Fundamentals of Occupational Safety and Health [8 ed.] 1636710980, 9781636710983

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Fundamentals of Occupational Safety and Health

Fundamentals of Occupational Safety and Health Eighth Edition Mark A. Friend and James P. Kohn

Lanham

The reader should not rely on this publication to address specific questions that apply to a particular set of facts. The author and the publisher make no representation or warranty, express or implied, as to the completeness, correctness, or utility of the information in this publication. In addition, the author and the publisher assume no liability of any kind whatsoever resulting from the use of or reliance upon the contents of this book. Published by Bernan Press An imprint of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www​.rowman​.com Copyright © 2023 by The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc., does not claim copyright on U.S. government information. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Friend, Mark A., author. | Kohn, James P., author. Title: Fundamentals of occupational safety and health / Mark A. Friend and James P. Kohn. Description: Eighth edition. | Lanham : Bernan Press, [2023] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2023003073 (print) | LCCN 2023003074 (ebook) | ISBN 9781636710983 (paperback) | ISBN 9781636710990 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Industrial safety—United States. | Industrial hygiene—United States. Classification: LCC T55 .F75 2023 (print) | LCC T55 (ebook) | DDC 363.110973—dc23/eng/20230130 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023003073 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023003074 ∞ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.

To the Eternal Memory of James P. Kohn Colleague, Teacher, Father, Husband, Friend His legacy is not only the decades of service he gave to the safety and health profession, the many current and future safety professionals who have and will benefit from his work, and the workers whose lives and health he has helped protect, but the many hearts he touched.

Brief Contents

List of Figures and Tables

xxiii

Prefacexxvii Acknowledgmentsxxix 1 Introduction to Occupational Safety and Health

1

2 Safety Legislation

25

3 Workers’ Compensation and Recordkeeping

45

4 Safety-Related Business Laws

61

5 Accident Causation and Investigation: Theory and Application

75

6 Introduction to Industrial Hygiene Tracy L. Zontek and Burton R. Ogle

97

7 Ergonomics and Safety Management Andrew R. Dattel, Hui Wang, and Andrey K. Babin

131

8 Fire Prevention and Protection

169

9 System Safety Celeste A. Winterberger and A. Michael Shekari

189

10 Managing the Safety Function

225

11 Psychology and Safety: The Human Element in Loss Prevention

245

12 Improving Safety Performance with Behavior-Based Safety Earl Blair

261

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Brief Contents

13 Workplace Violence J. Brett Carruthers

293

14 Terrorism Preparedness J. Brett Carruthers

317

15 Handling Hazardous Materials and Wastes Tracy L. Zontek

331

16 Construction Safety and the Multiemployer Worksite Doctrine William F. Walker and Dan Nelson

357

17 Transportation Safety Scotty Dunlap

379

18 Introduction to Extreme Weather Randell J. Barry

395

19 Required and Recommended Written Programs

421

20 Resources on Safety and Health

435

Appendix A: 29 CFR 1910—OSHA General Industry Standards Summary and Checklist

455

Appendix B: 29 CFR 1926—OSHA Construction Standards Summary and Checklist

475

Appendix C: Anthropometric Data

501

Index507 About the Authors

537

Contents

List of Figures and Tables

xxiii

Prefacexxvii Acknowledgmentsxxix 1 Introduction to Occupational Safety and Health 1 Chapter Objectives 1 Case Study 1 Occupational Safety and Health 2 Importance of Occupational Safety and Health 3 Early Historical Examination of Occupational Safety and Health 4 Ancient Greek and Roman Physicians 4 The European Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution 4 Terms and Concepts in the Safety Profession 7 Job Titles of Individuals Performing Occupational Safety and Health Activities 10 The Safety and Health Professional’s Role and Responsibility 10 Safety and Ethics: Do You? Don’t You? 18 Background 18 Business Ethics 19 Conclusion 23 Questions 23 References 23 Bibliography 24 2 Safety Legislation Chapter Objectives Case Study Legislative History

25 25 25 25 ix

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Contents

Occupational Safety and Health Act 28 Who Is Covered? 29 OSHA Standards 30 Origin of OSHA Standards 30 Horizontal and Vertical Standards 31 Finding the OSHA Act 31 Specific Requirements of the Act 32 Employer Responsibilities and Rights 33 Inspections 34 Inspection Process 34 Citations and Penalties 35 Appeals Process 38 OSHA-Approved State Programs 38 Standards Development 39 Other Considerations 39 NIOSH and OSHRC 39 Other OSHA Programs 40 Future Trends 41 Conclusion 41 Questions 42 References 42 Bibliography 43 3 Workers’ Compensation and Recordkeeping 45 Chapter Objectives 45 Case Study 45 Early Workers’ Compensation Laws 45 Modern Workers’ Compensation 47 Exemptions 48 Premium Calculation 49 Experience Modification 49 Retrospective Rating 50 Self-Insured 50 Recordkeeping 50 Case Study 50 Background 51 Who Must Keep Records 51 Forms 52 OSHA 300, 300A, and 301 Forms 52 Recordable Occupational Injuries and Illnesses 56 First-Aid Cases 56 Fatalities 57 Privacy Concern Cases 57 Posting Annual Summary Requirements 58

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Case Study 58 Conclusion 59 Questions 59 References 59 4 Safety-Related Business Laws 61 Chapter Objectives 61 Case Study 61 Important Terminology 62 Role of the Safety Professional 65 Product Liability 66 Product Safety Act 66 Theories of Product Liability 67 Lawsuits 68 Contracts 70 Costs of Lawsuits 71 Insurance 72 Conclusion 72 Questions 72 References 73 5 Accident Causation and Investigation: Theory and Application 75 Chapter Objectives 75 Introduction 75 The Concepts of Risk, Incidents, and Accidents 77 Accident Causation Theories 82 Single Factor Theory 82 Domino Theories 82 Heinrich’s Domino Theory 82 Bird and Loftus’s Domino Theory 84 Marcum’s Domino Theory 85 Multiple Causation Accident Theories 86 Multiple Factors Theory 86 Systems Theory of Causation 87 Psychological/Behavioral Accident Causation Theories 87 Goals Freedom Alertness Theory 87 Motivation Reward Satisfaction Model 87 Human Factors Theory 88 Energy-Related Accident Causation Theories 88 Energy Release Theory 88 Swiss Cheese 89 Incident Investigation 90 Conclusion 95 Questions 95

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References 96 Bibliography 96 6 Introduction to Industrial Hygiene 97 Tracy L. Zontek and Burton R. Ogle Chapter Objectives 97 Case Study 98 What Is Industrial Hygiene? 99 What Is Meant by the “Art” of Industrial Hygiene? 100 The Science of Industrial Hygiene 100 Health Hazards 100 History of Industrial Hygiene 101 Toxicology 102 Routes of Entry 103 Acute and Chronic Exposures 103 Chemical Interactions 104 Classification of Toxic Materials 105 Physical Classification 105 Chemical Classification 105 Physiological Classification 105 Nephrotoxins 106 Neurotoxins 106 Hepatotoxins 106 Respiratory Toxins 106 Reproductive Toxins  106 Hematopoietic Agents  107 Cutaneous Hazards 107 Eye Hazards 107 Carcinogens 107 Mutagens 107 Teratogens 107 Toxicity versus Risk 107 Precautionary Principle 108 Industrial Hygiene Practice 108 Recognition 108 Evaluation 110 Control 113 Industrial Hygiene Ethics 116 Industrial Hygiene Planning for the Future 117 Artificial Intelligence 117 Work as a Social Determinant of Health 118 Modeling Exposures and Controls 118 Total Worker Health NIOSH 120

Contents

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Pandemic Planning from an Industrial Hygiene Perspective 120 Pandemics 120 Toxicology 122 Routes of Entry 123 Industrial Hygiene Process 123 Anticipation and Recognition 124 Evaluation 125 Controls 125 Conclusion 127 Questions 127 References 128 7 Ergonomics and Safety Management 131 Andrew R. Dattel, Hui Wang, and Andrey K. Babin Chapter Objectives 131 Case Study 131 Introduction to Ergonomics 133 Definition of the Term “Ergonomics” 133 Differences in Ergonomics and Human Factors 133 Ergonomics Is Multidisciplinary 134 Ergonomics Objective 134 Applying Ergonomics: An Overview 135 Opponent Process Theory 135 Participatory Ergonomics 136 Evaluation of Hazards and Risk Assessment 136 Hazard and Risk Control 138 Applying Ergonomics: In Detail 138 Operator-Machine Systems 138 Humans 139 Anthropometry 139 Biomechanics 141 Classification of Body Movement, Postures, and Positions 142 Physiological Categories of Movement 142 Operational Categories of Movement 144 Additional Characteristics of the Human Variable 145 Cumulative Trauma Disorders 146 Carpal Tunnel Syndrome 146 Cubital Tunnel Syndrome 147 Tendonitis 147 Tenosynovitis 147 CTD Symptoms 147 Rest Period 149 Machine Variables 149

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Environmental Variables 151 Workplace Layout and Design 152 Interventions—Workstations 153 Sit-Stand Workstations 154 Interventions—Manual Material Handling 155 Interventions—Video Display Terminal Workstation Design 156 Workplace Automation 159 Considerations for Remote Work 160 Conclusion 161 Questions 162 References 162 Bibliography 166 8 Fire Prevention and Protection 169 Chapter Objectives 169 Case Study 169 Fire Tetrahedron 171 Categories of Fires and Extinguishers 173 National Fire Protection Association 175 Standards and Codes 175 NFPA 70 175 NFPA 101 176 NFPA 30 176 NFPA 13 176 NFPA 58 176 NFPA 99 177 NFPA 704 177 Educational Materials 178 DOT Marking System 179 OSHA Regulations 181 Fire Case History 184 Managing the Fire Program 185 Written Program 186 Conclusion 187 Questions 187 References 187 Bibliography 188 9 System Safety 189 Celeste A. Winterberger and A. Michael Shekari Chapter Objectives 189 System Safety 189 Case Study 189 Definitions 191

