND U C T ION AND ENERGY T RANSF ERS
Treating t as a constant for this integration and inserting the integration limits x = 0 and x = 3.0 m, we obtain Φ B = 4t 2 H
3.0
0
3 3.0
x x 2 dx = 4 t 2 H [ __ = 72t 2 , 3 ] 0
where we have substituted H = 2.0 m and Φ B is in webers. Now we can use Faraday’s law to find the magnitude of ℰ at any time t: dΦ B _______ d(72t 2 ) ℰ = ____ = = 144t, dt dt
923
in which ℰ is in volts. At t = 0.10 s, ℰ = (144 V/s)(0.10 s) ≈ 14 V.
(Answer)
→
The flux of B through the loop is into the page in Fig. 30.1.9 and is increasing in magnitude because B is increasing in magnitude with time. By Lenz’s law, the field B ind of the induced current opposes this increase a nd so is directed out of the page. The curled–straight right- hand rule in Fig. 30.1.5a then tells us that the induced cur- rent is counterclockwise around the loop, and thus so is the induced emf ℰ.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
30.2 INDUCTION AND ENERGY TRANSFERS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
30.2.1 For a conducting loop pulled into or out of a magnetic field, calculate the rate at which energy is transferred to thermal energy.
30.2.2 Apply the relationship between an induced cur- rent and the rate at which it produces thermal energy. 30.2.3 Describe eddy currents.
Key Idea ●
The induction of a current by a changing flux means that energy is being
transferred to that current. The energy can then be transferred to other forms, such as thermal energy.
Induction and Energy Transfers
By Lenz’s law, whether you move the magnet toward or away from the loop in Fig. 30.1.1, a magnetic force resists the motion, requiring your applied force to do positive work. At the same time, thermal energy is produced in the material of the loop because of the material’s electrical resistance to the current that is induced by the motion. The energy you transfer to the closed loop + magnet sys- tem via your applied force ends up in this thermal energy. (For now, we neglect energy that is radiated away from the loop as electromagnetic waves during the induction.) The faster you move the magnet, the more rapidly your applied force does work and the greater the rate at which your energy is transferred to thermal energy in the loop; that is, the power of the transfer is greater. Regardless of how current is induced in a loop, energy is always transferred to thermal energy during the process because of the electrical resistance of the loop (unless the loop is superconducting). For example, in Fig. 30.1.2, when switch S is closed and a current is briefly induced in the left-hand loop, energy is transferred from the battery to thermal energy in that loop. Figure 30.2.1 shows another situation involving induced current. A rectan- gular loop of wire of width L has one end in a uniform external magnetic field that is directed perpendicularly into the plane of the loop. This field may be pro- duced, for example, by a large electromagnet. The dashed lines in Fig. 30.2.1
/
924
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
Decreasing the area decreases the flux, inducing a current.
x
F2
F1
You pull a closed con- ducting loop out of a magnetic field at constant velocity v . While the loop is moving, a clockwise current i is induced in the loop, and the loop seg- ments still within the magnetic field experience forces F 1 , F 2 , and F 3 .
B i
L
Figure 30.2.1
→
→
→
→
F3
v
b
show the assumed limits of the magnetic field; the fringing of the field at its edges is neglected. You are to pull this loop to the right at a constant velocity v . Flux Change. The situation of Fig. 30.2.1 does not differ in any essential way from that of Fig. 30.1.1. In each case a magnetic field and a conducting loop are in relative motion; in each case the flux of the field through the loop is changing with time. It is true that in Fig. 30.1.1 the flux is changing because B is changing and in Fig. 30.2.1 the flux is changing because the area of the loop still in the magnetic field is changing, but that difference is not important. The important difference between the two arrangements is that the arrangement of Fig. 30.2.1 m akes calcu- lations easier. Let us now calculate the rate at which you do mechanical work as you pull steadily on the loop in Fig. 30.2.1. Rate of Work. As you will see, to pull the loop at a constant velocity v , you must apply a constant force F to the loop because a magnetic force of equal mag- nitude but opposite direction acts on the loop to oppose you. From Eq. 7.6.7, the rate at which you do work—that is, the power—is then →
→
→
→
P = Fv,
(30.2.1)
where F is the magnitude of your force. We wish to find an expression for P in terms of the magnitude B of the magnetic field and the characteristics of the loop—namely, its resistance R to current and its dimension L. As you move the loop to the right in Fig. 30.2.1, the portion of its area within the magnetic field decreases. Thus, the flux through the loop also decreases a nd, according to Faraday’s law, a current is produced in the loop. It is the presence of this current that causes the force that opposes your pull. Induced Emf. To find the current, we first apply Faraday’s law. When x is the length of the loop still in the magnetic field, the area of the loop still in the field is Lx. Then from Eq. 30.1.2, the magnitude of the flux through the loop is Φ B = BA = BLx.
As x decreases, the flux decreases. Faraday’s law tells us that with this flux decrease, an emf is induced in the loop. Dropping the minus sign in Eq. 30.1.4 and using Eq. 30.2.2, we can write the magnitude of this emf as
i
R
i
A circuit diagram for the loop of Fig. 30.2.1 while the loop is moving. Figure 30.2.2
(30.2.2)
dΦ B __ dx = BLv, (30.2.3) ℰ = ____ = d BLx = BL ___ dt dt dt in which we have replaced dx/dt with v, the speed at which the loop moves. Figure 30.2.2 shows the loop as a circuit: Induced emf ℰ is represented on the left, and the collective resistance R of the loop is represented on the right. The direction of the induced current i is obtained with a right-hand rule as in Fig. 30.1.5b for decreasing flux; applying the rule tells us that the current must be clockwise, and ℰ must have the same direction.
/
30.2 IND U C T ION AND ENERGY T RANSF ERS
925
Induced Current. To find the magnitude of the induced current, we cannot apply the loop rule for potential differences in a circuit because, as you will see in Module 30.3, we cannot define a potential difference for an induced emf. How- ever, we can apply the equation i = ℰ/R. With Eq. 30.2.3, this becomes BLv . i = _____ (30.2.4) R Because three segments of the loop in Fig. 30.2.1 carry this current through the magnetic field, sideways deflecting forces act on those segments. From Eq. 28.6.2 we know that such a deflecting force is, in general notation, →
→
(30.2.5)
→
F d = iL × B .
In Fig. 30.2.1, the deflecting forces acting on the three segments of the loop are marked F 1 , F 2 , and F 3 . Note, however, that from the symmetry, forces F 2 and F 3 are equal in magnitude and cancel. This leaves only force F 1 , which is directed opposite your force F on the loop and thus is the force opposing you. So, F = − F 1 . Using Eq. 30.2.5 to obtain the magnitude of F 1 and noting that the angle between B and the length vector L for the left segment is 90°, we write →
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
F = F 1 = iLB sin 90° = iLB.
(30.2.6)
Substituting Eq. 30.2.4 for i in Eq. 30.2.6 then gives us 2 2
B L v . (30.2.7) F = _______ R Because B, L, and R are constants, the speed v at which you move the loop is constant if the magnitude F of the force you apply to the loop is also constant. Rate of Work. By substituting Eq. 30.2.7 into Eq. 30.2.1, we find the rate at which you do work on the loop as you pull it from the magnetic field: 2 2 2
B L v (rate of doing work). (30.2.8) P = Fv = _______ R Thermal Energy. To complete our analysis, let us find the rate at which thermal energy appears in the loop as you pull it along at constant speed. We calculate it from Eq. 26.5.3, P = i 2 R.
(30.2.9)
Substituting for i from Eq. 30.2.4, we find BLv 2 R = _______ B 2 L 2 v 2 (thermal energy rate), (30.2.10) P = ( _____ ) R R which is exactly equal to the rate at which you are doing work on the loop (Eq. 30.2.8). Thus, the work that you do in pulling the loop through the magnetic field appears as thermal energy in the loop.
Burns During MRI Scans
A patient undergoing an MRI scan (Fig. 30.2.3) lies in an apparatus containing two magnetic fields: a large constant field B con and a small sinusoidally varying field B (t). Normally the scan requires the patient to lie motionless for a long time. Any patient unable to lie motionless, such as a child, say, is sedated. Because seda- tion, especially a general a nesthetic, can be dangerous, a sedated patient must be carefully monitored, usually with a pulse oximeter, a device that measures the oxygen level in the patient’s blood. This device includes a probe attached to one of the patient’s fingers and a cable running from the probe to a monitor located outside the MRI apparatus. MRI scans should be perfectly harmless to a patient. In a few cases, however, disregard of Faraday’s law of induction led to a sedated patient receiving severe burns. In those cases, the oximeter cable was allowed to touch the patient’s arm (Fig. 30.2.4). The cable and the lower part of the arm then formed a closed loop →
→
/
926
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
s e g amI ytteG /noisiVl ati giD/d etimiL snoitcudorP RE
Loop
(t )
Cable
To monitor
Attached probe
A probe attached to a finger of a patient undergoing an MRI scan, in which a verti- cal magnetic field B (t) varies sinusoidally. The probe cable touches the patient’s skin along the arm, and the cable and the lower part of the arm form a closed loop. Figure 30.2.4
→
Figure 30.2.3
apparatus.
A patient about to enter an MRI
Eddy current loop
B
(a ) Pivot
→
through which the varying magnetic field B (t) produced a varying flux. This flux variation induced an emf around the loop. Although the cable insulation and the skin had high electrical resistance, the induced emf was large enough to drive a significant current around the loop. As with any other circuit in which there is resistance, the current transferred energy to thermal energy a t the points of resis- tance. In this way, the finger and the skin where the cable touched the lower arm were burned. MRI staff are now trained to keep any monitor cable from touching a patient at more than one point. Eddy Currents
B
(b )
(a) As you pull a solid conducting plate out of a magnetic field, eddy currents are induced in the plate. A typical loop of eddy cur- rent is shown. (b) A conducting plate is allowed to swing like a pendulum about a pivot and into a region of magnetic field. As it enters and leaves the field, eddy currents are induced in the plate. Figure 30.2.5
B
Suppose we replace the conducting loop of Fig. 30.2.1 w ith a solid conducting plate. If we then move the plate out of the magnetic field as we did the loop (Fig. 30.2.5a), the relative motion of the field and the conductor again induces a current in the conductor. Thus, we again encounter an opposing force and must do work because of the induced current. With the plate, however, the conduction electrons making up the induced current do not follow one path as they do with the loop. Instead, the electrons swirl about within the plate as if they were caught in an eddy (whirlpool) of water. Such a current is called an eddy current and can be represented, as it is in Fig. 30.2.5a, as if it followed a single path. As with the conducting loop of Fig. 30.2.1, the current induced in the plate results in mechanical energy being dissipated as thermal energy. The dissipa- tion is more apparent in the arrangement of Fig. 30.2.5b; a conducting plate, free to rotate about a pivot, is allowed to swing down through a magnetic field like a pendulum. Each time the plate enters and leaves the field, a portion of its mechanical energy is transferred to its thermal energy. After several swings, no mechanical energy remains and the warmed-up plate just hangs from its pivot. Induction Furnaces
Traditionally, foundries used flame-heated furnaces to melt metals. However, many modern foundries avoid the resulting air pollution by using an induction furnace (Fig. 30.2.6) in which the metal is heated by the current in insulated wires wrapped around the crucible that holds the metal. H owever, the wires themselves do not get hot enough to melt the metal (or they would also melt). Indeed, they are kept cool by a water bath. Figure 30.2.7 shows the basic design. Metal is held within a crucible around which the insulated wires are wrapped. The current in the wires alternates in direction and magnitude. Thus, the magnetic field due to the current continu- ously varies in direction and magnitude. This changing field B (t) creates eddy →
/
30.3 IND U C ED EL EC T RIC F IEL D S
B
927
(t )
segamI ytteG/arutluC/nesukaR ytnoM
Metal Wire
Basic design of an induction furnace. Figure 30.2.7
Molten metal pouring from a tilted induction furnace. Figure 30.2.6
currents within the metal, and electrical energy is dissipated as thermal energy at the rate given by Eq. 30.2.9 (P = i 2 R). The dissipation increases the temperature of the metal to the melting point, and then the molten metal can be poured by tilting the furnace.
Checkpoint 30.2.1
The figure shows four wire loops, with edge lengths of either L or 2L. All four loops will move through a region of uniform magnetic field B (directed out of the page) at the same constant velocity. Rank the four loops according to the maximum magni- tude of the emf induced as they move through the field, greatest first. →
B
(a )
(b ) (c )
(d )
30.3 INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELDS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
30.3.1 Identify that a changing magnetic field induces
conducting material or not) to the rate of change
dΦ/dt of the magnetic flux encircled by the path.
an electric field, regardless of whether there is a conducting loop.
30.3.3 Identify that an electric potential cannot be
30.3.2 Apply Faraday’s law to relate the electric field
associated with an induced electric field.
→
E induced along a closed path (whether it has
Key Ideas ●
An emf is induced by a changing magnetic flux even
if the loop through which the flux is changing is not a
●
Using the induced electric field, we can write
Faraday’s law in its most general form as
physical conductor but an imaginary line. The changing →
→
dΦ B E ⋅ d s = − ____ dt →
→
E at every point of such a loop; the induced emf is related to E by magnetic field induces an electric field
∮
→
(Faraday’s law). →
A changing magnetic field induces an electric field
E .
ℰ = E ⋅ d s . →
∮
/
928
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
Induced Electric Fields
Let us place a copper ring of radius r in a uniform external magnetic field, as in Fig. 30.3.1a. The field—neglecting fringing—fills a cylindrical volume of radius R. Suppose that we increase the strength of this field at a steady rate, perhaps by increasing—in an appropriate way—the current in the windings of the electromag- net that produces the field. The magnetic flux through the ring will then change at a steady rate and—by Faraday’s law—an induced emf and thus an induced current will appear in the ring. From Lenz’s law we can deduce that the direction of the induced current is counterclockwise in Fig. 30.3.1a. If there is a current in the copper ring, an electric field must be present along the ring because an electric field is needed to do the work of moving the conduction electrons. Moreover, the electric field must have been produced by the changing magnetic flux. This induced electric field E is just as real as an electric field produced by static charges; either field will exert a force q 0E on a particle of charge q 0. By this line of reasoning, we are led to a useful and informative restatement of Faraday’s law of induction: →
→
A changing magnetic field produces an electric field.
The striking feature of this statement is that the electric field is induced even if there is no copper ring. Thus, the electric field would appear even if the changing magnetic field were in a vacuum. To fix these ideas, consider Fig. 30.3.1b, which is just like Fig. 30.3.1a except the copper ring has been replaced by a hypothetical circular path of radius r. We assume, as previously, that the magnetic field B is increasing in magnitude at a constant rate dB/dt. The electric field induced at various points around the →
Copper ring R
Circular path
E
R
r
r E
E B
(a )
B
i
(b )
E
Electric field lines
4
2
R R
1 B
(c )
B
(d )
3
(a) If the magnetic field increases at a steady rate, a constant induced current appears, as shown, in the copper ring of radius r. (b) An induced electric field exists even when the ring is removed; the electric field is shown at four points. (c) The complete picture of the induced electric field, displayed as field lines. (d) Four similar closed paths that enclose identical areas. Equal emfs are induced around paths 1 and 2, which lie entirely within the region of changing magnetic field. A smaller emf is induced around path 3, which only partially lies in that region. No net emf is induced around path 4, which lies entirely outside the magnetic field. Figure 30.3.1
/
30.3 IND U C ED EL EC T RIC F IEL D S
929
circular path must—from the symmetry—be tangent to the circle, as Fig. 30.3.1b shows.* Hence, the circular path is an electric field line. There is nothing special about the circle of radius r, so the electric field lines produced by the changing magnetic field must be a set of concentric circles, as in Fig. 30.3.1c. As long as the magnetic field is increasing with time, the electric field rep- resented by the circular field lines in Fig. 30.3.1c will be present. If the magnetic field remains constant with time, there will be no induced electric field and thus no electric field lines. If the magnetic field is decreasing with time (at a constant rate), the electric field lines will still be concentric circles as in Fig. 30.3.1c, but they will now have the opposite direction. All this is what we have in mind when we say “A changing magnetic field produces an electric field.” A Reformulation of Faraday’s Law
Consider a particle of charge q 0 moving around the circular path of Fig. 30.3.1b. The work W done on it in one revolution by the induced electric field is W = ℰq 0, where ℰ is the induced emf—that is, the work done per unit charge in moving the test charge around the path. From another point of view, the work is W = F ⋅ d s = (q 0 E)(2 πr), →
→
(30.3.1)
where q 0E is the magnitude of the force acting on the test charge and 2 πr is the distance over which that force acts. Setting these two expressions for W equal to each other and canceling q 0, we find that ℰ = 2πrE.
(30.3.2)
Next we rewrite Eq. 30.3.1 to give a more general expression for the work done on a particle of charge q 0 moving along any closed path:
W =
F ⋅ d s = q 0 E ⋅ d s . →
→
→
∮
→
∮
(30.3.3)
(The loop on each integral sign indicates that the integral is to be taken around the closed path.) Substituting ℰq 0 for W, we find that →
ℰ = E ⋅ d s . →
∮
(30.3.4)
This integral reduces at once to Eq. 30.3.2 if we evaluate it for the special case of Fig. 30.3.1b. Meaning of Emf. With Eq. 30.3.4, we can expand the meaning of induced emf. Up to this point, induced emf has meant the work per unit charge done in maintain- ing current due to a changing magnetic flux, or it has meant the work done per unit charge on a charged particle that moves around a closed path in a changing magnetic flux. However, with Fig. 30.3.1b and Eq. 30.3.4, an induced emf can exist without the need of a current or particle: An induced emf is the sum—via integration—of quanti- ties E ⋅ d s around a closed path, where E is the electric field induced by a changing magnetic flux and d s is a differential length vector along the path. If we combine Eq. 30.3.4 with Faraday’s law in Eq. 30.1.4 (ℰ = –dΦ B/dt), we can rewrite Faraday’s law as →
→
→
→
dΦ B E ⋅ d s = − ____ dt
→
∮
→
(Faraday’s law).
(30.3.5)
→
*Arguments of symmetry would also permit the lines of E around the circular path to be radial, rather than tangential. However, such radial lines would imply that there are free charges, distributed symmetrically about the axis of symmetry, on which the electric field lines could begin or end; there are no such charges.
/
930
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
This equation says simply that a changing magnetic field induces an electric field. The changing magnetic field appears on the right side of this equation, the elec- tric field on the left. Faraday’s law in the form of Eq. 30.3.5 can be applied to any closed path that can be drawn in a changing magnetic field. Figure 30.3.1d, for example, shows four such paths, all having the same shape and area but located in different posi- tions in the changing field. The induced emfs ℰ (= ∮ E ⋅ d s ) for paths 1 and 2 are equal because these paths lie entirely in the magnetic field and thus have the same value of dΦ B /dt. This is true even though the electric field vectors at points along these paths are different, as indicated by the patterns of electric field lines in the figure. For path 3 the induced emf is smaller because the enclosed flux Φ B (hence dΦ B /dt) is smaller, and for path 4 the induced emf is zero even though the electric field is not zero at any point on the path. →
→
A New Look at Electric Potential
Induced electric fields are produced not by static charges but by a changing mag- netic flux. Although electric fields produced in either way exert forces on charged particles, there is an important difference between them. The simplest evidence of this difference is that the field lines of induced electric fields form closed loops, as in Fig. 30.3.1c. Field lines produced by static charges never do so but must start on positive charges a nd end on negative charges. Thus, a field line from a charge can never loop around and back onto itself as we see for each of the field lines in Fig. 30.3.1c. In a more formal sense, we can state the difference between electric fields produced by induction and those produced by static charges in these words: Electric potential has meaning only for electric fields that are produced by static charges; it has no meaning for electric fields that are produced by induction.
You can understand this statement qualitatively by considering what happens to a charged particle that makes a single journey around the circular path in Fig. 30.3.1b. It starts at a certain point and, on its return to that same point, has experienced an emf ℰ of, let us say, 5 V; that is, work of 5 J/C has been done on the particle by the electric field, and thus the particle should then be at a point that is 5 V greater in potential. However, that is impossible because the particle is back at the same point, which cannot have two different values of potential. Thus, potential has no meaning for electric fields that are set up by changing magnetic fields. We can take a more formal look by recalling Eq. 24.2.4, which defines the potential difference between two points i and f in an electric field E in terms of an integration between those points: →
f →
V f − V i = − E ⋅ d s . i
→
(30.3.6)
In Chapter 24 we had not yet encountered Faraday’s law of induction; so the elec- tric fields involved in the derivation of Eq. 24.2.4 were those due to static charges. If i and f in Eq. 30.3.6 are the same point, the path connecting them is a closed loop, V i and V f are identical, and Eq. 30.3.6 reduces to →
∮
E ⋅ d s = 0. →
(30.3.7)
However, when a changing magnetic flux is present, this integral is not zero but is –dΦ B/dt, as Eq. 30.3.5 a sserts. Thus, assigning electric potential to an induced electric field leads us to a contradiction. We must conclude that electric potential has no meaning for electric fields associated with induction.
/
30.3 IND U C ED EL EC T RIC F IEL D S
931
Checkpoint 30.3.1
The figure shows five lettered regions in which a uniform magnetic field extends either directly out of the page or into the page, with the direction indicated only for region a. The field is increasing in magnitude at the same steady rate in all five regions; the regions are identical in area. Also shown are four numbered paths along which ∮ E ⋅ d s has the magnitudes given below in terms of a quantity “mag.” Determine whether the magnetic field is directed into or out of the page for regions b through e. →
Path ∮ E ⋅ d s →
1 mag
→
2 2(mag)
1
3 3(mag)
4 0
4
c
a
→
3 e
b
d
2
Sample Problem 30.3.1
Induced electric field due to changing B field, inside and outside
In Fig. 30.3.1b, take R = 8.5 cm and dB/dt = 0.13 T/s. (a) Find an expression for the magnitude E of the induced electric field at points within the magnetic field, at radius r from the center of the magnetic field. Evaluate the expression for r = 5.2 cm.
KEY IDEA An electric field is induced by the changing magnetic field, according to Faraday’s law. To calculate the field magnitude E, we apply Faraday’s law in the form of Eq. 30.3.5. We use a circular path of integration with radius r ≤ R because we want E for points within the magnetic field. We assume from the symmetry that E in Fig. 30.3.1b is tangent to the circular path at all points. The path vector d s is also always tangent to the circular path; so the dot product E ⋅ d s in Eq. 30.3.5 must have the magnitude E ds at all points on the path. We can also assume from the symme- try that E has the same value at all points along the circu- lar path. Then the left side of Eq. 30.3.5 becomes Calculations:
→
→
→
→
E ⋅ d s = E ds = E ds = E(2πr). →
∮
→
∮
∮
(30.3.8)
(The integral ∮ ds is the circumference 2πr of the circular path.) Next, we need to evaluate the right side of Eq. 30.3.5. Because B is uniform over the area A encircled by the path of integration and is directed perpendicular to that area, the magnetic flux is given by Eq. 30.1.2: →
Φ B = BA = B(πr 2 ).
(30.3.9)
Substituting this and Eq. 30.3.8 into Eq. 30.3.5 a nd drop- ping the minus sign, we find that dB E(2πr) = ( πr 2 ) ___ dt dB r or E = __ ___ . (Answer) (30.3.10) 2 dt Equation 30.3.10 g ives the magnitude of the electric field at any point for which r ≤ R (that is, within the magnetic field). Substituting given values yields, for the magnitude of E at r = 5.2 cm, →
(5.2 × 10 −2 m) E = _____________ (0.13 T / s) 2 = 0.0034 V/m = 3.4 m V/m.
(Answer)
(b) Find an expression for the magnitude E of the induced electric field at points that are outside the magnetic field, at radius r from the center of the magnetic field. Evaluate the expression for r = 12.5 cm.
KEY IDEAS Here again an electric field is induced by the changing magnetic field, according to Faraday’s law, except that now we use a circular path of integration with radius r ≥ R because we want to evaluate E for points outside the magnetic field. Proceeding as in (a), we again obtain Eq. 30.3.8. However, we do not then obtain Eq. 30.3.9 because the new path of integration is now outside the mag- netic field, and so the magnetic flux encircled by the new path is only that in the area πR 2 of the magnetic field region. Calculations:
We can now write Φ B = BA = B(πR 2 ).
(30.3.11)
/
932
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
Substituting this and Eq. 30.3.8 into Eq. 30.3.5 (without the minus sign) and solving for E yield
6 )m/ Vm( E
R 2 ___ dB . (Answer) (30.3.12) E = ___ 2r dt Because E is not zero here, we know that an electric field is induced even at points that are outside the changing magnetic field, an important result that (as you will see in Module 31.6) m akes transformers possible. With the given data, Eq. 30.3.12 y ields the magnitude of E at r = 12.5 cm:
Equations 30.3.10 a nd 30.3.12 g ive the same result for r = R. Figure 30.3.2 shows a plot of E(r). Note that the inside and outside plots meet at r = R.
4 2
→
2
(8.5 × 10 −2 m) E = ________________ (0.13 T/s) (2)(12.5 × 10 −2 m) = 3.8 × 10 −3 V/m = 3.8 mV/m.
0
0
10 r
(Answer)
Figure 30.3.2
20 30 (cm)
40
A plot of the induced electric field E(r).
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
30.4 INDUCTORS AND INDUCTANCE Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
30.4.1 Identify an inductor.
30.4.3 For a solenoid, apply the relationship between
30.4.2 For an inductor, apply the relationship between inductance
the inductance per unit length
L, total flux NΦ , and current i.
L /l, the area A of
each turn, and the number of turns per unit length
n.
Key Ideas ●
An inductor is a device that can be used to produce
a known magnetic field in a specified region. If a cur-
i is established through each of the N windings of Φ B links those windings. The inductance L of the inductor is N Φ B L = _____ (inductance defined). i rent
an inductor, a magnetic flux
H ), where
●
The SI unit of inductance is the henry (
●
The inductance per unit length near the middle of a
1 henry = 1 H = 1 T ⋅ m 2 /A.
long solenoid of cross-sectional area
A and n turns per
unit length is
L = μ n 2 A (solenoid). __ 0 l
Inductors and Inductance
We found in Chapter 25 that a capacitor can be used to produce a desired electric field. We considered the parallel-plate arrangement as a basic type of capacitor. Similarly, an inductor (symbol ) can be used to produce a desired magnetic field. We shall consider a long solenoid (more specifically, a short length near the middle of a long solenoid, to avoid any fringing effects) as our basic type of inductor. If we establish a current i in the windings (turns) of the solenoid we are taking as our inductor, the current produces a magnetic flux Φ B through the central region of the inductor. The inductance of the inductor is then defined in terms of that flux as N Φ B L = _____ i
(inductance defined),
(30.4.1)
in which N is the number of turns. The windings of the inductor are said to be linked by the shared flux, and the product NΦ B is called the magnetic flux linkage. The inductance L is thus a measure of the flux linkage produced by the inductor per unit of current.
/
933
30.4 IND U C T ORS AND IND U C T ANC E
1 henry = 1 H = 1 T ⋅ m 2 /A.
YN/yrarbiL trA n am e gdirB/noitutitsnI layoR ehT
Because the SI unit of magnetic flux is the tesla-square meter, the SI unit of inductance is the tesla-square meter per ampere (T ⋅ m 2 /A). We call this the henry (H), after American physicist Joseph Henry, the codiscoverer of the law of induction and a contemporary of Faraday. Thus, (30.4.2)
Through the rest of this chapter we assume that all inductors, no matter what their geometric arrangement, have no magnetic materials such as iron in their vicinity. Such materials would distort the magnetic field of an inductor. Inductance of a Solenoid
Consider a long solenoid of cross-sectional area A. What is the inductance per unit length near its middle? To use the defining equation for inductance (Eq. 30.4.1), we must calculate the flux linkage set up by a given current in the solenoid wind- ings. Consider a length l near the middle of this solenoid. The flux linkage there is NΦ B = (nl)(BA), in which n is the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid and B is the magnitude of the magnetic field within the solenoid. The magnitude B is given by Eq. 29.4.3,
The crude inductors with which Michael Faraday discovered the law of induction. In those days ameni- ties such as insulated wire were not commercially available. It is said that Faraday insulated his wires by wrap- ping them with strips cut from one of his wife’s petticoats.
B = μ0 in, and so from Eq. 30.4.1,
(nl)(BA) ____________ (nl)( μ0 in)(A) NΦ B ________ L = _____ = = i i i 2 = μ0 n lA.
(30.4.3)
Thus, the inductance per unit length near the center of a long solenoid is L = μ n 2 A __ 0 l
(solenoid).
(30.4.4)
Inductance—like capacitance—depends only on the geometry of the device. The dependence on the square of the number of turns per unit length is to be expected. If you, say, triple n, you not only triple the number of turns (N) but you also triple the flux (Φ B = BA = μ0 inA) through each turn, multiplying the flux linkage NΦ B and thus the inductance L by a factor of 9. If the solenoid is very much longer than its radius, then Eq. 30.4.3 gives its inductance to a good approximation. This approximation neglects the spreading of the magnetic field lines near the ends of the solenoid, just as the parallel-plate capacitor formula (C = ε0 A/d) neglects the fringing of the electric field lines near the edges of the capacitor plates. From Eq. 30.4.3, a nd recalling that n is a number per unit length, we can see that an inductance can be written as a product of the permeability constant μ0 and a quantity with the dimensions of a length. This means that μ0 can be expressed in the unit henry per meter:
μ0 = 4π × 10 −7 T ⋅ m / A = 4 π × 10 −7 H / m .
(30.4.5)
The latter is the more common unit for the permeability constant.
Checkpoint 30.4.1
We have three inductors in different circuits with the same length and the following number of turns n, area A, and current i, each given as a mul- tiple of a basic amount. Rank the inductors according to their inductance, greatest first.
Inductor
n
A
i
a b
2n 0
4A 0
16i 0
n 0
13A 0
20i 0
c
3n 0
A 0
25i 0
/
934
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
30.5 SELF-INDUCTION Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
30.5.1 Identify that an induced emf appears in a coil
30.5.3 When an emf is induced in a coil because the
when the current through the coil is changing.
current in the coil is changing, determine the direc-
30.5.2 Apply the relationship between the induced emf in a coil, the coil’s inductance
tion of the emf by using Lenz’s law to show that
L, and the rate di/dt at
the emf always opposes the change in the current,
which the current is changing.
attempting to maintain the initial current.
Key Ideas ●
If a current
i in a coil changes with time, an emf is
induced in the coil. This self-induced emf is
●
The direction of
ℰ L is found from Lenz’s law: The
self-induced emf acts to oppose the change that produces it.
di . ℰ L = −L __ dt
Self-Induction
If two coils—which we can now call inductors—are near each other, a current i in one coil produces a magnetic flux Φ B through the second coil. We have seen that if we change this flux by changing the current, an induced emf appears in the second coil according to Faraday’s law. An induced emf appears in the first coil as well. An induced emf ℰ L appears in any coil in which the current is changing.
This process (see Fig. 30.5.1) is called self-induction, and the emf that appears is called a self-induced emf. It obeys Faraday’s law of induction just as other induced emfs do. For any inductor, Eq. 30.4.1 tells us that NΦ B = Li.
(30.5.1)
Faraday’s law tells us that
d ( NΦ B) ℰ L = − _______ . dt By combining Eqs. 30.5.1 a nd 30.5.2 we can write di ℰ L = −L __ dt R i
+ –
L
i
If the current in a coil is changed by varying the contact position on a variable resistor, a self- induced emf ℰ L will appear in the coil while the current is changing. Figure 30.5.1
(self-induced emf).
(30.5.2)
(30.5.3)
Thus, in any inductor (such as a coil, a solenoid, or a toroid) a self-induced emf appears whenever the current changes with time. The magnitude of the current has no influence on the magnitude of the induced emf; only the rate of change of the current counts. Direction. You can find the direction of a self-induced emf from Lenz’s law. The minus sign in Eq. 30.5.3 indicates that—as the law states—the self-induced emf ℰ L has the orientation such that it opposes the change in current i. We can drop the minus sign when we want only the magnitude of ℰ L. Suppose that you set up a current i in a coil and arrange to have the current increase with time at a rate di/dt. In the language of Lenz’s law, this increase in the current in the coil is the “change” that the self-induction must oppose. Thus, a self-induced emf must appear in the coil, pointing so as to oppose the increase in the current, trying (but failing) to maintain the initial condition, as shown in Fig. 30.5.2a. If, instead, the current decreases with time, the self-induced emf
/
30.6 RL C IRC U IT S
must point in a direction that tends to oppose the decrease (Fig. 30.5.2b), again trying to maintain the initial condition. Electric Potential. In Module 30.3 we saw that we cannot define an electric potential for an electric field (and thus for an emf) that is induced by a chang- ing magnetic flux. This means that when a self-induced emf is produced in the inductor of Fig. 30.5.1, we cannot define an electric potential within the induc- tor itself, where the flux is changing. However, potentials can still be defined at points of the circuit that are not within the inductor—points where the electric fields are due to charge distributions and their associated electric potentials. Moreover, we can define a self-induced potential difference V L across an inductor (between its terminals, which we assume to be outside the region of changing flux). For an ideal inductor (its wire has negligible resistance), the magnitude of V L is equal to the magnitude of the self-induced emf ℰ L . If, instead, the wire in the inductor has resistance r, we mentally separate the inductor into a resistance r (which we take to be outside the region of changing flux) and an ideal inductor of self-induced emf ℰ L. As with a real battery of emf ℰ and internal resistance r, the potential difference across the terminals of a real inductor then differs from the emf. Unless otherwise indi- cated, we assume here that inductors are ideal.
i
935
(increasing)
L
L
The changing current changes the flux, which creates an emf that opposes the change.
(a ) i
(decreasing)
L
L
(b )
(a) The current i is increasing, and the self-induced emf ℰ L appears along the coil in a direction such that it opposes the increase. The arrow representing ℰ L can be drawn along a turn of the coil or along- side the coil. Both are shown. (b) The current i is decreasing, and the self-induced emf appears in a direction such that it opposes the decrease. Figure 30.5.2
Checkpoint 30.5.1
The figure shows an emf ℰ L induced in a coil. Which of the following can describe the current through the coil: (a) constant and rightward, (b) constant and leftward, (c) increasing and rightward, (d) decreasing and rightward, (e) increasing and leftward, (f) decreasing and leftward? L
30.6 RL
CIRCUITS
Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
30.6.1 Sketch a schematic diagram of an
RL circuit in
30.6.7 Write a loop equation (a differential equation) for
RL circuit in which the current is decaying. RL circuit in which the current is decay- ing, apply the equation i(t ) for the current as a func-
which the current is rising.
an
30.6.2 Write a loop equation (a differential equation) for
RL circuit in which the current is rising. RL circuit in which the current is rising, apply the equation i(t ) for the current as a function of
30.6.8 For an
an
30.6.3 For an
tion of time.
time.
cuit, find equations for the potential difference
RL circuit in which the current is rising, V across the resistor, the rate di/dt at which the current changes,
30.6.4 For an
the resistor, the rate
find equations for the potential difference
30.6.10 For an
τL .
the circuit begins to change (the initial condition) and
RL circuit in
a long time later when equilibrium is reached (the
which the current is decaying.
final condition).
Key Ideas
ℰ is introduced into a single-loop R and an inductance L, the current rises to an equilibrium value of ℰ/R If a constant emf
circuit containing a resistance
according to
ℰ (1 − e −t/ τL ) i = __ R
RL circuit, identify the current through
the inductor and the emf across it just as current in
30.6.5 Calculate an inductive time constant
●
di/dt at which current is changing,
and the emf of the inductor, as functions of time.
and the emf of the inductor, as functions of time.
30.6.6 Sketch a schematic diagram of an
τ L (= L/R) governs the rate of rise of the current
Here
and is called the inductive time constant of the circuit. ●
When the source of constant emf is removed, the
current decays from a value
(rise of current).
RL cir- V across
30.6.9 From an equation for decaying current in an
i = i 0 e −t/ τL
i 0 according to
(decay of current).
/
936
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
a
+ –
RL Circuits
S
b
R
L
An RL circuit. When switch S is closed on a, the current rises and approaches a limiting value ℰ/R. Figure 30.6.1
In Module 27.4 we saw that if we suddenly introduce an emf ℰ into a single-loop circuit containing a resistor R and a capacitor C, the charge on the capacitor does not build up immediately to its final equilibrium value Cℰ but approaches it in an exponential fashion: (30.6.1) q = Cℰ (1 − e −t/τC ). The rate at which the charge builds up is determined by the capacitive time constant τC , defined in Eq. 27.4.7 a s
τC = RC.
(30.6.2)
If we suddenly remove the emf from this same circuit, the charge does not immediately fall to zero but approaches zero in an exponential fashion: q = q 0 e −t/τC .
(30.6.3)
The time constant τC describes the fall of the charge as well as its rise. An analogous slowing of the rise (or fall) of the current occurs if we intro- duce an emf ℰ into (or remove it from) a single-loop circuit containing a resis- tor R and an inductor L. When the switch S in Fig. 30.6.1 is closed on a, for example, the current in the resistor starts to rise. If the inductor were not present, the current would rise rapidly to a steady value ℰ/R. Because of the inductor, however, a self-induced emf ℰ L appears in the circuit; from Lenz’s law, this emf opposes the rise of the current, which means that it opposes the battery emf ℰ in polarity. Thus, the current in the resistor responds to the difference between two emfs, a constant ℰ due to the battery and a variable ℰ L (= –L di/dt) due to self-induction. As long as this ℰ L is present, the current will be less than ℰ/R. As time goes on, the rate at which the current increases becomes less rapid and the magnitude of the self-induced emf, which is proportional to di/dt, becomes smaller. Thus, the current in the circuit approaches ℰ/R asymptotically. We can generalize these results as follows: Initially, an inductor acts to oppose changes in the current through it. A long time later, it acts like ordinary connecting wire.
Now let us analyze the situation quantitatively. With the switch S in Fig. 30.6.1 thrown to a, the circuit is equivalent to that of Fig. 30.6.2. Let us apply the loop rule, starting at point x in this figure and moving clockwise around the loop along with current i. 1. Resistor. Because we move through the resistor in the direction of current i, the electric potential decreases by iR. Thus, as we move from point x to point y, we encounter a potential change of –iR. i y
x R
+ –
L
L
z
The circuit of Fig. 30.6.1 with the switch closed on a. We apply the loop rule for the circuit clockwise, starting at x. Figure 30.6.2
2. Inductor. Because current i is changing, there is a self-induced emf ℰ L in the inductor. The magnitude of ℰ L is given by Eq. 30.5.3 as L di/dt. The direc- tion of ℰ L is upward in Fig. 30.6.2 because current i is downward through the inductor and increasing. Thus, as we move from point y to point z, opposite the direction of ℰ L , we encounter a potential change of –L di/dt. 3. Battery. As we move from point z back to starting point x, we encounter a potential change of +ℰ due to the battery’s emf. Thus, the loop rule gives us di + ℰ = 0, −iR − L __ dt
/
30.6 RL C IRC U IT S
di + Ri = ℰ L __ dt
or
(RL circuit) .
937
(30.6.4)
Equation 30.6.4 is a differential equation involving the variable i and its first derivative di/dt. To solve it, we seek the function i(t) such that when i(t) and its first derivative are substituted in Eq. 30.6.4, the equation is satisfied and the ini- tial condition i(0) = 0 is satisfied. Equation 30.6.4 a nd its initial condition are of exactly the form of Eq. 27.4.3 for an RC circuit, with i replacing q, L replacing R, and R replacing 1/C. The solu- tion of Eq. 30.6.4 must then be of exactly the form of Eq. 27.4.4 with the same replacements. That solution is ℰ (1 − e −Rt/L ), i = __ (30.6.5) R which we can rewrite as ℰ (1 − e −t/τL ) i = __ R
(rise of current).
(30.6.6)
Here τL , the inductive time constant, is given by L τL = __ R
(time constant).
(30.6.7)
Let’s examine Eq. 30.6.6 for just after the switch is closed (at time t = 0) and for a time long after the switch is closed (t → ∞). If we substitute t = 0 into Eq. 30.6.6, the exponential becomes e −0 = 1. Thus, Eq. 30.6.6 tells us that the cur- rent is initially i = 0, as we expected. Next, if we let t go to ∞, then the exponential goes to e −∞ = 0. Thus, Eq. 30.6.6 tells us that the current goes to its equilibrium value of ℰ/R. We can also examine the potential differences in the circuit. For example, Fig. 30.6.3 shows how the potential differences V R (= iR) across the resistor and V L (= L di/dt) across the inductor vary with time for particular values of ℰ, L, and R. Compare this figure carefully with the corresponding figure for an RC circuit (Fig. 27.1.16).
The resistor’s potential difference turns on. The inductor’s potential difference turns off. 10 8 6 4 2
0
) V( LV
) V( RV
10 8 6 4 2 2
4 t
6 (ms)
(a )
8
0
2
4 t
6 (ms)
8
(b )
The variation with time of (a) V R , the potential difference across the resis- tor in the circuit of Fig. 30.6.2, and (b) V L , the potential difference across the inductor in that circuit. The small triangles represent successive intervals of one inductive time con- stant τL = L/R. The figure is plotted for R = 2000 Ω, L = 4.0 H, and ℰ = 10 V. Figure 30.6.3
/
938
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
To show that the quantity τL (= L/R) has the dimension of time (as it must, because the argument of the exponential function in Eq. 30.6.6 must be dimen- sionless), we convert from henries per ohm as follows: H = 1 H 1 V ⋅ s ______ 1Ω ⋅ A = 1 s. __ _______ 1 __ Ω Ω ( 1 H ⋅ A )( 1 V ) The first quantity in parentheses is a conversion factor based on Eq. 30.5.3, a nd the second one is a conversion factor based on the relation V = iR. Time Constant. The physical significance of the time constant follows from Eq. 30.6.6. If we put t = τL = L/R in this equation, it reduces to ℰ (1 − e −1 ) = 0.63 __ ℰ . i = __ R R
(30.6.8)
Thus, the time constant τ L is the time it takes the current in the circuit to reach about 63% of its final equilibrium value ℰ/R. Since the potential difference V R across the resistor is proportional to the current i, a graph of the increasing current versus time has the same shape as that of V R in Fig. 30.6.3a. Current Decay. If the switch S in Fig. 30.6.1 is closed on a long enough for the equilibrium current ℰ/R to be established and then is thrown to b, the effect will be to remove the battery from the circuit. (The connection to b must actually be made an instant before the connection to a is broken. A switch that does this is called a make-before-break switch.) With the battery gone, the current through the resistor will decrease. H owever, it cannot drop immediately to zero but must decay to zero over time. The differential equation that governs the decay can be found by putting ℰ = 0 in Eq. 30.6.4: di + iR = 0. L __ dt
(30.6.9)
By analogy with Eqs. 27.4.9 a nd 27.4.10, the solution of this differential equation that satisfies the initial condition i(0) = i 0 = ℰ/R is ℰ e −t/ τL = i e −t/ τL i = __ 0 R
(decay of current).
(30.6.10)
We see that both current rise (Eq. 30.6.6) a nd current decay (Eq. 30.6.10) in an RL circuit are governed by the same inductive time constant, τL . We have used i 0 in Eq. 30.6.10 to represent the current at time t = 0. In our case that happened to be ℰ/R, but it could be any other initial value.
Checkpoint 30.6.1
The figure shows three circuits with identical batteries, inductors, and resistors. Rank the circuits according to the current through the battery (a) just after the switch is closed and (b) a long time later, greatest first. (If you have trouble here, work through the next sample problem and then try again.)
(1)
(2)
(3)
/
939
30.6 RL C IRC U IT S
Sample Problem 30.6.1
RL circuit, immediately after switching and after a long time
Figure 30.6.4a shows a circuit that contains three identical resistors with resistance R = 9.0 Ω, two identical inductors with inductance L = 2.0 mH, and an ideal battery with emf ℰ = 18 V. (a) What is the current i through the battery just after the switch is closed?
+ –
R
L R
R
+ –
R
L
R
(a )
R
(b )
KEY IDEA
Initially, an inductor acts like broken wire.
Just after the switch is closed, the inductor acts to oppose a change in the current through it. Because the current through each inductor is zero before the switch is closed, it will also be zero just afterward. Thus, immediately after the switch is closed, the inductors act as broken wires, as indicated in Fig. 30.6.4b. We then have a single-loop circuit for which the loop rule gives us Calculations:
ℰ – iR = 0.
(Answer)
(b) What is the current i through the battery long after the switch has been closed?
KEY IDEA Long after the switch has been closed, the currents in the circuit have reached their equilibrium values, and the inductors act as simple connecting wires, as indicated in Fig. 30.6.4c.
Sample Problem 30.6.2
+ –
R
R
/3
R
(c )
(d )
Long later, it acts like ordinary wire.
(a) A multiloop RL circuit with an open switch. (b) The equivalent circuit just after the switch has been closed. (c) The equivalent circuit a long time later. (d) The single-loop circuit that is equivalent to circuit (c). Figure 30.6.4
Substituting given data, we find that ℰ = _____ 18 V = 2.0 A. i = __ R 9.0 Ω
R
+ –
We now have a circuit with three identi- cal resistors in parallel; from Eq. 27.2.6, their equivalent resistance is R eq = R/3 = (9.0 Ω)/3 = 3.0 Ω. The equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 30.6.4d then yields the loop equation ℰ – iR eq = 0, or ℰ = _____ 18 V = 6.0 A. i = ___ (Answer) R eq 3.0 Ω Calculation:
RL circuit, current during the transition
A solenoid has an inductance of 53 mH and a resistance of 0.37 Ω. If the solenoid is connected to a battery, how long will the current take to reach half its final equilib- rium value? (This is a real solenoid because we are consid- ering its small, but nonzero, internal resistance.)
According to that solution, current i increases exponentially from zero to its final equilibrium value of ℰ/R. Let t 0 be the time that current i takes to reach half its equilibrium value. Then Eq. 30.6.6 g ives us Calculations:
1 __ ℰ = __ ℰ (1 − e −t 0/ τL ). __ 2 R
KEY IDEA We can mentally separate the solenoid into a resistance a nd an inductance that are wired in series with a battery, as in Fig. 30.6.2. Then application of the loop rule leads to Eq. 30.6.4, which has the solution of Eq. 30.6.6 for the cur- rent i in the circuit.
R
We solve for t 0 by canceling ℰ/R, isolating the exponen- tial, and taking the natural logarithm of each side. We find −3
53 × 10 H ln 2 L ln 2 = ___________ t 0 = τL ln 2 = __ R 0.37 Ω = 0.10 s.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
/
940
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
30.7 ENERGY STORED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
30.7.1 Describe the derivation of the equation for the magnetic field energy of an inductor in an
RL circuit
with a constant emf source.
RL circuit, apply the rela- U, the inductance L, and the current i.
30.7.2 For an inductor in an
tionship between the magnetic field energy
Key Idea ●
L carries a current i, the inductor’s magnetic field stores an
If an inductor
energy given by
1 L i 2 U B = __ 2
(magnetic energy).
Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field
When we pull two charged particles of opposite signs away from each other, we say that the resulting electric potential energy is stored in the electric field of the particles. We get it back from the field by letting the particles move closer together again. In the same way we say energy is stored in a magnetic field, but now we deal with current instead of electric charges. To derive a quantitative expression for that stored energy, consider again Fig. 30.6.2, which shows a source of emf ℰ connected to a resistor R and an induc- tor L. Equation 30.6.4, restated here for convenience, di + iR, ℰ = L __ (30.7.1) dt is the differential equation that describes the growth of current in this circuit. Recall that this equation follows immediately from the loop rule and that the loop rule in turn is an expression of the principle of conservation of energy for single-loop circuits. If we multiply each side of Eq. 30.7.1 by i, we obtain di + i 2 R, ℰi = Li __ (30.7.2) dt which has the following physical interpretation in terms of the work done by the battery and the resulting energy transfers: 1. If a differential amount of charge dq passes through the battery of emf ℰ in Fig. 30.6.2 in time dt, the battery does work on it in the amount ℰ dq. The rate at which the battery does work is (ℰ dq)/dt, or ℰi. Thus, the left side of Eq. 30.7.2 represents the rate at which the emf device delivers energy to the rest of the circuit. 2. The rightmost term in Eq. 30.7.2 represents the rate at which energy appears as thermal energy in the resistor. 3. Energy that is delivered to the circuit but does not appear as thermal energy must, by the conservation-of-energy hypothesis, be stored in the magnetic field of the inductor. Because Eq. 30.7.2 represents the principle of conserva- tion of energy for RL circuits, the middle term must represent the rate dU B /dt at which magnetic potential energy U B is stored in the magnetic field. Thus dU B di . ____ = Li __ dt
dt
(30.7.3)
/
30.7 ENERGY ST ORED IN A MAGNET IC F IEL D
941
We can write this as dU B = Li di. Integrating yields
U B
0
1 U B = _ L i 2 2
or
i
dU B = Li di 0
(magnetic energy),
(30.7.4)
which represents the total energy stored by an inductor L carrying a current i. Note the similarity in form between this expression for the energy stored in a magnetic field and the expression for the energy stored in an electric field by a capacitor with capacitance C and charge q; namely, q 2 (30.7.5) U E = ___ . 2C (The variable i 2 corresponds to q 2 , and the constant L corresponds to 1/C.) Checkpoint 30.7.1
When we close a switch on an RL circuit, how does the magnetic field energy U B depend on time: 2 (a) e −t/ τL , (b) 1 − e −t/ τL , (c) (1 − e −t/ τL ) , (d) (1 − e −t/ τL ) e −t/ τL ?
Sample Problem 30.7.1
Energy stored in a magnetic field
A coil has an inductance of 53 mH and a resistance of 0.35 Ω . (a) If a 12 V emf is applied across the coil, how much energy is stored in the magnetic field after the current has built up to its equilibrium value?
KEY IDEA The energy stored in the magnetic field of a coil at any time depends on the current through the coil at that time, 1 Li 2 ). according to Eq. 30.7.4 ( UB = _ 2 Thus, to find the energy U B∞ stored at equilibrium, we must first find the equilibrium current. From Eq. 30.6.6, the equilibrium current is ℰ = ______ 12 V = 34.3 A. i ∞ = __ (30.7.6) R 0.35 Ω Then substitution yields Calculations:
1 2 2 _ (53 × 10 −3 H)(34.3 A) U B∞ = _ Li = 1 2 ∞ ( 2 )
= 31 J.
(Answer)
(b) After how many time constants will half this equilib- rium energy be stored in the magnetic field? Now we are being asked: At what time t will the relation Calculations:
1 U B = _ U 2 B∞
be satisfied? Using Eq. 30.7.4 twice allows us to rewrite this energy condition as 1 2 1 _ 1 2 _ Li = (_ Li 2 2 ) 2 ∞
1 i . i = (____ (30.7.7) ∞ √ _ 2 ) This equation tells us that, as the current increases from its initial value of 0 to its final value of i ∞, the magnetic field will have half its final stored energy when the current has increased to this value. In general, we know that i is given by Eq. 30.6.6, a nd here i ∞ (see Eq. 30.7.6) is ℰ/R; so Eq. 30.7.7 becomes ℰ (1 − e −t/τL ) = _____ ℰ __ _ . R √ 2 R By canceling ℰ/R and rearranging, we can write this as 1 _ = 0.293, e −t/τL = 1 − ____ √ 2 or
which yields t = −ln 0.293 = 1.23 __
τL
or
t ≈ 1.2τL .
(Answer)
Thus, the energy stored in the magnetic field of the coil by the current will reach half its equilibrium value 1.2 time constants after the emf is applied.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
/
942
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
30.8 ENERGY DENSITY OF A MAGNETIC FIELD Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
30.8.1 Identify that energy is associated with any magnetic field.
u B B.
30.8.2 Apply the relationship between energy density
of a magnetic field and the magnetic field magnitude
Key Idea ●
If
B is the magnitude of a magnetic field at any point (in an inductor or any-
where else), the density of stored magnetic energy at that point is
2
B u B = ___ 2 μ0
(magnetic energy density).
Energy Density of a Magnetic Field
Consider a length l near the middle of a long solenoid of cross-sectional area A carrying current i; the volume associated with this length is Al. The energy U B stored by the length l of the solenoid must lie entirely within this volume because the magnetic field outside such a solenoid is approximately zero. Moreover, the stored energy must be uniformly distributed within the solenoid because the magnetic field is (approximately) uniform everywhere inside. Thus, the energy stored per unit volume of the field is U B u B = ___ Al or, since 1 2 U B = _ Li , 2
we have 2
2
Li = __ i . L ___ u B = ____ 2Al l 2A
(30.8.1)
Here L is the inductance of length l of the solenoid. Substituting for L/l from Eq. 30.4.4, we find 1 u B = _ μ n 2 i 2 , 2 0
(30.8.2)
where n is the number of turns per unit length. From Eq. 29.4.3 (B = μ0 in) we can write this energy density as 2
B u B = ___ 2 μ0
(magnetic energy density).
(30.8.3)
This equation gives the density of stored energy at any point where the magni- tude of the magnetic field is B. Even though we derived it by considering the special case of a solenoid, Eq. 30.8.3 holds for all magnetic fields, no matter how they are generated. The equation is comparable to Eq. 25.4.5, 1 u E = _ ε E 2 , 2 0
(30.8.4)
which gives the energy density (in a vacuum) at any point in an electric field. Note that both u B and u E are proportional to the square of the appropriate field magnitude, B or E.
/
30.9 MU T U AL IND U C T ION
943
Checkpoint 30.8.1
The table lists the number of turns per unit length, current, and cross-sectional area for three solenoids. Rank the solenoids according to the magnetic energy density within them, greatest first. Solenoid
Turns per Unit Length
Current
Area
a b c
2n 1 n 1 n 1
i 1 2i 1 i 1
2A 1 A 1 6A 1
30.9 MUTUAL INDUCTION Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
30.9.1 Describe the mutual induction of two coils and sketch the arrangement.
30.9.3 Calculate the emf induced in one coil by a sec- ond coil in terms of the mutual inductance and the
30.9.2 Calculate the mutual inductance of one coil with
rate of change of the current in the second coil.
respect to a second coil (or some second current that is changing).
Key Idea ●
If coils 1 and 2 are near each other, a changing current in either coil can
induce an emf in the other. This mutual induction is described by
di 1 ℰ 2 = −M ___ dt di 2 ℰ 1 = −M ___ , dt
and where
M (measured in henries) is the mutual inductance.
Mutual Induction
In this section we return to the case of two interacting coils, which we first dis- cussed in Module 30.1, and we treat it in a somewhat more formal manner. We saw earlier that if two coils are close together as in Fig. 30.1.2, a steady current i in one coil will set up a magnetic flux Φ through the other coil (linking the other coil). If we change i with time, a n emf ℰ given by Faraday’s law appears in the sec- ond coil; we called this process induction. We could better have called it mutual induction, to suggest the mutual interaction of the two coils and to distinguish it from self-induction, in which only one coil is involved. Let us look a little more quantitatively at mutual induction. Figure 30.9.1a shows two circular close-packed coils near each other and sharing a common central axis. With the variable resistor set at a particular resistance R, the battery produces a steady current i 1 in coil 1. This current creates a magnetic field repre- sented by the lines of B 1 in the figure. Coil 2 is connected to a sensitive meter but contains no battery; a magnetic flux Φ 21 (the flux through coil 2 associated with the current in coil 1) links the N 2 turns of coil 2. →
/
944
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
Mutual induction. (a) The magnetic field B 1 produced by current i 1 in coil 1 extends through coil 2. If i 1 is varied (by varying resistance R), an emf is induced in coil 2 and current registers on the meter connected to coil 2. (b) The roles of the coils interchanged. Figure 30.9.1
→
N1
B1
N1 N2
Ф 1 2
Φ 2 1
B2
N2
B1
B2
i2
i1
R
0
0
Coil 2
Coil 1
+ – Coil 1
+ –
(a)
R
Coil 2 (b )
We define the mutual inductance M 21 of coil 2 with respect to coil 1 as N 2 Φ 21 M 21 = ______ , i 1
(30.9.1)
which has the same form as Eq. 30.4.1, L = NΦ/i,
(30.9.2)
the definition of inductance. We can recast Eq. 30.9.1 a s M 21 i 1 = N 2Φ 2 1 .
(30.9.3)
If we cause i 1 to vary with time by varying R, we have di 1 d Φ 21 (30.9.4) M 21 ___ = N 2 _____ . dt dt The right side of this equation is, according to Faraday’s law, just the magnitude of the emf ℰ 2 appearing in coil 2 due to the changing current in coil 1. Thus, with a minus sign to indicate direction, d i 1 (30.9.5) ℰ 2 = −M 21 ___ , dt which you should compare with Eq. 30.5.3 for self-induction (ℰ = –L di/dt). Interchange. Let us now interchange the roles of coils 1 and 2, as in Fig. 30.9.1b; that is, we set up a current i 2 in coil 2 by means of a battery, and this pro- duces a magnetic flux Φ 12 that links coil 1. If we change i 2 with time by varying R, we then have, by the argument given above, d i 2 (30.9.6) ℰ 1 = −M 12 ___ . dt Thus, we see that the emf induced in either coil is proportional to the rate of change of current in the other coil. The proportionality constants M 21 and M 12 seem to be different. However, they turn out to be the same, a lthough we cannot prove that fact here. Thus, we have M 21 = M 12 = M,
(30.9.7)
and we can rewrite Eqs. 30.9.5 a nd 30.9.6 a s
and
di 1 ℰ 2 = −M ___ dt
(30.9.8)
di 2 ℰ 1 = −M ___ . dt
(30.9.9)
/
REV IEW & SU MMARY
945
Checkpoint 30.9.1
In Fig. 30.9.1a, consider the following three currents (in amperes and seconds) that we can set up in coil 1: (a) i a = 20.0; (b) i b = 20t; (c) i c = 10t. Rank the currents accord- ing to the magnitude of the induced emf in coil 2, greatest first.
Review & Summary The magnetic flux Φ B through an area A in a magnetic field B is defined as Magnetic Flux →
→
→
Φ B = B ⋅ dA ,
(30.1.1)
where the integral is taken over the area. The SI unit of mag- netic flux is the weber, where 1 Wb = 1 T· m2 . If B is perpendicu- lar to the area and uniform over it, Eq. 30.1.1 becomes →
(30.1.2)
Φ B = BA ( B ⊥ A, B uniform). →
→
If the magnetic flux Φ B through an area bounded by a closed conducting loop changes with time, a current and an emf are produced in the loop; this process is called induction. The induced emf is Faraday’s Law of Induction
d Φ B ℰ = − ____ (Faraday’s law). dt
(30.1.4)
If the loop is replaced by a closely packed coil of N turns, the induced emf is d ΦB ℰ = −N ____ . dt
(30.1.5)
An induced current has a direction such that the magnetic field due to the current opposes the change in the magnetic flux that induces the current. The induced emf has the same direction as the induced current. Lenz’s Law
An emf is induced by a changing magnetic flux even if the loop through which the flux is changing is not a physical conductor but an imagi- nary line. The changing magnetic field induces an electric field E at every point of such a loop; the induced emf is related to E by Emf and the Induced Electric Field
→
→
ℰ = E ⋅ d s , →
(30.3.4)
→
∮
where the integration is taken around the loop. From Eq. 30.3.4 we can write Faraday’s law in its most general form, →
(30.3.5)
dt
A changing magnetic field induces an electric field E . →
An inductor is a device that can be used to pro- duce a known magnetic field in a specified region. If a current i is established through each of the N windings of an inductor, Inductors
If a current i in a coil changes with time, an emf is induced in the coil. This self-induced emf is di . ℰ L = −L __ (30.5.3) dt The direction of ℰ L is found from Lenz’s law: The self-induced emf acts to oppose the change that produces it. Self-Induction
If a constant emf ℰ is introduced into a single-loop circuit containing a resistance R and an inductance L, the current rises to an equilibrium value of ℰ/R: ℰ (1 − e −t/ τL ) i = __ (30.6.6) (rise of current). R Here τL (= L/R) is the inductive time constant. When the source of constant emf is removed, the current decays from a value i 0 according to Series RL Circuits
i = i 0 e −t/ τL (decay of current).
(30.6.10)
If an inductor L carries a current i, the inductor’s magnetic field stores an energy given by Magnetic Energy
1 2 U B = _ Li (magnetic energy). 2
(30.7.4)
If B is the magnitude of a magnetic field at any point (in an inductor or anywhere else), the density of stored magnetic energy at that point is B 2 (magnetic energy density). u B = ___ 2 μ0
(30.8.3)
If coils 1 and 2 are near each other, a changing current in either coil can induce an emf in the other. This mutual induction is described by di 1 (30.9.8) ℰ 2 = −M ___ dt di 2 and (30.9.9) ℰ 1 = −M ___ , dt where M (measured in henries) is the mutual inductance. Mutual Induction
d ΦB E ⋅ d s = − ____ (Faraday’s law). ∮ →
a magnetic flux Φ B links those windings. The inductance L of the inductor is N Φ B (30.4.1) L = _____ (inductance defined). i The SI unit of inductance is the henry (H), where 1 henry = 1 H = 1 T· m2 /A. The inductance per unit length near the middle of a long solenoid of cross-sectional area A and n turns per unit length is L = μ n 2 A (solenoid). __ (30.4.4) 0 l
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946
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
Questions If the circular conductor in Fig. 30.1 undergoes thermal expansion while it is in a uniform magnetic field, a current is induced clock- wise around it. Is the magnetic field directed into or out of the page?
four concentric circular paths. Rank the paths according to the magnitude of ∮ E ⋅ d s evaluated along them, greatest first.
1
→
→
c
a
Figure 30.1
Question 1.
The wire loop in Fig. 30.2a is subjected, in turn, to six uniform magnetic fields, each directed parallel to the z axis, which is directed out of the plane of the figure. Figure 30.2b gives the z components Bz of the fields versus time t. (Plots 1 and 3 are parallel; so are plots 4 and 6. Plots 2 and 5 are parallel to the time axis.) Rank the six plots according to the emf induced in the loop, greatest clockwise emf first, greatest counterclock- wise emf last.
b d
2
Figure 30.5
Question 5.
In Fig. 30.6, a wire loop has been bent so that it has three segments: segment bc (a quarter-circle), ac (a square corner), and ab (straight). Here are three choices for a magnetic field through the loop: y (1) B 1 = 3 ˆ i + 7 ˆ j − 5tk ̂ , 6
→
Bz
y
1
2
(2) B 2 = 5t ˆ i − 4 ˆ j − 15 k̂ , (3) B 3 = 2 ˆ i − 5t ˆ j − 12 k̂ ,
3
→
x
5 (a )
4
t
6
(b ) Figure 30.2
c
→
Question 2.
In Fig. 30.3, a long straight wire with current i passes (with- out touching) three rectangular wire loops with edge lengths L, 1.5L, and 2L. The loops are widely spaced (so as not to affect one another). Loops 1 and 3 are symmetric about the long wire. Rank the loops according to the size of the current induced in them if current i is (a) constant and (b) increasing, greatest first. 3
b
→
x
where B is in milliteslas and t is in a seconds. Without written calcula- z tion, rank the choices according to (a) the work done per unit charge in setting up the induced current and Figure 30.6 Question 6. (b) that induced current, greatest first. (c) For each choice, what is the direction of the induced current in the figure? Figure 30.7 shows a circuit with two identical resistors and an ideal inductor. Is the current through the central resistor more than, less than, or the same as that through the other resistor (a) just after the closing of switch S, (b) a long time after that, (c) just after S is reopened a long time later, and (d) a long time after that? 7
i
2
+ –
3
1 Figure 30.3
Question 3.
S
v
(1)
(2) Figure 30.4
v
Question 4.
Figure 30.5 shows a circular region in which a decreasing uniform magnetic field is directed out of the page, as well as 5
Figure 30.7
Question 7.
The switch in the circuit of Fig. 30.6.1 has been closed on a for a very long time when it is then thrown to b. The result- ing current through the inductor is indicated in Fig. 30.8 for four sets of values for the resistance R and inductance L: (1) R 0 and L 0 , (2) 2R 0 and L 0 , (3) R 0 and 2L 0 , (4) 2R 0 and 2L 0 . Which set goes with which curve? 8
d
i
Figure 30.4 shows two circuits in which a conducting bar is slid at the same speed v through the same uniform magnetic field and along a U-shaped wire. The parallel lengths of the wire are separated by 2L in circuit 1 and by L in circuit 2. The current induced in circuit 1 is counterclockwise. (a) Is the magnetic field into or out of the page? (b) Is the current induced in circuit 2 clockwise or counterclockwise? (c) Is the emf induced in circuit 1 larger than, smaller than, or the same as that in circuit 2? 4
b c a
t
Figure 30.8
Question 8.
Figure 30.9 shows three cir- cuits with identical batteries, inductors, and resistors. Rank the circuits, greatest first, according to the current through the resis- tor labeled R (a) long after the switch is closed, (b) just after 9
/
947
P ROBL EMS
the switch is reopened a long time later, and (c) long after it is reopened.
a battery is part of the loop. In which situations are the induced emf and the battery emf in the same direction along the loop? +
̶ B
+ –
+ –
R
+ –
B
R
R
̶ +
= 0
B
increasing
B
(a )
(2) Figure 30.9
(3)
decreasing
B
= 0
decreasing
(c )
Question 11.
Figure 30.12 gives four situations in which we pull rectangular wire loops out of identical magnetic fields (directed into the page) at the same constant speed. The loops have edge lengths of either L or 2L, as drawn. Rank the situations according to (a) the mag- nitude of the force required of us and (b) the rate at which energy is transferred from us to thermal energy of the loop, greatest first. 12
Question 9.
Figure 30.10 gives the varia- tion with time of the potential difference V R across a resistor in three circuits wired as shown in Fig. 30.6.2. The circuits contain the same resistance R and emf ℰ but differ in the inductance L. Rank the circuits according to the value of L, greatest first.
B
(b ) Figure 30.11
(1)
̶ +
= 0
10
a b R
V
c
B
B
B
B
t
Figure 30.10
Question 10.
Figure 30.11 shows three situations in which a wire loop lies partially in a magnetic field. The magnitude of the field is either increasing or decreasing, as indicated. In each situation, 11
(1)
(2)
(3)
Figure 30.12
(4)
Question 12.
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
BIO
FCP Additional information available in The
Flying Circus of Physics
Faraday’s Law and
→
1 E
→
θ
N
→
Loop
→
Figure 30.13
Problem 1.
A certain elastic conducting material is stretched into a cir- cular loop of 12.0 cm radius. It is placed with its plane perpen- dicular to a uniform 0.800 T magnetic field. When released, the radius of the loop starts to shrink at an instantaneous rate of 75.0 cm/s. What emf is induced in the loop at that instant? 2 E
E CALC SSM In Fig. 30.14, a Coil 120-turn coil of radius 1.8 cm and resistance 5.3 Ω is coaxial with a solenoid of 220 turns/cm and diameter 3.2 cm. The solenoid current drops from 1.5 A to zero Solenoid in time interval Δt = 25 ms. What Figure 30.14 Problem 3. current is induced in the coil dur- ing Δt?
3
E CALC A wire loop of radius B 12 cm and resistance 8.5 Ω is located in a uniform magnetic field B that 0 t changes in magnitude as given in Fig. t (s) 30.15. The vertical axis scale is set by Figure 30.15 Problem 4. B s = 0.50 T, and the horizontal axis scale is set by t s = 6.00 s. The loop’s plane is perpendicular to B . What emf is induced in the loop during time intervals (a) 0 to 2.0 s, (b) 2.0 s to 4.0 s, and (c) 4.0 s to 6.0 s?
4
B
Lenz’s Law
In Fig. 30.13, a circular loop of wire 10 cm in diameter (seen edge-on) is placed with its normal N at an angle θ = 30° with the direc- tion of a uniform magnetic field B of mag- nitude 0.50 T. The loop is then rotated such that N rotates in a cone about the field direc- tion at the rate 100 rev/min; angle θ remains unchanged during the process. What is the emf induced in the loop?
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
)T( B
Module 30.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard
s
s
→
E In Fig. 30.16, a wire forms a closed circular loop, of radius R R = 2.0 m and resistance 4.0 Ω. The circle is centered on a long straight wire; at time t = 0, the current in the long straight wire Figure 30.16 Problem 5. is 5.0 A rightward. Thereafter, the current changes according to i = 5.0 A – (2.0 A/s 2 )t 2 . (The straight wire is insulated; so there is no electrical contact between it and the wire of the loop.) What is the magnitude of the current induced in the loop at times t > 0?
5
CALC Figure 30.17a shows a circuit consisting of an ideal battery with emf ℰ = 6.00 μ V, a resistance R, and a small wire loop of area 5.0 cm 2 . For the time interval t = 10 s to t = 20 s, an external magnetic field is set up throughout the loop. The field is uniform, its direction is into the page in Fig. 30.17a, and the field
6 E
/
948
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
magnitude is given by B = at, where B is in teslas, a is a constant, and t is in seconds. Figure 30.17b gives the current i in the circuit before, during, and after the external field is set up. The vertical axis scale is set by i s = 2.0 mA. Find the constant a in the equa- tion for the field magnitude.
when the loop is rotated at 60.0 rev/s in a uniform magnetic field of 0.500 T? Sliding contacts B
b
R
(a )
0
(b )
30 t
Figure 30.17
Figure 30.20
Problem 6.
Problem 11.
M CALC In Fig. 30.21, a wire loop y of lengths L = 40.0 cm and W = 25.0 cm L lies in a magnetic field B . What are the W (a) magnitude ℰ and (b) direction (clock- wise or counterclockwise—or “none” if ℰ x = 0) of the emf induced in the loop if B = Figure 30.21 (4.00 × 10 −2 T/m) yk ̂ ? What are (c) ℰ and (d) Problem 12. direction if B = (6.00 × 10 −2 T / s) tk ̂ ? What are (e) ℰ and (f) direction if B = (8.00 × 10 −2 T / m ⋅ s) ytk ̂ ? What are (g) ℰ and (h) direction if B = (3.00 × 10 −2 T / m ⋅ s) xt ˆ j? What are (i) ℰ and (j) direction if B = (5.00 × 10 −2 T / m ⋅ s) yt ˆ i?
12
E CALC
B
→
→
→
→
A uniform magnetic field B is R perpendicular to the plane of a cir- Figure 30.18 Problem 7. cular loop of diameter 10 cm formed from wire of diameter 2.5 mm and resistivity 1.69 × 10 −8 Ω · m. At what rate must the magnitude of B change to induce a 10 A current in the loop? 8
a
(s)
In Fig. 30.18, the magnetic flux through the loop increases accord- ing to the relation Φ B = 6.0t 2 + 7.0t, where Φ B is in milliwebers and t is in seconds. (a) What is the magnitude of the emf induced in the loop when t = 2.0 s? (b) Is the direction of the cur- rent through R to the right or left? 7
R
)Am( i
is
→
E
→
A small loop of area 6.8 mm 2 is placed inside a long solenoid that has 854 turns/cm and carries a sinusoidally varying current i of amplitude 1.28 A and angular frequency 212 rad/s. The cen- tral axes of the loop and solenoid coincide. What is the ampli- tude of the emf induced in the loop? 9 E
CALC Figure 30.19 shows a Magnetic closed loop of wire that consists of field a pair of equal semicircles, of radius 3.7 cm, lying in mutually perpendic- ular planes. The loop was formed by folding a flat circular loop along a diameter until the two halves became perpendicular to each other. A uniform magnetic field B of magnitude 76 mT is directed perpendicular to the fold diameter Figure 30.19 Problem 10. and makes equal angles (of 45°) with the planes of the semicircles. The magnetic field is reduced to zero at a uniform rate during a time interval of 4.5 ms. During this interval, what are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction (clockwise or counterclockwise when viewed along the direction of B ) of the emf induced in the loop?
10 M
→
→
M One hundred turns of (insulated) copper wire are wrapped around a wooden cylindrical core of cross-sectional area 1.20 × 10 −3 m 2 . The two ends of the wire are connected to a resistor. The total resistance in the circuit is 13.0 Ω. If an exter- nally applied uniform longitudinal magnetic field in the core changes from 1.60 T in one direction to 1.60 T in the opposite direction, how much charge flows through a point in the circuit during the change?
13
→
In Fig. 30.22a, a uniform magnetic field B increases in magnitude with time t as given by Fig. 30.22b, where the vertical axis scale is set by B s = 9.0 mT and the hori- zontal scale is set by t s = 3.0 s. A circular conducting loop of area 8.0 × 10 −4 m 2 lies in the field, in the plane of the page. The amount of charge q passing point A on the loop is given in Fig. 30.22c as a function of t, with the vertical axis scale set by q s = 6.0 mC and the horizontal axis scale again set by t s = 3.0 s. What is the loop’s resistance? 14
M
CALC
GO
→
A rectangular coil of N turns and of length a and width b is rotated at frequency f in a uniform magnetic field B , as indicated in Fig. 30.20. The coil is connected to co-rotating cylinders, against which metal brushes slide to make contact. (a) Show that the emf induced in the coil is given (as a function of time t) by CALC
→
ℰ = 2πfNabB sin(2 πft) = ℰ 0 sin(2 πft). This is the principle of the commercial alternating-current gen- erator. (b) What value of Nab gives an emf with ℰ 0 = 150 V
0 t
(a)
→
11 M
)Cm( q
B A
qs
)Tm( B
Bs
0
ts
(s)
t
(b ) Figure 30.22
ts
(s)
(c )
Problem 14.
GO A square wire M CALC loop with 2.00 m sides is perpen- dicular to a uniform magnetic field, with half the area of the loop in the field as shown in Fig. 30.23. The loop contains an ideal battery with emf ℰ = 20.0 V. If the magnitude of the field varies with time according to B = 0.0420 – 0.870t, with B in tes- las and t in seconds, what are (a) 15
B
bat Figure 30.23
Problem 15.
/
P ROBL EMS
the net emf in the circuit and (b) the direction of the (net) cur- rent around the loop? GO Figure 30.24a shows a wire that forms a rect- M CALC angle (W = 20 cm, H = 30 cm) and has a resistance of 5.0 mΩ. Its interior is split into three equal areas, with magnetic fields B 1 , B 2 , and B 3 .The fields are uniform within each region and directly out of or into the page as indicated. Figure 30.24b gives the change in the z components B z of the three fields with time t; the vertical axis scale is set by B s = 4.0 μ T and B b = –2.5B s , and the horizontal axis scale is set by t s = 2.0 s. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the current induced in the wire? 16
→
→
→
y
Bs
0
B1
B2
2 ts
)T( z B
H
1
3
B3 x W
–Bb t
(a )
(s)
(b ) Figure 30.24
Problem 16.
2 CALC A small circular loop of area 2.00 cm is placed in the plane of, and concentric with, a large circular loop of radius 1.00 m. The current in the large loop is changed at a constant rate from 200 A to –200 A (a change in direction) in a time of 1.00 s, starting at t = 0. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field B at the center of the small loop due to the current in the large loop at (a) t = 0, (b) t = 0.500 s, and (c) t = 1.00 s? (d) From t = 0 to t = 1.00 s, is B reversed? Because the inner loop is small, assume B is uniform over its area. (e) What emf is induced in the small loop at t = 0.500 s? 17 M
→
→
→
M CALC In Fig. 30.25, two straight conducting rails form v a right angle. A conducting bar in contact with the rails starts at the vertex at time t = 0 and B moves with a constant velocity of 5.20 m/s along them. A magnetic Figure 30.25 Problem 18. field with B = 0.350 T is directed out of the page. Calculate (a) the flux through the triangle formed by the rails and bar at t = 3.00 s and (b) the emf around the triangle at that time. (c) If the emf is ℰ = at n , where a and n are constants, what is the value of n?
18
M CALC An electric generator contains a coil of 100 turns of wire, each forming a rectangular loop 50.0 cm by 30.0 cm. The coil is placed entirely in a uniform magnetic field with magnitude B = 3.50 T and with B initially perpendicular to the coil’s plane. What is the maximum value of the emf produced when the coil is spun at 1000 rev/min about an axis perpendicular to B ?
19
→
→
At a certain place, Earth’s magnetic field has magnitude B = 0.590 gauss and is inclined downward at an angle of 70.0° to the horizontal. A flat horizontal circular coil of wire with a radius of 10.0 cm has 1000 turns and a total resistance of 85.0 Ω. It is connected in series to a meter with 140 Ω resistance. The coil is flipped through a half-revolution about a diameter, so 20 M
949
that it is again horizontal. How much charge flows through the meter during the flip? M CALC In Fig. 30.26, a stiff wire bent into a semicircle of radius a = 2.0 cm is rotated at constant angular speed 40 rev/s in a uniform 20 mT magnetic field. What are the (a) frequency and (b) amplitude of the emf induced in the loop?
21
a
B
R
A rectangular loop (area = Figure 30.26 Problem 21. 0.15 m 2 ) turns in a uniform mag- netic field, B = 0.20 T. When the angle between the field and the normal to the plane of the loop is π/2 rad and increasing at 0.60 rad/s, what emf is induced in the loop? 22 M
M CALC SSM Figure 30.27 shows two parallel loops of wire r having a common axis. The smaller loop (radius r) is above the larger loop (radius R) by a x distance x ⪢ R. Consequently, the magnetic field due to the counter- R clockwise current i in the larger i loop is nearly uniform throughout the smaller loop. Suppose that x Figure 30.27 Problem 23. is increasing at the constant rate dx/dt = v. (a) Find an expression for the magnetic flux through the area of the smaller loop as a function of x. (Hint: See Eq. 29.5.3.) In the smaller loop, find (b) an expression for the induced emf and (c) the direction of the induced current.
23
M CALC A wire is bent into three circular segments, each of radius r = 10 cm, as shown in Fig. 30.28. Each segment is a quadrant of a circle, ab lying in the xy plane, bc lying in the yz plane, and ca lying in the zx plane. (a) If a uniform magnetic field B points in the positive x direction, what is the magnitude of the emf developed in the wire when B increases at the rate of 3.0 mT/s? (b) What is the direction of the current in segment bc?
24
z
c
r r
→
b
y
r
a x
Figure 30.28
Problem 24.
GO Two long, parallel copper wires of diameter 2.5 mm carry currents of 10 A in opposite directions. (a) Assuming that their central axes are 20 mm apart, calculate the magnetic flux per meter of wire that exists in the space between those axes. (b) What percentage of this flux lies inside the wires? (c) Repeat part (a) for parallel currents. 25 H
GO For the wire CALC H arrangement in Fig. 30.29, a = 12.0 cm and b = 16.0 cm. The current in the long straight wire is i = 4.50t 2 – 10.0t, where i is in amperes and t is in seconds. (a) Find the emf in the square loop at t = 3.00 s. (b) What is the direction of the induced current in the loop? 26
i b a
b
Figure 30.29
Problem 26.
/
950
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
As seen in Fig. 30.30, a square loop of wire has sides of length 2.0 cm. A mag- netic field is directed out of the page; its magnitude is given by B = 4.0t 2 y, where B is in teslas, t is in seconds, and y is in meters. At t = 2.5 s, what are the (a) mag- nitude and (b) direction of the emf induced in the loop? 27
A loop antenna of area 2.00 cm 2 and resistance 5.21 μ Ω is perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 17.0 μ T. The field magnitude drops to zero in 2.96 ms. How much thermal energy is produced in the loop by the change in field?
y
CALC
H
32
H
CALC
Module 30.2
x
GO
E
→
E CALC In Fig. 30.33a, a circular loop of wire is concentric with a solenoid and lies in a plane perpendicular to the solenoid’s central axis. The loop has radius 6.00 cm. The solenoid has radius 2.00 cm, consists of 8000 turns/m, and has a current i sol varying with time t as given in Fig. 30.33b, where the vertical axis scale is set by i s = 1.00 A and the horizontal axis scale is set by t s = 2.0 s. Figure 30.33c shows, as a function of time, the energy E th that is transferred to thermal energy of the loop; the vertical axis scale is set by E s = 100.0 nJ. What is the loop’s resistance?
30
)A( losi
)J n( ht E
is
0 t
(a )
(s)
ts
(b ) Figure 30.33
Es
CALC In Fig. 30.35, a long rectangular conducting loop, of width L, resistance R, and mass m, is hung in a horizontal, uniform magnetic field B that is directed into the page and that exists only above line aa. The loop is then dropped; during its fall, it acceler- ates until it reaches a certain ter- minal speed v t . Ignoring air drag, find an expression for v t .
L
B
→
a
a
mg
The conducting rod shown Figure 30.35 Problem 34. in Fig. 30.32 has length L and is being pulled along horizontal, frictionless conducting rails at a constant velocity v . The rails are connected at one end with a metal strip. A uniform magnetic field B , directed out of the page, fills the region in which the rod moves. Assume that L = 10 cm, v = 5.0 m/s, and B = 1.2 T. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction (up or down the page) of the emf induced in the rod? What are the (c) size and (d) direction of the current in the conducting loop? Assume that the resis- tance of the rod is 0.40 Ω and that the resistance of the rails and metal strip is negligibly small. (e) At what rate is thermal energy being generated in the rod? (f) What external force on the rod is needed to maintain v ? (g) At what rate does this force do work on the rod? 35 M
→
→
→
Module 30.3
0 t
(s)
ts
(c )
Problem 30.
E CALC SSM If 50.0 cm of copper wire (diameter = 1.00 mm) is formed into a circular loop and placed perpendicu- lar to a uniform magnetic field that is increasing at the constant rate of 10.0 mT/s, at what rate is thermal energy generated in the loop?
31
GO Figure 30.34 CALC M shows a rod of length L = 10.0 cm i that is forced to move at con- stant speed v = 5.00 m/s along horizontal rails. The rod, rails, a and connecting strip at the right form a conducting loop. The rod has resistance 0.400 Ω; the rest of v L B the loop has negligible resistance. A current i = 100 A through the long straight wire at distance a = 10.0 mm from the loop sets Figure 30.34 Problem 33. up a (nonuniform) magnetic field through the loop. Find the (a) emf and (b) current induced in the loop. (c) At what rate is thermal energy generated in the rod? (d) What is the magnitude of the force that must be applied to the rod to make it move at constant speed? (e) At what rate does this force do work on the rod? 34 M
Induction and Energy Transfers
In Fig. 30.32, a metal rod is forced to move with constant v velocity v along two parallel L metal rails, connected with a strip of metal at one end. A magnetic B field of magnitude B = 0.350 T Figure 30.32 points out of the page. (a) If the Problems 29 and 35. rails are separated by L = 25.0 cm and the speed of the rod is 55.0 cm/s, what emf is generated? (b) If the rod has a resistance of 18.0 Ω and the rails and connector have negligible resistance, what is the current in the rod? (c) At what rate is energy being transferred to thermal energy? 29
CALC
33
B
Figure 30.30 Problem 27. In Fig. 30.31, a a rectangular loop of wire with length a = 2.2 cm, width b v b = 0.80 cm, and resistance R = 0.40 mΩ is placed near an r infinitely long wire carrying cur- i rent i = 4.7 A. The loop is then moved away from the wire at Figure 30.31 Problem 28. constant speed v = 3.2 mm/s. When the center of the loop is at distance r = 1.5b, what are (a) the magnitude of the magnetic flux through the loop and (b) the current induced in the loop?
28
E
Induced
Electric Fields E CALC Figure 30.36 shows two circular regions R 1 and R 2 with radii r 1 = 20.0 cm and r 2 = 30.0 cm. In R 1 there is a uniform magnetic field of magnitude B 1 = 50.0 mT directed into the page, and in R 2 there is a uniform magnetic field of magnitude B 2 = 75.0 mT directed out of the page (ignore
36
Path 3
R1
R2
Path 1 Path 2 Figure 30.36
Problem 36.
/
P ROBL EMS
fringing). Both fields are decreasing at the rate of 8.50 mT/s. Cal- culate ∮ E ⋅ d s for (a) path 1, (b) path 2, and (c) path 3. →
→
E CALC SSM A long solenoid has a diameter of 12.0 cm. When a current i exists in its windings, a uniform magnetic field of magnitude B = 30.0 mT is produced in its interior. By decreasing i, the field is caused to decrease at the rate of 6.50 mT/s. Calculate the magnitude of the induced electric field (a) 2.20 cm and (b) 8.20 cm from the axis of the solenoid.
37
38 M
CALC
GO A circular region
Es
)C/Nμ ( E
s
M CALC The magnetic field of a cylindrical magnet that has a pole-face diameter of 3.3 cm can be varied sinusoidally between 29.6 T and 30.0 T at a frequency of 15 Hz. (The cur- rent in a wire wrapped around a permanent magnet is varied to give this variation in the net field.) At a radial distance of 1.6 cm, what is the amplitude of the electric field induced by the variation?
39
Module 30.4
Inductors and Inductance
E The inductance of a closely packed coil of 400 turns is 8.0 mH. Calculate the magnetic flux through the coil when the current is 5.0 mA.
40
E A circular coil has a 10.0 cm radius and consists of 30.0 closely wound turns of wire. An externally produced magnetic field of magnitude 2.60 mT is perpendicular to the coil. (a) If no current is in the coil, what magnetic flux links its turns? (b) When the current in the coil is 3.80 A in a certain direc- tion, the net flux through the coil is found to vanish. What is the inductance of the coil?
41
M Figure 30.38 shows a copper strip of width W = 16.0 cm that has been bent to form a shape that consists of a tube of radius R = 1.8 cm plus two parallel flat extensions. Current i = 35 mA is distributed uniformly across the width so that the tube is effec- tively a one-turn solenoid. Assume that the magnetic field outside the tube is negligible and the field inside the tube is uniform. What are (a) the magnetic field magnitude inside the tube and (b) the inductance of the tube (excluding the flat extensions)?
42
43 M
CALC
GO Two identical long wires of
Self-Induction
A 12 H inductor carries a current of 2.0 A. At what rate must the current be changed to produce a 60 V emf in the inductor? 44 E
CALC At a given instant the current and self-induced i emf in an inductor are directed as indicated in Fig. 30.39. (a) Figure 30.39 Problem 45. Is the current increasing or decreasing? (b) The induced emf is 17 V, and the rate of change of the current is 25 kA/s; find the inductance.
45 E
L
M CALC The current i i through a 4.6 H inductor varies with time t as shown by the graph of Fig. 30.40, where the vertical axis scale is set by i s = 8.0 A and the horizontal axis scale is set by 0 t t s = 6.0 ms. The inductor has a t (ms) resistance of 12 Ω. Find the mag- Figure 30.40 Problem 46. nitude of the induced emf ℰ dur- ing time intervals (a) 0 to 2 ms, (b) 2 ms to 5 ms, and (c) 5 ms to 6 ms. (Ignore the behavior at the ends of the intervals.)