Contents

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History of System Safety 192 Importance of System Safety Today 193 System Life Cycle 194 Tools and Techniques for Safety Risk Management 195 Preliminary Hazard Analysis 195 Subsystem Hazard Analysis 197 Hazard Analysis Techniques 197 Technic of Operations Review 198 Technique for Human Error Rate Prediction 200 Failure Mode and Effects Analysis 200 Fault Hazard Analysis 201 Fault Tree Analysis 201 Job Safety Analysis (JSA) 203 Reasons for Conducting a JSA 203 Who Should Conduct JSAs? 203 Procedures and Various Methods Used to Perform JSAs 204 Various Methods for Performing JSAs 204 Selecting the Job 205 Completing the JSA 206 Effectively Using a JSA in Loss Prevention 206 An Example 209 Accident Investigation 209 Accident Types 209 Conclusion 210 Safety Management Systems 210 Asiana Flight 214 210 Arkema Crosby Organic Peroxide Fire 211 Hernando DeSoto Bridge I-40 Bridge Fracture 212 Systems-based Thinking and Safety Management Systems 213 What Are Safety Management Systems? 214 The Deming Cycle—The Theoretical Basis of SMS 215 Objectives of a SMS 216 Why Should an Organization Use SMS? 216 The Structure of SMS 217 Aviation 217 Safety Policy 218 Safety Risk Management 219 Safety Assurance 220 Safety Risk Management and Safety Assurance Relationship 221 Safety Promotion 221 General Industry 222 Questions 223 References / Additional Readings 223

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10 Managing the Safety Function 225 Chapter Objectives 225 Case Study 225 Overview 226 Planning 227 Organizing 228 Controlling 231 Directing 236 Staffing 236 Communications 237 Evaluation of the System 238 Guidance for Safety Management 239 OSHA Guidelines 239 Safety Management: An ANSI/AIHA/ASSP Z10 Perspective 241 Safety Management: An International Standards Organization (ISO) Perspective: 45001 242 Conclusion 243 Questions 244 References 244 11 Psychology and Safety: The Human Element in Loss Prevention 245 Chapter Objectives 245 Case Studies 245 Introduction 246 Basic Terminology 246 Motivation 247 Goal-Directed School 247 Maslow’s Needs-Hierarchy Theory 247 McClelland’s Need-Achievement Theory 249 Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory 250 Behavioral School 251 Pavlov 251 Skinner 252 The Rational Employee: Applying Motivation Theories 253 Organizational Environment and the Safety Culture 254 Incentives versus Inherent Reinforcement 257 Employee Empowerment and Job Enrichment 258 Conclusion 259 Questions 259 References 259 Bibliography 260

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12 Improving Safety Performance with Behavior-Based Safety 261 Earl Blair Chapter Objectives 261 Introduction 261 Misconceptions about Behavioral Safety 262 Basic Definitions and Terminology 264 At-Risk Behavior  264 Attitudes  264 Behavior-Based Safety 264 Principles and Strategies of Behavioral Safety 265 Common Problems with Safety Efforts 265 A Process Focusing on Improving Safety Behavior 267 From Dan Petersen 267 From Dominic Cooper 267 From Thomas Krause 267 Behavior Sampling for Proactive Measures 268 Employee-Driven Processes and Partial Empowerment 269 Implementing Behavioral Approaches 269 How to Implement Behavioral Safety—Common Steps 269 How to Conduct a Safety Assessment 270 Developing an Inventory of Critical Safety-Related Behaviors 271 What Are Critical Behaviors and Why Develop an Inventory of Critical Behaviors? 272 How Can We Identify Critical Behaviors? 272 Steps of the Observation Process 273 Steps for Continuous Improvement 274 Safety Coaching 275 Steps in the Coaching Process 275 How to Provide Meaningful Feedback 277 The Role of Incentives in Behavioral Safety 277 What Are Incentives? 278 What are Some Basic Ways to Incentivize Behavior? 278 What Incentives Are Not 279 Why do Organizations Implement Safety Incentive Programs? 280 Common Concerns with Incentive Programs 280 OSHA Classification of Incentive Programs 281 Guidelines for Designing Safety Incentive Programs 282 Common Performance Metrics for Behavioral Safety 283 Potential Barriers to Successful Implementation of Behavioral Safety 284 Success Factors for Behavioral Safety 286 Management Commitment and Visible Support of Behavioral Safety 286 Employee Knowledge, Clarity of Roles, and Engagement in the Process 287

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The Quality of the Implementation Team 287 Data Collection, Analysis, and Utilization 287 Thorough Planning of the Behavioral Safety Process in Advance 288 Customization 288 Safety Culture and Readiness for a Behavioral Safety Process 288 Long-Term Success and Continual Improvement 289 Recognition and Feedback 289 Conclusion 289 Questions 290 References 290 13 Workplace Violence 293 J. Brett Carruthers Chapter Objectives 293 Case Study 293 Introduction 294 Workplace Epidemic of Violence 294 Background 294 Victimization of the American Workforce 295 Profile of Victims 295 Cost to Business 295 OSHA Perspective 296 High-Risk Workplaces 296 Nighttime Retailing 296 Health Care and Social Service 299 Domestic Violence in the Workplace 300 Proper Security Measures 300 Problem Employees: Formula for Failure 301 The Ingredients List 302 Other Ingredients 303 Recognizing the Potential Aggressor 303 Disgruntled Employee Red Flags 303 Employee Disenchantment 304 Revenge 305 Violence 305 Defusing a Time Bomb: The Violent Employee 306 Non-Harassment Policy 306 Pre-Employment Screening 306 Drug Testing 307 Employee and Management Training 307 Crisis Management Planning 308 Security Emergencies 309 Developing the Plan 311 Communicating the Plan 311

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Practicing the Plan 311 Liaison with Local Law Enforcement 312 Conclusion 312 Questions 312 References 313 Bibliography 313 14 Terrorism Preparedness 317 J. Brett Carruthers Chapter Objectives 317 Case Study 317 Historic Information 318 Overview 319 Responsibilities 320 Planning 320 Activities 321 Production 321 Bottlenecks 322 Location of Your Property 322 Fences and Entrances 323 Clear Area around the Premises 323 Doors, Windows, and Other Openings 324 Ventilation and HVAC Systems 324 Lighting Systems 324 Communications Systems 324 Continuity of Operations 325 Security Systems 325 Surveillance Systems 326 Guards and Sentries 327 Entry and Movement of Vehicles and Visitors 327 Entry and Movement of Employees 327 Computers and Networks 327 Threats 328 Mail and Packages 328 Safety Professional’s Role 329 Insurance 329 Conclusion 330 Questions 330 References 330 15 Handling Hazardous Materials and Wastes Tracy L. Zontek Chapter Objectives Case Study The Role of the Environmental Protection Agency

331 331 331 332

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Contents

Hazardous Materials 333 Legislative Overview 334 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 335 Hazardous Waste 335 Determining Generator Status 337 Managing Hazardous Waste On-Site 339 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) 340 Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) 341 Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response 345 Hazardous Waste Manifest System 347 Hazard Communication Standard 348 Global Harmonization 349 Safety Data Sheets 350 Emerging Issues in Hazardous Materials and Waste 352 Conclusion 354 Questions for Deeper Understanding 354 References 355 16 Construction Safety and the Multiemployer Worksite Doctrine 357 William F. Walker and Dan Nelson Chapter Objectives 357 Case Study 357 Introduction 358 Construction Safety Recommendations 359 Falls from Elevations 360 Struck-by and Caught In-between 363 Case Study 364 Electrical Shock 365 Other Hazards 367 Multiemployer Worksite Policy 367 Doctrine History 370 Contractor Qualifications and Programs 372 Conclusion 377 Questions 377 References 377 17 Transportation Safety Scotty Dunlap Chapter Objectives Case Study Hazardous Materials Transportation What Is a Hazardous Material? Hazardous Material Table Shipping Papers

379 379 379 380 380 381 381

Contents

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Emergency Response Information 382 Placarding 382 Driver Training 383 Emergency Response Planning 383 Emergency Response Equipment 384 Spill Prevention and Response 384 Security Plan 385 Federal Motor Carrier Safety Regulations 385 Commercial Driver’s License 385 Driver Qualifications 386 Emergency Equipment 387 Maintenance of Accident Registers and Reports 387 Drug and Alcohol Testing Programs 387 Background Checks 387 Testing Programs 388 Rehabilitation 389 Fleet Safety 389 Driver Authorization 390 Preventive Maintenance 390 Vehicle Operation 391 Risk Management 392 Summary 393 Questions 393 Bibliography 394 18 Introduction to Extreme Weather 395 Randell J. Barry Chapter Objectives 395 Case Studies 395 Introduction 396 Basic Meteorology 398 Extreme Weather 403 Tropical Storms/Hurricanes 403 Severe Thunderstorms 407 Winter Storms 410 Flood Events 412 Heat Waves 413 Cold Waves 413 Fire Weather 414 Resources to Monitor and Forecast Extreme Weather 414 National Weather Service 415 Terminology 415 Weather Radio 416 Internet Resources 417

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Contents

Conclusions 419 Questions 419 References 420 19 Required and Recommended Written Programs 421 Chapter Objectives 421 Case Study 421 Safety and Health Program 422 Hazard Communication Program 424 Emergency Action Plan 425 Fire Prevention Plan 425 Emergency Response Plan 426 Permit-Required Confined Space Plan 427 Lockout Tagout 428 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 428 Respiratory Protection 429 Process Safety Management 430 Requirements 431 Written Procedures 431 Incident Investigation 432 Emergency Action Plan 433 Compliance Audits 433 Conclusion 433 Questions 433 References 434 20 Resources on Safety and Health 435 Agencies and Associations 435 Manufacturers and Suppliers 446 Federal Regional Offices 449 State Compliance Offices 450 References 454 Appendix A: 29 CFR 1910—OSHA General Industry Standards Summary and Checklist

455

Appendix B: 29 CFR 1926—OSHA Construction Standards Summary and Checklist

475

Appendix C: Anthropometric Data

501

Index507 About the Authors

537

Figures and Tables

FIGURES Figure 1.1 ASSE Scope and Functions of the Professional Safety Position 12 Figure 3.1 OSHA Form 300 53 Figure 3.3 OSHA Form 301 54 Figure 3.2 OSHA Form 300A 55 Figure 5.1 The Balance between Risks and Hazards in the Workplace and the Controls Necessary to Minimize Their Effects 80 Figure 5.2 Heinrich’s Domino Theory of Accident Causation 83 Figure 5.3 Bird and Loftus’s Theory of Accident Causation 85 Figure 5.4 Marcum’s Theory of Accident Causation 85 Figure 6.1 NIOSH Hierarchy of Controls 114 Figure 6.2 Expanded Conceptual Work Health Model 119 Figure 6.3 Evaluating the Chain of Infection 126 Figure 7.1 Distribution of Average Human Height in the United States (in Inches) 141 Figure 7.2 Recommendations for Ergonomically Correct Workstation Design 159 Figure 8.1 Flammability Relative to the Oxygen/Fuel Mixture 172 Figure 8.2 Example of Fire Extinguishers Found in the Occupational Environment 174 Figure 8.3 Flammable Liquid Storage Cabinets with Examples of Different Types of Safety Containers 177

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Figure 8.4 Example of Flammable Liquid Safety Can with Illustrated Safety Features 178 Figure 8.5 Sample of NFPA 704 Label for Storage Containers of Hazardous Materials 179 Figure 8.6 Shipping Papers and Example of Placard and Panel with ID Number 180 Figure 8.7 Placards and Initial Response Guidelines 181 Figure 8.8 Example of Oily Waste Safety Can 183 Figure 9.1 Minnesota Bridge Collapse 190 Figure 9.2 Block Diagram Showing the Different Parts of a Car Engine (System) 191 Figure 9.3 System Safety Functions 194 Figure 9.4 Hazard Assessment Matrix 196 Figure 9.5 Basic FTA Symbology 201 Figure 9.6 A Simple FTA 202 Figure 9.7 Job Safety Analysis Worksheet 207 Figure 9.8 JSA for a Hydraulic Line Replacement 208 Figure 10.1 Typical Organizational Chart 230 Figure 10.2 Core Elements of the Safety and Health Program Recommended Practices 240 Figure 11.1 Goal-Directed Model of Motivation Based on the Research of Deci 247 Figure 11.2 Maslow’s Needs-Hierarchy Model of Motivation 248 Figure 11.3 Operant Conditioning Model of Environmental Processes and Their Effect on Behavior 252 Figure 15.1 An Overview of the EPA’s Cradle-to-Grave Hazardous Waste Management System 338 Figure 15.2 Example of a Hazardous Material Accumulation/ Dispensing Center with Spill Containment 342 Figure 15.3 Example of a Single-Drum Hazardous Material Collection Station 343 Figure 15.4 Example of a Four-Drum Hazardous Material Pallet with Spill Containment 344 Figure 15.5 (A) Example of Hazardous Material Perforated Absorption Mat, (B) Example of Spill Containment Sock 345 Figure 15.6 Examples of Required Labels Under the Globally Harmonized System of Classifying and Labeling Chemicals 351 Figure 16.1 Lax Safety Practices in Residential Construction 361 Figure 16.2 Ladder Hazard 362 Figure 16.3 Confined Space Hazard 368

Figures and Tables

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Figure 16.5 Figure 16.4 Figure 18.1 Figure 18.2 Figure 18.3

Saw without Guard 369 Potential for Collapse 369 Billion-Dollar Weather Disasters, 1980–2008 397 Surface Weather Map, June 6, 2008 400 Satellite Image of Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Illustration 404 Figure 18.4 Analysis of Surface Winds Associated with Hurricane Katrina 405 Figure 18.5 Storm Surge Illustration 406 Figure 18.6 Climatology of Hail with Diameters of Two Inches or Greater 409 Figure 18.7 Downburst Climatology 409 Figure 18.8 Tornado Climatology 410 Figure 18.9 National Weather Service Website 416 Figure 18.10 Storm Prediction Center Website 417 Figure 18.11 Sample Hurricane Forecast Map 418 TABLES Table 7.1 Table 9.1 Table 9.2 Table 11.1

Physiological Categories of Movement Typical Job Titles Appropriate to Level of Training SMS Structures Operant Conditioning Model of Environmental Processes and Their Effect on Behavior Table 17.1 Divisions for Different Groups of Vehicles Table 18.1 Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Intensity Scale Table 18.2 Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale

143 193 222 253 386 403 408

Preface

The first edition of this book was written as a response to the need for a comprehensive, introductory-level text covering the major facets of occupational safety and health. The current edition incorporates material from the earlier editions, contains necessary updates, and was written with the same objectives as previous editions: • It should be easily comprehensible by those who lack experience or prior exposure to concepts in occupational safety and health, industrial hygiene, or occupational medicine. • It should be at a writing level easily understood by a majority of the population yet be useful as a text for college courses. • It should cover the major topics of concern to safety and health professionals and students to provide both with a philosophical base. Dr. Burton Ogle, PhD, CSP, CIH, and Dr. Tracy Zontek, PhD, CIH, CSP, of Western Carolina University, have rewritten the chapter on industrial hygiene and updated the chapter on hazardous materials. Dr. Celeste Winterberger of Research Triangle Park in North Carolina was a heavy contributor to the first edition and her legacy continues in this one. Dr. Scotty Dunlap, EdD, CSP, of Eastern Kentucky University updated the chapter on transportation safety. Dr. Randell Barry, PhD, updated the chapter on extreme weather. The rest of the chapters have material added as needed. As the title implies, Fundamentals of Occupational Safety and Health covers the basics professionals need to understand before accepting responsibility for promoting an environment conducive to reducing hazards and protecting lives. Unlike books exploring only the engineering aspects of the subject, this text attempts to balance the

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management of safety with the relevant science and the practical aspects of regulatory compliance. This edition was revised without the assistance of Dr. James P. Kohn, who passed away in 1999. He was a friend, a professional, and an innovator in the fields of safety and safety education. All who knew him miss his comradeship and willingness to share knowledge and enthusiasm. Special thanks go to my wife, Kathy, for all of her help and inspiration. She is a true friend. Mark Allen Friend, EdD, CSP, Professor Chair, Department of Applied Aviation Sciences Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Daytona Beach, Florida

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank Glory Mizzille, Daria Hinnant, Doug Gaylord, David McDaniel, Bill Benfield, Mark Thompson, and Nathan Szejniuk for their contributions to the development and editing of the manuscript. Thanks also go to the following individuals for their gracious assistance in providing information, guidance, and text for specific chapters as listed: Chapter 2: Tom Wagner, Craig MacMurry, Sam Christy, Kelly Nelson, and Wes Heinold Chapter 3: Tom Wagner, Susan Wilson, and Craig MacMurry Chapter 4: George Nichols, Jr. Chapter 5: Eddie Allen, Eddie Anderson, Barbara Dail, Ralph Dodge, Doug Gaylord, Eddie Johnson, Barry Maxwell, Amy Tomlin, and Celeste Winterberger Chapter 6: Burton R. Ogle, PhD, CIH, CSP, and Tracy L. Zontek, PhD, CIH, CSP Chapter 7: Eddie Anderson, Barbara Dail, Ralph Dodge, Doug Gaylord, Eddie Johnson, Katherine Kohn (ergonomic illustrations), Barry Maxwell, Amy Tomlin, and Celeste Winterberger Chapter 8: Amber Perry Chapter 9: Celeste Winterberger (who authored this chapter) Chapter 11: Brett Carruthers Chapter 12: Earl Blair (who authored this chapter) Chapter 13: Brett Carruthers (who authored this chapter) Chapter 14: Brett Carruthers, Tom Shodoan, Antoine Slaughter, Julie Mitchell, Jeff Porter, James Frey, and Joseph Johnson Chapter 15: Tracy L. Zontek, PhD, CIH, CSP and Burton R. Ogle, PhD, CIH, CSP xxix

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Chapter 16: William Walker and Dan Nelson (who wrote the section on multiemployer worksite policy) Chapter 17: Scotty Dunlap (who wrote the chapter) Chapter 18: Randell J. Barry, PhD Chapter 19: Robert Getchell, Keith McCullough, Mike Ban Derven, and Neil Brown Appendix A: Eddie Anderson, Mike Baker, Barbara Dail, Craig Fulcher, Doug Gaylord, Barry Maxwell, David McDaniel, and Ron Skinner Appendix B: Mike Baker, Craig Fulcher, Doug Gaylord, Darla Hinnant, David McDaniel, Glory Mizzelle, Ron Skinner, Ward Taylor, Chip Tillett, and Jason Whichard In addition, the authors want to recognize Kathy Friend, MSOS, and Carrie Kohn, MA, for their professional encouragement.