46
s
)A( i
in an xy plane is penetrated by a uniform magnetic field in the positive direction of the z axis. The field’s magnitude B (in tes- las) increases with time t (in sec- 0 r onds) according to B = at, where r (cm) a is a constant. The magnitude E of the electric field set up by that Figure 30.37 Problem 38. increase in the magnetic field is given by Fig. 30.37 versus radial distance r; the vertical axis scale is set by E s = 300 μN/C, and the horizontal axis scale is set by r s = 4.00 cm. Find a.
Module 30.5
951
s
M Inductors in series. Two inductors L 1 and L 2 are con- nected in series and are separated by a large distance so that the magnetic field of one cannot affect the other. (a) Show that the equivalent inductance is given by
47
L eq = L 1 + L 2 . (Hint: Review the derivations for resistors in series and capaci- tors in series. Which is similar here?) (b) What is the generaliza- tion of (a) for N inductors in series? CALC Inductors in parallel. Two inductors L 1 and L 2 are connected in parallel and separated by a large distance so that the magnetic field of one cannot affect the other. (a) Show that the equivalent inductance is given by
48 M
1 = ___ 1 + ___ 1 . ___
L eq L 1 L 2 (Hint: Review the derivations for resistors in parallel and capacitors in parallel. Which is similar here?) (b) What is the generalization of (a) for N inductors in parallel? The inductor arrangement of Fig. 30.41, with L 1 = 30.0 mH, L 2 = 50.0 mH, L 3 = 20.0 mH, and L 4 = 15.0 mH, is to be connected to a varying current source. What is the equivalent inductance of the arrangement? (First see Problems 47 and 48.) 49 M
i
i
R
W
i
Module 30.6
L1 L2
L3
L4
Figure 30.41
Problem 49.
RL Circuits
The current in an RL circuit builds up to one-third of its steady-state value in 5.00 s. Find the inductive time constant. 50 E
Figure 30.38
Problem 42.
radius a = 1.53 mm are parallel and carry identical currents in opposite directions. Their center-to-center separation is d = 14.2 cm. Neglect the flux within the wires but consider the flux in the region between the wires. What is the inductance per unit length of the wires?
The current in an RL circuit drops from 1.0 A to 10 mA in the first second following removal of the battery from the circuit. If L is 10 H, find the resistance R in the circuit. 51 E
The switch in Fig. 30.6.1 is closed on a at time t = 0. What is the ratio ℰ L /ℰ of the inductor’s self-induced emf to the battery’s 52 E
/
952
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
emf (a) just after t = 0 and (b) at t = 2.00τL ? (c) At what multiple of τL will ℰ L /ℰ = 0.500? SSM A solenoid having an inductance of 6.30 μH is con- nected in series with a 1.20 kΩ resistor. (a) If a 14.0 V battery is connected across the pair, how long will it take for the current through the resistor to reach 80.0% of its final value? (b) What is the current through the resistor at time t = 1.0τL ?
53 E
In Fig. 30.42, ℰ = 100 V, R 1 = i1 10.0 Ω, R 2 = 20.0 Ω, R 3 = 30.0 Ω, S and L = 2.00 H. Immediately R1 R3 after switch S is closed, what are + i2 (a) i 1 and (b) i 2 ? (Let currents R2 L – in the indicated directions have positive values and currents in the opposite directions have negative values.) A long time later, what Figure 30.42 Problem 54. are (c) i 1 and (d) i 2 ? The switch is then reopened. Just then, what are (e) i 1 and (f) i 2 ? A long time later, what are (g) i 1 and (h) i 2 ? 54 E
SSM A battery is connected to a series RL circuit at time t = 0. At what multiple of τL will the current be 0.100% less than its equilibrium value?
55 E
In Fig. 30.43, the inductor has 25 turns and the ideal battery has an emf of 16 V. Figure 30.44 gives the magnetic flux Φ through each turn versus the current i through the inductor. The vertical axis scale is set by Φ s = 4.0 × 10 −4 T· m2 , and the hor- izontal axis scale is set by i s = 2.00 A. If switch S is closed at time t = 0, at what rate di/dt will the current be changing at t = 1.5τL ? 56 E
CALC
R
L
Problems 56, 80, and 83.
)2m • T 4 – 01( Φ
Φ s
S
0
is i
Figure 30.44
(A)
Problem 56.
GO
In Fig. 30.45, Fuse R = 15 Ω, L = 5.0 H, the ideal battery has ℰ = 10 V, and the fuse in the upper branch is an ideal R 3.0 A fuse. It has zero resistance + S as long as the current through it – L remains less than 3.0 A. If the current reaches 3.0 A, the fuse Figure 30.45 Problem 57. “blows” and thereafter has infi- nite resistance. Switch S is closed at time t = 0. (a) When does the fuse blow? (Hint: Equation 30.6.6 does not apply. Rethink Eq. 30.6.4.) (b) Sketch a graph of the current i through the induc- tor as a function of time. Mark the time at which the fuse blows. M
CALC
M GO Suppose the emf of the battery in the circuit shown in Fig. 30.6.2 varies with time t so that the current is given by i(t) = 3.0 + 5.0t, where i is in amperes and t is in seconds. Take R = 4.0 Ω and L = 6.0 H, and find an expression for the battery emf as a function of t. (Hint: Apply the loop rule.)
58
In Fig. 30.46, after switch S is closed at time t = 0, the emf of the source is automatically adjusted to maintain a 59 H
SSM
S R
L
H CALC A wooden toroidal Figure 30.46 Problem 59. core with a square cross section has an inner radius of 10 cm and an outer radius of 12 cm. It is wound with one layer of wire (of diameter 1.0 mm and resistance per meter 0.020 Ω/m). What are (a) the inductance and (b) the inductive time constant of the resulting toroid? Ignore the thickness of the insulation on the wire.
60
Module 30.7
Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field
A coil is connected in series with a 10.0 kΩ resistor. An ideal 50.0 V battery is applied across the two devices, and the current reaches a value of 2.00 mA after 5.00 ms. (a) Find the inductance of the coil. (b) How much energy is stored in the coil at this same moment? 61 E
SSM
E CALC A coil with an inductance of 2.0 H and a resis- tance of 10 Ω is suddenly connected to an ideal battery with ℰ = 100 V. At 0.10 s after the connection is made, what is the rate at which (a) energy is being stored in the magnetic field, (b) thermal energy is appearing in the resistance, and (c) energy is being delivered by the battery?
62
CALC At t = 0, a battery is connected to a series arrange- ment of a resistor and an inductor. If the inductive time constant is 37.0 ms, at what time is the rate at which energy is dissipated in the resistor equal to the rate at which energy is stored in the inductor’s magnetic field?
63 E
At t = 0, a battery is connected to a series arrangement of a resistor and an inductor. At what multiple of the inductive time constant will the energy stored in the inductor’s magnetic field be 0.500 its steady-state value? 64 E
Figure 30.43
57
constant current i through S. (a) Find the current through the inductor as a function of time. Constant (b) At what time is the current current through the resistor equal to the source current through the inductor?
M CALC GO For the circuit of Fig. 30.6.2, assume that ℰ = 10.0 V, R = 6.70 Ω, and L = 5.50 H. The ideal battery is connected at time t = 0. (a) How much energy is delivered by the battery during the first 2.00 s? (b) How much of this energy is stored in the magnetic field of the inductor? (c) How much of this energy is dissipated in the resistor?
65
Module 30.8
Energy Density of a Magnetic Field
A circular loop of wire 50 mm in radius carries a current of 100 A. Find the (a) magnetic field strength and (b) energy density at the center of the loop. 66 E
SSM A solenoid that is 85.0 cm long has a cross-sectional area of 17.0 cm 2 . There are 950 turns of wire carrying a current of 6.60 A. (a) Calculate the energy density of the magnetic field inside the solenoid. (b) Find the total energy stored in the mag- netic field there (neglect end effects).
67 E
E A toroidal inductor with an inductance of 90.0 mH encloses a volume of 0.0200 m 3 . If the average energy density in the toroid is 70.0 J/m 3 , what is the current through the inductor?
68
What must be the magnitude of a uniform electric field if it is to have the same energy density as that possessed by a 0.50 T magnetic field? 69 E
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P ROBL EMS
GO Figure 30.47a shows, M y in cross section, two wires that are straight, parallel, and very 1 2 x long. The ratio i 1 /i 2 of the current carried by wire 1 to that carried (a ) by wire 2 is 1/3. Wire 1 is fixed 2 in place. Wire 2 can be moved along the positive side of the x axis so as to change the mag- 1 netic energy density u B set up by the two currents at the origin. Figure 30.47b gives u B as a func- 0 x tion of the position x of wire 2. x (cm) The curve has an asymptote of (b ) u B = 1.96 nJ/m 3 as x → ∞, and Figure 30.47 Problem 70. the horizontal axis scale is set by x s = 60.0 cm. What is the value of (a) i 1 and (b) i 2 ?
(a) Show that this combination can be replaced by a single coil of equivalent inductance given by
70
L eq = L 1 + L 2 + 2M. (b) How could the coils in Fig. 30.50 be reconnected to yield an equivalent inductance of
)3 m/Jn( Bu
L eq = L 1 + L 2 – 2M? (This problem is an extension of Problem 47, but the require- ment that the coils be far apart has been removed.) L1 M
s
M A length of copper wire carries a current of 10 A uni- formly distributed through its cross section. Calculate the energy density of (a) the magnetic field and (b) the electric field at the surface of the wire. The wire diameter is 2.5 mm, and its resistance per unit length is 3.3 Ω/km.
L2
N1
N2
71
Module 30.9 E
SSM Two coils are at fixed locations. When coil 1 has no current and the current in coil 2 increases at the rate 15.0 A/s, the emf in coil 1 is 25.0 mV. (a) What is their mutual inductance? (b) When coil 2 has no current and coil 1 has a current of 3.60 A, what is the flux linkage in coil 2?
73 E
Two solenoids are part of the spark coil of an automobile. When the current in one solenoid falls from 6.0 A to zero in 2.5 ms, an emf of 30 kV is induced in the other solenoid. What is the mutual inductance M of the solenoids? 74 E
M CALC A rectangular loop of N closely packed turns is posi- tioned near a long straight wire as shown in Fig. 30.48. What is the mutual inductance M for the loop–wire combination if N = 100, a = 1.0 cm, b = 8.0 cm, and l = 30 cm?
75
a
i N
turns
b
l
M
M SSM Two coils connected as shown in Fig. 30.50 sepa- rately have inductances L 1 and L 2 . Their mutual inductance is M.
77
Figure 30.50
Problem 77.
Additional Problems CALC At time t = 0, a 12.0 V potential difference is suddenly applied to the leads of a coil of inductance 23.0 mH and a cer- tain resistance R. At time t = 0.150 ms, the current through the inductor is changing at the rate of 280 A/s. Evaluate R. SSM In Fig. 30.51, the battery S is ideal and ℰ = 10 V, R 1 = 5.0 Ω, R 2 = 10 Ω, and L = 5.0 H. Switch S i2 L is closed at time t = 0. Just + i1 R1 afterwards, what are (a) i 1 , (b) i 2 , – (c) the current i S through the R2 switch, (d) the potential differ- ence V 2 across resistor 2, (e) the potential difference V L across i the inductor, and (f) the rate of Figure 30.51 Problem 79. change di 2 /dt? A long time later, what are (g) i 1 , (h) i 2 , (i) i S , (j) V 2 , (k) V L , and (l) di 2 /dt?
79
In Fig. 30.43, R = 4.0 kΩ, L = 8.0 μ H, and the ideal battery has ℰ = 20 V. How long after switch S is closed is the current 2.0 mA? 80
CALC SSM Figure 30.52a 1 2 shows a rectangular conducting H loop of resistance R = 0.020 Ω, D height H = 1.5 cm, and length D = 2.5 cm being pulled at con- (a) stant speed v = 40 cm/s through i two regions of uniform mag- netic field. Figure 30.52b gives the current i induced in the loop x 0 as a function of the position x of the right side of the loop. The vertical axis scale is set by (b ) i s = 3.0 μ A. For example, a cur- Figure 30.52 Problem 81. rent equal to i s is induced clock- wise as the loop enters region 1. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction (into or out of the page) of the magnetic field in region 1? What are the (c) magnitude and (d) direction of the magnetic field in region 2?
81
s
)A ( i
Figure 30.48 Problem 75. A coil C of N turns is C placed around a long solenoid S S of radius R and n turns per unit R length, as in Fig. 30.49. (a) Show that the mutual inductance for the coil–solenoid combination is given by M = μ0 πR 2 nN. (b) Figure 30.49 Problem 76. Explain why M does not depend on the shape, size, or possible lack of close packing of the coil.
76
i i
78
Mutual Induction
Coil 1 has L 1 = 25 mH and N 1 = 100 turns. Coil 2 has L 2 = 40 mH and N 2 = 200 turns. The coils are fixed in place; their mutual inductance M is 3.0 mH. A 6.0 mA current in coil 1 is changing at the rate of 4.0 A/s. (a) What magnetic flux Φ 12 links coil 1, and (b) what self-induced emf appears in that coil? (c) What magnetic flux Φ 21 links coil 2, and (d) what mutually induced emf appears in that coil? 72
953
/
954
C HAP T ER 30 IND U C T ION AND IND U C T ANC E
A uniform magnetic field B is perpendicular to the plane of a circular wire loop of radius r. The magnitude of the field varies with time according to B = B 0 e –t/τ, where B 0 and τ are constants. Find an expression for the emf in the loop as a function of time. →
82
Switch S in Fig. 30.43 is closed at time t = 0, initiating the buildup of current in the 15.0 mH inductor and the 20.0 Ω resistor. At what time is the emf across the inductor equal to the potential difference across the resistor? 83
GO Figure 30.53a shows two concentric circular regions in which uniform magnetic fields can change. Region 1, with radius r 1 = 1.0 cm, has an outward mag- netic field B 1 that is increas- r1 ing in magnitude. Region 2, r2 with radius r 2 = 2.0 cm, has an outward magnetic field B 2 that (a) may also be changing. Imagine that a conducting ring of radius s R is centered on the two regions and then the emf ℰ around the ring is determined. Figure 30.53b gives emf ℰ as a function of the square R 2 of the ring’s radius, to the outer edge of region 2. The vertical axis scale is set 0 2 4 2 2 by ℰ s = 20.0 nV. What are the (b ) R (cm ) rates (a) dB 1 /dt and (b) dB 2 /dt? Figure 30.53 Problem 84. (c) Is the magnitude of B 2 in- creasing, decreasing, or remain- ing constant? 84 CALC
→
→
) Vn(
→
Figure 30.54 shows a uniform magnetic field B confined to a cylindri- cal volume of radius R. The magnitude of B is decreasing at a constant rate of 10 mT/s. In unit-vector notation, what is the initial acceleration of an electron released at (a) point a (radial distance r = 5.0 cm), (b) point b (r = 0), and (c) point c (r = 5.0 cm)? 85
CALC
y
SSM
→
R
r b
x
r B a
Figure 30.54
SSM In the circuit of Fig. 30.56, R 1 = 20 kΩ, R 2 = 20 Ω, L L = 50 mH, and the ideal bat- tery has ℰ = 40 V. Switch S has R1 R2 been open for a long time when it is closed at time t = 0. Just after S the switch is closed, what are (a) the current i bat through the bat- Figure 30.56 Problem 91. tery and (b) the rate di bat /dt? At t = 3.0 μs, what are (c) i bat and (d) di bat /dt? A long time later, what are (e) i bat and (f) di bat /dt?
91
The flux linkage through a certain coil of 0.75 Ω resistance would be 26 mWb if there were a current of 5.5 A in it. (a) Cal- culate the inductance of the coil. (b) If a 6.0 V ideal battery were suddenly connected across the coil, how long would it take for the current to rise from 0 to 2.5 A? CALC Fringing in a capacitor. Prove that the electric field E in a charged parallel capacitor cannot drop abruptly to zero as is suggested at point a in Fig. 30.57 as we move perpendic- ular to the field along the horizontal arrow in the figure. To do this, apply Faraday’s law to the rectangular path shown by the dashed lines. In actual capacitors fringing of the field lines always occurs, which means that the field approaches zero in a continuous and gradual way.
Problem 85.
B
L2 R2
Problem 86.
–q
Problem 93.
CALC Coaxial cable. A long coaxial cable consists of two thin-walled concentric conducting cylinders with radii a and b. The inner cylinder A carries a steady current i, the outer cylin- der B providing the return path. (a) Calculate the energy stored in the magnetic field between the cylinders for length l of the
94
B
(b )
a
Figure 30.57
L1 R1
+q
S
A
Figure 30.55
How long would it take, following the removal of the bat- tery, for the potential difference across the resistor in an RL circuit (with L = 2.00 H, R = 3.00 Ω) to decay to 10.0% of its initial value? 90
93
GO In Fig. 30.55a, switch S has been closed on A long enough to establish a steady current in the inductor of inductance L 1 = 5.00 mH and the resistor of resistance R 1 = 25.0 Ω. Similarly, in Fig. 30.55b, switch S has been closed on A long enough to estab- lish a steady current in the inductor of inductance L 2 = 3.00 mH and the resistor of resistance R 2 = 30.0 Ω. The ratio Φ 02 /Φ 01 of the magnetic flux through a turn in inductor 2 to that in inductor 1 is 1.50. At time t = 0, the two switches are closed on B. At what time t is the flux through a turn in the two inductors equal?
(a )
A coil with an inductance of 2.0 H and a resistance of 10 Ω is suddenly connected to an ideal battery with ℰ = 100 V. (a) What is the equilibrium current? (b) How much energy is stored in the magnetic field when this current exists in the coil? 89
→
86
S
A coil with 150 turns has a magnetic flux of 50.0 nT ⋅ m 2 through each turn when the current is 2.00 mA. (a) What is the inductance of the coil? What are the (b) inductance and (c) flux through each turn when the current is increased to 4.00 mA? (d) What is the maximum emf ℰ across the coil when the current through it is given by i = (3.00 mA) cos(377t), with t in seconds? 88
92 c
→
A
SSM A square wire loop 20 cm on a side, with resistance 20 mΩ, has its plane normal to a uniform magnetic field of mag- nitude B = 2.0 T. If you pull two opposite sides of the loop away from each other, the other two sides automatically draw toward each other, reducing the area enclosed by the loop. If the area is reduced to zero in time Δt = 0.20 s, what are (a) the average emf and (b) the average current induced in the loop during Δt?
87
/
P ROBL EMS
cable. (b) What is the stored energy per unit length of the cable if a = 1.2 mm, b = 3.5 mm, and i = 2.7 A? CALC Ballistic galvanometer. Circuit 1 in Fig. 30.58 consists of an ammeter in series with a battery and coil 1. Circuit 2 con- sists of coil 2 and a ballistic galvanometer of resistance R; the galvanometer can measure the charge that moves through itself. When switch S is closed, the equilibrium current reading on the ammeter is i f . The total charge sent through the galvanometer while the current circuit 2 reaches equilibrium is Q. Find the mutual inductance M between coils 1 and 2.
95
G
Coil 2
– +
Coil 1
Induction, large loop, small loop. A small circular loop of area 2.00 cm 2 is placed in the plane of, and concentric with, a large circular loop of radius 1.00 m. The current in the large loop is changed uniformly from 200 A to −200 A (a change in direction) in a time of 1.00 s, beginning at t = 0. (a) What is the magnetic field at the center of the small circular loop due to the current in the large loop at t = 0, t = 0.500 s, and t = 1.00 s? (b) What is the magnitude of the emf induced in the small loop at t = 0.500 s? Because the inner loop is small, assume the mag- netic field due to the outer loop is uniform over the area of the smaller loop. 97 CALC
CALC Currents first equal. Switch S in Fig. 30.60 is closed for time t XC: The circuit is said to be more inductive than capacitive. Equation 31.4.11 tells us that ϕ is positive for such a circuit, which means that phasor I rotates behind phasor ℰ m (Fig. 31.4.2a). A plot of ℰ and i versus time is like that in Fig. 31.4.2b. (Figures 31.4.1c and d were drawn assuming X L > X C.)
XC > XL: The circuit is said to be more capacitive than inductive. Equation 31.4.11 tells us that ϕ is negative for such a circuit, which means that phasor I rotates ahead of phasor ℰ m (Fig. 31.4.2c). A plot of ℰ and i versus time is like that in Fig. 31.4.2d.
XC = XL: The circuit is said to be in resonance, a state that is discussed next. Equation 31.4.11 tells us that ϕ = 0° for such a circuit, which means that phasors ℰ m and I rotate together (Fig. 31.4.2e). A plot of ℰ and i versus time is like that in Fig. 31.4.2f.
As illustration, let us reconsider two extreme circuits: In the purely inductive circuit of Fig. 31.3.7, where X L is nonzero and X C = R = 0, Eq. 31.4.11 tells us that the circuit’s phase constant is ϕ = +90° (the greatest value of ϕ ), consistent
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978
C HAP T ER 31 EL EC T ROMAGNET IC OSC IL L AT IONS AND AL T ERNAT ING C U RRENT
Positive ϕ means that the current lags the emf (ELI ): The phasor is vertical later and the curve peaks later.
ℰ,
Positive ϕ
i i
I
ℰ
ℰ
m
m
ℰ
t
I
(a)
Negative ϕ means that the current leads the emf (ICE ): The phasor is vertical earlier and the curve peaks earlier. Phasor diagrams and graphs of the alternating emf ℰ and current i for the driven RLC circuit of Fig. 31.3.2. In the phasor diagram of (a) and the graph of (b), the current i lags the driving emf ℰ and the current’s phase constant ϕ is positive. In (c) and (d), the cur- rent i leads the driving emf ℰ and its phase constant ϕ is nega- tive. In (e) and ( f ), the current i is in phase with the driving emf ℰ and its phase constant ϕ is zero.
(b )
ℰ,
I
ℰ
I
ℰ
Negative ϕ
i i
m
ℰ
m
t
Figure 31.4.2
(c )
Zero ϕ means that the current and emf are in phase: The phasors are vertical together and the curves peak together.
(d )
ℰ,
i
I
ℰ
m
ℰ
m
I
i
Zero
ϕ
ℰ t
(f )
(e )
with Fig. 31.3.8b. In the purely capacitive circuit of Fig. 31.3.5, where X C is nonzero and X L = R = 0, Eq. 31.4.11 tells us that the circuit’s phase constant is ϕ = −90° (the least value of ϕ ), consistent with Fig. 31.3.6b. Resonance
Equation 31.4.9 gives the current amplitude I in an RLC circuit as a function of the driving angular frequency ωd of the external alternating emf. For a given resistance R, that amplitude is a maximum when the quantity ωd L − 1/ω d C in the denominator is zero—that is, when 1 ω d L = ____ ω C d
or
1 _ ω d = ______ (maximum I). √ LC
(31.4.12)
Because the natural angular frequency ω of the RLC circuit is also equal to _ 1/ √ LC , the maximum value of I occurs when the driving angular frequency matches the natural angular frequency—that is, at resonance. Thus, in an RLC circuit, resonance and maximum current amplitude I occur when 1 _ ω d = ω = ______ (resonance). √ LC
(31.4.13)
Resonance Curves. Figure 31.4.3 shows three resonance curves for sinusoi- dally driven oscillations in three series RLC circuits differing only in R. Each
/
979
31.4 T HE SERIES RL C C IRC U IT
Resonance curves for the driven RLC circuit of Fig. 31.3.2 with L = 100 μH, C = 100 pF, and three values of R. The current amplitude I of the alternating current depends on how close the driving angular fre- quency ωd is to the natural angular frequency ω. The horizontal arrow on each curve measures the curve’s half- width, which is the width at the half- maximum level and is a measure of the sharpness of the resonance. To the left of ωd /ω = 1.00, the circuit is mainly capacitive, with X C > X L ; to the right, it is mainly inductive, with X L > X C . Figure 31.4.3
A
Driving ω equal to natural ω • high current amplitude • circuit is in resonance • equally capacitive and inductive • X equals X • current and emf in phase • zero ϕ d
C
ℰ
m
I
L
I
edutilpma tnerruC
R
= 10 Ω
R
= 30 Ω R
0.90
0.95
1.00
= 100 Ω
1.05
ω /ω
1.10
d
Low driving ω • low current amplitude • ICE side of the curve • more capacitive • X is greater • current leads emf • negative ϕ d
I
ℰ
m
C
High driving ω • low current amplitude • ELI side of the curve • more inductive • X is greater • current lags emf • positive ϕ d
ℰ
m
L
I
curve peaks at its maximum current amplitude I when the ratio ωd /ω is 1.00, but the maximum value of I decreases with increasing R. (The maximum I is always ℰ m/R; to see why, combine Eqs. 31.4.7 a nd 31.4.8.) In addition, the curves increase in width (measured in Fig. 31.4.3 at half the maximum value of I) with increasing R. To make physical sense of Fig. 31.4.3, consider how the reactances X L and X C change as we increase the driving angular frequency ω d , starting with a value much less than the natural frequency ω . For small ω d , reactance X L (= ω d L) is small and reactance X C (= 1/ωd C) is large. Thus, the circuit is mainly capacitive and the impedance is dominated by the large X C, which keeps the current low. As we increase ωd , reactance X C remains dominant but decreases while reac- tance X L increases. The decrease in X C decreases the impedance, allowing the current to increase, a s we see on the left side of any resonance curve in Fig. 31.4.3. When the increasing X L and the decreasing X C reach equal values, the current is greatest and the circuit is in resonance, with ωd = ω . As we continue to increase ωd , the increasing reactance X L becomes pro- gressively more dominant over the decreasing reactance X C. The impedance increases because of X L and the current decreases, as on the right side of any resonance curve in Fig. 31.4.3. In summary, then: The low-angular-frequency side of a resonance curve is dominated by the capacitor’s reactance, the high-angular- frequency side is dominated by the inductor’s reactance, a nd resonance occurs in the middle.
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C HAP T ER 31 EL EC T ROMAGNET IC OSC IL L AT IONS AND AL T ERNAT ING C U RRENT
Checkpoint 31.4.1
Here are the capacitive reactance and inductive reactance, respectively, for three sinusoidally driven series RLC circuits: (1) 50 Ω, 100 Ω; (2) 100 Ω, 50 Ω; (3) 50 Ω, 50 Ω. (a) For each, does the current lead or lag the applied emf, or are the two in phase? (b) Which circuit is in resonance?
Sample Problem 31.4.1
Resonance Hill
driving angular frequency ω d is greater than the natu- ral angular frequency ω of the circuit).
This module is rich with information, and here is a graph- ical way to organize it. The resonance curve of current I versus the ratio ωd / ω has been transformed into a hill on which hunters hunt for flying “ducs” while adjusting their caps. Here are some of the features of Resonance Hill:
4. The ducs rise to the right, indicating that if the induc- tance of a circuit is increased, the point on the curve that represents the circuit moves to the right. Thus, with the increase in L, the ratio ω d / ω becomes greater because _ ω (= 1/ √ LC ) is decreased while ω d is unchanged.
1. Hunters, with way-cool L.L. Bean caps (for capaci- tance), are shown on the left side of the hill. They and their caps indicate the side of a resonance curve where circuits are more capacitive than inductive ( XC > X L ). The hunters are below the peak—that is, in the region where ω d / ω is less than 1.0 (where the driving angular frequency ω d is less than the natural angular frequency ω of the circuit).
5. “Emf” stalks ℰ m grow directly upward everywhere on Resonance Hill and sprout “eye thorns” I at vari- ous angles. Their arrangements on the hill indicate the arrangements of ℰ m and I in phasor diagrams for vari- ous driven series RLC circuits. Beyond (to the right of) the peak, the eye thorns sprout to the right, indicating the I lags ℰ m in a phasor diagram for a circuit represented in that ELI region where the circuit is mainly inductive.
2. The hunters rise to the right (the standing hunter is to the right of the sitting hunter and even has a higher cap). This indicates that if the capacitance of a cir- cuit is increased, the point representing the circuit on a resonance curve moves to the right. Thus, with the increase in C, the ratio ω d / ω becomes greater because _ ω (= 1 /√ LC ) is decreased while ω d is unchanged.
Below (to the left of) the peak, the eye thorns sprout to the left, indicating the I leads ℰ m in a phasor diagram for a circuit represented in that ICE region where the circuit is mainly capacitive. At the peak, the eye thorn sprouts directly upward, indicating that I is aligned with ℰ m in a phasor diagram for a circuit at resonance.
3. “Ducs” (for inductance) are shown on the right side of the hill to indicate the side of a resonance curve for which circuits are more inductive than capacitive ( XL > X C ). The ducs are beyond the peak, that is, in the region where ω d > ω is greater than 1.0 (where the
6. The length of the eye thorns I is greatest at the peak of Resonance Hill (which is why the hunters are not
Ducs
I
Hunters
m
I m m
I
I
Re
m
ce an so n ll i H
m
I
I
Below Resonance
1.0
ω /ω
Beyond Resonance
d
Figure 31.4.4
Memory devices to help sort out the series RLC resonance curve.
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31.4 T HE SERIES RL C C IRC U IT
there) and progressively less at greater distances from the peak. This indicates that the amplitude I of the cur- rent in a driven series RLC circuit is greatest when the circuit is at resonance, and progressively less the far- ther the circuit is from the resonance peak. Also, from I = ℰ m/ Z, we know that Z = ℰ m/ I. Thus, impedance Z is least when the circuit is at resonance, and progres- sively greater the farther the circuit is from the reso- nance peak, either left or right. 7. The angle between an emf stalk ℰ m and its eye thorn I represents the phase constant ϕ of the current. That constant is positive on the right (positive) side of the hill, negative on the left side of the hill, and zero at the top of the hill. Also, the size of the phase constant ϕ is progressively greater the farther a circuit is from the resonance peak. At great distances to the right from the peak, ϕ approaches +90º (but cannot exceed that limiting value—the eye thorns cannot grow into the ground). Similarly, at great distances to the left from the peak, ϕ approaches −90° . Let’s put Resonance Hill to work for a series RLC cir- cuit that is driven with an angular frequency ωd somewhat
981
greater than its natural frequency ω . Can you see the fol- lowing from the figure without any calculation? 1. The circuit is represented by a point on the right side of the resonance-curve peak. 2. The circuit is more inductive than capacitive (X L > X C). 3. The current amplitude I is less than it would be if the circuit were at resonance, and the impedance Z of the circuit is greater than it would then be. 4. The current in the circuit lags the driving emf.
5. The phase constant ϕ for the current is positive and less than +90°. Can you also see that if we increase either L or C (or both) in the circuit, the following occur? 1. The circuit moves farther to the right on the resonance curve and thus further from resonance. 2. The current amplitude I decreases, and the impedance Z increases. 3. The phase constant ϕ for the current becomes more posi- tive (but still is less than +90°), and the current in the cir- cuit lags the driving emf even more than it did previously.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Sample Problem 31.4.2
Current amplitude, impedance, and phase constant
In Fig. 31.3.2, let R = 200 Ω, C = 15.0 μF, L = 230 mH, f d = 60.0 Hz, and ℰ m = 36.0 V. (These parameters are those used in the earlier sample problems.)
We then find ℰ m ______ I = ___ = 36.0 V = 0.164 A. Z 219 Ω
(a) What is the current amplitude I?
(Answer )
KEY IDEA
(b) What is the phase constant ϕ of the current in the cir- cuit relative to the driving emf?
The current amplitude I depends on the amplitude ℰ m of the driving emf and on the impedance Z of the circuit, according to Eq. 31.4.8 (I = ℰ m /Z).
KEY IDEA
So, we need to find Z, which depends on resistance R, capacitive reactance X C, and inductive reac- tance X L . The circuit’s resistance is the given resistance R. Its capacitive reactance is due to the given capacitance and, from an earlier sample problem, X C = 177 Ω. Its inductive reactance is due to the given inductance and, from another sample problem, X L = 86.7 Ω. Thus, the cir- cuit’s impedance is Calculations:
_______________
2 Z = √ R 2 + ( X L − X C)
________________________
= √ (200 Ω) 2 + (86.7 Ω − 177 Ω) 2 = 219 Ω.
The phase constant depends on the inductive reactance, the capacitive reactance, a nd the resistance of the circuit, according to Eq. 31.4.11. Calculation:
Solving Eq. 31.4.11 for ϕ leads to
X L − X C ____________ ϕ = tan −1 ________ = tan −1 86.7 Ω − 177 Ω R 200 Ω = −24.3° = −0.424 rad.
(Answer )
The negative phase constant is consistent with the fact that the load is mainly capacitive; that is, X C > X L. In the com- mon mnemonic for driven series RLC circuits, this circuit is an ICE circuit—the current leads the driving emf.
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982
C HAP T ER 31 EL EC T ROMAGNET IC OSC IL L AT IONS AND AL T ERNAT ING C U RRENT
31.5 POWER IN ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
31.5.1 For the current, voltage, and emf in an ac circuit,
31.5.5 For a driven
RLC circuit in steady state, explain
apply the relationship between the rms values and
what happens to (a) the value of the average stored
the amplitudes.
energy with time and (b) the energy that the genera-
31.5.2 For an alternating emf connected across
tor puts into the circuit.
a capacitor, an inductor, or a resistor, sketch graphs
31.5.6 Apply the relationship between the power factor
ϕ, the resistance R, and the impedance Z.
of the sinusoidal variation of the current and voltage and indicate the peak and rms values.
cos
31.5.7 Apply the relationship between the average
31.5.3 Apply the relationship between average power
P avg , rms current I rms , and resistance R . 31.5.4 In a driven RLC circuit, calculate the power of
power
P avg , the rms emf ℰrms , the rms current I rms ,
ϕ.
and the power factor cos
31.5.8 Identify what power factor is required in order to
each element.
maximize the rate at which energy is supplied to a resistive load.
Key Ideas ●
RLC circuit, the average power P avg of
In a series
●
The abbreviation rms stands for root-mean-square;
the generator is equal to the production rate of thermal
the rms quantities are related to the maximum quanti- __ __ __
energy in the resistor:
ties by
I rms = I/ √ 2 , V rms = V/ √ 2 , and ℰ rms = ℰ m/ √ 2 .
ϕ is called the power factor of the circuit.
The term cos
P avg = I 2 rms R = ℰ rms I rms cos ϕ.
Power in Alternating-Current Circuits
sin +1 0
In the RLC circuit of Fig. 31.3.2, the source of energy is the alternating-current generator. Some of the energy that it provides is stored in the electric field in the capacitor, some is stored in the magnetic field in the inductor, and some is dissipated as thermal energy in the resistor. In steady-state operation, the aver- age stored energy remains constant. The net transfer of energy is thus from the generator to the resistor, where energy is dissipated. The instantaneous rate at which energy is dissipated in the resistor can be written, with the help of Eqs. 26.5.3 a nd 31.3.2, a s
θ
0
P = i 2 R = [I sin( ωd t − ϕ )] 2 R = I 2 R sin 2 (ωd t − ϕ ).
π
2π
3π
θ
–1 (a )
_
+ –12 0
0
π
2π
3π
θ
(b)
(a) A plot of sin θ versus θ. The average value over one cycle is zero. (b) A plot of sin 2 θ versus θ. The average value over one __ cycle is 1 2 . Figure 31.5.1
The average rate at which energy is dissipated in the resistor, however, is the average of Eq. 31.5.1 over time. Over one complete cycle, the average value of sin θ, where θ is any variable, is zero (Fig. 31.5.1a) but the average value of 1 sin 2 θ is __ (Fig. 31.5.1b). (Note in Fig. 31.5.1b how the shaded areas under the 2 1 curve but above the horizontal line marked + __ 2 exactly fill in the unshaded spaces below that line.) Thus, we can write, from Eq. 31.5.1, 2
sin 2 θ +1
(31.5.1)
2
I R = ____ I _ R. P avg = ____ 2 ( √ 2 )
(31.5.2)
The quantity I/ √ 2 is called the root-mean-square, or rms, value of the current i: I _ I rms = ____ √ 2
(rms current).
(31.5.3)
(average power).
(31.5.4)
We can now rewrite Eq. 31.5.2 a s P avg = I 2 rms R
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31.5 P OWER IN AL T ERNAT ING- C U RRENT C IRC U IT S
983
Equation 31.5.4 has the same mathematical form as Eq. 26.5.3 (P = i 2 R); the mes- sage here is that if we switch to the rms current, we can compute the average rate of energy dissipation for alternating-current circuits just as for direct-current circuits. We can also define rms values of voltages and emfs for alternating-current circuits: ℰ m V _ and ℰ = ____ _ (rms voltage; rms emf ). V rms = ____ rms √ 2 √ 2
(31.5.5)
Alternating-current instruments, such as ammeters and voltmeters, are usually calibrated to read I rms , V rms , and ℰ rms . Thus, if you plug an alternating-current voltmeter into a household electrical outlet and it reads 120 V, that is an rms _ voltage. The maximum value of the potential difference at the outlet is √ 2 × (120 V) or 170 V. Generally scientists and engineers report rms values instead of maximum values. _ Because the proportionality factor 1/ √ 2 in Eqs. 31.5.3 a nd 31.5.5 is the same for all three variables, we can write Eqs. 31.4.8 a nd 31.4.6 a s ℰ rms ________________ ℰ rms I rms = ____ = ______________ , 2 Z √ R + (X − X ) 2 L
(31.5.6)
C
and, indeed, this is the form that we almost always use. We can use the relationship I rms = ℰ rms /Z to recast Eq. 31.5.4 in a useful equivalent way. We write ℰ rms R . P avg = ____ I R = ℰ rms I rms __ Z rms Z
(31.5.7)
From Fig. 31.4.1d, Table 31.3.1, and Eq. 31.4.8, however, we see that R/Z is just the cosine of the phase constant ϕ : V R ___ R . cos ϕ = ___ = IR = __ ℰ m IZ Z
(31.5.8)
Equation 31.5.7 then becomes P avg = ℰ rms I rms cos ϕ
(average power ),
(31.5.9)
in which the term cos ϕ is called the power factor. Because cos ϕ = cos(− ϕ), Eq. 31.5.9 is independent of the sign of the phase constant ϕ . To maximize the rate at which energy is supplied to a resistive load in an RLC circuit, we should keep the power factor cos ϕ as close to unity as possible. This is equivalent to keeping the phase constant ϕ in Eq. 31.3.2 a s close to zero as possible. If, for example, the circuit is highly inductive, it can be made less so by putting more capacitance in the circuit, connected in series. (Recall that putting an additional capacitance into a series of capacitances decreases the equivalent capacitance C eq of the series.) Thus, the resulting decrease in C eq in the circuit reduces the phase constant and increases the power factor in Eq. 31.5.9. Power companies place series-connected capacitors throughout their transmission sys- tems to get these results.
Checkpoint 31.5.1
(a) If the current in a sinusoidally driven series RLC circuit leads the emf, would we increase or decrease the capacitance to increase the rate at which energy is supplied to the resistance? (b) Would this change bring the resonant angular frequency of the circuit closer to the angular frequency of the emf or put it farther away?
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C HAP T ER 31 EL EC T ROMAGNET IC OSC IL L AT IONS AND AL T ERNAT ING C U RRENT
Sample Problem 31.5.1
Driven RLC circuit: power factor and average power
A series RLC circuit, driven with ℰrms = 120 V at fre- quency f d = 60.0 Hz, contains a resistance R = 200 Ω, an inductance with inductive reactance X L = 80.0 Ω, and a capacitance with capacitive reactance XC = 150 Ω. (a) What are the power factor cos ϕ and phase constant ϕ of the circuit?
KEY IDEA The power factor cos ϕ can be found from the resistance R and impedance Z via Eq. 31.5.8 (cos ϕ = R/Z). Calculations:
To calculate Z, we use Eq. 31.4.7:
_______________ 2
2
Z = √ R + ( X L − X C)
________________________ 2
2
= √ (200 Ω) + (80.0 Ω − 150 Ω) = 211.90 Ω. Equation 31.5.8 then gives us R = ________ 200 Ω = 0.9438 ≈ 0.944. (Answer ) cos ϕ = __ Z 211.90 Ω Taking the inverse cosine then yields
ϕ = cos −1 0.944 = ±19.3°. The inverse cosine on a calculator gives only the positive answer here, but both +19.3° and −19.3° have a cosine of 0.944. To determine which sign is correct, we must con- sider whether the current leads or lags the driving emf. Because X C > X L , this circuit is mainly capacitive, with the current leading the emf. Thus, ϕ must be negative:
ϕ = −19.3°. (Answer) We could, instead, have found ϕ with Eq. 31.4.11. A cal- culator would then have given us the answer with the minus sign. (b) What is the average rate P avg at which energy is dissipated in the resistance?
KEY IDEAS There are two ways and two ideas to use: (1) Because the circuit is assumed to be in steady-state operation, the rate at which energy is dissipated in the resistance is equal to the rate at which energy is supplied to the circuit, as given by Eq. 31.5.9 (P avg = ℰ rms I rms cos ϕ). (2) The rate at which energy is dissipated in a resistance R depends on the square of the rms current I rms through it, according to Eq. 31.5.4 (P avg = I 2 rms R). We are given the rms driving emf ℰ rms and we already know cos ϕ from part (a). The rms current First way:
I rms is determined by the rms value of the driving emf and the circuit’s impedance Z (which we know), according to Eq. 31.5.6: ℰ rms I rms = ____ . Z Substituting this into Eq. 31.5.9 then leads to ℰ 2 rms P avg = ℰ rms I rms cos ϕ = ____ cos ϕ Z (120 V) 2 = ________ (0.9438) = 64.1 W. (Answer) 211.90 Ω Second way:
Instead, we can write
ℰ 2 rms _______ P avg = I 2 R rms R = Z 2 (120 V) 2 = __________ (200 Ω) = 64.1 W. (Answer) (211.90 Ω) 2 (c) What new capacitance C new is needed to maximize P avg if the other parameters of the circuit are not changed?
KEY IDEAS (1) The average rate P avg at which energy is supplied and dissipated is maximized if the circuit is brought into resonance with the driving emf. (2) Resonance occurs when X C = X L. From the given data, we have X C > X L . Thus, we must decrease X C to reach resonance. From Eq. 31.3.12 (X C = 1/ωd C), we see that this means we must increase C to the new value C new . Using Eq. 31.3.12, we can write the resonance condi- tion X C = X L as Calculations:
1 = X . ______ L
ω d C new Substituting 2πf d for ωd (because we are given f d and not ωd ) and then solving for C new , we find 1 = __________________ 1 C new = _______ 2πf dX L (2π )(60 Hz)(80.0 Ω) = 3.32 × 10 −5 F = 33.2 μF.
(Answer)
Following the procedure of part (b), you can show that with C new , the average power of energy dissipation P avg would then be at its maximum value of P a vg, max = 72.0 W.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
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31.6 T RANSF ORMERS
985
31.6 TRANSFORMERS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
31.6.1 For power transmission lines, identify why the
31.6.7 Apply the relationship between the current and
transmission should be at low current and high voltage.
number of turns on the two sides of a transformer. 31.6.8 Apply the relationship between the power into
31.6.2 Identify the role of transformers at the two ends of a transmission line.
and out of an ideal transformer. 31.6.9 Identify the equivalent resistance as seen from
31.6.3 Calculate the energy dissipation in a transmis- sion line.
the primary side of a transformer. 31.6.10 Apply the relationship between the equivalent
31.6.4 Identify a transformer’s primary and secondary. 31.6.5 Apply the relationship between the voltage and
resistance and the actual resistance. 31.6.11 Explain the role of a transformer in impedance
number of turns on the two sides of a transformer.
matching.
31.6.6 Distinguish between a step-down transformer and a step-up transformer.
Key Ideas ●
N p I s = I p ___ N s
A transformer (assumed to be ideal) is an iron core
N p turns and
on which are wound a primary coil of a secondary coil of
N s turns. If the primary coil is con-
nected across an alternating-current generator, the primary and secondary voltages are related by
N s V s = V p ___ N p ●
●
The equivalent resistance of the secondary circuit, as
seen by the generator, is
N p 2 R eq = ___ R, ( N s )
(transformation o f voltage). where
The currents through the coils are related by
(transformation of currents).
R is the resistive load in the secondary circuit. N p /N s is called the transformer’s turns ratio.
The ratio
Transformers Energy Transmission Requirements
When an ac circuit has only a resistive load, the power factor in Eq. 31.5.9 is cos 0° = 1 and the applied rms emf ℰ rms is equal to the rms voltage V rms across the load. Thus, with an rms current I rms in the load, energy is supplied and dissipated at the average rate of P avg = ℰI = IV.
(31.6.1)
(In Eq. 31.6.1 and the rest of this module, we follow conventional practice and drop the subscripts identifying rms quantities. Engineers and scientists assume that all time-varying currents and voltages are reported as rms values; that is what the meters read.) Equation 31.6.1 tells us that, to satisfy a given power requirement, we have a range of choices for I and V, provided only that the prod- uct IV is as required. In electrical power distribution systems it is desirable for reasons of safety and for efficient equipment design to deal with relatively low voltages at both the generating end (the electrical power plant) and the receiving end (the home or factory). Nobody wants an electric toaster to operate at, say, 10 kV. However, in the transmission of electrical energy from the generating plant to the consumer, we want the lowest practical current (hence the largest practical voltage) to mini- mize I 2 R losses (often called ohmic losses) in the transmission line. As an example, consider the 735 kV line used to transmit electrical energy from the La Grande 2 hydroelectric plant in Quebec to Montreal, 1000 km away.
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C HAP T ER 31 EL EC T ROMAGNET IC OSC IL L AT IONS AND AL T ERNAT ING C U RRENT
Suppose that the current is 500 A and the power factor is close to unity. Then from Eq. 31.6.1, e nergy is supplied at the average rate P avg = ℰI = (7.35 × 10 5 V)(500 A) = 368 MW. The resistance of the transmission line is about 0.220 Ω/km; thus, there is a total resistance of about 220 Ω for the 1000 km stretch. Energy is dissipated due to that resistance at a rate of about P avg = I 2 R = (500 A) 2 (220 Ω) = 55.0 MW, which is nearly 15% of the supply rate. Imagine what would happen if we doubled the current and halved the volt- age. Energy would be supplied by the plant at the same average rate of 368 MW as previously, but now energy would be dissipated at the rate of about P avg = I 2 R = (1000 A ) 2 (220 Ω) = 220 MW, which is almost 60% of the supply rate. Hence the general energy transmission rule: Transmit at the highest possible voltage and the lowest possible current. The Ideal Transformer
The transmission rule leads to a fundamental mismatch between the require- ment for efficient high-voltage transmission and the need for safe low-voltage generation and consumption. We need a device with which we can raise (for transmission) and lower (for use) the ac voltage in a circuit, keeping the prod- uct current × voltage essentially constant. The transformer is such a device. It has no moving parts, operates by Faraday’s law of induction, and has no simple direct-current counterpart. The ideal transformer in Fig. 31.6.1 consists of two coils, with different num- bers of turns, wound around an iron core. (The coils are insulated from the core.) In use, the primary winding, of N p turns, is connected to an alternating-current generator whose emf ℰ at any time t is given by ℰ = ℰ m sin ωt.
Φ B
S
ℰ
Vp
Np
Vs
R
Ns
Primary
Secondary
An ideal transformer (two coils wound on an iron core) in a basic transformer circuit. An ac generator produces current in the coil at the left (the primary). The coil at the right (the secondary) is con- nected to the resistive load R when switch S is closed. Figure 31.6.1
(31.6.2)
The secondary winding, of N s turns, is connected to load resistance R, but its circuit is an open circuit as long as switch S is open (which we assume for the present). Thus, there can be no current through the secondary coil. We assume further for this ideal transformer that the resistances of the primary and second- ary windings are negligible. Well-designed, high-capacity transformers can have energy losses as low as 1%; so our assumptions are reasonable. For the assumed conditions, the primary winding (or primary) is a pure inductance and the primary circuit is like that in Fig. 31.3.7. Thus, the (very small) primary current, also called the magnetizing current I mag , lags the primary voltage V p by 90°; the primary’s power factor (= cos ϕ in Eq. 31.5.9) is zero; so no power is delivered from the generator to the transformer. However, the small sinusoidally changing primary current I mag produces a sinusoidally changing magnetic flux Φ B in the iron core. The core acts to strengthen the flux and to bring it through the secondary winding (or secondary). Because Φ B varies, it induces an emf ℰ turn (= dΦ B/dt) in each turn of the secondary. In fact, this emf per turn ℰ turn is the same in the primary and the secondary. Across the primary, the voltage V p is the product of ℰ turn and the number of turns N p; that is, V p = ℰ turn N p. Similarly, across the secondary the voltage is V s = ℰ turn N s. Thus, we can write V p V s ℰ trun = ___ = ___ , N p N s or
N s V s = V p ___ N p
(transformation o f voltage).
(31.6.3)
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31.6 T RANSF ORMERS
987
If N s > N p, the device is a step-up transformer because it steps the primary’s voltage V p up to a higher voltage V s. Similarly, if N s 0 will (a) plate A again have 2 E
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
maximum positive charge, (b) the other plate of the capacitor have maximum positive charge, and (c) the inductor have maximum magnetic field? E In a certain oscillating LC circuit, the total energy is con- verted from electrical energy in the capacitor to magnetic energy in the inductor in 1.50 μs. What are (a) the period of oscilla- tion and (b) the frequency of oscillation? (c) How long after the magnetic energy is a maximum will it be a maximum again?
3
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992
C HAP T ER 31 EL EC T ROMAGNET IC OSC IL L AT IONS AND AL T ERNAT ING C U RRENT
E What is the capacitance of an oscillating LC circuit if the maximum charge on the capacitor is 1.60 μC and the total energy is 140 μJ?
4
In an oscillating LC circuit, L = 1.10 mH and C = 4.00 μF. The maximum charge on the capacitor is 3.00 μC. Find the maxi- mum current. 5
E
E A 0.50 kg body oscillates in SHM on a spring that, when extended 2.0 mm from its equilibrium position, has an 8.0 N restoring force. What are (a) the angular frequency of oscillation, (b) the period of oscillation, and (c) the capacitance of an LC circuit with the same period if L is 5.0 H?
6
E SSM The energy in an oscillating LC circuit containing a 1.25 H inductor is 5.70 μJ. The maximum charge on the capac- itor is 175 μ C. For a mechanical system with the same period, find the (a) mass, (b) spring constant, (c) maximum displace- ment, and (d) maximum speed.
7
A single loop consists of inductors (L 1 , L 2 , . . .), capacitors (C 1 , C 2 , . . .), and resistors (R 1 , R 2 , . . .) connected in series as shown, for example, in Fig. 31.9a. Show that regardless of the sequence of these circuit elements in the loop, the behavior of this circuit is identical to that of the simple LC circuit shown in Fig. 31.9b. (Hint: Consider the loop rule and see Problem 47 in Chapter 30.) 8 E
L1
C1
L2
R1
C2
R2
(a) Figure 31.9
L
C
R
(b )
Problem 8.
In an oscillating LC circuit with L = 50 mH and C = 4.0 μF, the current is initially a maximum. How long will it take before the capacitor is fully charged for the first time? 9 E
LC oscillators have been used in circuits connected to loud- speakers to create some of the sounds of electronic music. What inductance must be used with a 6.7 μ F capacitor to produce a frequency of 10 kHz, which is near the middle of the audible range of frequencies? 10 E
SSM A variable capacitor with a range from 10 to 365 pF is used with a coil to form a variable-frequency LC circuit to tune the input to a radio. (a) What is the ratio of maximum fre- quency to minimum frequency that can be obtained with such a capacitor? If this circuit is to obtain frequencies from 0.54 MHz to 1.60 MHz, the ratio computed in (a) is too large. By adding a capacitor in parallel to the variable capacitor, this range can be adjusted. To obtain the desired frequency range, (b) what capacitance should be added and (c) what inductance should the coil have?
11 M
M In an oscillating LC circuit, when 75.0% of the total energy is stored in the inductor’s magnetic field, (a) what mul- tiple of the maximum charge is on the capacitor and (b) what multiple of the maximum current is in the inductor?
12
In an oscillating LC circuit, L = 3.00 mH and C = 2.70 μF. At t = 0 the charge on the capacitor is zero and the current is 2.00 A. (a) What is the maximum charge that will appear on the capacitor? (b) At what earliest time t > 0 is the rate at which 13 M
energy is stored in the capacitor greatest, and (c) what is that greatest rate? M To construct an oscillating LC system, you can choose from a 10 mH inductor, a 5.0 μF capacitor, and a 2.0 μF capaci- tor. What are the (a) smallest, (b) second smallest, (c) second largest, and (d) largest oscillation frequency that can be set up by these elements in various combinations?
14
An oscillating LC circuit consisting of a 1.0 nF capacitor and a 3.0 mH coil has a maximum voltage of 3.0 V. What are (a) the maximum charge on the capacitor, (b) the maximum current through the circuit, and (c) the maximum energy stored in the magnetic field of the coil? 15 M
M An inductor is connected across a capacitor whose capacitance can be varied by turning a knob. We wish to make the frequency of oscillation of this LC circuit vary linearly with the angle of rotation of the knob, going from 2 × 10 5 to 4 × 10 5 Hz as the knob turns through 180°. If L = 1.0 mH, plot the required capacitance C as a function of the angle of rotation of the knob.
16
GO In Fig. 31.10, R = 14.0 Ω, C = 6.20 μ F, and L = 54.0 mH, and the ideal battery has emf ℰ = 34.0 V. The switch is kept at a for a long time and then thrown to position b. What are the (a) fre- quency and (b) current amplitude of the resulting oscillations? 17 M
R
ℰ a b C L
Figure 31.10 Problem 17. An oscillating LC cir- cuit has a current amplitude of 7.50 mA, a potential amplitude of 250 mV, and a capacitance of 220 nF. What are (a) the period of oscillation, (b) the maximum energy stored in the capacitor, (c) the maximum energy stored in the inductor, (d) the maxi- mum rate at which the current changes, and (e) the maximum rate at which the inductor gains energy?
18 M
CALC
CALC Using the loop rule, derive the differential equation for an LC circuit (Eq. 31.1.11).
19 M
GO In an oscillating LC circuit in which C = 4.00 μ F, M the maximum potential difference across the capacitor during the oscillations is 1.50 V and the maximum current through the inductor is 50.0 mA. What are (a) the inductance L and (b) the frequency of the oscillations? (c) How much time is required for the charge on the capacitor to rise from zero to its maximum value? 20
In an oscillating LC circuit with C = 64.0 μF, the current is given by i = (1.60) sin(2500t + 0.680), where t is in seconds, i in amperes, and the phase constant in radians. (a) How soon after t = 0 will the current reach its maximum value? What are (b) the inductance L and (c) the total energy? 21 M
A series circuit containing inductance L 1 and capacitance C 1 oscillates at angular frequency ω. A second series circuit, containing inductance L 2 and capacitance C 2 , oscillates at the same angular frequency. In terms of ω, what is the angular fre- quency of oscillation of a series circuit containing all four of these elements? Neglect resistance. (Hint: Use the formulas for equivalent capacitance and equivalent inductance; see Module 25.3 and Problem 47 in Chapter 30.) 22 M
GO In an oscillating LC circuit, L = 25.0 mH and M C = 7.80 μ F. At time t = 0 the current is 9.20 mA, the charge on 23
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the capacitor is 3.80 μ C, and the capacitor is charging. What are (a) the total energy in the circuit, (b) the maximum charge on the capacitor, and (c) the maximum current? (d) If the charge on the capacitor is given by q = Q cos(ωt + ϕ), what is the phase angle ϕ? (e) Suppose the data are the same, except that the capacitor is discharging at t = 0. What then is ϕ? Module 31.2
Damped Oscillations i n an RLC Circuit
A single-loop circuit consists of a 7.20 Ω resistor, a 12.0 H inductor, and a 3.20 μF capacitor. Initially the capacitor has a charge of 6.20 μC and the current is zero. Calculate the charge on the capacitor N complete cycles later for (a) N = 5, (b) N = 10, and (c) N = 100. 24
M
GO
What resistance R should be connected in series with an inductance L = 220 mH and capacitance C = 12.0 μF for the maximum charge on the capacitor to decay to 99.0% of its initial value in 50.0 cycles? (Assume ω′ ≈ ω.) 25 M
GO In an oscillating series RLC circuit, find the time M required for the maximum energy present in the capacitor dur- ing an oscillation to fall to half its initial value. Assume q = Q at t = 0. 26
GO An ac generator with emf ℰ = ℰ m sin ωd t, where M ℰ m = 25.0 V and ωd = 377 rad/s, is connected to a 4.15 μF capac- itor. (a) What is the maximum value of the current? (b) When the current is a maximum, what is the emf of the generator? (c) When the emf of the generator is −12.5 V and increasing in magnitude, what is the current? 34
Module 31.4
E An alternating source with a variable frequency, a capacitor with capacitance C, and a resistor with resistance R are connected in series. Figure 31.11 gives the impedance Z of the circuit versus the driving angular frequency ωd ; the curve reaches an asymptote of 500 Ω, and the horizontal scale is set by ωds = 300 rad/s. The figure also gives the reactance X C for the capacitor versus ωd . What are (a) R and (b) C?
36
800
SSM
Z
)Ω( CX , Z
Module 31.3
400 XC
Forced Oscillations o f Three Simple Circuits
A 1.50 μF capacitor is connected as in Fig. 31.3.5 to an ac generator with ℰ m = 30.0 V. What is the amplitude of the result- ing alternating current if the frequency of the emf is (a) 1.00 kHz and (b) 8.00 kHz? 28 E
A 50.0 mH inductor is connected as in Fig. 31.3.7 to an ac generator with ℰ m = 30.0 V. What is the amplitude of the result- ing alternating current if the frequency of the emf is (a) 1.00 kHz and (b) 8.00 kHz? 29 E
GO An ac generator has emf ℰ = ℰ m sin ωd t, with M ℰ m = 25.0 V and ωd = 377 rad/s. It is connected to a 12.7 H inductor. (a) What is the maximum value of the current? (b) When the current is a maximum, what is the emf of the genera- tor? (c) When the emf of the generator is −12.5 V and increasing in magnitude, what is the current? 32
M SSM An ac generator has emf ℰ = ℰ m sin(ωd t − π/4), where ℰ m = 30.0 V and ωd = 350 rad/s. The current produced in a connected circuit is i(t) = I sin(ωd t − 3π/4), where I = 620 mA. At what time after t = 0 does (a) the generator emf first reach a maximum and (b) the current first reach a maximum? (c) The circuit contains a single element other than the generator. Is it a capacitor, an inductor, or a resistor? Justify your answer. (d) What is the value of the capacitance, inductance, or resis- tance, as the case may be?
ω
d
Figure 31.11
ω
ds
(rad/s)
Problem 36.
An electric motor has an effective resistance of 32.0 Ω and an inductive reactance of 45.0 Ω when working under load. The voltage amplitude across the alternating source is 420 V. Calcu- late the current amplitude. 37 E
The current amplitude I ver- sus driving angular frequency ωd for a driven RLC circuit is given in Fig. 31.12, where the vertical axis scale is set by I s = 4.00 A. The inductance is 200 μH, and the emf amplitude is 8.0 V. What are (a) C and (b) R? 38 E
Is
I
E (a) At what frequency would a 6.0 mH inductor and a 10 μ F capacitor have the same reactance? (b) What would the reactance be? (c) Show that this frequency would be the natural frequency of an oscillating circuit with the same L and C.
31
0
)A(
A 50.0 Ω resistor is connected as in Fig. 31.3.3 to an ac gen- erator with ℰ m = 30.0 V. What is the amplitude of the resulting alternating current if the frequency of the emf is (a) 1.00 kHz and (b) 8.00 kHz? 30 E
33
The Series RLC Circuit
A coil of inductance 88 mH and unknown resistance and a 0.94 μ F capacitor are connected in series with an alternating emf of frequency 930 Hz. If the phase constant between the applied voltage and the current is 75°, what is the resistance of the coil? 35 E
In an oscillating series RLC circuit, show that ΔU/U, the fraction of the energy lost per cycle of oscillation, is given to a close approximation by 2πR/ωL. The quantity ωL/R is often called the Q of the circuit (for quality). A high-Q circuit has low resistance and a low fractional energy loss (= 2π/Q) per cycle. 27 H
993
0 10
ω
d
30 50 (1000 rad/s)
Remove the inductor from Figure 31.12 Problem 38. the circuit in Fig. 31.3.2 and set R = 200 Ω, C = 15.0 μF, f d = 60.0 Hz, and ℰ m = 36.0 V. What are (a) Z, (b) ϕ, and (c) I? (d) Draw a phasor diagram. 39 E
An alternating source drives a series RLC circuit with an emf amplitude of 6.00 V, at a phase angle of +30.0°. When the potential difference across the capacitor reaches its maximum positive value of +5.00 V, what is the potential difference across the inductor (sign included)? 40 E
SSM In Fig. 31.3.2, set R = 200 Ω, C = 70.0 μF, L = 230 mH, f d = 60.0 Hz, and ℰ m = 36.0 V. What are (a) Z, (b) ϕ, and (c) I? (d) Draw a phasor diagram.
41 E
E An alternating source with a variable frequency, an inductor with inductance L, and a resistor with resistance R are
42
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C HAP T ER 31 EL EC T ROMAGNET IC OSC IL L AT IONS AND AL T ERNAT ING C U RRENT
120 )Ω( LX , Z
connected in series. Figure 31.13 gives the impedance Z of the cir- cuit versus the driving angular frequency ωd , with the horizontal axis scale set by ωds = 1600 rad/s. The figure also gives the reac- tance X L for the inductor versus ωd . What are (a) R and (b) L?
80
Z
XL
40 0
ω
d
(rad/s)
ω
ds
Remove the capacitor from Figure 31.13 Problem 42. the circuit in Fig. 31.3.2 and set R = 200 Ω, L = 230 mH, f d = 60.0 Hz, and ℰ m = 36.0 V. What are (a) Z, (b) ϕ, and (c) I? (d) Draw a phasor diagram. 43 E
An ac generator with emf amplitude ℰ m = 220 V and operating at frequency 400 Hz causes oscillations in a series RLC circuit having R = 220 Ω, L = 150 mH, and C = 24.0 μF. Find (a) the capacitive reactance X C , (b) the impedance Z, and (c) the current amplitude I. A second capacitor of the same capacitance is then connected in series with the other compo- nents. Determine whether the values of (d) X C , (e) Z, and (f) I increase, decrease, or remain the same. 44 M
GO
GO (a) In an RLC circuit, can the amplitude of the volt- age across an inductor be greater than the amplitude of the generator emf? (b) Consider an RLC circuit with emf ampli- tude ℰ m = 10 V, resistance R = 10 Ω, inductance L = 1.0 H, and capacitance C = 1.0 μ F. Find the amplitude of the voltage across the inductor at resonance. 45 M
An alternating emf source with a variable frequency f d is connected in series with a 50.0 Ω resistor and a 20.0 μ F capacitor. The emf amplitude is 12.0 V. (a) Draw a phasor diagram for phasor V R (the potential across the resistor) and phasor V C (the potential across the capacitor). (b) At what driv- ing frequency f d do the two phasors have the same length? At that driving frequency, what are (c) the phase angle in degrees, (d) the angular speed at which the phasors rotate, and (e) the current amplitude? 46 M
GO
M CALC SSM An RLC circuit such as that of Fig. 31.3.2 has R = 5.00 Ω, C = 20.0 μF, L = 1.00 H, and ℰm = 30.0 V. (a) At what angular frequency ωd will the current amplitude have its maximum value, as in the resonance curves of Fig. 31.4.3? (b) What is this maximum value? At what (c) lower angular frequency ωd1 and (d) higher angular frequency ωd2 will the current amplitude be half this maximum value? (e) For the res- onance curve for this circuit, what is the fractional half-width (ωd1 − ωd2 )/ω?
47
GO Figure 31.14 shows a driven RLC circuit that contains two identical capacitors and two switches. The emf amplitude is set at 12.0 V, and the driving frequency is set at 60.0 Hz. With both switches open, the current leads the emf by 30.9°. With switch S 1 closed and switch S 2 still open, the emf leads the cur- rent by 15.0°. With both switches closed, the current amplitude is 447 mA. What are (a) R, (b) C, and (c) L? 48 M
L
S1
C
Figure 31.14
C R
Problem 48.
GO In Fig. 31.15, a M generator with an adjustable L1 R frequency of oscillation is con- G C1 C2 C3 nected to resistance R = 100 Ω L2 inductances L 1 = 1.70 mH and L 2 = 2.30 mH, and capaci- tances C 1 = 4.00 μF, C 2 = Figure 31.15 Problem 49. 2.50 μF, and C 3 = 3.50 μF. (a) What is the resonant frequency of the circuit? (Hint: See Prob- lem 47 in Chapter 30.) What happens to the resonant frequency if (b) R is increased, (c) L 1 is increased, and (d) C 3 is removed from the circuit? 49
S2
M An alternating emf source with a variable frequency f d is connected in series with an 80.0 Ω resistor and a 40.0 mH inductor. The emf amplitude is 6.00 V. (a) Draw a phasor dia- gram for phasor V R (the potential across the resistor) and phasor V L (the potential across the inductor). (b) At what driving fre- quency f d do the two phasors have the same length? At that driving frequency, what are (c) the phase angle in degrees, (d) the angular speed at which the phasors rotate, and (e) the cur- rent amplitude?
50
SSM The fractional half-width Δω d of a resonance curve, such as the ones in Fig. 31.4.3, is the width of the curve at half the maximum value of I. Show that Δωd /ω = R(3C/L) 1/2 , where ω is the angular frequency at resonance. Note that the ratio Δωd /ω increases with R, as Fig. 31.4.3 shows.
51 M
Module 31.5
Power in Alternating-Current Circuits
An ac voltmeter with large impedance is connected in turn across the inductor, the capacitor, and the resistor in a series circuit having an alternating emf of 100 V (rms); the meter gives the same reading in volts in each case. What is this reading? 52 E
E SSM An air conditioner connected to a 120 V rms ac line is equivalent to a 12.0 Ω resistance and a 1.30 Ω inductive reactance in series. Calculate (a) the impedance of the air con- ditioner and (b) the average rate at which energy is supplied to the appliance.
53
What is the maximum value of an ac voltage whose rms value is 100 V? 54 E
What direct current will produce the same amount of ther- mal energy, in a particular resistor, as an alternating current that has a maximum value of 2.60 A? 55 E
A typical light dimmer used B L to dim the stage lights in a theater consists of a variable inductor L To energy (whose inductance is adjustable supply between zero and L max ) con- nected in series with a lightbulb Figure 31.16 Problem 56. B, as shown in Fig. 31.16. The electrical supply is 120 V (rms) at 60.0 Hz; the lightbulb is rated at 120 V, 1000 W. (a) What L max is required if the rate of energy dissipation in the lightbulb is to be varied by a factor of 5 from its upper limit of 1000 W? Assume that the resistance of the lightbulb is independent of its temperature. (b) Could one use a variable resistor (adjustable between zero and R max ) instead of an inductor? (c) If so, what R max is required? (d) Why isn’t this done? 56 M
In an RLC circuit such as that of Fig. 31.3.2 assume that R = 5.00 Ω, L = 60.0 mH, f d = 60.0 Hz, and ℰ m = 30.0 V. For 57 M
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what values of the capacitance would the average rate at which energy is dissipated in the resistance be (a) a maximum and (b) a minimum? What are (c) the maximum dissipation rate and the corresponding (d) phase angle and (e) power factor? What are (f) the minimum dissipation rate and the corresponding (g) phase angle and (h) power factor? CALC For Fig. 31.17, show that the average rate at which energy is dissipated in resistance R is a maximum when R is equal to the internal resistance r of the ac generator. (In the text dis- cussion we tacitly assumed that r = 0.)
58 M
r R
ℰ
Figure 31.17 Problems 58 In Fig. 31.3.2, R = 15.0 and 66. Ω, C = 4.70 μF, and L = 25.0 mH. The generator provides an emf with rms voltage 75.0 V and frequency 550 Hz. (a) What is the rms current? What is the rms voltage across (b) R, (c) C, (d) L, (e) C and L together, and (f) R, C, and L together? At what average rate is energy dissipated by (g) R, (h) C, and (i) L?
59 M
GO
CALC GO In a series oscillating RLC circuit, R = 16.0 Ω, C = 31.2 μ F, L = 9.20 mH, and ℰ m = ℰm sin ωd t with ℰm = 45.0 V and ℰm = 3000 rad/s. For time t = 0.442 ms find (a) the rate P g at which energy is being supplied by the generator, (b) the rate P C at which the energy in the capacitor is changing, (c) the rate P L at which the energy in the inductor is changing, and (d) the rate P R at which energy is being dissipated in the resistor. (e) Is the sum of P C, P L, and P R greater than, less than, or equal to P g?
60 M
M SSM Figure 31.18 shows i( t) an ac generator connected to a “black box” through a pair of ter- ℰ( t) ? minals. The box contains an RLC circuit, possibly even a multiloop circuit, whose elements and con- Figure 31.18 Problem 61. nections we do not know. Mea- surements outside the box reveal that
61
ℰ(t) = (75.0 V) sin ωd t
i(t) = (1.20 A) sin(ωd t + 42.0°).
and
(a) What is the power factor? (b) Does the current lead or lag the emf? (c) Is the circuit in the box largely inductive or largely capacitive? (d) Is the circuit in the box in resonance? (e) Must there be a capacitor in the box? (f) An inductor? (g) A resis- tor? (h) At what average rate is energy delivered to the box by the generator? (i) Why don’t you need to know ωd to answer all these questions? Module 31.6
Transformers
A generator supplies 100 V to a transformer’s primary coil, which has 50 turns. If the secondary coil has 500 turns, what is the secondary voltage? 62
E
A transformer has 500 primary turns and 10 sec- ondary turns. (a) If V p is 120 V (rms), what is V s with an open circuit? If the secondary now has a resistive load of 15 Ω, what is the current in the (b) primary and (c) secondary? 63
E
SSM
E Figure 31.19 shows an “autotransformer.” It consists of a single coil (with an iron core). Three taps T i are provided.
64
Between taps T 1 and T 2 there are 200 turns, and between taps T 2 and T 3 there are 800 turns. Any two taps can be chosen as the primary terminals, and any two taps can be chosen as the secondary terminals. For choices producing a step-up trans- former, what are the (a) smallest, (b) sec- ond smallest, and (c) largest values of the ratio V s /V p ? For a step-down transformer, what are the (d) smallest, (e) second smallest, and (f) largest values of V s /V p ?
995 T3
T2
T1
Figure 31.19
Problem 64. 65 M An ac generator provides emf to a resistive load in a remote factory over a two-cable transmission line. At the fac- tory a step-down transformer reduces the voltage from its (rms) transmission value V t to a much lower value that is safe and con- venient for use in the factory. The transmission line resistance is 0.30 Ω/cable, and the power of the generator is 250 kW. If V t = 80 kV, what are (a) the voltage decrease ΔV along the transmission line and (b) the rate P d at which energy is dissi- pated in the line as thermal energy? If V t = 8.0 kV, what are (c) ΔV and (d) P d ? If V t = 0.80 kV, what are (e) ΔV and (f) P d ? Additional Problems
In Fig. 31.17, let the rectangular box on the left represent the (high-impedance) output of an audio amplifier, with r = 1000 Ω. Let R = 10 Ω represent the (low-impedance) coil of a loudspeaker. For maximum transfer of energy to the load R we must have R = r, and that is not true in this case. However, a transformer can be used to “transform” resistances, making them behave electrically as if they were larger or smaller than they actually are. (a) Sketch the primary and secondary coils of a transformer that can be introduced between the amplifier and the speaker in Fig. 31.17 to match the impedances. (b) What must be the turns ratio? 66 CALC
GO An ac generator produces emf ℰ = ℰ m sin(ωd t − π/4), where ℰ m = 30.0 V and ωd = 350 rad/s. The current in the cir- cuit attached to the generator is i(t) = I sin(ωd t + π/4), where I = 620 mA. (a) At what time after t = 0 does the generator emf first reach a maximum? (b) At what time after t = 0 does the current first reach a maximum? (c) The circuit contains a single element other than the generator. Is it a capacitor, an inductor, or a resistor? Justify your answer. (d) What is the value of the capacitance, inductance, or resistance, as the case may be? 67
A series RLC circuit is driven by a generator at a frequency of 2000 Hz and an emf amplitude of 170 V. The inductance is 60.0 mH, the capacitance is 0.400 μ F, and the resistance is 200 Ω. (a) What is the phase constant in radians? (b) What is the cur- rent amplitude? 68
A generator of frequency 3000 Hz drives a series RLC cir- cuit with an emf amplitude of 120 V. The resistance is 40.0 Ω , the capacitance is 1.60 μF, and the inductance is 850 μH. What are (a) the phase constant in radians and (b) the current amplitude? (c) Is the circuit capacitive, inductive, or in resonance? 69
A 45.0 mH inductor has a reactance of 1.30 kΩ. (a) What is its operating frequency? (b) What is the capacitance of a capacitor with the same reactance at that frequency? If the fre- quency is doubled, what is the new reactance of (c) the inductor and (d) the capacitor? 70
An RLC circuit is driven by a generator with an emf amplitude of 80.0 V and a current amplitude of 1.25 A. The 71
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C HAP T ER 31 EL EC T ROMAGNET IC OSC IL L AT IONS AND AL T ERNAT ING C U RRENT
current leads the emf by 0.650 rad. What are the (a) impedance and (b) resistance of the circuit? (c) Is the circuit inductive, capacitive, or in resonance? A series RLC circuit is driven in such a way that the maxi- mum voltage across the inductor is 1.50 times the maximum voltage across the capacitor and 2.00 times the maximum volt- age across the resistor. (a) What is ϕ for the circuit? (b) Is the circuit inductive, capacitive, or in resonance? The resistance is 49.9 Ω, and the current amplitude is 200 mA. (c) What is the amplitude of the driving emf? 72
A capacitor of capacitance 158 μF and an inductor form an LC circuit that oscillates at 8.15 kHz, with a current amplitude of 4.21 mA. What are (a) the inductance, (b) the total energy in the circuit, and (c) the maximum charge on the capacitor? 73
An oscillating LC circuit has an inductance of 3.00 mH and a capacitance of 10.0 μF. Calculate the (a) angular frequency and (b) period of the oscillation. (c) At time t = 0, the capacitor is charged to 200 μC and the current is zero. Roughly sketch the charge on the capacitor as a function of time. 74
For a certain driven series RLC circuit, the maximum gen- erator emf is 125 V and the maximum current is 3.20 A. If the current leads the generator emf by 0.982 rad, what are the (a) impedance and (b) resistance of the circuit? (c) Is the circuit predominantly capacitive or inductive? 75
A 1.50 μF capacitor has a capacitive reactance of 12.0 Ω. (a) What must be its operating frequency? (b) What will be the capacitive reactance if the frequency is doubled? 76
SSM In Fig. 31.20, a three- 1 phase generator G produces G 2 electrical power that is transmit- 3 ted by means of three wires. The electric potentials (each relative Three - wire transmission line to a common reference level) are Figure 31.20 Problem 77. V 1 = A sin ωd t for wire 1, V 2 = A sin(ωd t − 120°) for wire 2, and V 3 = A sin(ωd t − 240°) for wire 3. Some types of industrial equipment (for example, motors) have three terminals and are designed to be connected directly to these three wires. To use a more conventional two-terminal device (for example, a lightbulb), one connects it to any two of the three wires. Show that the potential difference between any two of the wires (a) oscillates sinusoidally with angular fre- _ quency ωd and (b) has an amplitude of A √ 3.
77
An electric motor connected to a 120 V, 60.0 Hz ac outlet does mechanical work at the rate of 0.100 hp (1 hp = 746 W). (a) If the motor draws an rms current of 0.650 A, what is its effective resistance, relative to power transfer? (b) Is this the same as the resistance of the motor’s coils, as measured with an ohmmeter with the motor disconnected from the outlet? 78
SSM (a) In an oscillating LC circuit, in terms of the maxi- mum charge Q on the capacitor, what is the charge there when the energy in the electric field is 50.0% of that in the magnetic field? (b) What fraction of a period must elapse following the time the capacitor is fully charged for this condition to occur?
79
A series RLC circuit is driven by an alternating source at a frequency of 400 Hz and an emf amplitude of 90.0 V. The resistance is 20.0 Ω, the capacitance is 12.1 μF, and the induc- tance is 24.2 mH. What is the rms potential difference across 80
(a) the resistor, (b) the capacitor, and (c) the inductor? (d) What is the average rate at which energy is dissipated? SSM In a certain series RLC circuit being driven at a frequency of 60.0 Hz, the maximum voltage across the induc- tor is 2.00 times the maximum voltage across the resistor and 2.00 times the maximum voltage across the capacitor. (a) By what angle does the current lag the generator emf? (b) If the maximum generator emf is 30.0 V, what should be the resistance of the circuit to obtain a maximum current of 300 mA?
81
A 1.50 mH inductor in an oscillating LC circuit stores a maximum energy of 10.0 μJ. What is the maximum current? 82
A generator with an adjustable frequency of oscillation is wired in series to an inductor of L = 2.50 mH and a capacitor of C = 3.00 μ F. At what frequency does the generator produce the largest possible current amplitude in the circuit? 83
A series RLC circuit has a resonant frequency of 6.00 kHz. When it is driven at 8.00 kHz, it has an impedance of 1.00 kΩ and a phase constant of 45°. What are (a) R, (b) L, and (c) C for this circuit? 84
SSM An LC circuit oscillates at a frequency of 10.4 kHz. (a) If the capacitance is 340 μF, what is the inductance? (b) If the maximum current is 7.20 mA, what is the total energy in the circuit? (c) What is the maximum charge on the capacitor?
85
When under load and operating at an rms voltage of 220 V, a certain electric motor draws an rms current of 3.00 A. It has a resistance of 24.0 Ω and no capacitive reactance. What is its inductive reactance? 86
The ac generator in L Fig. 31.21 supplies 120 V at C C 60.0 Hz. With the switch open 1 as in the diagram, the cur- S 2 rent leads the generator emf R by 20.0°. With the switch in position 1, the current lags the generator emf by 10.0°. When Figure 31.21 Problem 87. the switch is in position 2, the current amplitude is 2.00 A. What are (a) R, (b) L, and (c) C? 87
In an oscillating LC circuit, L = 8.00 mH and C = 1.40 μF. At time t = 0, the current is maximum at 12.0 mA. (a) What is the maximum charge on the capacitor during the oscillations? (b) At what earliest time t > 0 is the rate of change of energy in the capacitor maximum? (c) What is that maximum rate of change? 88
SSM For a sinusoidally driven series RLC circuit, show that over one complete cycle with period T (a) the energy stored in the capacitor does not change; (b) the energy stored in the inductor does not change; (c) the driving emf device supplies energy 1 2 __ ( __ 1 2 T)ℰ m I cos ϕ; and (d) the resistor dissipates energy ( 2 T) RI . (e) Show that the quantities found in (c) and (d) are equal.
89
What capacitance would you connect across a 1.30 mH inductor to make the resulting oscillator resonate at 3.50 kHz? 90
A series circuit with resistor–inductor–capacitor combina- tion R 1 , L 1 , C 1 has the same resonant frequency as a second cir- cuit with a different combination R 2 , L 2 , C 2 . You now connect the two combinations in series. Show that this new circuit has the same resonant frequency as the separate circuits. 91
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Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 31.22. With switch S 1 closed and the other two switches open, the circuit has a time con- stant τC . With switch S 2 closed and the other two switches open, the circuit has a time constant τL . With switch S 3 closed and the other two switches open, the circuit oscillates with a period T. _ Show that T = 2π√ τC τL . 92
S1
S2
997
if the skin resistance on each hand is (a) R dry = 100 kΩ for dry hands and (b) R wet = 1.0 kΩ for skin wet with sweat? R skin
R body
Vrms
R skin
S3
Figure 31.23
Problem 93.
The let-go current. Here is one common danger of electric- ity in the home and workplace: If a person grabs a live (ener- gized) wire (or some other conducting object), the person may not be able to let go because of involuntary contractions of the hand muscles. Suppose that the pathway of the ac current is then through the bare hand, the body, and the shoes, to a con- ducting floor. According to experiments, most people can let go of a wire for a rms current of 6 mA but not for a rms current of 22 mA, dubbed the “let-go” level. Consider the common rms voltage V rms = 120 V. Assume the hand’s skin resistance is R dry = 100 kΩ for dry skin and R wet = 1.0 kΩ for skin wet with sweat. Take R body = 300 Ω for the conducting pathway through the body, R boots = 2000 Ω for common electrician work boots, and R shoes = 200 Ω for common leather shoes. (a) What is the rms current I rms through the person for dry skin when wearing the boots, and is it above the let-go level? (b) What are the results if the person has wet skin and is wearing the boots? (c) What are the results if the person has wet skin and is wearing the leather shoes? Even if the current is only somewhat above the let-go level, the involuntary contractions can produce a tighter grip with a greater contact area and sweat production, and the resistances can decrease with time. 94
L
C
Figure 31.22
R
Problem 92.
Hand-to-hand current. Here are the physiological effects when an ac current is established across a person, say, hand to hand: 93
1 mA, perception threshold 10−20 mA, onset of involuntary muscle contractions 100−300 mA, heart fibrillation, eventually fatal 1 A, heart ceases to beat, internal burns produced Anyone skilled in working with live (energized) ac circuits knows to put one hand behind the back to avoid having both hands in contact with the circuit. Indeed, some people tuck a hand in a back pocket. Figure 31.23 shows a live circuit that a person touches with both hands. The rms voltage is V rms = 120 V and the resistance of the conducting pathway through the body is R body = 300 Ω. What is the rms current I rms through the body
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C
H
A
P
T
E
R
3
2
Maxwell’s Equations; Magnetism of Matter
32.1 GAUSS’ LAW FOR MAGNETIC FIELDS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
32.1.1 Identify that the simplest magnetic structure is a magnetic dipole.
→
→
B and the area vector d A (for patch elements)
vector
over the surface.
32.1.2 Calculate the magnetic flux
Φ through a surface
by integrating the dot product of the magnetic field
32.1.3 Identify that the net magnetic flux through a Gaussian surface (which is a closed surface) is zero.
Key Idea ●
The simplest magnetic structures are magnetic
states that the net magnetic flux through any (closed)
dipoles. Magnetic monopoles do not exist (as far as we
Gaussian surface is zero. It implies that magnetic
know). Gauss’ law for magnetic fields,
monopoles do not exist.
→
→
Φ B = B ⋅ d A = 0, ∮
What Is Physics?
s e g amI ytt eG/ ew ertS r e vilO
This chapter reveals some of the breadth of physics because it ranges from the basic science of electric and magnetic fields to the applied science and engineer- ing of magnetic materials. First, we conclude our basic discussion of electric and magnetic fields, finding that most of the physics principles in the last 11 chapters can be summarized in only four equations, known as Maxwell’s equations. Second, we examine the science and engineering of magnetic materials. The careers of many scientists and engineers are focused on understanding why some materials a re magnetic a nd others are not and on how existing magnetic materials can be improved. These researchers wonder why Earth has a magnetic field but you do not. They find countless applications for inexpensive magnetic materials in cars, kitchens, offices, and hospitals, and magnetic materials often show up in unexpected ways. For example, if you have a tattoo (Fig. 32.1.1) and undergo an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan, the large magnetic field used in the scan may noticeably tug on your tattooed skin because some tattoo inks contain magnetic particles. In another example, some breakfast cereals a re advertised as being “iron fortified” because they contain small bits of iron for you to ingest. Because these iron bits are magnetic, you can collect them by passing a magnet over a slurry of water and cereal. FCP Our first step here is to revisit Gauss’ law, but this time for magnetic fields. Figure 32.1.1
Some of the inks used for tattoos contain magnetic particles.
998 /
999
-- -1 GAU SS’ L AW F OR MAGNET IC F IEL D S
Gauss’ Law for Magnetic Fields
The simplest magnetic structure that can exist is a magnetic dipole. Magnetic monopoles do not exist (as far as we know).
Gauss’ law for magnetic fields is a formal way of saying that magnetic mono- poles do not exist. The law asserts that the net magnetic flux Φ B through any closed Gaussian surface is zero: →
→
Φ B = B ⋅ d A = 0 ∮
(Gauss’ law for magnetic fields).
shpargotohP latnemadnuF/angeM drahciR
Figure 32.1.2 shows iron powder that has been sprinkled onto a transparent sheet placed above a bar magnet. The powder grains, trying to align themselves with the magnet’s m agnetic field, have fallen into a pattern that reveals the field. One end of the magnet is a source of the field (the field lines diverge from it) and the other end is a sink of the field (the field lines converge toward it). By convention, we call the source the north pole of the magnet and the sink the south pole, and we say that the magnet, with its two poles, is an example of a magnetic dipole. Suppose we break a bar magnet into pieces the way we can break a piece of chalk (Fig. 32.1.3). We should, it seems, be able to isolate a single magnetic pole, called a magnetic monopole. However, we cannot—not even if we break the magnet down to its individual atoms and then to its electrons and nuclei. Each fragment has a north pole and a south pole. Thus:
A bar magnet is a magnetic dipole. The iron filings suggest the magnetic field lines. (Colored light fills the background.) Figure 32.1.2
(32.1.1)
Contrast this with Gauss’ law for electric fields, q enc Φ E = E ⋅ d A = ____ ɛ →
∮
→
0
(Gauss’ law for electric fields).
In both equations, the integral is taken over a N closed Gaussian surface. Gauss’ law for elec- tric fields says that this integral (the net electric S N flux through the surface) is proportional to the net electric charge q enc enclosed by the surface. Gauss’ law for magnetic fields says that there N can be no net magnetic flux through the surface S because there can be no net “magnetic charge” (individual magnetic poles) enclosed by the sur- face. The simplest magnetic structure that can S N exist and thus be enclosed by a Gaussian surface is a dipole, which consists of both a source and a S sink for the field lines. Thus, there must always be as much magnetic flux into the surface as out of Figure 32.1.3 If you break a it, and the net magnetic flux must always be zero. magnet, each fragment becomes Gauss’ law for magnetic fields holds for a separate magnet, with its own north and south poles. structures more complicated than a magnetic dipole, and it holds even if the Gaussian surface does not enclose the entire structure. Gaussian surface II near the bar magnet of Fig. 32.1.4 encloses no poles, and we can easily conclude that the net magnetic flux through it is zero. Gaussian surface I is more difficult. It may seem to enclose only the north pole of the magnet because it encloses the label N and not the label S. However, a south pole must be associated with the lower boundary of
B
Surface II
N
Surface I
S
The field lines for the magnetic field B of a short bar magnet. The red curves represent cross sections of closed, three- dimensional Gaussian surfaces. Figure 32.1.4
→
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C HAP T ER - - MAXWEL L ’S EQU AT IONS; MAGNET ISM OF MAT T ER
the surface because magnetic field lines enter the surface there. (The enclosed section is like one piece of the broken bar magnet in Fig. 32.1.3.) Thus, Gaussian surface I encloses a magnetic dipole, and the net flux through the surface is zero.