Chapter 1

Introduction to Occupational Safety and Health

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to • explain the importance of occupational safety and health; • identify key historical figures that have contributed to the profession; • define basic terminology used in occupational safety and health; • list job titles of individuals performing occupational safety and health activities; • identify roles and responsibilities of safety and health professionals; and • identify basic guideposts for judging ethical behaviors CASE STUDY As a 22-year-old construction worker with 11 months of experience on the job, Bob had finally made it. Since graduating high school, Bob had tried many things, but they just never seemed right for him. He attended a community college for one year and then dropped out. There was too much theory that did not relate to how he saw the world. Bob tried a number of jobs, but minimum-wage salaries forced him to live at home with his parents. His parents were good people, but he was ready to move on with his life. With this new job, everything was turning out great. Bob was bringing home a good paycheck. He had just moved into a new apartment, which he shared with his high school friend Tim, and he was going the next day to sign the papers for a brand-new pickup truck. 1

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Bob never made it to the dealership to sign those papers. Maybe he was distracted thinking about that “killer” pickup that he was about to purchase. Perhaps he never realized how dangerous it actually was to work on that scaffolding. After all, it was only 20 feet off the ground and it looked safe. Bob had worked on wet scaffolding before, and although it was wet from the rains the previous night, nothing had ever happened to make him concerned about working at those heights. Bob’s world changed when he fell to the ground. His fall put him in a wheelchair, paralyzed from the waist down.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH The field of occupational safety and health is concerned with minimizing loss by aiding in the preservation and protection of both human and other physical assets in the workplace. The discipline is far-reaching in both scope and practice. It primarily involves monitoring the workplace and advising employers or management on the best ways to prevent and minimize losses. Final responsibility for action always rests on the shoulders of the management, as they are ultimately accountable for workplace behaviors. Management is held accountable by stockholders or owners of the company, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the courts, and even public opinion. The job of the safety and health professional is to assist management by observing the workplace and providing guidance. In practice, occupational safety and health addresses moral and economic issues—typically within a framework required by law. The US government and governments worldwide, require protection of employees from hazards that may result in injury, illness, or death. Under the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970, known as the OSHAct, employers in the United States are required to provide safe and healthy workplaces. The safety and health professionals help employers to do that. Unfortunately, for some employers the responsibility to protect human life is not as important to them as other goals or priorities. A company may focus on productivity and profits to the exclusion of safety and health. Its managers may view the occurrence of illnesses and injuries as a routine part of the job. In reality, the amount of production required to cover costs associated with accidents in the workplace can be substantial and far outweigh the expense of providing a safe and healthy working environment. The role of the safety professional requires monitoring workplace conditions and advising management on the importance of making critical corrections for moral, legal, and economic reasons. The effective safety professional will work with the management team and help demonstrate to them that providing a safe and healthy working environment is the right thing to do for both the employees

Introduction to Occupational Safety and Health

3

and the company. The safety and health professional must be able to make a convincing argument, based on sound business practices; otherwise, management may choose to allow safety and health to become low priorities. Neither can exist without management support, and that support is only forthcoming when profits can be made. The organization cannot exist without profit, and the job of the safety professional cannot exist without production. Safety does not and never will come first. Safety cannot and will not exist without profitable production, but profitable production is not likely to exist without safety. Safe and profitable production is the ultimate goal of the safety professional. This goal can only be accomplished with full support of management. Management ultimately oversees the safety function and makes final decisions regarding its implementation. The safety system is integrated into the overall management system. When an accident occurs, it is always considered a fault in the management system.

IMPORTANCE OF OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH Morally, legally, and economically, occupational safety and health have become important issues. Companies are attempting to remain profitable in an ever-more-competitive global economy. Addressing safety, health, and environmental issues may mean more than good business practice. For many companies, strong safety, health, and environmental programs may actually mean survival. Thousands of employees are reportedly killed annually in the United States as a result of on-the-job incidents, and many more are injured. The costs associated with these losses are in the billions of dollars. Behind the numbers of deaths and injuries are real people—mothers, fathers, sisters, brothers, spouses, sons, or daughters. They are people like Bob, whose lives may never be the same again. The OSHA is the federal agency responsible for workplace safety and health; it attempts to address the safety and health concerns faced by American workers. OSHA may not only levy fines, but may also seek criminal prosecution of business owners and managers who willfully neglect the safety and health of their employees. In addition, employers may find themselves the targets of civil suits levied by the victims and survivors of workplace accidents. Employers with poor safety and health records must also deal with rising medical insurance costs as well as unfavorable workers’ compensation premiums. Unfortunately, many employers have not had to bear the full cost of injuring and killing members of their workforces. Workers, uninformed and unaware of their legal rights, have often shouldered the costs of the

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business not operating safely. The regulations and mechanisms for enforcement are in place in the United States, but the agencies charged with administering safety regulations are generally understaffed. With well over one hundred million workers at millions of worksites of covered employers and not even 2,000 federal OSHA inspectors, the task is clearly a challenge for the agency. In addition, certain categories of workers, such as some federal, state, and municipal employees do their jobs without protection from OSHA or any government agency. Most federal employees are excluded from OSHA regulations. Many state and municipal employees in states covered by federal OSHA also work without OSHA protection. Continued reduction of accidents in the United States will require an increase in initiative on the parts of all parties involved to include employers, employees, and federal and state governments. An understanding of the issues of today will be enhanced by a review of the past.

EARLY HISTORICAL EXAMINATION OF OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH Ancient Greek and Roman Physicians Concern for occupational safety and health is not a recent issue. Many of the health and safety problems today were first observed over 2000 years ago. An early account is associated with the Code of Hammurabi dating back to approximately 2100 BCE. In an attempt to recompense victims, it primarily addressed personal injury and losses and prescribed a schedule of punishments and payments for wrongdoers. Greek and Roman physicians, practicing between 400 BCE and 300 CE, expressed concern for the health of individuals exposed to the metals commonly used during this period. These included Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine, and Pliny the Elder, a Roman physician and scientist, both discussed in chapter 6. Galen, a Roman physician who lived during the second century, wrote about occupational diseases and the dangers of acid mists to copper miners. He was also concerned with the mining, tanning, and chemical occupations, noting several diseases contracted by individuals working in those professions. The European Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution Prior to the Renaissance, little information is available on European injury, illness, and property damage-prevention activities. Reports of medieval

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scribes suffering lead poisoning, while performing the common practice of tipping their quills with their tongues between dips into metallic-ink solutions, were repeatedly noted before the fifteenth century. Unfortunately, little else was recorded regarding safety and health in that period. During the European Renaissance, physicians and chemists began noticing the relationship between occupational activities and worker health and safety. Ulrich Ellenborg, for example, recognized, identified, and reported on “the poisonous and noxious vapors and fumes of metals.” In 1437, he recognized that the vapors of some metals, including lead and mercury, were dangerous and described the symptoms of industrial poisoning from these sources. He also became aware of asbestos and lung diseases among miners. Bernardo Ramazzini, an Italian physician, circa 1700 published, De morbis artificum diatriba or The Diseases of Workers, the first treatise on occupational disease. Considered by some to be the Father of Occupational Medicine and others as the Father of Industrial Hygiene, he recommended physicians ask their patients, “What is your trade?” He urged students to learn the nature of occupational diseases in shops, mills, mines, or wherever men toil. In 1666, fire swept through London, England and raged for several days. At that time, London was a city of half-timbered, pitch-covered, medieval buildings igniting at the touch of a spark. From an inn on Pudding Lane, the fire spread into Thames Street, where riverfront warehouses were bursting with oil, tallow, and other combustible goods. The customary recourse during a fire of such magnitude was to demolish every building in the path of the flames, in order to deprive the fire of fuel, but the city’s mayor hesitated, fearing the high cost of rebuilding. With no building codes at the time, houses were frequently built to the edge of the street. Second and subsequent stories were often cantilevered with the top floors nearly touching houses across the street. The fire raged and destroyed a large part of London. Early examples of building and fire codes resulted from this disaster. During the period between 1760 and 1840, history witnessed dramatic advances in technology. Dr. Percival Pott (circa 1775) identified the first form of cancer, scrotal cancer in chimney sweeps, and determined its relationship to soot and coal tar exposure. This observation resulted in numerous regulations called the Chimney Sweep Acts promulgated between 1788 and 1875. About the same time, several industrialists also became concerned with the welfare of their workers. Sir Robert Peel, a mill owner, made the English Parliament aware of the deplorable working conditions often existing in the mills. He reported that orphan labor was frequently used to perform demanding tasks in less than sanitary conditions. His study of these deplorable conditions revealed the mean life expectancy of the working class, under these terrible conditions, was only 22 years, while the mean age of the wealthier class was 44 years.

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With advancing technology and the Industrial Revolution, came an increase in safety and health hazards. The innovations of mechanical textile machinery, foundry furnaces, steam engines, and numerous other inventions created a new and more dangerous workplace environment. Factories and other workplaces were mazes of moving belts, pulleys, and gears. Human senses were assaulted with fumes, toxic vapors, noise, and heat. The health and safety problem was compounded by the introduction of increasing numbers of women and children into the workforce. Long workdays, unsanitary conditions, and demanding physical labor amplified the likelihood of injury and illness for this new workforce. At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution in England, Charles Thackrah became concerned with occupational safety and health and studied the effects of arts, trades, life habits, civic states, and professions upon health and longevity. By employing basic principles of occupational medicine, he became the first physician in the English-speaking world to establish the practice of industrial medicine. His writings also led to a raised public awareness of the plight of many of the new working class. In 1842, Edwin Chadwick, a British lawyer and sanitarian, described the deplorable conditions of factory workers in his “Report into the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population of Great Britain.” He stated that life expectancy was much lower in towns than in the countryside and attributed his findings to air pollution. In the United States, the Industrial Revolution began in the early nineteenth century as factories and mills in New England sprang to life. In Lowell, Massachusetts, women and girls, as young as six to ten years of age, worked long hours, often from five in the morning until seven in the evening. Their work required hands to be placed very close to the (in-running) gears of spinning machines. Many were injured or maimed in the moving gears and pulleys of the textile machinery. Their fingers were cut off or mangled with such frequency that machine-guarding laws were eventually passed. Fatalities in the mining and steel industries were as common as those in the textile industry. In 1877, Massachusetts passed a regulation requiring safeguards on hazardous machinery. This law also tied liability to the actions of employers. Exposure to toxic metals, such as mercury and lead, has been an occupational health problem for hundreds of years. Technological advances introduced new and unique hazards, typically overlooked by untrained observers, and only recognized after numerous cases were reported. Dramatic changes in technology and workplace design, along with other advancements, have not necessarily resulted in healthier or safer workplaces. Employees today may be exposed to as many workplace hazards as were their ancestors in years past. Factory machinery with unguarded gears, mangling fingers and hands, has been replaced by electronic office equipment causing wrist and arm injuries. Many companies have addressed chemical and toxic hazards,

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but problems still occur, as evidenced by the Verla International factory explosions and the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. The complexity of current safety and health conditions mirrors the complexities associated with modern workplace technology. Practitioners in this profession must develop the broad range of knowledge and skills necessary to ensure the protection of people and company resources. This knowledge base must include a well-grounded understanding of the terms and concepts used in the profession. In addition, occupational safety and health professionals must possess the skills required to effectively perform their roles and responsibilities in safety, health, and environmental arenas. The ability to effectively advise management on needed changes and provide a strong rationale for those changes may also require knowledge of accounting and sound business practices. Specialized knowledge may also be needed to address the hazards associated with work in specific industries or locations. The Covid19 pandemic, resulting in significant business and economic chaos provides evidence of the need for specific knowledge in a given area to effectively address and mitigate previously unknown hazards.