Checkpoint 32.1.1
The figure here shows four closed surfaces with flat top and bottom faces and curved sides. The table gives the areas A of the faces and the magnitudes B of the uniform and perpendicular magnetic fields through those faces; the units of A and B are arbi- trary but consistent. Rank the surfaces according to the magnitudes of the magnetic flux through their curved sides, greatest first. Surface
A top
B top
A bot
B bot
a
2
6, outward
4
3, inward
b
2
1, inward
4
2, inward
c
2
6, inward
2
8, outward
d
2
3, outward
3
2, outward
(a )
(b )
(c )
(d )
32.2 INDUCED MAGNETIC FIELDS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
32.2.1 Identify that a changing electric flux induces a
that are being charged, indicating the orientations
magnetic field.
of the vectors for the electric field and the magnetic
32.2.2 Apply Maxwell’s law of induction to relate the
field.
magnetic field induced around a closed loop to the
32.2.4 For the general situation in which magnetic
rate of change of electric flux encircled by the loop.
fields can be induced, apply the Ampere–Maxwell
32.2.3 Draw the field lines for an induced magnetic
(combined) law.
field inside a capacitor with parallel circular plates
Key Ideas ●
A changing electric flux induces a magnetic field
B ⋅ d s = μ 0 i enc , gives the magnetic field generated by a current i e nc encircled by a closed
→
B .
●
Maxwell’s law,
dΦ E B ⋅ d s = μ0 ε 0 _____ ∮ dt →
→
Ampere’s law, ∮
→
loop. Maxwell’s law and Ampere’s law can be written
(Maxwell’s law of induction),
as the single equation
dΦ E B ⋅ d s = μ0 ε0 _____ + μ0 i enc dt →
relates the magnetic field induced along a closed loop to the changing electric flux
→
→
∮
Φ E through the loop.
(Ampere–Maxwell law).
Induced Magnetic Fields
In Chapter 30 you saw that a changing magnetic flux induces an electric field, and we ended up with Faraday’s law of induction in the form dΦ B E ⋅ d s = − _____ dt →
∮
→
(Faraday’s law of induction).
(32.2.1)
/
-- -- IND U C ED MAGNET IC F IEL D S
1001
→
Here E is the electric field induced along a closed loop by the changing magnetic flux Φ B encircled by that loop. Because symmetry is often so powerful in physics, we should be tempted to ask whether induction can occur in the opposite sense; that is, can a changing electric flux induce a magnetic field? The answer is that it can; furthermore, the equation governing the induction of a magnetic field is almost symmetric with Eq. 32.2.1. We often call it Maxwell’s law of induction after James Clerk Maxwell, and we write it as dΦ E B ⋅ d s = μ 0 ε0 _____ dt →
∮
→
(32.2.2)
(Maxwell’s law of induction).
→
Here B is the magnetic field induced along a closed loop by the changing electric flux Φ E in the region encircled by that loop. Charging a Capacitor. As an example of this sort of induction, we con- sider the charging of a parallel-plate capacitor with circular plates. (Although we shall focus on this arrangement, a changing electric flux will always induce a magnetic field whenever it occurs.) We assume that the charge 2 on our capacitor (Fig. 32.2.1a) is being increased at a steady rate by a con- E + – stant current i in the connecting wires. Then the electric field magnitude + – between the plates must also be increasing at a steady rate. 1 Figure 32.2.1b is a view of the right-hand plate of Fig. 32.2.1a from + – between the plates. The electric field is directed into the page. Let us con- + – i i sider a circular loop through point 1 in Figs. 32.2.1a and b, a loop that is + – concentric with the capacitor plates and has a radius smaller than that of the plates. Because the electric field through the loop is changing, the elec- + – tric flux through the loop must also be changing. According to Eq. 32.2.2, + – this changing electric flux induces a magnetic field around the loop. + – Experiment proves that a magnetic field B is indeed induced around The changing of the such a loop, directed as shown. This magnetic field has the same magni- electric field between (a ) tude at every point around the loop and thus has circular symmetry a bout the plates creates a the central axis of the capacitor plates (the axis extending from one plate magnetic field. 2 center to the other). If we now consider a larger loop—say, through point 2 outside the plates in Figs. 32.2.1a and b —we find that a magnetic field is induced around that B E loop as well. Thus, while the electric field is changing, magnetic fields are 1 induced between the plates, both inside and outside the gap. When the elec- r tric field stops changing, these induced magnetic fields disappear. B Although Eq. 32.2.2 is similar to Eq. 32.2.1, the equations differ in two ways. First, Eq. 32.2.2 has the two extra symbols μ0 and ε0 , but they B appear only because we employ SI units. Second, Eq. 32.2.2 lacks the R minus sign of Eq. 32.2.1, meaning that the induced electric field E and the induced magnetic field B have opposite directions when they are B produced in otherwise similar situations. To see this opposition, exam- ine Fig. 32.2.2, in which an increasing magnetic field B , directed into (b ) the page, induces an electric field E . The induced field E is counterclock- Figure 32.2.1 (a) A circular parallel-plate wise, opposite the induced magnetic field B in Fig. 32.2.1b. capacitor, shown in side view, is being →
→
→
→
→
→
→
Ampere–Maxwell Law
→
Now recall that the left side of Eq. 32.2.2, the integral of the dot prod- uct B ⋅ d s around a closed loop, appears in another equation—namely, Ampere’s law: →
→
B ⋅ d s = μ0 i enc →
∮
charged by a constant current i. (b) A view from within the capacitor, looking toward the plate at the right in (a). The electric field E is uniform, is directed into the page (toward the plate), and grows in magnitude as the charge on the capacitor increases. The magnetic field B induced by this changing electric field is shown at four points on a circle with a radius r less than the plate radius R.
→
(Ampere’s law),
(32.2.3)
→
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C HAP T ER - - MAXWEL L ’S EQU AT IONS; MAGNET ISM OF MAT T ER
E
A uniform magnetic field B in a circular region. The field, directed into the page, is increasing in magnitude. The electric field E induced by the changing magnetic field is shown at four points on a circle concentric with the circular region. Compare this situation with that of Fig. 32.2.1b.
The induced E direction here is opposite the induced B direction in the preceding figure.
B
Figure 32.2.2 →
R
r
E
→
E
B
E
where i enc is the current encircled by the closed loop. Thus, our two equations that specify the magnetic field B produced by means other than a magnetic mate- rial (that is, by a current and by a changing electric field) give the field in exactly the same form. We can combine the two equations into the single equation →
dΦ E B ⋅ d s = μ 0 ε0 _____ + μ 0 i enc dt →
→
∮
(32.2.4)
(Ampere–Maxwell law).
When there is a current but no change in electric flux (such as with a wire carrying a constant current), the first term on the right side of Eq. 32.2.4 is zero, and so Eq. 32.2.4 reduces to Eq. 32.2.3, A mpere’s law. When there is a change in electric flux but no current (such as inside or outside the gap of a charging capacitor), the second term on the right side of Eq. 32.2.4 is zero, and so Eq. 32.2.4 reduces to Eq. 32.2.2, Maxwell’s law of induction.
Checkpoint 32.2.1
Sample Problem 32.2.1
d
E
The figure shows graphs of the electric field magnitude E versus time t for four uniform electric fields, all con- tained within identical circular regions as in Fig. 32.2.1b. Rank the fields according to the magnitudes of the magnetic fields they induce at the edge of the region, greatest first.
c
a
b t
Magnetic field induced by changing electric field
A parallel-plate capacitor with circular plates of radius R is being charged as in Fig. 32.2.1a. (a) Derive an expression for the magnetic field at radius r for the case r ≤ R.
KEY IDEAS
We shall separately evaluate the left and right sides of this equation. We choose a circular Amperian loop with a radius r ≤ R as shown in Fig. 32.2.1b because we want to evaluate the magnetic field for r ≤ R —that is, inside the capacitor. The magnetic field B at all points along the loop is tangent to the loop, as is the path ele- ment d s . Thus, B and d s are either parallel or antiparallel at each point of the loop. For simplicity, assume they are parallel (the choice does not alter our outcome here). Then Left side of Eq. 32.2.5:
→
A magnetic field can be set up by a current and by induc- tion due to a changing electric flux; both effects are included in Eq. 32.2.4. There is no current between the capacitor plates of Fig. 32.2.1, but the electric flux there is changing. Thus, Eq. 32.2.4 reduces to dΦ E B ⋅ d s = μ0 ε0 ____ . ∮ dt →
→
(32.2.5)
→
→
→
∮
→
B ⋅ d s = B ds cos 0° = B ds. →
∮
∮
Due to the circular symmetry of the plates, we can also assume that B has the same magnitude at every point →
/
--- - D ISP L AC EMENT C U RRENT
around the loop. Thus, B can be taken outside the inte- gral on the right side of the above equation. The integral that remains is ∮ ds, which simply gives the circumference 2 πr of the loop. The left side of Eq. 32.2.5 is then (B)(2πr). side of Eq. 32.2.5: We assume that the elec- tric field E is uniform between the capacitor plates and directed perpendicular to the plates. Then the electric flux Φ E through the Amperian loop is EA, where A is the area encircled by the loop within the electric field. Thus, the right side of Eq. 32.2.5 is μ0 ε0 d(EA)/dt. Right
→
Substituting our results for the left and right sides into Eq. 32.2.5, we get d(EA) (B)(2πr) = μ0 ε0 ______ . dt Combining results:
(c) Derive an expression for the induced magnetic field for the case r ≥ R. Our procedure is the same as in (a) except we now use an Amperian loop with a radius r that is greater than the plate radius R, to evaluate B outside the capacitor. Evaluating the left and right sides of Eq. 32.2.5 again leads to Eq. 32.2.6. However, we then need this subtle point: The electric field exists only between the plates, not outside the plates. Thus, the area A that is encircled by the Amperian loop in the electric field is not the full area πr 2 of the loop. Rather, A is only the plate area πR 2 . Substituting πR 2 for A in Eq. 32.2.6 and solving the result for B give us, for r ≥ R, Calculation:
μ0 ε0 R 2 dE ___ . (Answer) (32.2.8) B = _______ 2r dt
Because A is a constant, we write d(EA) as A dE; so we have dE . (B)(2πr) = μ 0 ε0 A ___ (32.2.6) dt The area A that is encircled by the Amperian loop within the electric field is the full area πr 2 of the loop because the loop’s radius r is less than (or equal to) the plate radius R. Substituting πr 2 for A in Eq. 32.2.6 leads to, for r ≤ R,
μ0 ε0 r ___ dE . (Answer) (32.2.7) B = _____ 2 dt This equation tells us that, inside the capacitor, B increases linearly with increased radial distance r, from 0 at the cen- tral axis to a maximum value at plate radius R. (b) Evaluate the field magnitude B for r = R/5 = 11.0 mm and dE/dt = 1.50 × 10 12 V/m · s. From the answer to (a), we have 1 dE B = _ μ ε r ___ 2 0 0 dt 1 = _ (4π × 10 −7 T ⋅ m/A)(8.85 × 10 −12 C 2 /N ⋅ m 2 ) 2
Calculation:
1003
This equation tells us that, outside the capacitor, B de- creases with increased radial distance r, from a maximum value at the plate edges (where r = R). By substituting r = R into Eqs. 32.2.7 and 32.2.8, you can show that these equations are consistent; that is, they give the same maximum value of B at the plate radius. The magnitude of the induced magnetic field calcu- lated in (b) is so small that it can scarcely be measured with simple apparatus. This is in sharp contrast to the magnitudes of induced electric fields (Faraday’s law), which can be measured easily. This experimental dif- ference exists partly because induced emfs can easily be multiplied by using a coil of many turns. No technique of comparable simplicity exists for multiplying induced magnetic fields. In any case, the experiment suggested by this sample problem has been done, and the pres- ence of the induced magnetic fields has been verified quantitatively.
× (11.0 × 10 −3 m)(1.50 × 10 12 V/m ⋅ s) = 9.18 × 10 −8 T.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
32.3 DISPLACEMENT CURRENT Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
32.3.1 Identify that in the Ampere–Maxwell law, the con- tribution to the induced magnetic field by the chang- ing electric flux can be attributed to a fictitious current (“displacement current”) to simplify the expression. 32.3.2 Identify that in a capacitor that is being charged
spread uniformly over the plate area, from one plate to the other. 32.3.3 Apply the relationship between the rate of change of an electric flux and the associated dis- placement current.
or discharged, a displacement current is said to be
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C HAP T ER - - MAXWEL L ’S EQU AT IONS; MAGNET ISM OF MAT T ER
32.3.4 For a charging or discharging capacitor, relate
32.3.6 Apply the Ampere–Maxwell law to calculate the
the amount of displacement current to the amount
magnetic field of a real current and a displacement
of actual current and identify that the displacement
current.
current exists only when the electric field within the
32.3.7 For a charging or discharging capacitor with
capacitor is changing.
parallel circular plates, draw the magnetic field lines
32.3.5 Mimic the equations for the magnetic field inside and outside a wire with real current to write (and
due to the displacement current. 32.3.8 List Maxwell’s equations and the purpose of each.
apply) the equations for the magnetic field inside and outside a region of displacement current.
Key Ideas ●
We define the fictitious displacement current due to a
changing electric field as
tor. However, displacement current is not a transfer of charge.
The Ampere–Maxwell law then becomes
B ⋅ d s = μ 0 i d,enc + μ 0 i enc →
→
∮
where
The idea of a displacement current allows us to retain
the notion of continuity of current through a capaci-
dΦ E i d = ε0 ____ . dt ●
●
●
Maxwell’s equations, displayed in Table 32.3.1,
summarize electromagnetism and form its foundation,
(Ampere–Maxwell law),
including optics.
i d,enc is the displacement current encircled by the
integration loop.
Displacement Current
If you compare the two terms on the right side of Eq. 32.2.4, y ou will see that the product ε0 (dΦ E /dt) must have the dimension of a current. In fact, that product has been treated as being a fictitious current called the displacement current i d : dΦ E i d = ε0 ____ dt
(displacement current).
(32.3.1)
“Displacement” is poorly chosen in that nothing is being displaced, but we are stuck with the word. Nevertheless, we can now rewrite Eq. 32.2.4 a s B ⋅ d s = μ0 i d,enc + μ0 i enc →
∮
→
(Ampere–Maxwell law),
(32.3.2)
in which i d,enc is the displacement current that is encircled by the integration loop. Let us again focus on a charging capacitor with circular plates, as in Fig. 32.3.1a. The real current i that is charging the plates changes the electric field E between the plates. The fictitious displacement current i d between the plates is associated with that changing field E . Let us relate these two currents. The charge q on the plates at any time is related to the magnitude E of the field between the plates at that time and the plate area A by Eq. 25.2.2: →
→
q = ε0 AE.
(32.3.3)
To get the real current i, we differentiate Eq. 32.3.3 with respect to time, finding dq dE . ___ = i = ε0 A ___
(32.3.4) dt dt To get the displacement current i d, we can use Eq. 32.3.1. A ssuming that the elec- tric field E between the two plates is uniform (we neglect any fringing), we can replace the electric flux Φ E in that equation with EA. Then Eq. 32.3.1 becomes →
dΦ E d(EA) dE . i d = ε0 ____ = ε0 ______ = ε0 A ___ dt dt dt
(32.3.5)
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--- - D ISP L AC EMENT C U RRENT
During charging, magnetic field is created by both the real and fictional currents.
Before charging, there is no magnetic field.
(b )
(a )
i
+
B
During charging, the right-hand rule works for both the real and fictional currents.
(a) Before and (d) after the plates are charged, there is no magnetic field. (b) During the charging, magnetic field is created by both the real current and the (fictional) displacement current. (c) The same right- hand rule works for both currents to give the direction of the magnetic field.
i
(c )
–
B
B
After charging, there is no magnetic field.
i
+
B
A
id
i
Figure 32.3.1
1005
(d )
–
B
+
–
B
Same Value. Comparing Eqs. 32.3.4 a nd 32.3.5, we see that the real current i charging the capacitor and the fictitious displacement current i d between the plates have the same value: i d = i
(displacement current in a capacitor).
(32.3.6)
Thus, we can consider the fictitious displacement current i d to be simply a con- tinuation of the real current i from one plate, a cross the capacitor gap, to the other plate. Because the electric field is uniformly spread over the plates, the same is true of this fictitious displacement current i d , as suggested by the spread of cur- rent arrows in Fig. 32.3.1b. Although no charge actually moves across the gap between the plates, the idea of the fictitious current i d can help us to quickly find the direction and magnitude of an induced magnetic field, as follows. Finding the Induced Magnetic Field
In Chapter 29 we found the direction of the magnetic field produced by a real current i by using the right-hand rule of Fig. 29.1.5. We can apply the same rule to find the direction of an induced magnetic field produced by a fictitious displace- ment current i d, as is shown in the center of Fig. 32.3.1c for a capacitor. We can also use i d to find the magnitude of the magnetic field induced by a charging capacitor with parallel circular plates of radius R. We simply consider the space between the plates to be an imaginary circular wire of radius R carrying the imaginary current i d. Then, from Eq. 29.3.7, the magnitude of the magnetic field at a point inside the capacitor at radius r from the center is
μ0 i d B = (_____ 2πR 2)r
(inside a circular capacitor).
(32.3.7)
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C HAP T ER - - MAXWEL L ’S EQU AT IONS; MAGNET ISM OF MAT T ER
Similarly, from Eq. 29.3.4, the magnitude of the magnetic field at a point outside the capacitor at radius r is
μ 0 i d B = ____ 2 πr
(32.3.8)
(outside a circular capacitor).
Checkpoint 32.3.1
The figure is a view of one plate of a parallel-plate capacitor from within the capacitor. The dashed lines show four integration paths (path b follows the edge of the plate). Rank the paths according to the magnitude of ∮ B ⋅ d s along the paths during the discharging of the capacitor, greatest first. →
Sample Problem 32.3.1
→
A magnetic field can be set up by a current and by induc- tion due to a changing electric flux (Eq. 32.2.4). Between the plates in Fig. 32.2.1, the current is zero and we can account for the changing electric flux with a fictitious dis- placement current i d. Then integral ∮ B ⋅ d s is given by Eq. 32.3.2, but because there is no real current i between the capacitor plates, the equation reduces to →
→
B ⋅ d s = μ 0 i d,enc .
(32.3.9)
→
∮
→
Because we want to evaluate ∮ B ⋅ d s at radius r = R/5 (within the capacitor), the integration loop encircles only a portion i d,enc of the total displacement current i d. Let’s assume that i d is uniformly spread over the full plate area. Then the portion of the displacement current encircled by the loop is proportional to the area encircled by the loop: Calculations:
→
encircled displacement
(_______________________ ) _________________ current i d,enc encircled area πr 2 =
. full plate area πR 2
(R/ 5 ) 2 ___ μ i B ⋅ d s = μ 0 i d ______ = 0 . ∮ R 2 25
πr . i d,enc = i d ____ 2 πR
Substituting this into Eq. 32.3.9, we obtain
πr . B ⋅ d s = μ0 i d ____ πR 2 →
→
2
→
→
(32.3.10)
(Answer)
(b) In terms of the maximum induced magnetic field, what is the magnitude of the magnetic field induced at r = R/5, inside the capacitor?
KEY IDEA Because the capacitor has parallel circular plates, we can treat the space between the plates as an imaginary wire of radius R carrying the imaginary current i d . Then we can use Eq. 32.3.7 to find the induced magnetic field magni- tude B at any point inside the capacitor. Calculations:
At r = R/5, Eq. 32.3.7 y ields
μ 0 i d μ0 i d (R/ 5) = _____ μ 0 i d . _________ B = (_____ 2πR 2)r = 2πR 2 10πR
(32.3.11)
From Eq. 32.3.7, the maximum field magnitude B max within the capacitor occurs at r = R. It is
μ0 i d μ0 i d ____ B max = (_____ 2πR 2) R = 2πR .
(32.3.12)
Dividing Eq. 32.3.11 by Eq. 32.3.12 and rearranging the result, we find that the field magnitude at r = R/5 is 1 B = _ B . 5 max
2
∮
d
Now substituting i d = i (from Eq. 32.3.6) and r = R/5 into Eq. 32.3.10 leads to
→
KEY IDEA
This gives us
a
Treating a changing electric field as a displacement current
(a) Between the plates, what is the magnitude of ∮ B ⋅ d s , in terms of μ0 and i, at a radius r = R/5 from their center?
total displacement ( current i d )
b
→
A circular parallel-plate capacitor with plate radius R is being charged with a current i.
→
c
(Answer)
We should be able to obtain this result with a little reasoning and less work. Equation 32.3.7 tells us that inside the capacitor, B increases linearly with r. Therefore, _ a point 1 5 the distance out to the full radius R of the plates, where B max occurs, should have a field B that is _ 1 5 B max .
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
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- --4 MAGNET S
1007
a
Table 32.3.1 Maxwell’s Equations
Name Gauss’ law for electricity Gauss’ law for magnetism Faraday’s law Ampere–Maxwell law
Equation E ⋅ d A = q enc / ε 0
Relates net electric flux to net enclosed electric charge
B ⋅ d A = 0
Relates net magnetic flux to net enclosed magnetic charge
dΦ B E ⋅ d s = − _______ dt
Relates induced electric field to changing magnetic flux
dΦ E B ⋅ d s = μ 0 ε0 _______ + μ 0 i enc dt
Relates induced magnetic field to changing electric flux and to current
→
→
∮
→
→
∮
→
→
∮
→
→
∮
a
Written on the assumption that no dielectric or magnetic materials are present.
Maxwell’s Equations
Equation 32.2.4 is the last of the four fundamental equations of electromagne- tism, called Maxwell’s equations and displayed in Table 32.3.1. These four equa- tions explain a diverse range of phenomena, from why a compass needle points north to why a car starts when you turn the ignition key. They are the basis for the functioning of such electromagnetic devices as electric motors, television trans- mitters and receivers, telephones, scanners, radar, and microwave ovens. Maxwell’s equations are the basis from which many of the equations you have seen since Chapter 21 can be derived. They are also the basis of many of the equations you will see in Chapters 33 through 36 concerning optics.
32.4 MAGNETS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
32.4.1 Identify lodestones.
in which hemisphere the north geomagnetic pole is
32.4.2 In Earth’s magnetic field, identify that the field is approximately that of a dipole and also identify
located. 32.4.3 Identify field declination and field inclination.
Key Ideas ●
Earth is approximately a magnetic dipole with a
●
The local field direction is given by the field declination
dipole axis somewhat off the rotation axis and with the
(the angle left or right from geographic north) and the field
south pole in the Northern Hemisphere.
inclination (the angle up or down from the horizontal).
Magnets
The first known magnets were lodestones, which are stones that have been magne- tized (made magnetic) naturally. When the ancient Greeks and ancient Chinese discovered these rare stones, they were amused by the stones’ ability to attract metal over a short distance, as if by magic. O nly much later did they learn to use lodestones (and artificially magnetized pieces of iron) in compasses to determine FCP direction. Today, magnets a nd magnetic m aterials are ubiquitous. Their magnetic prop- erties can be traced to their atoms and electrons. In fact, the inexpensive magnet
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C HAP T ER - - MAXWEL L ’S EQU AT IONS; MAGNET ISM OF MAT T ER
For Earth, the south pole of the dipole is actually in the north. R M
Geographic north pole
Geomagnetic north pole
B
S N
you might use to hold a note on the refrigerator door is a direct result of the quan- tum physics taking place in the atomic and subatomic material within the magnet. Before we explore some of this physics, let’s briefly discuss the largest m agnet we commonly use—namely, Earth itself. The Magnetism of Earth
Earth is a huge magnet; for points near Earth’s surface, its magnetic field can be approximated as the field of a huge bar magnet—a magnetic dipole—that strad- dles the center of the planet. Figure 32.4.1 is an idealized symmetric depiction of the dipole field, without the distortion caused by passing charged particles from the Sun. Because Earth’s magnetic field is that of a magnetic dipole, a magnetic dipole moment μ is associated with the field. For the idealized field of Fig. 32.4.1, the magnitude of μ is 8.0 × 10 22 J/T and the direction of μ makes an angle of 11.5° with the rotation axis (RR) of Earth. The dipole axis (MM in Fig. 32.4.1) lies along μ and intersects Earth’s surface at the geomagnetic north pole near the northwest coast of Greenland and the geomagnetic south pole in Antarctica. The lines of the magnetic field B generally emerge in the Southern Hemisphere and reenter Earth in the Northern Hemisphere. Thus, the magnetic pole that is in Earth’s Northern Hemisphere and known as a “north magnetic pole” is really the south pole of Earth’s magnetic dipole. The direction of the magnetic field at any location on Earth’s surface is com- monly specified in terms of two angles. The field declination is the angle (left or right) between geographic north (which is toward 90° latitude) and the horizontal component of the field. The field inclination is the angle (up or down) between a horizontal plane and the field’s direction. Measurement. Magnetometers measure these angles and determine the field with much precision. However, you can do reasonably well with just a compass and a dip meter. A compass is simply a needle-shaped magnet that is mounted so it can rotate freely about a vertical axis. When it is held in a horizontal plane, the north-pole end of the needle points, generally, toward the geomagnetic north pole (really a south magnetic pole, remember). The angle between the needle and geographic north is the field declination. A dip meter is a similar magnet that can rotate freely about a horizontal axis. When its vertical plane of rotation is aligned with the direction of the compass, the angle between the meter’s needle and the horizontal is the field inclination. At any point on Earth’s surface, the measured magnetic field may differ appreciably, in both magnitude and direction, from the idealized dipole field of Fig. 32.4.1. In fact, the point where the field is actually perpendicular to Earth’s surface and inward is not located at the geomagnetic north pole off Greenland as we would expect; instead, this so-called dip north pole is located in the Canadian Arctic, far from the geomagnetic north pole. Both poles are shifting away from Canada and toward Siberia. The motion requires periodic updates to the World Magnetic Model, which underlies magnetic navigation and the Google maps dis- played on smartphones. In addition, the field observed at any location on the surface of Earth varies with time, by measurable a mounts over a period of a few years a nd by substantial amounts over, say, 100 years. For example, between 1580 and 1820 the direction indicated by compass needles in London changed by 35°. In spite of these local variations, the average dipole field changes only slowly over such relatively short time periods. Variations over longer periods can be studied by measuring the weak magnetism of the ocean floor on either side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Fig. 32.4.2). This floor has been formed by molten magma that oozed up through the ridge from Earth’s interior, solidified, and was pulled away from the ridge (by the drift of tectonic plates) at the rate of a few centimeters per year. As the magma solidified, it became weakly magnetized with its magnetic →
→
→
→
R
M
Earth’s magnetic field represented as a dipole field. The dipole axis MM makes an angle of 11.5° with Earth’s rotational axis RR. The south pole of the dipole is in Earth’s Northern Hemisphere. Figure 32.4.1
→
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---5 MAGNET ISM AND EL EC T RONS
1009
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Age (million years)
3.0
2.0
0.7
0.7
2.0
3.0
N N N
Lateral spread
N
Magma
A magnetic profile of the seafloor on either side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The seafloor, extruded through the ridge and spreading out as part of the tectonic drift system, displays a record of the past magnetic history of Earth’s core. The direction of the magnetic field produced by the core reverses about every million years. Figure 32.4.2
field in the direction of Earth’s magnetic field at the time of solidification. Study of this solidified magma across the ocean floor reveals that Earth’s field has reversed its polarity (directions of the north pole and south pole) about every million years. Theories explaining the reversals are still in preliminary stages. In fact, the mecha- nism that produces Earth’s magnetic field is only vaguely understood.
Checkpoint 32.4.1
We can measure the horizontal component B h of Earth’s magnetic field by slightly jarring the needle in a horizontal compass and then timing the oscillations of the needle around its initial equilibrium position. If we move the compass to a region with a greater B h , does T increase or decrease?
32.5 MAGNETISM AND ELECTRONS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . . →
32.5.1 Identify that a spin angular momentum
S (usu-
ally simply called spin) and a spin magnetic dipole
μs are intrinsic properties of electrons (and
→
moment
also protons and neutrons).
→
32.5.2 Apply the relationship between the spin vector
μs .
S
→
and the spin magnetic dipole moment vector
S and μs cannot be observed
→
32.5.3 Identify that
→
(measured); only their components on an axis of mea-
z axis) can be observed. 32.5.4 Identify that the observed components S z and surement (usually called the
μs,z are quantized and explain what that means.
32.5.5 Apply the relationship between the component
S z and the spin magnetic quantum number m s , specifying the allowed values of m s . 32.5.6 Distinguish spin up from spin down for the spin orientation of an electron. 32.5.7 Determine the
z components μs,z of the spin
32.5.8 If an electron is in an external magnetic field, determine the orientation energy
μs .
U of its spin mag-
→
netic dipole moment
32.5.9 Identify that an electron in an atom has an →
L orb and an orbital mag-
orbital angular momentum
μ orb .
→
netic dipole moment
32.5.10 Apply the relationship between the orbital angu- →
L orb and the orbital magnetic dipole
lar momentum
μ orb .
→
moment
L orb and μorb cannot be observed but their components L orb , z and μorb , z on a z (measurement) axis can. →
32.5.11 Identity that
→
32.5.12 Apply the relationship between the compo-
L orb ,z of the orbital angular momentum and the m ℓ , specifying the allowed values of m ℓ . 32.5.13 Determine the z components μorb,z of the nent
orbital magnetic quantum number
magnetic dipole moment, both as a value and in
orbital magnetic dipole moment, both as a value and
terms of the Bohr magneton
in terms of the Bohr magneton
μB .
μB .
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32.5.14 If an atom is in an external magnetic field,
32.5.16 Explain the classical loop model for an orbiting
U of the orbital
determine the orientation energy
μorb .
electron and the forces on such a loop in a nonuni-
→
magnetic dipole moment
form magnetic field.
32.5.15 Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic
32.5.17 Distinguish diamagnetism, paramagnetism,
moment of a charged particle moving in a circle or a
and ferromagnetism.
ring of uniform charge rotating like a merry-go-round at a constant angular speed around a central axis.
Key Ideas ●
An electron has an intrinsic angular momentum called
●
→
spin angular momentum
sic spin
(or spin)
magnetic dipole moment
momentum called its orbital angular momentum
μs is associated:
→
●
associated:
→
e L . μ orb = − ___ 2m orb
z axis, the component S z
For a measurement along a
●
h , for m = ± _ 1 S z = m s ___ , s 2
h , L orb,z = m ℓ ___ 2π for m ℓ = 0, ±1, ±2, … , ± (limit).
h (= 6.63 × 10 –34 J · s) is the Planck constant.
Similarly,
eh = ± μ , μs,z = ± ____ B 4 πm
where
●
Orbital angular momentum is quantized and can
have only measured values given by
2π
●
●
The associated magnetic dipole moment is given by
eh = −m μ . μorb,z = −m ℓ 4____ ℓ B πm
μB is the Bohr magneton: eh = 9.27 × 10 −24 J / T. μ B = ____ 4 πm
●
The energy
U associated with the orientation of the
orbital magnetic dipole moment in an external mag-
U associated with the orientation of the
The energy
→
netic field
spin magnetic dipole moment in an external magnetic field
→
B ext is
B ext is U = − μ orb ⋅ B ext = − μ orb,z B ext . →
U = − μs ⋅ B ext = − μs,z B ext . →
→
→
can have only the values given by
where
L orb ,
μorb is
→
with which an orbital magnetic dipole moment
e μs = − __ m S .
→
An electron in an atom has an additional angular →
S , with which an intrin-
→
→
Magnetism and Electrons
Magnetic materials, from lodestones to tattoos, are magnetic because of the elec- trons within them. We have already seen one way in which electrons can generate a magnetic field: Send them through a wire as an electric current, and their motion produces a magnetic field around the wire. There are two more ways, each involv- ing a magnetic dipole moment that produces a magnetic field in the surrounding space. However, their explanation requires quantum physics that is beyond the physics presented in this book, and so here we shall only outline the results. Spin Magnetic Dipole Moment
An electron has an intrinsic angular momentum called its spin angular momen- tum (or just spin) S ; associated with this spin is an intrinsic spin magnetic dipole moment μ s . (By intrinsic, we mean that S and μs are basic characteristics of an electron, like its mass and electric charge.) Vectors S and μs are related by →
→
→
→
→
→
e μs = − __ m S ,
→
→
(32.5.1)
in which e is the elementary charge (1.60 × 10 –19 C) and m is the mass of an electron (9.11 × 10 –31 kg). The minus sign means that μs and S are oppositely directed. →
→
/
---5 MAGNET ISM AND EL EC T RONS
1011
→
Spin S is different from the angular momenta of Chapter 11 in two respects: →
1. Spin S itself cannot be measured. However, its component along any axis can be measured. →
2. A measured component of S is quantized, which is a general term that means it is restricted to certain values. A measured component of S can have only two values, which differ only in sign. →
→
Let us assume that the component of spin S is measured along the z axis of a coordinate system. Then the measured component S z can have only the two values given by h , S z = m s ___ 2π
_ , for m s = ± 1 2
(32.5.2)
where m s is called the spin magnetic quantum number and h (= 6.63 × 10 –34 J · s) is the Planck constant, the ubiquitous constant of quantum physics. The signs given in Eq. 32.5.2 have to do with the direction of S z along the z axis. When S z 1 and the electron is said to be spin up. When S is is parallel to the z axis, m s is + _ z 2 _ antiparallel to the z axis, m s is − 1 2 and the electron is said to be spin down. The spin magnetic dipole moment μs of an electron also cannot be measured; only its component along any axis can be measured, and that component too is quantized, with two possible values of the same magnitude but different signs. We can relate the component μs,z measured on the z axis to S z by rewriting Eq. 32.5.1 in component form for the z axis as →
e μs,z = − __ m S z . Substituting for S z from Eq. 32.5.2 then gives us eh , μs,z = ± ____ 4 πm
(32.5.3)
where the plus and minus signs correspond to μs,z being parallel and antiparallel to the z axis, respectively. The quantity on the right is the Bohr magneton μB : eh = 9.27 × 10 −24 J/ T μB = ____ 4 πm
(Bohr magneton).
(32.5.4)
Spin magnetic dipole moments of electrons and other elementary particles can be expressed in terms of μ B . For an electron, the magnitude of the measured z component of μ s is →
μ
μ
| s,z| = 1 B .
(32.5.5)
(The quantum physics of the electron, called quantum electrodynamics, or QED, reveals that μs,z is actually slightly greater than 1 μB , but we shall neglect that fact.) Energy. When an electron is placed in an external magnetic field B ext , an energy U can be associated with the orientation of the electron’s spin magnetic dipole moment μ s just as an energy can be associated with the orientation of the magnetic dipole moment μ of a current loop placed in B ext . From Eq. 28.8.4, the orientation energy for the electron is →
For an electron, the spin is opposite the magnetic dipole moment. B
→
S
→
→
U = − μ s ⋅ B ext = − μs,z B ext , →
(32.5.6)
→
→
where the z axis is taken to be in the direction of B ext . If we imagine an electron to be a microscopic sphere (which it is not), we can represent the spin S , the spin magnetic dipole moment μ s , and the associated mag- netic dipole field as in Fig. 32.5.1. Although we use the word “spin” here, electrons do not spin like tops. How, then, can something have angular momentum without actually rotating? Again, we would need quantum physics to provide the answer. →
→
μ
s
→
The spin S , spin magnetic dipole moment μ s , and magnetic dipole field B of an electron represented as a microscopic sphere. Figure 32.5.1
→
→
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C HAP T ER - - MAXWEL L ’S EQU AT IONS; MAGNET ISM OF MAT T ER
Protons and neutrons also have an intrinsic angular momentum called spin and an associated intrinsic spin magnetic dipole moment. For a proton those two vectors have the same direction, and for a neutron they have opposite directions. We shall not examine the contributions of these dipole moments to the magnetic fields of atoms because they are about a thousand times smaller than that due to an electron.
Checkpoint 32.5.1
Bext
The figure here shows the spin orientations of two particles in an external magnetic field B ext . (a) If the particles are electrons, which spin orientation is at lower energy? (b) If, instead, the particles are protons, which spin orientation is at lower energy? →
Sz
(1)
Sz
(2)
Orbital Magnetic Dipole Moment
When it is in an atom, an electron has an additional angular momentum called its orbital angular momentum L orb . Associated with L orb is an orbital magnetic dipole moment μ orb ; the two are related by →
→
→
e L . ___ μorb = − 2m orb →
→
(32.5.7)
The minus sign means that μ orb and L orb have opposite directions. Orbital angular momentum L orb cannot be measured; only its component along any axis can be measured, and that component is quantized. The compo- nent along, say, a z axis can have only the values given by →
→
→
h , L orb,z = m ℓ ___ for m ℓ = 0, ±1, ±2, … , ± (limit), (32.5.8) 2π in which m ℓ is called the orbital magnetic quantum number and “limit” refers to some largest a llowed integer value for m ℓ. The signs in Eq. 32.5.8 have to do with the direction of L orb,z along the z axis. The orbital magnetic dipole moment μ orb of an electron also cannot itself be measured; only its component along an axis can be measured, and that com- ponent is quantized. By writing Eq. 32.5.7 for a component along the same z axis as above and then substituting for L orb,z from Eq. 32.5.8, we can write the z component μorb,z of the orbital magnetic dipole moment as →
z
eh μ orb,z = −m ℓ ____ 4 πm
Lorb
A
r
and, in terms of the Bohr magneton, as
μ orb,z = −m ℓμ B .
i
–e
μ orb
v
An electron moving at constant speed v in a circular path of radius r that encloses an area A. The electron has an orbital angular momentum L orb and an associated orbital magnetic dipole moment μ orb . A clockwise current i (of positive charge) is equivalent to the counterclockwise circulation of the negatively charged electron.
(32.5.9)
(32.5.10) →
When an atom is placed in an external magnetic field B ext , an energy U can be associated with the orientation of the orbital magnetic dipole moment of each electron in the atom. Its value is
Figure 32.5.2
U = − μ orb ⋅ B ext = − μ orb,z B ext , →
→
(32.5.11)
→
→
→
where the z axis is taken in the direction of B ext . Although we have used the words “orbit” and “orbital” here, electrons do not orbit the nucleus of an atom like planets orbiting the Sun. How can an elec- tron have an orbital angular momentum without orbiting in the common mean- ing of the term? Once again, this can be explained only with quantum physics.
/
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---5 MAGNET ISM AND EL EC T RONS
Loop Model for Electron Orbits
We can obtain Eq. 32.5.7 with the nonquantum derivation that follows, in which we assume that an electron moves along a circular path with a radius that is much larger than an atomic radius (hence the name “loop model”). However, the derivation does not apply to an electron within an atom (for which we need quantum physics). We imagine an electron moving at constant speed v in a circular path of radius r, counterclockwise as shown in Fig. 32.5.2. The motion of the negative charge of the electron is equivalent to a conventional current i (of positive charge) that is clockwise, as also shown in Fig. 32.5.2. The magnitude of the orbital magnetic dipole moment of such a current loop is obtained from Eq. 28.8.1 with N = 1:
μorb = iA,
Bext
(32.5.12)
where A is the area enclosed by the loop. The direction of this magnetic dipole moment is, from the right-hand rule of Fig. 29.4.5, downward in Fig. 32.5.2. To evaluate Eq. 32.5.12, we need the current i. Current is, generally, the rate at which charge passes some point in a circuit. Here, the charge of magnitude e takes a time T = 2 πr/v to circle from any point back through that point, so
(a ) B ext
charge e . (32.5.13) i = ______ = _____ time 2 πr / v Substituting this and the area A = πr 2 of the loop into Eq. 32.5.12 g ives us e πr 2 = ___ evr . μ orb = _____ 2 πr / v 2
Bext
Bext
μorb –e
i
(32.5.14)
(b )
→
To find the electron’s orbital angular momentum L orb , we use Eq. 11.5.1, ℓ = m ( r × v ). Because r and v are perpendicular, L orb has the magnitude →
→
→
→
→
→
L orb = mrv sin 90° = mrv.
B ext
(32.5.15)
→
The vector L orb is directed upward in Fig. 32.5.2 (see Fig. 11.5.1). Combining Eqs. 32.5.14 a nd 32.5.15, g eneralizing to a vector formulation, and indicating the opposite directions of the vectors with a minus sign yield
dF
Bext
μorb
which is Eq. 32.5.7. Thus, by “classical” (nonquantum) analysis we have obtained the same result, in both magnitude and direction, given by quantum physics. You might wonder, seeing as this derivation gives the correct result for an electron within an atom, why the derivation is invalid for that situation. The answer is that this line of reasoning yields other results that are contradicted by experiments.
–e
(d )
i
Bext
Bext
Loop Model in a Nonuniform Field
We continue to consider an electron orbit as a current loop, as we did in Fig. 32.5.2. Now, however, we draw the loop in a nonuniform magnetic field B ext as shown in Fig. 32.5.3a. (This field could be the diverging field near the north pole of the magnet in Fig. 32.1.4.) We make this change to prepare for the next several modules, in which we shall discuss the forces that act on magnetic materials when the materials are placed in a nonuniform magnetic field. We shall discuss these forces by assuming that the electron orbits in the materials are tiny current loops like that in Fig. 32.5.3a. Here we assume that the magnetic field vectors all around the electron’s cir- cular path have the same magnitude and form the same angle with the vertical, as shown in Figs. 32.5.3b and d. We also assume that all the electrons in an atom move either counterclockwise (Fig. 32.5.3b) or clockwise (Fig. 32.5.3d). The asso- ciated conventional current i around the current loop and the orbital magnetic dipole moment μorb produced by i are shown for each direction of motion. →
→
dL
B ext
Bext
→
dF
(c )
dL
e L , μ orb = − ___ 2m orb
→
Bext
dL
(e )
dL
dF
dF
(a) A loop model for an electron orbiting in an atom while in a nonuniform magnetic field B ext . (b) Charge −e moves counterclockwise; the associated conventional current i is clockwise. (c) The magnetic forces dF on the left and right sides of the loop, as seen from the plane of the loop. The net force on the loop is upward. (d) Charge −e now moves clockwise. (e) The net force on the loop is now downward. Figure 32.5.3
→
→
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Figures 32.5.3c and e show diametrically opposite views of a length element d L of the loop that has the same direction as i, as seen from the plane of the orbit. Also shown are the field B ext and the resulting magnetic force d F on d L . Recall that a current along an element d L in a magnetic field B ext experiences a magnetic force d F as given by Eq. 28.6.4: →
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
d F = i d L × B ext .
(32.5.16) →
On the left side of Fig. 32.5.3c, Eq. 32.5.16 tells us that the force d F is directed upward and rightward. On the right side, the force d F is just as large and is directed upward and leftward. Because their angles are the same, the horizontal components of these two forces cancel and the vertical components add. The same is true at any other two symmetric points on the loop. Thus, the net force on the current loop of Fig. 32.5.3b must be upward. The same reasoning leads to a downward net force on the loop in Fig. 32.5.3d. We shall use these two results shortly when we examine the behavior of magnetic m aterials in nonuniform mag- netic fields. →
Magnetic Materials
Each electron in an atom has an orbital magnetic dipole moment and a spin magnetic dipole moment that combine vectorially. The resultant of these two vector quantities combines vectorially with similar resultants for all other elec- trons in the atom, and the resultant for each atom combines with those for all the other atoms in a sample of a material. If the combination of all these mag- netic dipole moments produces a magnetic field, then the material is magnetic. There are three general types of magnetism: diamagnetism, paramagnetism, a nd ferromagnetism. 1. Diamagnetism is exhibited by all common materials but is so feeble that it is masked if the material a lso exhibits magnetism of either of the other two types. In diamagnetism, weak magnetic dipole moments are produced in the atoms of the material when the material is placed in an external magnetic field B ext ; the combination of all those induced dipole moments gives the material as a whole only a feeble net magnetic field. The dipole moments and thus their net field disappear when B ext is removed. The term diamagnetic material usually refers to materials that exhibit only diamagnetism. →
→
2. Paramagnetism is exhibited by materials containing transition elements, rare earth elements, a nd actinide elements (see Appendix G). Each atom of such a material has a permanent resultant magnetic dipole moment, but the moments are randomly oriented in the material and the material as a whole lacks a net magnetic field. However, an external magnetic field B ext can partially align the atomic magnetic dipole moments to give the material a net magnetic field. The alignment and thus its field disappear when B ext is removed. The term paramagnetic material usually refers to materials that exhibit primarily paramagnetism. →
→
3. Ferromagnetism is a property of iron, nickel, and certain other elements (and of compounds and alloys of these elements). Some of the electrons in these materials have their resultant magnetic dipole moments aligned, which pro- duces regions with strong magnetic dipole moments. An external field B ext can then align the magnetic m oments of such regions, producing a strong mag- netic field for a sample of the material; the field partially persists when B ext is removed. We usually use the terms ferromagnetic material and magnetic mate- rial to refer to materials that exhibit primarily ferromagnetism. →
→
The next three modules explore these three types of magnetism.
/
---6 D IAMAGNET ISM
1015
32.6 DIAMAGNETISM Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
32.6.1 For a diamagnetic sample placed in an external
32.6.2 For a diamagnetic sample in a nonuniform mag-
magnetic field, identify that the field produces a mag-
netic field, describe the force on the sample and the
netic dipole moment in the sample, and identify the
resulting motion.
relative orientations of that moment and the field.
Key Ideas ●
Diamagnetic materials exhibit magnetism only when
placed in an external magnetic field; there they form
●
In a nonuniform field, diamagnetic materials are
repelled from the region of greater magnetic field.
magnetic dipoles directed opposite the external field.
Diamagnetism
We cannot yet discuss the quantum physical explanation of diamagnetism, but we can provide a classical explanation with the loop model of Figs. 32.5.2 and 32.5.3. To begin, we assume that in an atom of a diamagnetic material each electron can orbit only clockwise as in Fig. 32.5.3d or counterclockwise as in Fig. 32.5.3b. To account for the lack of magnetism in the absence of an external magnetic field B ext , we assume the atom lacks a net magnetic dipole moment. This implies that before B ext is applied, the number of electrons orbiting in one direction is the same as that orbiting in the opposite direction, with the result that the net upward magnetic dipole moment of the atom equals the net down- ward magnetic dipole moment. Now let’s turn on the nonuniform field B ext of Fig. 32.5.3a, in which B ext is directed upward but is diverging (the magnetic field lines are diverging). We could do this by increasing the current through an electromagnet or by moving the north pole of a bar magnet closer to, and below, the orbits. As the magni- tude of B ext increases from zero to its final maximum, steady-state value, a clock- wise electric field is induced around each electron’s orbital loop according to Faraday’s law and Lenz’s law. Let us see how this induced electric field affects the orbiting electrons in Figs. 32.5.3b and d. In Fig. 32.5.3b, the counterclockwise electron is accelerated by the clockwise electric field. Thus, as the magnetic field B ext increases to its maximum value, the electron speed increases to a maximum v alue. This means that the associated conventional current i and the downward magnetic dipole moment μ due to i also increase. In Fig. 32.5.3d, the clockwise electron is decelerated by the clockwise electric field. Thus, here, the electron speed, the associated current i, and the upward magnetic dipole moment μ due to i all decrease. By turning on field B ext , we have given the atom a net magnetic dipole moment that is downward. This would also be so if the magnetic field were uniform. Force. The nonuniformity of field B ext also affects the atom. Because the current i in Fig. 32.5.3b increases, the upward magnetic forces d F in Fig. 32.5.3c also increase, as does the net upward force on the current loop. Because current i in Fig. 32.5.3d decreases, the downward magnetic forces d F in Fig. 32.5.3e also decrease, as does the net downward force on the current loop. Thus, by turning on the nonuniform field B ext , we have produced a net force on the atom; moreover, that force is directed away from the region of greater magnetic field. →
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
/
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C HAP T ER - - MAXWEL L ’S EQU AT IONS; MAGNET ISM OF MAT T ER
We have argued with fictitious electron orbits (current loops), but we have ended up with exactly what happens to a diamagnetic material: If we apply the magnetic field of Fig. 32.5.3, the material develops a downward magnetic dipole moment and experiences an upward force. When the field is removed, both the dipole moment and the force disappear. The external field need not be positioned as shown in Fig. 32.5.3; similar arguments can be made for other ori- entations of B ext . In general, →
A diamagnetic material placed in an external magnetic field B ext develops a magnetic dipole moment directed opposite B ext . If the field is nonuniform, the diamagnetic material is repelled from a region of greater magnetic field toward a region of lesser field. →
→
KU ,retsehcnaM fo ytisrevinU ,mieG .K.A fo ysetruoC
The frog in Fig. 32.6.1 is diamagnetic (as is any other animal). When the frog was placed in the diverging magnetic field near the top end of a vertical current- carrying solenoid, every atom in the frog was repelled upward, away from the region of stronger magnetic field at that end of the solenoid. The frog moved upward into weaker and weaker magnetic field until the upward magnetic force balanced the gravitational force on it, and there it hung in midair. The frog is not in discomfort because every a tom is subject to the same forces and thus there is no force variation within the frog. The sensation is similar to the “weightless” situ- ation of floating in water, which frogs like very much. If we went to the expense of building a much larger solenoid, we could similarly levitate a person in midair FCP due to the person’s diamagnetism.
An overhead view of a frog that is being levitated in a magnetic field produced by current in a vertical solenoid below the frog. Figure 32.6.1
Checkpoint 32.6.1
The figure shows two diamagnetic spheres located S N near the south pole of a bar magnet. Are (a) the (1) (2) magnetic forces on the spheres and (b) the magnetic dipole moments of the spheres directed toward or away from the bar magnet? (c) Is the magnetic force on sphere 1 greater than, less than, or equal to that on sphere 2?
32.7 PARAMAGNETISM Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
32.7.1 For a paramagnetic sample placed in an
32.7.4 Apply Curie’s law to relate a sample’s magneti-
M to its temperature T, its Curie constant C, B of the external field.
external magnetic field, identify the relative orienta-
zation
tions of the field and the sample’s magnetic dipole
and the magnitude
moment.
32.7.5 Given a magnetization curve for a paramagnetic
32.7.2 For a paramagnetic sample in a nonuniform magnetic field, describe the force on the sample and the resulting motion. 32.7.3 Apply the relationship between a sample’s mag- netization
M , its measured magnetic moment, and
its volume.
sample, relate the extent of the magnetization for a given magnetic field and temperature. 32.7.6 For a paramagnetic sample at a given tem- perature and in a given magnetic field, compare the energy associated with the dipole orientations and the thermal motion.
/
---7 P ARAMAGNET ISM
1017
Key Ideas ●
Paramagnetic materials have atoms with a perma-
●
B ext /T, B e xt M = C ____ (Curie’s law), T
At low values of the ratio
nent magnetic dipole moment but the moments are randomly oriented, with no net moment, unless the material is in an external magnetic field
→
B ext , where the
dipoles tend to align with that field. ●
T is the temperature (in kelvins) and C is a
material’s Curie constant.
V is mea- M, given by measured magnetic moment M = _________________________ . V
The extent of alignment within a volume
sured as the magnetization
●
where
●
In a nonuniform external field, a paramagnetic
material is attracted to the region of greater magnetic field.
N dipoles in M max = Nμ/V.
Complete alignment (saturation) of all
the volume gives a maximum value
Paramagnetism
In paramagnetic materials, the spin and orbital magnetic dipole moments of the electrons in each atom do not cancel but add vectorially to give the atom a net (and permanent) magnetic dipole moment μ . In the absence of an external magnetic field, these atomic dipole moments are randomly oriented, and the net magnetic dipole moment of the material is zero. However, if a sample of the material is placed in an external magnetic field B ext , the magnetic dipole moments tend to line up with the field, which gives the sample a net magnetic dipole moment. This alignment with the external field is the opposite of what we saw with diamagnetic materials. →
→
A paramagnetic material placed in an external magnetic field B ext develops a magnetic dipole moment in the direction of B ext . If the field is nonuniform, the paramagnetic material is attracted toward a region of greater magnetic field from a region of lesser field. →
→
→
measured magnetic moment M = _________________________ . V
(32.7.1)
shpargotohP latnemadnuF/angeM drahciR
A paramagnetic sample with N atoms would have a magnetic dipole moment of magnitude Nμ if alignment of its atomic dipoles were complete. However, random collisions of atoms due to their thermal agitation transfer energy among the atoms, disrupting their alignment and thus reducing the sample’s magnetic dipole moment. Thermal Agitation. The importance of thermal agitation may be mea- sured by comparing two energies. One, given by Eq. 19.4.2, is the mean trans- 3 kT) of an atom at temperature T, where k is the lational kinetic energy K(= _ 2 Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10 –23 J/K) and T is in kelvins (not Celsius degrees). The other, derived from Eq. 28.8.4, is the difference in energy ΔU B (= 2 μB e xt ) between parallel alignment and antiparallel alignment of the magnetic dipole moment of an atom and the external field. (The lower energy state is – μB e xt and the higher energy state is + μB e xt .) As we shall show below, K ⪢ ΔU B, even for ordinary temperatures and field magnitudes. Thus, energy transfers during collisions among atoms can significantly disrupt the alignment of the atomic dipole moments, keeping the magnetic dipole moment of a sample much less than Nμ. Magnetization. We can express the extent to which a given paramagnetic sample is magnetized by finding the ratio of its magnetic dipole moment to its volume V. This vector quantity, the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume, is the magnetization M of the sample, and its magnitude is
Liquid oxygen is suspended between the two pole faces of a magnet because the liquid is paramagnetic and is magnetically attracted to the magnet.
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C HAP T ER - - MAXWEL L ’S EQU AT IONS; MAGNET ISM OF MAT T ER
1.0
A magnetization curve for potassium chromium sulfate, a paramagnetic salt. The ratio of magnetization M of the salt to the maximum possible magnetization M max is plotted versus the ratio of the applied magnetic field magnitude B ext to the temperature T. Curie’s law fits the data at the left; quantum theory fits all the data. Based on measurements by W. E. Henry. Figure 32.7.1
Curie’s law
xa m M/M
0.75
Quantum theory
Greater Bext at same T gives greater dipole alignment.
0.50 0.25
1.30 K 2.00 K 3.00 K 4.21 K
Approximately linear
0
1.0
2.0
3.0 /T (T/K)
4.0
Bext
→
The unit of M is the ampere–square m eter per cubic meter, or ampere per meter (A/m). Complete alignment of the atomic dipole moments, called saturation of the sample, corresponds to the maximum value M max = Nμ/V. In 1895 Pierre Curie discovered experimentally that the magnetization of a paramagnetic sample is directly proportional to the magnitude of the external magnetic field B ext and inversely proportional to the temperature T in kelvins: →
B ext M = C ____ . (32.7.2) T Equation 32.7.2 is known as Curie’s law, and C is called the Curie constant. Curie’s law is reasonable in that increasing B ext tends to align the atomic dipole moments in a sample and thus to increase M, whereas increasing T tends to disrupt the alignment via thermal agitation and thus to decrease M . However, the law is actu- ally an approximation that is valid only when the ratio B ext /T is not too large. Figure 32.7.1 shows the ratio M/M max as a function of B ext /T for a sample of the salt potassium chromium sulfate, in which chromium ions are the para- magnetic substance. The plot is called a magnetization curve. The straight line for Curie’s law fits the experimental data at the left, for B ext /T below about 0.5 T/K. The curve that fits all the data points is based on quantum physics. The data on the right side, near saturation, are very difficult to obtain because they require very strong magnetic fields (about 100 000 times Earth’s field), even at very low temperatures.
Checkpoint 32.7.1
The figure here shows two paramagnetic spheres S N located near the south pole of a bar magnet. Are (1) (2) (a) the magnetic forces on the spheres and (b) the magnetic dipole moments of the spheres directed toward or away from the bar magnet? (c) Is the magnetic force on sphere 1 greater than, less than, or equal to that on sphere 2?
Sample Problem 32.7.1
Orientation energy of a paramagnetic gas in a magnetic field
A paramagnetic g as at room temperature (T = 300 K) is placed in an external uniform magnetic field of magni- tude B = 1.5 T; the atoms of the gas have magnetic dipole moment μ = 1.0μB . Calculate the mean translational kinetic energy K of an atom of the gas and the energy dif- ference ΔU B between parallel alignment and antiparallel alignment of the atom’s magnetic dipole moment with the external field.
KEY IDEAS (1) The mean translational kinetic energy K of an atom in a gas depends on the temperature of the gas. (2) The energy U B of a magnetic dipole μ in an external magnetic field B depends on the angle θ between the directions of μ and B . →
→
→
→
/
---8 F ERROMAGNET ISM
Calculations:
From Eq. 19.4.2, we have
3 3 K = _ kT = _ (1.38 × 10 −23 J/ K)(300 K) 2 2 −21
= 6.2 × 10
J = 0.039 eV.
(Answer)
From Eq. 28.8.4 ( U B = − μ ⋅ B ), we can write the differ- ence ΔU B between parallel alignment (θ = 0°) and anti- parallel alignment (θ = 180°) as →
→
ΔU B = − μB cos 180° − (− μB cos 0°) = 2μ B = 2 μ B B = 2(9.27 × 10 −24 J/ T)(1.5 T) = 2.8 × 10 −23 J = 0.000 17 eV.
(Answer)
1019
Here K is about 230 times ΔU B; so energy exchanges among the atoms during their collisions with one another can easily reorient any magnetic dipole moments that might be aligned with the external magnetic field. That is, as soon as a magnetic dipole moment happens to become aligned with the external field, in the dipole’s low energy state, chances are very good that a neighbor- ing atom will hit the atom, transferring enough energy to put the dipole in a higher energy state. Thus, the mag- netic dipole moment exhibited by the paramagnetic gas must be due to fleeting partial alignments of the atomic dipole moments.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
32.8 FERROMAGNETISM Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
32.8.1 Identify that ferromagnetism is due to a quantum mechanical interaction called exchange coupling. 32.8.2 Explain why ferromagnetism disappears when
32.8.5 Describe and sketch a Rowland ring. 32.8.6 Identify magnetic domains. 32.8.7 For a ferromagnetic sample placed in an exter-
the temperature exceeds the material’s Curie
nal magnetic field, identify the relative orientations of
temperature. 32.8.3 Apply the relationship between the magnetiza-
the field and the magnetic dipole moment. 32.8.8 Identify the motion of a ferromagnetic sample in
tion of a ferromagnetic sample and the magnetic moment of its atoms.
a nonuniform field. 32.8.9 For a ferromagnetic object placed in a uniform
32.8.4 For a ferromagnetic sample at a given tem-
magnetic field, calculate the torque and orientation
perature and in a given magnetic field, compare the
energy.
energy associated with the dipole orientations and
32.8.10 Explain hysteresis and a hysteresis loop.
the thermal motion.
32.8.11 Identify the origin of lodestones.
Key Ideas ●
The magnetic dipole moments in a ferromagnetic
material can be aligned by an external magnetic field and then, after the external field is removed, remain partially aligned in regions (domains).
●
Alignment is eliminated at temperatures above a
material’s Curie temperature. ●
In a nonuniform external field, a ferromagnetic mate-
rial is attracted to the region of greater magnetic field.
Ferromagnetism
When we speak of magnetism in everyday conversation, we almost always have a mental picture of a bar magnet or a disk magnet (probably clinging to a refrigerator door). That is, we picture a ferromagnetic material having strong, permanent mag- netism, and not a diamagnetic or paramagnetic material having weak, temporary magnetism. Iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium, dysprosium, and alloys containing these ele- ments exhibit ferromagnetism because of a quantum physical effect called exchange coupling in which the electron spins of one atom interact with those of neighboring atoms. The result is alignment of the magnetic dipole moments of the atoms, in spite
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C HAP T ER - - MAXWEL L ’S EQU AT IONS; MAGNET ISM OF MAT T ER
Iron core
iP iP
P
B
S iS
iS
A Rowland ring. A primary coil P has a core made of the ferromagnetic material to be studied (here iron). The core is magnetized by a current i P sent through coil P. (The turns of the coil are represented by dots.) The extent to which the core is magnetized determines the total magnetic field B within coil P. Field B can be measured by means of a secondary coil S. Figure 32.8.1
→
→
of the randomizing tendency of atomic collisions due to thermal agitation. This per- sistent alignment is what gives ferromagnetic materials their permanent magnetism. Thermal Agitation. If the temperature of a ferromagnetic m aterial is raised above a certain critical value, called the Curie temperature, the exchange coupling ceases to be effective. Most such materials then become simply paramagnetic; that is, the dipoles still tend to align with an external field but much more weakly, and thermal agitation can now more easily disrupt the alignment. The Curie tem- perature for iron is 1043 K (= 770°C). Measurement. The magnetization of a ferromagnetic material such as iron can be studied with an arrangement called a Rowland ring (Fig. 32.8.1). The material is formed into a thin toroidal core of circular cross section. A primary coil P having n turns per unit length is wrapped around the core and carries current i P. (The coil is essentially a long solenoid bent into a circle.) If the iron core were not present, the magnitude of the magnetic field inside the coil would be, from Eq. 29.4.3, B 0 = μ0 i Pn.
(32.8.1) →
However, with the iron core present, the magnetic field B inside the coil is greater than B 0 , usually by a large amount. We can write the magnitude of this field as →
B = B 0 + B M,
(32.8.2)
where B M is the magnitude of the magnetic field contributed by the iron core. This contribution results from the alignment of the atomic dipole moments within the iron, due to exchange coupling and to the applied magnetic field B 0, and is proportional to the magnetization M of the iron. That is, the contribu- tion B M is proportional to the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of the iron. To determine B M we use a secondary coil S to measure B, compute B 0 with Eq. 32.8.1, a nd subtract as suggested by Eq. 32.8.2. Figure 32.8.2 shows a magnetization curve for a ferromagnetic material in a Rowland ring: The ratio B M /B M,max , where B M,max is the maximum possible value of B M , corresponding to saturation, is plotted versus B 0 . The curve is like Fig. 32.7.1, the magnetization curve for a paramagnetic substance: Both curves show the extent to which an applied magnetic field can align the atomic dipole moments of a material. For the ferromagnetic core yielding Fig. 32.8.2, the alignment of the dipole moments is about 70% complete for B 0 ≈ 1 × 10 –3 T. If B 0 were increased to 1 T, the alignment would be almost complete (but B 0 = 1 T, and thus almost complete saturation, is quite difficult to obtain). Magnetic Domains
1.0 xa m, MB/MB
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
2
4
6 B0
8 10 (10 –4 T)
12 14
A magnetization curve for a ferromagnetic core material in the Rowland ring of Fig. 32.8.1. On the vertical axis, 1.0 corresponds to complete alignment (saturation) of the atomic dipoles within the material. Figure 32.8.2
Exchange coupling produces strong alignment of adjacent atomic dipoles in a fer- romagnetic material at a temperature below the Curie temperature. Why, then, isn’t the material naturally at saturation even when there is no applied magnetic field B 0? Why isn’t every piece of iron a naturally strong magnet? To understand this, consider a specimen of a ferromagnetic material such as iron that is in the form of a single crystal; that is, the arrangement of the atoms that make it up—its crystal lattice—extends with unbroken regularity throughout the volume of the specimen. Such a crystal will, in its normal state, be made up of a number of magnetic domains. These are regions of the crystal throughout which the alignment of the atomic dipoles is essentially perfect. The domains, however, are not all aligned. For the crystal as a whole, the domains are so oriented that they largely cancel with one another as far as their external magnetic effects are concerned. Figure 32.8.3 is a magnified photograph of such an assembly of domains in a single crystal of nickel. It was made by sprinkling a colloidal suspension of finely powdered iron oxide on the surface of the crystal. The domain boundaries, which are thin regions in which the alignment of the elementary dipoles changes from
/
---8 F ERROMAGNET ISM
1021
siolBeD .W hplaR fo ysetruoC
a certain orientation in one of the domains forming the boundary to a different orientation in the other domain, are the sites of intense, but highly localized and nonuniform, magnetic fields. The suspended colloidal particles are attracted to these boundaries and show up as the white lines (not all the domain boundar- ies are apparent in Fig. 32.8.3). A lthough the atomic dipoles in each domain are completely aligned as shown by the arrows, the crystal as a whole may have only a very small resultant magnetic moment. Actually, a piece of iron as we ordinarily find it is not a single crystal but an assembly of many tiny crystals, randomly arranged; we call it a polycrystalline solid. Each tiny crystal, however, has its array of variously oriented domains, just as in Fig. 32.8.3. If we magnetize such a specimen by placing it in an external magnetic field of gradually increasing strength, we produce two effects; together they produce a magnetization curve of the shape shown in Fig. 32.8.2. O ne effect is a growth in size of the domains that are oriented along the external field at the expense of those that are not. The second effect is a shift of the orientation of the dipoles within a domain, as a unit, to become closer to the field direction. Exchange coupling and domain shifting give us the following result: A photograph of domain patterns within a single crystal of nickel; white lines reveal the boundaries of the domains. The white arrows superimposed on the photograph show the orientations of the magnetic dipoles within the domains and thus the orientations of the net magnetic dipoles of the domains. The crystal as a whole is unmagnetized if the net magnetic field (the vector sum over all the domains) is zero. Figure 32.8.3 →
A ferromagnetic material placed in an external magnetic field B ext develops a strong magnetic dipole moment in the direction of B ext . If the field is non- uniform, the ferromagnetic material is attracted toward a region of greater magnetic field from a region of lesser field. →
Mural Paintings Record Earth’s Magnetic Field
Because Earth’s magnetic field gradually but continuously changes, the direction of north indicated by a compass also changes. For many reasons, researchers want to know the direction of north at specific times in the past, but finding historic records of compass readings is rare. However, certain paintings can help. For example, the murals in the hall of the Vatican (Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana) shown in Fig. 32.8.4 faithfully recorded the direction of north when they were painted in 1740. The red pigments used in the paintings contain grains of the iron oxide hema- tite. Each grain consists of a single domain having a particular magnetic dipole moment. Artists’ pigments are a suspension of various solids in a liquid carrier. When a pigment is applied to a wall as a mural is being created, e ach grain rotates
ecruoseR trA/alacS
The red pigments in the murals in the Vatican have been used to determine the direction of north when the murals were painted in 1740. Figure 32.8.4
/
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C HAP T ER - - MAXWEL L ’S EQU AT IONS; MAGNET ISM OF MAT T ER
Ntoday
N1740
Wall
Overhead view of a cross section of a thin layer of paint lifted from a mural with sticky tape. The magnetic moments of hematite grains in the red pigments are aligned in the direction of Earth’s magnetic field when the mural was painted. Geomagnetic north (as indicated by a horizontal compass) is shown for today and for 1740. Figure 32.8.5
BM b c
a
B0
e d
A magnetization curve (ab) for a ferromagnetic specimen and an associated hysteresis loop (bcdeb). Figure 32.8.6
in the liquid until its dipole moment aligns with Earth’s magnetic field. When the paint dries, the moments are locked into place and thus record the direction of Earth’s magnetic field at the time of the painting. Figure 32.8.5 suggests the align- ment of the moments in a mural painted in 1740, when geomagnetic north was in the direction indicated by N 1740 . A researcher can determine Earth’s field direction at the time a mural was painted by determining the orientation of the magnetic moments in the paint. A short section of sticky tape is carefully applied to a portion of the mural, and the orientation of the tape is carefully measured relative to the horizontal and to today’s geomagnetic north (N today ). When the tape is peeled off the wall, it carries a thin layer of the paint. In a laboratory, the tape section is mounted in an apparatus to determine the orientation of the dipole moments in that layer of paint. Evidence from mural paintings and many other sources reveals the shifting direction of geomagnetic north over recorded history. Hysteresis
Magnetization curves for ferromagnetic materials are not retraced as we increase and then decrease the external magnetic field B 0. Figure 32.8.6 is a plot of B M versus B 0 during the following operations with a Rowland ring: (1) Starting with the iron unmagnetized (point a), increase the current in the toroid until B 0 (= μ0 in) has the value corresponding to point b; (2) reduce the current in the toroid winding (and thus B 0) back to zero (point c); (3) reverse the toroid current and increase it in magnitude until B 0 has the value corresponding to point d; (4) reduce the current to zero again (point e); (5) reverse the current once more until point b is reached again. The lack of retraceability shown in Fig. 32.8.6 is called hysteresis, and the curve bcdeb is called a hysteresis loop. Note that at points c and e the iron core is magnetized, even though there is no current in the toroid windings; this is the familiar phenomenon of permanent magnetism. Hysteresis can be understood through the concept of magnetic domains. Evidently the motions of the domain boundaries and the reorientations of the domain directions are not totally reversible. When the applied magnetic field B 0 is increased and then decreased back to its initial value, the domains do not return completely to their original configuration but retain some “memory” of their alignment after the initial increase. This memory of magnetic materials is essential for the magnetic storage of information. This memory of the alignment of domains can also occur naturally. When light- ning sends currents along multiple tortuous paths through the ground, the currents produce intense magnetic fields that can suddenly magnetize any ferromagnetic material in nearby rock. Because of hysteresis, such rock material retains some of that magnetization after the lightning strike (after the currents disappear). Pieces of the rock—later exposed, broken, and loosened by weathering—are then lodestones.
Checkpoint 32.8.1
A sample of ferromagnetic material is thin enough to be con- sidered planar; it is small enough to have only domains. The initially unmagnetized sample is made magnetic by an applied field B 0 that is gradually increased in magnitude. The dipoles of the domains, directed either up or down, are represented in this figure for three stages in the magnetizing process. (a) Is the direction of the applied field up or down? (b) Rank the stages according to the magnitude of the applied field, greatest first.
(1)
(2)
(3)
/
REV IEW & SU MMARY
Sample Problem 32.8.1
1023
Magnetic dipole moment of a compass needle
A compass needle made of pure iron (density 7900 kg/m 3 ) has a length L of 3.0 cm, a width of 1.0 mm, and a thick- ness of 0.50 mm. The magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment of an iron atom is μFe = 2.1 × 10 –23 J/T. If the magnetization of the needle is equivalent to the alignment of 10% of the atoms in the needle, what is the magnitude of the needle’s magnetic dipole moment μ ? →
KEY IDEAS
Next, we can rewrite Eq. 32.8.4 in terms of the needle’s mass m, the molar mass M, and Avogadro’s number N A : mN A N = _____ . M
(32.8.6)
The needle’s mass m is the product of its density and its volume. The volume works out to be 1.5 × 10 –8 m 3 , so needle’s mass m = (needle’s density)(needle’s volume)
(1) Alignment of all N atoms in the needle would give a magnitude of NμFe for the needle’s magnetic dipole moment μ . However, the needle has only 10% alignment (the random orientation of the rest does not give any net contribution to μ ). Thus,
= (7900 kg / m3 )(1.5 × 10 −8 m 3 ) = 1.185 × 10 −4 kg.
→
→
μ = 0.10NμFe .
(32.8.3)
Substituting into Eq. 32.8.6 with this value for m, and also 55.847 g /mol (= 0.055 847 kg/mol) for M and 6.02 × 10 23 for N A , we find (1.185 × 10 −4 kg)(6.02 × 10 23 ) N = __________________________ 0.055 847 kg / m ol
(2) We can find the number of atoms N in the needle from the needle’s mass: needle’s mass . N = _________________ iron’s atomic mass
(32.8.4)
Iron’s atomic mass is not listed in Appendix F, but its molar mass M is. Thus, we write Finding N:
= 1.2774 × 10 21 . Finding μ:
Substituting our value of N and the value of
μFe into Eq. 32.8.3 then yields
μ = (0.10)(1.2774 × 10 21 )(2.1 × 10 −23 J / T) = 2.682 × 10 −3 J / T ≈ 2.7 × 10 −3 J / T.
iron’s molar mass M . iron’s atomic mass = _____________________ (32.8.5) Avogadro’s number N A
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Review & Summary The simplest magnetic structures are magnetic dipoles. Magnetic monopoles do not exist (as far as we know). Gauss’ law for magnetic fields, Gauss’ Law for Magnetic Fields
→
→
Φ B = B ⋅ dA = 0, ∮
(32.1.1)
states that the net magnetic flux through any (closed) Gaussian surface is zero. It implies that magnetic monopoles do not exist. A changing electric flux induces a magnetic field B . Maxwell’s law, Maxwell’s Extension of Ampere’s Law →
dΦ E B ⋅ d s = μ 0 ε0 _____ dt (Maxwell’s law of induction),
→
∮
→
(32.2.2)
relates the magnetic field induced along a closed loop to the changing electric flux Φ E through the loop. Ampere’s law, ∮ B ⋅ d s = μ 0 i enc (Eq. 32.2.3), gives the magnetic field generated by a current i enc encircled by a closed loop. Maxwell’s law and Ampere’s law can be written as the single equation →
dΦ E B ⋅ d s = μ0 ε 0 _____ + μ0 i enc
→
∮
→
→
dt
(Ampere–Maxwell law). (32.2.4)
We define the fictitious displace- ment current due to a changing electric field as Displacement Current
dΦ E i d = ε 0 ____ . dt Equation 32.2.4 then becomes
B ⋅ d s = μ 0 i d,enc + μ0 i enc (Ampere–Maxwell law), (32.3.2)
→
∮
(32.3.1)
→
where i d,enc is the displacement current encircled by the integra- tion loop. The idea of a displacement current allows us to retain the notion of continuity of current through a capacitor. How- ever, displacement current is not a transfer of charge. Maxwell’s equations, displayed in Table 32.3.1, summarize electromagnetism and form its foun- dation, including optics. Maxwell’s Equations
Earth’s magnetic field can be approximated as being that of a magnetic dipole whose dipole moment makes an angle of 11.5° with Earth’s rotation axis, and Earth’s Magnetic Field
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C HAP T ER - - MAXWEL L ’S EQU AT IONS; MAGNET ISM OF MAT T ER
with the south pole of the dipole in the Northern Hemisphere. The direction of the local magnetic field at any point on Earth’s surface is given by the field declination (the angle left or right from geographic north) and the field inclination (the angle up or down from the horizontal). An electron has an intrinsic angular momentum called spin angular momentum (or spin) S , with which an intrinsic spin magnetic dipole moment μ s is associated:
The associated magnetic dipole moment is given by eh = −m μ . μorb,z = −m ℓ ____ ℓ B 4πm
The energy U associated with the orientation of the orbital mag- netic dipole moment in an external magnetic field B ext is →
U = − μ orb ⋅ B ext = −μ orb,z B ext .
Spin Magnetic Dipole Moment →
(32.5.9, 32.5.10)
→
(32.5.11)
→
→
μ s
→
e → = − __ S .
(32.5.1)
m
For a measurement along a z axis, the component S z can have only the values given by h , for m = ± _ 1 S z = m s ___ s 2 , 2π
(32.5.2)
where h (= 6.63 × 10 –34 J· s) is the Planck constant. Similarly, eh = ±μ , μs,z = ± ____ B 4πm
(32.5.3, 32.5.5)
where μB is the Bohr magneton:
μB
eh = 9.27 × 10 −24 J / T. = ____
The energy U associated with the orientation of the spin mag- netic dipole moment in an external magnetic field B ext is →
→
→
An electron in an atom has an additional angular momentum called its orbital angular momentum L orb , with which an orbital magnetic dipole moment μ orb is associated: →
→
e L . μorb = − ___ 2m orb →
(32.5.7)
Orbital angular momentum is quantized and can have only mea- sured values given by h , L orb,z = m ℓ ___ 2π for m ℓ = 0, ±1, ±2, … , ± (limit).
→
measured magnetic moment M = _________________________ . V
(32.5.8)
(32.7.1)
Complete alignment (saturation) of all N dipoles in the volume gives a maximum value M max = Nμ/V. At low values of the ratio B ext /T,
(32.5.6)
Orbital Magnetic Dipole Moment
→
Paramagnetic materials have atoms with a permanent magnetic dipole moment but the moments are ran- domly oriented unless the material is in an external magnetic field B ext , where the dipoles tend to align with the external field. The extent of alignment within a volume V is measured as the magnetization M, given by Paramagnetism
(32.5.4)
4πm
U = − μ s ⋅ B ext = −μs,z B ext .
Diamagnetic materials exhibit magnetism only when placed in an external magnetic field; there they form magnetic dipoles directed opposite the external field. In a nonuniform field, they are repelled from the region of greater magnetic field. Diamagnetism
B ext M = C ____ (Curie’s law), T
(32.7.2)
where T is the temperature (kelvins) and C is a material’s Curie constant. In a nonuniform external field, a paramagnetic material is attracted to the region of greater magnetic field. The magnetic dipole moments in a ferro- magnetic material can be aligned by an external magnetic field and then, after the external field is removed, remain partially aligned in regions (domains). Alignment is eliminated at tem- peratures above a material’s Curie temperature. In a nonuniform external field, a ferromagnetic material is attracted to the region of greater magnetic field. Ferromagnetism
Questions Figure 32.1a shows a capacitor, with circular plates, that is being charged. Point a (near one of the connecting wires) and point b (inside the capacitor gap) are equidistant from the central axis, as are point c (not so near the wire) and point d (between the plates but outside the gap). In Fig. 32.1b, one curve gives the variation with distance r of the magnitude of the magnetic field inside and outside the wire. The other curve gives the variation with distance r of the magnitude of the magnetic field inside and outside the gap. The two curves partially over- lap. Which of the three points on the curves correspond to which of the four points of Fig. 32.1a? 1
1
b a B
c
2 3
d
0
r
(b )
(a ) Figure 32.1
Question 1.
/
QU EST IONS
Figure 32.2 shows a parallel-plate P capacitor and the current in the con- i i necting wires that is discharging the capacitor. Are the directions of (a) electric field E and (b) displace- ment current i d leftward or rightward Figure 32.2 Question 2. between the plates? (c) Is the mag- netic field at point P into or out of the page? 2
→
1025
Figure 32.6 shows three loop models of an electron orbiting counterclockwise within a magnetic field. The fields are nonuni- form for models 1 and 2 and uniform for model 3. For each model, are (a) the magnetic dipole moment of the loop and (b) the mag- netic force on the loop directed up, directed down, or zero? 8
B
Figure 32.3 shows, in two situations, an electric field vector E and an induced magnetic field line. In each, is the magnitude of E increasing or decreasing?
B
B
(2)
(3)
3 →
→
(1) Figure 32.6
E
Questions 8, 9, and 10.
Replace the current loops of Question 8 and Fig. 32.6 with diamagnetic spheres. For each field, are (a) the magnetic dipole moment of the sphere and (b) the magnetic force on the sphere directed up, directed down, or zero? 9
B
E B
(a) Figure 32.3
(b )
Figure 32.4a shows a pair of opposite spin orientations for an electron in an external magnetic field B ext . Figure 32.4b gives three choices for the graph of the energies associated with those orientations as a function of the magnitude of B ext . Choices b and c consist of intersecting lines, choice a of parallel lines. Which is the correct choice? 4
→
→
b a
B ext
c U
B
Sz
Bext
c
Sz
a b
(a )
(b ) Figure 32.4
Replace the current loops of Question 8 and Fig. 32.6 with paramagnetic spheres. For each field, are (a) the magnetic dipole moment of the sphere and (b) the magnetic force on the sphere directed up, directed down, or zero? 10
Question 3.
Figure 32.7 represents three rectangular samples of a ferro- magnetic material in which the magnetic dipoles of the domains have been directed out of the page (encircled dot) by a very strong applied field B 0 . In each sample, an island domain still has its magnetic field directed into the page (encircled ×). Sample 1 is one (pure) crystal. The other samples contain impurities collected along lines; domains cannot easily spread across such lines. The applied field is now to be reversed and its magnitude kept moderate. The change causes the island domain to grow. (a) Rank the three samples according to the success of that growth, greatest growth first. Ferromagnetic materials in which the magnetic dipoles are easily changed are said to be mag- netically soft; when the changes are difficult, requiring strong applied fields, the materials are said to be magnetically hard. (b) Of the three samples, which is the most magnetically hard? 11
Question 4.
Impurity line
An electron in an external magnetic field B ext has its spin angular momentum S z antiparallel to B ext . If the electron undergoes a spin-flip so that S z is then parallel with B ext , must energy be supplied to or lost by the electron? →
5
→
→
Does the magnitude of the net force on the current loop of Figs. 32.5.3a and b increase, decrease, or remain the same if we increase (a) the magnitude of B ext and (b) the divergence of B ext ?
(1)
6
→
→
Figure 32.5 shows a face-on view of one of the two square plates of a parallel-plate capacitor, as well as four loops that are located between the plates. The capacitor is being discharged. (a) Neglecting fringing of the magnetic field, rank the loops accord- ing to the magnitude of ∮ B ⋅ d s along them, greatest first. (b) Along�� which loop, if any, is the a angle between the directions of B and d s constant (so that their d dot product can easily be evalu- b ated)? (c) Along which loop, if c any, is B constant (so that B can be brought in front of the integral sign in Eq. 32.2.2)? Figure 32.5 Question 7. 7
→
(2) Figure 32.7
→
(3)
Question 11.
Figure 32.8 shows four steel bars; three are permanent magnets. One of the poles is indicated. Through experiment we find that ends a and d attract each other, ends c and f repel, ends e and h attract, and ends a and h attract. (a) Which ends are north poles? (b) Which bar is not a magnet? 12
a
c
e
g
f
h
→
→
S b
d
Figure 32.8
Question 12.
/
1026
C HAP T ER - - MAXWEL L ’S EQU AT IONS; MAGNET ISM OF MAT T ER
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
BIO
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 32.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard Flying
Circus of Physics
Gauss’ Law for Magnetic Fields
E The magnetic flux through each of five faces of a die (singular of “dice”) is given by Φ B = ±N Wb, where N (= 1 to 5) is the number of spots on the face. The flux is positive (outward) for N even and negative (inward) for N odd. What is the flux through the sixth face of the die?
1
Figure 32.9 shows a closed surface. Along the flat top face, which has a radius of 2.0 cm, a perpendicular magnetic field B of magnitude 0.30 T is directed outward. Along the flat bottom face, a magnetic flux of 0.70 mWb is directed outward. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction (inward or outward) of the magnetic flux through the curved part of the surface? 2
E
B
→
SSM
GO Two wires, H CALC y parallel to a z axis and a dis- tance 4r apart, carry equal Wire 1 Wire 2 currents i in opposite direc- x r tions, as shown in Fig. 32.10. –2r –r 2r A circular cylinder of radius r and length L has its axis on the z axis, midway between Figure 32.10 Problem 4. the wires. Use Gauss’ law for magnetism to derive an expression for the net outward magnetic flux through the half of the cylindrical surface above the x axis. (Hint: Find the flux through the portion of the xz plane that lies within the cylinder.) 4
Module 32.2
SSM
→
E A capacitor with square plates of edge length L is being discharged by a cur- rent of 0.75 A. Figure 32.11 is a head-on view of one of the plates from inside the capacitor. A dashed rectangular path is shown. If L = 12 cm, W = 4.0 cm, and H = 2.0 cm, what is the value of ∮ B ⋅ d s around the dashed path?
6
→
L
M CALC
GO
GO Nonuniform electric flux. Fig- M Figure 32.12 ure 32.12 shows a circular region of radius Problems 7 to 10 R = 3.00 cm in which an electric flux is and 19 to 22. directed out of the plane of the page. The flux encircled by a concentric circle of radius r is given by Φ E,enc = (0.600 V· m/s)(r/R)t, where r ≤ R and t is in seconds. What is the magnitude of the induced magnetic field at radial distances (a) 2.00 cm and (b) 5.00 cm? 8
M GO Uniform electric field. In Fig. 32.12, a uniform elec- tric field is directed out of the page within a circular region of radius R = 3.00 cm. The field magnitude is given by E = (4.50 × 10 –3 V/m · s)t, where t is in seconds. What is the magnitude of the induced magnetic field at radial distances (a) 2.00 cm and (b) 5.00 cm? CALC GO Nonuniform electric field. In Fig. 32.12, an elec- tric field is directed out of the page within a circular region of radius R = 3.00 cm. The field magnitude is E = (0.500 V/m · s) (1 – r/R)t, where t is in seconds and r is the radial distance (r ≤ R). What is the magnitude of the induced magnetic field at radial distances (a) 2.00 cm and (b) 5.00 cm?
10 M
CALC Suppose that a parallel-plate capacitor has circular plates with radius R = 30 mm and a plate separation of 5.0 mm. Suppose also that a sinusoidal potential difference with a maxi- mum value of 150 V and a frequency of 60 Hz is applied across the plates; that is,
11 M
V = (150 V) sin[2π(60 Hz)t]. (a) Find B max (R), the maximum value of the induced magnetic field that occurs at r = R. (b) Plot B max (r) for 0
Axis
I
n1
r p
i
A real point image I of a point object O is formed by refrac- tion at a spherical convex surface between two media. Figure 34.6.2
(34.6.2)
where the overhead symbol means “arc.Only the equation for †β is exact, because ⠜ the center of curvature of ac is at C. However, the equations for αand γare approxi- mately correct if these angles are small enough (that is, for rays close to the central axis). Substituting Eqs. 34.6.2 into Eq. 34.6.1, using Eq. 34.2.1 to replace r with 2f, and ⠜ canceling ac lead exactly to Eq. 34.2.2, the relation that we set out to prove.
a

(34.6.1)
The Refracting Surface Formula (Eq. 34.3.1)
The incident ray from point object O in Fig. 34.6.2 that falls on point a of a spheri- cal refracting surface is refracted there according to Eq. 33.5.2, n 1 sin θ1 = n 2 sin θ2 . If α is small, θ1 and θ2 will also be small and we can replace the sines of these angles with the angles themselves. Thus, the equation above becomes n 1θ n ˆ 2θ 1 ≠2 .
(34.6.3)
/
1099
34.6 T HREE P ROOF S
We again use the fact that an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two opposite interior angles. Applying this to triangles COa and ICa yields θ1 = α+ β and β = θ2 + γ.
(34.6.4)
If we use Eqs. 34.6.4 to eliminate θ1 and θ2 from Eq. 34.6.3, we find n 1α n 1 ) β. + n 2 γ = (n 2 –
(34.6.5)
In radian measure the angles α, β, and γ are â œ â œ â œ ac ac ; ac _ β = _ γ ≠_ α≠ˆ ; ˆ . p r i
(34.6.6)
Only the second of these equations is exact. The other two are approximate ⠜ because I and O are not the centers of circles of which ac is a part. However, for αsmall enough (for rays close to the axis), the inaccuracies in Eqs. 34.6.6 are small. Substituting Eqs. 34.6.6 into Eq. 34.6.5 leads directly to Eq. 34.3.1, as we wanted. The Thin-Lens Formulas (Eqs. 34.4.1 and 34.4.2)
Our plan is to consider each lens surface as a separate refracting surface, and to use the image formed by the first surface as the object for the second. We start with the thick glass “lensof length L in Fig. 34.6.3a whose left and †right refracting surfaces are ground to radii r′ and r ″ . A point object O′ is placed near the left surface as shown. A ray leaving O ′ along the central axis is not deflected on entering or leaving the lens. A second ray leaving O′ at an angle αwith the central axis intersects the left surface at point a ′ , is refracted, and intersects the second (right) surface at point a ″ . The ray is again refracted and crosses the axis at I″ , which, being the intersection of two rays from O′ , is the image of point O ′ , formed after refraction at two surfaces. Figure 34.6.3b shows that the first (left) surface also forms a virtual image of O ′ at I ′ . To locate I′ , we use Eq. 34.3.1, n ___ n 2 _ n 2 _ – n 1 _ p + i = r .
1 ___
a" a'
a'
Axis
 O' c'
C'
Glass
Air

I' c"
C"
I"
O'
n
n1
c'
= 1.0
C'
p' p'
r'
r"
i"
Glass
Air
n2
=
n
r'
i'
L
(b )
(a )
a" n2
(a) Two rays from point object O′ form a real image I ″ after refracting through two spherical surfaces of a lens. The object faces a convex surface at the left side of the lens and a concave surface at the right side. The ray traveling through points a′ and a″ is actually close to the central axis through the lens. (b) The left side and (c) the right side of the lens in (a), shown separately.
= 1.0
Figure 34.6.3
O"
c'
c"
C" n1
=n
I"
Glass Air r"
i"
p" i'
L
(c )
/
1100
C HAP T ER 34 IMAGES
Putting n 1 = 1 for air and n 2 = n for lens glass and bearing in mind that the (virtual) image distance is negative (that is, i = – i′ in Fig. 34.6.3b), we obtain n = _____ n −1 . 1 – _ ___
(34.6.7)
p ′ i′ r′
(Because the minus sign is explicit, i′ will be a positive number.) Figure 34.6.3c shows the second surface again. Unless an observer at point a ″ were aware of the existence of the first surface, the observer would think that the light striking that point originated at point I′ in Fig. 34.6.3b and that the region to the left of the surface was filled with glass as indicated. Thus, the (vir- tual) image I′ formed by the first surface serves a s a real object O ″ for the second surface. The distance of this object from the second surface is p″ = i ′ + L.
(34.6.8)
To apply Eq. 34.3.1 to the second surface, we must insert n 1 = n and n 2 = 1 because the object now is effectively imbedded in glass. If we substitute with Eq. 34.6.8, then Eq. 34.3.1 becomes n 1 = _ 1 −n . _ + _ i ′ + L
(34.6.9)
i″ r″
Let us now assume that the thickness L of the “lensin Fig. 34.6.3a is so small †that we can neglect it in comparison with our other linear quantities (such as p ′ , i ′ , p ″ , i ″ , r′ , and r ″ ). In all that follows we make this thin-lens approximation. Putting L = 0 in Eq. 34.6.9 a nd rearranging the right side lead to n 1 = âˆ_ n _ + _ ’ − 1 . i ′ i″ r″
(34.6.10)
Adding Eqs. 34.6.7 a nd 34.6.10 leads to 1 + _ 1 = (n −1 1 −_ _ )( 1 ). _ p ′ i″ r′ r″ Finally, calling the original object distance simply p and the final image distance simply i leads to 1 + _ 1 = (n −1 1 −_ _ ) ( _ 1 ), p
i
(34.6.11)
r′ r″
which, with a small change in notation, is Eqs. 34.4.1 a nd 34.4.2.
Review & Summary An image is a reproduction of an object via light. If the image can form on a surface, it is a real image and can exist even if no observer is present. If the image requires the visual system of an observer, it is a virtual image. Real and Virtual Images
Spherical mirrors, spherical refracting sur- faces, and thin lenses can form images of a source of light—the object—by redirecting rays emerging from the source. The image occurs where the redirected rays cross (forming a real image) or where backward extensions of those rays cross (forming a virtual image). If the rays are sufficiently close to the central axis through the spherical mirror, refracting surface, or thin lens, we have the following relations between the object distance p (which is posi- tive) and the image distance i (which is positive for real images and negative for virtual images): Image Formation
1. Spherical Mirror: 1 + _ 1 = _ 1 = _ 2 , _ p
i
f
r
(34.2.2, 34.2.1)
where f is the mirror’ focal length and r is its radius of curvature. s A plane mirror is a special case for which r →⠈ž, so that p = – i. Real images form on the side of a mirror where the object is located, and virtual images form on the opposite side. 2. Spherical Refracting Surface: n 1 _ n n 2 −n 1 _ + 2 = _ (single surface ), p
i
r
(34.3.1)
where n 1 is the index of refraction of the material where the object is located, n 2 is the index of refraction of the material on
/
QU EST IONS
the other side of the refracting surface, and r is the radius of cur- vature of the surface. When the object faces a convex refracting surface, the radius r is positive. When it faces a concave surface, r is negative. Real images form on the side of a refracting surface that is opposite the object, and virtual images form on the same side as the object. 3. Thin Lens: 1 + _ 1 = _ 1 = ( n −1 1 −_ _ ) _ 1 , p
i
( r 1
f
r 2 )
where h and h′ are the heights (measured perpendicular to the central axis) of the object and image, respectively. Optical Instruments
human vision are:
25 cm , m θ = _ f
(34.5.1)
where f is the focal length of the magnifying lens. The dis- tance of 25 cm is a traditionally chosen value that is a bit more than the typical near point for someone 20 years old. 2. The compound microscope, which produces an overall mag- nification M given by 25 cm , M = mm θ = âˆ_ ’s _ f ob f ey
(34.5.3)
where m is the lateral magnification produced by the objective, m θ is the angular magnification produced by the eyepiece, s is the tube length, and f ob and f ey are the focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece, respectively.
The lateral magnification m pro- duced by a spherical mirror or a thin lens is Lateral Magnification
m = âˆ_ ’i . p
Three optical instruments that extend
1. The simple magnifying lens, which produces an angular mag- nification m θ given by
(34.4.1, 34.4.2)
where f is the lens’ focal length, s n is the index of refraction of the lens material, and r 1 and r 2 are the radii of curvature of the two sides of the lens, which are spherical surfaces. A convex lens sur- face that faces the object has a positive radius of curvature; a concave lens surface that faces the object has a negative radius of curvature. Real images form on the side of a lens that is oppo- site the object, and virtual images form on the same side as the object.
1101
(34.2.4)
3. The refracting telescope, which produces an angular magnifi- cation m θ given by
The magnitude of m is given by h′ |m| = _ , h
f ob m θ = âˆ_ ’ . f ey
(34.2.3)
(34.5.4)
Questions Figure 34.1 shows a fish and a fish stalker in water. (a) Does the stalker see the fish in the gen- eral region of point a or point b? (b) Does the fish see the (wild) eyes of the stalker in the general region of point c or point d? 1
c
d
a
b
In Fig. 34.2, stick figure O Figure 34.1 Question 1. stands in front of a spherical mirror that is mounted within the boxed region; the cen- I1 I3 tral axis through the mirror is O shown. The four stick figures I 1 to I 4 suggest general loca- I2 I4 tions and orientations for the images that might be produced Figure 34.2 Questions 2 and 10. by the mirror. (The figures are only sketched in; neither their heights nor their distances from the mirror are drawn to scale.) (a) Which of the stick figures could not possibly represent images? Of the possible images, (b) which would be due to a concave mirror, (c) which would be due to a con- vex mirror, (d) which would be virtual, and (e) which would involve negative magnification? 2
Figure 34.3 is an c overhead view of a mir- ror maze based on floor sections that are equi- x lateral triangles. Every wall within the maze is a mirrored. If you stand at entrance x, (a) which of the maze monsters a, b, b and c hiding in the maze Figure 34.3 Question 3. can you see along the virtual hallways extend- ing from entrance x; (b) how many times does each visible monster appear in a hallway; and (c) what is at the far end of a hallway? 3
A penguin waddles along the central axis of a concave mirror, from the focal point to an effectively infinite distance. (a) How does its image move? (b) Does the height of its image increase continuously, decrease continuously, or change in some more complicated manner?
4
When a T. rex pursues a jeep in the movie Jurassic Park, we see a reflected image of the T. rex via a side-view mirror, on which is printed the (then darkly humorous) warning: “Objects in mirror are closer than they appear.â€Is the mirror flat, convex, or concave? 5
/
1102
C HAP T ER 34 IMAGES
An object is placed against the center of a concave mirror and then moved along the central axis until it is 5.0 m from the mirror. During the motion, the distance |i| between the mirror and the image it produces is measured. The pro- cedure is then repeated with a convex mirror and a plane mir- ror. Figure 34.4 gives the results versus object distance p. Which curve corresponds to which mir- ror? (Curve 1 has two segments.) 6
An object is placed against the center of a converging lens and then moved along the central axis until it is 5.0 m from the lens. During the motion, the distance | i| between the lens and the image it produces is measured. The procedure is then repeated with a diverging lens. Which of the curves in Fig. 34.4 best gives |i| versus the object distance p for these lenses? (Curve 1 consists of two segments. Curve 3 is straight.) 8
| i|
1
1
2 3
p
Questions 6 and 8.
Figure 34.4
The table details six varia- Lens 1 Lens 2 tions of the basic arrangement of two thin lenses represented F1 F2 F2 in Fig. 34.5. (The points labeled F1 F 1 and F 2 are the focal points Figure 34.5 Question 7. of lenses 1 and 2.) An object is distance p 1 to the left of lens 1, as in Fig. 34.4.5. (a) For which variations can we tell, without calculation, whether the final image (that due to lens 2) is to the left or right of lens 2 and whether it has the same ori- entation as the object? (b) For those “easyvariations, give †the image location as “leftor â€â€œ rightand the orientation as †“sameor â€â€œ inverted. †7
Variation
Lens 1
Lens 2
1
Converging
Converging
p 1 |f 1 |
3
Diverging
Converging
p 1 |f 1 |
5
Diverging
Diverging
p 1 |f 1 |
Figure 34.6 shows four thin lenses, all of the same material, with sides that either are flat or have a radius of curvature of magnitude 10 cm. Without writ- (a) (b ) (c ) (d ) ten calculation, rank the lenses Figure 34.6 Question 9. according to the magnitude of the focal length, greatest first. 9
In Fig. 34.2, stick figure O stands in front of a thin, symmetric lens that is mounted within the boxed region; the central axis through the lens is shown. The four stick figures I 1 to I 4 suggest general locations and orientations for the images that might be produced by the lens. (The figures are only sketched in; neither their height nor their distance from the lens is drawn to scale.) (a) Which of the stick figures could not possibly represent images? Of the possible images, (b) which would be due to a converging lens, (c) which would be due to a diverging lens, (d) which would be vir- tual, and (e) which would involve negative magnification? 10
Figure 34.7 shows a coordinate system in front of a flat mirror, with the x axis per- pendicular to the mirror. Draw the image of the system in the mirror. (a) Which axis is reversed by the reflection? (b) If you face a mirror, is your image inverted (top for bottom)? (c) Is it reversed left and right (as commonly believed)? (d) What then is reversed?
y
11
x
z
Figure 34.7
Question 11.
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor
’ discretion) in s WileyPLUS
Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 34.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard
BIO Flying Circus of Physics
Images and Plane Mirrors
You look through a camera toward an image of a humming- bird in a plane mirror. The camera is 4.30 m in front of the mir- ror. The bird is at camera level, 5.00 m to your right and 3.30 m from the mirror. What is the distance between A the camera and the apparent position of the M bird’ image in the mirror? s 1 E
A moth at about eye level is 10 cm in front of a plane mirror; you are behind the moth, 30 cm from the mirror. What is the distance between your eyes and the apparent position of the moth’ image in the mirror? s 2 E
In Fig. 34.8, an isotropic point source of light S is positioned at distance d from a 3
M
S
d
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
P
d
Figure 34.8
Problem 3.
viewing screen A and the light intensity I P at point P (level with S ) is measured. Then a plane mirror M is placed behind S at distance d. By how much is I P multiplied by the presence of the mirror? d d Figure 34.9 shows an overhead view of a corridor with a plane mirror M mounted at one end. A burglar B sneaks along the corri- dor directly toward the center of the mirror. If d = 3.0 m, how far from the mirror will she be when the security guard S can first see her in the mirror? 4 M
M d
S
B
Figure 34.9
Problem 4.
/
P ROBL EMS
SSM Figure 34.10 shows a small lightbulb suspended at dis- tance d 1 = 250 cm above the sur- d1 face of the water in a swimming pool where the water depth is d 2 = 200 cm. The bottom of the pool is a large mirror. How d2 far below the mirror surface is Mirror the image of the bulb? (Hint: Assume that the rays are close to Figure 34.10 Problem 5. a vertical axis through the bulb, and use the small-angle approximation in which sin θ≠tan ˆ θ≠θ.ˆ )
5 H
Module 34.2
Spherical Mirrors
whether the image is (d) real (R) or virtual (V), (e) inverted (I) from object O or noninverted (NI), and (f ) on the same side of the mirror as O or on the opposite side. GO 22 SSM 23, 29 More mirrors. Object O stands on the central axis of a spherical or plane mirror. For this situation, each problem in Table 34.2 refers to (a) the type of mirror, (b) the focal distance f, (c) the radius of curvature r, (d) the object distance p, (e) the image distance i, and (f ) the lateral magnification m. (All distances are in centimeters.) It also refers to whether (g) the image is real (R) or virtual (V), (h) inverted (I) or noninverted (NI) from O, and (i) on the same side of the mirror as object O or on the opposite side. Fill in the missing information. Where only a sign is missing, answer with the sign. 17 through 29 M
GO Figure 34.13 gives M the lateral magnification m of an object versus the object dis- tance p from a spherical mir- ror as the object is moved along the mirror’ central s axis through a range of values for p. The horizontal scale is set by p s = 10.0 cm. What is the mag- nification of the object when the object is 21 cm from the mirror? 30
4
m
2
0
pa
pb
A concave shaving mirror has p (cm) a radius of curvature of 35.0 cm. It Figure 34.11 Problem 6. is positioned so that the (upright) image of a man’ face is 2.50 times the size of the face. How far is s the mirror from the face? 7 E
E An object is placed against the center of a spherical mir- ror and then moved 70 cm from 400 it along the central axis as the image distance i is measured. Figure 34.12 gives i versus object 0 0 p distance p out to p s = 40 cm. What is i for p = 70 cm?
8
)m c( i
s
–400 GO 12 SSM 9, p (cm) 11, 13 Spherical mirrors. Object Figure 34.12 Problem 8. O stands on the central axis of a spherical mirror. For this situa- tion, each problem in Table 34.1 gives object distance p s (centi- meters), the type of mirror, and then the distance (centimeters, without proper sign) between the focal point and the mirror. Find (a) the radius of curvature r (including sign), (b) the image distance i, and (c) the lateral magnification m. Also, determine 9 through 16 M
1
m
An object is moved along the central axis of a spherical mirror while the lateral magnification m of it is measured. Figure 34.11 gives m versus object distance p for the range p a = 2.0 cm to p b = 8.0 cm. What is m for p = 14.0 cm? 6 E
1103
0.5
0 p
Figure 34.13
(cm)
ps
Problem 30.
CALC (a) A luminous point is moving at speed v O toward a spherical mirror with radius of curvature r, along the central axis of the mirror. Show that the image of this point is moving at speed r 2 v I = − ______ v , ( 2p −r ) O where p is the distance of the luminous point from the mirror at any given time. Now assume the mirror is concave, with r = 15 cm, and let v O = 5.0 cm/s. Find v I when (b) p = 30 cm (far outside the focal point), (c) p = 8.0 cm ( just outside the focal point), and (d) p = 10 mm (very near the mirror).
31 M
Module 34.3
Spherical Refracting Surfaces
M GO 37, 38 SSM 33, 35 Spherical refracting surfaces. An object O stands on the central axis of a spherical refracting surface. For this situation, each problem in Table 34.3 refers to the index of refraction n 1 where the object is located, (a) the index of refraction n 2 on the other side of the
32 through 38
Table 34.1 Problems 9 through 16: Spherical Mirrors. See the setup for these problems.
p 9
Mirror
+18
Concave, 12
10
+15
Concave, 10
11
+8.0
Convex, 10
12
+24
Concave, 36
13
+12
Concave, 18
14
+22
Convex, 35
15
+10
Convex, 8.0
16
+17
Convex, 14
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
r
i
m
R/V
I/NI
Side
/
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C HAP T ER 34 IMAGES
Table 34.2 Problems 17 through 29: More Mirrors. See the setup for these problems.
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
Type
f
r
p
i
m
R/V
I/NI
Side
Concave
20
+10 +24
0.50
– 40
+40 +30
+20 20 30
– 0.70
+0.10 +0.20 – 0.50 0.40
+60 +30 +60
20 – 30
Same +1.0
40
4.0
refracting surface, (b) the object distance p, (c) the radius of curvature r of the surface, and (d) the image distance i. (All distances are in centimeters.) Fill in the missing information, including whether the image is (e) real (R) or virtual (V) and (f) on the same side of the surface as object O or on the oppo- site side. M
A glass sphere has radius R = 5.0 cm and index of refrac- tion 1.6. A paperweight is con- structed by slicing through the sphere along a plane that is 2.0 cm from the center of the sphere, leaving height h = 3.0 cm. The paperweight is placed 40 M
d
on a table and viewed from directly above by an observer who is distance d = 8.0 cm from the tabletop (Fig. 34.15). When viewed through the paperweight, how far away does the tabletop appear to be to the observer? Module 34.4
Thin Lenses
A lens is made of glass having an index of refraction of 1.5. One side of the lens is flat, and the other is convex with a radius of curvature of 20 cm. (a) Find the focal length of the lens. (b) If an object is placed 40 cm in front of the lens, where is the image? 42 E Figure 34.16 gives the lat- 1 eral magnification m of an object versus the object distance p from a lens as the object is moved 0.5 along the central axis of the lens through a range of values for p out to p s = 20.0 cm. What is the magnification of the object when 0 p the object is 35 cm from the lens? p (cm) Figure 34.16 Problem 42. 43 E A movie camera with a (single) lens of focal length 75 mm takes a picture of a person standing 27 m away. If the person is 180 cm tall, what is the height of the image on the film? 41
E
m
In Fig. 34.14, a beam of parallel light rays from a laser is incident on a solid transparent sphere of index of refraction n. (a) If a point image is produced at the back of the sphere, what Figure 34.14 Problem 39. is the index of refraction of the sphere? (b) What index of refraction, if any, will produce a point image at the center of the sphere? Observer 39
I
– 15
+10 Convex
I
– 10
s
h
R
Figure 34.15
Problem 40.
Table 34.3 Problems 32 through 38: Spherical Refracting Surfaces. See the setup for
these problems.
n 1 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.0
(a) n 2
(b) p
(c) r
1.5 1.5
+10 +10 +100 +70
+30
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5
– 30 +30 – 30
+10 +30
(d) i
(e) R/V
(f) Side
– 13 +600 – 7.5 – 6.0 +600
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An object is placed against the center of a thin lens and then moved away from it along the central axis as the image distance i is measured. Figure 34.17 gives i versus object distance p out to p s = 60 cm. What is the image dis- tance when p = 100 cm?
400
44 E
)m c( i
0
1105
M GO 55, 57 SSM 53 Thin lenses. Object O stands on the central axis of a thin symmetric lens. For this situ- ation, each problem in Table 34.4 gives object distance p (cen- timeters), the type of lens (C stands for converging and D for diverging), and then the distance (centimeters, without proper sign) between a focal point and the lens. Find (a) the image dis- tance i and (b) the lateral magnification m of the object, includ- ing signs. Also, determine whether the image is (c) real (R) or virtual (V), (d) inverted (I) from object O or noninverted (NI), and (e) on the same side of the lens as object O or on the oppo- site side.
50 through 57
0
ps
–400 p
Figure 34.17
(cm)
Problem 44.
E You produce an image of the Sun on a screen, using a thin lens whose focal length is 20.0 cm. What is the diameter of the image? (See Appendix C for needed data on the Sun.) 46 E An object is placed against p (cm) 0 the center of a thin lens and then p moved 70 cm from it along the central axis as the image distance i –10 is measured. Figure 34.18 gives i versus object distance p out to –20 p s = 40 cm. What is the image dis- Figure 34.18 Problem 46. tance when p = 70 cm?
45
)m c( i
s
SSM A double-convex lens is to be made of glass with an index of refraction of 1.5. One surface is to have twice the radius of curvature of the other and the focal length is to be 60 mm. What is the (a) smaller and (b) larger radius? 48 E An object is moved along the central axis of a thin lens while the lateral magnification m is measured. Figure 34.19 gives m versus object distance p out to p s = 8.0 cm. What is the mag- nification of the object when the object is 14.0 cm from the lens?
47 E
6 4
M GO 61 SSM 59 Lenses with given radii. Object O stands in front of a thin lens, on the central axis. For this situation, each problem in Table 34.5 gives object distance p, index of refraction n of the lens, radius r 1 of the nearer lens surface, and radius r 2 of the farther lens surface. (All distances are in centimeters.) Find (a) the image dis- tance i and (b) the lateral magnification m of the object, including signs. Also, determine whether the image is (c) real (R) or virtual (V), (d) inverted (I) from object O or non- inverted (NI), and (e) on the same side of the lens as object O or on the opposite side.
58 through 67
In Fig. 34.20, a real inverted O image I of an object O is formed by Lens a particular lens (not shown); the here Axis object–image separation is d = I 40.0 cm, measured along the cen- d tral axis of the lens. The image is just half the size of the object. Figure 34.20 Problem 68. (a) What kind of lens must be used to produce this image? (b) How far from the object must the lens be placed? (c) What is the focal length of the lens? 68 M
m
GO 76, 78 SSM 75, 77 More lenses. Object O stands on the central axis of a thin symmetric lens. For this situation, each problem in Table 34.6 refers to (a) the lens type, converging (C) or diverging (D), (b) the focal distance f, (c) the object distance p, (d) the image distance i, and (e) the lateral magnification m. (All distances are in centimeters.) It also refers to whether (f) the image is real (R) or virtual (V), (g) inverted (I) or noninverted (NI) from O, and (h) on the same side of the lens as O or on the opposite side. Fill in the missing information, including the value of m when only an inequality is given. Where only a sign is missing, answer with the sign. 69 through 79 M
2 0
ps p
Figure 34.19
(cm)
Problem 48.
E SSM An illuminated slide is held 44 cm from a screen. How far from the slide must a lens of focal length 11 cm be placed (between the slide and the screen) to form an image of the slide’ picture on the screen? s
49
Tab l e 34. 4 Problems 50 through 57: Thin Lenses. See the setup for these
problems.
p 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57
+16 +12 +25 +8.0 +10 +22 +12 +45
Lens
(a) i
(b) m
(c) R/V
(d) I/NI
(e) Side
C, 4.0 C, 16 C, 35 D, 12 D, 6.0 D, 14 D, 31 C, 20
/
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C HAP T ER 34 IMAGES
Table 34.5 Problems 58 through 67: Lenses with Given Radii. See the setup for these
problems.
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67
p
n
r 1
r 2
+29 +75 +6.0 +24 +10 +35 +10 +10 +18 +60
1.65 1.55 1.70 1.50 1.50 1.70 1.50 1.50 1.60 1.50
+35 +30 +10 – 15 +30 +42 – 30 – 30 – 27 +35
∞ – 42 – 12 – 25 – 30 +33
(a) i
(b) m
(c) R/V
(d) I/NI
(e) Side
– 60 +30
+24 – 35
Table 34.6 Problems 69 through 79: More Lenses. See the setup for these problems.
(a) Type 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79
C
(b) f
(c) p
+10 20
+5.0 +8.0 +16 +16 +10 +20 +5.0 +5.0 +16 +10 +8.0
10 10 10
20
GO 80, 87 SSM 83 Two-lens systems. In Fig. 34.21, stick figure O (the object) stands on the common central axis of two thin, symmetric lenses, which are mounted in the boxed regions. Lens 1 is mounted within the boxed region closer to O, which is at object distance p 1 . Lens 2 is mounted within the farther boxed region, at distance d. Each problem in Table 34.7 refers to a different combination of lenses and different values for distances, which are given in centimeters. The type of lens is indicated by C for converging and D for diverging; the number after C or D is the distance between a lens and either of its focal points (the proper sign of the focal distance is not indicated). 80 through 87 M
O
1
2
(d) i
(e) m 1.0
(f) R/V
(g) I/NI
(h) Side
NI
Same
NI
Find (a) the image distance i 2 for the image produced by lens 2 (the final image produced by the system) and (b) the overall lateral magnification M for the system, including signs. Also, determine whether the final image is (c) real (R) or virtual (V), (d) inverted (I) from object O or noninverted (NI), and (e) on the same side of lens 2 as object O or on the opposite side. Module 34.5
Optical Instruments
If the angular magnification of an astronomical telescope is 36 and the diameter of the objective is 75 mm, what is the mini- mum diameter of the eyepiece required to collect all the light entering the objective from a distant point source on the tele- scope axis? 88 E
E SSM In a microscope of the type shown in Fig. 34.5.2, the focal length of the objective is 4.00 cm, and that of the eye- piece is 8.00 cm. The distance between the lenses is 25.0 cm. (a) What is the tube length s? (b) If image I in Fig. 34.5.2 is to be
89 d
Figure 34.21
Problems 80 through 87.
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1107
Table 34.7 Problems 80 through 87: Two-Lens Systems. See the setup for
these problems.
p 1
Lens 1
d
Lens 2
80
+10
C, 15
10
C, 8.0
81
+12
C, 8.0
32
C, 6.0
82
+8.0
D, 6.0
12
C, 6.0
83
+20
C, 9.0
8.0
C, 5.0
84
+15
C, 12
67
C, 10
85
+4.0
C, 6.0
8.0
D, 6.0
86
+12
C, 8.0
30
D, 8.0
87
+20
D, 12
10
D, 8.0
just inside focal point F 1 ′ , how far from the objective should the object be? What then are (c) the lateral magnification m of the objective, (d) the angular magnification m θ of the eyepiece, and (e) the overall magnification M of the microscope? Figure 34.22a shows the basic structure of an old film cam- era. A lens can be moved forward or back to produce an image on film at the back of the camera. For a certain camera, with the distance i between the lens and the film set at f = 5.0 cm, parallel light rays from a very distant object O converge to a point image on the film, as shown. The object is now brought closer, to a distance of p = 100 cm, and the lens–film distance is adjusted so that an inverted real image forms on the film (Fig. 34.22b). (a) What is the lens–film distance i now? (b) By how much was distance i changed?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
i 2
M
R/V
I/NI
Side
clearly? (b) Must the eye muscles increase or decrease the radii of curvature of the eye lens to give focal length f â? €² Lens Retina
90 M
Muscle Cornea Light from distant object O
Retina
Effective lens
I
I f
(b )
(a) O
I
p
O
i
(c ) I
I
Film f
p
(a)
i
(b ) Figure 34.22
Problem 90.
Figure 34.23
Problem 91.
M An object is 10.0 mm from the objective of a certain compound microscope. The lenses are 300 mm apart, and the intermediate image is 50.0 mm from the eyepiece. What over- all magnification is produced by the instrument?
92
BIO Someone with a near point P n of 25 cm views a thim- ble through a simple magnifying lens of focal length 10 cm by placing the lens near his eye. What is the angular magnification of the thimble if it is positioned so that its image appears at (a) P n and (b) infinity?
93 M
Additional Problems
An object is placed against the center of a spherical mir- ror and then moved 70 cm from it along the central axis as the image distance i is measured. Fig- ure 34.24 gives i versus object dis- tance p out to p s = 40 cm. What is the image distance when the object is 70 cm from the mirror? 94
0
p
(cm) ps
)m c( i
M BIO SSM Figure 34.23a shows the basic structure of a human eye. Light refracts into the eye through the cornea and is then further redirected by a lens whose shape (and thus ability to focus the light) is controlled by muscles. We can treat the cor- nea and eye lens as a single effective thin lens (Fig. 34.23b). A “normaleye can focus parallel light rays from a distant object †O to a point on the retina at the back of the eye, where pro- cessing of the visual information begins. As an object is brought close to the eye, however, the muscles must change the shape of the lens so that rays form an inverted real image on the ret- ina (Fig. 34.23c). (a) Suppose that for the parallel rays of Figs. 34.23a and b, the focal length f of the effective thin lens of the eye is 2.50 cm. For an object at distance p = 40.0 cm, what focal length f âof the effective lens is required for the object to be seen €²
91
–10
–20 Figure 34.24
Problem 94.
/
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C HAP T ER 34 IMAGES
GO 95, 96, 99 Three-lens systems. In Fig. 34.25, stick figure O (the object) stands on the common cen- tral axis of three thin, symmetric lenses, which are mounted in the boxed regions. Lens 1 is mounted within the boxed region closest to O, which is at object distance p 1 . Lens 2 is mounted within the middle boxed region, at distance d 12 from lens 1. Lens 3 is mounted in the farthest boxed region, at distance d 23 from lens 2. Each problem in Table 34.8 refers to a different combination of lenses and different values for distances, which are given in centimeters. The type of lens is indicated by C for converging and D for diverging; the number after C or D is the distance between a lens and either of the focal points (the proper sign of the focal distance is not indicated). Find (a) the image distance 1 2 3 i 3 for the (final) image produced by lens 3 (the final image pro- O duced by the system) and (b) the d 12 d 23 overall lateral magnification M for the system, including signs. Figure 34.25 Problems 95 Also, determine whether the final through 100. image is (c) real (R) or virtual (V), (d) inverted (I) from object O or noninverted (NI), and (e) on the same side of lens 3 as object O or on the opposite side. 95 through 100
SSM The formula 1/p + 1/i = 1/f is called the Gaussian form of the thin-lens formula. Another form of this formula, the Newtonian form, is obtained by considering the distance x from the object to the first focal point and the distance x′ from the second focal point to the image. Show that xx′ = f 2 is the Newtonian form of the thin-lens formula.
101
Figure 34.26a is an overhead view of two vertical plane mir- rors with an object O placed between them. If you look into the mirrors, you see multiple images of O. You can find them by draw- ing the reflection in each mirror of the angular region between the mirrors, as is done in Fig. 34.26b for the left-hand mirror. Then draw the reflection of the reflection. Continue this on the left and on the right until the reflections meet or overlap at the rear of the mirrors. Then you can count the number of images of O. How many images of O would you see if θis (a) 90°, (b) 45°, and (c) 60°? If θ = 120°, determine the (d) smallest and (e) larg- est number of images that can be seen, depending on your 102
perspective and the location of O. (f) In each situation, draw the image locations and orientations as in Fig. 34.26b.
θ θ
θ
O
O
(a)
(b)
Figure 34.26
Problem 102.
SSM Two thin lenses of focal lengths f 1 and f 2 are in con- tact and share the same central axis. Show that, in image forma- tion, they are equivalent to a single thin lens for which the focal length is f = f 1 f 2 /( f 1 + f 2 ).
103
Two plane mirrors are placed parallel to each other and 40 cm apart. An object is placed 10 cm from one mirror. Deter- mine the (a) smallest, (b) second smallest, (c) third smallest (occurs twice), and (d) fourth smallest distance between the object and image of the object. 104
In Fig. 34.27, a box is some- where at the left, on the central I axis of the thin converging lens. The image I m of the box produced by the plane mirror is 4.00 cm “insidethe †mirror. The lens– Figure 34.27 Problem 105. mirror separation is 10.0 cm, and the focal length of the lens is 2.00 cm. (a) What is the distance between the box and the lens? Light reflected by the mirror travels back through the lens, which produces a final image of the box. (b) What is the distance between the lens and that final image? 105
m
In Fig. 34.28, an object is placed in front of a converg- ing lens at a distance equal to twice the focal length f 1 of the lens. On the other side of the lens is a concave mirror of focal length f 2 separated from the lens by a distance 2( f 1 + f 2 ). Light from the object passes rightward through the lens, reflects from 106
Table 34.8 Problems 95 through 100: Three-Lens Systems. See the setup
for these problems.
95 96 97 98 99 100
p 1
Lens 1
d 12
Lens 2
d 23
Lens 3
+12 +4.0 +18 +2.0 +8.0 +4.0
C, 8.0 D, 6.0 C, 6.0 C, 6.0 D, 8.0 C, 6.0
28 9.6 15 15 8.0 8.0
C, 6.0 C, 6.0 C, 3.0 C, 6.0 D, 16 D, 4.0
8.0 14 11 19 5.1 5.7
C, 6.0 C, 4.0 C, 3.0 C, 5.0 C, 8.0 D, 12
(a) i 3
(b) M
(c) R/V
(d) (e) I/NI Side
/
P ROBL EMS
the mirror, passes leftward through the lens, and forms a final image of the object. What are (a) the distance between the lens and that final image and (b) the overall lateral magnification M of the object? Is the image (c) real or virtual (if it is virtual, it requires someone looking through the lens toward the mirror), (d) to the left or right of the lens, and (e) inverted or nonin- verted relative to the object?
f1
f2
1109
A goldfish in a spherical fish bowl of radius R is at the level of the center C of the bowl and at distance R/2 from the glass (Fig. 34.31). What magnification of the fish is produced by the water in the bowl for a viewer looking along a line that includes the fish and the center, with the fish on the near side of the center? The index of refraction of the water is 1.33. Neglect the glass wall of the bowl. Assume the viewer looks with one eye. (Hint: Equation 34.2.3 holds, but Eq. 34.2.4 does not. You need to work with a ray diagram of the situation and assume that the rays are close to the observer’ line of sight s —that is, they devi- ate from that line by only small angles.) 110
O
2f 1 Figure 34.28
2( f 1 + f 2) C
Problem 106.
SSM A fruit fly of height H sits in front of lens 1 on the cen- tral axis through the lens. The lens forms an image of the fly at a distance d = 20 cm from the fly; the image has the fly’ orienta- s tion and height H I = 2.0H. What are (a) the focal length f 1 of the lens and (b) the object distance p 1 of the fly? The fly then leaves lens 1 and sits in front of lens 2, which also forms an image at d = 20 cm that has the same orientation as the fly, but now H I = 0.50H. What are (c) f 2 and (d) p 2 ?
R __ 2
107
You grind the lenses shown in Fig. 34.29 from flat glass disks (n = 1.5) using a machine that can grind a radius of curvature of either 40 cm or 60 cm. In a lens (1) (2) (3) where either radius is appropriate, you select the 40 cm radius. Then you hold each lens in sunshine to form an image of the Sun. What are the (a) focal length f and (b) image type (real or virtual) for (bi- (4) (5) (6) convex) lens 1, (c) f and (d) image Figure 34.29 type for (plane-convex) lens 2, (e) Problem 108. f and (f) image type for (meniscus convex) lens 3, (g) f and (h) image type for (bi-concave) lens 4, (i) f and ( j) image type for (plane-concave) lens 5, and (k) f and (l) image type for (meniscus concave) lens 6? 108
In Fig. 34.30, a fish watcher d2 d1 d3 at point P watches a fish through a glass wall of a fish tank. The watcher is level with the fish; the P index of refraction of the glass is Watcher 8/5, and that of the water is 4/3. The distances are d 1 = 8.0 cm, Wall d 2 = 3.0 cm, and d 3 = 6.8 cm. (a) Figure 34.30 To the fish, how far away does the Problem 109. watcher appear to be? (Hint: The watcher is the object. Light from that object passes through the wall’ outside surface, which acts s as a refracting surface. Find the image produced by that surface. Then treat that image as an object whose light passes through the wall’ inside s surface, which acts as another refracting surface.) (b) To the watcher, how far away does the fish appear to be? 109
R
Figure 34.31
Problem 110.
Figure 34.32 shows a beam d expander made with two coaxial 2 1 converging lenses of focal lengths f 1 and f 2 and separation d = f 1 + W W f 2. The device can expand a laser beam while keeping the light rays in the beam parallel to the cen- Figure 34.32 Problem 111. tral axis through the lenses. Sup- pose a uniform laser beam of width W i = 2.5 mm and intensity I i = 9.0 kW/m 2 enters a beam expander for which f 1 = 12.5 cm and f 2 = 30.0 cm. What are (a) W f and (b) I f of the beam leav- ing the expander? (c) What value of d is needed for the beam expander if lens 1 is replaced with a diverging lens of focal length f 1 = – 26.0 cm? 112 You look down at a coin that lies at the bottom of a pool of liquid of depth d and index of To left To right refraction n (Fig. 34.33). Because eye eye you view with two eyes, which Air intercept different rays of light n from the coin, you perceive the da coin to be where extensions of the intercepted rays cross, at depth d a instead of d. Assuming that the d intercepted rays in Fig. 34.33 are close to a vertical axis through the coin, show that d a = d/n. (Hint: Use the small-angle approxima- Figure 34.33 Problem 112. tion sin θ ≠tan ˆ θ ≠θ.) ˆ 111
i
f
A pinhole camera has the hole a distance 12 cm from the film plane, which is a rectangle of height 8.0 cm and width 6.0 cm. How far from a painting of dimensions 50 cm by 50 cm should the camera be placed so as to get the largest complete image possible on the film plane? 114 Light travels from point A to point B via reflection at point O on the surface of a mirror. Without using calculus, show 113
/
1110
C HAP T ER 34 IMAGES
that length AOB is a minimum when the angle of incidence θ is equal to the angle of reflection ϕ. (Hint: Consider the image of A in the mirror.) 115 A point object is 10 cm away from a plane mirror, and the eye of an observer (with pupil diameter 5.0 mm) is 20 cm away. Assuming the eye and the object to be on the same line perpen- dicular to the mirror surface, find the area of the mirror used in observing the reflection of the point. (Hint: Adapt Fig. 34.1.4.) Show that the distance between an object and its real image formed by a thin converging lens is always greater than or equal to four times the focal length of the lens. 116
CALC A luminous object and a screen are a fixed dis- tance D apart. (a) Show that a converging lens of focal length f, placed between object and screen, will form a real image on the screen for two lens positions that are separated by a distance __________ d = √D(D – 4f ) . (b) Show that D – d 2 ______ ( D + d ) gives the ratio of the two image sizes for these two positions of the lens.
117
An eraser of height 1.0 cm is placed 10.0 cm in front of a two-lens system. Lens 1 (nearer the eraser) has focal length f 1 = – 15 cm, lens 2 has f 2 = 12 cm, and the lens separation is d = 12 118
cm. For the image produced by lens 2, what are (a) the image distance i 2 (including sign), (b) the image height, (c) the image type (real or virtual), and (d) the image orientation (inverted relative to the eraser or not inverted)? A peanut is placed 40 cm in front of a two-lens system: lens 1 (nearer the peanut) has focal length f 1 = +20 cm, lens 2 has f 2 = – 15 cm, and the lens separation is d = 10 cm. For the image produced by lens 2, what are (a) the image distance i 2 (including sign), (b) the image orientation (inverted relative to the peanut or not inverted), and (c) the image type (real or virtual)? (d) What is the net lateral magnification? 119
A coin is placed 20 cm in front of a two-lens system. Lens 1 (nearer the coin) has focal length f 1 = +10 cm, lens 2 has f 2 = +12.5 cm, and the lens separation is d = 30 cm. For the image produced by lens 2, what are (a) the image distance i 2 (including sign), (b) the overall lateral magnification, (c) the image type (real or virtual), and (d) the image orientation (inverted relative to the coin or not inverted)? 120
An object is 20 cm to the left of a thin diverging lens that has a 30 cm focal length. (a) What is the image distance i? (b) Draw a ray diagram showing the image position. 121
Mirror length. If a basketball player is 206 cm tall, how tall must the mirror be if the player is to see that entire length? 122
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Interference
35.1 LIGHT AS A WAVE Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
35.1.1 Using a sketch, explain Huygens’ principle.
35.1.8 For light in a certain length of a material, calcu-
35.1.2 With a few simple sketches, explain refraction in
late the number of internal wavelengths that fit into
terms of the gradual change in the speed of a wave- front as it passes through an interface at an angle to
the length. 35.1.9 If two light waves travel through different materials
the normal.
with different indexes of refraction and then reach
35.1.3 Apply the relationship between the speed of
c
a common point, determine their phase difference
v
light in vacuum , the speed of light in a material ,
n .
and interpret the resulting interference in terms of
and the index of refraction of the material
maximum brightness, intermediate brightness, and
L in
35.1.4 Apply the relationship between a distance
a material, the speed of light in that material, and
darkness. 35.1.10 Apply the learning objectives of Module 17.3
the time required for a pulse of the light to travel
(sound waves there, light waves here) to find the
L.
through
phase difference and interference of two waves
35.1.5 Apply Snell’s law of refraction.
that reach a common point after traveling paths of
35.1.6 When light refracts through an interface, identify that the frequency does not change but the wave-
different lengths. 35.1.11 Given the initial phase difference between two
length and effective speed do.
waves with the same wavelength, determine their
35.1.7 Apply the relationship between the wavelength in
λ
phase difference after they travel through different path
λn in a material (the inter-
vacuum , the wavelength
nal wavelength), and the index of refraction
n of the
lengths and through different indexes of refraction. 35.1.12 Identify that rainbows are examples of optical
material.
interference.
Key Ideas ●
The three-dimensional transmission of waves, includ-
ing light, may often be predicted by Huygens’ principle,
●
The wavelength
λn of light in a medium depends on
the index of refraction
point sources of spherical secondary wavelets. After a
t
time , the new position of the wavefront will be that of a surface tangent to these secondary wavelets. ●
The law of refraction can be derived from Huygens’
principle by assuming that the index of refraction of
n = c/v , in which v is the speed of light in the medium and c is the speed of light in vacuum. any medium is
n of the medium:
λ , __ λ n = n
which states that all points on a wavefront serve as
in which ●
λ is the wavelength in vacuum.
Because of this dependency, the phase difference
between two waves can change if they pass through different materials with different indexes of refraction.
What Is Physics?
One of the major goals of physics is to understand the nature of light. This goal has been difficult to achieve (and has not yet fully been achieved) because light is complicated. However, this complication means that light offers many opportunities for applications, and some of the richest opportunities involve the interference of light waves—optical interference.
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segamI ytteG/ibmoloC eppilihP
Nature has long used optical interference for coloring. For exam- ple, the wings of a Morpho butterfly are a dull, uninspiring brown, as can be seen on the bottom wing surface, but the brown is hidden on the top surface by an arresting blue due to the interference of light reflecting from that surface (Fig. 35.1.1). Moreover, the top surface is color-shifting; if you change your perspective or if the wing moves, the tint of the color changes. Similar color shifting is used in the inks on many currencies to thwart counterfeiters, whose copy machines can duplicate color from only one perspective and therefore cannot duplicate any shift in color FCP caused by a change in perspective. To understand the basic physics of optical interference, we must largely abandon the simplicity of geometrical optics (in which we describe light as rays) and return to the wave nature of light.
The blue of the top surface of a Morpho butterfly wing is due to optical interference and shifts in color as your viewing perspective changes. Figure 35.1.1
b
d
c
Light as a Wave
The first convincing wave theory for light was in 1678 by Dutch physicist Christian Huygens. Mathematically simpler than the electromagnetic theory of Maxwell, it nicely explained reflection and refraction in terms of waves and gave physical meaning to the index of refraction. Huygens’ wave theory is based on a geometrical construction that allows us to tell where a given wavefront will be at any time in the future if we know its present position. Huygens’ principle is: All points on a wavefront serve as point sources of spherical secondary wavelets. After a time t, the new position of the wavefront will be that of a surface tangent to these secondary wavelets.
Δt
Wavefront at t= 0
New position of wavefront at time t = Δt a
e
The propagation of a plane wave in vacuum, as portrayed by Huygens’ principle. Figure 35.1.2
Refraction occurs at the surface, giving a new direction of travel.
Here is a simple example. At the left in Fig. 35.1.2, the present location of a wavefront of a plane wave traveling to the right in vacuum is represented by plane ab, perpen- dicular to the page. Where will the wavefront be at time Δt later? We let several points on plane ab (the dots) serve as sources of spherical secondary wavelets that are emitted at t = 0. At time Δt, the radius of all these spherical wavelets will have grown to c Δt, where c is the speed of light in vacuum. We draw plane de tangent to these wavelets at time Δt. This plane represents the wavefront of the plane wave at time Δt ; it is parallel to plane ab and a perpendicular distance c Δt from it. The Law of Refraction
We now use Huygens’ principle to derive the law of refraction, Eq. 33.5.2 (Snell’s law). Figure 35.1.3 shows three stages in the refraction of several wavefronts at a flat interface between air (medium 1) and glass (medium 2). We arbitrarily
λ1
e
λ1
Incident wave
θ1
v1
h
θ1 λ2
θ2
g
Air Glass
(a )
(b )
c
Refracted wave
λ2
v2
(c )
The refraction of a plane wave at an air–glass interface, as portrayed by Huygens’ principle. The wavelength in glass is smaller than that in air. For simplicity, the reflected wave is not shown. Parts (a) through (c) represent three successive stages of the refraction. Figure 35.1.3
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35.1 L IGHT AS A WAV E
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choose the wavefronts in the incident light beam to be separated by λ1 , the wavelength in medium 1. Let the speed of light in air be v 1 and that in glass be v 2. We assume that v 2 n 1, we obtain L n 2 ____ L n 1 __ N 2 − N 1 = ____ − = L (n 2 − n 1 ).
λ
λ
λ
(35.1.9)
Suppose Eq. 35.1.9 tells us that the waves now have a phase difference of 45.6 wavelengths. That is equivalent to taking the initially in-phase waves and shifting one of them by 45.6 wavelengths. However, a shift of an integer number of wavelengths (such as 45) would put the waves back in phase; so it is only the decimal fraction (here, 0.6) that is important. A phase difference of 45.6 wave- lengths is equivalent to an effective phase difference of 0.6 wavelength. A phase difference of 0.5 wavelength puts two waves exactly out of phase. If the waves had equal amplitudes and were to reach some common point, they would then undergo fully destructive interference, producing darkness at that point. With a phase difference of 0.0 or 1.0 wavelength, they would, instead, undergo fully constructive interference, resulting in brightness at the common point. Our phase difference of 0.6 wavelength is an intermediate situation but closer to fully destructive interference, and the waves would produce a dimly illuminated common point. We can also express phase difference in terms of radians and degrees, as we have done already. A phase difference of one wavelength is equivalent to phase differences of 2 π rad and 360°. Path Length Difference. As we discussed with sound waves in Module 17.3, two waves that begin with some initial phase difference can end up with a different phase difference if they travel through paths with different lengths before coming back together. The key for the waves (whatever their type might be) is the path length difference ΔL, or more to the point, how ΔL compares to the wavelength λ of the waves. From Eqs. 17.3.5 and 17.3.6, we know that, for light waves, fully constructive interference (maximum brightness) occurs when ΔL = 0, 1, 2, . . . (fully constructive interference), ___
λ
(35.1.10)
and that fully destructive interference (darkness) occurs when ΔL ___ = 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, . . .
λ
(fully destructive interference).
(35.1.11)
Intermediate values correspond to intermediate interference and thus also illumination. Rainbows and Optical Interference
In Module 33.5, we discussed how the colors of sunlight are separated into a rainbow when sunlight travels through falling raindrops. We dealt with a sim- plified situation in which a single ray of white light entered a drop. Actually, light waves pass into a drop along the entire side that faces the Sun. Here we cannot discuss the details of how these waves travel through the drop and then emerge, but we can see that different parts of an incoming wave will travel dif- ferent paths within the drop. That means waves will emerge from the drop with different phases. Thus, we can see that at some angles the emerging light will be in phase and give constructive interference. The rainbow is the result of such constructive interference. For example, the red of the rainbow appears because waves of red light emerge in phase from each raindrop in the direction in which you see that part of the rainbow. The light waves that emerge in other direc- tions from each raindrop have a range of different phases because they take
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Primary rainbow Supernumeraries
A primary rainbow and the faint supernumeraries below it are due to optical interference. Figure 35.1.5
a range of different paths through each drop. This light is neither bright nor colorful, and so you do not notice it. If you are lucky and look carefully below a primary rainbow, you can see dimmer colored arcs called supernumeraries (Fig. 35.1.5). Like the main arcs of the rainbow, the supernumeraries are due to waves that emerge from each drop approximately in phase with one another to give constructive interference. If you are very lucky and look very carefully above a secondary rainbow, you might see even more (but even dimmer) supernumeraries. Keep in mind that both types of rainbows and both sets of supernumeraries are naturally occurring examples of optical interference and FCP naturally occurring evidence that light consists of waves. Checkpoint 35.1.2
The light waves of the rays in Fig. 35.1.4 have the same wavelength and amplitude and are initially in phase. (a) If 7.60 wavelengths fit within the length of the top material and 5.50 wavelengths fit within that of the bottom material, which material has the greater index of refraction? (b) If the rays are angled slightly so that they meet at the same point on a distant screen, will the interference there result in the brightest possible illumination, bright intermediate illumination, dark intermediate illumination, or darkness?
Sample Problem 35.1.1
Phase difference of two waves due to difference in refractive indexes
In Fig. 35.1.4, the two light waves that are represented by the rays have wavelength 550.0 nm before entering media 1 and 2. They also have equal amplitudes and are in phase. Medium 1 is now just air, and medium 2 is a transparent plastic layer of index of refraction 1.600 and thickness 2.600 μm. (a) What is the phase difference of the emerging waves in wavelengths, radians, and degrees? What is their effective phase difference (in wavelengths)?
KEY IDEA The phase difference of two light waves can change if they travel through different media, with different indexes of refraction. The reason is that their wavelengths are differ- ent in the different media. We can calculate the change in phase difference by counting the number of wavelengths that fits into each medium and then subtracting those numbers. When the path lengths of the waves in the two media are identical, Eq. 35.1.9 gives the result of the subtraction. Here we have n 1 = 1.000 (for the air), n 2 = 1.600, L = 2.600 μm, and λ = 550.0 nm. Thus, Eq. 35.1.9 y ields Calculations:
__ (n − n ) N 2 − N 1 = L 2 1
λ
−6
2.600 × 10 m (1.600 − 1.000 ) = _____________ 5.500 × 10 −7 m = 2.84.
(Answer)
Thus, the phase difference of the emerging waves is 2.84 wavelengths. Because 1.0 wavelength is equivalent to 2π rad and 360°, you can show that this phase difference is equivalent to phase difference = 17.8 rad ≈ 1020°.
(Answer)
The effective phase difference is the decimal part of the actual phase difference expressed in wavelengths. Thus, we have effective phase difference = 0.84 wavelength. (Answer) You can show that this is equivalent to 5.3 rad and about 300°. Caution: We do not find the effective phase differ- ence by taking the decimal part of the actual phase dif- ference as expressed in radians or degrees. For example, we do not take 0.8 rad from the actual phase difference of 17.8 rad. (b) If the waves reached the same point on a distant screen, what type of interference would they produce? We need to compare the effective phase difference of the waves with the phase differences that give the extreme types of interference. Here the effective phase difference of 0.84 wavelength is between 0.5 wave- length (for fully destructive interference, or the darkest possible result) and 1.0 wavelength (for fully constructive interference, or the brightest possible result), but closer to 1.0 wavelength. Thus, the waves would produce inter- mediate interference that is closer to fully constructive interference—they would produce a relatively bright spot. Reasoning:
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
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35.2 YOUNG’S INTERFERENCE EXPERIMENT Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
35.2.1 Describe the diffraction of light by a narrow slit
and the angles
and the effect of narrowing the slit. 35.2.2 With sketches, describe the production of the
pattern.
interference pattern in a double-slit interference
35.2.7 Sketch the double-slit interference pattern,
experiment using monochromatic light.
identifying what lies at the center and what the
35.2.3 Identify that the phase difference between two
various bright and dark fringes are called (such as
waves can change if the waves travel along paths of
“first side maximum” and “third order”).
different lengths, as in the case of Young’s experiment. 35.2.4 In a double-slit experiment, apply the relationship between the path length difference
λ
θ to the minima (dark fringes) and
to the maxima (bright fringes) in the interference
ΔL and the
35.2.8 Apply the relationship between the distance
the angle
θ to a point in the interference pattern,
y to that point from the pattern’s
wavelength , and then interpret the result in terms
and the distance
of interference (maximum brightness, intermediate
center.
brightness, and darkness).
35.2.9 For a double-slit interference pattern, identify
35.2.5 For a given point in a double-slit interference pattern, express the path length difference
the effects of changing
ΔL of the
rays reaching that point in terms of the slit separa-
d and the angle θ
tion
D
between a double-slit screen and a viewing screen,
d or λ and also identify what
determines the angular limit to the pattern. 35.2.10 For a transparent material placed over one slit
to that point.
in a Young’s experiment, determine the thickness or
35.2.6 In a Young’s experiment, apply the relationships
λ
d
between the slit separation , the light wavelength ,
index of refraction required to shift a given fringe to the center of the interference pattern.
Key Ideas ●
In Young’s interference experiment, light passing through a single slit falls
on two slits in a screen. The light leaving these slits flares out (by diffraction), and interference occurs in the region beyond the screen. A fringe pattern, due to the interference, forms on a viewing screen. ●
The conditions for maximum and minimum intensity are
d sin θ = m λ,
1 d sin θ = (m + _ )λ, 2
and
where
for m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(maxima—bright fringes),
for m = 0, 1 , 2, …
(minima—dark fringes),
θ is the angle the light path makes with a central axis and d is the slit
separation.
Diffraction
shpargotohP latnemadnuF/hcseR egroeG
In this module we shall discuss the experiment that first proved that light is a wave. To prepare for that discussion, we must introduce the idea of diffraction of waves, a phenomenon that we explore much more fully in Chapter 36. Its essence is this: If a wave encounters a barrier that has an opening of dimensions similar to the wavelength, the part of the wave that passes through the opening will flare (spread) out—will diffract —into the region beyond the barrier. The flaring is consistent with the spreading of wavelets in the Huygens construction of Fig. 35.1.2. Diffraction occurs for waves of all types, not just light waves; Fig. 35.2.1 shows the diffraction of water waves traveling across the surface of water in a shallow tank. Similar diffraction of ocean waves through openings in a barrier can actually increase the erosion of a beach the barrier is intended to protect. Waves produced by an oscillating paddle at the left flare out through an opening in a barrier along the water surface. Figure 35.2.1
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A wave passing through a slit f lares (diffracts). Incident wave
Diffracted wave
λ
a
(6.0 λ )
(a )
Figure 35.2.2a shows the situation schematically for an incident plane wave of wavelength λ encountering a slit that has width a = 6.0λ and extends into and out of the page. The part of the wave that passes through the slit flares out on the far side. Figures 35.2.2b (with a = 3.0λ) and 35.2.2c (a = 1.5λ) illustrate the main feature of diffraction: the narrower the slit, the greater the diffraction. Diffraction limits geometrical optics, in which we represent an electromag- netic wave with a ray. If we actually try to form a ray by sending light through a narrow slit, or through a series of narrow slits, diffraction will always defeat our effort because it always causes the light to spread. Indeed, the narrower we make the slits (in the hope of producing a narrower beam), the greater the spreading is. Thus, geometrical optics holds only when slits or other apertures that might be located in the path of light do not have dimensions comparable to or smaller than the wavelength of the light.
Screen Young’s Interference Experiment
λ a
(3.0 λ )
(b )
In 1801, Thomas Young experimentally proved that light is a wave, contrary to what most other scientists then thought. He did so by demonstrating that light undergoes interference, as do water waves, sound waves, and waves of all other types. In addition, he was able to measure the average wavelength of sunlight; his value, 570 nm, is impressively close to the modern accepted value of 555 nm. We shall here examine Young’s experiment as an example of the interference of light waves. Figure 35.2.3 g ives the basic arrangement of Young’s experiment. Light from a distant monochromatic source illuminates slit S 0 in screen A. The emerging light then spreads via diffraction to illuminate two slits S 1 and S 2 in screen B. Dif- fraction of the light by these two slits sends overlapping circular waves into the
λ Max a
Max
(1.5 λ )
(c )
Diffraction represented schematically. For a given wavelength λ, the diffraction is more pronounced the smaller the slit width a. The figures show the cases for (a) slit width a = 6.0λ, (b) slit width a = 3.0λ, and (c) slit width a = 1.5λ. In all three cases, the screen and the length of the slit extend well into and out of the page, perpendicular to it.
Max
Incident wave
S
Max
2
The waves emerging from the two slits overlap and form an interference pattern.
Max
Figure 35.2.2
Max S
Max
0
Max Max S1
Max Max Max Max
A
B
C
In Young’s interference experiment, incident monochromatic light is diffracted by slit S 0 , which then acts as a point source of light that emits semicircular wavefronts. As that light reaches screen B, it is diffracted by slits S 1 and S 2 , which then act as two point sources of light. The light waves traveling from slits S 1 and S 2 overlap and undergo interference, forming an interference pattern of maxima and minima on viewing screen C. This figure is a cross section; the screens, slits, and interference pattern extend into and out of the page. Between screens B and C, the semicircular wavefronts centered on S 2 depict the waves that would be there if only S 2 were open. Similarly, those centered on S 1 depict waves that would be there if only S 1 were open. Figure 35.2.3
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reklaW lraeJ fo ysetruoC
region beyond screen B, where the waves from one slit interfere with the waves from the other slit. The “snapshot” of Fig. 35.2.3 depicts the interference of the overlapping waves. However, we cannot see evidence for the interference except where a viewing screen C intercepts the light. Where it does so, points of interference maxima form visible bright rows—called bright bands, bright fringes, or (loosely speaking) maxima —that extend across the screen (into and out of the page in Fig. 35.2.3). Dark regions—called dark bands, dark fringes, or (loosely speak- ing) minima —result from fully destructive interference and are visible between adjacent pairs of bright fringes. (Maxima and minima more properly refer to the center of a band.) The pattern of bright and dark fringes on the screen is called an interference pattern. Figure 35.2.4 is a photograph of part of the interference pattern that would be seen by an observer standing to the left of screen C in the arrangement of Fig. 35.2.3. Locating the Fringes
Light waves produce fringes in a Young’s double-slit interference experiment, as it is called, but what exactly determines the locations of the fringes? To answer, we shall use the arrangement in Fig. 35.2.5a. There, a plane wave of monochromatic light is incident on two slits S 1 and S 2 in screen B; the light diffracts through the slits and produces an interference pattern on screen C. We draw a central axis from the point halfway between the slits to screen C as a reference. We then pick, for discussion, an arbitrary point P on the screen, at angle θ to the central axis. This point intercepts the wave of ray r 1 from the bottom slit and the wave of ray r 2 from the top slit. Path Length Difference. These waves are in phase when they pass through the two slits because there they are just portions of the same incident wave. However, once they have passed the slits, the two waves must travel different distances to reach P. We saw a similar situation in Module 17.3 with sound waves and concluded that
A photograph of the interference pattern produced by the arrangement shown in Fig. 35.2.3, but with short slits. (The photograph is a front view of part of screen C.) The alternating maxima and minima are called interference fringes (because they resemble the decora- tive fringe sometimes used on cloth- ing and rugs). Figure 35.2.4
The phase difference between two waves can change if the waves travel paths of different lengths.
The change in phase difference is due to the path length difference ΔL in the paths taken by the waves. Consider two waves initially exactly in phase, traveling along paths with a path length difference ΔL, and then passing through some common point. When ΔL is zero or an integer number of wavelengths, the waves a rrive at the common point exactly in phase and they interfere fully constructively there. If that is true for the waves of rays r 1 and r 2 in Fig. 35.2.5, then point P is part of D
Incident wave
r2
P r2
S2 S1
b
θ
r1
y
d
d
S1
(b )
(a )
B
C
θ
S2
θ
r1
θb
The ΔL shifts one wave from the other, which determines the interference.
Path length difference ΔL
(a) Waves from slits S 1 and S 2 (which extend into and out of the page) combine at P, an arbitrary point on screen C at distance y from the central axis. The angle θ serves as a convenient locator for P. (b) For D ⪢ d, we can approximate rays r 1 and r 2 as being parallel, at angle θ to the central axis. Figure 35.2.5
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a bright fringe. When, instead, ΔL is an odd multiple of half a wavelength, the waves arrive at the common point exactly out of phase and they interfere fully destructively there. If that is true for the waves of rays r 1 and r 2, then point P is part of a dark fringe. (And, of course, we can have intermediate situations of interference and thus intermediate illumination at P.) Thus, What appears at each point on the viewing screen in a Young’s double-slit interference experiment is determined by the path length difference ΔL of the rays reaching that point.
Angle. We can specify where each bright fringe and each dark fringe is located on the viewing screen by giving the angle θ from the central axis to that fringe. To find θ, we must relate it to ΔL. We start with Fig. 35.2.5a by finding a point b along ray r 1 such that the path length from b to P equals the path length from S 2 to P. Then the path length difference ΔL between the two rays is the distance from S 1 to b. The relation between this S 1-to-b distance and θ is complicated, but we can simplify it considerably if we arrange for the distance D from the slits to the viewing screen to be much greater than the slit separation d. Then we can approximate rays r 1 and r 2 as being parallel to each other and at angle θ to the central axis (Fig. 35.2.5b). We can also approximate the triangle formed by S 1 , S 2, and b as being a right triangle, and approximate the angle inside that triangle at S 2 as being θ . Then, for that triangle, sin θ = ΔL / d and thus ΔL = d sin θ
(path length difference).
(35.2.1)
For a bright fringe, we saw that ΔL must be either zero or an integer number of wavelengths. Using Eq. 35.2.1, we can write this requirement as ΔL = d sin θ = (integer)(λ),
(35.2.2)
or as d sin θ = m λ,
for m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(maxima—bright fringes).
(35.2.3)
For a dark fringe, ΔL must be an odd multiple of half a wavelength. Again using Eq. 35.2.1, we can write this requirement as 1 ΔL = d sin θ = (odd number )( _ 2 λ),
(35.2.4)
or as 1 d sin θ = (m + _ 2 ) λ,
for m = 0, 1 , 2, …
(minima—dark fringes).
(35.2.5)
With Eqs. 35.2.3 and 35.2.5, we can find the angle θ to any fringe and thus locate that fringe; further, we can use the values of m to label the fringes. For the value and label m = 0, Eq. 35.2.3 tells us that a bright fringe is at θ = 0 and thus on the central axis. This central maximum is the point at which waves arriving from the two slits have a path length difference ΔL = 0, hence zero phase difference. For, say, m = 2, Eq. 35.2.3 tells us that bright fringes are at the angle 2λ θ = sin −1 (___ d ) above and below the central axis. Waves from the two slits arrive at these two fringes with ΔL = 2 λ and with a phase difference of two wavelengths. These fringes are said to be the second-order bright fringes (meaning m = 2) or the second side maxima (the second maxima to the side of the central maximum),
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1121
or they are described as being the second bright fringes from the central maximum. For m = 1, Eq. 35.2.5 tells us that dark fringes are at the angle
λ ____ θ = sin −1 (1.5 d ) above and below the central axis. Waves from the two slits arrive at these two fringes with ΔL = 1.5λ and with a phase difference, in wavelengths, of 1.5. These fringes are called the second-order dark fringes or second minima because they are the second dark fringes to the side of the central axis. (The first dark fringes, or first minima, are at locations for which m = 0 in Eq. 35.2.5.) Nearby Screen. We derived Eqs. 35.2.3 and 35.2.5 for the situation D ⪢ d. However, they also apply if we place a converging lens between the slits and the viewing screen and then move the viewing screen closer to the slits, to the focal point of the lens. (The screen is then said to be in the focal plane of the lens; that is, it is in the plane perpendicular to the central axis at the focal point.) One prop- erty of a converging lens is that it focuses all rays that are parallel to one another to the same point on its focal plane. Thus, the rays that now arrive at any point on the screen (in the focal plane) were exactly parallel (rather than approximately) when they left the slits. They are like the initially parallel rays in Fig. 34.4.1a that are directed to a point (the focal point) by a lens. Checkpoint 35.2.1
In Fig. 35.2.5a, what are ΔL (as a multiple of the wavelength) and the phase difference (in wavelengths) for the two rays if point P is (a) a third side maximum and (b) a third minimum?
Sample Problem 35.2.1
Double-slit interference pattern
What is the distance on screen C in Fig. 35.2.5a between adjacent maxima near the center of the interference pat- tern? The wavelength λ of the light is 546 nm, the slit sep- aration d is 0.12 mm, and the slit–screen separation D is 55 cm. Assume that θ in Fig. 35.2.5 is small enough to per- mit use of the approximations sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ θ, in which θ is expressed in radian measure.
Calculations:
If we equate our two expressions for angle
θ and then solve for y m, we find m λD . y m = _____ d
For the next maximum as we move away from the pat- tern’s center, we have (m + 1 )λD y m+1 = __________ . d
KEY IDEAS (1) First, let us pick a maximum with a low value of m to ensure that it is near the center of the pattern. Then, from the geometry of Fig. 35.2.5a, the maximum’s vertical distance y m from the center of the pattern is related to its angle θ from the central axis by y m tan θ ≈ θ = ___ . D (2) From Eq. 35.2.3, this angle θ for the mth maximum is given by
λ . ___ sin θ ≈ θ = m d
(35.2.6)
(35.2.7)
We find the distance between these adjacent maxima by subtracting Eq. 35.2.6 from Eq. 35.2.7:
λD Δy = y m+1 − y m = ___ d (546 × 10 −9 m)(55 × 10 −2 m) = __________________________ 0.12 × 10 −3 m = 2.50 × 10 −3 m ≈ 2.5 mm.
(Answer)
As long as d and θ in Fig. 35.2.5a are small, the separation of the interference fringes is independent of m; that is, the fringes are evenly spaced.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
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C HAP T ER 35 INT ERF ERENC E
35.3 INTERFERENCE AND DOUBLE-SLIT INTENSITY Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
35.3.1 Distinguish between coherent and incoherent
difference to the angle
light.
θ locating that point in the
pattern.
35.3.2 For two light waves arriving at a common point,
35.3.5 Use a phasor diagram to find the resultant wave
write expressions for their electric field components
(amplitude and phase constant) of two or more light
as functions of time and a phase constant.
waves arriving at a common point and use that
35.3.3 Identify that the phase difference between two waves determines their interference.
result to determine the intensity. 35.3.6 Apply the relationship between a light wave’s
35.3.4 For a point in a double-slit interference pattern,
angular frequency
calculate the intensity in terms of the phase differ-
ω and the angular speed ω of the
phasor representing the wave.
ence of the arriving waves and relate that phase
Key Ideas ●
If two light waves that meet at a point are to interfere
●
In Young’s interference experiment, two waves, each
I 0 , yield a resultant wave of intensity I at
perceptibly, the phase difference between them must
with intensity
remain constant with time; that is, the waves must be
the viewing screen, with
coherent. When two coherent waves meet, the result- ing intensity may be found by using phasors.
2 _ I = 4I 0 cos 1 ϕ, 2
2 πd sin θ. where ϕ = ____
λ
Coherence
For the interference pattern to appear on viewing screen C in Fig. 35.2.3, the light waves reaching any point P on the screen must have a phase difference that does not vary in time. That is the case in Fig. 35.2.3 because the waves passing through slits S 1 and S 2 are portions of the single light wave that illuminates the slits. Because the phase difference remains constant, the light from slits S 1 and S 2 is said to be completely coherent. Sunlight and Fingernails. Direct sunlight is partially coherent; that is, sunlight waves intercepted at two points have a constant phase difference only if the points are very close. If you look closely at your fingernail in bright sunlight, you can see a faint interference pattern called speckle that causes the nail to appear to be covered with specks. You see this effect because light waves scattering from very close points on the nail are sufficiently coherent to interfere with one another at your eye. The slits in a double-slit experi- ment, however, are not close enough, and in direct sunlight, the light at the slits would be incoherent. To get coherent light, we would have to send the sunlight through a single slit as in Fig. 35.2.3; because that single slit is small, light that passes through it is coherent. In addition, the smallness of the slit causes the coherent light to spread via diffraction to illuminate both slits in the double-slit FCP experiment. Incoherent Sources. If we replace the double slits with two similar but inde- pendent monochromatic light sources, such as two fine incandescent wires, the phase difference between the waves emitted by the sources varies rapidly and randomly. (This occurs because the light is emitted by vast numbers of atoms in the wires, acting randomly and independently for extremely short times—of the order of nanoseconds.) As a result, at any given point on the viewing screen, the interference between the waves from the two sources varies rapidly and randomly between fully constructive and fully destructive. The eye (and most common optical detectors) cannot follow such changes, and no interference pattern can be seen. The fringes disappear, and the screen is seen as being uniformly illuminated.
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35.3 INT ERF ERENC E AND D OU BL E- SL IT INT ENSIT Y
1123
Coherent Source. A laser differs from common light sources in that its atoms emit light in a cooperative manner, thereby making the light coherent. Moreover, the light is almost monochromatic, is emitted in a thin beam with little spreading, and can be focused to a width that almost matches the wave- length of the light.
Intensity in Double-Slit Interference
Equations 35.2.3 and 35.2.5 tell us how to locate the maxima and minima of the double-slit interference pattern on screen C of Fig. 35.2.5 a s a function of the angle θ in that figure. Here we wish to derive an expression for the intensity I of the fringes as a function of θ . The light leaving the slits is in phase. However, let us assume that the light waves from the two slits are not in phase when they arrive at point P. Instead, the electric field components of those waves at point P are not in phase and vary with time as and
E 1 = E 0 sin ω t
(35.3.1)
E 2 = E 0 sin( ωt + ϕ ),
(35.3.2)
where ω is the angular frequency of the waves and ϕ is the phase constant of wave E 2. Note that the two waves have the same amplitude E 0 and a phase differ- ence of ϕ . Because that phase difference does not vary, the waves are coherent. We shall show that these two waves will combine at P to produce an intensity I given by 2 _ I = 4 I 0 cos 1 ϕ, 2
(35.3.3)
and that 2 πd sin θ. ϕ = ____ λ
(35.3.4)
In Eq. 35.3.3, I 0 is the intensity of the light that arrives on the screen from one slit when the other slit is temporarily covered. We assume that the slits are so narrow in comparison to the wavelength that this single-slit intensity is essentially uniform over the region of the screen in which we wish to examine the fringes. Equations 35.3.3 a nd 35.3.4, which together tell us how the intensity I of the fringe pattern varies with the angle θ in Fig. 35.2.5, necessarily contain informa- tion about the location of the maxima and minima. Let us see if we can extract that information to find equations about those locations. Maxima. Study of Eq. 35.3.3 shows that intensity maxima will occur when 1 _ ϕ = mπ,
for m = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
2
(35.3.5)
If we put this result into Eq. 35.3.4, we find 2 πd sin θ , 2m π = ____ for m = 0, 1, 2, . . . or
λ
d sin θ = m λ,
for m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(maxima),
(35.3.6)
which is exactly Eq. 35.2.3, the expression that we derived earlier for the locations of the maxima. Minima. The minima in the fringe pattern occur when 1 1 _ _ 2 ϕ = (m + 2 ) π,
for m = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
(35.3.7)
If we combine this relation with Eq. 35.3.4, we are led at once to _ d sin θ = (m + 1 2 ) λ,
for m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(minima),
(35.3.8)
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C HAP T ER 35 INT ERF ERENC E
Intensity at screen
4 I 0 (two coherent sources) 2 I0 (two incoherent sources) I 0 (one source)
5π 2 2.5
4π 2 2
3π 1 1.5
2π 1 1
π 0 0.5
0 0 0
π 0 0.5
2π 1 1
3π 1 1.5
4π 2 2
5π
ϕ m
2 2.5
, for maxima , for minima
m
ΔL/λ
A plot of Eq. 35.3.3, showing the intensity of a double-slit interference pattern as a function of the phase difference between the waves when they arrive from the two slits. I 0 is the (uniform) intensity that would appear on the screen if one slit were covered. The average intensity of the fringe pattern is 2I 0 , and the maximum intensity (for coherent light) is 4I 0. Figure 35.3.1
E2
ω
E0 E1
which is just Eq. 35.2.5, the expression we derived earlier for the locations of the fringe minima. Figure 35.3.1, which is a plot of Eq. 35.3.3, shows the intensity of double-slit interference patterns as a function of the phase difference ϕ between the waves at the screen. The horizontal solid line is I 0 , the (uniform) intensity on the screen when one of the slits is covered up. Note in Eq. 35.3.3 and the graph that the intensity I varies from zero at the fringe minima to 4I 0 at the fringe maxima. If the waves from the two sources (slits) were incoherent, so that no endur- ing phase relation existed between them, there would be no fringe pattern and the intensity would have the uniform value 2I 0 for all points on the screen; the horizontal dashed line in Fig. 35.3.1 shows this uniform value. Interference cannot create or destroy energy but merely redistributes it over the screen. Thus, the average intensity on the screen must be the same 2I 0 regardless of whether the sources are coherent. This follows at once _ from Eq. 35.3.3; if we substitute 1 2 , the average value of the cosine-squared function, this equation reduces to I avg = 2I 0 .
ϕ ωt
E0
Proof of Eqs. 35.3.3 and 35.3.4
(a )
Phasors that represent waves can be added to f ind the net wave.
ω E2
β ϕ
E
E1
β
E0
E0
ωt
(b )
(a) Phasors representing, at time t, the electric field components given by Eqs. 35.3.1 and 35.3.2. Both phasors have magnitude E 0 and rotate with angular speed ω. Their phase difference is ϕ. (b) Vector addition of the two phasors gives the pha- sor representing the resultant wave, with amplitude E and phase constant β. Figure 35.3.2
We shall combine the electric field components E 1 and E 2, given by Eqs. 35.3.1 and 35.3.2, respectively, by the method of phasors as is discussed in Module 16.6. In Fig. 35.3.2a, the waves with components E 1 and E 2 are represented by phasors of magnitude E 0 that rotate around the origin at angular speed ω. The values of E 1 and E 2 at any time are the projections of the corresponding pha- sors on the vertical axis. Figure 35.3.2a shows the phasors and their projections at an arbitrary time t. Consistent with Eqs. 35.3.1 and 35.3.2, the phasor for E 1 has a rotation angle ωt and the phasor for E 2 has a rotation angle ω t + ϕ (it is phase-shifted ahead of E 1). As each phasor rotates, its projection on the vertical axis varies with time in the same way that the sinusoidal functions of Eqs. 35.3.1 and 35.3.2 vary with time. To combine the field components E 1 and E 2 at any point P in Fig. 35.2.5, we add their phasors vectorially, as shown in Fig. 35.3.2b. The magnitude of the vector sum is the amplitude E of the resultant wave at point P, and that wave has a certain phase constant β. To find the amplitude E in Fig. 35.3.2b, we first note that the two angles marked β are equal because they are opposite equal- length sides of a triangle. From the theorem (for triangles) that an exterior angle (here ϕ, as shown in Fig. 35.3.2b) is equal to the sum of the two opposite 1 interior angles (here that sum is β + β), we see that β = _ ϕ. T hus, we have 2 E = 2 (E 0 cos β)
1 = 2E 0 cos _ ϕ. 2
(35.3.9)
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35.3 INT ERF ERENC E AND D OU BL E- SL IT INT ENSIT Y
1125
If we square each side of this relation, we obtain 2 1 _ E 2 = 4 E 2 0 cos 2 ϕ.
(35.3.10)
Intensity. Now, from Eq. 35.3.5, we know that the intensity of an electro- magnetic wave is proportional to the square of its amplitude. Therefore, the waves we are combining in Fig. 35.3.2b, whose amplitudes are E 0 , each has an intensity I 0 that is proportional to E 2 0, and the resultant wave, with amplitude E, has an intensity I that is proportional to E 2 . Thus, 2
I = ___ E . __ E 2 0
I 0
Substituting Eq. 35.3.10 into this equation and rearranging then yield 1 I = 4I 0 cos 2 _ ϕ, 2
which is Eq. 35.3.3, which we set out to prove. We still must prove Eq. 35.3.4, which relates the phase difference ϕ between the waves arriving at any point P on the screen of Fig. 35.2.5 to the angle θ that serves as a locator of that point. The phase difference ϕ in Eq. 35.3.2 is associated with the path length differ- 1 _ ence S 1b in Fig. 35.2.5b. If S λ, then ϕ is 2π, and so on. 1b is 2 λ, then ϕ is π ; if S 1b is This suggests phase 2π path length ___ (difference ) = λ ( difference ).
(35.3.11)
The path length difference S 1b in Fig. 35.2.5b is d sin θ (a leg of the right triangle); so Eq. 35.3.11 for the phase difference between the two waves arriving at point P on the screen becomes 2πd sin θ, ϕ = ____
λ
which is Eq. 35.3.4, the other equation that we set out to prove to relate ϕ to the angle θ that locates P. Combining More Than Two Waves
In a more general case, we might want to find the resultant of more than two sinusoidally varying waves at a point. Whatever the number of waves is, our general procedure is this: 1. Construct a series of phasors representing the waves to be combined. Draw them end to end, maintaining the proper phase relations between adjacent phasors. 2. Construct the vector sum of this array. The length of this vector sum gives the amplitude of the resultant phasor. The angle between the vector sum and the first phasor is the phase of the resultant with respect to this first pha- sor. The projection of this vector-sum phasor on the vertical a xis gives the time variation of the resultant wave.
Checkpoint 35.3.1
Each of four pairs of light waves arrives at a certain point on a screen. The waves have the same wavelength. At the arrival point, their amplitudes and phase differ- ences are (a) 2E 0 , 6E 0 , and π rad; (b) 3E 0 , 5E 0 , and π rad; (c) 9E 0 , 7E 0 , and 3π rad; (d) 2E 0 , 2E 0 , and 0 rad. Rank the four pairs according to the intensity of the light at the arrival point, greatest first. (Hint: Draw phasors.)
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C HAP T ER 35 INT ERF ERENC E
Sample Problem 35.3.1
Combining three light waves by using phasors
Three light waves combine at a certain point where their electric field components are E 1 = E 0 sin ωt,
(ωt + 60° ), E 2 = E 0 sin
(ω t − 30° ). E 3 = E 0 sin
Find their resultant component E(t) at that point.
____________________
2 2 E R = √ (2.37 E 0) + (0.366 E 0) = 2.4 E 0,
and a phase angle β relative to the phasor representing E 1 of 0.366 E 0 β = tan −1 ( ________ = 8.8° . 2.37 E 0 ) We can now write, for the resultant wave E(t), E = E R sin (ω t + β)
KEY IDEA
(ω t + 8.8° ). = 2.4 E 0 sin
The resultant wave is E(t) = E 1(t) + E 2(t) + E 3 (t). We can use the method of phasors to find this sum, and we are free to evaluate the phasors at any time t.
Be careful to interpret the angle β correctly in Fig. 35.3.3: It is the constant angle between ER and the phasor represent- ing E 1 as the four phasors rotate as a single unit around the origin. The angle between E R and the horizontal axis in Fig. 35.3.3 does not remain equal to β.
Phasors that represent waves can be added to f ind the net wave.
To simplify the solution, we choose t = 0, for which the phasors representing the three waves are shown in Fig. 35.3.3. We can add these three phasors either directly on a vector-capable calculator or by com- ponents. For the component approach, we first write the sum of their horizontal components as Calculations:
E0
∑ E h = E 0 cos 0 + E 0 cos 60° + E 0 cos(–30°) = 2.37E 0. The sum of their vertical components, which is the value of E at t = 0, is ∑ E v = E 0 sin 0 + E 0 sin 60° + E 0 sin(–30°) = 0.366E 0. The resultant wave E(t) thus has an amplitude E R of
(Answer)
E
β
60 °
30° E0
ER
E0
Three phasors, representing waves with equal amplitudes E 0 and with phase constants 0°, 60°, and –30°, shown at time t = 0. The phasors combine to give a resultant phasor with magnitude E R , at angle β. Figure 35.3.3
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
35.4 INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
35.4.1 Sketch the setup for thin-film interference, show-
out of phase, or the transmitted waves are in phase
ing the incident ray and reflected rays (perpendicular
or out of phase) to determine and then apply the
to the film but drawn slightly slanted for clarity) and
necessary equation relating the thickness
identifying the thickness and the three indexes of
wavelength
refraction. 35.4.2 Identify the condition in which a reflection can result in a phase shift, and give the value of that phase shift. 35.4.3 Identify the three factors that determine the
L, the
refraction
λ (measured in air), and the index of
n of the film.
35.4.5 For a very thin film in air (with thickness much less than the wavelength of visible light), explain why the film is always dark. 35.4.6 At each end of a thin film in the form of a
interference of the reflected waves: reflection shifts,
wedge, determine and then apply the necessary
path length difference, and internal wavelength (set
equation relating the thickness
by the film’s index of refraction).
(measured in air), and the index of refraction
35.4.4 For a thin film, use the reflection shifts and the desired result (the reflected waves are in phase or
L, the wavelength λ n of the
film, and then count the number of bright bands and dark bands across the film.
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35.4 INT ERF ERENC E F ROM T HIN F IL MS
Key Ideas ●
When light is incident on a thin transparent film, the
light waves reflected from the front and back surfaces interfere. For near-normal incidence, the wavelength conditions for maximum and minimum intensity of the light reflected from a film
in air
λ , _ ) ___ 2L = (m + 1 2 n 2
are
for m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(maxima—bright film in air), and
λ 2L = m ___ n , 2
for m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(minima—dark film in air),
where
n 2 is the index of refraction of the film, L is its
thickness, and ●
λ is the wavelength of the light in air.
If a film is sandwiched between media other than air,
these equations for bright and dark films may be inter- changed, depending on the relative indexes of refraction. ●
If the light incident at an interface between media with
different indexes of refraction is in the medium with the smaller index of refraction, the reflection causes a phase
π
change of rad, or half a wavelength, in the reflected wave. Otherwise, there is no phase change due to the reflection. Refraction causes no phase shift.
Interference from Thin Films
The interference depends on the ref lections and the path lengths.
The colors on a sunlit soap bubble or an oil slick are caused by the interference of light waves reflected from the front and back surfaces of a thin transparent film. The thickness of the soap or oil film is typi- cally of the order of magnitude of the wavelength of the (visible) light involved. (Greater thicknesses spoil the coherence of the light needed to produce the colors due to interference.) Figure 35.4.1 shows a thin transparent film of uniform thickness L and index of refraction n 2 , illuminated by bright light of wavelength λ from a distant point source. For now, we assume that air lies on both sides of the film and thus that n 1 = n 3 in Fig. 35.4.1. For simplicity, we also assume that the light rays are almost perpendicular to the film (θ ≈ 0). We are interested in whether the film is bright or dark to an observer viewing it almost perpendicularly. (Since the film is brightly illuminated, how could it pos- sibly be dark? You will see.) The incident light, represented by ray i, intercepts the front (left) surface of the film at point a and undergoes both reflection and refraction there. The reflected ray r 1 is intercepted by the observer’s eye. The refracted light crosses the film to point b on the back surface, where it undergoes both reflection and refraction. The light reflected at b crosses back through the film to point c, where it undergoes both reflection and refraction. The light refracted at c, represented by ray r 2 , is intercepted by the observer’s eye. If the light waves of rays r 1 and r 2 are exactly in phase at the eye, they produce an interference maximum and region ac on the film is bright to the observer. If they are exactly out of phase, they produce an interference minimum and region ac is dark to the observer, even though it is illuminated. If there is some intermediate phase difference, there are intermediate interference and brightness. The Key. Thus, the key to what the observer sees is the phase difference between the waves of rays r 1 and r 2. Both rays are derived from the same ray i, but the path involved in producing r 2 involves light traveling twice across the film (a to b, and then b to c), whereas the path involved in producing r 1 involves no travel through the film. Because θ is about zero, we approximate the path length difference between the waves of r 1 and r 2 as 2L. However, to find the phase dif- ference between the waves, we cannot just find the number of wavelengths λ that is equivalent to a path length difference of 2L. This simple approach is impossible for two reasons: (1) the path length difference occurs in a medium other than air, and (2) reflections are involved, which can change the phase.
n1
n
2
n3
r2 c r1
θ θ
b
a
i L
Light waves, repre- sented with ray i, are incident on a thin film of thickness L and index of refraction n 2 . Rays r 1 and r 2 rep- resent light waves that have been reflected by the front and back surfaces of the film, respectively. (All three rays are actually nearly perpendicular to the film.) The inter- ference of the waves of r 1 and r 2 with each other depends on their phase difference. The index of refraction n 1 of the medium at the left can differ from the index of refraction n 3 of the medium at the right, but for now we assume that both media are air, with n 1 = n 3 = 1.0, which is less than n 2 . Figure 35.4.1
The phase difference between two waves can change if one or both are reflected.
Let’s next discuss changes in phase that are caused by reflections.
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C HAP T ER 35 INT ERF ERENC E
Interface
Before After (a ) Before After (b )
Phase changes when a pulse is reflected at the interface between two stretched strings of different linear densities. The wave speed is greater in the lighter string. (a) The incident pulse is in the denser string. (b) The incident pulse is in the lighter string. Only here is there a phase change, and only in the reflected wave. Figure 35.4.2
Reflection Phase Shifts
Refraction at an interface never causes a phase change—but reflection can, depending on the indexes of refraction on the two sides of the interface. Figure 35.4.2 s hows what happens when reflection causes a phase change, using as an example pulses on a denser string (along which pulse travel is relatively slow) and a lighter string (along which pulse travel is relatively fast). When a pulse traveling relatively slowly along the denser string in Fig. 35.4.2a reaches the interface with the lighter string, the pulse is partially transmitted and partially reflected, with no change in orientation. For light, this situation corresponds to the incident wave traveling in the medium of greater index of refraction n (recall that greater n means slower speed). In that case, the wave that is reflected at the interface does not undergo a change in phase; that is, its reflection phase shift is zero. When a pulse traveling more quickly along the lighter string in Fig. 35.4.2b reaches the interface with the denser string, the pulse is again partially transmit- ted and partially reflected. The transmitted pulse again has the same orientation as the incident pulse, but now the reflected pulse is inverted. For a sinusoidal wave, such an inversion involves a phase change of π rad, or half a wavelength. For light, this situation corresponds to the incident wave traveling in the medium of lesser index of refraction (with greater speed). In that case, the wave that is reflected at the interface undergoes a phase shift of π rad, or half a wavelength. We can summarize these results for light in terms of the index of refraction of the medium off which (or from which) the light reflects:
Reflection
Reflection phase shift
Off lower index Off higher index
0 0.5 wavelength
This might be remembered as “higher means half .” Equations for Thin-Film Interference
In this chapter we have now seen three ways in which the phase difference between two waves can change: 1. by reflection 2. by the waves traveling along paths of different lengths 3. by the waves traveling through media of different indexes of refraction.
Air
n2
Air
r2
r1 i
L
Figure 35.4.3
film in air.