TERMS AND CONCEPTS IN THE SAFETY PROFESSION Safety professionals are concerned with the preservation of people and company resources. They need the knowledge and skills often acquired through formal education and/or experience in the safety field. Many safety professionals are certified after successfully completing the requirements for the designations “Certified Safety Professional” (CSP), “Certified Industrial Hygienist” (CIH), or others related to occupational safety and health. In order to achieve these designations, safety professionals must have a number of years of experience in the field and undergo a rigorous examination process for each. Safety professionals attempt to achieve their loss-prevention goals through the systematic application of principles taken from a variety of disciplines including engineering, education, psychology, physiology, industrial hygiene, health physics, business, and management. Safety professionals are concerned with the elimination or control of hazards that may result in injury, illness, and property damage. They will often use techniques referred to as loss prevention and loss control to accomplish that goal. Loss prevention describes a program designed to identify and correct potential accident problems before they result in financial loss or injury. Loss control, on the other hand, is a program designed to minimize incident-based financial losses. An example of the difference between loss prevention and loss control can be seen in the various activities associated with a fire protection and prevention program.

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In a fire prevention program, employees can be trained to inspect their areas and remove combustible materials like oily rags or cardboard. These inspection activities are examples of loss prevention. A fire protection program, on the other hand, might include employee training in the use of fire extinguishers. Employees will then possess the skills necessary to fight a fire. The fire might ignite, but following training, employees will be prepared to extinguish it and thus minimize the damage. Fire extinguisher training is an example of a loss-control technique. Loss prevention and loss control are important to the safety professional who attempts to recognize, evaluate, and control hazards in the workplace. This is part of the process referred to as “safety management.” Safety management encompasses the responsibilities of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling activities necessary to achieve an organization’s loss-prevention and loss-control goals. Continuing the fire example, the safety professional might wish to establish a safety management program to address this danger. Safety professionals determine the problems that exist at their facility. They then establish the details of the fire-training program with goals and objectives of what is to be accomplished (planning). Next, they determine the trainers and materials necessary to implement the program by establishing a schedule to ensure all activities are accomplished (organizing). Safety professionals must then ensure the required resources are available, and the people involved in this project coordinate their efforts when required (leading). Finally, the professionals monitor and evaluate the progress of the project (controlling). All of this is done with the endorsement and engagement of the management team. A more detailed examination of the management of the safety function is provided in chapter 10. One of the most important terms used in the safety and health profession is “safety.” It is probably the most misinterpreted term by individuals outside of the safety profession. For the layperson, safety means not getting injured. “Safety,” to the professional, implies reference to risk that a loss event will occur. It can be defined as “operating within an acceptable or low probability of risk associated with conditions or activities having the potential to cause harm to people, equipment, facilities or the enterprise.” Although the goal of a company may be to eliminate all loss events and have zero losses in the workplace, this can only be done through the elimination of all activities and all work. Nearly any activity carries some level of risk, and exposure to that risk is inherent in engaging in the activity. The safety professional attempts to minimize the risk, but the law of large numbers dictates that exposure to enough risks enough times will eventually and necessarily lead to loss. The role of the safety professional is to minimize loss, but it must be recognized that, in general, losses cannot be completely eliminated.

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Risk is defined as the measure of the probability and severity of a loss event taking place. A hazard is a workplace condition or worker action that can or has the potential to result in injury, illness, property damage, or interruption of a process or an activity. As revealed in these definitions, determining occupational risk requires an examination of both the probability of occurrence of a hazard that may cause injury and/or property damage and the severity of the resulting injury or loss. ALARP is a common term used relative to risk. It refers to “as low as reasonably practicable.” Since risk cannot be eliminated, every effort is made to lower it to a reasonably practicable point. Another common, related term is ALARA—”as low as reasonably achievable.” The idea is essentially the same. Although risk cannot be eliminated, it can be reduced to a reasonable level. Generally, “reasonable” is determined based on cost benefit. The benefit of further lowering the risk must be greater than the cost. At some point, additional lowering of risk isn’t worth the additional dollars or effort. A similar concept is the “marginal cost of perfection” (Henderson, 2011). Perfection or complete elimination of risk from any activity is not generally achievable without eliminating the activity altogether. The evaluation of risks in the workplace starts with the identification of the types of hazards existing at the facility. Establishing a process to ensure hazards are identified is a primary goal of a progressive organization with a strong, safety-management program. The organization then works to eliminate or reduce the risks associated with those hazards to the lowest achievable and reasonable level. Nothing is risk-free. Safety professionals identify the tasks and activities having the greatest inherent risk. They then attempt to systematically eliminate or reduce the levels of risk as much as feasibly possible given time, personnel, and budget constraints. A detailed discussion about risk assessment is presented in chapter 5, “Accident Causation and Investigation: Theory and Application.” The control of risk ultimately leads to the reduction of losses. There are several different types of losses safety professionals attempt to eliminate or control, including worker-related health and safety losses—injuries, illnesses, and fatalities. Workplace losses can consist of damaged equipment, damaged raw materials or finished products, damaged or destroyed facilities, downtime, service/production interruption, or loss of reputation. Most of this loss occurs as a result of accidents. While many consider accidents to be events occurring beyond an individual’s control, safety professionals look at accidents in a more systematic and determined manner. Accidents are unplanned events, often resulting in injuries or damage that interrupt routine operations. They are nearly always preceded by unsafe acts of employees, hazardous conditions in the workplace, or both. When appropriate action is taken, most accidents can be eliminated.

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JOB TITLES OF INDIVIDUALS PERFORMING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACTIVITIES There are many titles given to individuals who perform occupational safety and health activities. The following list describes just a few of those titles: Industrial Hygienist: Although basically trained in engineering, physics, chemistry, or biology, this individual has acquired, through study and experience, knowledge of the effects on health of chemical and physical agents under various levels of exposure. The industrial hygienist is involved in the monitoring and analytical methods required to detect the extent of exposure and the engineering and other methods used for hazard control. This individual may also have earned the status of CIH from the American Board of Industrial Hygiene (ABIH). Risk Manager:  The risk manager in an organization is typically responsible for insurance programs and other activities that minimize losses resulting from fire, accidents, and other natural and man-made losses. Safety Professional:  An individual who, by virtue of specialized knowledge and skill and/or educational accomplishments, has achieved professional status in the safety field. This individual may also have earned the status of CSP from the Board of Certified Safety Professionals. Safety Engineer:  An individual who, through education, licensing, and/or experience, devotes most or all of employment time to the application of scientific principles and methods for the control and modification of the workplace and other environments to achieve optimum protection for both people and property. Safety Manager:  The individual responsible for establishing and maintaining the safety organization and its activities in an enterprise. Typically, the safety manager administers the safety program and manages subordinates, including the fire prevention coordinator, industrial hygienist, safety specialists, and security personnel.

THE SAFETY AND HEALTH PROFESSIONAL’S ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITY The specific roles and responsibilities of safety professionals depend upon the jobs in which they are employed or the types of hazards present where they work. Kohn, Timmons, and Besesi (1991) examined the roles and responsibilities of safety professionals and identified the following activities as those most frequently performed: Accident Investigation:  determining the facts and causes related to an accident based on witness interviews and site inspections.

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Work with Emergency Response Teams:  organizing, training, and coordinating skilled employees to react to emergencies such as fires, accidents, or other disasters. Environmental Protection: recognizing, evaluating, and controlling hazards that can lead to undesirable releases of harmful substances into air, water, or soil. Ergonomic Analysis and Modification: designing or modifying the workplace based on an understanding of human physiological/psychological characteristics, abilities, and limitations. Fire Protection:  eliminating or minimizing fire hazards by inspection, layout of facilities, and design of fire suppression systems. Hazard Recognition:  identifying conditions or actions that may cause injury, illness, or property damage. Hazardous Materials Management: ensuring dangerous chemicals and other products are stored and used in such a manner as to prevent accidents, fires, and the exposure of people to these substances. Health Hazard Control:  recognizing, evaluating, and controlling hazards that can create undesirable health effects, including noise, chemical exposures, radiation, or biological hazards. Inspection/Audit:  evaluating/assessing safety and health risks associated with equipment, materials, processes, or activities. Inspections and audits differ. A more detailed explanation is provided in chapter 10. Recordkeeping:  maintaining safety and health information to meet government requirements and provide data for problem-solving and decision-making. Regulatory Compliance:  ensuring all mandatory safety and health standards are satisfied. Training:  providing employees with the knowledge and skills necessary to recognize hazards and perform their jobs safely and effectively.