Reflections from a thin
When light reflects from a thin film, producing the waves of rays r 1 and r 2 shown in Fig. 35.4.1, a ll three ways are involved. Let us consider them one by one. Reflection Shift. We first reexamine the two reflections in Fig. 35.4.1. At point a on the front interface, the incident wave (in air) reflects from the medium having the higher of the two indexes of refraction; so the wave of reflected ray r 1 has its phase shifted by 0.5 wavelength. At point b on the back interface, the incident wave reflects from the medium (air) having the lower of the two indexes of refraction; so the wave reflected there is not shifted in phase by the reflection, and thus neither is the portion of it that exits the film as ray r 2. We can organize this information with the first line in Table 35.4.1, which refers to the simplified drawing in Fig. 35.4.3 for a thin film in air. So far, as a result of the reflection phase shifts, the waves of r 1 and r 2 have a phase difference of 0.5 wavelength and thus are exactly out of phase. Path Length Difference. Now we must consider the path length difference 2L that occurs because the wave of ray r 2 crosses the film twice. (This difference
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35.4 INT ERF ERENC E F ROM T HIN F IL MS
2L is shown on the second line in Table 35.4.1.) If the waves of r 1 and r 2 are to be exactly in phase so that they produce fully constructive interference, the path length 2L must cause an additional phase difference of 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, . . . wavelengths. Only then will the net phase difference be an integer number of wavelengths. Thus, for a bright film, we must have odd number × wavelength 2L = ___________ 2
(in-phase w aves).
(35.4.1)
The wavelength we need here is the wavelength λn2 of the light in the medium containing path length 2L —that is, in the medium with index of refraction n 2. Thus, we can rewrite Eq. 35.4.1 a s odd number × λ 2L = ___________ n2 2
(in-phase waves).
(35.4.2)
If, instead, the waves are to be exactly out of phase so that there is fully destructive interference, the path length 2L must cause either no additional phase difference or a phase difference of 1, 2, 3, . . . wavelengths. Only then will the net phase difference be an odd number of half-wavelengths. For a dark film, we must have 2L = integer × wavelength
(out-of-phase w aves)
(35.4.3)
where, again, the wavelength is the wavelength λn2 in the medium containing 2L. Thus, this time we have 2L = integer × λn2
(out-of-phase w aves).
1129
Table 35.4.1 An Organizing Table
for Thin-Film Interference in Air
a
(Fig. 35.4.3)
Reflection phase shifts Path length difference Index in which path length difference occurs
r 1
r 2
0.5 wavelength
0
2L
n 2
In phase a :
odd number × ___ λ 2L = ___________ 2 n 2
Out of phase a :
λ 2L = integer × ___ n
2
a
Valid for n 2 > n 1 and n 2 > n 3.
(35.4.4)
Now we can use Eq. 35.1.6 (λn = λ/n) to write the wavelength of the wave of ray r 2 inside the film as
λ λ n2 = ___ n 2 ,
(35.4.5)
where λ is the wavelength of the incident light in vacuum (and approximately a lso in air). Substituting Eq. 35.4.5 into Eq. 35.4.2 a nd replacing “odd number/2” with (m + 1 2 _ ) give us 1 ___ 2L = (m + _ ) λ , 2 n
for m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
2
(maxima—bright film in air).
(35.4.6)
Similarly, with m replacing “integer,” Eq. 35.4.4 y ields
λ 2L = m ___ n , 2
for m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(minima—dark film in air).
(35.4.7)
For a given film thickness L, Eqs. 35.4.6 a nd 35.4.7 tell us the wavelengths of light for which the film appears bright and dark, respectively, one wavelength for each value of m. Intermediate wavelengths give intermediate brightnesses. For a given wavelength λ, Eqs. 35.4.6 a nd 35.4.7 tell us the thicknesses of the films that appear bright and dark in that light, respectively, one thickness for each value of m. Intermediate thicknesses give intermediate brightnesses. Heads Up. (1) For a thin film surrounded by air, Eq. 35.4.6 corresponds to bright reflections and Eq. 35.4.7 c orresponds to no reflections. For transmissions, the roles of the equations are reversed (after all, if the light is brightly reflected, then it is not transmitted, and vice versa). (2) If we have a different set of values of the indexes of refraction, the roles of the equations may be reversed. For any given set of indexes, you must go through the thought process behind Table 35.4.1 and, in particular, determine the reflection shifts to see which equation applies to bright reflections and which applies to no reflections. (3) The index of refraction in the equations is that of the thin film, where the path length difference occurs.
/
1130
C HAP T ER 35 INT ERF ERENC E
Film Thickness Much Less Than λ
shpargotohP latnemadnuF/angeM drahciR
The reflection of light from a soapy water film spanning a vertical loop. The top portion is so thin (due to gravitational slumping) that the light reflected there undergoes destructive interference, making that portion dark. Colored interference fringes, or bands, decorate the rest of the film but are marred by circula- tion of liquid within the film as the liquid is gradually pulled downward by gravitation. Figure 35.4.4
Wing surface
Reflecting structure extending up from a Morpho but- terfly wing. Reflections from the top surfaces of the transparent “terraces” give an interference color to the wing. Figure 35.4.5
A special situation arises when a film is so thin that L is much less than λ, say, L λ and then narrow the slit while holding the wavelength constant, we increase the angle at which the first dark fringes appear; that is, the extent of the diffraction (the extent of the flaring and the width of the pattern) is greater for a nar- rower slit. When we have reduced the slit width to the wavelength (that is, a = λ), the angle of the first dark fringes is 90°. Since the first dark fringes mark the two edges of the central bright fringe, that bright fringe must then cover the entire viewing screen. Second Minimum. We find the second dark fringes above and below the central axis as we found the first dark fringes, except that we now divide the slit into four zones of equal widths a/4, as shown in Fig. 36.1.6a. We then extend rays r 1, r 2 , r 3, and r 4 from the top points of the zones to point P 2, the location of the second dark fringe above the central axis. To produce that fringe, the path length difference between r 1 and r 2, that between r 2 and r 3, and that between r 3 and r 4 must all be equal to λ/2. For D ⪢ a, we can approximate these four rays as being parallel, at angle θ to the central axis. To display their path length differences, we extend a perpendicular line through each adjacent pair of rays, as shown in Fig. 36.1.6b, to form a series of right triangles, each of which has a path length difference as one side. We see from the top triangle that the path length difference between r 1 and r 2 is (a/4) sin θ. Similarly, from the bot- tom triangle, the path length difference between r 3 and r 4 is also (a/4) sin θ. In fact, the path length difference for any two rays that originate at cor- responding points in two adjacent zones is (a/4) sin θ . Since in each such case the path length difference is equal to λ/2, we have
which gives us
a λ , __ sin θ = __ 4 2 a sin θ = 2 λ
(second minimum).
P1
r2 r3
a
a sin θ = λ
P2
r4
/4
θ
a
/4
a
P0
These rays cancel at P2.
/4
a
B
Incident wave
C
(a )
To see the cancellation, group the rays into pairs.
r1
a
/4
θ
r2
Path length difference between r1 and r2 r3
a
/4
θ r4
a
/4
θ θ
Path length difference between r3 and r4
(b )
(a) Waves from the top points of four zones of width a/4 undergo fully destruc- tive interference at point P 2 . (b) For D ⪢ a, we can approximate rays r 1, r 2, r 3, and r 4 as being parallel, at angle θ to the central axis. Figure 36.1.6
(36.1.2)
/
1152
C HAP T ER 36 D IF F RAC T ION
All Minima. We could now continue to locate dark fringes in the diffraction pattern by splitting up the slit into more zones of equal width. We would always choose an even number of zones so that the zones (and their waves) could be paired as we have been doing. We would find that the dark fringes above and below the central axis can be located with the general equation a sin θ = m λ,
for m = 1, 2, 3, . . .
(minima—dark fringes).
(36.1.3)
You can remember this result in the following way. Draw a triangle like the one in Fig. 36.1.5, but for the full slit width a, and note that the path length differ- ence between the top and bottom rays equals a sin θ. Thus, Eq. 36.1.3 says:
In a single-slit diffraction experiment, dark fringes are produced where the path length differences (a sin θ) between the top and bottom rays are equal to λ , 2λ, 3λ, . . . .
This may seem to be wrong because the waves of those two particular rays will be exactly in phase with each other when their path length difference is an integer number of wavelengths. However, they each will still be part of a pair of waves that are exactly out of phase with each other; thus, each wave will be canceled by some other wave, resulting in darkness. (Two light waves that are exactly out of phase will always cancel each other, giving a net wave of zero, even if they happen to be exactly in phase with other light waves.) Using a Lens. Equations 36.1.1, 36.1.2, and 36.1.3 are derived for the case of D ⪢ a. However, they also apply if we place a converging lens between the slit and the viewing screen and then move the screen in so that it coincides with the focal plane of the lens. The lens ensures that rays which now reach any point on the screen are exactly parallel (rather than approximately) back at the slit. They are like the initially parallel rays of Fig. 34.4.1a that are directed to the focal point by a converging lens.
Checkpoint 36.1.1
We produce a diffraction pattern on a viewing screen by means of a long narrow slit illuminated by blue light. Does the pattern expand away from the bright center (the maxima and minima shift away from the center) or contract toward it if we (a) switch to yellow light or (b) decrease the slit width?
Sample Problem 36.1.1
Single-slit diffraction pattern with white light
A slit of width a is illuminated by white light. (a) For what value of a will the first minimum for red light of wavelength λ = 650 nm appear at θ = 15°?
KEY IDEA Diffraction occurs separately for each wavelength in the range of wavelengths passing through the slit, with the locations of the minima for each wavelength given by Eq. 36.1.3 (a sin θ = mλ).
When we set m = 1 (for the first minimum) and substitute the given values of θ and λ, Eq. 36.1.3 y ields Calculation:
(1)(650 nm) m λ = ___________ a = _____ sin θ sin 15° = 2511 nm ≈ 2.5 μm.
(Answer)
For the incident light to flare out that much (±15° to the first minima) the slit has to be very fine indeed—in this case, a mere four times the wavelength. For comparison, note that a fine human hair may be about 100 μm in diameter.
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36.2 INT ENSIT Y IN SINGL E- S L IT D IF F RAC T ION
(b) What is the wavelength λʹ of the light whose first side diffraction maximum is at 15°, thus coinciding with the first minimum for the red light?
Solving for λʹ and substituting known data yield 2511 nm )(sin 15°) a sin θ = (_________________ λ′ = _______ 1.5 1.5 = 430 nm.
KEY IDEA The first side maximum for any wavelength is about halfway between the first and second minima for that wavelength. Those first and second minima can be located with Eq. 36.1.3 by setting m = 1 and m = 2, respectively. Thus, the first side maximum can be located approximately by setting m = 1.5. Then Eq. 36.1.3 becomes Calculations:
a sin θ = 1.5λʹ.
1153
(Answer)
Light of this wavelength is violet (far blue, near the short- wavelength limit of the human range of visible light). From the two equations we used, can you see that the first side maximum for light of wavelength 430 nm will always coin- cide with the first minimum for light of wavelength 650 nm, no matter what the slit width is? However, the angle θ at which this overlap occurs does depend on slit width. If the slit is relatively narrow, the angle will be relatively large, and conversely.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
36.2 INTENSITY IN SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
36.2.1 Divide a thin slit into multiple zones of equal width and write an expression for the phase differ- ence of the wavelets from adjacent zones in terms of the angle
θ to a point on the viewing screen.
36.2.2 For single-slit diffraction, draw phasor diagrams for the central maximum and several of the minima
36.2.3 Describe a diffraction pattern in terms of the net electric field at points in the pattern.
α θ to a point in a diffraction pattern and the
36.2.4 Evaluate , the convenient connection between angle
I at that point.
intensity
36.2.5 For a given point in a diffraction pattern, at a
I in terms of the I m at the center of the pattern.
and maxima off to one side, indicating the phase dif-
given angle, calculate the intensity
ference between adjacent phasors, explaining how
intensity
the net electric field is calculated, and identifying the corresponding part of the diffraction pattern.
Key Idea ●
The intensity of the diffraction pattern at any given
angle
θ is
where
I m is the intensity at the center of the pat-
tern and
sin α 2 _____ I(θ ) = I m( α ) ,
πa sin θ. α = ___ λ
Intensity in Single-Slit Diffraction, Qualitatively
In Module 36.1 we saw how to find the positions of the minima and the maxima in a single-slit diffraction pattern. Now we turn to a more general problem: Find an expression for the intensity I of the pattern as a function of θ , the angular position of a point on a viewing screen. To do this, we divide the slit of Fig. 36.1.4 into N zones of equal widths Δx small enough that we can assume each zone acts as a source of Huygens wavelets. We wish to superimpose the wavelets a rriving at an arbitrary point P on the view- ing screen, a t angle θ to the central axis, so that we can determine the amplitude E θ
/
1154
C HAP T ER 36 D IF F RAC T ION
of the electric component of the resultant wave at P. The intensity of the light at P is then proportional to the square of that amplitude. To find E θ, we need the phase relationships among the arriving wavelets. The point here is that in general they have different phases because they travel different distances to reach P. The phase difference between wavelets from adjacent zones is given by phase 2 π path length ___ (difference ) = ( λ ) ( difference ) . For point P at angle θ, the path length difference between wavelets from adjacent zones is Δx sin θ. Thus, we can write the phase difference Δϕ between wavelets from adjacent zones as 2π Δϕ = (___ λ ) (Δ x sin θ).
(36.2.1)
We assume that the wavelets a rriving at P all have the same a mplitude ΔE. To find the amplitude E θ of the resultant wave at P, we add the amplitudes ΔE via phasors. To do this, we construct a diagram of N phasors, one corresponding to the wavelet from each zone in the slit. Central Maximum. For point P 0 at θ = 0 on the central axis of Fig. 36.1.4, Eq. 36.2.1 tells us that the phase difference Δϕ between the wavelets is zero; that is, the wavelets a ll arrive in phase. Figure 36.2.1a is the corresponding phasor dia- gram; a djacent phasors represent wavelets from adjacent zones and are arranged head to tail. Because there is zero phase difference between the wavelets, there is zero angle between each pair of adjacent phasors. The amplitude E θ of the net wave at P 0 is the vector sum of these phasors. This arrangement of the phasors turns out to be the one that gives the greatest v alue for the amplitude E θ. We call this value E m ; that is, E m is the value of E θ for θ = 0. We next consider a point P that is at a small angle θ to the central axis. Equa- tion 36.2.1 now tells us that the phase difference Δϕ between wavelets from adjacent zones is no longer zero. Figure 36.2.1b shows the corresponding phasor diagram; as before, the phasors are arranged head to tail, but now there is an angle Δϕ between adjacent phasors. The amplitude E θ at this new point is still the vector sum of the phasors, but it is smaller than that in Fig. 36.2.1a, which means that the intensity of the light is less at this new point P than at P 0. First Minimum. If we continue to increase θ, the angle Δϕ between adjacent phasors increases, and eventually the chain of phasors curls completely around so that the head of the last phasor just reaches the tail of the first phasor (Fig. 36.2.1c). The amplitude E θ is now zero, which means that the intensity of the light is also zero. We have reached the first minimum, or dark fringe, in the diffraction pattern. The first and last phasors now have a phase difference of 2π rad, which means that the path length difference between the top and bottom rays through the slit equals one wavelength. Recall that this is the condition we determined for the first diffraction minimum. First Side Maximum. As we continue to increase θ, the angle Δϕ between adjacent phasors continues to increase, the chain of phasors begins to wrap back on itself, and the resulting coil begins to shrink. Amplitude E θ now increases until it reaches a maximum value in the arrangement shown in Fig. 36.2.1d. This arrangement corresponds to the first side maximum in the diffraction pattern. Second Minimum. If we increase θ a bit more, the resulting shrinkage of the coil decreases E θ, which means that the intensity also decreases. When θ is increased enough, the head of the last phasor again meets the tail of the first phasor. We have then reached the second minimum. We could continue this qualitative method of determining the maxima and minima of the diffraction pattern but, instead, we shall now turn to a quantitative method.
/
36.2 INT ENSIT Y IN SINGL E- S L IT D IF F RAC T ION
θ E
Here, with an even larger phase difference, they add to give a small amplitude and thus a small intensity.
θ
1155
A
(d )
The last phasor is out of phase with the f irst phasor by 2π rad (full circle).
E
Here, with a larger phase difference, the phasors add to give zero amplitude and thus a minimum in the pattern.
θ =0
(c )
E
I
θ
Here the phasors have a small phase difference and add to give a smaller amplitude and thus less intensity in the pattern.
(b )
E
Phasor diagrams for N = 18 phasors, corresponding to the division of a single slit into 18 zones. Resultant amplitudes E θ are shown for (a) the central maximum at θ = 0, (b) a point on the screen lying at a small angle θ to the central axis, (c) the first minimum, and (d) the first side maximum. Figure 36.2.1
θ (=
ΔE
Phasor for top ray
)
Em
(a )
Phasor for bottom ray
The phasors from the 18 zones in the slit are in phase and add to give a maximum amplitude and thus the central maximum in the diffraction pattern.
Checkpoint 36.2.1
The figures represent, in smoother form (with more pha- sors) than Fig. 36.2.1, the phasor diagrams for two points of a diffraction pattern that are on opposite sides of a certain diffraction maximum. (a) Which maximum is it? (b) What is the approximate value of m (in Eq. 36.1.3) that corresponds to this maximum?
(a )
(b)
Intensity in Single-Slit Diffraction, Quantitatively
Equation 36.1.3 tells us how to locate the minima of the single-slit diffraction pat- tern on screen C of Fig. 36.1.4 a s a function of the angle θ in that figure. Here we wish to derive an expression for the intensity I(θ) of the pattern as a function of θ. We state, and shall prove below, that the intensity is given by
/
1156
C HAP T ER 36 D IF F RAC T ION
Relative intensity 1.0 0.8 0.6 a
0.4
=λ
where
0.2 20
15
10
5
0
5
θ (degrees)
10
15
a
= 5λ
20
(a )
Relative intensity 1.0 0.8 0.6
15
10
5
0 5 θ (degrees) (b )
10
a
0.8
15
20
= 10 λ
0.6 0.4 0.2 15
10
5
0
(36.2.3)
for m = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
(36.2.4)
If we put this result into Eq. 36.2.3, we find
Relative intensity 1.0
20
πa sin θ . α = _ 1 2 ϕ = ___ λ
The symbol α is just a convenient connection between the angle θ that locates a point on the viewing screen and the light intensity I(θ ) at that point. The inten- sity I m is the greatest value of the intensities I(θ ) in the pattern and occurs at the central maximum (where θ = 0), and ϕ is the phase difference (in radians) between the top and bottom rays from the slit of width a. Study of Eq. 36.2.2 shows that intensity minima will occur where
πa sin θ , mπ = ___
0.2 20
(36.2.2)
α = mπ,
Δθ
0.4
α 2 _____ I(θ) = I m (sin α ) ,
5
θ (degrees)
10
15
20
(c )
The relative intensity in single-slit diffraction for three values of the ratio a/λ. The wider the slit is, the narrower is the central diffraction maximum.
or
a sin θ = m λ,
λ
for m = 1, 2, 3 , . . . ,
for m = 1, 2, 3, . . .
(minima—dark fringes),
(36.2.5)
which is exactly Eq. 36.1.3, the expression that we derived earlier for the location of the minima. Plots. Figure 36.2.2 shows plots of the intensity of a single-slit diffraction pattern, calculated with Eqs. 36.2.2 and 36.2.3 for three slit widths: a = λ, a = 5λ, and a = 10λ. Note that as the slit width increases (relative to the wavelength), the width of the cen- tral diffraction maximum (the central hill-like region of the graphs) decreases; that is, the light undergoes less flaring by the slit. The secondary maxima also decrease in width (and become weaker). In the limit of slit width a being much greater than wavelength λ, the secondary maxima due to the slit disappear; we then no longer have single-slit diffraction (but we still have diffraction due to the edges of the wide slit, like that produced by the edges of the razor blade in Fig. 36.1.2).
Figure 36.2.2
ϕ R
R
E
θ
Em
ϕ
Em
A construction used to calculate the intensity in single-slit diffraction. The situation shown cor- responds to that of Fig. 36.2.1b. Figure 36.2.3
Proof of Eqs. 36.2.2 and 36.2.3
To find an expression for the intensity at a point in the diffraction pattern, we need to divide the slit into many zones and then add the phasors corresponding to those zones, as we did in Fig. 36.2.1. The arc of phasors in Fig. 36.2.3 represents the wavelets that reach an arbitrary point P on the viewing screen of Fig. 36.1.4, corresponding to a particular small angle θ. The amplitude E θ of the resultant wave at P is the vector sum of these phasors. If we divide the slit of Fig. 36.1.4 into infini- tesimal zones of width Δ x, the arc of phasors in Fig. 36.2.3 approaches the arc of a circle; we call its radius R as indicated in that figure. The length of the arc must be E m , the amplitude at the center of the diffraction pattern, because if we straightened out the arc we would have the phasor arrangement of Fig. 36.2.1a (shown lightly in Fig. 36.2.3). The angle ϕ in the lower part of Fig. 36.2.3 is the difference in phase between the infinitesimal vectors at the left and right ends of arc E m . From the geometry, ϕ is also the angle between the two radii marked R in Fig. 36.2.3. The dashed line in that figure, which bisects ϕ , then forms two congruent right triangles. From either triangle we can write E θ 1 sin _ ϕ = ___ . 2 2R
(36.2.6)
In radian measure, ϕ is (with E m considered to be a circular arc) E m ϕ = ___ . R
/
36.2 INT ENSIT Y IN SINGL E- S L IT D IF F RAC T ION
Solving this equation for R and substituting in Eq. 36.2.6 lead to E m _ E θ = ___ sin 1 ϕ. _ 1 2
ϕ
2
1157
(36.2.7)
Intensity. In Module 33.2 we saw that the intensity of an electromagnetic wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude of its electric field. Here, this means that the maximum intensity I m (at the center of the pattern) is propor- 2 tional to E 2 m and the intensity I(θ ) at angle θ is proportional to E θ. Thus, I(θ) ___ E 2 ____ = θ . I m
(36.2.8)
E 2 m
1 ϕ , we are led to Eq. Substituting for E θ with Eq. 36.2.7 a nd then substituting α = _ 2 36.2.2 for the intensity as a function of θ:
sin α 2 . I(θ) = I m (_____ α )
The second equation we wish to prove relates α to θ. The phase difference ϕ between the rays from the top and bottom of the entire slit may be related to a path length difference with Eq. 36.2.1; it tells us that 2π ϕ = (___ λ )( a sin θ), where a is the sum of the widths Δx of the infinitesimal zones. However, ϕ = 2 α, so this equation reduces to Eq. 36.2.3.
Checkpoint 36.2.2
Two wavelengths, 650 and 430 nm, I are used separately in a single- slit diffraction experiment. The figure shows the results as graphs of intensity I versus angle θ for the two diffraction patterns. If both wavelengths are then used simultaneously, what color will be seen in the combined diffraction 0 pattern at (a) angle A and (b) angle B?
Sample Problem 36.2.1
A
B
θ
Intensities of the maxima in a single-slit interference pattern
Find the intensities of the first three secondary maxima (side maxima) in the single-slit diffraction pattern of Fig. 36.1.1, measured as a percentage of the intensity of the central maximum.
KEY IDEAS
with α in radian measure. We can relate the intensity I at any point in the diffraction pattern to the intensity I m of the central maximum via Eq. 36.2.2. Substituting the approximate values of α for the secondary maxima into Eq. 36.2.2 to obtain the relative intensities at those maxima, we get Calculations:
The secondary maxima lie approximately halfway between the minima, whose angular locations are given by Eq. 36.2.4 (α = m π). The locations of the secondary maxima are then given (approximately) by
π,
1 a = (m + _ 2 )
2
sin m + 2 π α = __________ I = sin ___ _____ , for m = 1, 2, 3, . . . . ( ) 1 I m
α
2
(
1 ) _
( (m + 2 _ )π )
for m = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
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C HAP T ER 36 D IF F RAC T ION
The first of the secondary maxima occurs for m = 1, and its relative intensity is
For m = 2 and m = 3 we find that I 3 I 2 ___ = 1.6% and ___ = 0.83%. I m
2
_ sin(1 + 1 I 1 π 2 2 ) π ___ _______ = __________ = ( sin 1.5 1 _ ( ) I m (1 + 2 ) π 1.5π )
= 4.50 × 10 −2 ≈ 4.5% .
(Answer)
I m
(Answer)
As you can see from these results, successive secondary maxima decrease rapidly in intensity. Figure 36.1.1 was deliberately overexposed to reveal them.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
36.3 DIFFRACTION BY A CIRCULAR APERTURE Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
36.3.1 Describe and sketch the diffraction pattern from a small circular aperture or obstacle. 36.3.2 For diffraction by a small circular aperture or obstacle, apply the relationships between the angle
θ to the first minimum, the wavelength λ of the light, d of the aperture, the distance D to y between the
36.3.4 Identify that Rayleigh’s criterion for resolvability gives the (approximate) angle at which two point objects are just barely resolvable.
θR in λ of the light, the
36.3.5 Apply the relationships between the angle Rayleigh’s criterion, the wavelength
d of the aperture (for example, the diameter
the diameter
diameter
a viewing screen, and the distance
of the pupil of an eye), the angle
minimum and the center of the diffraction pattern.
distant point objects, and the distance
36.3.3 By discussing the diffraction patterns of point
θ subtended by two L to those
objects.
objects, explain how diffraction limits visual resolu- tion of objects.
Key Ideas ●
Diffraction by a circular aperture or a lens with diam-
eter
d produces a central maximum and concentric
maximum of one is at the first minimum of the other. Their angular separation can then be no less than
maxima and minima, with the first minimum at an angle
θ given by λ sin θ = 1.22 __ d ●
λ θ R = 1.22 __ d
(first minimum—circular aperture). in which
Rayleigh’s criterion suggests that two objects are
(Rayleigh’s criterion ),
d is the diameter of the aperture through
which the light passes.
on the verge of resolvability if the central diffraction
Diffraction by a Circular Aperture
Here we consider diffraction by a circular aperture—that is, a circular opening, such as a circular lens, through which light can pass. Figure 36.3.1 shows the image formed by light from a laser that was directed onto a circular aperture with a very small diameter. This image is not a point, as geometrical optics would sug- gest, but a circular disk surrounded by several progressively fainter secondary rings. Comparison with Fig. 36.1.1 leaves little doubt that we are dealing with a diffraction phenomenon. Here, however, the aperture is a circle of diameter d rather than a rectangular slit. The (complex) analysis of such patterns shows that the first minimum for the diffraction pattern of a circular aperture of diameter d is located by
/
36.3 D IF F RAC T ION BY A C IRC U L AR AP ERT U RE
λ sin θ = 1.22 __ d
(first minimum—circular aperture).
1159
(36.3.1)
λ sin θ = __ a
(first minimum—single slit),
reklaW lraeJ fo ysetruoC
The angle θ here is the angle from the central axis to any point on that (circu- lar) minimum. Compare this with Eq. 36.1.1, (36.3.2)
which locates the first minimum for a long narrow slit of width a. The main difference is the factor 1.22, which enters because of the circular shape of the aperture.
The diffraction pattern of a circular aperture. Note the central Resolvability maximum and the circular secondary The fact that lens images are diffraction patterns is important when we wish to maxima. The figure has been overexposed resolve (distinguish) two distant point objects whose angular separation is small. to bring out these secondary maxima, which are much less intense than the central Figure 36.3.2 shows, in three different cases, the visual appearance and corre- maximum. Figure 36.3.1
sponding intensity pattern for two distant point objects (stars, say) with small angular separation. In Figure 36.3.2a, the objects are not resolved because of diffraction; that is, their diffraction patterns (mainly their central maxima) overlap so much that the two objects cannot be distinguished from a single point object. In Fig. 36.3.2b the objects are barely resolved, and in Fig. 36.3.2c they are fully resolved. In Fig. 36.3.2b the angular separation of the two point sources is such that the central maximum of the diffraction pattern of one source is centered on the first minimum of the diffraction pattern of the other, a condition called Rayleigh’s criterion for resolvability. From Eq. 36.3.3, two objects that are barely resolvable by this criterion must have an angular separation θR of
λ . _____ θ R = sin −1 1.22 d
Since the angles are small, we can replace sin θR with θR expressed in radians:
λ θ R = 1.22 __ d
(Rayleigh’s criterion).
(36.3.3)
Human Vision. Applying Rayleigh’s criterion for resolvability to human vision is only an approximation because visual resolvability depends on many factors, such as the relative brightness of the sources and their surroundings, turbulence in the air between the sources and the observer, and the functioning of the observer’s visual system. Experimental results show that the least angular separation that can reklaW lraeJ fo ysetruoC
At the top, the images of two point sources formed by a converging lens. At the bottom, representations of the image intensities. In (a) the angular separation of the sources is too small for them to be distinguished, in (b) they can be marginally distinguished, and in (c) they are clearly distinguished. Rayleigh’s criterion is satis- fied in (b), with the central maximum of one diffraction pattern coinciding with the first minimum of the other. Figure 36.3.2
(a)
(b )
(c )
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C HAP T ER 36 D IF F RAC T ION
The pointillistic painting The Seine at Herblay by Maximilien Luce consists of thousands of colored dots. With the viewer very close to the canvas, the dots and their true colors are visible. At normal viewing distances, the dots are irresolvable and thus blend. Figure 36.3.3
Maximilien Luce, The Seine at Herblay, 1890. Musée d’Orsay, Paris, France. Photo by Erich Lessing/Art Resource
actually be resolved by a person is generally somewhat greater than the value given by Eq. 36.3.3. However, for calculations here, we shall take Eq. 36.3.3 as being a precise criterion: If the angular separation θ between the sources is greater than θR , we can visually resolve the sources; if it is less, we cannot. When we wish to use a lens instead of our visual system to resolve objects of small angular separation, it is desirable to make the diffraction pattern as small as possible. According to Eq. 36.3.3, this can be done either by increasing the lens diameter or by using light of a shorter wavelength. For this reason ultraviolet light is often used with microscopes because its wavelength is shorter than a visible light wavelength. Pointillism. Rayleigh’s criterion can explain the arresting illusions of color in the style of painting known as pointillism (Fig. 36.3.3). In this style, a painting is made not with brushstrokes in the usual sense but rather with a myr- iad of small colored dots. One fascinating aspect of a pointillistic painting is that when you change your distance from it, the colors shift in subtle, almost subconscious ways. This color shifting has to do with whether you can resolve the colored dots. When you stand close enough to the painting, the angular separations θ of adjacent dots are greater than θ R and thus the dots can be seen individually. Their colors are the true colors of the paints used. How- ever, when you stand far enough from the painting, the angular separations θ are less than θR and the dots cannot be seen individually. The resulting blend of colors coming into your eye from any group of dots can then cause your brain to “make up” a color for that group—a color that may not actually exist in the group. In this way, a pointillistic painter uses your visual system to create the colors of the art. FCP
Checkpoint 36.3.1
Suppose that you can barely resolve two red dots because of diffraction by the pupil of your eye. If we increase the general illumination around you so that the pupil decreases in diameter, does the resolvability of the dots improve or diminish? Consider only diffraction. (You might experiment to check your answer.)
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36.3 D IF F RAC T ION BY A C IRC U L AR AP ERT U RE
Sample Problem 36.3.1
Pointillistic paintings use the diffraction of your eye
Figure 36.3.4a is a representation of the colored dots on a pointillistic painting. Assume that the average center-to- center separation of the dots is D = 2.0 mm. Also assume that the diameter of the pupil of your eye is d = 1.5 mm and that the least angular separation between dots you can resolve is set only by Rayleigh’s criterion. What is the least viewing distance from which you cannot distinguish any dots on the painting? FCP
KEY IDEA Consider any two adjacent dots that you can distinguish when you are close to the painting. As you move away, you continue to distinguish the dots until their angular
separation θ (in your view) has decreased to the angle given by Rayleigh’s criterion:
λ . θR = 1.22 __ d
(36.3.4)
Figure 36.3.4b shows, from the side, the angular separation θ of the dots, their center-to-center separation D, and your distance L from them. Because D/L is small, angle θ is also small and we can make the approximation Calculations:
__ . θ = D L
(36.3.5)
Setting θ of Eq. 36.3.5 equal to θ R of Eq. 36.3.4 and solving for L, we then have Dd . L = _____ 1.22λ
Observer
Dot
D
L
θ
D
(b ) (a)
(a) Representation of some dots on a pointillistic painting, showing an average center-to-center separation D. (b) The arrangement of separation D between two dots, their angular separation θ, and the viewing distance L. Figure 36.3.4
(36.3.6)
Equation 36.3.6 tells us that L is larger for smaller λ. Thus, as you move away from the painting, adjacent red dots (long wavelengths) become indistinguishable before adja- cent blue dots do. To find the least distance L at which no colored dots are distinguishable, we substitute λ = 400 nm (blue or violet light) into Eq. 36.3.6: (2.0 × 10 −3 m)(1.5 × 10 −3 m) L = _________________________ = 6.1 m. (Answer) (1.22)(400 × 10 −9 m) At this or a greater distance, the color you perceive a t any given spot on the painting is a blended color that may not actually exist there.
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Sample Problem 36.3.2
Rayleigh’s criterion for resolving two distant objects
A circular converging lens, with diameter d = 32 mm and focal length f = 24 cm, forms images of distant point objects in the focal plane of the lens. The wavelength is λ = 550 nm. (a) Considering diffraction by the lens, what angular separation must two distant point objects have to satisfy Rayleigh’s criterion?
KEY IDEA Figure 36.3.5 shows two distant point objects P 1 and P 2 , the lens, and a viewing screen in the focal plane of the lens. It also shows, on the right, plots of light intensity I versus position on the screen for the central maxima of the images formed by the lens. Note that the angular
θ__ o
P1
P2
2
θo __ 2
Focal-plane screen
θi __ 2
Δ x
θi __ 2 f
I
Light from two distant point objects P 1 and P 2 passes through a converging lens and forms images on a view- ing screen in the focal plane of the lens. Only one representa- tive ray from each object is shown. The images are not points but diffraction patterns, with intensities approximately as plotted at the right. Figure 36.3.5
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C HAP T ER 36 D IF F RAC T ION
separation θo of the objects equals the angular separation θi of the images. Thus, if the images a re to satisfy Rayleigh’s criterion, these separations must be given by Eq. 36.3.3 (for small angles). Calculations:
From Eq. 36.3.3, we obtain
λ θ o = θ i = θ R = 1.22 __ d
(1.22)(550 × 10 −9 m) = __________________ = 2.1 × 10 −5 rad. (Answer) 32 × 10 −3 m
Each central maximum in the two intensity curves of Fig. 36.3.5 is centered on the first minimum of the other curve.
(b) What is the separation Δx of the centers of the images in the focal plane? (That is, what is the separation of the central peaks in the two intensity-versus-position curves?) From either triangle between the lens and the screen in Fig. 36.3.5, we see that tan θi /2 = Δx/2f. Re- arranging this equation and making the approximation tan θ ≈ θ, we find Calculations:
Δx = fθi ,
(36.3.7)
where θ i is in radian measure. We then find Δx = (0.24 m)(2.1 × 10 –5 rad) = 5.0 μm.
(Answer)
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36.4 DIFFRACTION BY A DOUBLE SLIT Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
36.4.1 In a sketch of a double-slit experiment, explain how the diffraction through each slit modifies the two-slit interference pattern, and identify the diffrac-
the interference between the two slits and what part corresponds to the diffraction by each slit. 36.4.4 For double-slit diffraction, apply the relationship
d/a and the locations of the dif-
tion envelope, the central peak, and the side peaks
between the ratio
of that envelope.
fraction minima in the single-slit diffraction pattern,
36.4.2 For a given point in a double-slit diffraction pat-
I in terms of the intensity
and then count the number of two-slit maxima that
tern, calculate the intensity
are contained in the central peak and in the side
I m at the center of the pattern.
peaks of the diffraction envelope.
36.4.3 In the intensity equation for a double-slit dif- fraction pattern, identify what part corresponds to
Key Ideas ●
Waves passing through two slits produce a combina-
where
I m is the intensity at the center of the pattern,
tion of double-slit interference and diffraction by each slit. ●
For identical slits with width
πd β = (___ λ ) sin θ,
a and center-to-center
d , the intensity in the pattern varies with the
separation angle
θ from the central axis as 2 sin α 2 I(θ ) = I m(cos β) (_____ α )
and (double slit),
πa sin θ. α = ( ___ λ )
Diffraction by a Double Slit
In the double-slit experiments of Chapter 35, we implicitly assumed that the slits were much narrower than the wavelength of the light illuminating them; that is, a ⪡ λ. For such narrow slits, the central maximum of the diffraction pattern of either slit covers the entire viewing screen. Moreover, the interference of light from the two slits produces bright fringes with approximately the same intensity (Fig. 35.3.1).
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36.4 D IF F RAC T ION BY A D OU BL E SL IT
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In practice with visible light, however, the condition a ⪡ λ is often not met. For relatively wide slits, the interference of light from two slits produces bright fringes that do not all have the same intensity. That is, the intensities of the fringes produced by double-slit interference (as discussed in Chapter 35) are modified by diffraction of the light passing through each slit (as discussed in this chapter). Plots. As an example, the intensity plot of Fig. 36.4.1a suggests the double- slit interference pattern that would occur if the slits were infinitely narrow (and thus a ⪡ λ); all the bright interference fringes would have the same intensity. The intensity plot of Fig. 36.4.1b is that for diffraction by a single actual slit; the diffraction pattern has a broad central maximum and weaker secondary maxima at ±17°. The plot of Fig. 36.4.1c suggests the interference pattern for two actual slits. That plot was constructed by using the curve of Fig. 36.4.1b as an envelope on the intensity plot in Fig. 36.4.1a. The positions of the fringes are not changed; only the intensities are affected. Photos. Figure 36.4.2a shows an actual pattern in which both double-slit interference and diffraction are evident. If one slit is covered, the single-slit diffraction pattern of Fig. 36.4.2b results. Note the correspondence between Figs. 36.4.2a and 36.4.1c, and between Figs. 36.4.2b and 36.4.1b. In comparing these figures, bear in mind that Fig. 36.4.2 has been deliberately overexposed to bring out the faint secondary maxima and that several secondary maxima (rather than one) are shown.
Relative intensity
20
15
10
5
0
θ (degrees)
5
10
15
20
(a ) Relative intensity
20
15
10
5
0
θ (degrees)
5
10
(b )
15
10
5
0
θ (degrees) (c )
5
20
This diffraction minimum eliminates some of the double-slit bright fringes.
Relative intensity
20
15
10
15
20
(a) The intensity plot to be expected in a double-slit interference experiment with vanish- ingly narrow slits. (b) The intensity plot for dif- fraction by a typical slit of width a (not vanishingly narrow). (c) The intensity plot to be expected for two slits of width a. The curve of (b) acts as an enve- lope, limiting the intensity of the double-slit fringes in (a). Note that the first minima of the diffraction pattern of (b) eliminate the double-slit fringes that would occur near 12° in (c). Figure 36.4.1
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C HAP T ER 36 D IF F RAC T ION
(a )
(a) Interference fringes for an actual double- slit system; compare with Fig. 36.4.1c. (b) The diffraction pattern of a single slit; compare with Fig. 36.4.1b. Figure 36.4.2
(b )
Courtesy of Jearl Walker
Intensity. With diffraction effects taken into account, the intensity of a double- slit interference pattern is given by sin α 2 I(θ) = I m (cos 2 β) (_____ α )
(double slit),
(36.4.1)
in which
πd sin θ β = ___ λ
(36.4.2)
and
πa sin θ. α = ___ λ
(36.4.3)
Here d is the distance between the centers of the slits and a is the slit width. Note carefully that the right side of Eq. 36.4.1 is the product of I m and two factors. (1) The interference factor cos 2 β is due to the interference between two slits with slit separa- tion d (as given by Eqs. 35.3.3 and 35.3.4). (2) The diffraction factor [(sin α)/α] 2 is due to diffraction by a single slit of width a (as given by Eqs. 36.2.2 and 36.2.3). Let us check these factors. If we let a → 0 in Eq. 36.4.3, for example, then α → 0 and (sin α )/α → 1. Equation 36.4.1 then reduces, as it must, to an equation describing the interference pattern for a pair of vanishingly narrow slits with slit separation d. Similarly, putting d = 0 in Eq. 36.4.2 is equivalent physically to caus- ing the two slits to merge into a single slit of width a. Then Eq. 36.4.2 y ields β = 0 and cos 2 β = 1. In this case Eq. 36.4.1 reduces, as it must, to an equation describ- ing the diffraction pattern for a single slit of width a. Language. The double-slit pattern described by Eq. 36.4.1 and displayed in Fig. 36.4.2a combines interference and diffraction in an intimate way. Both are superposition effects, in that they result from the combining of waves with different phases at a given point. If the combining waves originate from a small number of elementary coherent sources—as in a double-slit experiment with a ⪡ λ—we call the process interference. If the combining waves originate in a single wavefront—as in a single-slit experiment—we call the process diffraction. This distinction between interference and diffraction (which is somewhat arbitrary and not always adhered to) is a convenient one, but we should not forget that both are superposition effects and usually both are present simultaneously (as in Fig. 36.4.2a).
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36.4 D IF F RAC T ION BY A D OU BL E SL IT
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Checkpoint 36.4.1
The first diffraction minima on the two sides of a double-slit diffraction pattern happen to coincide with the fourth side bright fringes at a certain angle θ. (a) How many bright fringes are in the central diffraction envelope? (b) To shift the coincidence to the fifth side bright fringe, how should the slit separation be changed? (c) To make the shift by chang- ing the slit widths instead of the slit separation, how should the widths be changed?
Sample Problem 36.4.1
Double-slit experiment with diffraction of each slit included
6 ytisnetnI
(a) How many bright interference fringes are within the central peak of the diffraction envelope?
Diffraction envelope m2 = 0 m2 = 7 1
Diffraction envelope 8
I
In a double-slit experiment, the wavelength λ of the light source is 405 nm, the slit separation d is 19.44 μm, and the slit width a is 4.050 μm. Consider the interference of the light from the two slits and also the diffraction of the light through each slit.
2
KEY IDEAS
5
9
0.1
0.2
3
We first analyze the two basic mechanisms responsible for the optical pattern produced in the experiment: 1. Single-slit diffraction: The limits of the central peak are set by the first minima in the diffraction pattern due to either slit individually. (See Fig. 36.4.1.) The angular locations of those minima are given by Eq. 36.1.3 (a sin θ = m λ). Here let us rewrite this equation as a sin θ = m 1λ , with the subscript 1 referring to the one-slit diffraction. For the first minima in the diffrac- tion pattern, we substitute m 1 = 1, obtaining a sin θ = λ.
(36.4.4)
2. Double-slit interference: The angular locations of the bright fringes of the double-slit interference pattern are given by Eq. 35.2.3, which we can write as d sin θ = m 2λ ,
for m 2 = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
(36.4.5)
Here the subscript 2 refers to the double-slit interference. We can locate the first diffraction mini- mum within the double-slit fringe pattern by dividing Eq. 36.4.5 by Eq. 36.4.4 and solving for m 2. By doing so and then substituting the given data, we obtain
4 0
This tells us that the bright interference fringe for m 2 = 4 fits into the central peak of the one-slit diffraction pat- tern, but the fringe for m 2 = 5 does not fit. Within the central diffraction peak we have the central bright fringe (m 2 = 0), and four bright fringes (up to m 2 = 4) on each side of it. Thus, a total of nine bright fringes of the double- slit interference pattern are within the central peak of the
7
8
θ (rad)
0.2
0.3
One side of the intensity plot for a two-slit interfer- ence experiment. The inset shows (vertically expanded) the plot within the first and second side peaks of the diffraction envelope. Figure 36.4.3
diffraction envelope. The bright fringes to one side of the central bright fringe are shown in Fig. 36.4.3. (b) How many bright fringes are within either of the first side peaks of the diffraction envelope?
KEY IDEA The outer limits of the first side diffraction peaks are the second diffraction minima, each of which is at the angle θ given by a sin θ = m 1 λ with m 1 = 2: a sin θ = 2 λ.
Calculations:
d 19.44 μm m 2 = __ = ________ = 4.8. a 4.050 μm
0.1
6
0.3
The m5 double-slit fringe is almost eliminated by the diffraction minimum.
Calculation:
(36.4.6)
Dividing Eq. 36.4.5 by Eq. 36.4.6, we find 2d (2)(19.44 μm) m 2 = ___ = _____________ = 9.6. a 4.050 μm
This tells us that the second diffraction minimum occurs just before the bright interference fringe for m 2 = 10 in Eq. 36.4.5. Within either first side diffraction peak we have the fringes from m 2 = 5 to m 2 = 9, for a total of five bright fringes of the double-slit interference pattern (shown in the inset of Fig. 36.4.3). However, if the m 2 = 5 bright fringe, which is almost eliminated by the first diffraction minimum, is considered too dim to count, then only four bright fringes are in the first side diffraction peak.
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C HAP T ER 36 D IF F RAC T ION
36.5 DIFFRACTION GRATINGS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
36.5.1 Describe a diffraction grating and sketch the
order number
interference pattern it produces in monochromatic light.
m of that fringe, and the wavelength λ
of the light. 36.5.6 Identify the reason why there is a maximum
36.5.2 Distinguish the interference patterns of a diffrac- tion grating and a double-slit arrangement.
order number for a given diffraction grating. 36.5.7 Explain the derivation of the equation for a line’s
36.5.3 Identify the terms line and order number. 36.5.4 For a diffraction grating, relate order number
half-width in a diffraction-grating pattern.
m
36.5.8 Calculate the half-width of a line at a given angle
to the path length difference of rays that give a bright fringe.
in a diffraction-grating pattern. 36.5.9 Explain the advantage of increasing the number
36.5.5 For a diffraction grating, relate the slit separation
d , the angle θ
to a bright fringe in the pattern, the
of slits in a diffraction grating. 36.5.10 Explain how a grating spectroscope works.
Key Ideas ●
A diffraction grating is a series of “slits” used to sep-
●
A line’s half-width is the angle from its center to the
arate an incident wave into its component wavelengths
point where it disappears into the darkness and is
by separating and displaying their diffraction maxima.
given by
N (multiple) slits results in maxima (lines)
Diffraction by
θ such that d sin θ = m λ, for m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
at angles
P
d
λ
C
An idealized diffrac- tion grating, consisting of only five rulings, that produces an interfer- ence pattern on a distant viewing screen C. Figure 36.5.1
(maxima).
λ Δ θ hw = _________ (half-width). Nd cos θ
Diffraction Gratings
One of the most useful tools in the study of light and of objects that emit and absorb light is the diffraction grating. This device is somewhat like the double- slit arrangement of Fig. 36.3.1 but has a much greater number N of slits, often called rulings, perhaps as many as several thousand per millimeter. An idealized grating consisting of only five slits is represented in Fig. 36.5.1. When monochro- matic light is sent through the slits, it forms narrow interference fringes that can be analyzed to determine the wavelength of the light. (Diffraction gratings can also be opaque surfaces with narrow parallel grooves arranged like the slits in Fig. 36.5.1. Light then scatters back from the grooves to form interference fringes rather than being transmitted through open slits.) Pattern. With monochromatic light incident on a diffraction grating, if we gradually increase the number of slits from two to a large number N, the intensity plot changes from the typical double-slit plot of Fig. 36.4.1c to a much more com- plicated one and then eventually to a simple graph like that shown in Fig. 36.5.2a. Intensity 3
(a) The intensity plot produced by a diffraction grating with a great many rulings consists of narrow peaks, here labeled with their order numbers m. (b) The corresponding bright fringes seen on the screen are called lines and are here also labeled with order numbers m.
2
1
m
=0
1
2
3
θ
0 (a )
Figure 36.5.2
3
2
1
=0 (b )
m
1
2
3
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36.5 D IF F RAC T ION GRAT INGS
The pattern you would see on a viewing screen using monochromatic red light from, say, a helium–neon laser is shown in Fig. 36.5.2b. The maxima are now very narrow (and so are called lines); they are sepa- rated by relatively wide dark regions. Equation. We use a familiar procedure to find the locations of the bright lines on the viewing screen. We first assume that the screen is far enough from the grating so that the rays reaching a particular point P on the screen are approximately parallel when they leave the grat- ing (Fig. 36.5.3). Then we apply to each pair of adjacent rulings the same reasoning we used for double-slit interference. The separation d between rulings is called the grating spacing. (If N rulings occupy a total width w, then d = w/N.) The path length difference between adjacent rays is again d sin θ (Fig. 36.5.3), where θ is the angle from the central axis of the grating (and of the diffraction pattern) to point P. A line will be located at P if the path length difference between adja- cent rays is an integer number of wavelengths : d sin θ = m λ, for m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(maxima—lines),
(36.5.1)
To point P on viewing screen
θ θ
This path length difference between adjacent rays determines the interference.
θ
d
θ
θ
Path length difference between adjacent rays
The rays from the rulings in a diffrac- tion grating to a distant point P are approximately parallel. The path length difference between each two adjacent rays is d sin θ, where θ is measured as shown. (The rulings extend into and out of the page.) Figure 36.5.3
where λ is the wavelength of the light. Each integer m represents a different line; hence these integers can be used to label the lines, as in Fig. 36.5.2. The integers are then called the order numbers, and the lines are called the zeroth-order line (the central line, with m = 0), the first-order line (m = 1), the second-order line (m = 2), and so on. Determining Wavelength. If we rewrite Eq. 36.5.1 as θ = sin –1 (m λ /d), we see that, for a given diffraction grating, the angle from the central axis to any line (say, the third-order line) depends on the wavelength of the light being used. Thus, when light of an unknown wavelength is sent through a diffraction grating, measurements of the angles to the higher-order lines can be used in Eq. 36.5.1 to determine the wavelength. Even light of several unknown wave- lengths can be distinguished and identified in this way. We cannot do that with the double-slit arrangement of Module 35.2, even though the same equation and wavelength dependence apply there. In double-slit interference, the bright fringes due to different wavelengths overlap too much to be distinguished. Width of the Lines
A grating’s ability to resolve (separate) lines of different wavelengths depends on the width of the lines. We shall here derive an expression for the half-width of the central line (the line for which m = 0) and then state an expression for the half-widths of the higher-order lines. We define the half-width of the central line as being the angle Δθ hw from the center of the line at θ = 0 outward to where the line effectively ends and darkness effectively begins with the first minimum (Fig. 36.5.4). A t such a minimum, the N rays from the N slits of the grating cancel one another. (The actual width of the central line is, of course, 2(Δθhw ), but line widths are usually compared via half-widths.) In Module 36.1 we were also concerned with the cancellation of a great many rays, there due to diffraction through a single slit. We obtained Eq. 36.1.3, which, because of the similarity of the two situations, we can use to find the first minimum here. It tells us that the first minimum occurs where the path length difference between the top and bottom rays equals λ. For single-slit diffrac- tion, this difference is a sin θ. For a grating of N rulings, each separated from the next by distance d, the distance between the top and bottom rulings is Nd (Fig. 36.5.5), and so the path length difference between the top and bottom rays here is Nd sin Δθhw . Thus, the first minimum occurs where Nd sin Δθhw = λ.
1167
(36.5.2)
Intensity Δθ hw
θ
0 °
The half-width Δθhw of the central line is measured from the center of that line to the adjacent minimum on a plot of I versus θ like Fig. 36.5.2a. Figure 36.5.4
Top ray
Δθ hw
To first minimum
Bottom ray
Nd
Δθhw
Path length difference
The top and bottom rulings of a diffraction grating of N rulings are separated by Nd. The top and bottom rays passing through these rulings have a path length dif- ference of Nd sin Δθhw , where Δθhw is the angle to the first minimum. (The angle is here greatly exagger- ated for clarity.) Figure 36.5.5
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C HAP T ER 36 D IF F RAC T ION
F'
Because Δθhw is small, sin Δθ hw = Δθ hw (in radian measure). Substituting this in Eq. 36.5.2 g ives the half-width of the central line as E
λ (half-width of central line). Δ θ hw = ___ (36.5.3) Nd We state without proof that the half-width of any other line depends on its loca- tion relative to the central axis and is
F T
θ
θ
λ Δ θ hw = ________ Nd cos θ
L3
(half-width of line at θ).
(36.5.4)
Note that for light of a given wavelength λ and a given ruling separation d, the widths of the lines decrease with an increase in the number N of rulings. Thus, of two diffraction gratings, the grating with the larger value of N is better able to distinguish between wavelengths because its diffraction lines are narrower and so produce less overlap.
G
L2
Grating Spectroscope
C
Diffraction gratings are widely used to determine the wavelengths that are emitted by sources of light ranging from lamps to stars. Figure 36.5.6 shows a simple grat- ing spectroscope in which a grating is used for this purpose. Light from source S is focused by lens L 1 on a vertical slit S 1 placed in the focal plane of lens L 2. The light emerging from tube C (called a collimator) is a plane wave and is incident perpen- dicularly on grating G, where it is diffracted into a diffraction pattern, with the m = 0 order diffracted at angle θ = 0 along the central axis of the grating. We can view the diffraction pattern that would appear on a viewing screen at any angle θ simply by orienting telescope T in Fig. 36.5.6 to that angle. Lens L 3 of the telescope then focuses the light diffracted at angle θ (and at slightly smaller and larger angles) onto a focal plane FF ʹ within the telescope. When we look through eyepiece E, we see a magnified view of this focused image. By changing the angle θ of the telescope, we can examine the entire diffrac- tion pattern. For any order number other than m = 0, the original light is spread out according to wavelength (or color) so that we can determine, with Eq. 36.5.1, just what wavelengths are being emitted by the source. If the source emits discrete wavelengths, what we see as we rotate the telescope horizontally through the angles corresponding to an order m is a vertical line of color for each wavelength, with the shorter-wavelength line at a smaller angle θ than the longer-wavelength line. Hydrogen. For example, the light emitted by a hydrogen lamp, which con- tains hydrogen gas, has four discrete wavelengths in the visible range. If our eyes intercept this light directly, it appears to be white. If, instead, we view it through a grating spectroscope, we can distinguish, in several orders, the lines of the four colors corresponding to these visible wavelengths. (Such lines are called emission lines.) Four orders are represented in Fig. 36.5.7. In the central order (m = 0), the lines corresponding to all four wavelengths are superimposed, giving a single white line at θ = 0. The colors are separated in the higher orders.
S1
L1
S
A simple type of grat- ing spectroscope used to analyze the wavelengths of light emitted by source S. Figure 36.5.6
The higher orders are spread out more in angle.
This is the center of the pattern. m
m
=0
0°
10°
=1
m
20°
30 °
=2
m
40 °
50 °
60°
=4
70°
80 °
The zeroth, first, second, and fourth orders of the visible emission lines from hydrogen. Note that the lines are farther apart at greater angles. (They are also dimmer and wider, although that is not shown here.) Figure 36.5.7
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36.5 D IF F RAC T ION GRAT INGS
1169
The visible emission lines of cadmium, as seen through a grating spectroscope. Figure 36.5.8
Department of Physics, Imperial College/Science Photo Library/ Science Source
The third order is not shown in Fig. 36.5.7 for the sake of clarity; it actu- ally overlaps the second and fourth orders. The fourth-order red line is missing because it is not formed by the grating used here. That is, when we attempt to solve Eq. 36.5.1 for the angle θ for the red wavelength when m = 4, we find that sin θ is greater than unity, which is not possible. The fourth order is then said to be incomplete for this grating; it might not be incomplete for a grating with greater spacing d, which will spread the lines less than in Fig. 36.5.7. Figure 36.5.8 is a photograph of the visible emission lines produced by cadmium. Optically Variable Graphics
Holograms are made by having laser light scatter from an object onto an emul- sion. Once the hologram is developed, an image of the object can be created by illuminating the hologram with the same type of laser light. The image is arrest- ing because, unlike common photographs, it has depth, and you can change your perspective of the object by changing the angle at which you view the hologram. Holograms were thought to be an ideal anticounterfeiting measure for credit cards and other types of personal cards. H owever, they have several disadvantages. (1) A holographic image can be sharp when viewed in laser light, which is coher- ent and incident from a single direction. However, the image is murky (“milky”) when viewed in the normal light of a store. (Such diffuse light is incoherent and incident from many directions.) Thus, a store clerk is unlikely to examine a display on a credit card closely enough to see whether it is a legitimate hologram. (2) A hologram can be easily counterfeited because it is a photograph of an actual object. A counterfeiter merely m akes a model of that object, then makes a hologram of it, and then attaches the hologram to a counterfeit credit card. Most credit cards and many identification cards now carry optically variable graphics (OVG), which produce an image via the diffraction of diffuse light by gratings embedded in the device (Fig. 36.5.9). The gratings send out hundreds or even thousands of different orders. Someone viewing the card intercepts some of these orders, and the combined light creates a virtual image that is part of, say, a credit-card logo. For example, in Fig. 36.5.10a, gratings at point a produce a certain image when the viewer is at orientation A, and in Fig. 36.5.10b, gratings A
a
(a ) B
otohP kcotS ymalA/94uts Figure 36.5.9
b
(b )
(a) Gratings at point a on the surface of an OVG device send light to a viewer at orientation A, creating a certain virtual image. (b) Gratings at point b send light to the viewer at orientation B, creating a different virtual image. Figure 36.5.10
A card with OVG.
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C HAP T ER 36 D IF F RAC T ION
at point b produce a different image when the viewer is at orientation B. These images a re bright and sharp because the gratings have been designed to be viewed in diffuse light. An OVG is very difficult to design because optical engineers must work backwards from a graphic, such as a given logo. The engineers must determine the grating properties across the OVG if a certain image is to be seen from one set of viewing angles and a different image is to be seen from a different set of viewing angles. Such work requires sophisticated programming on comput- ers. Once designed, the OVG structure is so complicated that counterfeiting it is extremely difficult.
Checkpoint 36.5.1
The figure shows lines of different orders produced by a diffraction grating in monochromatic red light. (a) Is the center of the pattern to the left or right? (b) In monochromatic green light, are the half-widths of the lines produced in the same orders greater than, less than, or the same as the half-widths of the lines shown?
36.6 GRATINGS: DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
36.6.1 Identify dispersion as the spreading apart
36.6.4 Identify that for us to resolve lines, a diffraction
of the diffraction lines associated with different wavelengths.
grating must make them distinguishable. 36.6.5 Apply the relationship between resolving
D , Δλ, angular separation Δθ, slit separation d , order number m, and the angle θ cor-
36.6.2 Apply the relationships between dispersion wavelength difference
responding to the order number. 36.6.3 Identify the effect on the dispersion of a diffrac-
R, wavelength difference Δλ, average λavg , number of rulings N, and order number m. 36.6.6 Identify the effect on the resolving power R if the number of slits N is increased. power
wavelength
tion grating if the slit separation is varied.
Key Ideas
D of a diffraction grating is a measure Δθ of the lines it produces for two wavelengths differing by Δλ. For order number m , ●
The dispersion
of the angular separation
θ
at angle , the dispersion is given by
Δθ = _______ m D = ___ Δ λ d cos θ
(dispersion).
●
The resolving power
R of a diffraction grating is a
measure of its ability to make the emission lines of two close wavelengths distinguishable. For two wave-
Δ λ and with an average value of λavg , the resolving power is given by λavg R = ____ = Nm (resolving power). Δ λ lengths differing by
Gratings: Dispersion and Resolving Power Dispersion
To be useful in distinguishing wavelengths that are close to each other (as in a grating spectroscope), a grating must spread apart the diffraction lines associ- ated with the various wavelengths. This spreading, called dispersion, is defined as Δθ D = ___ Δ λ
(dispersion d efined).
(36.6.1)
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36.6 GRAT INGS: D ISP ERSION AND RESOL V ING P OWER
1171
m D = _______ d cos θ
(dispersion o f a grating).
(36.6.2)
Thus, to achieve higher dispersion we must use a grating of smaller grating spac- ing d and work in a higher-order m. Note that the dispersion does not depend on the number of rulings N in the grating. The SI unit for D is the degree per meter or the radian per meter. Resolving Power
To resolve lines whose wavelengths are close together (that is, to make the lines distinguishable), the line should also be as narrow as possible. Expressed other- wise, the grating should have a high resolving power R, defined as
λavg
R = ____ Δλ
(resolving power defined).
shpargotohP latnemadnuF/nnamhcorB netsirK
Here Δθ is the angular separation of two lines whose wavelengths differ by Δλ. The greater D is, the greater is the distance between two emission lines whose wavelengths differ by Δλ. We show below that the dispersion of a grating at angle θ is given by
The fine rulings, each 0.5 μm wide, on a compact disc function as a diffraction grating. When a small source of white light illuminates a disc, the diffracted light forms colored “lanes” that are the composite of the diffraction patterns from the rulings. FCP
(36.6.3)
Here λavg is the mean wavelength of two emission lines that can barely be recog- nized as separate, and Δλ is the wavelength difference between them. The greater R is, the closer two emission lines can be and still be resolved. We shall show below that the resolving power of a grating is given by the simple expression R = Nm
(resolving power of a grating).
(36.6.4)
To achieve high resolving power, we must use many rulings (large N). Proof of Eq. 36.6.2
Let us start with Eq. 36.5.1, the expression for the locations of the lines in the dif- fraction pattern of a grating: d sin θ = m λ. Let us regard θ and λ as variables and take differentials of this equation. We find d(cos θ) d θ = m dλ. For small enough angles, we can write these differentials as small differences, obtaining d(cos θ ) Δθ = m Δ λ (36.6.5) or
Δ θ = _______ m . ___ Δλ
d cos θ
The ratio on the left is simply D (see Eq. 36.6.1), a nd so we have indeed derived Eq. 36.6.2. Proof of Eq. 36.6.4
We start with Eq. 36.6.5, which was derived from Eq. 36.5.1, the expression for the locations of the lines in the diffraction pattern formed by a grating. Here Δλ is the small wavelength difference between two waves that are diffracted by the grating, and Δθ is the angular separation between them in the diffraction pattern. If Δθ is to be the smallest angle that will permit the two lines to be resolved, it must (by Rayleigh’s criterion) be equal to the half-width of each line, which is given by Eq. 36.5.4:
λ . Δ θhw = _________ Nd cos θ
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C HAP T ER 36 D IF F RAC T ION
a
Table 36.6.1 Three Gratings
N
d (nm)
θ
D (°/μ m)
R
A
10 000
2540
13.4°
23.2
10 000
B
20 000
2540
13.4°
23.2
20 000
C
10 000
1360
25.5°
46.3
10 000
Grating
Data are for λ = 589 nm and m = 1.
a
ytisnetnI 0
λ = m Δλ, __
A
13.4 °
from which it readily follows that
θ (degrees)
This is Eq. 36.6.4, which we set out to derive.
B
13.4 °
Dispersion and Resolving Power Compared
θ (degrees) Grating
ytisnetnI 0
N
λ = Nm. R = ___ Δλ
Grating
ytisnetnI 0
If we substitute Δθhw as given here for Δθ in Eq. 36.6.5, we find that
Grating
C
25.5 °
θ (degrees)
The intensity patterns for light of two wavelengths sent through the gratings of Table 36.6.1. Grating B has the highest resolving power, and grating C the highest dispersion. Figure 36.6.1
The resolving power of a grating must not be confused with its dispersion. Table 36.6.1 shows the characteristics of three gratings, all illuminated with light of wavelength λ = 589 nm, whose diffracted light is viewed in the first order (m = 1 in Eq. 36.5.1). Y ou should verify that the values of D and R as given in the table can be calculated with Eqs. 36.6.2 and 36.6.4, respectively. (In the calculations for D, you will need to convert radians per meter to degrees per micrometer.) For the conditions noted in Table 36.6.1, gratings A and B have the same dispersion D and A and C have the same resolving power R. Figure 36.6.1 shows the intensity patterns (also called line shapes) that would be produced by these g ratings for two lines of wavelengths λ1 and λ2 , in the vicinity of λ = 589 nm. Grating B, with the higher resolving power, produces narrower lines and thus is capable of distinguishing lines that are much closer together in wavelength than those in the figure. Grating C, with the higher dispersion, pro- duces the greater a ngular separation between the lines.
Checkpoint 36.6.1
If we cover half a grating with opaque tape, what happens to resolving power R of the grating?
Sample Problem 36.6.1
Dispersion and resolving power of a diffraction grating
A diffraction grating has 1.26 × 10 4 rulings uniformly spaced over width w = 25.4 mm. It is illuminated at normal inci- dence by yellow light from a sodium vapor lamp. This light contains two closely spaced emission lines (known as the sodium doublet) of wavelengths 589.00 nm and 589.59 nm. (a) At what angle does the first-order maximum occur (on either side of the center of the diffraction pattern) for the wavelength of 589.00 nm?
KEY IDEA The maxima produced by the diffraction grating can be determined with Eq. 36.5.1 (d sin θ = mλ).
Calculations:
The grating spacing d is −3
w = 25.4 × 10 m ____________ d = __ N 1.26 × 10 4 = 2.016 × 10 −6 m = 2016 nm. The first-order maximum corresponds to m = 1. Substitut- ing these values for d and m into Eq. 36.5.1 leads to (1)(589.00 nm) m λ = sin −1 ______________ θ = sin −1 ___ d 2016 nm = 16.99° ≈ 17.0°.
(Answer)
(b) Using the dispersion of the grating, calculate the angu- lar separation between the two lines in the first order.
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36.7 X- RAY D IF F RAC T ION
KEY IDEAS (1) The angular separation Δθ between the two lines in the first order depends on their wavelength difference Δλ and the dispersion D of the grating, according to Eq. 36.6.1 (D = Δ θ/Δλ). (2) The dispersion D depends on the angle θ at which it is to be evaluated. We can assume that, in the first order, the two sodium lines occur close enough to each other for us to evaluate D at the angle θ = 16.99° we found in part (a) for one of those lines. Then Eq. 36.6.2 gives the disper- sion as m = ____________________ 1 D = _______ d cos θ (2016 nm )(cos 16.99° ) Calculations:
= 5.187 × 10 −4 rad / nm.
From Eq. 36.6.1 a nd with Δλ in nanometers, we then have Δθ = D Δλ = (5.187 × 10 −4 rad / nm) (589.59 − 589.00 ) = 3.06 × 10 −4 rad = 0.0175°.
1173
(c) What is the least number of rulings a grating can have and still be able to resolve the sodium doublet in the first order?
KEY IDEAS (1) The resolving power of a grating in any order m is physically set by the number of rulings N in the grating according to Eq. 36.6.4 (R = Nm). (2) The smallest wave- length difference Δλ that can be resolved depends on the average wavelength involved and on the resolving power R of the grating, according to Eq. 36.6.3 (R = λavg /Δλ). For the sodium doublet to be barely resolved, Δλ must be their wavelength separation of 0.59 nm, and λavg must be their average wavelength of 589.30 nm. Thus, we find that the smallest number of rulings for a grating to resolve the sodium doublet is Calculation:
R λ avg N = __ = _____ m m Δλ
(Answer)
589.30 nm = 999 rulings. = ____________ (1)(0.59 nm)
You can show that this result depends on the grating spacing d but not on the number of rulings there are in the grating.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
36.7 X-RAY DIFFRACTION Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
36.7.1 Identify approximately where x rays are located
36.7.5 For the intensity maxima in x-ray scattering by
in the electromagnetic spectrum.
a crystal, apply the relationship between the inter-
d θ of scattering, the order m , and the wavelength λ of the x rays.
36.7.2 Define a unit cell.
planar spacing , the angle
36.7.3 Define reflecting planes (or crystal planes) and
number
interplanar spacing.
36.7.6 Given a drawing of a unit cell, demonstrate how
36.7.4 Sketch two rays that scatter from adjacent
an interplanar spacing can be determined.
planes, showing the angle that is used in calculations.
Key Ideas ●
If x rays are directed toward a crystal structure, they
●
For x rays of wavelength
d
λ scattering from crystal θ at which the
undergo Bragg scattering, which is easiest to visualize
planes with separation , the angles
if the crystal atoms are considered to be in parallel
scattered intensity is maximum are given by
planes.
2d sin θ = m λ,
for
m = 1, 2, 3, . . .
(Bragg’s law).
X-Ray Diffraction
X rays are electromagnetic radiation whose wavelengths are of the order of 1 Å (= 10 –10 m). Compare this with a wavelength of 550 nm (= 5.5 × 10 –7 m) at the
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C HAP T ER 36 D IF F RAC T ION
C
T
F
X rays
W
center of the visible spectrum. Figure 36.7.1 shows that x rays are produced when electrons escaping from a heated filament F are accelerated by a potential differ- ence V and strike a metal target T. A standard optical diffraction grating c annot be used to discriminate between different wavelengths in the x-ray wavelength range. For λ = 1 Å (= 0.1 nm) and d = 3000 nm, for example, Eq. 36.5.1 shows that the first-order maximum occurs at m λ = sin −1 (1)(0.1 nm) ___________ = 0.0019° . θ = sin −1 ___ d 3000 nm
V
X rays are generated when electrons leaving heated fila- ment F are accelerated through a potential difference V and strike a metal target T. The “window” W in the evacuated chamber C is transpar- ent to x rays. Figure 36.7.1
This is too close to the central maximum to be practical. A grating with d ≈ λ is desirable, but, because x-ray wavelengths are about equal to atomic diameters, such gratings cannot be constructed mechanically. In 1912, it occurred to German physicist Max von Laue that a crystalline solid, which consists of a regular array of atoms, might form a natural three- dimensional “diffraction grating” for x rays. The idea is that, in a crystal such as sodium chloride (NaCl), a basic unit of atoms (called the unit cell) repeats itself throughout the array. Figure 36.7.2a represents a section through a crystal of NaCl and identifies this basic unit. The unit cell is a cube measuring a 0 on each side. When an x-ray beam enters a crystal such as NaCl, x rays are scattered —that is, redirected—in all directions by the crystal structure. In some directions the scattered waves undergo destructive interference, resulting in intensity minima; in other directions the interference is constructive, resulting in intensity maxima. This process of scattering and interference is a form of diffraction. Fictional Planes. Although the process of diffraction of x rays by a crys- tal is complicated, the maxima turn out to be in directions as if the x rays were 3 Incident x rays
Cl –
Na+
2
1
θ
θ
d
θ
θ
d
θ
θ
a0
a0
(a)
(b )
Ray 2
Ray 1
θ d
d
θ
sin θ
d
θ (c )
θ θ
sin
d
θ
d
θ
The extra distance of ray 2 determines the interference.
d
θ
θ θ
θ θ
θ
(d )
(a) The cubic structure of NaCl, showing the sodium and chlorine ions and a unit cell (shaded). (b) Incident x rays undergo diffraction by the structure of (a). The x rays are diffracted as if they were reflected by a family of parallel planes, with angles measured relative to the planes (not relative to a normal as in optics). (c) The path length difference between waves effectively reflected by two adjacent planes is 2d sin θ. (d) A different orientation of the incident x rays relative to the structure. A different family of parallel planes now effectively reflects the x rays. Figure 36.7.2
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36.7 X- RAY D IF F RAC T ION
reflected by a family of parallel reflecting planes (or crystal planes) that extend through the atoms within the crystal and that contain regular arrays of the atoms. (The x rays are not actually reflected; we use these fictional planes only to sim- plify the analysis of the actual diffraction process.) Figure 36.7.2b shows three reflecting planes (part of a family containing many parallel planes) with interplanar spacing d, from which the incident rays shown are said to reflect. Rays 1, 2, and 3 reflect from the first, second, and third planes, respectively. At each reflection the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are represented with θ. Contrary to the custom in optics, these angles are defined relative to the surface of the reflecting plane rather than a normal to that surface. For the situation of Fig. 36.7.2b, the interplanar spacing happens to be equal to the unit cell dimension a 0 . Figure 36.7.2c shows an edge-on view of reflection from an adjacent pair of planes. The waves of rays 1 and 2 arrive at the crystal in phase. After they are reflected, they must again be in phase because the reflections and the reflecting planes have been defined solely to explain the intensity maxima in the diffraction of x rays by a crystal. U nlike light rays, the x rays do not refract upon entering the crystal; moreover, we do not define an index of refraction for this situation. Thus, the relative phase between the waves of rays 1 and 2 as they leave the crystal is set solely by their path length difference. For these rays to be in phase, the path length difference must be equal to an integer multiple of the wavelength λ of the x rays. Diffraction Equation. By drawing the dashed perpendiculars in Fig. 36.7.2c, we find that the path length difference is 2d sin θ. In fact, this is true for any pair of adjacent planes in the family of planes represented in Fig. 36.7.2b. Thus, we have, as the criterion for intensity maxima for x-ray diffraction, 2d sin θ = m λ,
for m = 1, 2, 3, . . .
(Bragg’s law),
(36.7.1)
where m is the order number of an intensity maximum. Equation 36.7.1 is called Bragg’s law after British physicist W. L. Bragg, who first derived it. (He and his father shared the 1915 Nobel Prize in physics for their use of x rays to study the structures of crystals.) The angle of incidence and reflection in Eq. 36.7.1 is called a Bragg a ngle. Regardless of the angle at which x rays enter a crystal, there is always a fam- ily of planes from which they can be said to reflect so that we can apply Bragg’s law. In Fig. 36.7.2d, notice that the crystal structure has the same orientation as it does in Fig. 36.7.2a, but the angle at which the beam enters the structure differs from that shown in Fig. 36.7.2b. This new angle requires a new family of reflecting planes, with a different interplanar spacing d and different Bragg a ngle θ , in order to explain the x-ray diffraction via Bragg’s law. Determining a Unit Cell. Figure 36.7.3 shows how the interplanar spacing d can be related to the unit cell dimension a 0 . For the particular family of planes shown there, the Pythagorean theorem gives ____
–1– a 0 2
5 2 5d = √ _ a , 4 0
or
a 0 _ = 0.2236 d = _____ a 0. √ 20
a0
d
5d
(36.7.2)
Figure 36.7.3 suggests how the dimensions of the unit cell can be found once the interplanar spacing has been measured by means of x-ray diffraction. X-ray diffraction is a powerful tool for studying both x-ray spectra and the arrangement of atoms in crystals. To study spectra, a particular set of crys- tal planes, having a known spacing d, is chosen. These planes effectively reflect different wavelengths at different angles. A detector that can discriminate one angle from another can then be used to determine the wavelength of radiation
A family of planes through the structure of Fig. 36.7.2a, and a way to relate the edge length a 0 of a unit cell to the interplanar spacing d. Figure 36.7.3
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C HAP T ER 36 D IF F RAC T ION
reaching it. The crystal itself can be studied with a monochromatic x-ray beam, to determine not only the spacing of various crystal planes but also the structure of the unit cell.
Checkpoint 36.7.1
The figure gives the a intensity versus diffraction b I angle for the diffraction c of a monochromatic x-ray beam by a particular fam- 17º 35º 59º ily of reflecting planes in a crystal. Rank the three intensity peaks according to the associated path length differences of the x rays, greatest first.
90º
Review & Summary When waves encounter an edge, an obstacle, or an aperture the size of which is comparable to the wavelength of the waves, those waves spread out as they travel and, as a result, undergo interference. This is called diffraction. Diffraction
Waves passing through a long nar- row slit of width a produce, on a viewing screen, a single-slit diffraction pattern that includes a central maximum and other maxima, separated by minima located at angles θ to the central axis that satisfy Single-Slit Diffraction
a sin θ = mλ,
for m = 1, 2, 3, . . . (minima). (36.1.3)
The intensity of the diffraction pattern at any given angle θ is sin α , where α = ___ πa sin θ I( θ) = I m ( _____ α ) 2
λ
(36.2.2, 36.2.3)
Waves passing through two slits, each of width a, whose centers are a distance d apart, display diffraction patterns whose intensity I at angle θ is Double-Slit Diffraction
α 2 _____ I( θ) = I m (cos 2 β) ( sin α ) (double slit), with β = ( πd /λ ) sin θ and α as for single-slit diffraction.
A diffraction grating is a series of “slits” used to separate an incident wave into its component wavelengths by separating and displaying their diffraction max- ima. Diffraction by N (multiple) slits results in maxima (lines) at angles θ such that Diffraction Gratings
d sin θ = mλ ,
λ Δ θhw = _________ Nd cos θ (half-widths).
Diffraction by a circular aperture or a lens with diameter d produces a central maximum and concentric maxima and minima, with the first minimum at an angle θ given by
λ (first minimum—circular aperture). sin θ = 1.22 __ d
Rayleigh’s criterion suggests that two objects are on the verge of resolvability if the central diffrac- tion maximum of one is at the first minimum of the other. Their angular separation can then be no less than (Rayleigh’s criterion),
(36.3.3)
in which d is the diameter of the aperture through which the light passes.
(36.5.1)
(36.5.4)
The dispersion D and resolving power R are given by
and
Δθ = ______ m D = ___ Δ λ d cos θ
λavg
R = ____ = Nm. Δ λ
(36.3.1)
Rayleigh’s Criterion
λ θR = 1.22 __ d
for m = 0, 1, 2, . . . (maxima),
with the half-widths of the lines given by
and I m is the intensity at the center of the pattern. Circular-Aperture Diffraction
(36.4.1)
(36.6.1, 36.6.2) (36.6.3, 36.6.4)
The regular array of atoms in a crystal is a three-dimensional diffraction grating for short-wavelength waves such as x rays. For analysis purposes, the atoms can be visualized as being arranged in planes with characteristic interplanar spacing d. Diffraction maxima (due to constructive interference) occur if the incident direction of the wave, mea- sured from the surfaces of these planes, and the wavelength λ of the radiation satisfy Bragg’s law: X-Ray Diffraction
2d sin θ = mλ, for m = 1, 2, 3, . . . (Bragg’s law).
(36.7.1)
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QU EST IONS
1177
Questions You are conducting a single-slit diffraction experiment with light of wavelength λ. What appears, on a distant viewing screen, at a point at which the top and bottom rays through the slit have a path length difference equal to (a) 5λ and (b) 4.5λ ? 1
In a single-slit diffraction experiment, the top and bottom rays through the slit arrive at a certain point on the viewing screen with a path length difference of 4.0 wavelengths. In a phasor representation like those in Fig. 36.2.1, how many over- lapping circles does the chain of phasors make? 2
For three experiments, Fig. 36.1 β gives the parameter β of Eq. 36.4.2 A versus angle θ for two-slit interference B using light of wavelength 500 nm. The slit separations in the three experi- C ments differ. Rank the experiments according to (a) the slit separations π/2 and (b) the total number of two-slit 0 θ (rad) interference maxima in the pattern, Figure 36.1 Question 3. greatest first. 3
For three experiments, Fig. 36.2 gives α versus angle θ in one-slit diffrac- tion using light of wavelength 500 nm. Rank the experiments according to (a) the slit widths and (b) the total number of diffraction minima in the pattern, greatest first. 4
A B
C
π/2 Figure 36.3 shows four choices for 0 θ (rad) the rectangular opening of a source of either sound waves or light waves. Figure 36.2 Question 4. The sides have lengths of either L or 2L, with L being 3.0 times the wavelength of the waves. Rank the openings according to the extent of (a) left–right spreading and (b) up–down spreading of the waves due to diffraction, greatest first. 5
(a) For a given diffraction grating, does the smallest dif- ference Δλ in two wavelengths that can be resolved increase, decrease, or remain the same as the wavelength increases? (b) For a given wavelength region (say, around 500 nm), is Δλ greater in the first order or in the third order? 8
Figure 36.4 shows a red line and a green line of the same order in the pattern produced by a diffraction Figure 36.4 Questions 9 grating. If we increased the number and 10. of rulings in the grating—say, by removing tape that had covered the outer half of the rulings— would (a) the half-widths of the lines and (b) the separation of the lines increase, decrease, or remain the same? (c) Would the lines shift to the right, shift to the left, or remain in place? 9
For the situation of Question 9 and Fig. 36.4, if instead we increased the grating spacing, would (a) the half-widths of the lines and (b) the separation of the lines increase, decrease, or remain the same? (c) Would the lines shift to the right, shift to the left, or remain in place? 10
(a) Figure 36.5a shows the lines produced by diffraction gratings A and B using light of the same wavelength; the lines are of the same order and appear at the same angles θ. Which grating has the greater number of rulings? (b) Figure 36.5b shows lines of two orders produced by a single diffraction grating using light of two wavelengths, both in the red region of the spectrum. Which lines, the left pair or right pair, are in the order with greater m? Is the center of the diffraction pattern located to the left or to the right in (c) Fig. 36.5a and (d) Fig. 36.5b? 11
A
B
(a )
(b )
Figure 36.5
Question 11.
Figure 36.6 shows the bright fringes that lie within A the central diffraction enve- lope in two double-slit dif- B fraction experiments using the same wavelength of light. Figure 36.6 Question 12. Are (a) the slit width a, (b) the slit separation d, and (c) the ratio d/a in experiment B greater than, less than, or the same as those quantities in experiment A? 12
(1)
(2) Figure 36.3
(3)
(4)
Question 5.
Light of frequency f illuminating a long narrow slit pro- duces a diffraction pattern. (a) If we switch to light of frequency 1.3f, does the pattern expand away from the center or contract toward the center? (b) Does the pattern expand or contract if, instead, we submerge the equipment in clear corn syrup? 6
At night many people see rings (called entoptic halos) sur- rounding bright outdoor lamps in otherwise dark surroundings. The rings are the first of the side maxima in diffraction patterns produced by structures that are thought to be within the cornea (or possibly the lens) of the observer’s eye. (The central maxima of such patterns overlap the lamp.) (a) Would a particular ring become smaller or larger if the lamp were switched from blue to red light? (b) If a lamp emits white light, is blue or red on the out- side edge of the ring? 7
In three arrangements you view two closely spaced small objects that are the same large distance from you. The angles that the objects occupy in your field of view and their distances from you are the following: (1) 2ϕ and R; (2) 2ϕ and 2R; (3) ϕ/2 and R/2. (a) Rank the arrangements according to the separation between the objects, greatest first. If you can just barely resolve the two objects in arrangement 2, can you resolve them in (b) arrangement 1 and (c) arrangement 3? 13
For a certain diffraction grating, the ratio λ/a of wavelength to ruling spacing is 1/3.5. Without written calculation or use of a calculator, determine which of the orders beyond the zeroth order appear in the diffraction pattern. 14
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Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
BIO
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 36.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard Flying
Circus of Physics
Single-Slit Diffraction
The distance between the first and fifth minima of a single-slit diffraction pattern is 0.35 mm with the screen 40 cm away from the slit, when light of wavelength 550 nm is used. (a) Find the slit width. (b) Calculate the angle θ of the first diffraction minimum. 1
E
GO
What must be the ratio of the slit width to the wavelength for a single slit to have the first diffraction minimum at θ = 45.0°? 2 E
E A plane wave of wavelength 590 nm is incident on a slit with a width of a = 0.40 mm. A thin converging lens of focal length +70 cm is placed between the slit and a viewing screen and focuses the light on the screen. (a) How far is the screen from the lens? (b) What is the distance on the screen from the center of the diffraction pattern to the first minimum?
3
In conventional television, signals are broadcast from tow- ers to home receivers. Even when a receiver is not in direct view of a tower because of a hill or building, it can still intercept a signal if the signal diffracts enough around the obstacle, into the obstacle’s “shadow region.” Previously, television signals had a wavelength of about 50 cm, but digital television signals that are transmitted from towers have a wavelength of about 10 mm. (a) Did this change in wavelength increase or decrease the dif- fraction of the signals into the shadow regions of obstacles? Assume that a signal passes through an opening of 5.0 m width between two adjacent buildings. What is the angular spread of the central diffraction maximum (out to the first minima) for wavelengths of (b) 50 cm and (c) 10 mm? 4 E
A single slit is illuminated by light of wavelengths λa and λb , chosen so that the first diffraction minimum of the λa component coincides with the second minimum of the λb component. (a) If λ b = 350 nm, what is λa ? For what order number m b (if any) does a minimum of the λb component coincide with the mini- mum of the λa component in the order number (b) m a = 2 and (c) m a = 3?
Along that wall, how far from the central axis will a listener be at the first diffraction minimum and thus have difficulty hearing the sound? (Neglect reflections.) SSM A slit 1.00 mm wide is illuminated by light of wave- length 589 nm. We see a diffraction pattern on a screen 3.00 m away. What is the distance between the first two diffraction minima on the same side of the central diffraction maximum?
9 M
M GO Manufacturers of wire (and other objects of small dimension) sometimes use a laser to continually monitor the thickness of the product. The wire intercepts the laser beam, producing a diffraction pattern like that of a single slit of the same width as the wire diameter (Fig. 36.8). Suppose a helium–neon laser, of wavelength 632.8 nm, illuminates a wire, and the diffraction pattern appears on a screen at distance L = 2.60 m. If the desired wire diameter is 1.37 mm, what is the observed distance between the two tenth-order minima (one on each side of the central maximum)?
10
Monochromatic light of wavelength 441 nm is incident on a narrow slit. On a screen 2.00 m away, the distance between the second diffraction minimum and the central maximum is 1.50 cm. (a) Calculate the angle of diffraction θ of the second minimum. (b) Find the width of the slit. 6 E
Light of wavelength 633 nm is incident on a narrow slit. The angle between the first diffraction minimum on one side of the central maximum and the first minimum on the other side is 1.20°. What is the width of the slit? 7 E
Sound waves with frequency 3000 Hz and speed 343 m/s dif- fract through the rectangular opening of a speaker cabinet and into a large auditorium of length d = 100 m. The opening, which has a horizontal width of 30.0 cm, faces a wall 100 m away (Fig. 36.7).
Speaker cabinet
Central axis
d
Figure 36.7
Problem 8.
Wire-making machine
L
Wire
5 E
8 M
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
He-Ne laser Figure 36.8
Module 36.2
Problem 10.
Intensity in Single-Slit Diffraction
A 0.10-mm-wide slit is illuminated by light of wavelength 589 nm. Consider a point P on a viewing screen on which the diffraction pattern of the slit is viewed; the point is at 30° from the central axis of the slit. What is the phase difference between the Huygens wavelets arriving at point P from the top and mid- point of the slit? (Hint: See Eq. 36.2.1.) 11 E
E Figure 36.9 gives α ver- (rad) sus the sine of the angle θ in a single-slit diffraction experiment using light of wavelength 610 nm. The vertical axis scale is set by αs = 12 rad. What are (a) the slit sin θ width, (b) the total number of 0 0.5 1 diffraction minima in the pattern Figure 36.9 Problem 12. (count them on both sides of the center of the diffraction pattern), (c) the least angle for a mini- mum, and (d) the greatest angle for a minimum?
12
s
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P ROBL EMS
Monochromatic light with wavelength 538 nm is incident on a slit with width 0.025 mm. The distance from the slit to a screen is 3.5 m. Consider a point on the screen 1.1 cm from the central maximum. Calculate (a) θ for that point, (b) α, and (c) the ratio of the intensity at that point to the intensity at the central maximum. 13 E
In the single-slit diffraction experiment of Fig. 36.1.4, let the wavelength of the light be 500 nm, the slit width be 6.00 μm, and the viewing screen be at distance D = 3.00 m. Let a y axis extend upward along the viewing screen, with its origin at the center of the diffraction pattern. Also let I P represent the intensity of the dif- fracted light at point P at y = 15.0 cm. (a) What is the ratio of I P to the intensity I m at the center of the pattern? (b) Determine where point P is in the diffraction pattern by giving the maximum and minimum between which it lies, or the two minima between which it lies. 14 E
SSM The full width at half-maximum (FWHM) of a central diffraction maximum is defined as the angle between the two points in the pattern where the intensity is one-half that at the center of the pattern. (See Fig. 36.2.2b.) (a) Show that the intensity drops to one-half the maximum value when sin 2 α = α2 /2. (b) Verify that α = 1.39 rad (about 80°) is a solution to the transcendental equa- tion of (a). (c) Show that the FWHM is Δθ = 2 sin –1 (0.442λ/a), where a is the slit width. Calculate the FWHM of the central maxi- mum for slit width (d) 1.00λ, (e) 5.00λ, and (f) 10.0λ.
15 M
Screen P
x
diameter of the observer’s eye to be 4.0 mm, and the wave- length of the room light to be 550 nm? BIO (a) How far from grains of red sand must you be to position yourself just at the limit of resolving the grains if your pupil diameter is 1.5 mm, the grains are spherical with radius 50 μm, and the light from the grains has wavelength 650 nm? (b) If the grains were blue and the light from them had wave- length 400 nm, would the answer to (a) be larger or smaller?
19 E
The radar system of a navy cruiser transmits at a wavelength of 1.6 cm, from a circular antenna with a diameter of 2.3 m. At a range of 6.2 km, what is the smallest distance that two speed- boats can be from each other and still be resolved as two separate objects by the radar system? 20 E
E BIO SSM Estimate the linear separation of two objects on Mars that can just be resolved under ideal conditions by an observer on Earth (a) using the naked eye and (b) using the 200 in. (= 5.1 m) Mount Palomar telescope. Use the following data: distance to Mars = 8.0 × 10 7 km, diameter of pupil = 5.0 mm, wavelength of light = 550 nm.
21
BIO Assume that Rayleigh’s criterion gives the limit of reso- lution of an astronaut’s eye looking down on Earth’s surface from a typical space shuttle altitude of 400 km. (a) Under that ideal- ized assumption, estimate the smallest linear width on Earth’s surface that the astronaut can resolve. Take the astronaut’s pupil diameter to be 5 mm and the wavelength of visible light to be 550 nm. (b) Can the astronaut resolve the Great Wall of China (Fig. 36.11), which is more than 3000 km long, 5 to 10 m thick at its base, 4 m thick at its top, and 8 m in height? (c) Would the astronaut be able to resolve any unmistakable sign of intelligent life on Earth’s surface?
22 E
(a ) x
A
B
(b )
Figure 36.10 Problem 16. (a) Show that the values of α at which intensity maxima for single-slit diffraction occur can be found exactly by differentiat- ing Eq. 36.2.2 with respect to α and equating the result to zero, obtaining the condition tan α = α. To find values of α satisfying this relation, plot the curve y = tan α and the straight line y = α and then find their intersections, or use a calculator to find an 1 π, appropriate value of α by trial and error. Next, from α = (m + _ 2 ) determine the values of m associated with the maxima in the single-slit pattern. (These m values are not integers because secondary maxima do not lie exactly halfway between minima.) What are the (b) smallest α and (c) associated m, the (d) second smallest α and (e) associated m, and the (f) third smallest α and (g) associated m?
sotohP dlroW ediW/PA©
M Babinet’s principle. A monochromatic beam of parallel light is incident on a “collimating” hole of diam- eter x ⪢ λ . Point P lies in the geometrical shadow region on a distant screen (Fig. 36.10a). Two diffracting objects, shown in Fig. 36.10b, are placed in turn over the collimating hole. Object A is an opaque circle with a hole in it, and B is the “photographic negative” of A. Using superposition concepts, show that the intensity at P is identical for the two diffract- ing objects A and B.
16
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17 M
Module 36.3
Diffraction by a Circular Aperture
The wall of a large room is covered with acoustic tile in which small holes are drilled 5.0 mm from center to cen- ter. How far can a person be from such a tile and still distin- guish the individual holes, assuming ideal conditions, the pupil 18 E
BIO
Figure 36.11
Problem 22. The Great Wall of China.
E BIO SSM The two headlights of an approaching auto- mobile are 1.4 m apart. At what (a) angular separation and (b) maximum distance will the eye resolve them? Assume that the pupil diameter is 5.0 mm, and use a wavelength of 550 nm for the light. Also assume that diffraction effects alone limit the resolution so that Rayleigh’s criterion can be applied.
23
BIO FCP Entoptic halos. If someone looks at a bright out- door lamp in otherwise dark surroundings, the lamp appears to be surrounded by bright and dark rings (hence halos) that are
24 E
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C HAP T ER 36 D IF F RAC T ION
actually a circular diffraction pattern as in Fig. 36.3.1, with the cen- tral maximum overlapping the direct light from the lamp. The dif- fraction is produced by structures within the cornea or lens of the eye (hence entoptic). If the lamp is monochromatic at wavelength 550 nm and the first dark ring subtends angular diameter 2.5° in the observer’s view, what is the (linear) diameter of the structure producing the diffraction? Find the separation of two points on the Moon’s surface that can just be resolved by the 200 in. (= 5.1 m) telescope at Mount Palomar, assuming that this separation is determined by diffraction effects. The distance from Earth to the Moon is 3.8 × 10 5 km. Assume a wavelength of 550 nm for the light. 25 E
The telescopes on some commercial surveillance satellites can resolve objects on the ground as small as 85 cm across (see Google Earth), and the telescopes on military surveillance sat- ellites reportedly can resolve objects as small as 10 cm across. Assume first that object resolution is determined entirely by Rayleigh’s criterion and is not degraded by turbulence in the atmosphere. Also assume that the satellites are at a typical altitude of 400 km and that the wavelength of visible light is 550 nm. What would be the required diameter of the telescope aperture for (a) 85 cm resolution and (b) 10 cm resolution? (c) Now, considering that turbulence is certain to degrade resolution and that the aperture diameter of the Hubble Space Telescope is 2.4 m, what can you say about the answer to (b) and about how the military surveillance resolutions are accomplished? 26 E
BIO If Superman really had x-ray vision at 0.10 nm wave- length and a 4.0 mm pupil diameter, at what maximum altitude could he distinguish villains from heroes, assuming that he needs to resolve points separated by 5.0 cm to do this?
27 E
BIO GO FCP The wings of tiger beetles (Fig. 36.12) are colored by interference due to thin cuticle-like layers. In addition, these layers are arranged in patches that are 60 μm across and produce different colors. The color you see is a pointillistic mix- ture of thin-film interference colors that varies with perspective. Approximately what viewing distance from a wing puts you at
the limit of resolving the different colored patches according to Rayleigh’s criterion? Use 550 nm as the wavelength of light and 3.00 mm as the diameter of your pupil. M (a) What is the angular separation of two stars if their images are barely resolved by the Thaw refracting telescope at the Allegheny Observatory in Pittsburgh? The lens diameter is 76 cm and its focal length is 14 m. Assume λ = 550 nm. (b) Find the distance between these barely resolved stars if each of them is 10 light-years distant from Earth. (c) For the image of a single star in this telescope, find the diameter of the first dark ring in the diffraction pattern, as measured on a photographic plate placed at the focal plane of the telescope lens. Assume that the structure of the image is associated entirely with diffraction at the lens aperture and not with lens “errors.”
29
BIO GO FCP Floaters. The floaters you see when view- ing a bright, featureless background are diffraction patterns of defects in the vitreous humor that fills most of your eye. Sighting through a pinhole sharpens the diffraction pattern. If you also view a small circular dot, you can approximate the defect’s size. Assume that the defect diffracts light as a circular aperture does. Adjust the dot’s distance L from your eye (or eye lens) until the dot and the circle of the first minimum in the diffraction pattern appear to have the same size in your view. That is, until they have the same diameter Dʹ on the retina at distance Lʹ = 2.0 cm from the front of the eye, as suggested in Fig. 36.13a, where the angles on the two sides of the eye lens are equal. Assume that the wavelength of visible light is λ = 550 nm. If the dot has diameter D = 2.0 mm and is distance L = 45.0 cm from the eye and the defect is x = 6.0 mm in front of the retina (Fig. 36.13b), what is the diameter of the defect?
30 M
28 M
Eye Retina lens
Circular dot D
1 __ 2 D' 1 __ 2 D'
x
L'
(a ) Figure 36.13
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Problem 28. Tiger beetles are colored by pointil- listic mixtures of thin-film interference colors.
θ
D'
L
Figure 36.12
Retina
Defect
Problem 30.
(b )
SSM Millimeter-wave radar generates a narrower beam than conventional microwave radar, making it less vulnerable to antiradar missiles than conventional radar. (a) Calculate the angular width 2θ of the central maximum, from first minimum to first minimum, produced by a 220 GHz radar beam emitted by a 55.0-cm-diameter circular antenna. (The frequency is cho- sen to coincide with a low-absorption atmospheric “window.”) (b) What is 2θ for a more conventional circular antenna that has a diameter of 2.3 m and emits at wavelength 1.6 cm?
31 M
(a) A circular diaphragm 60 cm in diameter oscillates at a frequency of 25 kHz as an underwater source of sound used for submarine detection. Far from the source, the sound intensity is distributed as the diffraction pattern of a circular hole whose diameter equals that of the diaphragm. Take the speed of sound in water to be 1450 m /s and find the angle between the normal to the diaphragm and a line from the diaphragm to the first minimum. (b) Is there such a minimum for a source having an (audible) frequency of 1.0 kHz? 32 M
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1181
GO Nuclear-pumped x-ray lasers are seen as a pos- M sible weapon to destroy ICBM booster rockets at ranges up to 2000 km. One limitation on such a device is the spreading of the beam due to diffraction, with resulting dilution of beam intensity. Consider such a laser operating at a wavelength of 1.40 nm. The element that emits light is the end of a wire with diameter 0.200 mm. (a) Calculate the diameter of the central beam at a target 2000 km away from the beam source. (b) What is the ratio of the beam intensity at the target to that at the end of the wire? (The laser is fired from space, so neglect any atmo- spheric absorption.)
How many bright fringes lie between the first and second min- ima of the diffraction envelope?
A circular obstacle produces the same diffrac- tion pattern as a circular hole of the same diameter (except very near θ = 0). Airborne water drops are examples of such obsta- cles. When you see the Moon through suspended water drops, such as in a fog, you intercept the diffraction pattern from many drops. The composite of the central diffraction maxima of those drops forms a white region that surrounds the Moon and may obscure it. Figure 36.14 is a photograph in which the Moon is obscured. There are two faint, colored rings around the Moon (the larger one may be too faint to be seen in your copy of the photograph). The smaller ring is on the outer edge of the central maxima from the drops; the somewhat larger ring is on the outer edge of the smallest of the secondary maxima from the drops (see Fig. 36.3.1). The color is visible because the rings are adja- cent to the diffraction minima (dark rings) in the patterns. (Col- ors in other parts of the pattern overlap too much to be visible.) (a) What is the color of these rings on the outer edges of the diffraction maxima? (b) The colored ring around the central maxima in Fig. 36.14 has an angular diameter that is 1.35 times the angular diameter of the Moon, which is 0.50°. Assume that the drops all have about the same diameter. Approximately what is that diameter?
38 E
33
34
H
GO
FCP
A beam of light of a single wavelength is incident perpen- dicularly on a double-slit arrangement, as in Fig. 35.2.5. The slit widths are each 46 μ m and the slit separation is 0.30 mm. How many complete bright fringes appear between the two first- order minima of the diffraction pattern? 36 E
E In a double-slit experiment, the slit separation d is 2.00 times the slit width w. How many bright interference fringes are in the central diffraction envelope?
37
In a certain two-slit interference pattern, 10 bright fringes lie within the second side peak of the diffraction envelope and diffraction minima coincide with two-slit interference maxima. What is the ratio of the slit separation to the slit width? Light of wavelength 440 nm passes through a double slit, yielding a diffraction pattern whose graph of intensity I versus angular position θ is shown in Fig. 36.15. Calculate (a) the slit width and (b) the slit separation. (c) Verify the displayed inten- sities of the m = 1 and m = 2 interference fringes. 39 M
7 )2 m c/Wm( ytisnetnI
6 5 4 3 2 1 0
5
θ (degrees)
Figure 36.15
Problem 39.
M GO Figure 36.16 gives the β (rad) parameter β of Eq. 36.4.2 ver- β sus the sine of the angle θ in a two-slit interference experiment using light of wavelength 435 nm. The vertical axis scale is set by sin θ βs = 80.0 rad. What are (a) the slit 0 0.5 1 separation, (b) the total number Figure 36.16 Problem 40. of interference maxima (count them on both sides of the pattern’s center), (c) the smallest angle for a maxima, and (d) the greatest angle for a minimum? Assume that none of the interference maxima are completely eliminated by a diffraction minimum.
40
s
ecruoS ecneicS/nenaivraP akkeP
Problem 34. The corona around the Moon is a composite of the diffraction patterns of airborne water drops. Figure 36.14
Module 36.4
Diffraction by a Double Slit
Suppose that the central diffraction envelope of a double- slit diffraction pattern contains 11 bright fringes and the first dif- fraction minima eliminate (are coincident with) bright fringes. 35 E
GO In the two-slit interference experiment of Fig. 35.2.5, the slit widths are each 12.0 μ m, their separation is 24.0 μm, the wavelength is 600 nm, and the viewing screen is at a distance of 4.00 m. Let I P represent the intensity at point P on the screen, at height y = 70.0 cm. (a) What is the ratio of I P to the intensity I m at the center of the pattern? (b) Determine where P is in the two-slit interference pattern by giving the maximum or mini- mum on which it lies or the maximum and minimum between which it lies. (c) In the same way, for the diffraction that occurs, determine where point P is in the diffraction pattern. 41 M
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C HAP T ER 36 D IF F RAC T ION
GO (a) In a double-slit experiment, what largest ratio of d to a causes diffraction to eliminate the fourth bright side fringe? (b) What other bright fringes are also eliminated? (c) How many other ratios of d to a cause the diffraction to (exactly) eliminate that bright fringe?
GO A beam of light consisting of wavelengths from M 460.0 nm to 640.0 nm is directed perpendicularly onto a dif- fraction grating with 160 lines/mm. (a) What is the lowest order that is overlapped by another order? (b) What is the highest order for which the complete wavelength range of the beam is present? In that highest order, at what angle does the light at wavelength (c) 460.0 nm and (d) 640.0 nm appear? (e) What is the greatest angle at which the light at wavelength 460.0 nm appears?
42 M
52
M SSM (a) How many bright fringes appear between the first diffraction-envelope minima to either side of the central maximum in a double-slit pattern if λ = 550 nm, d = 0.150 mm, and a = 30.0 μm? (b) What is the ratio of the intensity of the third bright fringe to the intensity of the central fringe?
53
43
Module 36.5
Diffraction Gratings
Perhaps to confuse a predator, some tropical gyrinid beetles (whirligig beetles) are colored by optical inter- ference that is due to scales whose alignment forms a diffraction grating (which scatters light instead of transmitting it). When the incident light rays are perpendicular to the grating, the angle between the first-order maxima (on opposite sides of the zeroth-order maximum) is about 26° in light with a wavelength of 550 nm. What is the grating spacing of the beetle? 44
E
BIO
FCP
A diffraction grating 20.0 mm wide has 6000 rulings. Light of wavelength 589 nm is incident perpendicularly on the grating. What are the (a) largest, (b) second largest, and (c) third largest values of θ at which maxima appear on a distant viewing screen? 45 E
Visible light is incident perpendicularly on a grating with 315 rulings/mm. What is the longest wavelength that can be seen in the fifth-order diffraction? 46 E
SSM A grating has 400 lines/mm. How many orders of the entire visible spectrum (400–700 nm) can it produce in a diffrac- tion experiment, in addition to the m = 0 order?
47 E
A diffraction grating is made up of slits of width 300 nm with separation 900 nm. The grating is illuminated by mono- chromatic plane waves of wavelength λ = 600 nm at normal incidence. (a) How many maxima are there in the full diffrac- tion pattern? (b) What is the angular width of a spectral line observed in the first order if the grating has 1000 slits? 48 M
M SSM Light of wavelength 600 nm is incident normally on a diffraction grating. Two adjacent maxima occur at angles given by sin θ = 0.2 and sin θ = 0.3. The fourth-order maxima are miss- ing. (a) What is the separation between adjacent slits? (b) What is the smallest slit width this grating can have? For that slit width, what are the (c) largest, (d) second largest, and (e) third largest values of the order number m of the maxima produced by the grating?
49
M With light from a gaseous discharge tube incident nor- mally on a grating with slit separation 1.73 μm, sharp maxima of green light are experimentally found at angles θ = ±17.6°, 37.3°, –37.1°, 65.2°, and –65.0°. Compute the wavelength of the green light that best fits these data.
50
GO A diffraction grating having 180 lines/mm is illu- M minated with a light signal containing only two wavelengths, λ1 = 400 nm and λ2 = 500 nm. The signal is incident perpen- dicularly on the grating. (a) What is the angular separation between the second-order maxima of these two wavelengths? (b) What is the smallest angle at which two of the resulting maxima are superimposed? (c) What is the highest order for which maxima for both wavelengths are present in the diffrac- tion pattern? 51
M GO A grating has 350 rulings/mm and is illuminated at normal incidence by white light. A spectrum is formed on a screen 30.0 cm from the grating. If a hole 10.0 mm square is cut in the screen, its inner edge being 50.0 mm from the central maximum and parallel to it, what are the (a) shortest and (b) longest wavelengths of the light that passes through the hole?
Derive this expression for the intensity pattern for a three- slit “grating”: 54 M
1 2 I = _ 9 I m (1 + 4 cos ϕ + 4 cos ϕ),
where ϕ = (2πd sin θ)/λ and a ⪡ λ . Module 36.6
Gratings: Dispersion and Resolving Power
A source containing a mixture of hydrogen and deu- terium atoms emits red light at two wavelengths whose mean is 656.3 nm and whose separation is 0.180 nm. Find the minimum number of lines needed in a diffraction grating that can resolve these lines in the first order. 55 E
SSM
(a) How many rulings must a 4.00-cm-wide diffraction grating have to resolve the wavelengths 415.496 and 415.487 nm in the sec- ond order? (b) At what angle are the second-order maxima found? 56 E
Light at wavelength 589 nm from a sodium lamp is incident perpendicularly on a grating with 40 000 rulings over width 76 mm. What are the first-order (a) dispersion D and (b) resolving power R, the second-order (c) D and (d) R, and the third-order (e) D and (f) R? 57 E
A grating has 600 rulings/mm and is 5.0 mm wide. (a) What is the smallest wavelength interval it can resolve in the third order at λ = 500 nm? (b) How many higher orders of maxima can be seen? 58 E
E A diffraction grating with a width of 2.0 cm contains 1000 lines/cm across that width. For an incident wavelength of 600 nm, what is the smallest wavelength difference this grating can resolve in the second order?
59
E The D line in the spectrum of sodium is a doublet with wavelengths 589.0 and 589.6 nm. Calculate the minimum num- ber of lines needed in a grating that will resolve this doublet in the second-order spectrum.
60
With a particular grating the sodium doublet (589.00 nm and 589.59 nm) is viewed in the third order at 10° to the normal and is barely resolved. Find (a) the grating spacing and (b) the total width of the rulings. 61 E
A diffraction grating illuminated by monochromatic light normal to the grating produces a certain line at angle θ. (a) What is the product of that line’s half-width and the grating’s resolving power? (b) Evaluate that product for the first order of a grating of slit separation 900 nm in light of wavelength 600 nm. 62 M
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P ROBL EMS
M Assume that the limits of the visible spectrum are arbi- trarily chosen as 430 and 680 nm. Calculate the number of rul- ings per millimeter of a grating that will spread the first-order spectrum through an angle of 20.0°.
63
Module 36.7
X-Ray Diffraction
What is the smallest Bragg angle for x rays of wavelength 30 pm to reflect from reflecting planes spaced 0.30 nm apart in a calcite crystal? 64 E
An x-ray beam of wavelength A undergoes first-order reflec- tion (Bragg law diffraction) from a crystal when its angle of inci- dence to a crystal face is 23°, and an x-ray beam of wavelength 97 pm undergoes third-order reflection when its angle of incidence to that face is 60°. Assuming that the two beams reflect from the same family of reflecting planes, find (a) the interplanar spacing and (b) the wavelength A. 65 E
An x-ray beam of a certain wavelength is incident on an NaCl crystal, at 30.0° to a certain family of reflecting planes of spacing 39.8 pm. If the reflection from those planes is of the first order, what is the wavelength of the x rays? 66
E
67 E
Figure 36.17 is a graph of intensity versus angular position
θ for the diffraction of an x-ray beam by a crystal. The horizontal scale is set by θs = 2.00°. The beam consists of two wavelengths, and the spacing between the reflecting planes is 0.94 nm. What are the (a) shorter and (b) longer wavelengths in the beam?
through angle ϕ around an axis perpendicular to the plane of the page until these reflecting planes give diffraction maxima. What are the (a) smaller and (b) larger value of ϕ if the crystal is turned clock- wise and the (c) smaller and (d) larger value of ϕ if it is turned counterclockwise?
Incident beam
1183
θ d d
Problems 71 and 72.
Figure 36.19
In Fig. 36.19, an x-ray beam of wavelengths from 95.0 to 140 pm is incident at θ = 45.0° to a family of reflecting planes with spacing d = 275 pm. What are the (a) longest wavelength λ and (b) associated order number m and the (c) shortest λ and (d) associated m of the intensity maxima in the diffraction of the beam? 72 M
M Consider a two-dimensional square crystal structure, such as one side of the structure shown in Fig. 36.7.2a. The largest inter- planar spacing of reflecting planes is the unit cell size a 0 . Calcu- late and sketch the (a) second largest, (b) third largest, (c) fourth largest, (d) fifth largest, and (e) sixth largest interplanar spacing. (f) Show that your results in (a) through (e) are consistent with the general formula
73
a 0 _ d = _________ , 2 √ h + k 2 where h and k are relatively prime integers (they have no com- mon factor other than unity). Additional Problems
ytisnetnI
BIO An astronaut in a space shuttle claims she can just barely resolve two point sources on Earth’s surface, 160 km below. Calculate their (a) angular and (b) linear separation, assuming ideal conditions. Take λ = 540 nm and the pupil diameter of the astronaut’s eye to be 5.0 mm.
0
74
θ (degrees) Figure 36.17
θ
SSM Visible light is incident perpendicularly on a dif- fraction grating of 200 rulings/mm. What are the (a) longest, (b) second longest, and (c) third longest wavelengths that can be associated with an intensity maximum at θ = 30.0°?
75
s
Problem 67.
E If first-order reflection occurs in a crystal at Bragg angle 3.4°, at what Bragg angle does second-order reflection occur from the same family of reflecting planes?
68
E X rays of wavelength 0.12 nm are found to undergo second-order reflection at a Bragg angle of 28° from a lithium fluoride crystal. What is the interplanar spacing of the reflecting planes in the crystal?
69
GO In Fig. 36.18, first-order reflection from the reflection planes shown occurs when an x-ray beam of wavelength 0.260 nm makes an angle θ = 63.8° with the top face of the crystal. What is the unit cell size a 0 ? 70 M
θ
X rays
a0 a0
M In Fig. 36.19, let a beam of x rays of wavelength 0.125 nm Figure 36.18 Problem 70. be incident on an NaCl crystal at angle θ = 45.0° to the top face of the crystal and a family of reflecting planes. Let the reflect- ing planes have separation d = 0.252 nm. The crystal is turned
71
A beam of light consists of two wavelengths, 590.159 nm and 590.220 nm, that are to be resolved with a diffraction grat- ing. If the grating has lines across a width of 3.80 cm, what is the minimum number of lines required for the two wavelengths to be resolved in the second order? 76
SSM In a single-slit diffraction experiment, there is a mini- mum of intensity for orange light (λ = 600 nm) and a minimum of intensity for blue-green light (λ = 500 nm) at the same angle of 1.00 mrad. For what minimum slit width is this possible?
77
GO A double-slit system with individual slit widths of 0.030 mm and a slit separation of 0.18 mm is illuminated with 500 nm light directed perpendicular to the plane of the slits. What is the total number of complete bright fringes appearing between the two first-order minima of the diffraction pattern? (Do not count the fringes that coincide with the minima of the diffraction pattern.) 78
SSM Consider a diffraction grating that has resolving power R = λavg /Δλ = Nm. (a) Show that the corresponding frequency range Δf that can just be resolved is given by Δf = c/Nmλ . (b) From Fig. 36.5.5, show that the times required for light to travel along the ray at the bottom of the figure and the ray at the top differ
79
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C HAP T ER 36 D IF F RAC T ION
by Δt = (Nd/c) sin θ. (c) Show that (Δf )(Δt) = 1, this relation being independent of the various grating parameters. Assume N ⪢ 1. BIO The pupil of a person’s eye has a diameter of 5.00 mm. According to Rayleigh’s criterion, what distance apart must two small objects be if their images are just barely resolved when they are 250 mm from the eye? Assume they are illuminated with light of wavelength 500 nm.
80
Light is incident on a grating at an angle ψ as shown in Fig. 36.20. Show that bright fringes occur at angles θ that satisfy the equation 81
d(sin ψ + sin θ) = mλ, for m = 0, 1, 2, . . . . (Compare this equation with Eq. 36.5.1.) Only the special case ψ = 0 has been treated in this chapter. ev
ffiD
aw
car ev a
et wd
θ
d
Grating Figure 36.20
Problem 81.
A grating with d = 1.50 μm is illuminated at various angles of incidence by light of wavelength 600 nm. Plot, as a function of the angle of incidence (0 to 90°), the angular deviation of the first-order maximum from the incident direction. (See Prob- lem 81.) 82
SSM In two-slit interference, if the slit separation is 14 μ m and the slit widths are each 2.0 μm, (a) how many two-slit maxima are in the central peak of the diffraction envelope and (b) how many are in either of the first side peak of the diffrac- tion envelope?
83
GO In a two-slit interference pattern, what is the ratio of slit separation to slit width if there are 17 bright fringes within the central diffraction envelope and the diffraction minima coincide with two-slit interference maxima? 84
A beam of light with a narrow wavelength range centered on 450 nm is incident perpendicularly on a diffraction grating with a width of 1.80 cm and a line density of 1400 lines/cm across that width. For this light, what is the smallest wavelength differ- ence this grating can resolve in the third order? 85
BIO If you look at something 40 m from you, what is the smallest length (perpendicular to your line of sight) that you can resolve, according to Rayleigh’s criterion? Assume the pupil of your eye has a diameter of 4.00 mm, and use 500 nm as the wavelength of the light reaching you.
86
Two yellow flowers are separated by 60 cm along a line perpendicular to your line of sight to the flowers. How far are you from the flowers when they are at the limit of reso- lution according to the Rayleigh criterion? Assume the light from the flowers has a single wavelength of 550 nm and that your pupil has a diameter of 5.5 mm. 87
BIO
A diffraction grating 3.00 cm wide produces the second order at 33.0° with light of wavelength 600 nm. What is the total number of lines on the grating? 89
A single-slit diffraction experiment is set up with light of wavelength 420 nm, incident perpendicularly on a slit of width 5.10 μm. The viewing screen is 3.20 m distant. On the screen, what is the distance between the center of the diffraction pattern and the second diffraction minimum? 90
A diffraction grating has 8900 slits across 1.20 cm. If light with a wavelength of 500 nm is sent through it, how many orders (maxima) lie to one side of the central maximum? 91
In an experiment to monitor the Moon’s surface with a light beam, pulsed radiation from a ruby laser (λ = 0.69 μm) was directed to the Moon through a reflecting telescope with a mirror radius of 1.3 m. A reflector on the Moon behaved like a circular flat mirror with radius 10 cm, reflecting the light directly back toward the tele- scope on Earth. The reflected light was then detected after being brought to a focus by this telescope. Approximately what fraction of the original light energy was picked up by the detector? Assume that for each direction of travel all the energy is in the central dif- fraction peak. 92
tn e di cn I
ψ
In a single-slit diffraction experiment, what must be the ratio of the slit width to the wavelength if the second diffraction minima are to occur at an angle of 37.0° from the center of the diffraction pattern on a viewing screen? 88
In June 1985, a laser beam was sent out from the Air Force Optical Station on Maui, Hawaii, and reflected back from the shuttle Discovery as it sped by 354 km overhead. The diameter of the central maximum of the beam at the shuttle position was said to be 9.1 m, and the beam wavelength was 500 nm. What is the effective diameter of the laser aperture at the Maui ground station? (Hint: A laser beam spreads only because of diffraction; assume a circular exit aperture.) 93
A diffraction grating 1.00 cm wide has 10 000 parallel slits. Monochromatic light that is incident normally is diffracted through 30° in the first order. What is the wavelength of the light? 94
SSM If you double the width of a single slit, the intensity of the central maximum of the diffraction pattern increases by a factor of 4, even though the energy passing through the slit only doubles. Explain this quantitatively.
95
When monochromatic light is incident on a slit 22.0 μm wide, the first diffraction minimum lies at 1.80° from the direc- tion of the incident light. What is the wavelength? 96
A spy satellite orbiting at 160 km above Earth’s surface has a lens with a focal length of 3.6 m and can resolve objects on the ground as small as 30 cm. For example, it can easily measure the size of an aircraft’s air intake port. What is the effective diameter of the lens as determined by diffraction consideration alone? Assume λ = 550 nm. 97
Epidural with fiber Bragg grating. A fiber Bragg grating is an optical fiber that has had its core treated with ultraviolet light so that it has a periodic variation in its index of refraction, with a certain spacing d. Along a few millimeters, there are “lines” with a greater index than the rest of the core (Fig. 36.21a). When light over a broad wavelength range is sent into the fiber, one wavelength, called the Bragg wavelength λ B , is reflected and 98
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P ROBL EMS
Core
Clading
Transmitted light
B Greater n
d
Clading
Input light Ref lected light
(a ) )mn( B ∆
0
‒10
0
F (N)
13
(b ) 12
)N( F
the rest is transmitted. The value of λ B depends on d. If a force F decreases the length of the grating, decreasing d, then λ B decreases. Thus, the grating acts as a strain gauge. Figure 36.21b gives the change Δ λ B in the Bragg wavelength versus applied force F. Recent research suggests that a fiber Bragg grating could be used in robotic assisted surgery in an epidural procedure in which a needle is inserted into the epidural space of the spinal column to release an anesthetic fluid. The surgeon first inserts the needle into the back and then manually monitors the force magnitude required to advance the needle. This tricky proce- dure requires much practice so that the surgeon knows when the needle has reached the epidural space and not overshot it, an error that could result in serious complications. Figure 36.21c is a graph of the force magnitude F versus displacement x of the needle tip in a typical epidural procedure. (The line segments have been straightened somewhat from the original data.) (1) As x increases from 0, the skin resists the needle, but at x = 8.0 mm the force is finally great enough to pierce the skin, and then the required force decreases. (2) Next, the needle finally pierces the interspinous ligament at x = 18 mm and (3) the rela- tively tough ligamentum flavum at x = 30 mm. (4) As the needle then enters the epidural space, the force drops sharply. A new surgeon must learn this pattern of force magnitude versus dis- placement to recognize when to stop pushing on the needle. If a fiber Bragg grating could be incorporated into an epidural needle, an automated system could monitor Δ λ B to determine when the needle is properly placed. For the plot of Fig. 36.21b, what is Δ λ B for the peak force at (a) x = 8.0 mm, (b) x = 18 mm, and (c) x = 30 mm?
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6
0
10
20 x
Figure 36.21
30
(mm) (c )
Problem 98.
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Relativity
37.1 SIMULTANEITY AND TIME DILATION Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
37.1.1 Identify the two postulates of (special) relativity
37.1.6 Explain what is meant by the entanglement of
and the type of frames to which they apply.
the spatial and temporal separations between two
37.1.2 Identify the speed of light as the ultimate speed and give its approximate value.
events. 37.1.7 Identify the conditions in which a temporal sep-
37.1.3 Explain how the space and time coordinates of an event can be measured with a three-dimensional array
aration of two events is a proper time. 37.1.8 Identify that if the temporal separation of two
of clocks and measuring rods and how that eliminates
events is a proper time as measured in one frame,
the need of a signal’s travel time to an observer.
that separation is greater (dilated) as measured in
37.1.4 Identify that the relativity of space and time has to do with transferring measurements between
another frame.
two inertial frames with relative motion but we still
dilated time
use classical kinematics and Newtonian mechanics within a frame.
Δt 0, Δt, and the relative speed v between
37.1.9 Apply the relationship between proper time
two frames. 37.1.10 Apply the relationships between the relative
β
v
37.1.5 Identify that for reference frames with relative
speed , the speed parameter , and the Lorentz
γ
motion, simultaneous events in one of the frames
factor .
will generally not be simultaneous in the other frame.
Key Ideas ●
Einstein’s special theory of relativity is based on two
●
If two successive events occur at the same place
Δt 0
postulates: (1) The laws of physics are the same for
in an inertial reference frame, the time interval
observers in all inertial reference frames. (2) The speed
between them, measured on a single clock where they
of light in vacuum has the same value
c in all directions
and in all inertial reference frames. ●
occur, is the proper time between them. Observers in frames moving relative to that frame will always mea-
Three s pace coordinates and one time coordinate
s pecify an ev ent. One tas k of s pecial relativity is to relate thes e coordinates as as s igned by two
Δt for the time interval, an effect
sure a larger value
known as time dilation. ●
Δt 0 Δt 0 _________ ______ Δt = ___________ = ________ = γ Δt 0, 2 √ 1 − (v/ c) √ 1 − β2
each other. ●
v
If the relative speed between the two frames is , then
obs erv ers who are in uniform motion with res pect to
If two observers are in relative motion, they gen-
______
β2 β = v/c is the speed parameter and γ = 1/ √1 −
erally will not agree as to whether two events are
where
simultaneous.
is the Lorentz factor.
What Is Physics?
One principal subject of physics is relativity, the field of study that measures events (things that happen): where and when they happen, and by how much any two events are separated in space and in time. In addition, relativity has to do with transforming such measurements (and also measurements of energy and
1186 /
37.1 SIMU L T ANEIT Y AND T IME D IL AT ION
segamI ytteG aiv sibroC/SIBROC
momentum) between reference frames that move relative to each other. (Hence the name relativity.) Transformations and moving reference frames, such as those we discussed in Modules 4.6 and 4.7, were well understood and quite routine to physicists in 1905. Then Albert Einstein (Fig. 37.1.1) published his special theory of relativity. The adjective special means that the theory deals only with inertial reference frames, which are frames in which Newton’s laws are valid. (Einstein’s general theory of relativity treats the more challenging situation in which reference frames can undergo gravitational acceleration; in this chapter the term relativity implies only inertial reference frames.) Starting with two deceivingly simple postulates, Einstein stunned the scien- tific world by showing that the old ideas about relativity were wrong, even though everyone was so accustomed to them that they seemed to be unquestionable common sense. This supposed common sense, however, was derived only from experience with things that move rather slowly. Einstein’s relativity, which turns out to be correct for all physically possible speeds, predicted many effects that were, at first study, bizarre because no one had ever experienced them. Entangled. In particular, Einstein demonstrated that space and time are entangled; that is, the time between two events depends on how far apart they occur, and vice versa. A lso, the entanglement is different for observers who move relative to each other. One result is that time does not pass at a fixed rate, as if it were ticked off with mechanical regularity on some master g randfather clock that controls the universe. Rather, that rate is adjustable: Relative motion can change the rate at which time passes. Prior to 1905, no one but a few daydreamers would have thought that. Now, engineers and scientists take it for granted because their experience with special relativity has reshaped their common sense. For example, any engineer involved with the Global Positioning System of the NAVSTAR satellites must routinely use relativity (both special relativity and general relativ- ity) to determine the rate at which time passes on the satellites because that rate differs from the rate on Earth’s surface. If the engineers failed to take relativity into account, GPS would become almost useless in less than one day. Special relativity has the reputation of being difficult. It is not difficult math- ematically, at least not here. However, it is difficult in that we must be very care- ful about who measures what about an event and just how that measurement is made—and it can be difficult because it can contradict routine experience.
1187
Einstein posing for a photograph as fame began to accumulate. Figure 37.1.1
The Postulates
We now examine the two postulates of relativity, on which Einstein’s theory is based: 1. The Relativity Postulate: The laws of physics are the same for observers in all inertial reference frames. No one frame is preferred over any other.
Galileo assumed that the laws of mechanics were the same in all inertial reference frames. Einstein extended that idea to include all the laws of physics, especially those of electromagnetism and optics. This postulate does not say that the mea- sured values of all physical quantities are the same for all inertial observers; most are not the same. It is the laws of physics, which relate these measurements to one another, that are the same. 2. The Speed of Light Postulate: The speed of light in vacuum has the same value c in all directions and in all inertial reference frames.
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C HAP T ER 37 REL AT IV IT Y
6 ) Ve M( ygrene citeniK
deeps etamitlU
4
2
0
1
2 3 Speed (10 8 m/s)
The dots show measured values of the kinetic energy of an electron plotted against its measured speed. No matter how much energy is given to an electron (or to any other particle having mass), its speed can never equal or exceed the ultimate limiting speed c. (The plotted curve through the dots shows the predictions of Einstein’s special theory of relativity.) Figure 37.1.2
We can also phrase this postulate to say that there is in nature an ultimate speed c, the same in all directions and in all inertial reference frames. Light happens to travel at this ultimate speed. However, no entity that carries energy or infor- mation can exceed this limit. Moreover, no particle that has mass can actually reach speed c, no matter how much or for how long that particle is accelerated. (Alas, the faster-than-light warp drive used in many science fiction stories appears to be impossible.) Both postulates have been exhaustively tested, and no exceptions have ever been found. The Ultimate Speed
The existence of a limit to the speed of accelerated electrons was shown in a 1964 experiment by W. Bertozzi, who accelerated electrons to various measured speeds and—by an independent method—measured their kinetic energies. He found that as the force on a very fast electron is increased, the electron’s mea- sured kinetic energy increases toward very large values but its speed does not increase appreciably (Fig. 37.1.2). Electrons have been accelerated in laborato- ries to at least 0.999 999 999 95 times the speed of light but—close though it may be—that speed is still less than the ultimate speed c. This ultimate speed has been defined to be exactly c = 299 792 458 m /s.
(37.1.1)
Caution: So far in this book we have (appropriately) approximated c as 3.0 × 10 8 m /s, but in this chapter we shall often use the exact value. You might want to store the exact value in your calculator’s memory (if it is not there already), to be called up when needed. Testing the Speed of Light Postulate
If the speed of light is the same in all inertial reference frames, then the speed of light emitted by a source moving relative to, say, a laboratory should be the same as the speed of light that is emitted by a source at rest in the laboratory. This claim has been tested directly, in an experiment of high precision. The “light source” was the neutral pion (symbol π0 ), an unstable, short-lived particle that can be produced by collisions in a particle accelerator. It decays (transforms) into two gamma rays by the process
π0 → γ + γ .
(37.1.2)
Gamma rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum (at very high frequencies) and so obey the speed of light postulate, just as visible light does. (In this chapter we shall use the term light for any type of electromagnetic wave, v isible or not.) In 1964, physicists at CERN, the European particle-physics laboratory near Geneva, generated a beam of pions moving at a speed of 0.999 7 5c with respect to the laboratory. The experimenters then measured the speed of the gamma rays emitted from these very rapidly moving sources. They found that the speed of the light emitted by the pions was the same as it would be if the pions were at rest in the laboratory, namely c.
Measuring an Event
An event is something that happens, and every event can be assigned three space coordinates and one time coordinate. Among many possible events are (1) the turning on or off of a tiny lightbulb, (2) the collision of two particles, (3) the passage of a pulse of light through a specified point, (4) an explosion, and (5) the sweeping of the hand of a clock past a marker on the rim of the clock. A certain observer, fixed in a certain inertial reference frame, m ight, for example,
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37.1 SIMU L T ANEIT Y AND T IME D IL AT ION
assign to an event A the coordinates given in Table 37.1.1. Because space and time are entangled with each other in relativity, we can describe these coordi- nates collectively as spacetime coordinates. The coordinate system itself is part of the reference frame of the observer. A given event may be recorded by any number of observers, each in a dif- ferent inertial reference frame. In general, different observers will assign dif- ferent spacetime coordinates to the same event. Note that an event does not “belong” to any particular inertial reference frame. An event is just something that happens, and anyone in any reference frame may detect it and assign space- time coordinates to it. Travel Times. Making such an assignment can be complicated by a practi- cal problem. For example, suppose a balloon bursts 1 km to your right while a firecracker pops 2 km to your left, both at 9:00 a.m. However, you do not detect either event precisely at 9:00 a.m. because at that instant light from the events has not yet reached you. Because light from the firecracker pop has farther to go, it arrives at your eyes later than does light from the balloon burst, and thus the pop will seem to have occurred later than the burst. To sort out the actual times and to assign 9:00 a.m. as the happening time for both events, you must calculate the travel times of the light and then subtract these times from the arrival times. This procedure can be very m essy in more challenging situations, and we need an easier procedure that automatically eliminates any concern about the travel time from an event to an observer. To set up such a procedure, we shall con- struct an imaginary array of measuring rods and clocks throughout the observer’s inertial frame (the array moves rigidly with the observer). This construction may seem contrived, but it spares us much confusion and calculation and allows us to find the coordinates, as follows.
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Table 37.1.1 Record of Event A
Coordinate
Value
x y z t
3.58 m 1.29 m 0 m 34.5 s
1. The Space Coordinates. We imagine the observer’s coordinate system fitted with a close-packed, three-dimensional array of measuring rods, one set of rods parallel to each of the three coordinate axes. These rods provide a way to determine coordinates along the axes. Thus, if the event is, say, the turning on of a small lightbulb, the observer, in order to locate the position of the event, need only read the three space coordinates at the bulb’s location. 2. The Time Coordinate. For the time coordinate, we imagine that every point of intersection in the array of measuring rods includes a tiny clock, which the observer can read because the clock is illuminated by the light generated by the event. Figure 37.1.3 suggests one plane in the “jungle gym” of clocks and measuring rods we have described. The array of clocks must be synchronized properly. It is not enough to assemble a set of identical clocks, set them all to the same time, a nd then move them to their assigned positions. We do not know, for example, whether mov- ing the clocks will change their rates. (Actually, it will.) We must put the clocks in place and then synchronize them. If we had a method of transmitting signals at infinite speed, synchroniza- tion would be a simple matter. However, no known signal has this property. We therefore choose light (any part of the electromagnetic spectrum) to send out our synchronizing signals because, in vacuum, light travels at the greatest possible speed, the limiting speed c. Here is one of many ways in which an observer might synchronize an array of clocks using light signals: The observer enlists the help of a great number of temporary helpers, one for each clock. The observer then stands at a point selected as the origin and sends out a pulse of light when the origin clock reads t = 0. When the light pulse reaches the location of a helper, that helper sets the clock there to read t = r/c, where r is the distance between the helper and the origin. The clocks are then synchronized.
We use this array to assign spacetime coordinates. y
A
x z
One section of a three- dimensional array of clocks and mea- suring rods by which an observer can assign spacetime coordinates to an event, such as a flash of light at point A. The event’s space coordinates are approximately x = 3.6 rod lengths, y = 1.3 rod lengths, and z = 0. The time coordinate is whatever time appears on the clock closest to A at the instant of the flash. Figure 37.1.3
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C HAP T ER 37 REL AT IV IT Y
3. The Spacetime Coordinates. The observer can now assign spacetime coordi- nates to an event by simply recording the time on the clock nearest the event and the position as measured on the nearest measuring rods. If there are two events, the observer computes their separation in time as the difference in the times on clocks near each and their separation in space from the differences in coordinates on rods near each. We thus avoid the practical problem of calcu- lating the travel times of the signals to the observer from the events.
The Relativity of Simultaneity
Suppose that one observer (Sam) notes that two independent events (event Red and event Blue) occur at the same time. Suppose also that another observer (Sally), who is moving at a constant velocity v with respect to Sam, also records these same two events. Will Sally also find that they occur at the same time? The answer is that in general she will not: →
v B'
Sally
B
Sam
Event Blue (a)
R'
R
Event Red
v
B
R
Sam detects both events (b )
Waves from the two events reach Sam simultaneously but ... Sally detects event Red
v
B
(c )
R
... Sally receives the wave from event Red first. Sally detects event Blue v
B
If two observers are in relative motion, they will not, in general, agree as to whether two events are simultaneous. If one observer finds them to be simulta- neous, the other generally will not.
We cannot say that one observer is right and the other wrong. Their observations are equally valid, and there is no reason to favor one over the other. The realization that two contradictory statements about the same natu- ral events can be correct is a seemingly strange outcome of Einstein’s theory. However, in Chapter 17 we saw another way in which motion can affect measure- ment without balking at the contradictory results: In the Doppler effect, the fre- quency an observer measures for a sound wave depends on the relative motion of observer and source. Thus, two observers moving relative to each other can mea- sure different frequencies for the same wave, and both measurements a re correct. We conclude the following: Simultaneity is not an absolute concept but rather a relative one, depending on the motion of the observer.
If the relative speed of the observers is very much less than the speed of light, then measured departures from simultaneity are so small that they are not noticeable. Such is the case for all our experiences of daily living; that is why the relativity of simultaneity is unfamiliar. A Closer Look at Simultaneity
R
(d )
The spaceships of Sally and Sam and the occurrences of events from Sam’s view. Sally’s ship moves rightward with velocity v . (a) Event Red occurs at positions RRʹ and event Blue occurs at positions BBʹ; each event sends out a wave of light. (b) Sam simultaneously detects the waves from event Red and event Blue. (c) Sally detects the wave from event Red. (d) Sally detects the wave from event Blue. Figure 37.1.4
→
Let us clarify the relativity of simultaneity with an example based on the postu- lates of relativity, no clocks or measuring rods being directly involved. Figure 37.1.4 shows two long spaceships (the SS Sally and the SS Sam), which can serve as inertial reference frames for observers Sally and Sam. The two observers are stationed at the midpoints of their ships. The ships are separating along a com- mon x axis, the relative velocity of Sally with respect to Sam being v . Figure 37.1.4a shows the ships with the two observer stations momentarily aligned oppo- site each other. Two large meteorites strike the ships, one setting off a red flare (event Red) and the other a blue flare (event Blue), not necessarily simultaneously. Each event leaves a permanent mark on each ship, at positions RRʹ and BBʹ. Let us suppose that the expanding wavefronts from the two events happen to reach Sam at the same time, as Fig. 37.1.4b shows. Let us further suppose that, →
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37.1 SIMU L T ANEIT Y AND T IME D IL AT ION
1191
after the episode, Sam finds, by measuring the marks on his spaceship, that he was indeed stationed exactly halfway between the markers B and R on his ship when the two events occurred. He will say: Light from event Red and light from event Blue reached me at the same time. From the marks on my spaceship, I find that I was standing halfway between the two sources. Therefore, event Red and event Blue were simultaneous events.
Sam
As study of Fig. 37.1.4 shows, Sally and the expanding wavefront from event Red are moving toward each other, while she and the expanding wavefront from event Blue are moving in the same direction. Thus, the wavefront from event Red will reach Sally before the wavefront from event Blue does. She will say: Light from event Red reached me before light from event Blue did. From the marks on my spaceship, I found that I too was standing halfway between the two sources. Therefore, the events were not simultaneous; event Red occurred first, followed by event Blue.
Sally
These reports do not agree. Nevertheless, both observers are correct. Note carefully that there is only one wavefront expanding from the site of each event and that this wavefront travels with the same speed c in both reference frames, exactly as the speed of light postulate requires. It might have happened that the meteorites struck the ships in such a way that the two hits appeared to Sally to be simultaneous. If that had been the case, then Sam would have declared them not to be simultaneous.
The Relativity of Time
If observers who move relative to each other measure the time interval (or tem- poral separation) between two events, they generally will find different results. Why? Because the spatial separation of the events can affect the time intervals measured by the observers. The time interval between two events depends on how far apart they occur in both space and time; that is, their spatial and temporal separations are entangled.
In this module we discuss this entanglement by means of an example; however, the example is restricted in a crucial way: To one of two observers, the two events occur at the same location. We shall not get to more general examples until Module 37.3. Figure 37.1.5a shows the basics of an experiment Sally conducts while she and her equipment—a light source, a mirror, and a clock—ride in a train moving with constant velocity v relative to a station. A pulse of light leaves the light source B (event 1), travels vertically upward, is reflected vertically downward by the mirror, and then is detected back at the source (event 2). Sally measures a certain time interval Δt 0 between the two events, related to the distance D from source to mirror by →
___ Δt 0 = 2D c
(Sally).
(37.1.3)
The two events occur at the same location in Sally’s reference frame, and she needs only one clock C at that location to measure the time interval. Clock C is shown twice in Fig. 37.1.5a, at the beginning and end of the interval. Consider now how these same two events a re measured by Sam, who is stand- ing on the station platform as the train passes. Because the equipment moves
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C HAP T ER 37 REL AT IV IT Y
Mirror M
The measure of that time interval on Sally’s clock differs from that on Sam’s clock due to the relative motion.
Event 1 is the emission of light. Event 2 is the return of the light. We want the time between them.
D
Mirror Event 1
Event 2 MOTION
B
(a) Sally, on the train, measures the time inter- val Δt 0 between events 1 and 2 using a single clock C on the train. That clock is shown twice: first for event 1 and then for event 2. (b) Sam, watching from the station as the events occur, requires two synchronized clocks, C 1 at event 1 and C 2 at event 2, to measure the time interval between the two events; his measured time interval is Δt.
L
Figure 37.1.5
D
L
Event 1
Event 2
C B
B
v Δ t
Δt 0
Δt
C1
C
C2
Sally
Sam
(a )
(b )
with the train during the travel time of the light, Sam sees the path of the light as shown in Fig. 37.1.5b. For him, the two events occur at different places in his ref- erence frame, and so to measure the time interval between events, Sam must use two synchronized clocks, C 1 and C 2, one at each event. According to Einstein’s speed of light postulate, the light travels at the same speed c for Sam as for Sally. Now, however, the light travels distance 2L between events 1 and 2. The time interval measured by Sam between the two events is 2L Δt = ___ c in which
(Sam), ______________
_ v Δt) 2 + D 2 . L = √ ( 1 2
(37.1.4) (37.1.5)
From Eq. 37.1.3, we can write this as ___________________
1 1 2 L = √ ( _ v Δt) 2 + ( _ c Δt 0) . 2 2
(37.1.6)
If we eliminate L between Eqs. 37.1.4 a nd 37.1.6 a nd solve for Δt, we find Δt 0 _________ Δt = ___________ . √ 1 − (v/ c) 2
(37.1.7)
Equation 37.1.7 tells us how Sam’s measured interval Δt between the events compares with Sally’s interval Δt 0. Because v must be less than c, the denominator in Eq. 37.1.7 must be less than unity. Thus, Δt must be greater than Δt 0 : Sam measures a greater time interval between the two events than does Sally. Sam and Sally have measured the time interval between the same two events, but the relative motion between Sam and Sally made their measurements different. We conclude that rela- tive motion can change the rate at which time passes between two events; the key to this effect is the fact that the speed of light is the same for both observers. We distinguish between the measurements of Sam and Sally in this way: When two events occur at the same location in an inertial reference frame, the time interval between them, measured in that frame, is called the proper time interval or the proper time. Measurements of the same time interval from any other inertial reference frame are always greater.
/
37.1 SIMU L T ANEIT Y AND T IME D IL AT ION
Thus, Sally measures a proper time interval, and Sam measures a greater time interval. (The term proper is unfortunate in that it implies that any other measurement is improper or nonreal. That is just not so.) The amount by which a measured time interval is greater than the corresponding proper time interval is called time dilation. (To dilate is to expand or stretch; here the time interval is expanded or stretched.) Often the dimensionless ratio v/c in Eq. 37.1.7 is replaced with β, called the speed parameter, and the dimensionless inverse square root in Eq. 37.1.7 is often replaced with γ , called the Lorentz factor : 1 1 ______ _________ γ = ________ = ___________ . 2 √ 1 − (v/ c) 2 √ 1 − β
As the speed parameter goes to 1.0 (as the speed approaches c), the Lorentz factor approaches inf inity. 10 8
γ
(time dilation).
6 4 2
(37.1.8)
With these replacements, we can rewrite Eq. 37.1.7 a s Δt = γ Δt 0
1193
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
β
0.8
1.0
A plot of the Lorentz factor γ as a function of the speed parameter β (= v/c). Figure 37.1.6
(37.1.9)
The speed parameter β is always less than unity, and, provided v is not zero, γ is always greater than unity. However, the difference between γ and 1 is not sig- nificant unless v > 0.1c. Thus, in general, “old relativity” works well enough for v f 0 for the emitted light. (a) Is the detector moving toward the left or the right? (b) Is the speed of the detector as measured from reference frame S more than c/4, less than c/4, or equal to c/4?
Transverse Doppler Effect
So far, we have discussed the Doppler effect, here and in Chapter 17, only for situations in which the source and the detector move either directly toward or directly away from each other. Figure 37.5.1 shows a different arrangement, in which a source S moves past a detector D. When S reaches point P, the velocity of S is perpendicular to the line joining P and D, and at that instant S is moving neither toward nor away from D. If the source is emitting sound waves of fre- quency f 0 , D detects that frequency (with no Doppler effect) when it intercepts the waves that were emitted at point P. However, if the source is emitting light waves, there is still a Doppler effect, called the transverse Doppler effect. In this situa- tion, the detected frequency of the light emitted when the source is at point P is ______
f = f 0 √ 1 − β 2
(transverse Doppler effect).
(37.5.7)
For low speeds (β ⪡ 1), Eq. 37.5.7 can be expanded in a power series in β and approximated as 1 2 _ f = f 0(1 − 2 β )
(low speeds).
(37.5.8)
Here the first term is what we would expect for sound waves, and again the relativis- tic effect for low-speed light sources and detectors appears with the β2 term. In principle, a police radar unit can determine the speed of a car even when the path of the radar beam is perpendicular (transverse) to the path of the car. However, Eq. 37.5.8 tells us that because β is small even for a fast car, the relativ- istic term β 2 /2 in the transverse D oppler effect is extremely small. Thus, f ≈ f 0 and the radar unit computes a speed of zero. The transverse Doppler effect is really another test of time dilation. If we rewrite Eq. 37.5.7 in terms of the period T of oscillation of the emitted light wave instead of the frequency, we have, because T = 1/f, T 0 ______ T = ________ = γ T 0, √ 1 − β2
(37.5.9)
in which T 0 (= 1/f 0 ) is the proper period of the source. As comparison with Eq. 37.1.9 shows, Eq. 37.5.9 is simply the time dilation formula.
/
37.6 MOMENT U M AND ENERGY
1209
37.6 MOMENTUM AND ENERGY Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
37.6.1 Identify that the classical expressions for momen-
37.6.5 Sketch a graph of kinetic energy versus the ratio
v/c (of speed to light speed) for both classical and
tum and kinetic energy are approximately correct for slow speeds whereas the relativistic expressions are correct for any physically possible speed.
relativistic expressions of kinetic energy. 37.6.6 Apply the work–kinetic energy theorem to relate
37.6.2 Apply the relationship between momentum,
work by an applied force and the resulting change in
mass, and relative speed.
kinetic energy.
37.6.3 Identify that an object has a mass energy (or
37.6.7 For a reaction, apply the relationship between
rest energy) associated with its mass.
the
37.6.4 Apply the relationships between total energy,
Q value and the change in the mass energy.
37.6.8 For a reaction, identify the correlation between
Q and whether energy is
rest energy, kinetic energy, momentum, mass,
the algebraic sign of
speed, the speed parameter, and the Lorentz factor.
released or absorbed by the reaction.
Key Ideas ●
p , K, and total energy E for a particle of →
The following definitions of linear momentum
●
These equations lead to the relationships
( pc) 2 = K 2 + 2Kmc 2
kinetic energy
m are valid at any physically possible speed:
mass
p = γm v
→
→
E = mc 2 + K = γ mc 2 K = mc 2 (γ − 1) Here and
(momentum),
E 2 = ( pc) 2 + ( mc 2 ) 2 .
and ●
When a system of particles undergoes a chemical or
Q of the reaction is the negative
(total energy),
nuclear reaction, the
(kinetic energy).
of the change in the system’s total mass energy:
Q = M i c 2 − M f c 2 = −ΔM c 2 ,
γ is the Lorentz factor for the particle’s motion,
mc 2 is the mass energy, or rest energy, associated
with the mass of the particle.
M i is the system’s total mass before the reaction M f is its total mass after the reaction.
where and
A New Look at Momentum
Suppose that a number of observers, each in a different inertial reference frame, watch an isolated collision between two particles. In classical mechanics, we have seen that—even though the observers measure different velocities for the col- liding particles—they all find that the law of conservation of momentum holds. That is, they find that the total momentum of the system of particles after the collision is the same as it was before the collision. How is this situation affected by relativity? We find that if we continue to define the momentum p of a particle as m v , the product of its mass and its veloc- ity, total momentum is not conserved for the observers in different inertial frames. So, we need to redefine momentum in order to save that conservation law. Consider a particle moving with constant speed v in the positive direction of an x axis. Classically, its momentum has magnitude Δ x p = mv = m ___ (37.6.1) (classical momentum), Δ t in which Δx is the distance it travels in time Δt. To find a relativistic expression for momentum, we start with the new definition →
→
Δ x . p = m ___ Δ t 0
/
1210
C HAP T ER 37 REL AT IV IT Y
Here, as before, Δx is the distance traveled by a moving particle as viewed by an observer watching that particle. However, Δt 0 is the time required to travel that distance, measured not by the observer watching the moving particle but by an observer moving with the particle. The particle is at rest with respect to this second observer; thus that measured time is a proper time. Using the time dilation formula, Δt = γ Δt 0 (Eq. 37.1.9), we can then write Δ x = m Δ x ___ Δ t = m ___ Δ x γ. ___ p = m ___ Δ t 0 Δ t Δ t 0 Δ t However, since Δx/Δt is just the particle velocity v, we have p = γmv
(momentum).
(37.6.2)
Note that this differs from the classical definition of Eq. 37.6.1 only by the Lorentz factor γ. However, that difference is important: Unlike classical momentum, rela- tivistic momentum approaches an infinite value as v approaches c. We can generalize the definition of Eq. 37.6.2 to vector form as p = γ m v
→
→
(momentum).
(37.6.3)
This equation gives the correct definition of momentum for all physically pos- sible speeds. For a speed much less than c, it reduces to the classical definition of momentum ( p = m v ). →
→
A New Look at Energy Mass Energy
The science of chemistry was initially developed with the assumption that in chemical reactions, energy and mass are conserved separately. In 1905, Einstein showed that as a consequence of his theory of special relativity, m ass can be con- sidered to be another form of energy. Thus, the law of conservation of energy is really the law of conservation of mass–energy. In a chemical reaction (a process in which atoms or molecules interact), the amount of mass that is transferred into other forms of energy (or vice versa) is such a tiny fraction of the total mass involved that there is no hope of measur- ing the mass change with even the best laboratory balances. Mass and energy truly seem to be separately conserved. However, in a nuclear reaction (in which nuclei or fundamental particles interact), the energy released is often about a mil- lion times greater than in a chemical reaction, and the change in mass can easily be measured. An object’s mass m and the equivalent energy E 0 are related by E 0 = mc 2 ,
(37.6.4)
which, without the subscript 0, is the best-known science equation of all time. This energy that is associated with the mass of an object is called mass energy or rest energy. The second name suggests that E 0 is an energy that the object has even when it is at rest, simply because it has mass. (If you continue your study of physics beyond this book, you will see more refined discussions of the relation between mass and energy. You might even encounter disagreements about just what that relation is and means.) Table 37.6.1 shows the (approximate) mass energy, or rest energy, of a few objects. The mass energy of, say, a U.S. penny is enormous; the equivalent amount of electrical energy would cost well over a million dollars. On the other hand, the entire annual U.S. electrical energy production corresponds to a mass of only a few hundred kilograms of matter (stones, burritos, or anything else).
/
37.6 MOMENT U M AND ENERGY
1211
Table 37.6.1 The Energy Equivalents of a Few Objects
Object
Mass (kg)
Electron Proton Uranium atom Dust particle U.S. penny
Energy Equivalent
≈ 9.11 × 10 −31 ≈ 1.67 × 10 −27 ≈ 3.95 × 10 −25 ≈ 1 × 10 −13 ≈ 3.1 × 10 −3
≈ 8.19 × 10 −14 J ≈ 1.50 × 10 −10 J ≈ 3.55 × 10 −8 J ≈ 1 × 10 4 J ≈ 2.8 × 10 14 J
(≈ 511 keV) (≈ 938 MeV) (≈ 225 GeV) (≈ 2 kcal) (≈ 78 GW · h)
In practice, SI units are rarely used with Eq. 37.6.4 because they are too large to be convenient. Masses are usually measured in atomic mass units, where 1 u = 1.660 5 38 86 × 10 −27 kg,
(37.6.5)
and energies are usually measured in electron-volts or multiples of it, where 1 eV = 1.602 1 76 462 × 10 −19 J.
(37.6.6) 2
In the units of Eqs. 37.6.5 a nd 37.6.6, the multiplying constant c has the values c 2 = 9.314 940 13 × 10 8 eV/u = 9.314 940 13 × 10 5 keV/u = 931.494 013 MeV / u.
(37.6.7)
Total Energy
Equation 37.6.4 g ives, for any object, the mass energy E 0 that is associated with the object’s mass m, regardless of whether the object is at rest or moving. If the object is moving, it has additional energy in the form of kinetic energy K. If we assume that the object’s potential energy is zero, then its total energy E is the sum of its mass energy and its kinetic energy: E = E 0 + K = mc 2 + K.
(37.6.8)
Although we shall not prove it, the total energy E can also be written as E = γmc 2 ,
(37.6.9)
where γ is the Lorentz factor for the object’s motion. Since Chapter 7, we have discussed many examples involving changes in the total energy of a particle or a system of particles. However, we did not include mass energy in the discussions because the changes in mass energy were either zero or small enough to be neglected. The law of conservation of total energy still applies when changes in mass energy a re significant. Thus, regardless of what happens to the mass energy, the following statement from Module 8.5 is still true: The total energy E of an isolated system cannot change.
For example, if the total mass energy of two interacting particles in an isolated system decreases, some other type of energy in the system m ust increase because the total energy c annot change. Q Value . In a system undergoing a chemical or nuclear reaction, a change in the total mass energy of the system due to the reaction is often given as a Q value. The Q value for a reaction is obtained from the relation system’s initial
system’s final
( total mass energy ) = (total mass energy ) + Q, or
E 0i = E 0 f + Q.
(37.6.10)
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1212
C HAP T ER 37 REL AT IV IT Y
Using Eq. 37.6.4 (E 0 = mc 2 ), we can rewrite this in terms of the initial total mass M i and the final total mass M f as M i c 2 = M f c 2 + Q, Q = M i c 2 − M f c 2 = −ΔM c 2 ,
or
(37.6.11)
where the change in mass due to the reaction is ΔM = M f − M i. If a reaction results in the transfer of energy from mass energy to, say, kinetic energy of the reaction products, the system’s total mass energy E 0 (and total mass M ) decreases and Q is positive. If, instead, a reaction requires that energy be transferred to mass energy, the system’s total mass energy E 0 (and its total mass M ) increases and Q is negative. For example, suppose two hydrogen nuclei undergo a fusion reaction in which they join together to form a single nucleus and release two particles: H + 1 H → 2 H + e + + v,
1 2
where H is another type of hydrogen nucleus (with a neutron in addition to the proton), e + is a positron, and v is a neutrino. The total mass energy (and total mass) of the resultant single nucleus and two released particles is less than the total mass energy (and total mass) of the initial hydrogen nuclei. Thus, the Q of the fusion reaction is positive, and energy is said to be released (transferred from mass energy) by the reaction. This release is important to you because the fusion of hydrogen nuclei in the Sun is one part of the process that results in sunshine on Earth and makes life here possible. Kinetic Energy
In Chapter 7 we defined the kinetic energy K of an object of mass m moving at speed v well below c to be 1 2 K = _ 2 mv .
As v/c approaches 1.0, the actual kinetic energy approaches inf inity.
However, this classical equation is only an approximation that is good enough when the speed is well below the speed of light. Let us now find an expression for kinetic energy that is correct for all physi- cally possible speeds, including speeds close to c. Solving Eq. 37.6.8 for K and then substituting for E from Eq. 37.6.9 lead to
1.5
1.0 ) Ve M( K
K
= mc 2
(37.6.12)
K = E − mc 2 = γmc 2 − mc 2 = mc 2 (γ − 1)
1 –1 1 – (v /c)2
(kinetic energy),
(37.6.13)
_________
0.5
0
K
0
0.2
0.4
v/ c
0.6
= 1–2 mv 2
0.8
1.0
The relativistic (Eq. 37.6.13) and classical (Eq. 37.6.12) equations for the kinetic energy of an electron, plotted as a function of v/c, where v is the speed of the elec- tron and c is the speed of light. Note that the two curves blend together at low speeds and diverge widely at high speeds. Experimental data (at the × marks) show that at high speeds the relativistic curve agrees with experiment but the classical curve does not. Figure 37.6.1
2 where γ (= 1/ √1 − (v/c) ) is the Lorentz factor for the object’s motion. Figure 37.6.1 shows plots of the kinetic energy of an electron as calculated with the correct definition (Eq. 37.6.13) and the classical approximation (Eq. 37.6.12), both as functions of v/c. Note that on the left side of the graph the two plots coincide; this is the part of the graph—at lower speeds—where we have cal- culated kinetic energies so far in this book. This part of the graph tells us that we have been justified in calculating kinetic energy with the classical expression of Eq. 37.6.12. However, on the right side of the graph—at speeds near c —the two plots differ significantly. As v/c approaches 1.0, the plot for the classical definition of kinetic energy increases only moderately while the plot for the correct defini- tion of kinetic energy increases dramatically, approaching an infinite value as v/c approaches 1.0. Thus, when an object’s speed v is near c, we must use Eq. 37.6.13 to calculate its kinetic energy. Work. Figure 37.6.1 also tells us something about the work we must do on an object to increase its speed by, say, 1%. The required work W is equal to the resulting change ΔK in the object’s kinetic energy. If the change is to occur on the low-speed, left side of Fig. 37.6.1, the required work might be modest. However, if the change is to occur on the high-speed, right side of Fig. 37.6.1, the required work could be enormous because the kinetic energy K increases so rapidly there
/
37.6 MOMENT U M AND ENERGY
with an increase in speed v. To increase an object’s speed to c would require, in principle, an infinite amount of energy; thus, doing so is impossible. The kinetic energies of electrons, protons, and other particles are often stated with the unit electron-volt or one of its multiples used as an adjective. For example, an electron with a kinetic energy of 20 MeV may be described as a 20 MeV electron.
This might help you to remember the relations. K E
2
m
c
pc
θ
Momentum and Kinetic Energy
In classical mechanics, the momentum p of a particle is mv and its kinetic energy _ mv 2 . If we eliminate v between these two expressions, we find a direct rela- K is 1 2 tion between momentum and kinetic energy: p 2 = 2Km
(classical).
(37.6.14)
We can find a similar connection in relativity by eliminating v between the relativistic definition of momentum (Eq. 37.6.2) a nd the relativistic definition of kinetic energy (Eq. 37.6.13). D oing so leads, after some algebra, to ( pc) 2 = K 2 + 2Kmc 2 .
1213
mc
2
A useful memory dia- gram for the relativistic relations among the total energy E, the rest energy or mass energy mc 2 , the kinetic energy K, and the momentum magnitude p. Figure 37.6.2
(37.6.15)
With the aid of Eq. 37.6.8, we can transform Eq. 37.6.15 into a relation between the momentum p and the total energy E of a particle: E 2 = ( pc) 2 + (mc 2 ) 2 .
(37.6.16)
The right triangle of Fig. 37.6.2 can help you keep these useful relations in mind. You can also show that, in that triangle, sin θ = β
and cos θ = 1/γ.
(37.6.17)
With Eq. 37.6.16 we can see that the product pc must have the same unit as energy E; thus, we can express the unit of momentum p as an energy unit divided by c, usually as MeV/c or GeV/c in fundamental particle physics. Checkpoint 37.6.1
Are (a) the kinetic energy and (b) the total energy of a 1 GeV electron more than, less than, or equal to those of a 1 GeV proton?
Sample Problem 37.6.1
Energy and momentum of a relativistic electron
(a) What is the total energy E of a 2.53 MeV electron?
KEY IDEA From Eq. 37.6.8, the total energy E is the sum of the elec- tron’s mass energy (or rest energy) mc 2 and its kinetic energy: E = mc 2 + K.
(37.6.18)
The adjective “2.53 MeV” in the problem statement means that the electron’s kinetic energy is 2.53 MeV. To evaluate the electron’s mass energy mc 2 , we substitute the electron’s mass m from Appendix B, obtaining Calculations:
mc 2 = (9.109 × 10 −31 kg)(299 792 458 m / s) 2 = 8.187 × 10 −14 J. Then dividing this result by 1.602 × 10 −13 J/MeV gives us 0.511 MeV as the electron’s mass energy (confirming the value in Table 37.6.1). Equation 37.6.18 then yields
E = 0.511 MeV + 2.53 MeV = 3.04 MeV. (Answer) (b) What is the magnitude p of the electron’s momen- tum, in the unit MeV/c? (Note that c is the symbol for the speed of light and not itself a unit.)
KEY IDEA We can find p from the total energy E and the mass energy mc 2 via Eq. 37.6.16, E 2 = ( pc) 2 + (mc 2 ) 2 . Calculations:
Solving for pc gives us
_____________
pc = √ E 2 − ( m c 2 ) 2
_________________________
= √ (3.04 MeV) 2 − (0.511 MeV) 2 = 3.00 MeV. Finally, dividing both sides by c we find p = 3.00 MeV/c.
(Answer) /
1214
C HAP T ER 37 REL AT IV IT Y
Sample Problem 37.6.2
Energy and an astounding discrepancy in travel time
The most energetic proton ever detected in the cosmic rays coming to Earth from space had an astounding kinetic energy of 3.0 × 10 20 eV (enough energy to warm a tea- spoon of water by a few degrees). (a) What were the proton’s Lorentz factor γ and speed v (both relative to the ground-based detector)?
KEY IDEAS (1) The proton’s Lorentz factor γ relates its total energy E to its mass energy mc 2 via Eq. 37.6.9 (E = γmc 2 ). (2) The proton’s total energy is the sum of its mass energy mc 2 and its (given) kinetic energy K. Calculations:
Putting these ideas together we have
E = ________ mc 2 + K = 1 + ____ K . γ = ____ 2 mc mc 2 mc 2
(37.6.19)
From Table 37.6.1, the proton’s mass energy mc 2 is 938 MeV. Substituting this and the given kinetic energy into Eq. 37.6.19, we obtain 20
3.0 × 10 eV γ = 1 + ____________ 6
938 × 10 eV = 3.198 × 10 11 ≈ 3.2 × 10 11 .
(Answer)
This computed value for γ is so large that we cannot use the definition of γ (Eq. 37.1.8) to find v. Try it; your calculator will tell you that β is effectively equal to 1 and thus that v is effectively e qual to c. Actually, v is almost c, but we want a more accurate a nswer, which we can obtain by first solving Eq. 37.1.8 for 1 − β. To begin we write 1 1 1 ______ _____________ ________ γ = ________ = _______________ ≈ __________ ,
√ 1 − β2
√ (1 − β)(1 + β)
√ 2(1 − β)
where we have used the fact that β is so close to unity that 1 + β is very close to 2. (We can round off the sum of two very close numbers but not their difference.) The velocity we seek is contained in the 1 − β term. Solving for 1 − β then yields 1 = __________________ 1 1 − β = ___ 2 γ 2 (2)(3.198 × 10 11 ) 2 = 4.9 × 10 −24 ≈ 5 × 10 −24 .
β = 1 − 5 × 10 −24
Thus, and, since v = βc,
v ≈ 0.999 9 99 999 999 999 999 999 995c. (Answer)
(b) Suppose that the proton travels along a diameter of the Milky Way Galaxy (9.8 × 10 4 ly). Approximately how long does the proton take to travel that diameter as mea- sured from the common reference frame of Earth and the Galaxy? We just saw that this ultrarelativistic proton is traveling at a speed barely less than c. By the definition of light-year, light takes 1 y to travel a distance of 1 ly, and so light should take 9.8 × 10 4 y to travel 9.8 × 10 4 ly, and this proton should take almost the same time. Thus, from our Earth–Milky Way reference frame, the proton’s trip takes Reasoning:
Δt = 9.8 × 10 4 y.
(Answer)
(c) How long does the trip take as measured in the refer- ence frame of the proton?
KEY IDEAS 1. This problem involves measurements made from two (inertial) reference frames: one is the Earth–Milky Way frame and the other is attached to the proton. 2. This problem also involves two events: The first is when the proton passes one end of the diameter along the Galaxy, and the second is when it passes the opposite end. 3. The time interval between those two events as mea- sured in the proton’s reference frame is the proper time interval Δt 0 because the events occur at the same location in that frame—namely, a t the proton itself. 4. We can find the proper time interval Δt 0 from the time interval Δt measured in the Earth–Milky Way frame by using Eq. 37.1.9 (Δt = γ Δt 0) for time dilation. (Note that we can use that equation because one of the time measures is a proper time. However, we get the same relation if we use a Lorentz transformation.) Solving Eq. 37.1.9 for Δt 0 and substituting γ from (a) and Δt from (b), we find Calculation:
9.8 × 10 4 y Δt = ___________ Δ t 0 = __ γ 3.198 × 10 11 = 3.06 × 10 −7 y = 9.7 s.
(Answer)
In our frame, the trip takes 98 000 y. In the proton’s frame, it takes 9.7 s! As promised at the start of this chapter, rela- tive motion can alter the rate at which time passes, a nd we have here an extreme e xample.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
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REV IEW & SU MMARY
1215
Review & Summary The Postulates
Einstein’s special theory of relativity is based
on two postulates: 1. The laws of physics are the same for observers in all inertial reference frames. No one frame is preferred over any other. 2. The speed of light in vacuum has the same value c in all directions and in all inertial reference frames. The speed of light c in vacuum is an ultimate speed that cannot be exceeded by any entity carrying energy or information. Three space coordinates and one time coordinate specify an event. One task of special rela- tivity is to relate these coordinates as assigned by two observers who are in uniform motion with respect to each other. Coordinates of an Event
If two observers are in relative motion, they will not, in general, agree as to whether two events are simultaneous.
When a particle is moving with speed uʹ in the positive xʹ direction in an inertial reference frame Sʹ that itself is moving with speed v parallel to the x direction of a second inertial frame S, the speed u of the particle as measured in S is Relativity of Velocities
u ′ + v u = _________ (relativistic velocity). 1 + u ′v/ c 2
When a light source and a light detector move directly relative to each other, the wavelength of the light as measured in the rest frame of the source is the proper wavelength λ0 . The detected wavelength λ is either longer (a red shift) or shorter (a blue shift) depending on whether the source– detector separation is increasing or decreasing. When the sepa- ration is increasing, the wavelengths are related by Relativistic Doppler Effect
Simultaneous Events
If two successive events occur at the same place in an inertial reference frame, the time interval Δt 0 between them, measured on a single clock where they occur, is the proper time between the events. Observers in frames moving relative to that frame will measure a larger value for this interval. For an observer moving with relative speed v, the measured time interval is Time Dilation
Δ t0 Δ t0 _________ ______ Δt = ___________ = ________ √ 1 − (v/ c) 2 √ 1 − β2 = γ Δ t0 (time dilation).
_______
1 + β λ = λ 0 √ _____ 1 − β
(source and detector separating), (37.5.2)
where β = v/c and v is the relative radial speed (along a line con- necting the source and detector). If the separation is decreas- ing, the signs in front of the β symbols are reversed. For speeds much less than c, the magnitude of the Doppler wavelength shift (Δλ = λ − λ 0 ) is approximately related to v by |Δ λ| v = ____ λ c ( v ⪡ c). 0
(37.5.6)
If the relative motion of the light source is perpendicular to a line joining the source and detector, the detected frequency f is related to the proper fre- quency f 0 by Transverse Doppler Effect
(37.1.7 to 37.1.9) ______
− β 2 is the Here β = v/c is the speed parameter and γ = 1 /√ 1 Lorentz factor. An important result of time dilation is that mov- ing clocks run slow as measured by an observer at rest. The length L 0 of an object measured by an observer in an inertial reference frame in which the object is at rest is called its proper length. Observers in frames moving relative to that frame and parallel to that length will measure a shorter length. For an observer moving with relative speed v, the measured length is Length Contraction
______ L 0 L = L 0 √ 1 − β 2 = ___ γ (length contraction).
(37.2.1)
The Lorentz transforma- tion equations relate the spacetime coordinates of a single event as seen by observers in two inertial frames, S and Sʹ, where Sʹ is moving relative to S with velocity v in the positive x and xʹ direction. The four coordinates are related by
______
f = f 0 √ 1 − β2 .
(37.3.2)
(37.5.7)
The following definitions of lin- ear momentum p , kinetic energy K, and total energy E for a particle of mass m are valid at any physically possible speed: Momentum and Energy →
p = γm v
→
→
γ
E = mc 2 + K = K = mc 2 (γ − 1)
mc 2
(momentum),
(37.6.3)
(total energy),
(37.6.8, 37.6.9)
(kinetic energy).
(37.6.13)
Here γ is the Lorentz factor for the particle’s motion, and mc 2 is the mass energy, or rest energy, associated with the mass of the particle. These equations lead to the relationships
The Lorentz Transformation
x′ = γ(x − vt), y′ = y, z′ = z, t′ = γ(t − vx/ c 2 ).
(37.4.1)
and
( pc) 2 = K 2 + 2Kmc 2
(37.6.15)
E 2 = ( pc) 2 + (mc 2 ) 2 .
(37.6.16)
When a system of particles undergoes a chemical or nuclear reaction, the Q of the reaction is the negative of the change in the system’s total mass energy: Q = M i c 2 − M f c 2 = −ΔM c 2 ,
(37.6.11)
where M i is the system’s total mass before the reaction and M f is its total mass after the reaction.
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C HAP T ER 37 REL AT IV IT Y
Questions A rod is to move at constant speed v along the x axis of refer- ence frame S, with the rod’s length parallel to that axis. An observer in frame S is to measure the length L of the rod. Which of the curves in Fig. 37.1 best gives length L (vertical axis of the graph) versus speed parameter β? 1
The plane of clocks and mea- y C suring rods in Fig. 37.5 is like that B in Fig. 37.1.3. The clocks along the x axis are separated (center to cen- ter) by 1 light-second, as are the clocks along the y axis, and all the clocks are synchronized via the x procedure described in Module A z 37.1. When the initial synchroniz- Figure 37.5 Question 7. ing signal of t = 0 from the origin reaches (a) clock A, (b) clock B, and (c) clock C, what initial time is then set on those clocks? An event occurs at clock A when it reads 10 s. (d) How long does the signal of that event take to travel to an observer stationed at the origin? (e) What time does that observer assign to the event? 7
a
b
c d
e
Figure 37.2 shows a ship 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 β (attached to reference frame Sʹ) passing us (standing in reference Figure 37.1 frame S). A proton is fired at Questions 1 and 3. nearly the speed of light along the length of the ship, from the front to the rear. (a) Is the spatial separation Δxʹ between the point at which the proton is fired and the point at which it hits the ship’s rear wall a positive or negative quantity? (b) Is the temporal separation Δtʹ between those events a positive or negative quantity? 2
y' y
The rest energy and total energy, respectively, of three particles, expressed in terms of a basic amount A are (1) A, 2A; (2) A, 3A; (3) 3A, 4A. Without written calculation, rank 1 the particles according to their (a) mass, (b) kinetic energy, (c) Lorentz factor, and (d) speed, greatest first. 8
Figure 37.6 shows the triangle of Fig 37.6.2 for six particles; the slanted lines 2 and 4 have the same length. Rank the par- ticles according to (a) mass, (b) momentum magnitude, and (c) Lorentz factor, greatest first. (d) Identify which two particles have the same total energy. (e) Rank the three lowest-mass particles according to kinetic energy, greatest first. 9
S' S
Proton
v
x
Figure 37.2
x'
Question 2 and Problem 68.
Reference frame Sʹ is to pass reference frame S at speed v along the common direction of the xʹ and x axes, as in Fig. 37.3.1. An observer who rides along with frame Sʹ is to count off 25 s on his wristwatch. The corresponding time interval Δt is to be measured by an observer in frame S. Which of the curves in Fig. 37.1 best gives Δt (vertical axis of the graph) versus speed parameter β? 3
Figure 37.3 shows two clocks in stationary frame Sʹ (they are syn- chronized in that frame) and one clock in moving frame S. Clocks C 1 and C 1 ′ read zero when they pass each other. When clocks C 1 and C ′ 2 pass each other, (a) which clock has the smaller reading and (b) which clock measures a proper time? 4
S'
v S
C' 1
C' 2
C1
Figure 37.3
Figure 37.4 shows two clocks in sta- tionary frame S (they are synchronized in that frame) and one clock in mov- ing frame Sʹ. Clocks C 1 and C 1 ′ read zero when they pass each other. When clocks C 1′ and C 2 pass each other, (a) which clock has the smaller reading and (b) which clock measures a proper time?
Question 4.
S'
5
v S C' 1
C1
C2
Figure 37.4
2
3 4 5
6
Figure 37.6
Question 9.
While on board a starship, you intercept signals from four shuttle craft that are moving either directly toward or directly away from you. The signals have the same proper frequency f 0 . The speed and direction (both relative to you) of the shuttle craft are (a) 0.3c toward, (b) 0.6c toward, (c) 0.3c away, and (d) 0.6c away. Rank the shuttle craft according to the frequency you receive, greatest first. 10
Figure 37.7 shows one of four star cruisers that are in a race. As each cruiser passes the starting line, a shuttle craft leaves the cruiser and races toward the finish line. You, judging the race, are stationary relative to the starting and finish lines. The speeds v c of the cruisers relative to you and the speeds v s of the shuttle craft relative to their respective starships are, in that order, (1) 0.70c, 0.40c; (2) 0.40c, 0.70c; (3) 0.20c, 0.90c; (4) 0.50c, 0.60c. (a) Rank the shuttle craft according to their speeds relative to you, greatest first. (b) Rank the shuttle craft according to the distances their pilots measure from the starting line to the finish line, greatest first. (c) Each starship sends a signal to its shuttle craft at a certain frequency f 0 as measured on board the starship. Rank the shuttle craft according to the frequencies they detect, greatest first. 11
Question 5.
Sam leaves Venus in a spaceship headed to Mars and passes Sally, who is on Earth, with a relative speed of 0.5c. (a) Each measures the Venus–Mars voyage time. Who measures a proper time: Sam, Sally, or neither? (b) On the way, Sam sends a pulse of light to Mars. Each measures the travel time of the pulse. Who measures a proper time: Sam, Sally, or neither? 6
vc
vs
Starting line
Finish line Figure 37.7
Question 11. /
P ROBL EMS
1217
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
BIO
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 37.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard Flying
Circus of Physics
Simultaneity and Time Dilation
The mean lifetime of stationary muons is measured to be 2.2000 μs. The mean lifetime of high-speed muons in a burst of cosmic rays observed from Earth is measured to be 16.000 μs. To five significant figures, what is the speed parameter β of these cosmic-ray muons relative to Earth? 1
E
To eight significant figures, what is speed parameter β if the Lorentz factor γ is (a) 1.010 000 0, (b) 10.000 000, (c) 100.000 00, and (d) 1000.000 0? 2 E
M You wish to make a round trip from Earth in a space- ship, traveling at constant speed in a straight line for exactly 6 months (as you measure the time interval) and then returning at the same constant speed. You wish further, on your return, to find Earth as it will be exactly 1000 years in the future. (a) To eight significant figures, at what speed parameter β must you travel? (b) Does it matter whether you travel in a straight line on your journey?
3
(Come) back to the future. Suppose that a father is 20.00 y older than his daughter. He wants to travel outward from Earth for 2.000 y and then back for another 2.000 y (both intervals as he measures them) such that he is then 20.00 y younger than his daughter. What constant speed parameter β (relative to Earth) is required? 4
M
M An unstable high-energy particle enters a detector and leaves a track of length 1.05 mm before it decays. Its speed rela- tive to the detector was 0.992c. What is its proper lifetime? That is, how long would the particle have lasted before decay had it been at rest with respect to the detector?
5
a
)s( tΔ
Module 37.2
The Relativity of Length
An electron of β = 0.999 987 moves along the axis of an evacuated tube that has a length of 3.00 m as measured by a 8
E
SSM A spaceship of rest length 130 m races past a timing station at a speed of 0.740c. (a) What is the length of the space- ship as measured by the timing station? (b) What time interval will the station clock record between the passage of the front and back ends of the ship?
9 E
A meter stick in frame Sʹ makes an angle of 30° with the xʹ axis. If that frame moves parallel to the x axis of frame S with speed 0.90c relative to frame S, what is the length of the stick as measured from S? 10 E
A rod lies parallel to the x axis of reference frame S, mov- ing along this axis at a speed of 0.630c. Its rest length is 1.70 m. What will be its measured length in frame S? 11 E
The length of a spaceship is measured to be exactly half its rest length. (a) To three significant figures, what is the speed parameter β of the spaceship relative to the observer’s frame? (b) By what factor do the spaceship’s clocks run slow relative to clocks in the observer’s frame? 12 M
GO A space traveler takes off from Earth and moves at speed 0.9900c toward the star Vega, which is 26.00 ly distant. How much time will have elapsed by Earth clocks (a) when the traveler reaches Vega and (b) when Earth observers receive word from the traveler that she has arrived? (c) How much older will Earth observers calculate the traveler to be (measured from her frame) when she reaches Vega than she was when she started the trip? 13 M
GO A rod is to move at M constant speed v along the x axis of reference frame S, with the rod’s length parallel to that axis. An observer in frame S is to measure the length L of the rod. Figure 37.9 gives length L versus speed parameter β for a range of values for β. The vertical axis scale is set by L a = 1.00 m. What is L if v = 0.95c? 14
La
L
The premise of the Planet of the Apes movies and book is that hibernating astronauts travel far into Earth’s future, to a time when human civilization has been replaced by an ape civi- lization. Considering only special relativity, determine how far into Earth’s future the astronauts would travel if they slept for 120 y while traveling relative to Earth with a speed of 0.9990c, first outward from Earth and then back again. 7 M
laboratory observer S at rest relative to the tube. An observer Sʹ who is at rest relative to the electron, however, would see this tube moving with speed v (= βc). What length would observer Sʹ mea- sure for the tube?