In today’s safety environment, safety professionals may also find themselves heavily involved in such issues as security in the workplace, as was the case on 9/11 and more recently at the FedEx facility in Indianapolis and natural disaster management including weather-related events and earthquakes. While these lists provide examples of specific activities performed by the safety professional, the American Society of Safety Professionals (ASSP), has published a document titled “Scope and Functions of the Professional Safety Position.” This publication presents a broad picture of the safety professional’s roles and responsibilities (see figure 1.1). A key consideration may be the geographic location of the safety professional. Not only are there safety professionals working in the United States, but there are positions for them in other countries, as well. International projects are increasing, as is the number of companies operating outside the United States. As a result, safety professionals must now adapt to the

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Figure 1.1  ASSE Scope and Functions of the Professional Safety Position

Introduction to Occupational Safety and Health

Figure 1.1  (Continued)

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Figure 1.1  (Continued)

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Figure 1.1 

(Continued)

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Figure 1.1  (Continued)

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appropriate cultures (American Society of Safety Engineers Foundation & Board of Certified Safety Professionals, 2007). According to the International Labour Organization (ILO, 2021), there are more than 2.3 million deaths per year, as a result of work-related accidents or diseases. There are more than 340 million occupational accidents and 160 million victims of work-related illnesses occurring annually. In 2017, the total cost of illnesses, injuries, and deaths was 3.94 percent of the global GDP, or $2.99 trillion (ILO, 2017). Currently, there is no common, international set of laws or regulations governing practice by safety professionals as they move from country to country. With increasing numbers of multinational organizations, and a growing number of safety professionals working abroad, guidance, beyond compliance with the US Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs) is needed for these international safety practitioners. According to Kathy Seabrook (2017, October), president of Global Solutions and former president of the ASSP, there are certain assumptions safety practitioners considering working outside of the United States must consider: • Each country has its own compliance requirements. These requirements may and likely will differ from OSHA requirements in the United States. • Safety professionals need to understand how the country’s regulatory agency interacts with organizations in the country. For example, in Western Australia, surprise inspections can be expected, as in the United States. This may differ by country, and working professionals need to understand how they work. • Each country’s injury reporting and workers’ compensation programs are very different. • US regulations tend to be more prescriptive than regulations in many other countries. For example, European regulations tend to be more performance-oriented. • Countries usually build their regulations based on historical relationships. Those closer to the United States will typically model after OSHA. Those historically linked to the United Kingdom or Europe tend to go in their respective directions. China is placing increasing emphasis on construction regulations. • It is important to understand the specific culture of the workers in the country where operations are occurring. • The next big thing in terms of OSH regulations or guidance will be on psychosocial risks. There is increasing emphasis in Europe, and this is expected to make its way to the United States. • Sustainability is another major push in terms of safety guidance. It is expected to have more increasing influence on safety guidance and regulations.

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• VPP is not a management system. It can be incorporated into one. A system is important for training and various operations. • ISO 45001 is on the horizon. It will likely provide the primary guidance toward establishment of a safety management system on a worldwide basis. • The primary demand for safety jobs appears to be those related to occupational safety. From a general industry perspective, a leader in establishing standards for overall safety and health guidance is the ILO. The ILO brings together governments, employers, and worker representatives from 187 member states. Their aim is to promote rights at work, encourage decent employment opportunities, enhance social protection, and strengthen dialogue on work-related issues. The ILO has established a model code of safety regulations for industrial establishments for the guidance of both governments and industry. Most of their member countries have adopted the International Labor Standards. In any location of operation, a key consideration is safety ethics. SAFETY AND ETHICS: DO YOU? DON’T YOU? Dr. Michael O’Toole Background Acme Engineering specializes in the design and manufacture of custom equipment and facilities. Over the years, the company has gravitated toward designing and making equipment and facilities used in the manufacture of building products. The company has an excellent reputation, and is considered the best in its field. Due to the global recession, business over the past several years has been slow. Profits have stagnated and talks of potential layoffs are now taking place. Recently, the sales department received a Request for Proposal (RFP) from a foreign company based in a third-world country. The RFP calls for design of engineering drawings of a high-speed facility specializing in residentialhousing building products. Only drawings and specifications are required; another business will actually build and operate the facility. Once complete, the design project will generate approximately $50 million in needed revenues for Acme. Due to its strong, worldwide reputation, Acme is the only company receiving the RFP. A team is assembled to ensure requirements of the proposal can be met in the specified time. In discussions one of the team members (Tom) questions the fact that, due to the geology of the region where the plant will be built, there are no sources

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of raw materials readily available. The only option is to rely on recycled sources from a local salvage company. Unfortunately, the recycled material is slightly radioactive. The amount of radiation generated is just below EPA legal standards for similar products found in the United States. The Acme legal department begins a review of applicable laws and regulations and finds there are no parallel regulations in the country where the materials are to be produced and used, and since Acme is not going to build or operate the plant, there is no apparent company liability. Tom’s concern is that Acme would not even consider engaging in the design of this plant if it were to be built in the United States. Others on the team sympathize with Tom’s position, but point out several key issues: • Acme is not going to build or operate the plant. • There are no laws or regulations prohibiting the manufacture and use of these products in the foreign country. • If Acme turns down the proposal, a competitor will step up to the plate and gladly take the $50 million. • Acme desperately needs the influx of funds. Tom seeks the assistance of an epidemiologist to estimate what, if any, adverse health effects might be generated by houses built with products made from the waste material. After careful research and calculation, the epidemiologist estimates there will likely be 28–30 excess lung cancer deaths occurring 35–40 years after construction. The committee cannot come to consensus, but all notes are sent to the company’s top executives. After careful consideration of the facts and arguments, the executive group decides not to go forward with submission of a proposal. The decision is based on several key issues, including the fact that the company is not willing to provide the designs, if the plant is to be built in the United States. Additionally, none of the executive group will consider having any of their own family members living in a house constructed with the recycled material. When contacted by the foreign company, none of the company’s competitors steps up to submit a proposal. The plant is never built, so the necessary building products are imported from another location with safe sources for the raw materials. Business Ethics There are those who define ethics as a moral thermometer of right and wrong; that is, there are no absolutes, but the extremes are clearly understood. In most cases it is really only the actions at the “wrong” end of the thermometer

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that are truly of concern. The real challenge for societies, companies, and individuals is that there is often no one clear definition of right and wrong. On an individual level, decisions about right and wrong derive from family, church, schools, community, and government. All of these impact the development of the individual belief systems and moral guideposts, and they ultimately influence behaviors. These same factors influence how organizations address or fail to address ethical practices. Organizations are the sum of the parts; that is, the individuals who are members of any given organization influence the ethical standards of that organization. Most societies have certain expectations for the way its members conduct themselves in given circumstances. These social behaviors or expectations are based on the shared belief systems of the group as a whole. Because of the diversity in any community or organization there are also differences in expected social norms or ethical behavior. This often results in conflicts and contrary interests that generate ethical dilemmas. Within this context, management operates and attempts to effectively utilize resources (i.e., time, money, and personnel) to generate a profit and/or meet shareholder expectations. Since these resources are not unlimited, managers are forced to make difficult decisions on how and where to expend them. In the case study, management considered maximizing profits, while insulating themselves from legal liability. The issue, when examined under the legal microscope, gave a clear signal that no laws were being violated; however, when placed under the ethical microscope, the impact of their decision became clearly a moral one. Outside observers would likely agree that the managers ultimately made the right decision, even though it was not easy to make in considering potential financial profits to be reaped by the company. So how does one apply the ethical thermometer as a guide for decisions? • Consider the saying, “If it sounds like the deal is too good to be true, it probably is.” One needs to carefully check the facts to ensure everything is in order and above board. • Look at how the decision or choice will appear in the “light of day” The decision may eventually become front-page news in the local paper or on the national news. How will it be perceived by the other professionals and the public at large? • Attempt to remove the emotion and make the decision as objectively as possible. Weigh the pros and cons in light of both the legal and moral consequences. How will the results of the decision affect not only you and your company but the company constituents, the general public, the environment, and anyone else who may be impacted.

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• Lastly, review the guidelines of such organizations as the Board of Certified Safety Professionals. Compare your decision to those guidelines, and see if it stands up against careful scrutiny. Assume you are one of six purchasing agents for a manufacturing company. You all deal with many vendors to order raw materials and supplies at the lowest cost and highest quality for your company. One day you receive a call from a vendor you and several other agents deal with on a regular basis. The vendor invites you and another person of your choice to their company’s exclusive hunting lodge, all expenses paid. The contact suggests you keep this customer-goodwill trip to yourself; none of your peers have been invited. In this case, several question needs to be asked: Does this seem too good to be true? Why are they offering it to me and no one else? How will I feel if others find out about this? What are the pros and cons of making this decision and how will it affect others, including my employer? Others also include my coworkers, my boss, my subordinate, and even my competitors. Is this ethical in light of corporate purchasing guidelines and other professional guidance that may be available? It should become clear in this simple example that the vendor is trying to curry favor with the purchasing agent to ensure continued and future sales. The issue of customer goodwill is nothing more than a bribe to keep and solidify business. How would it make others feel about me? Would this objectively be considered ethical or unethical? So, what is a businesses expected to do to ensure ethical behavior by and to their employees? In the global economy and multinational corporations, executives are responsible for a very diverse workforce with differing values and beliefs as to what is considered right and wrong. It is critical that each business establish an ethics policy to help guide and clarify the expected behaviors of managers and employees in business dealings. The policy needs to address not only areas of general business practices, but also expectations for dealings with customers, vendors, and its employees. The ethics policies will establish broad boundaries and provide important guideposts so employees can act within the expectations of their organization. Early approaches to establishing ethics policies simply stated that all employees are expected to obey the laws that apply to their business dealings. This can be an important beginning, but the example presented earlier demonstrates that meeting the “legal” standards may not be sufficient to address ethical standards for the same activity or behavior. Here is a sample of a corporate ethics policy to further clarify this issue:

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BOREALIS CORPORATE ETHICS STATEMENT Borealis Exploration Limited and all subsidiary companies within the Borealis Group abide as a matter of policy by the following principles: 1. Borealis values integrity and honesty in its business dealings. Borealis personnel are encouraged to be truthful and trustworthy in their dealings with customers, clients, and associates. Borealis honors contractual obligations and does not knowingly break agreements or seek to manipulate their sense to the detriment of other parties. 2. Borealis is an equal opportunity employer. 3. Borealis regards its employees and consultants as valued members of the extended family of “Borealis people.” As such, employees and consultants are encouraged to participate fully in all aspects of company activity, and are encouraged to bring any and all concerns about their work to senior management without fear of reprisal. 4. Borealis regards its shareholders and customers as valued members of the extended family of “Borealis people.” As such, Borealis welcomes the advice and input of shareholders and customers in all relevant business activities. 5. Borealis operates in many different countries of the world and under many different jurisdictions. Borealis respects the laws and customs of the regions in which it operates, and does not knowingly offend against them. 6. Borealis makes extensive use of the Internet to conduct business. Borealis is opposed to the use of censorship or other forms of Government regulation to control the Internet, and supports efforts to create a viable self-regulatory structure which protects the vulnerable from abusive material while retaining the ability to freely exchange information. 7. Borealis respects and values the natural environment and does not knowingly damage or pollute those natural resources which are the heritage of all. In all activities where environmental issues are of concern, Borealis seeks at all times to minimize environmental damage and to work closely with Governmental agencies and local sensibilities to ensure this. 8. Borealis believes in making as much information about the company available to the public as is consistent with good business practice and obligations to third parties. Information so published is, to the best knowledge of the company, truthful and an honest representation of the opinions of Borealis management.

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The American Board of Industrial Hygiene Code of Ethics can be found at http://www​.abih​.org​/sites​/default​/files​/downloads​/ABIHCodeofEthics​.pdf The American Society of Safety Professionals Code of Professional Conduct can be found at https://www​.assp​.org​/about​/society​-bylaws​-and​-guidelines​ /code​-of​-conduct The Board of Certified Safety Professionals Code of Ethics can be found at https://www​.bcsp​.org​/Portals​/0​/Assets​/DocumentLibrary​/BCSPcodeofethics​.pdf CONCLUSION The current occupational safety and health profession has its roots in the beginnings of industrial society. Concerns regarding the protection of human health, safety, and property form the basis for the profession. Chapters of this textbook will address, in greater detail, the basic knowledge and skills critical for the successful implementation of a sound occupational safety management program. In every job the application of knowledge and skills must always be guided by ethics and integrity. QUESTIONS 1. Why does it make good business sense to have a good safety program? List four reasons. 2. Do you think most working individuals are concerned with occupational safety and health issues? Why? 3. Why is it useful to study historical occupational safety and health events? 4. What is your definition of the term safety? How does it differ from the professional definition of this term? 5. Why are zero accidents believed by many to be an unrealistic goal— particularly in a large workplace? 6. Explain the criticality of ethics in the safety and health professions. Why are they essential to those professions? REFERENCES American Society of Safety Engineers. (2002). Scope and Functions of the Professional Safety Position. Des Plaines, IL: Author. See www​.ASSE​.org.

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“Brief History.” Safety Line Institute. (1998). http://www​.safetyline​.wa​.gov​.au​/institute​/level2/ course16/lecture43/l43​_02​.a​sp. Kohn, J. P., Timmons, D. L., & Besesi, M. (1991). Occupational health and safety professionals: Who are we? What do we do? Professional Safety 36, 1.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Abercrombie, S. A. (1981). Dictionary of Terms Used in the Safety Profession. Park Ridge, IL: American Society of Safety Engineers. American Society of Safety Engineers Foundation & Board of Certified Safety Professionals. (2007). Career Guide to the Safety Profession. Retrieved from https:// www​.bcsp​.org​/Portals​/0​/Assets​/PDF​/2007​_Career​_Guide​.pdf. Borealis Exploration Limited. Corporate Ethics Statement. Retrieved January 20, 2010, from http://www​.borealis​.com​/investor​/ethics​.shtml. DeReamer, R. (1980). Modern Safety and Health Technology. New York: Wiley & Sons, Inc. Grimaldi, J. V., & Simonds, R. H. (1975). Safety Management (3rd ed.). Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, Inc. Henderson, D. (2011). The marginal cost of perfection. Library of Economics and Liberty. Retrieved from http://econlog​.econlib​.org​/archives​/2011​/12​/in​_my​_executive​.html. International Labour Organization (ILO). (2021). World Statistic. Retrieved from https://www ​ . ilo ​ . org​ / moscow​ / areas​ - of​ - work​ / occupational ​ - safety ​ - and ​ - health ​ / WCMS​_249278​/lang-​-en​/index​.htm. International Labour Organization (ILO). (2017). ILO: Global cost of work-related injuries and deaths totals almost $3 trillion. Safety + Health. Retrieved from http://www​.saf​etya​ndhe​alth​magazine​.com​/articles​/16112​-ilo​-global​-cost​-of​-work​ -related​-injuries​-and​-deaths​-totals​-almost​-3​-trillion. National Safety Council. (2001). Injury Facts. Itasca, IL: Author. Samuel Pepys Diary Home Page. (2002). Retrieved from http://www​.pepys​.info​/fire​ .html. Seabrook, K. (2017, October 31). Telephone interview.

Chapter 2

Safety Legislation

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to • explain the history of safety and health legislation; • understand the OSHAct of 1970; • identify the origins of Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards; • know the specific requirements of the Act; and • understand the OSHA inspections and resultant actions. CASE STUDY When his machine shop was inspected, Eric Smith was shocked. With only five employees, Eric thought he was exempt from OSHA inspections. He was even more surprised to learn that one of his employees had complained. After a careful investigation, Eric learned the name of the complainant and nearly fired him. Eric’s attorney informed him that retaliatory action against an employee for exercising his rights under OSHA regulations is illegal. LEGISLATIVE HISTORY The history of occupational safety and health has been dominated by legislation. Governments have observed problems and have attempted to solve those problems through the enactment of laws. In this country, the regulations 25

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eventually resulted in the passage of the OSHAct in 1970. Since its passage, numerous modifications to the Act have increased its applicability. The eye-for-an-eye principle dominated early attempts to legislate safety. The government effort to encourage safer workplaces first revolved around punishing the wrongdoer. This concept pervaded Babylonian law over 4,000 years ago and was a forerunner to the famous Code of Hammurabi, which was written in 2100 BCE, during the 30th year of his reign. The code required shipbuilders to repair defects of construction and damage caused by those defects for one year following delivery. Ship captains were required to replace goods lost at sea and to pay a fine equal to half the value of any lost ships that were refloated. If someone other than the master injured a slave, the master received compensation for the loss. Carelessness and neglect were considered unacceptable for skilled workers and professionals. Losses caused by errors on the part of these early professionals were punished, using the eye-for-an-eye concept that is also found in the Old Testament. A physician whose mistakes led to the loss of a citizen’s life could find his hands cut off, or a builder could have his own child killed if his shoddy work led to the loss of another’s child. From the time of Hammurabi and his contemporaries, little is known about attempts to legislate safety until after the Dark Ages. Early industrial plants were little more than a series of traps consisting of open machinery and unguarded moving equipment capable of maiming or killing a worker in seconds. The British developed their laws out of concern for children (Grimaldi & Simonds, 1989). In the United States, the 1800s brought about a number of tragedies that met with little government response. As media coverage became widespread and information became more accessible through books, newspapers and magazines, American citizens began to expect and demand their government provide protection from employers. This reactive pattern continued as concern for occupational safety and health grew. When public outcries about disasters and outrageous actions of employers became strong enough to overcome the influence exerted by employers on early legislatures, laws were enacted to protect the workers. Much of the early legislation was reactive; laws were often a response to specific tragedies. The following is a review of significant events in the development of safety and health in the 1900s: In 1903, a fire roared through Chicago’s Iroquois Theater, killing 602 people. The fire engulfed the stage almost immediately. As the audience panicked, flames swept across the perimeter of the auditorium and finally to the seats themselves. Fire exits were few and poorly marked. The iron pillars became red hot and eventually melted.

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In Monongah, a sleepy West Virginia town in the hills of Appalachia, 362 coal miners were killed in 1907. Nearly every family in the town was affected by the disaster, but little was done for the survivors. The Pittsburgh Survey (1907–1908) was a 12-month study in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, sponsored by the Russell Sage Foundation. It found there were 526 occupational fatalities in one year. Survivors and the workers themselves were forced to carry the cost of losses. When the breadwinners were gone, there was no further compensation of any kind. Employer incentives to reduce safety and health risks for workers were called for. In 1910, the US Bureau of Mines was created by the Department of the Interior to investigate the causes of mine accidents, study health hazards, and find means for taking corrective action. A fire gutted a new structure in the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory in New York City. This 1911 tragedy killed 145 workers, whose escape was prevented due to the employer’s locking of the exits against theft. Later that year the United Association of Casualty Inspectors, which later became the American Society of Safety Engineers and eventually the American Society of Safety Professionals, was founded in in New York City (American Society of Safety Engineers, 2016). In 1911, Wisconsin passed the first successful workers’ compensation plan in the United States, and by 1948 every state had followed suit. The first National Safety Congress convened in 1912 and it led to the formation of the National Safety Council in 1913. The Safety to Life Committee, formed by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) in 1913, eventually led to the development of the Life Safety Code. In 1935, Roosevelt’s New Deal included the passage of legislation that mandated a 40-hour workweek. The Walsh-Healey Public Contracts Act of 1936 banned hazardous work done under federal contracts larger than $10,000. This act was a forerunner of the OSHAct. In 1968, 78 coal miners were killed in Farmington, West Virginia, when an explosion ripped through the Consolidated Coal Company Mine. Only a few miles from the infamous Monongah site, this disaster devastated the whole community. A town, a state, and a nation were outraged and called for federal intervention into the conditions killing citizens in the workplace. The Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 was passed 72–0 in the US Senate, establishing the Mine Enforcement Safety Administration (MESA), later known as the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). MSHA governs safety within the mines as OSHA does for general industry and construction (discussed below).

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In 1970, the Williams-Steiger (Occupational Safety and Health) Act was passed, establishing the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Prior to the establishment of OSHA, the responsibility for occupational safety and health rested primarily with state governments.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT Although more than 90 million Americans were working in 1970, no uniform and comprehensive provisions existed for their protection against workplace safety and health hazards. In 1970, Congress considered annual figures such as these: • Job-related accidents accounted for more than 14,000 worker deaths annually. • Nearly 2.2 million workers were disabled. • Ten times as many person-days were lost from job-related disabilities. • Estimated new cases of occupational diseases totaled 300,000. The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHAct) of 1970 was passed by Congress “to assure so far as possible every working man and woman in the Nation safe and healthful working conditions and to preserve our human resources” (United States Department of Labor [US DOL], 1995). Under the Act, the OSHA was created within the Department of Labor to • encourage employers and employees to reduce workplace hazards and to implement new or improve existing safety and health programs; • provide for research in occupational safety and health to develop innovative ways of dealing with occupational safety and health problems; • establish separate but dependent responsibilities and rights for employers and employees for the achievement of better safety and health conditions (US DOL, 1991). Maintain a reporting and recordkeeping system to monitor job-related injuries and illnesses; • establish training programs to increase the number and competence of occupational safety and health personnel; • develop mandatory job safety and health standards and enforce them effectively; and • provide for the development, analysis, evaluation, and approval of state occupational safety and health programs (OSHA Training Institute [OSHATI], 1994, chap. 1).