)m(
GO Reference frame Sʹ M Δt is to pass reference frame S at speed v along the common direc- tion of the xʹ and x axes, as in Fig. 37.3.1. An observer who rides along with frame Sʹ is to count off a certain time interval on his wristwatch. The corresponding 0 0.4 0.8 time interval Δt is to be mea- β sured by an observer in frame S. Figure 37.8 Problem 6. Figure 37.8 gives Δt versus speed parameter β for a range of values for β. The vertical axis scale is set by Δt a = 14.0 s. What is inter- val Δt if v = 0.98c? 6
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
0 Figure 37.9
0.4
β
0.8
Problem 14.
GO The center of our Milky Way Galaxy is about M 23 000 ly away. (a) To eight significant figures, at what constant speed parameter would you need to travel exactly 23 000 ly (measured in the Galaxy frame) in exactly 30 y (measured in your frame)? (b) Measured in your frame and in light-years, what length of the Galaxy would pass by you during the trip? 15
Module 37.3
The Lorentz Transformation
Observer S reports that an event occurred on the x axis of his reference frame at x = 3.00 × 10 8 m at time t = 2.50 s. Observer Sʹ and her frame are moving in the positive direction of the x axis at a speed of 0.400c. Further, x = xʹ = 0 at t = tʹ = 0. What are the (a) spatial and (b) temporal coordinate of the 16 E
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C HAP T ER 37 REL AT IV IT Y
event according to Sʹ ? If Sʹ were, instead, moving in the nega- tive direction of the x axis, what would be the (c) spatial and (d) temporal coordinate of the event according to Sʹ ?
same as ours and (f) the reverse of ours? (g) Can event A cause event B, or vice versa? Explain.
SSM In Fig. 37.3.1, the origins of the two frames coincide at t = t′ = 0 and the relative speed is 0.950c. Two micrometeorites collide at coordinates x = 100 km and t = 200 μs according to an observer in frame S. What are the (a) spatial and (b) temporal coordinate of the collision according to an observer in frame Sʹ ?
17 E
Inertial frame Sʹ moves at a speed of 0.60c with respect to frame S (Fig. 37.3.1). Further, x = xʹ = 0 at t = tʹ = 0. Two events are recorded. In frame S, event 1 occurs at the origin at t = 0 and event 2 occurs on the x axis at x = 3.0 km at t = 4.0 μs. According to observer Sʹ, what is the time of (a) event 1 and (b) event 2? (c) Do the two observers see the same sequence or the reverse? 18
E
M GO As in Fig. 37.3.1, ref- Δt erence frame Sʹ passes reference frame S with a certain veloc- ity. Events 1 and 2 are to have a certain temporal separation Δtʹ according to the Sʹ observer. However, their spatial separation Δxʹ according to that observer has not been set yet. Figure 37.10 0 200 400 gives their temporal separation Δx' (m) Δt according to the S observer as a function of Δxʹ for a range of Figure 37.10 Problem 20. Δxʹ values. The vertical axis scale is set by Δt a = 6.00 μs. What is Δtʹ ?
20
a
)sμ ( tΔ
Relativistic reversal of events. Figures 37.11a and b show the (usual) situation in which a primed reference frame passes an unprimed reference frame, in the common positive direction of the x and xʹ axes, at a constant relative velocity of magnitude v. We are at rest in the unprimed frame; Bullwinkle, an astute student of relativity in spite of his cartoon upbringing, is at rest in the primed frame. The figures also indicate events A and B that occur at the following spacetime coordinates as measured in our unprimed frame and in Bullwinkle’s primed frame: 21 M
Event A B
Unprimed (x A , t A ) (x B , t B )
Primed ( x′ , t ′ ) A A ( x ′ , t B ′ ) B
In our frame, event A occurs before event B, with temporal separation Δt = t B − t A = 1.00 μ s and spatial separation Δx = x B − x A = 400 m. Let Δtʹ be the temporal separation of the events according to Bullwinkle. (a) Find an expression for Δtʹ in terms of the speed parameter β (= v/c) and the given data. Graph Δtʹ versus β for the following two ranges of β: (b) 0 to 0.01 (c) 0.1 to 1
(v is low, from 0 to 0.01c) (v is high, from 0.1c to the limit c )
(d) At what value of β is Δtʹ = 0? For what range of β is the sequence of events A and B according to Bullwinkle (e) the
x' A
x' A
x' B x'
x' A
E
An experimenter arranges to trigger two flashbulbs simultaneously, producing a big flash located at the origin of his reference frame and a small flash at x = 30.0 km. An observer moving at a speed of 0.250c in the positive direction of x also views the flashes. (a) What is the time interval between them according to her? (b) Which flash does she say occurs first? 19
v
v
x
xA
(a) Event
A
Figure 37.11
B xA
x
xB
(b ) Event
B
Problems 21, 22, 60, and 61.
M CALC For the passing reference frames in Fig. 37.11, events A and B occur at the following spacetime coordinates: according to the unprimed frame, (x A , t A ) and (x B , t B ); accord- ing to the primed frame, ( xA ′ , t A ′ ) and ( x B ′ , t B ′ ). In the unprimed frame, Δt = t B − t A = 1.00 μs and Δx = x B − x A = 400 m. (a) Find an expression for Δx′ in terms of the speed parameter β and the given data. Graph Δx′ versus β for two ranges of β: (b) 0 to 0.01 and (c) 0.1 to 1. (d) At what value of β is Δxʹ minimum, and (e) what is that minimum?
22
A clock moves along an x axis at a speed of 0.600c and reads zero as it passes the origin of the axis. (a) Calculate the clock’s Lorentz factor. (b) What time does the clock read as it passes x = 180 m? 23 M
Bullwinkle in reference frame Sʹ passes you in reference frame S along the common direction of the xʹ and x axes, as in Fig. 37.3.1. He carries three meter sticks: meter stick 1 is parallel to the xʹ axis, meter stick 2 is parallel to the yʹ axis, and meter stick 3 is parallel to the zʹ axis. On his wristwatch he counts off 15.0 s, which takes 30.0 s according to you. Two events occur during his passage. According to you, event 1 occurs at x 1 = 33.0 m and t 1 = 22.0 ns, and event 2 occurs at x 2 = 53.0 m and t 2 = 62.0 ns. According to your measurements, what is the length of (a) meter stick 1, (b) meter stick 2, and (c) meter stick 3? According to Bullwinkle, what are (d) the spatial separation and (e) the temporal separation between events 1 and 2, and (f) which event occurs first? 24 M
In Fig. 37.3.1, observer S detects two flashes of light. A big flash occurs at x 1 = 1200 m and, 5.00 μ s later, a small flash occurs at x2 = 480 m. As detected by observer Sʹ, the two flashes occur at a single coordinate xʹ. (a) What is the speed parameter of Sʹ, and (b) is Sʹ moving in the positive or negative direction of the x axis? To Sʹ, (c) which flash occurs first and (d) what is the time interval between the flashes? 25 M
M In Fig. 37.3.1, observer S detects two flashes of light. A big flash occurs at x 1 = 1200 m and, slightly later, a small flash occurs at x 2 = 480 m. The time interval between the flashes is Δt = t 2 − t 1 . What is the smallest value of Δt for which observer Sʹ will determine that the two flashes occur at the same xʹ coordinate?
26
Module 37.4
The Relativity of Velocities
A particle moves along the xʹ axis of frame Sʹ with velocity 0.40c. Frame Sʹ moves with velocity 0.60c with respect to frame S. What is the velocity of the particle with respect to frame S? 27
E
SSM
/
P ROBL EMS
E In Fig. 37.4.1, frame Sʹ moves relative to frame S with velocity 0.62c ˆ i while a particle moves parallel to the common x and xʹ axes. An observer attached to frame Sʹ measures the par- ticle’s velocity to be 0.47c ˆ i. In terms of c, what is the particle’s velocity as measured by an observer attached to frame S accord- ing to the (a) relativistic and (b) classical velocity transforma- tion? Suppose, instead, that the Sʹ measure of the particle’s velocity is −0.47c ˆ i. What velocity does the observer in S now measure according to the (c) relativistic and (d) classical veloc- ity transformation?
28
Galaxy A is reported to be receding from us with a speed of 0.35c. Galaxy B, located in precisely the opposite direction, is also found to be receding from us at this same speed. What multiple of c gives the recessional speed an observer on Galaxy A would find for (a) our galaxy and (b) Galaxy B? 29 E
Stellar system Q 1 moves away from us at a speed of 0.800c. Stellar system Q 2 , which lies in the same direction in space but is closer to us, moves away from us at speed 0.400c. What multiple of c gives the speed of Q 2 as measured by an observer in the reference frame of Q 1 ? 30 E
SSM A spaceship whose rest length is 350 m has a speed of 0.82c with respect to a certain reference frame. A micromete- orite, also with a speed of 0.82c in this frame, passes the space- ship on an antiparallel track. How long does it take this object to pass the ship as measured on the ship?
31 M
1219
light by a detector fixed at the center of the circle. What is the wavelength shift λ − λ 0 ? SSM A spaceship, moving away from Earth at a speed of 0.900c, reports back by transmitting at a frequency (measured in the spaceship frame) of 100 MHz. To what frequency must Earth receivers be tuned to receive the report?
35 E
Certain wavelengths in the light from a galaxy in the con- stellation Virgo are observed to be 0.4% longer than the corre- sponding light from Earth sources. (a) What is the radial speed of this galaxy with respect to Earth? (b) Is the galaxy approach- ing or receding from Earth? 36 E
Assuming that Eq. 37.5.6 holds, find how fast you would have to go through a red light to have it appear green. Take 620 nm as the wavelength of red light and 540 nm as the wavelength of green light. 37 E
Figure 37.13 is a graph of intensity versus wavelength for light reaching Earth from galaxy NGC 7319, which is about 3 × 10 8 ly away. The most intense light is emitted by the oxy- gen in NGC 7319. In a laboratory that emission is at wavelength λ = 513 nm, but in the light from NGC 7319 it has been shifted to 525 nm due to the Doppler effect (all the emissions from NGC 7319 have been shifted). (a) What is the radial speed of NGC 7319 relative to Earth? (b) Is the relative motion toward or away from our planet? 38 E
M GO In Fig. 37.12a, particle P is to move parallel to the x and xʹ axes of reference frames S and Sʹ, at a certain velocity relative to frame S. Frame Sʹ is to move parallel to the x axis of frame S at velocity v. Figure 37.12b gives the velocity uʹ of the particle relative to frame Sʹ for a range of values for v. The vertical axis scale is set by uʹ a = 0.800c. What value will uʹ have if (a) v = 0.90c and (b) v → c?
32
800
ytisnetnI
400
Δ λ = +12 nm
NGC 7319
Laboratory wavelength
200 y
y'
0 400
ua' S
S' 'u
P x
450
500
550 600 650 Wavelength (nm)
Figure 37.13
x'
700
750
Problem 38.
M SSM A spaceship is moving away from Earth at speed 0.20c. A source on the rear of the ship emits light at wavelength 450 nm according to someone on the ship. What (a) wavelength and (b) color (blue, green, yellow, or red) are detected by some- one on Earth watching the ship?
39
(a )
0
0.2 c
0.4 c v
(b ) Figure 37.12
Problem 32.
Module 37.6
GO An armada of spaceships that is 1.00 ly long (as mea- sured in its rest frame) moves with speed 0.800c relative to a ground station in frame S. A messenger travels from the rear of the armada to the front with a speed of 0.950c relative to S. How long does the trip take as measured (a) in the rest frame of the messenger, (b) in the rest frame of the armada, and (c) by an observer in the ground frame S? 33 M
Module 37.5
Doppler Effect for Light
A sodium light source moves in a horizontal circle at a constant speed of 0.100c while emitting light at the proper wave- length of λ0 = 589.00 nm. Wavelength λ is measured for that 34
E
Momentum and Energy
How much work must be done to increase the speed of an electron from rest to (a) 0.500c, (b) 0.990c, and (c) 0.9990c? 40
E
The mass of an electron is 9.109 381 88 × 10 −31 kg. To six significant figures, find (a) γ and (b) β for an electron with kinetic energy K = 100.000 MeV. 41 E
SSM
E What is the minimum energy that is required to break a nucleus of 12 C (of mass 11.996 71 u) into three nuclei of 4 He (of mass 4.001 51 u each)?
42
E How much work must be done to increase the speed of an electron (a) from 0.18c to 0.19c and (b) from 0.98c to 0.99c? Note that the speed increase is 0.01c in both cases.
43
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1220 44 E
C HAP T ER 37 REL AT IV IT Y
In the reaction p + 19 F → α + 16 O, the masses are m(p) = 1.007825 u, m(F) = 18.998405 u,
m( α) = 4.002603 u, m(O) = 15.994915 u.
Calculate the Q of the reaction from these data. M In a high-energy collision between a cosmic-ray particle and a particle near the top of Earth’s atmosphere, 120 km above sea level, a pion is created. The pion has a total energy E of 1.35 × 10 5 MeV and is traveling vertically downward. In the pion’s rest frame, the pion decays 35.0 ns after its creation. At what altitude above sea level, as measured from Earth’s refer- ence frame, does the decay occur? The rest energy of a pion is 139.6 MeV.
45
(a) If m is a particle’s mass, p is its momentum magnitude, and K is its kinetic energy, show that 46 M
( pc) − K 2 m = _________ . 2Kc 2 (b) For low particle speeds, show that the right side of the equa- tion reduces to m. (c) If a particle has K = 55.0 MeV when p = 121 MeV/c, what is the ratio m/m e of its mass to the electron mass? SSM A 5.00-grain aspirin tablet has a mass of 320 mg. For how many kilometers would the energy equivalent of this mass power an automobile? Assume 12.75 km/L and a heat of com- bustion of 3.65 × 10 7 J/L for the gasoline used in the automobile.
47 M
GO The mass of a muon is 207 times the electron mass; the average lifetime of muons at rest is 2.20 μs. In a certain experi- ment, muons moving through a laboratory are measured to have an average lifetime of 6.90 μ s. For the moving muons, what are (a) β, (b) K, and (c) p (in MeV/c)? 48 M
GO As you read this page (on paper or monitor screen), a cosmic ray proton passes along the left–right width of the page with relative speed v and a total energy of 14.24 nJ. According to your measurements, that left–right width is 21.0 cm. (a) What is the width according to the proton’s reference frame? How much time did the passage take according to (b) your frame and (c) the proton’s frame? 49 M
M To four significant figures, find the following when the kinetic energy is 10.00 MeV: (a) γ and (b) β for an electron (E 0 = 0.510 998 MeV), (c) γ and (d) β for a proton (E 0 = 938.272 MeV), and (e) γ and (f) β for an α particle (E 0 = 3727.40 MeV).
50
What must be the momentum of a particle with mass m so that the total energy of the particle is 3.00 times its rest energy? 51 M
M Apply the binomial theorem (Appendix E) to the last part of Eq. 37.6.13 for the kinetic energy of a particle. (a) Retain the first two terms of the expansion to show the kinetic energy in the form
52
K = (first term) + (second term). The first term is the classical expression for kinetic energy. The second term is the first-order correction to the classical expres- sion. Assume the particle is an electron. If its speed v is c/20, what is the value of (b) the classical expression and (c) the first-order correction? If the electron’s speed is 0.80c, what is the value of (d) the classical expression and (e) the first-order correction? (f) At what speed parameter β does the first-order correction become 10% or greater of the classical expression?
In Module 28.4, we showed that a particle of charge q and mass m will move in a circle of radius r = mv/|q|B when its veloc- ity v is perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B . We also found that the period T of the motion is independent of speed v. These two results are approximately correct if v ⪡ c. For rela- tivistic speeds, we must use the correct equation for the radius: 53 M
→
→
p γmv r = ____ = ____ . |q|B |q|B
(a) Using this equation and the definition of period (T = 2πr/v), find the correct expression for the period. (b) Is T independent of v? If a 10.0 MeV electron moves in a circular path in a uni- form magnetic field of magnitude 2.20 T, what are (c) the radius according to Chapter 28, (d) the correct radius, (e) the period according to Chapter 28, and (f) the correct period? GO What is β for a particle with (a) K = 2.00E 0 and M (b) E = 2.00E 0? 54
A certain particle of mass m has momentum of magnitude mc. What are (a) β, (b) γ, and (c) the ratio K/E 0 ? 55 M
M (a) The energy released in the explosion of 1.00 mol of TNT is 3.40 MJ. The molar mass of TNT is 0.227 kg/mol. What weight of TNT is needed for an explosive release of 1.80 × 10 14 J? (b) Can you carry that weight in a backpack, or is a truck or train required? (c) Suppose that in an explosion of a fission bomb, 0.080% of the fissionable mass is converted to released energy. What weight of fissionable material is needed for an explosive release of 1.80 × 10 14 J? (d) Can you carry that weight in a backpack, or is a truck or train required?
56
CALC Quasars are thought to be the nuclei of active gal- axies in the early stages of their formation. A typical quasar radiates energy at the rate of 10 41 W. At what rate is the mass of this quasar being reduced to supply this energy? Express your answer in solar mass units per year, where one solar mass unit (1 smu = 2.0 × 10 30 kg) is the mass of our Sun.
57 M
The mass of an electron is 9.109 381 88 × 10 −31 kg. To eight significant figures, find the following for the given electron kinetic energy: (a) γ and (b) β for K = 1.000 000 0 keV, (c) γ and (d) β for K = 1.000 000 0 MeV, and then (e) γ and (f) β for K = 1.000 000 0 GeV. 58 M
GO An alpha particle with kinetic energy 7.70 MeV col- lides with an 14 N nucleus at rest, and the two transform into an 17 O nucleus and a proton. The proton is emitted at 90° to the direction of the incident alpha particle and has a kinetic energy of 4.44 MeV. The masses of the various particles are alpha par- ticle, 4.00260 u; 14 N, 14.00307 u; proton, 1.007825 u; and 17 O, 16.99914 u. In MeV, what are (a) the kinetic energy of the oxy- gen nucleus and (b) the Q of the reaction? (Hint: The speeds of the particles are much less than c.) 59 H
Additional Problems
Temporal separation between two events. Events A and B occur with the following spacetime coordinates in the refer- ence frames of Fig. 37.11: according to the unprimed frame, (x A , t A ) and (x B , t B ); according to the primed frame, ( x A ′ , t A ′ ) and ( x B ′ , t B ′ ). In the unprimed frame, Δt = t B − t A = 1.00 μs and Δx = x B − x A = 240 m. (a) Find an expression for Δtʹ in terms of the speed parameter β and the given data. Graph Δtʹ versus β for the following two ranges of β: (b) 0 to 0.01 and (c) 0.1 to 1. (d) At what value of β is Δtʹ minimum and (e) what is that minimum? (f) Can one of these events cause the other? Explain. 60
/
P ROBL EMS
Spatial separation between two events. For the passing reference frames of Fig. 37.11, events A and B occur with the following spacetime coordinates: according to the unprimed frame, (x A , t A ) and (x B , t B ); according to the primed frame, ( xA ′ , t A ′ ) and ( x B ′ , t B ′ ). In the unprimed frame, Δt = t B − t A = 1.00 μs and Δ x = x B − x A = 240 m. (a) Find an expression for Δxʹ in terms of the speed parameter β and the given data. Graph Δxʹ versus β for two ranges of β: (b) 0 to 0.01 and (c) 0.1 to 1. (d) At what value of β is Δxʹ = 0? 61
y
v
y'
0 S
0.2 c
0.4 c
S' P 'u
x
x'
(a ) ua '
(b ) Figure 37.14
they were photographed on the same piece of film, first when light from burst 1 arrived on Earth and then later when light from burst 2 arrived. The apparent distance D app traveled by the knot between the two bursts is the distance across an Earth-observ- er’s view of the knot’s path. The apparent time T app between the bursts is the difference in the arrival times of the light from them. The apparent speed of the knot is then V app = D app /T app . In terms of v, t, and θ, what are (a) D app and (b) T app ? (c) Evalu- ate V app for v = 0.980c and θ = 30.0°. When superluminal (faster than light) jets were first observed, they seemed to defy special relativity—at least until the correct geometry (Fig. 37.15a) was understood. GO Reference frame Sʹ passes reference frame S with a certain velocity as in Fig. 37.3.1. Events 1 and 2 are to have a certain spa- tial separation Δxʹ according to the Sʹ observer. However, their temporal separation Δtʹ accord- ing to that observer has not been set yet. Figure 37.16 gives their spatial separation Δx according to the S observer as a function of Δtʹ for a range of Δtʹ values. The vertical axis scale is set by Δx a = 10.0 m. What is Δxʹ? 64
0
4 Δt' (ns)
Figure 37.16
8
Problem 64.
Another approach to velocity transformations. In Fig. 37.17, reference frames B and C move past reference frame A in the common direction of their x axes. Represent the x components of the velocities of one frame relative to another with a two- letter subscript. For example, v AB is the x component of the velocity of A relative to B. Similarly, represent the correspond- ing speed parameters with two-letter subscripts. For example, βAB (= v AB /c) is the speed parameter corresponding to v AB. (a) Show that 65
Problem 62.
GO Superluminal jets. Figure 37.15a shows the path taken by a knot in a jet of ionized gas that has been expelled from a gal- axy. The knot travels at constant velocity v at angle θ from the direction of Earth. The knot occasionally emits a burst of light, which is eventually detected on Earth. Two bursts are indicated in Fig. 37.15a, separated by time t as measured in a stationary frame near the bursts. The bursts are shown in Fig. 37.15b as if 63
→
βAB + βBC . __________ βAC = 1 + β β
Path of knot of ionized gas
AB BC
Let M AB represent the ratio (1 − βAB )/(1 + βAB ), and let M BC and M AC represent similar ratios. (b) Show that the relation
Burst 1
θ
Δxa
)m( xΔ
GO In Fig. 37.14a, particle P is to move parallel to the x and xʹ axes of reference frames S and Sʹ, at a certain velocity relative to frame S. Frame Sʹ is to move parallel to the x axis of frame S at velocity v. Figure 37.14b gives the velocity uʹ of the parti- cle relative to frame Sʹ for a range of values for v. The verti- cal axis scale is set by uʹ a = −0.800c. What value will uʹ have if (a) v = 0.80c and (b) v → c? 62
1221
M AC = M AB M BC
v
is true by deriving the equation of part (a) from it. Burst 2
D app
A
Light rays headed to Earth
B
x
Figure 37.17
(a )
C
x
x
Problems 65, 66, and 67.
Continuation of Problem 65. Use the result of part (b) in Problem 65 for the motion along a single axis in the following situation. Frame A in Fig. 37.17 is attached to a particle that moves with velocity +0.500c past frame B, which moves past frame C with a velocity of +0.500c. What are (a) M AC , (b) βAC , and (c) the velocity of the particle relative to frame C? 66
D app
Continuation of Problem 65. Let reference frame C in Fig. 37.17 move past reference frame D (not shown). (a) Show that 67
Burst 1
Burst 2 (b )
Figure 37.15
Problem 63.
M AD = M AB M BC M CD .
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1222
C HAP T ER 37 REL AT IV IT Y
(b) Now put this general result to work: Three particles move parallel to a single axis on which an observer is stationed. Let plus and minus signs indicate the directions of motion along that axis. Particle A moves past particle B at βAB = +0.20. Particle B moves past particle C at βBC = −0.40. Particle C moves past observer D at βCD = +0.60. What is the velocity of particle A rela- tive to observer D? (The solution technique here is much faster than using Eq. 37.4.1.) Figure 37.2 shows a ship (attached to reference frame Sʹ) passing us (standing in reference frame S) with velocity v = 0.950c ˆ i. A proton is fired at speed 0.980c relative to the ship from the front of the ship to the rear. The proper length of the ship is 760 m. What is the temporal separation between the time the pro- ton is fired and the time it hits the rear wall of the ship according to (a) a passenger in the ship and (b) us? Suppose that, instead, the proton is fired from the rear to the front. What then is the temporal separation between the time it is fired and the time it hits the front wall according to (c) the passenger and (d) us? 68
→
The car-in-the-garage problem. Carman has just purchased the world’s longest stretch limo, which has a proper length of L c = 30.5 m. In Fig. 37.18a, it is shown parked in front of a garage with a proper length of L g = 6.00 m. The garage has a front door (shown open) and a back door (shown closed). The limo is obviously longer than the garage. Still, Garageman, who owns the garage and knows something about relativistic length contraction, makes a bet with Carman that the limo can fit in the garage with both doors closed. Carman, who dropped his phys- ics course before reaching special relativity, says such a thing, even in principle, is impossible. To analyze Garageman’s scheme, an x c axis is attached to the limo, with x c = 0 at the rear bumper, and an x g axis is attached to the garage, with x g = 0 at the (now open) front door. Then Carman is to drive the limo directly toward the front door at a velocity of 0.9980c (which is, of course, both technically and financially impossible). Carman is stationary in the x c reference frame; Garageman is stationary in the x g reference frame. There are two events to consider. Event 1: When the rear bumper clears the front door, the front door is closed. Let the time of this event be zero to both Carman and Garage- man: t g1 = t c1 = 0. The event occurs at x c = x g = 0. Figure 37.18b shows event 1 according to the x g reference frame. Event 2: When the front bumper reaches the back door, that door opens. Figure 37.18c shows event 2 according to the x g reference frame. 69
According to Garageman, (a) what is the length of the limo, and what are the spacetime coordinates (b) x g2 and (c) t g2 of event 2? (d) For how long is the limo temporarily “trapped” inside the garage with both doors shut? Now consider the situ- ation from the x c reference frame, in which the garage comes racing past the limo at a velocity of −0.9980c. According to Carman, (e) what is the length of the passing garage, what are the spacetime coordinates (f ) x c2 and (g) t c2 of event 2, (h) is the limo ever in the garage with both doors shut, and (i) which event occurs first? ( j) Sketch events 1 and 2 as seen by Carman. (k) Are the events causally related; that is, does one of them cause the other? (l) Finally, who wins the bet? An airplane has rest length 40.0 m and speed 630 m/s. To a ground observer, (a) by what fraction is its length contracted and (b) how long is needed for its clocks to be 1.00 μs slow? 70
SSM To circle Earth in low orbit, a satellite must have a speed of about 2.7 × 10 4 km/h. Suppose that two such satellites orbit Earth in opposite directions. (a) What is their relative speed as they pass, according to the classical Galilean veloc- ity transformation equation? (b) What fractional error do you make in (a) by not using the (correct) relativistic transformation equation?
71
Find the speed parameter of a particle that takes 2.0 y lon- ger than light to travel a distance of 6.0 ly. 72
SSM How much work is needed to accelerate a proton from a speed of 0.9850c to a speed of 0.9860c?
73
A pion is created in the higher reaches of Earth’s atmo- sphere when an incoming high-energy cosmic-ray particle collides with an atomic nucleus. A pion so formed descends toward Earth with a speed of 0.99c. In a reference frame in which they are at rest, pions decay with an average life of 26 ns. As measured in a frame fixed with respect to Earth, how far (on the average) will such a pion move through the atmosphere before it decays? 74
SSM If we intercept an electron having total energy 1533 MeV that came from Vega, which is 26 ly from us, how far in light-years was the trip in the rest frame of the electron?
75
The total energy of a proton passing through a labora- tory apparatus is 10.611 nJ. What is its speed parameter β? Use the proton mass given in Appendix B under “Best Value,” not the commonly remembered rounded number. 76
A spaceship at rest in a certain reference frame S is given a speed increment of 0.50c. Relative to its new rest frame, it is then given a further 0.50c increment. This process is continued until its speed with respect to its original frame S exceeds 0.999c. How many increments does this process require? 77
Lg
Lc
xc
0
In the red shift of radiation from a distant galaxy, a certain radiation, known to have a wavelength of 434 nm when observed in the laboratory, has a wavelength of 462 nm. (a) What is the radial speed of the galaxy relative to Earth? (b) Is the galaxy approaching or receding from Earth? 78
xg
0 (a )
SSM What is the momentum in MeV/c of an electron with a kinetic energy of 2.00 MeV?
79
xg
0 (b )
xg
0 (c )
Figure 37.18
Problem 69.
The radius of Earth is 6370 km, and its orbital speed about the Sun is 30 km/s. Suppose Earth moves past an observer at this speed. To the observer, by how much does Earth’s diameter contract along the direction of motion? 80
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P ROBL EMS
A particle with mass m has speed c/2 relative to inertial frame S. The particle collides with an identical particle at rest relative to frame S. Relative to S, what is the speed of a frame Sʹ in which the total momentum of these particles is zero? This frame is called the center of momentum frame. 81
An elementary particle produced in a laboratory experi- ment travels 0.230 mm through the lab at a relative speed of 0.960c before it decays (becomes another particle). (a) What is the proper lifetime of the particle? (b) What is the distance the particle travels as measured from its rest frame? 82
1223
scout ship, the speed of the decoy is 0.980c and the speed of the Foron cruiser is 0.900c. What is the speed of the decoy relative to the cruiser? In Fig. 37.21, three spaceships are in a chase. Relative to an x axis in an inertial frame (say, Earth frame), their velocities are v A = 0.900c, v B , and v C = 0.800c. (a) What value of v B is required such that ships A and C approach ship B with the same speed relative to ship B, and (b) what is that relative speed? 89
vA
vB
vC
What are (a) K, (b) E, and (c) p (in GeV/c) for a pro- ton moving at speed 0.990c? What are (d) K, (e) E, and (f) p (in MeV/c) for an electron moving at speed 0.990c? 83
A radar trans- S S' mitter T is fixed to v T a reference frame Sʹ R that is moving to the right with speed v τ0 relative to reference A frame S (Fig. 37.19). A mechanical timer Figure 37.19 Problem 84. (essentially a clock) in frame Sʹ, having a period τ0 (measured in Sʹ), causes transmitter T to emit timed radar pulses, which travel at the speed of light and are received by R, a receiver fixed in frame S. (a) What is the period τ of the timer as detected by observer A, who is fixed in frame S? (b) Show that at receiver R the time interval between pulses arriving from T is not τ or τ0 , but
x
84
Figure 37.21
Problem 89.
Space cruisers A and B are moving parallel to the positive direction of an x axis. Cruiser A is faster, with a relative speed of v = 0.900c, and has a proper length of L = 200 m. According to the pilot of A, at the instant (t = 0) the tails of the cruisers are aligned, the noses are also. According to the pilot of B, how much later are the noses aligned? 90
In Fig. 37.22, two cruisers fly toward a space station. Rela- tive to the station, cruiser A has speed 0.800c. Relative to the station, what speed is required of cruiser B such that its pilot sees A and the station approach B at the same speed? 91
vA
vB
_____
c + v . τR = τ 0 √ _____ c − v (c) Explain why receiver R and observer A, who are in the same reference frame, measure a different period for the transmitter. (Hint: A clock and a radar pulse are not the same thing.) One cosmic-ray particle approaches 0.80 c Earth along Earth’s north–south axis with a speed of 0.80c toward the geographic north pole, and another approaches with Geographic a speed of 0.60c toward the geographic north pole south pole (Fig. 37.20). What is the relative speed of approach of one particle with respect to the other?
x
Station Figure 37.22
85
(a) How much energy is released in the explosion of a fission bomb con- taining 3.0 kg of fissionable material? Geographic south pole Assume that 0.10% of the mass is con- verted to released energy. (b) What mass 0.60 c of TNT would have to explode to pro- vide the same energy release? Assume Figure 37.20 that each mole of TNT liberates 3.4 MJ Problem 85. of energy on exploding. The molecular mass of TNT is 0.227 kg/mol. (c) For the same mass of explosive, what is the ratio of the energy released in a nuclear explosion to that released in a TNT explosion? 86
(a) What potential difference would accelerate an electron to speed c according to classical physics? (b) With this potential difference, what speed would the electron actually attain? 87
A Foron cruiser moving directly toward a Reptulian scout ship fires a decoy toward the scout ship. Relative to the 88
Problem 91.
A relativistic train of proper length 200 m approaches a tunnel of the same proper length, at a relative speed of 0.900c. A paint bomb in the engine room is set to explode (and cover everyone with blue paint) when the front of the train passes the far end of the tunnel (event FF). However, when the rear car passes the near end of the tunnel (event RN), a device in that car is set to send a signal to the engine room to deactivate the bomb. Train view: (a) What is the tunnel length? (b) Which event occurs first, FF or RN? (c) What is the time between those events? (d) Does the paint bomb explode? Tunnel view: (e) What is the train length? (f) Which event occurs first? (g) What is the time between those events? (h) Does the paint bomb explode? If your answers to (d) and (h) differ, you need to explain the paradox, because either the engine room is cov- ered with blue paint or not; you cannot have it both ways. If your answers are the same, you need to explain why. 92
Police radar. A police car equipped with a radar unit waits alongside a highway. The radar emits a beam of microwaves down the highway at frequency f 0 = 24.125 GHz (in the com- mon K band used by police nationwide). When a vehicle travels toward the radar unit and through the beam, the microwaves reflect from the metal of the vehicle back to the radar unit. The unit can then determine the vehicle’s speed from the beat fre- quency (see Module 17.6) between that incoming frequency and 93
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C HAP T ER 37 REL AT IV IT Y
the emitted frequency. If the beat frequency is 5000 Hz, what is the vehicle’s speed? Time is short. You command a starship capable of travel- ing at nearly the speed of light. Beginning at Home Port in Fig. 37.23, you need to pick the route to Far Base that minimizes the travel time. The map gives the allowed routes as negotiated with the alien government governing the region, and each route between junction points is labeled with the Lorentz factor γ that must be used along the route. In the rest frame of the junc- tions, successive junctions are separated by distance L or 2L. Do not consider the time required for acceleration as γ changes. (a) First, what length do you measure for a map distance of L when you travel with Lorentz factor γ? (b) What is your mea- sure of the time required for that travel? (Hint: For any of the given Lorentz factors, the distance passes you at approximately the speed of light.) For the next questions, calculate travel times as multiples of L/c to four significant figures. (c) Starting at junction U, what should the next three junctions be to minimize the travel time, and how much is that time? (d) What should the next two junctions be to minimize the travel time, and how 94
much is that time? (e) What next five junctions should you pass through to minimize the time and land on E (Far Base), and how much is that time? (f) What is the total travel time? A
50
B
60
40
10 G 30
60
D
40
F 20
10
L
50
20
30
10
Q
R
40
N
20
50
10
90 V 40 Figure 37.23
J
20
O
20
50
U
60
20
10
M 50
P
I
Far Base
E
20
10 H
60
K 50
Home Port
C
S 10
W 30
X 20
T 10 Y
Problem 94.
/
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
3
8
Photons and Matter Waves
38.1 THE PHOTON, THE QUANTUM OF LIGHT Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
38.1.1 Explain the absorption and emission of light in
38.1.2 For photon absorption and emission, apply the
terms of quantized energy and photons.
relationships between energy, power, intensity, rate of photons, the Planck constant, the associated frequency, and the associated wavelength.
Key Ideas ●
An electromagnetic wave (light) is quantized (allowed
only in certain quantities), and the quanta are called
●
For light of frequency
f and wavelength λ, the photon
energy is
photons.
E = hf, where
h is the Planck constant.
What Is Physics?
One primary focus of physics is Einstein’s theory of relativity, which took us into a world far beyond that of ordinary experience—the world of objects moving at speeds close to the speed of light. Among other surprises, Einstein’s theory predicts that the rate at which a clock runs depends on how fast the clock is moving relative to the observer: the faster the motion, the slower the clock rate. This and other predictions of the theory have passed every experimental test devised thus far, and relativity the- ory has led us to a deeper and more satisfying view of the nature of space and time. Now you are about to explore a second world that is outside ordinary experience—the subatomic world. You will encounter a new set of surprises that, though they may sometimes seem bizarre, have led physicists step by step to a deeper view of reality. Quantum physics, as our new subject is called, answers such questions as: Why do the stars shine? Why do the elements exhibit the order that is so appar- ent in the periodic table? How do transistors and other microelectronic devices work? Why does copper conduct electricity but glass does not? In fact, scientists and engineers have applied quantum physics in almost every aspect of everyday life, from medical instrumentation to transportation systems to entertainment industries. Indeed, because quantum physics accounts for all of chemistry, includ- ing biochemistry, we need to understand it if we are to understand life itself. Some of the predictions of quantum physics seem strange even to the physicists and philosophers who study its foundations. Still, experiment after experiment has proved the theory correct, and many have exposed even stranger aspects of the theory. The quantum world is an amusement park full of wonderful rides that are guaranteed to shake up the commonsense worldview you have developed since childhood. We begin our exploration of that quantum park with the photon.
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C HAP T ER 38 P HOT ONS AND MAT T ER WAV ES
The Photon, the Quantum of Light
Quantum physics (which is also known as quantum mechanics and quantum theory) is largely the study of the microscopic world. In that world, many quanti- ties are found only in certain minimum (elementary) amounts, or integer multiples of those elementary a mounts; these quantities are then said to be quantized. The elementary amount that is associated with such a quantity is called the quantum of that quantity (quanta is the plural). In a loose sense, U .S. currency is quantized because the coin of least value is the penny, or $0.01 coin, and the values of all other coins and bills are restricted to inte- ger multiples of that least amount. In other words, the currency quantum is $0.01, and all greater amounts of currency are of the form n($0.01), where n is always a positive integer. For example, you cannot hand someone $0.755 = 75.5($0.01). In 1905, Einstein proposed that electromagnetic radiation (or simply light) is quantized and exists in elementary amounts (quanta) that we now call photons. This proposal should seem strange to you because we have just spent several chap- ters discussing the classical idea that light is a sinusoidal wave, with a wavelength λ, a frequency f, and a speed c such that c . f = _
λ
(38.1.1)
Furthermore, in Chapter 33 we discussed the classical light wave as being an interdependent combination of electric and magnetic fields, each oscillating at frequency f. How can this wave of oscillating fields consist of an elementary amount of something—the light quantum? What is a photon? The concept of a light quantum, or a photon, turns out to be far more subtle and mysterious than Einstein imagined. Indeed, it is still very poorly understood. In this book, we shall discuss only some of the basic aspects of the photon concept, somewhat along the lines of Einstein’s proposal. According to that proposal, the quantum of a light wave of frequency f has the energy E = hf
(photon energy).
(38.1.2)
Here h is the Planck constant, the constant we first met in Eq. 32.5.2, a nd which has the value h = 6.63 × 10 −34 J · s = 4.14 × 10 −15 eV ⋅ s.
(38.1.3)
The smallest amount of energy a light wave of frequency f can have is hf , the energy of a single photon. If the wave has more energy, its total energy must be an integer multiple of hf. The light cannot have an energy of, say, 0.6hf or 75.5hf. Einstein further proposed that when light is absorbed or emitted by an object (matter), the absorption or emission event occurs in the atoms of the object. When light of frequency f is absorbed by an atom, the energy hf of one photon is trans- ferred from the light to the atom. In this absorption event, the photon vanishes and the atom is said to absorb it. When light of frequency f is emitted by an atom, an amount of energy hf is transferred from the atom to the light. In this emission event, a photon suddenly appears and the atom is said to emit it. Thus, we can have photon absorption and photon emission by atoms in an object. For an object consisting of many atoms, there can be many photon absorp- tions (such as with sunglasses) or photon emissions (such as with lamps). How- ever, e ach absorption or emission event still involves the transfer of an amount of energy equal to that of a single photon of the light. When we discussed the absorption or emission of light in previous chapters, our examples involved so much light that we had no need of quantum physics, and we got by with classical physics. However, in the late 20th century, tech- nology became advanced enough that single-photon experiments could be con- ducted and put to practical use. Since then quantum physics has become part of standard engineering practice, especially in optical engineering.
/
38.2 T HE P HOT OEL EC T RIC EF F EC T
1227
Checkpoint 38.1.1
Rank the following radiations according to their associated photon energies, great- est first: (a) yellow light from a sodium vapor lamp, (b) a gamma ray emitted by a radioactive nucleus, (c) a radio wave emitted by the antenna of a commercial radio station, (d) a microwave beam emitted by airport traffic control radar.
Sample Problem 38.1.1
Emission and absorption of light as photons
A sodium vapor lamp is placed at the center of a large sphere that absorbs all the light reaching it. The rate at which the lamp emits energy is 100 W; assume that the emission is entirely at a wavelength of 590 nm. At what rate are photons absorbed by the sphere?
KEY IDEAS The light is emitted and absorbed as photons. We assume that all the light emitted by the lamp reaches (and thus is absorbed by) the sphere. So, the rate R at which photons are absorbed by the sphere is equal to the rate R emit at which photons are emitted by the lamp.
Next, into this we can substitute from Eq. 38.1.2 (E = hf ), Einstein’s proposal about the energy E of each quantum of light (which we here call a photon in modern language). We can then write the absorption rate as P emit R = R emit = _ . hf Using Eq. 38.1.1 ( f = c/λ) to substitute for f and then entering known data, we obtain P emit λ R = _ hc (100 W)(590 × 10 −9 m) = ______________________________ (6.63 × 10 −34 J ⋅ s)(2.998 × 10 8 m/s)
That rate is rate of energy emission P emit R emit = _________________ = _ . energy per emitted photon E
Calculations:
= 2.97 × 10 20 photons/s.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
38.2 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
38.2.1 Make a simple and basic sketch of a photoelec-
38.2.4 For a photoelectric setup, apply the relation-
tric experiment, showing the incident light, the metal
ships between the frequency and wavelength of the
plate, the emitted electrons (photoelectrons), and
incident light, the maximum kinetic energy
the collector cup.
the photoelectrons, the work function
38.2.2 Explain the problems physicists had with the photoelectric effect prior to Einstein and the historical
stopping potential
V stop .
K max of Ф , and the
38.2.5 For a photoelectric setup, sketch a graph of the
V stop versus the frequency of the f 0 and relating the slope to the Planck constant h and the elemen- tary charge e .
importance of Einstein’s explanation of the effect.
stopping potential
V stop and relate it to the maximum kinetic energy K max of escaping
38.2.3 Identify a stopping potential
light, identifying the cutoff frequency
photoelectrons.
Key Ideas ●
When light of high enough frequency illuminates a
where
hf is the energy of the absorbed photon, K max is
metal surface, electrons can gain enough energy to
the kinetic energy of the most energetic of the escap-
escape the metal by absorbing photons in the illumina-
ing electrons, and
tion, in what is called the photoelectric effect.
least energy required by an electron to escape the
●
The conservation of energy in such an absorption
and escape is written as
hf = K max + Ф,
Ф (called the work function) is the
electric forces holding electrons in the metal. ●
If
hf = Ф, electrons barely escape but have no kinetic
energy and the frequency is called the cutoff frequency ●
f 0.
hf Φ), the electron can escape the target. If the energy transferred does not exceed the work function (that is, if hf 10 20 s/m 3 .
(43.6.4)
This condition, known as Lawson’s criterion, tells us that we have a choice between confining a lot of particles for a short time or fewer particles for a longer time. A lso, the plasma temperature must be high enough. Two approaches to controlled nuclear power generation are currently under study. Although neither approach has yet been successful, both are being pursued because of their promise and because of the potential importance of controlled fusion to solving the world’s energy problems. Magnetic Confinement
One avenue to controlled fusion is to contain the fusing material in a very strong magnetic field—hence the name magnetic confinement. In one version of this approach, a suitably shaped magnetic field is used to confine the hot plasma in an evacuated doughnut-shaped chamber called a tokamak (the name is an abbrevia- tion consisting of parts of three Russian words). The magnetic forces acting on the
/
C HAP T ER 43 ENERGY F ROM T HE NU C L EU S
ocixeM weN ,yrotarobaL lanoitaN somalA soL fo ysetruoC
1404
The small spheres on the quarter are deuterium–tritium fuel pellets, designed to be used in a laser fusion chamber. Figure 43.6.1
charged particles that make up the hot plasma keep the plasma from touching the walls of the chamber. The plasma is heated by inducing a current in it and by bombarding it with an externally accelerated beam of particles. The first goal of this approach is to achieve breakeven, which occurs when the Lawson criterion is met or exceeded. The ultimate goal is ignition, which corresponds to a self-sustaining thermonu- clear reaction and a net generation of energy. Inertial Confinement
A second approach, called inertial confinement, involves “zapping” a solid fuel pellet from all sides with intense laser beams, evaporating some material from the surface of the pellet. This boiled-off material causes an inward-moving shock wave that compresses the core of the pellet, increasing both its particle density and its temperature. The process is called inertial confinement because (a) the fuel is confined to the pellet and (b) the particles do not escape from the heated pellet during the very short zapping interval because of their inertia (their mass). Laser fusion, using the inertial confinement approach, is being investigated in many laboratories in the United States and elsewhere. At the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, for example, deuterium–tritium fuel pellets, each smaller than a grain of sand (Fig. 43.6.1), are to be zapped by 10 synchronized high-power laser pulses symmetrically arranged around the pellet. The laser pulses are designed to deliver, in total, some 200 kJ of energy to each fuel pellet in less than a nanosecond. This is a delivered power of about 2 × 10 14 W during the pulse, which is roughly 100 times the total installed (sustained) electrical power generating capacity of the world!
Sample Problem 43.6.1
Laser fusion: number of particles and Lawson’s criterion
Suppose a fuel pellet in a laser fusion device contains equal numbers of deuterium and tritium atoms (and no other mate- rial). The density d = 200 kg/m 3 of the pellet is increased by a factor of 10 3 by the action of the laser pulses. (a) How many particles per unit volume (both deuterons and tritons) does the pellet contain in its compressed state? The molar m ass M d of deuterium atoms is 2.0 × 10 –3 kg/mol, and the molar mass M t of tritium atoms is 3.0 × 10 –3 kg/mol.
KEY IDEA For a system consisting of only one type of particle, we can write the (mass) density (the mass per unit volume)
of the system in terms of the particle masses and number density (the number of particles per unit volume): density,
=
particle mass, ) ( ). kg
number density,
( kg/m ) ( 3
m −3
(43.6.5) Let n be the total number of particles per unit volume in the compressed pellet. Then, because we know that the device contains equal numbers of deuterium and tritium atoms, the number of deuterium atoms per unit volume is n/2, and the number of tritium atoms per unit volume is also n/2.
/
QU EST IONS
We can extend Eq. 43.6.5 to the system con- sisting of the two types of particles by writing the density d* of the compressed pellet as the sum of the individual densities: Calculations:
n m + __ n m , d * = __ (43.6.6) 2 d 2 t where m d and m t are the masses of a deuterium atom and a tritium atom, respectively. We can replace those masses with the given molar masses by substituting M d M t m d = ___ and m t = ___ , N A N A where N A is Avogadro’s number. After making those replacements and substituting 1000d for the compressed density d*, we solve Eq. 43.6.6 for the particle number density n to obtain 2000dN A n = _________ , M d + M t
1405
which gives us (2000)(200 kg/m 3 )(6.02 × 10 23 mol −1 ) n = _________________________________ −3 2.0 × 10 −3 kg/mol + 3.0 × 10 kg/mol = 4.8 × 10 31 m −3 . (Answer) (b) According to Lawson’s criterion, how long must the pellet maintain this particle density if breakeven opera- tion is to take place at a suitably high temperature?
KEY IDEA If breakeven operation is to occur, the compressed density must be maintained for a time period τ given by Eq. 43.6.4 (nτ > 10 20 s/m 3 ). Calculation:
We can now write 20
3
10 s/m ≈ 10 −12 s. τ > _____________ 31 −3 4.8 × 10 m
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
Review & Summary Nuclear processes are about a million times more effective, per unit mass, than chemical pro- cesses in transforming mass into other forms of energy. Energy from the Nucleus
Equation 43.1.1 shows a fission of 236 U induced by thermal neutrons bombarding 235 U. Equations 43.1.2 and 43.1.3 show the beta-decay chains of the primary fragments. The energy released in such a fission event is Q ≈ 200 MeV. Fission can be understood in terms of the collective model, in which a nucleus is likened to a charged liquid drop carrying a certain excitation energy. A potential barrier must be tunneled through if fission is to occur. The ability of a nucleus to undergo fission depends on the relationship between the barrier height E b and the excitation energy E n . The neutrons released during fission make possible a fission chain reaction. Figure 43.2.1 shows the neutron balance for one cycle of a typical reactor. Figure 43.2.2 suggests the layout of a complete nuclear power plant. Nuclear Fission
The release of energy by the fusion of two light nuclei is inhibited by their mutual Coulomb barrier (due to Nuclear Fusion
the electric repulsion between the two collections of protons). Fusion can occur in bulk matter only if the temperature is high enough (that is, if the particle energy is high enough) for appre- ciable barrier tunneling to occur. The Sun’s energy arises mainly from the thermonuclear burning of hydrogen to form helium by the proton–proton cycle outlined in Fig. 43.5.1. Elements up to A ≈ 56 (the peak of the binding energy curve) can be built up by other fusion processes once the hydrogen fuel supply of a star has been exhausted. Fusion of more massive elements requires an input of energy and thus cannot be the source of a star’s energy output. Controlled thermonuclear fusion for energy generation has not yet been achieved. The d-d and d-t reactions are the most promising mechanisms. A successful fusion reactor must satisfy Lawson’s criterion, Controlled Fusion
nτ > 10 20 s/m 3 ,
(43.6.4)
and must have a suitably high plasma temperature T. In a tokamak the plasma is confined by a magnetic field. In laser fusion inertial confinement is used.
Questions 1
In the fission process 235 U + n
→
132 Sn + ◻ ◻ ◻
+ 3n,
what number goes in (a) the elevated box (the superscript) and (b) the descended box (the value of Z)? If a fusion process requires an absorption of energy, does the average binding energy per nucleon increase or decrease? 2
Suppose a 238 U nucleus “swallows” a neutron and then decays not by fission but by beta-minus decay, in which it emits an electron and a neutrino. Which nuclide remains after this decay: 239 Pu, 238 Np, 239 Np, or 238 Pa? 3
Do the initial fragments formed by fission have more protons than neutrons, more neutrons than protons, or about the same number of each? 4
/
1406 5
C HAP T ER 43 ENERGY F ROM T HE NU C L EU S
For the fission reaction
Lawson’s criterion for the d-t reaction (Eq. 43.6.4) is nτ > 10 20 s/m 3 . For the d-d reaction, do you expect the number on the right-hand side to be the same, smaller, or larger? 9
235
U + n → X + Y + 2n,
rank the following possibilities for X (or Y), most likely first: 152 Nd, 140 I, 128 In, 115 Pd, 105 Mo. (Hint: See Fig. 43.1.1.) To make the newly discovered, very large elements of the periodic table, researchers shoot a medium-size nucleus at a large nucleus. Sometimes a projectile nucleus and a target nucleus fuse to form one of the very large elements. In such a fusion, is the mass of the product greater than or less than the sum of the masses of the projectile and target nuclei? 6
If we split a nucleus into two smaller nuclei, with a release of energy, has the average binding energy per nucleon increased or decreased? 7
Which of these elements is not “cooked up” by thermo- nuclear fusion processes in stellar interiors: carbon, silicon, chromium, bromine? 8
About 2% of the energy generated in the Sun’s core by the p-p reaction is carried out of the Sun by neutrinos. Is the energy associated with this neutrino flux equal to, greater than, or less than the energy radiated from the Sun’s surface as elec- tromagnetic radiation? 10
A nuclear reactor is operating at a certain power level, with its multiplication factor k adjusted to unity. If the control rods are used to reduce the power output of the reactor to 25% of its former value, is the multiplication factor now a little less than unity, substantially less than unity, or still equal to unity? 11
Pick the most likely member of each pair to be one of the initial fragments formed by a fission event: (a) 93 Sr or 93 Ru, (b) 140 Gd or 140 I, (c) 155 Nd or 155 Lu. (Hint: See Fig. 42.2.1 and the periodic table, and consider the neutron abundance.) 12
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
BIO
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 43.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard Flying
Circus of Physics
Nuclear Fission
X
The isotope 235 U decays by alpha emission with a half-life of 7.0 × 10 8 y. It also decays (rarely) by spontaneous fission, and if the alpha decay did not occur, its half-life due to spontaneous fis- sion alone would be 3.0 × 10 17 y. (a) At what rate do spontaneous fission decays occur in 1.0 g of 235 U? (b) How many 235 U alpha- decay events are there for every spontaneous fission event? 1 E
The nuclide 238 Np requires 4.2 MeV for fission. To remove a neutron from this nuclide requires an energy expenditure of 5.0 MeV. Is 237 Np fissionable by thermal neutrons? 2
GO A thermal neutron (with approximately zero kinetic E energy) is absorbed by a 238 U nucleus. How much energy is trans- ferred from mass energy to the resulting oscillation of the nucleus? Here are some atomic masses and the neutron mass. 237
U 237.048 723 u 239 U 239.054 287 u n 1.008 664 u
238
U 238.050 782 u 240.056 585 u
240 U
The fission properties of the plutonium isotope 239 Pu are very similar to those of 235 U. The average energy released per fission is 180 MeV. How much energy, in MeV, is released if all the atoms in 1.00 kg of pure 239 Pu undergo fission? E
During the Cold War, the Premier of the Soviet Union threatened the United States with 2.0 megaton 239 Pu warheads. (Each would have yielded the equivalent of an explosion of 2.0 megatons of TNT, where 1 megaton of TNT releases 2.6 × 10 28 MeV of energy.) If the plutonium that actually fissioned had been 8.00% of the total mass of the plutonium in such a war- head, what was that total mass? 5
Xe
139 I
(c) 141 Cs
b
(a) (b)
1 2
100
Zr
2 (d)
92 Rb
At what rate must 235 U nuclei undergo fission by neutron bombardment to generate energy at the rate of 1.0 W? Assume that Q = 200 MeV. 7
E
(a) Calculate the disintegration energy Q for the fission of the molybdenum isotope 98 Mo into two equal parts. The masses you will need are 97.905 41 u for 98 Mo and 48.950 02 u for 49 Sc. (b) If Q turns out to be positive, discuss why this process does not occur spontaneously. 8 E
(a) How many atoms are contained in 1.0 kg of pure 235 U? (b) How much energy, in joules, is released by the complete fissioning of 1.0 kg of 235 U? Assume Q = 200 MeV. (c) For how long would this energy light a 100 W lamp? 9 E
10 E
GO
Calculate the energy released in the fission reaction 235
U + n → 141 Cs + 93 Rb + 2n.
E
E (a)–(d) Complete the following table, which refers to the generalized fission reaction 235 U + n → X + Y + bn.
6
140
Y
E
3
4
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
Here are some atomic and particle masses. 235
U 235.043 92 u 141 Cs 140.919 63 u
93
Rb 92.921 57 u n 1.008 66 u
GO Calculate the disintegration energy Q for the fission of 52 Cr into two equal fragments. The masses you will need are 11 E
52 Cr
51.940 51 u
26 Mg
25.982 59 u.
/
P ROBL EMS
Consider the fission of 238 U by fast neutrons. In one fission event, no neutrons are emitted and the final stable end products, after the beta decay of the primary fission fragments, are 140 Ce and 99 Ru. (a) What is the total of the beta-decay events in the two beta-decay chains? (b) Calculate Q for this fission process. The relevant atomic and particle masses are 12
M
GO
238
U 238.050 79 u n 1.008 66 u
140
Ce 139.905 43 u Ru 98.905 94 u
99
236 M GO Assume that immediately after the fission of U according to Eq. 43.1.1, the resulting 140 Xe and 94 Sr nuclei are just touching at their surfaces. (a) Assuming the nuclei to be spherical, calculate the electric potential energy associated with the repulsion between the two fragments. (Hint: Use Eq. 42.2.3 to calculate the radii of the fragments.) (b) Compare this energy with the energy released in a typical fission event. 13
236 U nucleus undergoes fission and breaks into two M A middle-mass fragments, 140 Xe and 96 Sr. (a) By what percentage does the surface area of the fission products differ from that of the original 236 U nucleus? (b) By what percentage does the vol- ume change? (c) By what percentage does the electric poten- tial energy change? The electric potential energy of a uniformly charged sphere of radius r and charge Q is given by 14
Q 2 __ _____ U = 3 . 5 (4 πε0 r ) 235 15 M SSM A 66 kiloton atomic bomb is fueled with pure U (Fig. 43.1), 4.0% of which actually undergoes fission. (a) What is the mass of the uranium in the bomb? (It is not 66 kilotons—that is the amount of released energy specified in terms of the mass of TNT required to produce the same amount of energy.) (b) How many primary fission fragments are produced? (c) How many fission neutrons generated are released to the environ- ment? (On average, each fission produces 2.5 neutrons.) ygrenE fo tnemtrapeD .S.U/smetsyS ygrenE atteiraM nitraM fo ysetruoC
Problem 15. A “button” of 235 U ready to be recast and machined for a warhead. Figure 43.1
M In an atomic bomb, energy release is due to the uncon- trolled fission of plutonium 239 Pu (or 235 U). The bomb’s rating is the magnitude of the released energy, specified in terms of the mass of TNT required to produce the same energy release. One megaton of TNT releases 2.6 × 10 28 MeV of energy. (a) Calculate
16
1407
the rating, in tons of TNT, of an atomic bomb containing 95.0 kg of 239 Pu, of which 2.5 kg actually undergoes fission. (See Problem 4.) (b) Why is the other 92.5 kg of 239 Pu needed if it does not fission? In a particular fission event in which 235 U is fissioned by slow neutrons, no neutron is emitted and one of the primary fission fragments is 83 Ge. (a) What is the other fragment? The disintegration energy is Q = 170 MeV. How much of this energy goes to (b) the 83 Ge fragment and (c) the other fragment? Just after the fission, what is the speed of (d) the 83 Ge fragment and (e) the other fragment? 17 M
SSM
Module 43.2
The Nuclear Reactor
A 200 MW fission reactor consumes half its fuel in 3.00 y. How much 235 U did it contain initially? Assume that all the energy generated arises from the fission of 235 U and that this nuclide is consumed only by the fission process. 19 M The neutron generation t ime t gen in a reactor is the average time needed for a fast neutron emitted in one fission event to be slowed to thermal energies by the moderator and then initi- ate another fission event. Suppose the power output of a reactor at time t = 0 is P 0 . Show that the power output a time t later is P(t), where P(t) = P 0 k t/tgen and k is the multiplication factor. For constant power output, k = 1. 18 E
M A reactor operates at 400 MW with a neutron genera- tion time (see Problem 19) of 30.0 ms. If its power increases for 5.00 min with a multiplication factor of 1.0003, what is the power output at the end of the 5.00 min? 21 M The thermal energy generated when radiation from radio- nuclides is absorbed in matter can serve as the basis for a small power source for use in satellites, remote weather stations, and other isolated locations. Such radionuclides are manufactured in abundance in nuclear reactors and may be separated chemi- cally from the spent fuel. One suitable radionuclide is 238 Pu (T 1/2 = 87.7 y), which is an alpha emitter with Q = 5.50 MeV. At what rate is thermal energy generated in 1.00 kg of this material? 22 M The neutron generation time t gen (see Problem 19) in a par- ticular reactor is 1.0 ms. If the reactor is operating at a power level of 500 MW, about how many free neutrons are present in the reactor at any moment?
20
SSM The neutron generation time (see Problem 19) of a particular reactor is 1.3 ms. The reactor is generating energy at the rate of 1200.0 MW. To perform certain maintenance checks, the power level must temporarily be reduced to 350.00 MW. It is desired that the transition to the reduced power level take 2.6000 s. To what (constant) value should the multiplication fac- tor be set to effect the transition in the desired time?
23 M
M (See Problem 21.) Among the many fission products that may be extracted chemically from the spent fuel of a nuclear reac- tor is 90 Sr (T 1/2 = 29 y). This isotope is produced in typical large reactors at the rate of about 18 kg/y. By its radioactivity, the iso- tope generates thermal energy at the rate of 0.93 W/g. (a) Calcu- late the effective disintegration energy Q eff associated with the decay of a 90 Sr nucleus. (This energy Q eff includes contributions from the decay of the 90 Sr daughter products in its decay chain but not from neutrinos, which escape totally from the sample.) (b) It is desired to construct a power source generating 150 W (electric power) to use in operating electronic equipment in an underwa- ter acoustic beacon. If the power source is based on the thermal energy generated by 90 Sr and if the efficiency of the thermal– electric conversion process is 5.0%, how much 90 Sr is needed?
24
/
1408
C HAP T ER 43 ENERGY F ROM T HE NU C L EU S
SSM (a) A neutron of mass m n and kinetic energy K makes a head-on elastic collision with a stationary atom of mass m. Show that the fractional kinetic energy loss of the neutron is given by ΔK _________ 4m n m ___ = . K (m + m n ) 2
25 M
Find ΔK/ K for each of the following acting as the stationary atom: (b) hydrogen, (c) deuterium, (d) carbon, and (e) lead. (f ) If K = 1.00 MeV initially, how many such head-on collisions would it take to reduce the neutron’s kinetic energy to a thermal value (0.025 eV) if the stationary atoms it collides with are deuterium, a commonly used moderator? (In actual moderators, most colli- sions are not head-on.) Module 43.3
E The natural fission reactor discussed in Module 43.3 is estimated to have generated 15 gigawatt-years of energy dur- ing its lifetime. (a) If the reactor lasted for 200 000 y, at what average power level did it operate? (b) How many kilograms of 235 U did it consume during its lifetime?
27
M Some uranium samples from the natural reactor site described in Module 43.3 were found to be slightly enriched in 235 U, rather than depleted. Account for this in terms of neutron absorption by the abundant isotope 238 U and the subsequent beta and alpha decay of its products.
28
The uranium ore mined today contains only 0.72% of fissionable U, too little to make reactor fuel for thermal-neutron fission. For this reason, the mined ore must be enriched with 235 U. Both 235 U (T = 7.0 × 10 8 y) and 238 U (T = 4.5 × 10 9 y) 1/2 1/2 are radioactive. How far back in time would natural uranium ore have been a practical reactor fuel, with a 235 U/ 238 U ratio of 3.0%? SSM
235
Module 43.4 30 E
2 H + 2 H → 3 He + n
(Q = +3.27 MeV)
could keep a 100 W lamp burning for 2.5 × 10 4 y. Calculate the height of the Coulomb barrier for the head-on collision of two deuterons, with effective radius 2.1 fm. 31 E
E Assume that the protons in a hot ball of protons each have a kinetic energy equal to kT, where k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute temperature. If T = 1 × 10 7 K, what (approximately) is the least separation any two protons can have?
35
36 E
SSM
M For overcoming the Coulomb barrier for fusion, methods other than heating the fusible material have been suggested. For example, if you were to use two particle accelerators to accelerate two beams of deuterons directly toward each other so as to col- lide head-on, (a) what voltage would each accelerator require in order for the colliding deuterons to overcome the Coulomb bar- rier? (b) Why do you suppose this method is not presently used?
Calculate the Coulomb barrier height for two 7 Li nuclei that are fired at each other with the same initial kinetic energy K. (Hint: Use Eq. 42.2.3 to calculate the radii of the nuclei.) M
In Fig. 43.4.1, the equation for n(K), the number density per unit energy for particles, is 34 M
What is the Q of the following fusion process?
H 1 + 1 H 1 → 3 He 2 + photon Here are some atomic masses. 2 H 1 3 He 2
2.014 102 u
1.007 825 u
3.016 029 u
The Sun has mass 2.0 × 10 30 kg and radiates energy at the rate 3.9 × 10 26 W. (a) At what rate is its mass changing? (b) What fraction of its original mass has it lost in this way since it began to burn hydrogen, about 4.5 × 10 9 y ago? We have seen that Q for the overall proton–proton fusion cycle is 26.7 MeV. How can you relate this number to the Q values for the reactions that make up this cycle, as displayed in Fig. 43.5.1? 38 E
GO Show that the energy released when three alpha par- ticles fuse to form 12 C is 7.27 MeV. The atomic mass of 4 He is 4.0026 u, and that of 12 C is 12.0000 u. 39 E
M Calculate and compare the energy released by (a) the fusion of 1.0 kg of hydrogen deep within the Sun and (b) the fis- sion of 1.0 kg of 235 U in a fission reactor.
40
GO A star converts all its hydrogen to helium, achieving a 100% helium composition. Next it converts the helium to car- bon via the triple-alpha process, 41 M
4
He + 4 He + 4 He → 12 C + 7.27 MeV.
The mass of the star is 4.6 × 10 32 kg, and it generates energy at the rate of 5.3 × 10 30 W. How long will it take to convert all the helium to carbon at this rate? Verify the three Q values reported for the reactions given in Fig. 43.5.1. The needed atomic and particle masses are 42 M
1
H 1.007 825 u 2 H 2.014 102 u 3 He 3.016 029 u
4
He e ±
4.002 603 u 0.000 548 6 u
(Hint: Distinguish carefully between atomic and nuclear masses, and take the positrons properly into account.) Figure 43.2 shows an early proposal for a hydrogen bomb. The fusion fuel is deuterium, 2 H. The high temperature and particle density needed for fusion are provided by an atomic bomb “trigger” that involves a 235 U or 239 Pu fission fuel arranged 43 M
235U or 239Pu
1/2
K e −K/kT , n(K) = 1.13n ______ (kT) 3/2 where n is the total particle number density. At the center of the Sun, the temperature is 1.50 × 10 7 K and the average proton energy K avg is 1.94 keV. Find the ratio of the proton number density at 5.00 keV to the number density at the average proton energy.
1 H 1
37 E
32
33
GO
2
Thermonuclear Fusion: The Basic Process
Verify that the fusion of 1.0 kg of deuterium by the reaction
Thermonuclear Fusion in the Sun
and Other Stars
A Natural Nuclear Reactor
How long ago was the ratio 235 U/ 238 U in natural uranium deposits equal to 0.15? 26 E
29 M
Module 43.5
2H
Figure 43.2
Problem 43.
/
P ROBL EMS
to impress an imploding, compressive shock wave on the deute- rium. The fusion reaction is 5 2 H → 3 He + 4 He + 1 H + 2n. (a) Calculate Q for the fusion reaction. For needed atomic masses, see Problem 42. (b) Calculate the rating (see Prob- lem 16) of the fusion part of the bomb if it contains 500 kg of deuterium, 30.0% of which undergoes fusion. Assume that the core of the Sun has one-eighth of the Sun’s mass and is compressed within a sphere whose radius is one- fourth of the solar radius. Assume further that the composition of the core is 35% hydrogen by mass and that essentially all the Sun’s energy is generated there. If the Sun continues to burn hydrogen at the current rate of 6.2 × 10 11 kg/s, how long will it be before the hydrogen is entirely consumed? The Sun’s mass is 2.0 × 10 30 kg. 44 M
(a) Calculate the rate at which the Sun generates neutrinos. Assume that energy production is entirely by the proton–proton fusion cycle. (b) At what rate do solar neutrinos reach Earth? 45 M
In certain stars the carbon cycle is more effective than the proton–proton cycle in generating energy. This carbon cycle is 46 M
C + 1 H → 13 N + γ,
12
Q 1 = 1.95 MeV,
ν,
13 N → 13 C + e + +
γ, γ,
Q 2 = 1.19,
13 C + 1 H → 14 N +
Q 3 = 7.55,
14 N + 1 H → 15 O +
Q 4 = 7.30,
ν,
15 O → 15 N + e + +
Q 5 = 1.73,
N + 1 H → 12 C + 4 He,
Q 6 = 4.97.
15
(a) Show that this cycle is exactly equivalent in its overall effects to the proton–proton cycle of Fig. 43.5.1. (b) Verify that the two cycles, as expected, have the same Q value. SSM Coal burns according to the reaction C + O 2 → CO 2 . The heat of combustion is 3.3 × 10 7 J/kg of atomic carbon consumed. (a) Express this in terms of energy per carbon atom. (b) Express it in terms of energy per kilogram of the initial reactants, carbon and oxygen. (c) Suppose that the Sun (mass = 2.0 × 10 30 kg) were made of carbon and oxygen in com- bustible proportions and that it continued to radiate energy at its present rate of 3.9 × 10 26 W. How long would the Sun last?
47 M
Module 43.6
consumed. (b) The power of the Sun is 3.9 × 10 26 W. If its energy derives from the proton–proton cycle, at what rate is it losing hydrogen? (c) At what rate is it losing mass? (d) Account for the difference in the results for (b) and (c). (e) The mass of the Sun is 2.0 × 10 30 kg. If it loses mass at the constant rate calculated in (c), how long will it take to lose 0.10% of its mass? Many fear that nuclear power reactor technology will increase the likelihood of nuclear war because reactors can be used not only to produce electrical energy but also, as a by-product through neu- tron capture with inexpensive 238 U, to make 239 Pu, which is a “fuel” for nuclear bombs. What simple series of reactions involving neu- tron capture and beta decay would yield this plutonium isotope? 51
In the deuteron–triton fusion reaction of Eq. 43.6.3, what is the kinetic energy of (a) the alpha particle and (b) the neutron? Neglect the relatively small kinetic energies of the two combining particles. 52
Verify that, as stated in Module 43.1, neutrons in equilib- rium with matter at room temperature, 300 K, have an average kinetic energy of about 0.04 eV. 53
Verify that, as reported in Table 43.1.1, fissioning of the 235 U in 1.0 kg of UO 2 (enriched so that 235 U is 3.0% of the total ura- nium) could keep a 100 W lamp burning for 690 y. 54
At the center of the Sun, the density of the gas is 1.5 × 10 5 kg/m 3 and the composition is essentially 35% hydrogen by mass and 65% helium by mass. (a) What is the number density of protons there? (b) What is the ratio of that proton density to the density of particles in an ideal gas at standard temperature (0°C) and pressure (1.01 × 10 5 Pa)? 55
Expressions for the Maxwell speed distribution for mol- ecules in a gas are given in Chapter 19. (a) Show that the most probable energy is given by 56
1 K p = _ kT. 2
Verify this result with the energy distribution curve of Fig. 43.4.1, for which T = 1.5 × 10 7 K. (b) Show that the most probable speed is given by ____
2kT . v p = √ ____ m Find its value for protons at T = 1.5 × 10 7 K. (c) Show that the energy corresponding to the most probable speed (which is not the same as the most probable energy) is
Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion
Verify the Q values reported in Eqs. 43.6.1, 43.6.2, and 43.6.3. The needed masses are 48
E
1 H
4 He
2 H
n
1.007 825 u 2.014 102 u 3 H 3.016 049 u
4.002 603 u 1.008 665 u
Roughly 0.0150% of the mass of ordinary water is due to “heavy water,” in which one of the two hydrogens in an H 2 O molecule is replaced with deuterium, 2 H. How much average fusion power could be obtained if we “burned” all the 2 H in 1.00 liter of water in 1.00 day by somehow causing the deuterium to fuse via the reaction 2 H + 2 H → 3 He + n? 49 M
1409
K v, p = kT. Locate this quantity on the curve of Fig. 43.4.1. The uncompressed radius of the fuel pellet of Sample Problem 43.6.1 is 20 μm. Suppose that the compressed fuel pel- let “burns” with an efficiency of 10%—that is, only 10% of the deuterons and 10% of the tritons participate in the fusion reac- tion of Eq. 43.6.3. (a) How much energy is released in each such microexplosion of a pellet? (b) To how much TNT is each such pellet equivalent? The heat of combustion of TNT is 4.6 MJ/kg. (c) If a fusion reactor is constructed on the basis of 100 microex- plosions per second, what power would be generated? (Part of this power would be used to operate the lasers.) 57
Assume that a plasma temperature of 1 × 10 8 K is reached in a laser-fusion device. (a) What is the most probable speed of a deuteron at that temperature? (b) How far would such a deu- teron move in a confinement time of 1 × 10 –12 s? 58
Additional Problems
The effective Q for the proton–proton cycle of Fig. 43.5.1 is 26.2 MeV. (a) Express this as energy per kilogram of hydrogen 50
/
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
4
4
Quarks, Leptons, and the Big Bang
44.1 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
44.1.1 Identify that a great many different elementary
44.1.5 Distinguish leptons and hadrons, and then
particles exist or can be created and that nearly all of them are unstable.
identify the two types of hadrons. 44.1.6 Distinguish particle from antiparticle, and identify
44.1.2 For the decay of an unstable particle, apply the
that if they meet, they undergo annihilation and are
same decay equations as used for the radioactive
transformed into photons or into other elementary
decay of nuclei.
particles.
44.1.3 Identify spin as the intrinsic angular momentum of a particle.
44.1.7 Distinguish the strong force and the weak force. 44.1.8 To see if a given process for elementary particles
44.1.4 Distinguish fermions from bosons, and iden-
is physically possible, apply the conservation laws
tify which are required to obey the Pauli exclusion
for charge, linear momentum, spin angular momen-
principle.
tum, and energy (including mass energy).
Key Ideas ●
The term fundamental particles refers to the basic
antineutrons), but for most of the rarely detected
building blocks of matter. We can divide the particles
particles, the distinction between particles and anti-
into several broad categories.
particles is made largely to be consistent with experi-
●
The terms particles and antiparticles originally
mental results.
referred to common particles (such as the electrons,
●
protons, and neutrons in your body) and their anti-
the Pauli exclusion principle; bosons do not.
Fermions (such as the particles in your body) obey
particle counterparts (the positrons, antiprotons, and
What Is Physics?
Physicists often refer to the theories of relativity and quantum physics as “modern physics,” to distinguish them from the theories of Newtonian mechanics and Maxwellian electromagnetism, which are lumped together as “classical physics.” As the years go by, the word “modern” seems less and less appropriate for theories whose foundations were laid down in the opening years of the 20th century. After all, Einstein published his paper on the photoelectric effect and his first paper on special relativity in 1905, Bohr published his quantum model of the hydrogen atom in 1913, a nd Schrödinger published his matter wave equation in 1926. Nevertheless, the label of “modern physics” hangs on. In this closing chapter we consider two lines of investigation that are truly “modern” but at the same time have the most ancient of roots. They center around two deceptively simple questions: What is the universe made of? How did the universe come to be the way it is?
1410
Progress in answering these questions has been rapid in the last few decades. Many new insights are based on experiments carried out with large particle accelerators. However, as they bang particles together at higher and higher /
44.1 GENERAL P ROP ERT IES OF EL EMENT ARY P ART IC L ES
1411
energies using larger and larger accelerators, physicists come to realize that no conceivable Earth-bound accelerator can generate particles with energies great enough to test the ultimate theories of physics. There has been only one source of particles with these energies, and that was the universe itself within the first millisecond of its existence. In this chapter you will encounter a host of new terms and a veritable flood of particles with names that you should not try to remember. If you are tem- porarily bewildered, you are sharing the bewilderment of the physicists who lived through these developments and who at times saw nothing but increasing complexity with little hope of understanding. If you stick with it, however, you will come to share the excitement physicists felt as marvelous new accelerators poured out new results, as the theorists put forth ideas each more daring than the last, and as clarity finally sprang from obscurity. The main message of this book is that, although we know a lot about the physics of the world, grand mysteries remain.
Particles, Particles, Particles
In the 1930s, there were many scientists who thought that the problem of the ultimate structure of matter was well on the way to being solved. The atom could be understood in terms of only three particles—the electron, the pro- ton, and the neutron. Quantum physics accounted well for the structure of the atom and for radioactive alpha decay. The neutrino had been postulated and, although not yet observed, had been incorporated by Enrico Fermi into a suc- cessful theory of beta decay. There was hope that quantum theory applied to protons and neutrons would soon account for the structure of the nucleus. What else was there? The euphoria did not last. The end of that same decade saw the begin- ning of a period of discovery of new particles that continues to this day. The new particles have names and symbols such as muon ( μ), pion (π), kaon (K), and sigma (Σ). All the new particles are unstable; that is, they spontaneously transform into other types of particles according to the same functions of time that apply to unstable nuclei. Thus, if N 0 particles of any one type are present in a sample at time t = 0, the number N of those particles present at some later time t is given by Eq. 42.3.5, N = N e –λt , (44.1.1) 0
the rate of decay R, from an initial value of R 0 , is given by Eq. 42.3.6, –λt R = R 0 e ,
(44.1.2)
and the half-life T 1/2 , decay constant λ, and mean life τ are related by Eq. 42.3.8, ____ = τ ln 2. T 1/2 = ln 2
λ
(44.1.3)
The half-lives of the new particles range from about 10 –6 s to 10 –23 s. Indeed, some of the particles last so briefly that they cannot be detected directly but can only be inferred from indirect evidence. These new particles have been commonly produced in head-on collisions between protons or electrons accelerated to high energies in accelerators at places like Brookhaven National Laboratory (on Long Island, New York), Fermilab (near Chicago), CERN (near Geneva, Switzerland), SLAC (at Stanford University in California), and DESY (near Hamburg, Germany). They have been discovered with particle detectors that have grown in sophistication until they rival the size and complexity of entire accelerators of only a few decades ago (Fig. 44.1.1).
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C HAP T ER 44 QU ARKS, L EP T ONS, AND T HE BIG BANG
aveneG NREC
One of the detectors at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN, where the Standard Model of the elementary particles is being put to the test. Note the person crouched in the foreground. Figure 44.1.1
Today there are several hundred known particles. Naming them has strained the resources of the Greek alphabet, and most are known only by an assigned number in a periodically issued compilation. To make sense of this array of par- ticles, we look for simple physical criteria by which we can place the particles in categories. The result is known as the Standard Model of particles. Although this model is continuously challenged by theorists, it remains our best scheme of understanding all the particles discovered to date. To explore the Standard Model, we make the following three rough cuts among the known particles: fermion or boson, hadron or lepton, particle or antiparticle? Let’s now look at the categories one by one. Fermion or Boson?
All particles have an intrinsic angular momentum called spin, as we discussed for electrons, protons, and neutrons in Module 32.5. Generalizing the notation of that section, we can write the component of spin S in any direction (assume the component to be along a z axis) as →
S z = m s ℏ for m s = s, s −1, . . . , − s,
(44.1.4)
in which ℏ is h/2π, m s is the spin magnetic quantum number, and s is the spin 1 , 3 _ quantum number. This last can have either positive half-integer values ( _ 2 2 , . . . ) or nonnegative integer values (0, 1, 2, . . .). For example, a n electron has the value 1 . Hence the spin of an electron (measured along any direction, such as the s = _ 2 z direction) can have the values 1 S z = _ ℏ 2 1 S z = − _ ℏ 2
or
(spin up) (spin down).
Confusingly, the term spin is used in two ways: It properly means a particle’s intrinsic angular momentum S , but it is often used loosely to mean the particle’s spin quantum number s. In the latter case, for example, an electron is said to be 1 particle. a spin- _ 2 Particles with half-integer spin quantum numbers (like electrons) are called fermions, after Fermi, who (simultaneously with Paul Dirac) discovered the sta- tistical laws that govern their behavior. Like electrons, protons and neutrons also 1 and are fermions. have s = _ 2 →
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44.1 GENERAL P ROP ERT IES OF EL EMENT ARY P ART IC L ES
1413
Particles with zero or integer spin quantum numbers are called bosons, after Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, who (simultaneously with Albert Einstein) discovered the governing statistical laws for those particles. Photons, which have s = 1, are bosons; you will soon meet other particles in this class. This may seem a trivial way to classify particles, but it is very important for this reason: Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle, which asserts that only a single particle can be assigned to a given quantum state. Bosons do not obey this principle. Any number of bosons can occupy a given quantum state.
We saw how important the Pauli exclusion principle is when we “built up” the 1 ) electrons to individual quantum states. Using that atoms by assigning (spin- _ 2 principle led to a full accounting of the structure and properties of atoms of different types and of solids such as metals and semiconductors. Because bosons do not obey the Pauli principle, those particles tend to pile up in the quantum state of lowest energy. In 1995 a group in Boulder, Colorado, succeeded in producing a condensate of about 2000 rubidium-87 atoms—they are bosons—in a single quantum state of approximately zero energy. For this to happen, the rubidium has to be a vapor with a temperature so low and a density so great that the de Broglie wavelengths of the individual atoms are greater than the average separation between the atoms. When this condition is met, the wave functions of the individual atoms overlap and the entire assembly becomes a single quantum system (one big atom) called a Bose–Einstein con- densate. Figure 44.1.2 shows that, as the temperature of the rubidium vapor is lowered to about 1.70 × 10 –7 K, the atoms do indeed “collapse” into a single sharply defined state corresponding to approximately zero speed.
Courtesy of Michael Mathews
(a )
(b )
(c )
Three plots of the particle speed distribution in a vapor of rubidium-87 atoms. The temperature of the vapor is successively reduced from plot (a) to plot (c). Plot (c) shows a sharp peak centered around zero speed; that is, all the atoms are in the same quantum state. The achievement of such a Bose–Einstein condensate, often called the Holy Grail of atomic physics, was finally recorded in 1995. Figure 44.1.2
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C HAP T ER 44 QU ARKS, L EP T ONS, AND T HE BIG BANG
Hadron or Lepton?
We can also classify particles in terms of the four fundamental forces that act on them. The gravitational force acts on all particles, but its effects at the level of subatomic particles are so weak that we need not consider that force (at least not in today’s research). The electromagnetic force acts on all electrically charged particles; its effects are well known, and we can take them into account when we need to; we largely ignore this force in this chapter. We are left with the strong force, which is the force that binds nucleons together, and the weak force, which is involved in beta decay and similar processes. The weak force acts on all particles, the strong force only on some. We can, then, roughly classify particles on the basis of whether the strong force acts on them. Particles on which the strong force acts are called hadrons. Particles on which the strong force does not act, leaving the weak force and the electromagnetic force as the dominant forces, are called leptons. Protons, neutrons, and pions are hadrons; electrons and neutrinos are leptons. We can make a further distinction among the hadrons because some of them are bosons (we call them mesons); the pion is an example. The other hadrons are fermions (we call them baryons); the proton is an example. Particle or Antiparticle?
In 1928 Dirac predicted that the electron e – should have a positively charged counterpart of the same mass and spin. The counterpart, the positron e + , was dis- covered in cosmic radiation in 1932 by Carl Anderson. Physicists then gradually realized that every particle has a corresponding antiparticle. The members of such pairs have the same mass and spin but opposite signs of electric charge (if they are charged) and opposite signs of quantum numbers that we have not yet discussed. At first, particle was used to refer to the common particles such as electrons, protons, and neutrons, and antiparticle referred to their rarely detected coun- terparts. Later, for the less common particles, the assignment of particle and antiparticle was made so as to be consistent with certain conservation laws that we shall discuss later in this chapter. (Confusingly, both particles and antipar- ticles are sometimes called particles when no distinction is needed.) We often, but not always, represent an antiparticle by putting a bar over the symbol for the particle. Thus, p is the symbol for the proton, and ¯ p (pronounced “p bar”) is the symbol for the antiproton. Annihilation. When a particle meets its antiparticle, the two can annihilate each other. That is, the particle and antiparticle disappear and their combined energies reappear in other forms. For an electron annihilating with a positron, this energy reappears as two gamma-ray photons: e – + e + → γ + γ .
(44.1.5)
If the electron and positron are stationary when they annihilate, their total energy is their total mass energy, and that energy is then shared equally by the two photons. To conserve momentum and because photons cannot be stationary, the photons fly off in opposite directions. Antihydrogen atoms (each with an antiproton and positron instead of a pro- ton and electron in a hydrogen atom) are now being manufactured and studied at CERN. The Standard Model predicts that a transition in an antihydrogen atom (say, between the first excited state and the ground state) is identical to the same transition in a hydrogen atom. Thus, any difference in the transitions would clearly signal that the Standard Model is erroneous; no difference has yet been spotted. An assembly of antiparticles, such as an antihydrogen atom, is often called antimatter to distinguish it from an assembly of common particles (matter). (The terms can easily be confusing when the word “matter” is used to describe any- thing that has mass.) We can speculate that future scientists and engineers may construct objects of antimatter. However, no evidence suggests that nature has
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44.1 GENERAL P ROP ERT IES OF EL EMENT ARY P ART IC L ES
1415
already done this on an astronomical scale because all stars and galaxies appear to consist largely of matter and not antimatter. This is a perplexing observation because it means that when the universe began, some feature biased the con- ditions toward matter and away from antimatter. (For example, electrons are common but positrons are not.) This bias is still not well understood. An Interlude
Before pressing on with the task of classifying the particles, let us step aside for a moment and capture some of the spirit of particle research by analyzing a typical particle event—namely, that shown in the bubble-chamber photograph of Fig. 44.1.3a. The tracks in this figure consist of bubbles formed along the paths of electri- cally charged particles as they move through a chamber filled with liquid hydro- gen. We can identify the particle that makes a particular track by—among other means—measuring the relative spacing between the bubbles. The chamber lies in a uniform magnetic field that deflects the tracks of positively charged particles
A (a )
The moving antiproton collides with a stationary proton. The annihilation produces all the other particles. p
–
–
1
The positive pion decays, producing a positive muon and an (unseen) neutrino.
Here, clockwise curvature means negative charge and … –
+
p
+ –
1
–
+
2
+
+ The positive muon decays, producing an electron, a neutrino, and an antineutrino, all unseen.
– (b )
+
– +
–
2
+
+ … counterclockwise curvature means positive charge.
+
(c )
Part (a) : Courtesy of Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
(a) A bubble-chamber photograph of a series of events initiated by an antiproton that enters the chamber from the left. (b) The tracks redrawn and labeled for clarity. (c) The tracks are curved because a magnetic field present in the chamber exerts a deflecting force on each moving charged particle. Figure 44.1.3
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C HAP T ER 44 QU ARKS, L EP T ONS, AND T HE BIG BANG
Table 44.1.1 The Particles or Antiparticles Involved in the Event of Fig. 44.1.3
Particle Neutrino Electron Muon Pion Proton
Charge q
Mass (MeV/c 2 )
ν
0
≈ 1 × 10 –7
e
–1 –1
Symbol –
μ – π+ p
+1 +1
0.511 105.7 139.6 938.3
Spin Quantum Number s
Identity
Mean Life (s)
_ 1 2 _ 1 2 1 _ 2
Lepton
Stable
¯ ν
Lepton Lepton
Stable 2.2 × 10 –6
e +
0
Meson Baryon
–8
1 _ 2
2.6 × 10 Stable
Antiparticle
μ+ π– p ˉ
counterclockwise and the tracks of negatively charged particles clockwise. By measuring the radius of curvature of a track, we can calculate the momentum of the particle that made it. Table 44.1.1 shows some properties of the particles and antiparticles that participated in the event of Fig. 44.1.3a, including those that did not make tracks. Following common practice, we express the masses of the particles listed in Table 44.1.1—and in all other tables in this chapter—in the unit MeV/c 2 . The reason for this notation is that the rest energy of a particle is needed more often than its mass. Thus, the mass of a proton is shown in Table 44.1.1 to be 938.3 MeV/c 2 . To find the proton’s rest energy, multiply this mass by c 2 to obtain 938.3 MeV. The general tools used for the analysis of photographs like Fig. 44.1.3a are the laws of conservation of energy, linear momentum, angular momentum, and electric charge, a long with other conservation laws that we have not yet discussed. Figure 44.1.3a is actually one of a stereo pair of photographs so that, in practice, these analyses are carried out in three dimensions. The event of Fig. 44.1.3a is triggered by an energetic antiproton (p ¯) that, generated in an accelerator at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, enters the chamber from the left. There are three separate subevents; one occurs at point 1 in Fig. 44.1.3b, the second occurs at point 2, and the third occurs out of the frame of the figure. Let’s examine each: 1. Proton–Antiproton Annihilation. At point 1 in Fig. 44.1.3b, the initiating antiproton (blue track) slams into a proton of the liquid hydrogen in the chamber, and the result is mutual annihilation. We can tell that annihilation occurred while the incoming antiproton was in flight because most of the particles generated in the encounter move in the forward direction—that is, toward the right in Fig. 44.1.3. From the principle of conservation of linear momentum, the incoming antiproton must have had a forward momentum when it underwent annihilation. Further, because the particles are charged and moving through a magnetic field, the curvature of the paths reveals whether the particles are negatively charged (like the incident antiproton) or positively charged (Fig. 44.1.3c). The total energy involved in the collision of the antiproton and the proton is the sum of the antiproton’s kinetic energy and the two (identical) rest energies of those two particles (2 × 938.3 MeV, or 1876.6 MeV). This is enough energy to create a number of lighter particles and give them kinetic energy. In this case, the annihilation produces four positive pions (red tracks in Fig. 44.1.3b) and four negative pions (green tracks). (For simplicity, we assume that no gamma-ray photons, which would leave no tracks because they lack electric charge, a re produced.) Thus we conclude that the annihila- tion process is ˉ → 4π+ + 4π− . p + p
(44.1.6)
We see from Table 44.1.1 that the positive pions (π+ ) are particles and the negative pions (π– ) are antiparticles. The reaction of Eq. 44.1.6 is a strong
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44.1 GENERAL P ROP ERT IES OF EL EMENT ARY P ART IC L ES
1417
interaction (it involves the strong force) because all the particles involved are hadrons. Let us check whether electric charge is conserved in the reaction. To do so, we can write the electric charge of a particle as qe, in which q is a charge quantum number. Then determining whether electric charge is conserved in a process amounts to determining whether the initial net charge quantum number is equal to the final net charge quantum number. In the process of Eq. 44.1.6, the initial net charge number is 1 + (–1), or 0, and the final net charge number is 4(1) + 4(–1), or 0. Thus, charge is conserved. For the energy balance, note from above that the energy available from the p-p ˉ annihilation process is at least the sum of the proton and antiproton rest energies, 1876.6 MeV. The rest energy of a pion is 139.6 MeV, which means the rest energies of the eight pions amount to 8 × 139.6 MeV, or 1116.8 MeV. This leaves at least about 760 MeV to distribute among the eight pions as kinetic energy. Thus, the requirement of energy conservation is easily met. 2. Pion Decay. Pions are unstable particles and decay with a mean lifetime of 2.6 × 10 –8 s. At point 2 in Fig. 44.1.3b, one of the positive pions comes to rest in the chamber and decays spontaneously into an antimuon μ+ (purple track) and a neutrino ν:
π+ → μ+ + ν.
(44.1.7)
The neutrino, being uncharged, leaves no track. Both the antimuon and the neutrino are leptons; that is, they are particles on which the strong force does not act. Thus, the decay process of Eq. 44.1.7, which is governed by the weak force, is described as a weak interaction. Let’s consider the energies in the decay. From Table 44.1.1, the rest energy of an antimuon is 105.7 MeV and the rest energy of a neutrino is approxi- mately 0. Because the pion is at rest when it decays, its energy is just its rest energy, 139.6 MeV. Thus, an energy of 139.6 MeV – 105.7 MeV, or 33.9 MeV, is available to share between the antimuon and the neutrino as kinetic energy. Let us check whether spin angular momentum is conserved in the process of Eq. 44.1.7. This amounts to determining whether the net component S z of spin angular momentum along some arbitrary z axis can be conserved by the process. The spin quantum numbers s of the particles in the process are 0 for the pion π+ 1 for both the antimuon μ+ and the neutrino ν. Thus, for π+ , the component and _ 2 1 ℏ or − 1 _ S z must be 0ℏ, and for μ+ and ν, it can be either + _ 2 2 ℏ. The net component S z is conserved by the process of Eq. 44.1.7 if there is any way in which the initial S z (= 0ℏ) can be equal to the final net S z. We see that if 1 ℏ and the other has S = − _ 1 _ one of the products, either μ+ or ν, has S z = + 2 z 2 ℏ, then their final net value is 0ℏ. Thus, because S z can be conserved, the decay process of Eq. 44.1.7 can occur. From Eq. 44.1.7, we also see that the net charge is conserved by the pro- cess: Before the process the net charge quantum number is +1, and after the process it is +1 + 0 = +1.
3. Muon Decay. Muons (whether μ– or μ+ ) are also unstable, decaying with a mean life of 2.2 × 10 –6 s. Although the decay products are not shown in Fig. 44.1.3, the antimuon produced in the reaction of Eq. 44.1.7 comes to rest and decays spontaneously according to _ (44.1.8) μ + → e + + ν + ν . The rest energy of the antimuon is 105.7 MeV, and that of the positron is only 0.511 MeV, leaving 105.2 MeV to be shared as kinetic energy a mong the three particles produced in the decay process of Eq. 44.1.8. You may wonder: Why two neutrinos in Eq. 44.1.8? Why not just one, as in the pion decay in Eq. 44.1.7? One answer is that the spin quantum numbers of
/
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C HAP T ER 44 QU ARKS, L EP T ONS, AND T HE BIG BANG
_ the antimuon, the positron, and the neutrino are each 1 2 ; with only one neutrino, the net component S z of spin angular momentum could not be conserved in the antimuon decay of Eq. 44.1.8. In Module 44.2 we shall discuss another reason.
Sample Problem 44.1.1
Momentum and kinetic energy in a pion decay
A stationary positive pion can decay according to π+ → μ+ + ν. What is the kinetic energy of the antimuon μ+ ? What is the kinetic energy of the neutrino?
KEY IDEA The pion decay process must conserve both total energy and total linear momentum. Let us first write the conservation of total energy (rest energy m c 2 plus kinetic energy K ) for the decay process as Energy conservation:
2 m π c 2 + K π = m μc 2 + K μ + m νc + K ν.
Because the pion was stationary, its kinetic energy K π is zero. Then, using the masses listed for m π , m μ, and m ν in Table 44.1.1, we find K μ + K ν = m π c 2 − m π c 2 − m ν c 2 = 139.6 MeV − 105.7 MeV − 0 = 33.9 MeV,
(44.1.9)
which, with p π = 0, gives us p μ = −p ν.
We want to relate these momenta p μ and −p ν to the kinetic energies K μ and K ν so that we can solve for the kinetic energies. Because we have no reason to believe that classical physics can be applied, we use Eq. 37.6.15, the momentum–kinetic energy relation from spe- cial relativity: Relating p and K:
( pc) 2 = K 2 + 2Kmc 2 .
( p μc) 2 = ( p νc) 2 . (44.1.12) Substituting from Eq. 44.1.11 for each side of Eq. 44.1.12 yields 2 2 2 K 2 μ + 2K μm μc = K ν + 2K νm ν c . Approximating the neutrino mass to be m ν = 0, substitut- ing K ν = 33.9 MeV – K μ from Eq. 44.1.9, a nd then solving for K μ, we find (33.9 MeV ) 2 K μ = ____________________ (2 )(33.9 MeV + m μc 2 )
(33.9 MeV ) 2 = _________________________ (2 )(33.9 MeV + 105.7 MeV )
Momentum conservation:
p π = p μ + p ν,
Sample Problem 44.1.2
π− + p → K − + Σ + .
The rest energies of these particles are 139.6 MeV
p
938.3 MeV
= 4.12 MeV.
(Answer)
The kinetic energy of the neutrino is then, from Eq. 44.1.9, K ν = 33.9 MeV − K μ = 33.9 MeV − 4.12 MeV = 29.8 MeV.
(Answer)
We see that, although the magnitudes of the momenta of the two recoiling particles are the same, the neutrino gets the larger share (88%) of the kinetic energy.
Q in a proton–pion reaction
The protons in the material filling a bubble chamber are bombarded with a beam of high-energy antiparticles known as negative pions. At collision points, a proton and a pion transform into a negative kaon and a positive sigma in this reaction:
π−
(44.1.11)
From Eq. 44.1.10, we know that
where we have approximated m ν as zero. We cannot solve Eq. 44.1.9 for either K μ or K ν separately, and so let us next apply the prin- ciple of conservation of linear momentum to the decay process. Because the pion is stationary when it decays, that principle requires that the muon and neutrino move in oppo- site directions after the decay. Assume that their motion is along an axis. Then, for components along that axis, we can write the conservation of linear momentum for the decay as
(44.1.10)
K − 493.7 MeV +
Σ
What is the Q of the reaction?
1189.4 MeV
KEY IDEA The Q of a reaction is initial total final total Q = ( mass energy) − ( mass energy) . Calculation:
For the given reaction, we find
2 2 2 Q = ( mπ c 2 + m pc ) − ( m Kc + m Σc )
= (139.6 MeV + 938.3 MeV ) − (493.7 MeV + 1189.4 MeV ) = −605 MeV.
(Answer)
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44.2 L EP T ONS, HAD RONS, AND ST RANGENESS
The minus sign means that the reaction is endothermic; that is, the incoming pion (π– ) must have a kinetic energy greater than a certain threshold value if the reaction is to occur. The threshold energy is actually greater than 605 MeV because linear momentum must be conserved.
1419
(The incoming pion has momentum.) This means that the kaon (K – ) and the sigma ( Σ + ) not only must be created but also must be given some kinetic energy. A relativistic calculation whose details are beyond our scope shows that the threshold energy for the reaction is 907 MeV.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
44.2 LEPTONS, HADRONS, AND STRANGENESS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
44.2.1 Identify that there are six leptons (with an anti-
44.2.4 To see if a given process for elementary par-
particle each) in three families, with a different type
ticles is physically possible, determine whether the
of neutrino in each family.
process conserves baryon number.
44.2.2 To see if a given process for elementary par-
44.2.5 Identify that there is a quantum number called
ticles is physically possible, determine whether it
strangeness associated with some of the baryons
conserves lepton number and whether it conserves the individual family lepton numbers.
and mesons. 44.2.6 Identify that strangeness must be conserved in
44.2.3 Identify that there is a quantum number
an interaction involving the strong force, but this con-
called baryon number associated with the baryons.
servation law can be broken for other interactions. 44.2.7 Describe the eightfold way patterns.
Key Ideas ●
We can classify particles and their antiparticles into
●
Baryons, including protons and neutrons, are
two main types: leptons and hadrons. The latter con-
hadrons with half-integer spin quantum numbers and
sists of mesons and baryons.
thus are also fermions.
●
Three of the leptons (the electron, muon, and tau)
−1e. There are also three
●
Mesons are hadrons with integer spin quantum
have electric charge equal to
numbers and thus are bosons, which do not obey the
uncharged neutrinos (also leptons), one corresponding
Pauli exclusion principle.
to each of the charged leptons. The antiparticles for the charged leptons have positive charge. ●
To explain the possible and impossible reactions
of these particles, each is assigned a lepton quantum number, which must be conserved in a reaction. ●
The leptons have half-integer spin quantum numbers
●
To explain the possible and impossible reactions of
these particles, baryons are assigned a baryon quan- tum number, which must be conserved in a reaction. ●
Baryons are also assigned a strangeness quantum
number, but it is conserved only in reactions involving the strong force.
and are thus fermions, which obey the Pauli exclusion principle.
The Leptons
In this module, we discuss some of the particles of one of our classification schemes: lepton or hadron. We begin with the leptons, those particles on which the strong force does not act. So far, we have encountered the familiar electron and the neutrino that accompanies it in beta decay. The muon, whose decay is described in Eq. 44.1.8, is another member of this family. Physicists gradually learned that the neutrino that appears in Eq. 44.1.7, a ssociated with the production of a muon, is not the same particle as the neutrino produced in beta decay, associated with the appearance of an electron. We call the former the muon neutrino (symbol νμ) and the latter the electron neutrino (symbol νe ) when it is necessary to distinguish between them.
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C HAP T ER 44 QU ARKS, L EP T ONS, AND T HE BIG BANG
a
Table 44.2.1 The Leptons
Family
Particle
Symbol
Electron
Electron Electron neutrino b
e –
Muon
Muon Muon neutrino b
Tau
Tau Tau neutrino b
a
νe μ– νμ τ– ντ
Mass (MeV/c 2 )
Charge q
Antiparticle
0.511 ≈ 1 × 10 –7
–1 0
e + ¯ ν e
105.7 ≈ 1 × 10 –7
–1 0
μ+
1777 ≈ 1 × 10 –7
–1 0
¯ ν μ
τ+
¯ ν τ
_
All leptons have spin quantum numbers of 1 2 and are thus fermions. The neutrino masses have not been well determined. Also, because of neutrino oscillations, we might not be able to associate a particular mass with a particular neutrino. b
These two types of neutrino are known to be different particles because, if a beam of muon neutrinos (produced from pion decay as in Eq. 44.1.7) strikes a solid target, only muons —and never electrons—are produced. On the other hand, if electron neutrinos (produced by the beta decay of fission products in a nuclear reactor) strike a solid target, only electrons —and never muons—are produced. Another lepton, the tau, was discovered at SLAC in 1975; its discoverer, Martin Perl, shared the 1995 Nobel Prize in physics. The tau has its own associ- ated neutrino, different still from the other two. Table 44.2.1 lists all the leptons 1 . (both particles and antiparticles); all have a spin quantum number s of _ 2 There are reasons for dividing the leptons into three families, each consist- ing of a particle (electron, muon, or tau), its associated neutrino, and the cor- responding antiparticles. Furthermore, there are reasons to believe that there are only the three families of leptons shown in Table 44.2.1. Leptons have no internal structure and no measurable dimensions; they are believed to be truly pointlike fundamental particles when they interact with other particles or with electromagnetic waves. The Conservation of Lepton Number
According to experiment, particle interactions involving leptons obey a conser- vation law for a quantum number called the lepton number L. Each (normal) par- ticle in Table 44.2.1 is assigned L = +1, and each antiparticle is assigned L = –1. All other particles, which are not leptons, are assigned L = 0. Also according to experiment, In all particle interactions, the net lepton number is conserved.
This experimental fact is called the law of conservation of lepton number. We do not know why the law must be obeyed; we only know that this conservation law is part of the way our universe works. There are actually three types of lepton number, one for each lepton family: the electron lepton number L e, the muon lepton number L μ, and the tau lepton number L τ . In nearly all observed interactions, these three quantum numbers are separately conserved. An important exception involves the neutrinos. For reasons that we cannot explore here, the fact that neutrinos are not mass- less means that they can “oscillate” between different types as they travel long distances. Such oscillations were proposed to explain why only about a third of the expected number of electron neutrinos arrive at Earth from the proton– proton fusion mechanism in the Sun (Fig. 43.5.1). The rest change on the way.
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44.2 L EP T ONS, HAD RONS, AND ST RANGENESS
1421
The oscillations, then, mean that the individual family lepton numbers are not conserved for neutrinos. In this book we shall not consider such violations and shall always conserve the individual family lepton numbers. Let’s illustrate such conservation by reconsidering the antimuon decay process shown in Eq. 44.1.8, which we now write more fully as μ + → e + + νe + ν¯ μ. (44.2.1)
Consider this first in terms of the muon family of leptons. The μ+ is an antiparticle (see Table 44.2.1) a nd thus has the muon lepton number L μ = –1. The two particles e + and νe do not belong to the muon family and thus have L μ = 0. This leaves ¯ν μ on the right which, being an antiparticle, also has the muon lepton number L μ = –1. Thus, both sides of Eq. 44.2.1 have the same net muon lepton number—namely, L μ = –1; if they did not, the μ+ would not decay by this process. No members of the electron family appear on the left in Eq. 44.2.1; so there the net electron lepton number must be L e = 0. On the right side of Eq. 44.2.1, the positron, being an antiparticle (again see Table 44.2.1), has the electron lep- ton number L e = –1. The electron neutrino νe , being a particle, has the electron number L e = +1. Thus, the net electron lepton number for these two particles on the right in Eq. 44.2.1 is also zero; the electron lepton number is also conserved in the process. Because no members of the tau family appear on either side of Eq. 44.2.1, we must have L τ = 0 on each side. Thus, each of the lepton quantum numbers L μ, L e , and L τ remains unchanged during the decay process of Eq. 44.2.1, their constant values being –1, 0, and 0, respectively. Checkpoint 44.2.1
(a) The π+ meson decays by the process π+ → μ + + ν. To what lepton family does the neutrino ν belong? (b) Is this neutrino a particle or an antiparticle? (c) What is its lepton number?
The Hadrons
We are now ready to consider hadrons (baryons and mesons), those particles whose interactions are governed by the strong force. We start by adding another conservation law to our list: conservation of baryon number. To develop this conservation law, let us consider the proton decay process p → e + + νe .
(44.2.2)
This process never happens. We should be glad that it does not because otherwise all protons in the universe would gradually change into positrons, with disastrous consequences for us. Yet this decay process does not violate the conservation laws involving energy, linear momentum, or lepton number. We account for the apparent stability of the proton—and for the absence of many other processes that might otherwise occur—by introducing a new quantum number, the baryon number B, and a new conservation law, the conservation of baryon number: To every baryon we assign B = +1. To every antibaryon we assign B = –1. To all particles of other types we assign B = 0. A particle process cannot occur if it changes the net baryon number.
In the process of Eq. 44.2.2, the proton has a baryon number of B = +1 and the positron and neutrino both have a baryon number of B = 0. Thus, the process does not conserve baryon number and cannot occur.
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C HAP T ER 44 QU ARKS, L EP T ONS, AND T HE BIG BANG
Checkpoint 44.2.2
This mode of decay for a neutron is not observed: n → p + e − . Which of the following conservation laws does this process violate: (a) energy, (b) angular momentum, (c) linear momentum, (d) charge, (e) lepton number, (f) baryon number? The masses are m n = 939.6 MeV/c 2 , m p = 938.3 MeV/c 2 , and m e = 0.511 MeV/c 2 .
Still Another Conservation Law
Particles have intrinsic properties in addition to the ones we have listed so far: mass, charge, spin, lepton number, and baryon number. The first of these addi- tional properties was discovered when researchers observed that certain new par- ticles, such as the kaon (K) and the sigma ( Σ ), always seemed to be produced in pairs. It seemed impossible to produce only one of them at a time. Thus, if a beam of energetic pions interacts with the protons in a bubble chamber, the reaction (44.2.3) π + + p → K + + Σ+ often occurs. The reaction
π + + p → π + + Σ +,
(44.2.4)
which violates no conservation law known in the early days of particle physics, never occurs. It was eventually proposed (by Murray Gell-Mann in the United States and independently by K. Nishijima in Japan) that certain particles possess a new property, called strangeness, with its own quantum number S and its own conservation law. (Be careful not to confuse the symbol S here with the symbol for spin.) The name strangeness arises from the fact that, before the identities of these particles were pinned down, they were known as “strange particles,” and the label stuck. The proton, neutron, and pion have S = 0; that is, they are not “strange.” It was proposed, however, that the K + particle has strangeness S = +1 and that Σ + has S = –1. In the reaction of Eq. 44.2.3, the net strangeness is initially zero and finally zero; thus, the reaction conserves strangeness. However, in the reaction shown in Eq. 44.2.4, the final net strangeness is –1; thus, that reaction does not conserve strangeness and cannot occur. Apparently, then, we must add one more conservation law to our list—the conservation of strangeness:
Strangeness is conserved in interactions involving the strong force.
Strange particles are produced only (rapidly) by strong interactions and only in pairs with a net strangeness of zero. They then decay (slowly) through weak inter- actions without conserving strangeness. It may seem heavy-handed to invent a new property of particles just to account for a little puzzle like that posed by Eqs. 44.2.3 a nd 44.2.4. H owever, strangeness soon solved many other puzzles. Still, do not be misled by the whimsical name. Strangeness is no more mysterious a property of particles than is charge. Both are properties that particles may (or may not) have; each is described by an appro- priate quantum number. Each obeys a conservation law. Still other properties of particles have been discovered and given even more whimsical names, such as charm and bottomness, but all are perfectly legitimate properties. Let us see, as an example, how the new property of strangeness “earns its keep” by leading us to uncover important regularities in the properties of the particles.
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44.2 L EP T ONS, HAD RONS, AND ST RANGENESS
_ Baryons 1 2
a
Table 44.2.2 Eight Spin-
Particle
Symbol
Mass (MeV/c 2 )
Proton Neutron Lambda Sigma Sigma Sigma Xi Xi
p n Λ 0 Σ + Σ 0 Σ – Ξ 0 Ξ –
938.3 939.6 1115.6 1189.4 1192.5 1197.3 1314.9 1321.3
Table 44.2.3 Nine Spin-Zero Mesons
Quantum Numbers Charge q
Strangeness S
Particle
Symbol
+1 0 0 +1 0 –1 0 –1
0 0 –1 –1 –1 –1 –2 –2
Pion Pion Pion Kaon Kaon Kaon Kaon Eta Eta prime
π0 π+ π–
Quantum Numbers
Mass (MeV/c 2 )
Charge q
Strangeness S
135.0 139.6 139.6 493.7 493.7 497.7 497.7 547.5 957.8
0 +1 –1 +1 –1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 +1 –1 +1 –1 0 0
K + K – K 0 ¯ K 0
η ηʹ
a
All mesons are bosons, having spins of 0, 1, 2, . . . . The ones listed here all have a spin of 0. The Eightfold Way
There are eight baryons—the neutron and the proton among them—that have 1 . Table 44.2.2 shows some of their other properties. a spin quantum number of _ 2 Figure 44.2.1a shows the fascinating pattern that emerges if we plot the strange- ness of these baryons against their charge quantum number, using a sloping axis for the charge quantum numbers. Six of the eight form a hexagon with the two remaining baryons at its center. Let us turn now from the hadrons called baryons to the hadrons called mesons. Nine with a spin of zero are listed in Table 44.2.3. If we plot them on a sloping strangeness–charge diagram, as in Fig. 44.2.1b, the same fascinating pattern emerges! These and related plots, called the eightfold way patterns,* were proposed independently in 1961 by Murray Gell-Mann at the California Institute of Technol- ogy and by Yuval Ne’eman at Imperial College, London. The two patterns of Fig. 44.2.1 are representative of a larger number of symmetrical patterns in which groups of baryons and mesons can be displayed. 3 baryons (not shown The symmetry of the eightfold way pattern for the spin- _ 2 here) calls for ten particles arranged in a pattern like that of the tenpins in a bowl- ing alley. However, when the pattern was first proposed, only nine such particles were known; the “headpin” was missing. In 1962, guided by theory and the sym- metry of the pattern, Gell-Mann made a prediction in which he essentially said: 3 baryon with a charge of –1, a strangeness of –3, and a rest There exists a spin- _ 2 energy of about 1680 MeV. If you look for this omega minus particle (as I propose to call it), I think you will find it.
A team of physicists headed by Nicholas Samios of the Brookhaven National Laboratory took up the challenge and found the “missing” particle, confirming all its predicted properties. Nothing beats prompt experimental confirmation for building confidence in a theory! The eightfold way patterns bear the same relationship to particle physics that the periodic table does to chemistry. In each case, there is a pattern of organization in which vacancies (missing particles or missing elements) stick out like sore thumbs, guiding experimenters in their searches. In the case of the periodic table, its very existence strongly suggests that the atoms of the elements are not fundamental particles but have an underlying structure. Similarly, the eightfold way patterns strongly suggest that the mesons and the baryons must
p
n
Σ –
Λ 0 Σ 0
Ξ – q
Σ +
Ξ 0
= –1
q
=0
q
S
=0
S
= –1
S
= –2
= +1
(a)
K0
K+
–
0
+
' K– q
K0
= –1
q
=0
q
S
= +1
S
=0
S
= –1
= +1
(b )
(a) The eightfold way 1 baryons pattern for the eight spin- _ 2 listed in Table 44.2.2. The particles are represented as disks on a strangeness – charge plot, using a sloping axis for the charge quantum number. (b) A similar pattern for the nine spin-zero mesons listed in Table 44.2.3. Figure 44.2.1
*The name is a borrowing from Eastern mysticism. The “eight” refers to the eight quantum numbers (only a few of which we have defined here) that are involved in the symmetry-based theory that predicts the existence of the patterns.
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C HAP T ER 44 QU ARKS, L EP T ONS, AND T HE BIG BANG
have an underlying structure, in terms of which their properties can be under- stood. That structure can be explained in terms of the quark model, which we next discuss.
Sample Problem 44.2.1
Proton decay: conservation of quantum numbers, energy, and momentum
Determine whether a stationary proton can decay a ccord- ing to the scheme
energies and kinetic energies of the pions. To answer, we evaluate the Q of the decay:
p → π0 + π+ .
initial total − final total Q = ( mass energy ) ( mass energy)
Properties of the proton and the π pion are listed in Table 44.1.1. The π0 pion has zero charge, zero spin, and a mass energy of 135.0 MeV. +
2 2 2 = m pc − ( m 0c + m +c )
= 938.3 MeV − (135.0 MeV + 139.6 MeV ) = 663.7 MeV.
KEY IDEA We need to see whether the proposed decay violates any of the conservation laws we have discussed. We see that the net charge quantum number is initially +1 and finally 0 + 1, or +1. Thus, charge is conserved by the decay. Lepton number is also conserved, because none of the three particles is a lepton and thus each lepton number is zero. Electric charge:
momentum: Because the proton is stationary, with zero linear momentum, the two pions must merely move in opposite directions with equal magnitudes of lin- ear momentum (so that their total linear momentum is also zero) to conserve linear momentum. The fact that lin- ear momentum can be conserved means that the process does not violate the conservation of linear momentum. Linear
Is there energy for the decay? Because the pro- ton is stationary, that question amounts to asking whether the proton’s mass energy is sufficient to produce the mass Energy:
Sample Problem 44.2.2
The fact that Q is positive indicates that the initial mass energy exceeds the final mass energy. Thus, the proton does have enough mass energy to create the pair of pions. Is spin angular momentum conserved by the decay? This amounts to determining whether the net component S z of spin angular momentum along some arbitrary z axis can be conserved by the decay. The spin quantum num- 1 for the proton bers s of the particles in the process are _ 2 and 0 for both pions. Thus, for the proton the component 1 _ _ S z can be either + 1 2 ℏ or − 2 ℏ and for each pion it is 0ℏ. We see that there is no way that S z can be conserved. Hence, spin angular momentum is not conserved, and the pro- posed decay of the proton cannot occur. Spin:
The decay also violates the conservation of baryon number: The proton has a baryon number of B = +1, and both pions have a baryon number of B = 0. Thus, nonconservation of baryon number is another reason the proposed decay cannot occur. Baryon number:
Xi-minus decay: conservation of quantum numbers
A particle called xi-minus and having the symbol Ξ – decays as follows: Ξ − → Λ 0 + π− .
The Λ 0 particle (called lambda-zero) and the π− particle are both unstable. The following decay processes occur in cascade until only relatively stable products remain: Λ 0 → p + π− π− → μ− + ν¯ μ μ − → e − + νμ + ν¯ e .
hadron. (2) To answer the second question we need to determine the baryon number of the Ξ – particle. If it is +1 or –1, then the Ξ – is a baryon. If, instead, it is 0, then the Ξ – is a meson. To see, let us write the overall decay scheme, from the initial Ξ – to the final relatively stable products, as Ξ − → p + 2 ( e − + ν¯ e ) + 2( νμ + ν¯ μ). (44.2.5) Baryon number:
KEY IDEAS
On the right side, the proton has a baryon number of +1 and each electron and neutrino has a baryon number of 0. Thus, the net baryon number of the right side is +1. That must then be the baryon number of the lone Ξ – particle on the left side. We conclude that the Ξ – particle is a baryon.
(1) Only three families of leptons exist (Table 44.2.1) and none include the Ξ – particle. Thus, the Ξ – must be a
(b) Does the decay process conserve the three lepton numbers?
(a) Is the Ξ – particle a lepton or a hadron? If the latter, is it a baryon or a meson?
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44.3 QU ARKS AND MESSENGER P ART IC L ES
1425
KEY IDEA
KEY IDEA
Any process must separately conserve the net lepton number for each lepton family of Table 44.2.1.
The overall decay scheme of Eq. 44.2.5 m ust conserve the net spin component S z.
Let us first consider the electron lepton number L e, which is +1 for the electron e – , –1 for the anti-electron neutrino ¯ ν e, and 0 for the other particles in the overall decay of Eq. 44.2.5. We see that the net L e is 0 before the decay and 2[+1 + (–1)] + 2(0 + 0) = 0 after the decay. Thus, the net electron lepton number is conserved. You can similarly show that the net muon lepton number and the net tau lepton number are also conserved. Lepton number:
(c) What can you say about the spin of the Ξ – particle?
We can determine the spin component S z of the Ξ – particle on the left side of Eq. 44.2.5 by considering the S z components of the nine particles on the right side. All 1 particles and thus can nine of those particles are spin- _ 2 1 ℏ or − _ 1 ℏ . No matter how we choose have S z of either + _ 2 2 between those two possible values of S z, the net S z for those nine particles must be a half-integer times ℏ. Thus, the Ξ – particle must have S z of a half-integer times ℏ, and that means that its spin quantum number s must be a _ half-integer. (It is 1 2 .) Spin:
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
44.3 QUARKS AND MESSENGER PARTICLES Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
44.3.1 Identify that there are six quarks (with an anti- particle for each).
44.3.4 Identify virtual particles. 44.3.5 Apply the relationship between the violation
44.3.2 Identify that baryons contain three quarks (or
of energy by a virtual particle and the time interval
antiquarks) and mesons contain a quark and an anti-
allowed for that violation (an uncertainty principle
quark, and that many of these hadrons are excited states of the basic quark combinations.
written in terms of energy). 44.3.6 Identify the messenger particles for electromag-
44.3.3 For a given hadron, identify the quarks it con-
netic interactions, weak interactions, and strong
tains, and vice versa.
interactions.
Key Ideas ●
The six quarks (up, down, strange, charm, bottom,
and top, in order of increasing mass) each have baryon
1 and charge equal to either + _ 2 or − 1 _ + _ 3 3 3 . The strange quark has strangeness −1, whereas the others all have strangeness 0 . These four algebraic signs are number
●
●
particles as messengers. ●
Leptons do not contain quarks and have no internal
quantum numbers of the quarks and antiquarks are assigned to be consistent with the quantum numbers of
Quarks primarily interact with each other through the
color force, via gluons.
structure. Mesons contain one quark and one antiquark. Baryons contain three quarks or three antiquarks. The
Leptons can also interact with each other and with
quarks through the weak force, via massive W and Z
reversed for the antiquarks. ●
Particles with electric charge interact through the
electromagnetic force by exchanging virtual photons.
●
The electromagnetic and weak forces are different
manifestations of the same force, called the electro- weak force.
the mesons and baryons.
The Quark Model
In 1964 Gell-Mann and George Zweig independently pointed out that the eight- fold way patterns can be understood in a simple way if the mesons and the bary- ons are built up out of subunits that Gell-Mann called quarks. We deal first with three of them, called the up quark (symbol u), the down quark (symbol d), and the strange quark (symbol s). The names of the quarks, along with those assigned to three other quarks that we shall meet later, have no meaning other than as
/
1426
C HAP T ER 44 QU ARKS, L EP T ONS, AND T HE BIG BANG
a
Table 44.3.1 The Quarks
Quantum Numbers Particle Symbol
Mass (MeV/c 2 )
Charge q
Strangeness S
Baryon Number B
Antiparticle
Up
u
5
2 + _ 3
0
1 + _ 3
Down
d
10
1 − _ 3
0
1 + _ 3
¯ u ¯ d
Charm
c
1500
2 + _ 3
0
1 + _ 3
¯ c
–1
1 + _ 3
¯ s ¯ t
Strange
s
200
1 − _ 3
Top
t
175 000
2 + _ 3
0
1 + _ 3
Bottom
b
4300
1 − _ 3
0
1 + _ 3
a
¯ b
_
All quarks (including antiquarks) h ave spin 1 2 and thus are fermions. The quantum numbers q, S, and B for each antiquark are the negatives of those for the corresponding q uark. yrotarobaL lanoitaN nevahkoorB fo ysetruoC
The violent head-on col- lision of two 30 GeV beams of gold atoms in the RHIC accelerator at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. In the moment of collision, a gas of indi- vidual quarks and gluons was created. Figure 44.3.1
uu d
dd u
dd s ss d
uu s
q
ss u
= –1
q
=0
Quarks and Baryons
S
= –1
Each baryon is a combination of three quarks; some of the combinations are given in Fig. 44.3.2a. With regard to baryon number, we see that any three quarks _ (each with B = + 1 3 ) yield a proper baryon (with B = +1). Charges also work out, as we can see from three examples. The proton has a quark composition of uud, and so its charge quantum number is
S
= –2
S
ud ud s s
=0
q
convenient labels. Collectively, these names are called the quark flavors. We could just as well call them vanilla, chocolate, and strawberry instead of up, down, and strange. Some properties of the quarks are displayed in Table 44.3.1. The fractional charge quantum numbers of the quarks may jar you a little. However, withhold judgment until you see how neatly these fractional charges account for the observed integer charges of the mesons and the baryons. In all normal situations, whether here on Earth or in an astronomical process, quarks are always bound up together in twos or threes (and perhaps more) for reasons that are still not well understood. Such requirements are our normal rule for quark combinations. An exciting exception to the normal rule occurred in experiments at the RHIC particle collider at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. At the spot where two high-energy beams of gold nuclei collided head-on, the kinetic energy of the particles was so large that it matched the kinetic energy of particles that were pres- ent soon after the beginning of the universe (as we discuss in Module 44.4). The protons and neutrons of the gold nuclei were ripped apart to form a momentary gas of individual quarks (Fig. 44.3.1). (The gas also contained gluons, the particles that normally hold quarks together.) These experiments at RHIC may be the first time that quarks have been set free of one another since the universe began.
= +1
(a )
2 _ 1 q (uud ) = _ + 2 + (− _ ) = +1. 3 3 3
The neutron has a quark composition of udd, and its charge quantum number is therefore 2 1 _ ) + (− _ q(uud ) = _ + (− 1 ) = 0. 3 3 3
ds
us
dd
du
S
uu
ud
S
= +1
The Σ− (sigma-minus) particle has a quark composition of dds, and its charge quantum number is therefore 1 1 1 q (dds ) = − _ + (− _ ) + (− _ ) = −1. 3 3 3
=0
ss
_ (a) The quark compositions of the eight spin- 1 2 baryons plotted in Fig. 44.2.1a. (Although the two central baryons share the same quark structure, they are different particles. The sigma is an excited state of the lambda, decaying into the lambda by emission of a gamma-ray photon.) (b) The quark compositions of the nine spin-zero mesons plotted in Fig. 44.2.1b. Figure 44.3.2
su q
sd
= –1
q
(b )
S
=0
q
= –1
= +1
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44.3 QU ARKS AND MESSENGER P ART IC L ES
1427
The strangeness quantum numbers work out as well. You can check this by using Table 44.2.2 for the Σ − strangeness number and Table 44.3.1 for the strangeness numbers of the dds quarks. Note, however, that the mass of a proton, neutron, Σ−, or any other baryon is not the sum of the masses of the constituent quarks. For example, the total mass of the three quarks in a proton is only 20 MeV/c 2 , woefully less than the proton’s mass of 938.3 MeV/c 2 . Nearly all of the proton’s mass is due to the internal energies of (1) the quark motion and (2) the fields that bind the quarks together. (Recall that mass is related to energy via Einstein’s equation, which we can write as m = E/c 2 .) Thus, because most of your mass is due to the protons and neutrons in your body, your mass (and therefore your weight on a bathroom scale) is primarily a measure of the energies of the quark motion and the quark-binding fields within you. Quarks and Mesons
Mesons are quark–antiquark pairs; some of their compositions are given in Fig. 44.3.2b. The quark–antiquark model is consistent with the fact that mesons are not baryons; that is, mesons have a baryon number B = 0. The baryon num- 1 _ _ ber for a quark is + 1 3 and for an antiquark is − 3 ; thus, the combination of baryon numbers in a meson is zero. Consider the meson π+ , which consists of an up quark u and an antidown _ quark d. We see from Table 44.3.1 that the charge quantum number of the up 2 and that of the antidown quark is + _ 1 (the sign is opposite that of the down quark is + _ 3 3 quark). This adds nicely to a charge quantum number of +1 for the π+ meson; that is, _ 2 _ q(u d) = _ + 1 = +1. 3 3 All the charge and strangeness quantum numbers of Fig. 44.3.2b agree with those of Table 44.2.3 and Fig. 44.2.1b. Convince yourself that all possible up, down, and strange quark–antiquark combinations are used. Everything fits. Checkpoint 44.3.1
_ Is a combination of a down quark (d) and an antiup quark ( u) called (a) a π0 meson, (b) a proton, (c) a π– meson, (d) a π+ meson, or (e) a neutron? A New Look at Beta Decay
Let us see how beta decay appears from the quark point of view. In Eq. 42.5.1, we presented a typical example of this process: 32
P → 32 S + e – + ν .
After the neutron was discovered and Fermi had worked out his theory of beta decay, physicists came to view the fundamental beta-decay process as the chang- ing of a neutron into a proton inside the nucleus, according to the scheme n → p + e − + ¯ ν e , in which the neutrino is identified more completely. Today we look deeper and see that a neutron (udd) can change into a proton (uud) by changing a down quark into an up quark. We now view the fundamental beta-decay process as d → u + e − + ¯ ν e . Thus, as we come to know more and more about the fundamental nature of mat- ter, we can examine familiar processes at deeper and deeper levels. We see too that the quark model not only helps us to understand the structure of particles but also clarifies their interactions. Still More Quarks
There are other particles and other eightfold way patterns that we have not discussed. To account for them, it turns out that we need to postulate three more quarks, the charm quark c, the top quark t, and the bottom quark b. Thus, a total of six quarks exist, as listed in Table 44.3.1. /
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C HAP T ER 44 QU ARKS, L EP T ONS, AND T HE BIG BANG
Note that three quarks are exceptionally massive, the most massive of them (top) being almost 190 times more massive than a proton. To generate particles that contain such quarks, with such large mass energies, we must go to higher and higher energies, which is the reason that these three quarks were not discovered earlier. The first particle containing a charm quark to be observed was the J/ψ ¯ meson, whose quark structure is c c. It was discovered simultaneously and inde- pendently in 1974 by groups headed by Samuel Ting at the Brookhaven National Laboratory and Burton Richter at Stanford University. The top quark defied all efforts to generate it in the laboratory until 1995, when its existence was finally demonstrated in the Tevatron, a large particle accelerator at Fermilab. In this accelerator, protons and antiprotons, each with an energy of 0.9 TeV (= 9 × 10 11 eV), were made to collide at the centers of two large particle _ detectors. In a very few cases, the colliding particles generated a top–antitop (t t) quark pair, which very quickly decays into particles that can be detected and thus can be used to infer the existence of the top–antitop pair. Look back for a moment at Table 44.3.1 (the quark family) and Table 44.2.1 (the lepton family) and notice the neat symmetry of these two “six-packs” of particles, each dividing naturally into three corresponding two-particle families. In terms of what we know today, the quarks and the leptons seem to be truly fundamental particles having no internal structure.
Sample Problem 44.3.1
Quark composition of a xi-minus particle
The Ξ – (xi-minus) particle is a baryon with a spin quan- _ tum number s of 1 2 , a charge quantum number q of –1, and a strangeness quantum number S of –2. Also, it does not contain a bottom quark. What combination of quarks makes up Ξ – ? Because the Ξ – is a baryon, it must consist of three quarks (not two as for a meson). Let us next consider the strangeness S = –2 of the Ξ – . Only the strange quark s and the antistrange quark s ¯ have nonzero values of strangeness (see Table 44.3.1). Further, because only the strange quark s has a negative value of strangeness, Ξ – must contain that quark. In fact, for Ξ – to have a strangeness of –2, it must contain two strange quarks. To determine the third quark, call it x, we can consider the other known properties of Ξ – . Its charge quantum Reasoning:
number q is –1, and the charge quantum number q of each 1 . Thus, the third quark x must have a strange quark is − _ 3 1 , so that we can have charge quantum number of − _ 3 q ( Ξ − ) = q(ssx )
1 1 1 = − _ + (− _ ) + (− _ ) = −1. 3 3 3
1 are Besides the strange quark, the only quarks with q = − _ 3 the down quark d and bottom quark b. Because the prob- lem statement ruled out a bottom quark, the third quark must be a down quark. This conclusion is also consistent with the baryon quantum numbers:
B(Ξ − ) = B(ssd ) 1 _ 1 = _ + 1 + _ = +1. 3 3 3
Thus, the quark composition of the Ξ – particle is ssd.
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
The Basic Forces and Messenger Particles
We turn now from cataloging the particles to considering the forces between them. The Electromagnetic Force
At the atomic level, we say that two electrons exert electromagnetic forces on each other according to Coulomb’s law. At a deeper level, this interaction is described by a highly successful theory called quantum electrodynamics (QED). From this point of view, we say that each electron senses the presence of the other by exchanging photons with it.
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We cannot detect these photons because they are emitted by one electron and absorbed by the other a very short time later. Because of their undetectable exis- tence, we call them virtual photons. Because they communicate between the two interacting charged particles, we sometimes call these photons messenger particles. If a stationary electron emits a photon and remains itself unchanged, energy is not conserved. The principle of conservation of energy is saved, however, by an uncertainty principle written in the form ΔE · Δt ≈ ℏ.
(44.3.1)
Here we interpret this relation to mean that you can “overdraw” an amount of energy ΔE, violating conservation of energy, provided you “return” it within an interval Δt given by ℏ/ΔE so that the violation cannot be detected. The virtual photons do just that. When, say, electron A emits a virtual photon, the overdraw in energy is quickly set right when that electron receives a virtual photon from electron B, and the violation is hidden by the inherent uncertainty. The Weak Force
A theory of the weak force, which acts on all particles, was developed by analogy with the theory of the electromagnetic force. The messenger particles that trans- mit the weak force between particles, however, are not (massless) photons but massive particles, identified by the symbols W and Z. The theory was so successful that it revealed the electromagnetic force and the weak force as being different aspects of a single electroweak force. This accomplishment is a logical extension of the work of Maxwell, who revealed the electric and magnetic forces as being different aspects of a single electromagnetic force. The electroweak theory was specific in predicting the properties of the messen- ger particles. In addition to the massless photon, the messenger of the electromag- netic interactions, the theory gives us three messengers for the weak interactions: Particle
Charge
Mass
W Z
±e 0
80.4 GeV/c 2 91.2 GeV/c 2
Recall that the proton mass is only 0.938 G eV/c 2 ; these are massive particles! The 1979 Nobel Prize in physics was awarded to Sheldon Glashow, Steven Weinberg, and Abdus Salam for their electroweak theory. The theory was confirmed in 1983 by Carlo Rubbia and his group at CERN, and the 1984 Nobel Prize in physics went to Rubbia and Simon van der Meer for this brilliant experimental work. Some notion of the complexity of particle physics in this day and age can be found by looking at an earlier particle physics experiment that led to the Nobel Prize in physics—the discovery of the neutron. This vitally important dis- covery was a “tabletop” experiment, employing particles emitted by naturally occurring radioactive m aterials as projectiles; it was reported in 1932 under the title “Possible Existence of a Neutron,” the single author being James Chadwick. The discovery of the W and Z messenger particles in 1983, by contrast, was car- ried out at a large particle accelerator, about 7 km in circumference and operating in the range of several hundred billion electron-volts. The principal particle detector alone weighed 20 MN. The experiment employed more than 130 physicists from 12 institutions in 8 countries, along with a large support staff. The Strong Force
A theory of the strong force—that is, the force that acts between quarks to bind hadrons together—has also been developed. The messenger particles in this case
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are called gluons and, like the photon, they are predicted to be massless. The the- ory assumes that each “flavor” of quark comes in three varieties that, for conve- nience, have been labeled red, yellow, and blue. Thus, there are three up quarks, one of each color, and so on. The antiquarks also come in three colors, which we call antired, antiyellow, and antiblue. You must not think that quarks are actually colored, like tiny jelly beans. The names are labels of convenience, but (for once) they do have a certain formal justification, as you will see. The force acting between quarks is called a color force and the underlying theory, by analogy with quantum electrodynamics (QED), is called quantum chromodynamics (QCD). A pparently, quarks can be assembled only in combina- tions that are color-neutral. There are two ways to bring about color neutrality. In the theory of actual colors, red + yellow + blue yields white, which is color-neutral, and we use the same scheme in dealing with quarks. Thus we can assemble three quarks to form a baryon, provided one is a yellow quark, one is a red quark, and one is a blue quark. Antired + antiyellow + antiblue is also white, so that we can assemble three antiquarks (of the proper anticolors) to form an antibaryon. Finally, red + antired, or yellow + antiyellow, or blue + antiblue also yields white. Thus, we can assemble a quark–antiquark combination to form a meson. The color-neutral rule does not permit any other combination of quarks, and none are observed. The color force not only acts to bind together quarks as baryons and mesons, but it also acts between such particles, in which case it has traditionally been called the strong force. Hence, not only does the color force bind together quarks to form protons and neutrons, but it also binds together the protons and neutrons to form nuclei. The Higgs Field and Particle
The Standard Model of the fundamental particles consists of the theory for the electroweak interactions and the theory for the strong interactions. A key suc- cess in the model has been to demonstrate the existence of the four messenger particles in the electroweak interactions: the photon, and the Z and W particles. However, a key puzzle has involved the masses of those particles. Why is the photon massless while the Z and W particles are extremely m assive? In the 1960s, Peter Higgs and, independently, Robert Brout and François Englert suggested that the mass discrepancy is due to a field (now called the Higgs field) that permeates all of space and thus is a property of the vacuum. Without this field, the four messenger particles would be massless and indistinguishable—they would be symmetric. The Brout–Englert–Higgs theory demonstrates how the field breaks that symmetry, producing the electroweak m essengers with one being mass- less. It also explains why all other particles, except for the gluon, have mass. The quantum of that field is the Higgs boson. Because of its pivotal role for all particles and because the theory behind its existence is compelling (even beautiful), intense searches for the Higgs boson were conducted on the Tevatron at Brookhaven and the Large H adron Collider at CERN. In 2012, experimental e vidence was announced for the Higgs boson, at a mass of 125 GeV/c 2 . Einstein’s Dream
The unification of the fundamental forces of nature into a single force—which occu- pied Einstein’s attention for much of his later life—is very much a current focus of research. We have seen that the weak force has been successfully combined with electromagnetism so that they may be jointly viewed as aspects of a single electro- weak force. Theories that attempt to add the strong force to this combination— called grand unification theories (GUTs)—are being pursued actively. Theories that seek to complete the job by adding gravity—sometimes called theories of everything (TOE)—are at a speculative stage at this time. String theory (in which particles are tiny oscillating loops) is one approach.
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44.4 COSMOLOGY Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
44.4.1 Identify that the universe (all of spacetime)
44.4.6 Identify the cosmic background radiation and
began with the big bang and has been expanding ever since.
explain the importance of its detection. 44.4.7 Explain the evidence for the dark matter that
44.4.2 Identify that all distant galaxies (and thus their stars, black holes, etc.), in all directions, are reced-
surrounds every galaxy. 44.4.8 Discuss the various stages of the universe from
ing from us because of the expansion.
very soon after the big bang until atoms began to
44.4.3 Apply Hubble’s law to relate the recession
v of a distant galaxy, its distance r from us, and the Hubble constant H . speed
form. 44.4.9 Identify that the expans ion of the univ ers e is being accelerated by s ome unknown property
44.4.4 Apply the Doppler equation for the red shift of light to relate the wavelength shift
v
Δλ, the reces-
sion speed , and the proper wavelength
λ0 of the
dubbed dark energy . 44.4.10 Identify that the total energy of baryonic mat- ter (protons and neutrons) is only a small part of the
emission.
total energy of the universe.
44.4.5 Approximate the age of the universe using the Hubble constant.
Key Ideas ●
distant galaxy. ●
where
v at which a distance to a distant galaxy
The rate
is increasing (the galaxy appears to be moving at
v
speed ) is given by the Hubble law:
where
v = Hr,
r is the current distance to the galaxy and H is
the Hubble constant, which we take to be
H = 71.0 km / s ⋅ Mpc = 21.8 mm / s ⋅ ly. The expansion causes a red shift in the light we receive
from distant galaxies. We can assume that the wave-
Δλ is given (approximately) by the Doppler
λ
0
0 is the proper wavelength as measured in the
frame of the light source (the galaxy). ●
The expansion described by Hubble’s law and the
presence of ubiquitous background microwave radia- tion reveal that the universe began in a “big bang” 13.7 billion years ago. ●
The rate of expansion is increasing due to a mysteri-
ous property of the vacuum called dark energy. ●
●
|Δλ| v = ____ λ c,
The universe is expanding, which means that empty
space is continuously appearing between us and any
Much of the energy of the universe is hidden in dark
matter that apparently interacts with normal (baryonic) matter through the gravitational force.
length shift
shift equation for light discussed in Module 37.5:
A Pause for Reflection
Let us put what you have just learned in perspective. If all we are interested in is the structure of the world around us, we can get along nicely with the electron, the neutrino, the neutron, and the proton. As someone has said, we can operate “Spaceship Earth” quite well with just these particles. We can see a few of the more exotic particles by looking for them in the cosmic rays; however, to see most of them, we must build massive a ccelerators a nd look for them at great effort and expense. The reason we must go to such effort is that—measured in energy terms—we live in a world of very low temperatures. Even at the center of the Sun, the value of kT is only about 1 keV. To produce the exotic particles, we must be able to accelerate protons or electrons to energies in the GeV and TeV range and higher. Once upon a time the temperature everywhere was high enough to provide such energies. That time of extremely high temperatures occurred in the big bang beginning of the universe, when the universe (and both space and time) came
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into existence. Thus, one reason scientists study particles at high energies is to understand what the universe was like just after it began. As we shall discuss shortly, all of space within the universe was initially tiny in extent, and the temperature of the particles within that space was incredibly high. With time, however, the universe expanded and cooled to lower tempera- tures, eventually to the size and temperature we see today. Actually, the phrase “we see today” is complicated: When we look out into space, we are actually looking back in time because the light from the stars and galaxies has taken a long time to reach us. The most distant objects that we can detect are quasars (quasi stellar objects), which are the extremely bright cores of galaxies that are as much as 13 × 10 9 ly from us. Each such core contains a gigantic black hole; as material (gas and even stars) is pulled into one of those black holes, the material heats up and radiates a tremendous amount of light, enough for us to detect in spite of the huge distance. We therefore “see” a quasar not as it looks today but rather as it once was, when that light began its journey to us billions of years a go. The Universe Is Expanding
As we saw in Module 37.5, it is possible to measure the relative speeds at which galaxies are approaching us or receding from us by measuring the shifts in the wavelength of the light they emit. If we look only at distant galaxies, beyond our immediate galactic neighbors, we find an astonishing fact: They are all moving away (receding) from us! In 1929 Edwin P. Hubble connected the recession speed v of a galaxy and its distance r from us—they are directly proportional: v = Hr
(Hubble’s law) ,
(44.4.1)
in which H is called the Hubble constant. The value of H is usually measured in the unit kilometers per second-megaparsec (km/s · Mpc), where the megaparsec is a length unit commonly used in astrophysics and astronomy: 1 Mpc = 3.084 × 10 19 km = 3.260 × 10 6 ly.
(44.4.2)
The Hubble constant H has not had the same value since the universe began. Determining its current value is extremely difficult because doing so involves measurements of very distant galaxies. H ere we take its value to be H = 71.0 km/s · Mpc = 21.8 mm/s · ly.
(44.4.3)
We interpret the recession of the galaxies to mean that the universe is expanding, much as the raisins in what is to be a loaf of raisin bread grow farther apart as the dough expands. Observers on all other galaxies would find that distant galaxies were rushing away from them also, in accordance with Hubble’s law. In keeping with our analogy, we can say that no raisin (galaxy) has a unique or preferred view. Hubble’s law is consistent with the hypothesis that the universe began with the big bang and has been expanding ever since. If we assume that the rate of expansion has been constant (that is, the value of H has been constant), then we can estimate the age T of the universe by using Eq. 44.4.1. Let us also assume that since the big bang, any given part of the universe (say, a galaxy) has been reced- ing from our location at a speed v given by Eq. 44.4.1. Then the time required for the given part to recede a distance r is r = ___ r __ 1 T = __ v Hr = H
(estimated age of universe).
(44.4.4)
For the value of H in Eq. 44.4.3, T works out to be 13.8 × 10 9 y. Much more sophisticated studies of the expansion of the universe put T at (13.799 ± 0.021) × 10 9 y.
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Sample Problem 44.4.1
Using Hubble’s law to relate distance and recessional speed
The wavelength shift in the light from a particular quasar indicates that the quasar has a recessional speed of 2.8 × 10 8 m /s (which is 93% of the speed of light). Approximately how far from us is the quasar?
KEY IDEA We assume that the distance and speed are related by Hubble’s law.
Sample Problem 44.4.2
From Eqs. 44.4.1 a nd 44.4.3, we find v = ____________ 2.8 × 10 8 m / s (1000 mm / m ) r = __ H 21.8 mm / s ⋅ ly = 12.8 × 10 9 ly. (Answer)
Calculation:
This is only an approximation because the quasar has not always been receding from our location at the same speed v; that is, H has not had its current value throughout the time during which the universe has been expanding.
Using Hubble’s law to relate distance and Doppler shift
A particular emission line detected in the light from a galaxy has a detected wavelength λdet = 1.1λ, where λ is the proper wavelength of the line. What is the galaxy’s distance from us?
KEY IDEAS
which leads us to
c | Δλ| r = _____ . Hλ
(44.4.6)
In this equation, Δλ = λdet – λ = 1.1λ – λ = 0.1λ.
(1) We assume that Hubble’s law (v = Hr) applies to the recession of the galaxy. (2) We also assume that the astro- nomical Doppler shift of Eq. 37.5.6 (v = c |Δλ| / λ, for v ⪡ c) applies to the shift in wavelength due to the recession. We can then set the right side of these two equations equal to each other to write c | Δλ| (44.4.5) Hr = _____ , Calculations:
λ
Substituting this into Eq. 44.4.6 then gives us c(0.1λ) 0.1c r = _______ = ____ Hλ H (0.1 )( 3.0 × 10 8 m / s) = __________________ (1000 mm / m) 21.8 mm / s ⋅ ly
= 1.4 × 10 9 ly.
(Answer)
Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS
The Cosmic Background Radiation
In 1965 Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, of what was then the Bell Telephone Laboratories, were testing a sensitive microwave receiver used for commu- nications research. They discovered a faint background “hiss” that remained unchanged in intensity no matter where their antenna was pointed. It soon became clear that Penzias and Wilson were observing a cosmic background radiation, generated in the early universe and filling all space almost uniformly. Currently this radiation has a maximum intensity at a wavelength of 1.1 mm, which lies in the microwave region of electromagnetic radiation (or light, for short). The wavelength distribution of this radiation matches the wavelength distribution of light that would be emitted by a laboratory enclosure with walls at a temperature of 2.7 K. Thus, for the cosmic background radiation, we say that the enclosure is the entire universe and that the universe is at an (average) temperature of 2.7 K. For their discovery of the cosmic background radiation, Penzias and Wilson were awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize in physics. The cosmic background radiation is now known to be light that has been in flight across the universe since shortly after the universe began billions of years ago. When the universe was even younger, light could scarcely g o any significant distance without being scattered by all the individual, high-speed particles along its path. If a light ray started from, say, point A, it would be scattered in so many directions that if you could have intercepted part of it, you would have not been
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200
)s/mk( deeps lanoitatoR
150
100
able to tell that it originated at point A. However, after the particles began to form atoms, the scattering of light greatly decreased. A light ray from point A might then be able to travel for billions of years without being scattered. This light is the cosmic background radiation. As soon as the nature of the radiation was recognized, researchers wondered, “Can we use this incoming radiation to distinguish the points at which it origi- nated, so that we then can produce an image of the early universe, back when atoms first formed and light scattering largely ceased?” The answer is yes, and that image is coming up in a moment.
50 Dark Matter
0 30 60 90 Distance from galactic center (10 3 ly)
The rotational speed of stars in a typical galaxy as a function of their distance from the galactic center. The theoretical solid curve shows that if a galaxy contained only the mass that is visible, the observed rotational speed would drop off with distance at large distances. The dots are the experimental data, which show that the rotational speed is approximately constant at large distances. Figure 44.4.1
At the Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona, Vera Rubin and her co-worker Kent Ford measured the rotational rates of a number of distant galaxies. They did so by measuring the Doppler shifts of bright clusters of stars located within each galaxy at various distances from the galactic center. As Fig. 44.4.1 shows, their results were surprising: The orbital speed of stars at the outer visible edge of the galaxy is about the same as that of stars close to the galactic center. As the solid curve in Fig. 44.4.1 attests, that is not what we would expect to find if all the mass of the galaxy were represented by visible light. Nor is the pat- tern found by Rubin and Ford what we find in the Solar System. For example, the orbital speed of Pluto (the “planet” most distant from the Sun) is only about one-tenth that of Mercury (the planet closest to the Sun). The only explanation for the findings of Rubin and Ford that is consistent with Newtonian mechanics is that a typical galaxy contains much more matter than what we can actually see. In fact, the visible portion of a galaxy represents only about 5 to 10% of the total mass of the galaxy. In addition to these studies of galactic rotation, many other observations lead to the conclusion that the universe abounds in matter that we cannot see. This unseen matter is called dark matter because either it does not emit light or its light emission is too dim for us to detect. Normal matter (such as stars, planets, dust, and molecules) is often called baryonic matter because its mass is primarily due to the combined mass of the protons and neutrons (baryons) it contains. (The much smaller mass of the electrons is neglected.) Some of the normal matter, such as burned-out stars and dim interstellar gas, is part of the dark matter in a galaxy. However, according to various calculations, this dark normal matter is only a small part of the total dark matter. The rest is called nonbaryonic dark matter because it does not contain protons and neutrons. We know of only one member of this type of dark matter—the neutrinos. Although the mass of a neutrino is very small relative to the mass of a proton or neutron, the number of neutrinos in a galaxy is huge and thus the total mass of the neutrinos is large. Nevertheless, calculations indicate that not even the total mass of the neutrinos is enough to account for the total mass of the nonbaryonic dark matter. In spite of over a hundred years in which elementary particles have been detected and studied, the particles that make up the rest of this type of dark matter are undetected and their nature is unknown. Because we have no experience with them, they must interact only gravitationally with the common particles. The Big Bang
In 1985, a physicist remarked at a scientific meeting: It is as certain that the universe started with a big bang about 15 billion years ago as it is that the Earth goes around the Sun.
This strong statement suggests the level of confidence in which the big bang theory, first advanced by Belgian physicist Georges Lemaître, is held by those
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who study these matters. However, you must not imagine that the big bang was like the explosion of some gigantic firecracker and that, in principle at least, you could have stood to one side and watched. There was no “one side” because the big bang represents the beginning of spacetime itself. From the point of view of our present universe, there is no position in space to which you can point and say, “The big bang happened there.” It happened everywhere. Moreover, there was no “before the big bang,” because time began with that event. In this context, the word “before” loses its meaning. We can, however, conjecture about what went on during succeeding intervals of time after the big bang (Fig. 44.4.2).
t ≈ 10 –43 s. This is the earliest time at which we can say anything meaningful
about the development of the universe. It is at this moment that the concepts of space and time come to have their present meanings and the laws of phys- ics as we know them become applicable. At this instant, the entire universe (that is, the entire spatial extent of the universe) is much smaller than a pro- ton and its temperature is about 10 32 K. Quantum fluctuations in the fabric of spacetime a re the seeds that will eventually lead to the formation of galaxies, clusters of galaxies, a nd superclusters of galaxies.
t ≈ 10 –34 s. By this moment the universe has undergone a tremendously rapid
inflation, increasing in size by a factor of about 10 30 , causing the formation of matter in a distribution set by the initial quantum fluctuations. The universe has become a hot soup of photons, quarks, and leptons at a temperature of about 10 27 K, which is too hot for protons and neutrons to form.
t ≈ 10 –4 s. Quarks can now combine to form protons and neutrons and their antiparticles. The universe has now cooled to such an extent by continued (but much slower) expansion that photons lack the energy needed to break up these new particles. Particles of matter and antimatter collide and annihi- late each other. There is a slight excess of matter, which, failing to find anni- hilation partners, survives to form the world of matter that we know today.
t ≈ 1 min. The universe has now cooled enough so that protons and neutrons, in
colliding, can stick together to form the low-mass nuclei 2 H, 3 He, 4 He, and 7 Li. The predicted relative abundances of these nuclides are just what we
An illustration of the universe from the initial quantum fluctuations just after t = 0 (at the left) to the current accelerated expansion, 13.7 × 10 9 y later (at the right). Don’t take the illustration literally—there is no such “external view” of the universe because there is no exterior to the universe. Figure 44.4.2
ASAN fo ysetruoC
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observe in the universe today. Also, there is plenty of radiation present at t ≈ 1 min, but this light cannot travel far before it interacts with a nucleus. Thus the universe is opaque.
t ≈ 379 000 y. The temperature has now fallen to 2970 K, and electrons can stick to
bare nuclei when the two collide, forming atoms. Because light does not interact appreciably with (uncharged) particles, such as neutral atoms, the light is now free to travel great distances. This radiation forms the cosmic background radia- tion that we discussed earlier. Atoms of hydrogen and helium, under the influ- ence of gravity, begin to clump together, eventually starting the formation of galaxies and stars, but until then, the universe is relatively dark (Fig. 44.4.2).
Early measurements suggested that the cosmic background radiation is uniform in all directions, implying that 379 000 y after the big bang all matter in the universe was uniformly distributed. This finding was most puzzling because matter in the present universe is not uniformly distributed, but instead is collected in galaxies, clusters of galaxies, a nd superclusters of galactic clusters. There are also vast voids in which there is relatively little matter, a nd there are regions so crowded with mat- ter that they are called walls. If the big bang theory of the beginning of the universe is even approximately correct, the seeds for this nonuniform distribution of matter must have been in place before the universe was 379 000 y old and now should show up as a nonuniform distribution of the microwave background radiation. In 1992, measurements made by NASA’s Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite revealed that the background radiation is, in fact, not perfectly uniform. In 2003, measurements by NASA’s Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) greatly increased our resolution of this nonuniformity. The resulting image (Fig. 44.4.3) is effectively a color-coded photograph of the uni- verse when it was only 379 000 y old. As you can see from the variations in the colors, large-scale collecting of matter had already begun. Thus, the big bang theory and the theory of inflation at t ≈ 10 –34 s are on the right track. The Accelerated Expansion of the Universe
Recall from Module 13.8 the statement that mass causes curvature of space. Now that we have seen that mass is a form of energy, as given by Einstein’s This color-coded image is effectively a photograph of the universe when it was only 379 000 y old, which was about 13.7 × 10 9 y ago. This is what you would have seen then as you looked away in all directions (the view has been condensed to this oval). Patches of light from collections of atoms stretch across the “sky,” but galaxies, stars, and planets have not yet formed. Figure 44.4.3
ASAN/maeT ecneicS PAMW fo ysetruoC
Courtesy WMAP Science Team/NASA
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44.4 C OSMOL OGY
equation E = mc 2 , we can generalize the statement: Energy can cause curvature of space. This certainly happens to the space around the energy packed into a black hole and, more weakly, to the space around any other astronomical body, but is the space of the universe as a whole curved by the energy the universe contains? The question was answered first by the 1992 COBE measurements of the cosmic background radiation. It was then answered more definitively by the 2003 WMAP measurements that produced the image in Fig. 44.4.3. The spots we see in that image are the original sources of the cosmic background radiation, and the angular distribution of the spots reveals the curvature of the universe through which the light has to travel to reach us. If adjacent spots subtend either more than 1° (Fig. 44.4.4a) or less than 1° (Fig. 44.4.4b) in the detector’s view (or our view) into the universe, then the universe is curved. Analysis of the spot distribution in the WMAP image shows that the spots subtend about 1° (Fig. 44.4.4c), which means that the universe is flat (having no curvature). Thus, the initial curvature the universe presumably had when it began must have been flattened out by the rapid inflation the universe underwent at t ≈ 10 –34 s. This flatness poses a very difficult problem for physicists because it requires that the universe contain a certain amount of energy (as mass or otherwise). The trouble is that all estimations of the amount of energy in the universe (both in known forms and in the form of the unknown type of dark matter) fall dramati- cally short of the required amount. One theory proposed about this missing energy gave it the gothic name of dark energy and predicted that it has the strange property of causing the expan- sion of the universe to accelerate. U ntil 1998, determining whether the expansion is, in fact, accelerating was very difficult because it requires measuring distances to very distant astronomical bodies where the acceleration might show up. In 1998, however, advances in astronomical technology allowed astronomers to detect a certain type of supernovae at very great distances. More important, the astronomers could measure the duration of the burst of light from such a supernova. The duration reveals the brightness of the supernova that would be seen by an observer near the supernova. By measuring the brightness of the supernova as seen from Earth, astronomers could then determine the distance to the supernova. From the red shift of the light from the galaxy containing the supernova, astrono- mers could also determine how fast the galaxy is receding from us. Combining all this information, they could then calculate the expansion rate of the universe. The conclusion is that the expansion is indeed accelerating as predicted by the theory of dark energy (Fig. 44.4.2). H owever, we have no clue as to what this dark energy is. Figure 44.4.5 gives our current state of knowledge about the energy in the universe. About 5% is associated with baryonic matter, which we understand fairly well. About 27% is associated with nonbaryonic dark matter, about which we have a few clues that might be fruitful. The rest, a whopping 68%, is associ- ated with dark energy, a bout which we are clueless. There have been times in the history of physics, even in the 1990s, when pontiffs proclaimed that physics was nearly complete, that only details were left. In fact, we are nowhere near the end.
Spot Spot
Us (a )
(b )
(c )
Light rays from two adjacent spots in our view of the cosmic background radiation would reach us at an angle (a) greater than 1° or (b) less than 1° if the space along the light-ray paths through the universe were curved. (c) An angle of 1° means that the space is not curved. Figure 44.4.4
Nonbaryonic dark matter (a few clues)
27% A Summing Up
In this closing paragraph, let’s consider where we are headed as we accumulate knowledge about the universe more and more rapidly. What we have found is mar- velous and profound, but it is also humbling in that each new step seems to reveal more clearly our own relative insignificance in the grand scheme of things. Thus, in roughly chronological order, we humans have come to realize that Our Earth is not the center of the Solar System. Our Sun is but one star among many in our Galaxy. Our Galaxy is but one of many, and our Sun is an insignificant star in it.
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68%
5%
Baryonic matter
Dark energy (no clues)
The distribution of energy (including mass) in the universe. Figure 44.4.5
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C HAP T ER 44 QU ARKS, L EP T ONS, AND T HE BIG BANG
Our Earth has existed for perhaps only a third of the age of the universe and will surely disappear when our Sun burns up its fuel and becomes a red giant. Our species has inhabited Earth for less than a million years—a blink in cosmo- logical time. Although our position in the universe may be insignificant, the laws of physics that we have discovered (uncovered?) seem to hold throughout the universe and—as far as we know—have held since the universe began and will continue to hold for all future time. At least, there is no evidence that other laws hold in other parts of the universe. Thus, until someone complains, we are entitled to stamp the laws of phys- ics “Discovered on Earth.” Much remains to be discovered. In the words of writer Eden Phillpotts, “The universe is full of magical things, patiently waiting for our wits to grow sharper.” That declaration allows us to answer one last time the question “What is physics?” that we have explored repeatedly in this book. Physics is the gateway to those magical things.
Review & Summary Current research supports the view that all matter is made of six kinds of leptons (Table 44.2.1), six kinds of quarks (Table 44.3.1), and 12 antiparticles, one cor- responding to each lepton and each quark. All these particles 1 and are thus fermions have spin quantum numbers equal to _ 2 (particles with half-integer spin quantum numbers). Leptons and Quarks
Interactions Particles with electric charge interact through the electromagnetic force by exchanging virtual photons. Leptons can also interact with each other and with quarks through the weak force, via massive W and Z particles as messengers. In addition, quarks interact with each other through the color force. The electromagnetic and weak forces are different manifestations of the same force, called the electroweak force. The
Three of the leptons (the electron, muon, and tau) have electric charge equal to –1e. There are also three uncharged neutrinos (also leptons), one corresponding to each of the charged leptons. The antiparticles for the charged leptons have positive charge. Leptons
The six quarks (up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top, in order of increasing mass) each have baryon number 1 and charge equal to either + _ 2 e or − 1 _ + _ 3 3 3 e . The strange quark has Quarks
strangeness –1, whereas the others all have strangeness 0. These four algebraic signs are reversed for the antiquarks. Quarks combine into strongly interacting particles called hadrons. Baryons are had- 1 or _ 3 . Mesons rons with half-integer spin quantum numbers ( _ 2 2 ) are hadrons with integer spin quantum numbers (0 or 1) and thus are bosons. Baryons are fermions. Mesons have baryon number equal to zero; baryons have baryon number equal to +1 or –1. Quantum chromodynamics predicts that the possible combina- tions of quarks are either a quark with an antiquark, three quarks, or three antiquarks (this prediction is consistent with experiment). Hadrons: Baryons and Mesons
Astronomical observations indicate that the universe is expanding, with the distant galaxies moving away from us at a rate v given by Hubble’s law: Expansion of the Universe
v = Hr (Hubble’s law).
(44.4.1)
Here we take H, the Hubble constant, to have the value H = 71.0 km/s · Mpc = 21.8 mm/s · ly.
(44.4.3)
The expansion described by Hubble’s law and the presence of ubiquitous background microwave radiation reveal that the uni- verse began in a “big bang” 13.7 billion years ago.
Questions An electron cannot decay into two neutrinos. Which of the following conservation laws would be violated if it did: (a) energy, (b) angular momentum, (c) charge, (d) lepton num- ber, (e) linear momentum, (f) baryon number?
A proton has enough mass energy to decay into a shower made up of electrons, neutrinos, and their antiparticles. Which of the following conservation laws would necessar- ily be violated if it did: electron lepton number or baryon number?
1
4
Which of the eight pions in Fig. 44.1.3b has the least kinetic energy?
5
2
Figure 44.1 shows the paths of two par- ticles circling in a uniform magnetic field. The particles have the same magnitude of charge but opposite signs. (a) Which path corresponds to the more massive particle? (b) If the magnetic field is directed into the plane of the page, is the more massive particle positively or negatively charged?
A proton cannot decay into a neutron and a neutrino. Which of the following conservation laws would be violated if it did: (a) energy (assume the proton is stationary), (b) angular momentum, (c) charge, (d) lepton number, (e) linear momen- tum, (f) baryon number?
3
Does the proposed decay Λ 0 → p + K – conserve (a) electric charge, (b) spin angular momentum, and (c) strangeness? (d) If the original particle is stationary, is there enough energy to cre- ate the decay products? 6
Figure 44.1
Question 3.
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P ROBL EMS
Not only particles such as electrons and protons but also entire atoms can be classified as fermions or bosons, depend- ing on whether their overall spin quantum numbers are, respectively, half-integral or integral. Consider the helium isotopes 3 He and 4 He. Which of the following statements is correct? (a) Both are fermions. (b) Both are bosons. (c) 4 He is a fermion, and 3 He is a boson. (d) 3 He is a fermion, and 4 He v is a boson. (The two helium elec- 1 trons form a closed shell and play no 2 role in this determination.) 7
Three cosmologists have each plotted a line on the Hubble-like graph of Fig. 44.2. If we calculate the corresponding age of the universe
3
8
r
Figure 44.2
Question 8.
1439
from the three plots, rank the plots according to that age, great- est first. A Σ + particle has these quantum numbers: strangeness S = –1, 1 . Which of the following quark combi- charge q = +1, and spin s = _ 2 _ _ nations produces it: (a) dds, (b) s s, (c) uus, (d) ssu, or (e) uu s? 9
As we have seen, the π– meson has the quark structure du ˉ. Which of the following conservation laws would be violated if a π– were formed, instead, from a d quark and a u quark: (a) energy, (b) angular momentum, (c) charge, (d) lepton number, (e) linear momentum, (f) baryon number? _ 11 Consider the neutrino whose symbol is ν τ. (a) Is it a quark, a lepton, a meson, or a baryon? (b) Is it a particle or an antiparticle? (c) Is it a boson or a fermion? (d) Is it stable against spontaneous decay? 10
Problems GO SSM
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual
E Easy
M Medium
FCP Additional information available in The
Module 44.1
CALC Requires calculus
H Hard
BIO Flying Circus of Physics
General Properties of Elementary Particles
A positively charged pion decays by Eq. 44.1.7: π → μ + ν. What must be the decay scheme of the negatively charged pion? (Hint: The π− is the antiparticle of the π+ .) 1 E
+
+
E Certain theories predict that the proton is unstable, with a half-life of about 10 32 years. Assuming that this is true, calculate the number of proton decays you would expect to occur in one year in the water of an Olympic-sized swimming pool holding 4.32 × 10 5 L of water.
2
E GO An electron and a positron undergo pair annihilation (Eq. 44.1.5). If they had approximately zero kinetic energy before the annihilation, what is the wavelength of each γ pro- duced by the annihilation?
3
A neutral pion initially at rest decays into two gamma rays: γ + γ. Calculate the wavelength of the gamma rays. Why must they have the same wavelength? 4 E
π0
→
An electron and a positron are separated by distance r. Find the ratio of the gravitational force to the electric force between them. From the result, what can you conclude concerning the forces acting between particles detected in a bubble chamber? (Should gravitational interactions be considered?) 5 E
(a) A stationary particle 1 decays into particles 2 and 3, which move off with equal but oppositely directed momenta. Show that the kinetic energy K 2 of particle 2 is given by 1 [( E − E ) 2 − E 2 ], K 2 = ____ 2 3 2E 1 1 6
M
where E 1 , E 2 , and E 3 are the rest energies of the particles. (b) A stationary positive pion π+ (rest energy 139.6 MeV) can decay to an antimuon μ+ (rest energy 105.7 MeV) and a neutrino ν (rest energy approximately 0). What is the resulting kinetic energy of the antimuon? M The rest energy of many short-lived particles cannot be measured directly but must be inferred from the measured momenta and known rest energies of the decay products.
7
Biomedical application
and at flyingcircusofphysics.com
Consider the ρ0 meson, which decays by the reaction ρ0 → π+ + π− . Calculate the rest energy of the ρ0 meson given that the oppo- sitely directed momenta of the created pions each have magnitude 358.3 MeV/c. See Table 44.2.3 for the rest energies of the pions. + 8 M GO A positive tau (τ , rest energy = 1777 MeV) is moving with 2200 MeV of kinetic energy in a circular path perpendicular to a uniform 1.20 T magnetic field. (a) Calculate the momentum of the tau in kilogram-meters per second. Relativistic effects must be considered. (b) Find the radius of the circular path. M GO Observations of neutrinos emitted by the supernova SN1987a (Fig. 43.5.2b) place an upper limit of 20 eV on the rest energy of the electron neutrino. If the rest energy of the electron neutrino were, in fact, 20 eV, what would be the speed differ- ence between light and a 1.5 MeV electron neutrino? 10 M GO A neutral pion has a rest energy of 135 MeV and a mean life of 8.3 × 10 −17 If it is produced with an initial kinetic energy of 80 MeV and decays after one mean lifetime, what is the longest possible track this particle could leave in a bubble chamber? Use relativistic time dilation.
9
Module 44.2
Leptons, Hadrons, and Strangeness
SSM Which conservation law is violated in each of these proposed decays? Assume that the initial particle is stationary and the decay products have zero orbital angular momentum. (a) μ– → e – + νμ; (b) μ – → e + + νe + ν¯ ; (c) μ+ → π+ + νμ. + 12 E The A particle and its products decay according to the 2 scheme
11 E
0 + A + 2 → ρ + π ,
ρ0 → π+ + π− , π+ → μ+ + ν,
_ μ+ → e + + ν + ν, π− → μ− + _ν, _ μ− → e − + ν + ν.
(a) What are the final stable decay products? From the evidence, (b) is the A + 2 particle a fermion or a boson and (c) is it a meson or a baryon? (d) What is its baryon number?
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C HAP T ER 44 QU ARKS, L EP T ONS, AND T HE BIG BANG
E Show that if, instead of plotting strangeness S versus 1 baryons in Fig. 44.2.1a and for the spin- charge q for the spin- _ 2 zero mesons in Fig. 44.2.1b, we plot the quantity Y = B + S 1 B + S , we get the hexagonal pat- versus the quantity T z = q − _ ) 2 ( terns without using sloping axes. (The quantity Y is called hyper- charge, and T z is related to a quantity called isospin.) 14 E Calculate the disintegration energy of the reactions (a) π+ + p → Σ + + K + and (b) K – + p → Λ 0 + π0 . 15 E Which conservation law is violated in each of these proposed reactions and decays? (Assume that the products have zero orbital angular momentum.) (a) Λ 0 → p + K – ; (b) Ω – → Σ – + π0 (S = –3, – – 0 + _ q = –1, m = 1672 MeV/c 2 , and m s = 3 2 for Ω ); (c) K + p → Λ + π .
13
16 E
Does the proposed reaction _ p + p → Λ 0 + Σ + + e –
Does the proposed decay process Ξ – → π– + n + K – + p conserve (a) charge, (b) baryon number, (c) spin angular momentum, and (d) strangeness? 17 E
By examining strangeness, determine which of the fol- lowing decays or reactions proceed via the strong interaction: (a) K 0 → π+ + π– ; (b) Λ 0 + p → Σ + + n; (c) Λ 0 → p + π – ; (d) K – + p → Λ 0 + π 0 . + 19 E The reaction π + p → p + p + n ˉ proceeds via the strong interaction. By applying the conservation laws, deduce the (a) charge quantum number, (b) baryon number, and (c) strange- ness of the antineutron. 18 E
3 _ E There are 10 baryons with spin . Their symbols and 2 quantum numbers for charge q and strangeness S are as follows: 20
Δ – Δ 0 Δ + Δ ++ Σ* –
S
–1 0 +1 +2 –1
0 0 0 0 –1
Σ* 0 Σ* + Ξ* – Ξ* 0 Ω –
q
S
0 +1 –1 0 –1
–1 –1 –2 –2 –3
Make a charge–strangeness plot for these baryons, using the sloping coordinate system of Fig. 44.2.1. Compare your plot with this figure. M Use the conservation laws and Tables 44.2.2 and 44.2.3 to identify particle x in each of the following reactions, which proceed by means of the strong interaction: (a) p + p → p + Λ 0 + x ; (b) p + p ˉ → n + x ; (c) π– + p → Ξ 0 + K 0 + x. – – – 22 M GO A 220 MeV Σ particle decays: Σ → π + n. Calculate the total kinetic energy of the decay products.
21
E
E From Tables 44.2.2 and 44.3.1, determine the identity of the baryon formed from quarks (a) ddu, (b) uus, and (c) ssd. Check your answers against the baryon octet shown in Fig. 44.2.1a. _ 0 27 E What is the quark makeup of K ?
26
28 E
What quark combination is needed to form (a) Λ 0 and (b) Ξ 0 ?
Which hadron in Tables 44.2.2 and 44.2.3 corresponds to the quark bundles (a) ssu and (b) dds? 29 E
E SSM Using the up, down, and strange quarks only, con- struct, if possible, a baryon (a) with q = +1 and strangeness S = –2 and (b) with q = +2 and strangeness S = 0.
GO Consider the decay Λ 0 → p + π– with the Λ 0 at rest. (a) Calculate the disintegration energy. What is the kinetic energy of (b) the proton and (c) the pion? (Hint: See Problem 6.)
Module 44.4
M
3 Σ *0 baryon (see table in Problem 20) has a The spin- _ 2
rest energy of 1385 MeV (with an intrinsic uncertainty ignored _ 0 here); the spin- 1 2 Σ baryon has a rest energy of 1192.5 MeV. If each of these particles has a kinetic energy of 1000 MeV, (a) which is moving faster and (b) by how much?
Cosmology
In the laboratory, one of the lines of sodium is emit- ted at a wavelength of 590.0 nm. In the light from a particular galaxy, however, this line is seen at a wavelength of 602.0 nm. Calculate the distance to the galaxy, assuming that Hubble’s law holds and that the Doppler shift of Eq. 37.5.6 applies. 31
E
E Because of the cosmological expansion, a particular emis- sion from a distant galaxy has a wavelength that is 2.00 times the wavelength that emission would have in a laboratory. Assuming that Hubble’s law holds and that we can apply Doppler-shift cal- culations, what was the distance (ly) to that galaxy when the light was emitted?
32
E What is the observed wavelength of the 656.3 nm (first Balmer) line of hydrogen emitted by a galaxy at a distance of 2.40 × 10 8 ly? Assume that the Doppler shift of Eq. 37.5.6 and Hubble’s law apply.
33
An object is 1.5 × 10 4 from us and does not have any motion relative to us except for the motion due to the expansion of the universe. If the space between us and it expands accord- ing to Hubble’s law, with H = 21.8 mm/s · ly, (a) how much extra distance (meters) will be between us and the object by this time next year and (b) what is the speed of the object away from us? 34
E
If Hubble’s law can be extrapolated to very large distances, at what distance would the apparent recessional speed become equal to the speed of light? 35 E
What would the mass of the Sun have to be if Pluto (the outermost “planet” most of the time) were to have the same orbital speed that Mercury (the innermost planet) has now? Use data from Appendix C, express your answer in terms of the Sun’s current mass M S , and assume circular orbits. 36 E
E The wavelength at which a thermal radiator at temperature T radiates electromagnetic waves most intensely is given by Wien’s law: λmax = (2898 μm · K)/T. (a) Show that the energy E of a photon corresponding to that wavelength can be computed from
37
E = (4.28 × 10 –10 MeV/K)T.
23 M
24
Quarks and Messenger Particles
The quark makeups of the proton and neutron are uud and udd, respectively. What are the quark makeups of (a) the antiproton and (b) the antineutron? 25
30
conserve (a) charge, (b) baryon number, (c) electron lepton number, (d) spin angular momentum, (e) strangeness, and (f) muon lepton number?
q
Module 44.3
(b) At what minimum temperature can this photon create an electron–positron pair (as discussed in Module 21.3)? Use Wien’s law (see Problem 37) to answer the following questions: (a) The cosmic background radiation peaks in inten- sity at a wavelength of 1.1 mm. To what temperature does this correspond? (b) About 379 000 y after the big bang, the universe 38 E
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P ROBL EMS
became transparent to electromagnetic radiation. Its temperature then was 2970 K. What was the wavelength at which the back- ground radiation was then most intense?
and therefore that the star’s period T of revolution is _______
T = 2π √ R 3 /GM ,
independent of r. Ignore any resistive forces. (b) Next suppose Will the universe continue to expand forever? To attack this that the galaxy’s mass is concentrated near the galactic center, question, assume that the theory of dark energy is in error and that within a sphere of radius less than r. What expression then gives the recessional speed v of a galaxy a distance r from us is determined the star’s orbital period? only by the gravitational interaction of the matter that lies inside a sphere of radius r centered on us. If the total mass inside this Additional Problems _ sphere is M, the escape speed v e from the sphere is ve = √ 2GM/ r 45 SSM There is no known meson with charge quantum num- (Eq. 13.5.8). (a) Show that to prevent unlimited expansion, the ber q = +1 and strangeness S = –1 or with q = –1 and S = +1. average density ρ inside the sphere must be at least equal to Explain why in terms of the quark model. 2 3H ____ 46 Figure 44.3 is a hypothetical plot of the recessional speeds ρ = 8πG . v of galaxies against their distance r from us; the best-fit straight line through the data points is shown. From this plot determine (b) Evaluate this “critical density” numerically; express your the age of the universe, assuming that Hubble’s law holds and that answer in terms of hydrogen atoms per cubic meter. Mea- Hubble’s constant has always had the same value. surements of the actual density are difficult and are complicated by the presence of dark matter. 39 M
M Because the apparent recessional speeds of galaxies and quasars at great distances are close to the speed of light, the relativistic Doppler shift formula (Eq. 37.5.1) must be used. The shift is reported as fractional red shift z = Δλ/λ0 . (a) Show that, in terms of z, the recessional speed parameter β = v/c is given by z 2 + 2z β = __________ . 2 z + 2z + 2 (b) A quasar detected in 1987 has z = 4.43. Calculate its speed parameter. (c) Find the distance to the quasar, assuming that Hubble’s law is valid to these distances.
40
v deepS
M GO An electron jumps from n = 3 to n = 2 in a hydrogen atom in a distant galaxy, emitting light. If we detect that light at a wavelength of 3.00 mm, by what multiplication factor has the wavelength, and thus the universe, expanded since the light was emitted?
0.40 c
Figure 44.3
Problem 46.
Distance r (10 9 ly)
5.3
41
M Due to the presence everywhere of the cosmic back- ground radiation, the minimum possible temperature of a gas in interstellar or intergalactic space is not 0 K but 2.7 K. This implies that a significant fraction of the molecules in space that can be in a low-level excited state may, in fact, be so. Subsequent de-excitation would lead to the emission of radiation that could be detected. Consider a (hypothetical) molecule with just one possible excited state. (a) What would the excitation energy have to be for 25% of the molecules to be in the excited state? (Hint: See Eq. 40.7.2.) (b) What would be the wavelength of the photon emitted in a transition back to the ground state?
42
SSM Suppose that the radius of the Sun were increased to 5.90 × 10 12 m (the average radius of the orbit of Pluto), that the density of this expanded Sun were uniform, and that the plan- ets revolved within this tenuous object. (a) Calculate Earth’s orbital speed in this new configuration. (b) What is the ratio of the orbital speed calculated in (a) to Earth’s present orbital speed of 29.8 km/s? Assume that the radius of Earth’s orbit remains unchanged. (c) What would be Earth’s new period of revolution? (The Sun’s mass remains unchanged.)
SSM How much energy would be released if Earth were annihilated by collision with an anti-Earth?
47
A particle game. Figure 44.4 is a sketch of the tracks made by particles in a fictional cloud chamber experiment (with a uniform magnetic field directed perpendicular to the page), and Table 44.1 gives fictional quantum numbers associated with the particles mak- ing the tracks. Particle A entered the chamber at the lower left, leaving track 1 and decaying into three particles. Then the particle creating track 6 decayed into three other particles, and the particle creating track 4 decayed into two other particles, one of which 48
8
43 M
Suppose that the matter (stars, gas, dust) of a particular galaxy, of total mass M, is distributed uniformly throughout a sphere of radius R. A star of mass m is revolving about the cen- ter of the galaxy in a circular orbit of radius r