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WHO IS COVERED? In general, the coverage of the Act extends to all employers and their employees in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and all other territories under federal government jurisdiction. Coverage is provided either directly by federal OSHA or through an OSHA-approved state program. As defined by the Act, an employer is any “person engaged in a business affecting commerce who has employees, but does not include the United States or any State or political subdivision of a State” (US DOL, 1995, p. 3). The following are not covered under the Act: • Self-employed persons. • Farms at which only immediate members of the farm employer’s family are employed. • Workplaces already protected by other federal agencies under other federal statutes (US DOL, 1995). Under the Act, federal agency heads are responsible for providing safe and healthful working conditions for their employees. The Act requires agencies to comply with standards consistent with those OSHA issues for privatesector employers. OSHA conducts federal workplace inspections in response to employees’ reports of hazards and as part of a special program identifying federal workplaces with higher-than-average rates of injuries and illnesses (OSHATI, 1994, chap. 1). OSHA cannot fine another federal agency for failure to comply with OSHA standards, and it does not have authority to protect federal employee whistleblowers. Federal employee whistleblowers are protected under the Whistleblower Protection Act of 1989 (OSHATI, 1994, chap. 1). OSHA provisions do not apply to state or local government employees. The Act requires states desiring approval to maintain their own programs to provide safety and health coverage for their own state and local government workers that is at least as effective as their programs for private employees. State plans may also cover only public-sector employees. Unfortunately, for state and municipal employees in states not having their own programs, unless the state has provided otherwise, no governmental protection exists for the employees. For example, Florida has no state plan of its own. Florida employees are covered by Federal OSHA but Florida state, county, and municipal employees have no coverage by the OSHA. Unless other provisions have been made for specific groups of employees, that is, employees of a particular municipality, they effectively have no coverage. On the other hand, state and local government workers who work in one of 22 states and territories with OSHA-approved state programs; and public-sector employees

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in Connecticut, Illinois, Maine, New Jersey, New York, and the US Virgin Islands are covered by OSHA (U.S. Department of Labor [USDOL], n.d.a). Although OSHA applies to federal government employees, and requires federal agencies to provide safe and healthful places of employment, OSHA does not have the authority to fine another federal government agency. Compliance issues raised at a lower organizational level are raised to a higher level until resolved. Only employers of 11 or more individuals are required to maintain records of occupational injuries and illnesses. OSHA recordkeeping is not required for certain retail trades and some service industries. Even though employers of ten or fewer employees are exempt from recordkeeping, they must still comply with the other OSHA standards, including the requirement to display the OSHA poster. OSHA STANDARDS OSHA standards fall into four categories: General Industry, Maritime, Construction, and Agriculture. The standards are available in the following volumes: Volume I: General Industry Standards and Interpretations (includes Agriculture) Volume II: Maritime Standards Volume III: Construction Standards Volume IV: Other Regulations and Procedures Volume V: Field Operations Manual Volume VI: OSHA Technical Manual These are available from the Superintendent of Documents, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402 and commercial publishers. Because some states adopt and enforce their own standards, copies of those may be obtained from the individual states. ORIGIN OF OSHA STANDARDS Initially, the OSHA standards were taken from three sources: consensus standards, proprietary standards, and federal laws in effect when the Act became law (OSHATI, 1994, chap. 2). Consensus standards are developed by industry-wide, standard-developing organizations discussed and substantially agreed on through consensus by

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industry. OSHA has incorporated standards of the two primary standards groups, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the NFPA. For example, ANSI Standard B56.1-1969, Standard for Powered Industrial Trucks, covers the safety requirements relating to the elements of design, operation, and maintenance of powered industrial trucks. Proprietary standards are prepared by professional experts within specific industries, professional societies, and associations. These standards are determined by membership vote, as opposed to consensus. An example of these would be the Compressed Gas Association’s Pamphlet P-1, Safe Handling of Compressed Gases. This proprietary standard covers requirements for the handling, storage, and use of compressed gas cylinders (OSHATI, 1994, chap. 2). Some preexisting federal laws are also enforced by OSHA, including the Federal Supply Contracts Act (Walsh Healey) and the Contract Work Hours and Safety Standards Act (Construction Safety Act). Standards issued under these acts are now enforced in all industries where they apply (OSHATI, 1994, chap. 2). When the OSHAct was first passed, much criticism stemmed from the fact that the legislation was a hodgepodge of rules of thumb and guidelines never intended to be made into laws. Since the passage of the Act, many of the trivial regulations have been changed or eliminated in an attempt to make it a more reasonable standard for workplace performance. Horizontal and Vertical Standards Standards are referred to as being either horizontal or vertical in their application. Most standards are horizontal or general in that they apply to any employer. Standards relating to fire protection or first aid are examples of horizontal standards (OSHATI, 1994, chap. 2). Some standards are relevant only to a particular industry, and are called vertical or particular standards. Examples are standards that apply to longshoring or the construction industry. FINDING THE OSHA ACT The OSHAct appears in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 29. It is divided into the subparts noted in Appendixes A and B. Each subpart addresses a different major topical area. These areas include such items as Subpart D, Walking-Working Surfaces. This subpart appears in 1910.21– 1910.32. Subpart E. Means of Egress, follows in 1910.35–1910.70. Each subpart is further broken down so that when one looks under Subpart E, one will find the subsection 1910.37, Means of Egress, general. The reader can

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turn to that section to see an explanation of means of egress and find the section broken down even further. References to specific standards are typically found as follows: 29 CFR 1910.110(b)(13)(ii)(b)(7)(iii) indicates that the specific standard in question appears in: • Title 29 • Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) • Part 1910 • Section 110 Subsections appear first as lowercase letters, numbers, and Roman numerals. Subsections of subsections appear as italicized, lowercase letters, numbers, and Roman numerals (OSHATI, 1994, chap. 2). Many universities and public libraries carry copies of the CFR. They are also available from the Superintendent of Documents in Washington and from Government Institutes, Inc. OSHA standards are also available online at http://www​.osha​.gov. This site also contains other useful information, including standards interpretations, downloadable OSHA posters, recordkeeping instructions, and compliance assistance. The Codes of Federal Regulations for General Industry, Construction, Maritime, and Agriculture can be found on the OSHA website at osha​.gov​/a​​-z. SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS OF THE ACT Employers are responsible for knowing the standards applicable to their establishments. When an OSHA inspection is performed, the assumption made is that the employer is aware of the law and has already attempted to comply with it. Any violations are subject to corrective legal action, typically consisting of fines. Employees must also comply with all rules and regulations applicable to their own actions and conduct, but it is the employer’s responsibility to ensure employee compliance. Citations for noncompliance are issued to the employer. For cases involving criminal intent, OSHA may turn the files over to the Department of Justice for prosecution, but this course of action is very rarely followed. Where OSHA does not have specific, applicable standards, employers are responsible for following the Act’s general duty clause (Section 5(a)(1). The general duty clause requires every working person be provided with a safe and healthful workplace. It specifically states: “Each employer shall furnish to each of his employees employment and a place of employment which is free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or

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serious physical harm to his employees” (USDOL, 2016). A “recognized hazard” is one that is detectable by the senses or instrumentation, of which there is common knowledge, that is discoverable under usual inspection practices, or of which the employer has knowledge. Incidentally, if the employer has knowledge, an inspector will consider the hazard to be a “willful violation,” and it carries an increased penalty. The general duty clause extends OSHA’s authority beyond the specific requirements of the standards when a recognized workplace hazard actually or potentially exists. It is often used when no specific standard applies to a recognized hazard in the workplace. The general duty clause has been used as the basis for numerous OSHA citations, and millions of dollars are collected as a result of these citations. Few other sections of the OSHA standards (Parts 1910 and 1926) cost more in penalties for OSHA violations than Section 5(a) (1). OSHA may also use the general duty clause when a standard exists, but it is clear that the hazards involved warrant additional precautions beyond what the current safety standards require. EMPLOYER RESPONSIBILITIES AND RIGHTS Aside from providing a workplace free from recognized hazards likely to cause death or serious physical harm, the employer has other responsibilities. An employer must: • examine workplace conditions to make sure they comply with applicable standards; • minimize or reduce hazards; • use color codes, posters, labels, or signs when needed to warn employees of potential hazards; • provide training required by OSHA standards; • keep OSHA-required records; and • provide access to employee medical records and exposure records to employees or their authorized representatives. Employers have the right to seek advice and off-site consultation as needed by writing, calling, or visiting the nearest OSHA office (OSHA, n.d.a). When an inspection visit occurs, the employer must: • be advised by the compliance officer of the reason for the inspection; • accompany the compliance officer on the inspection; and • be assured of the confidentiality of any trade secrets observed by an OSHA compliance officer during an inspection.

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Although OSHA does not cite employees for violations of their responsibilities, each worker is required to comply with all applicable occupational safety and health standards. Employees also have the right to ask for safety and health on the job without fear of punishment. If employees are discriminated against for exercising their rights under the Act, OSHA may take the employer to court with no expense to the employees. Again, this is an OSHA action not often taken. INSPECTIONS To enforce its standards, OSHA is authorized under the Act to conduct workplace inspections. Every establishment covered by the Act is subject to inspection by OSHA compliance safety and health officers who are chosen for their knowledge and experience in the occupational safety and health field. Compliance officers are vigorously trained in OSHA standards and in the recognition of safety and health hazards. Inspections occur as a result of the following priorities established by OSHA: Imminent danger situations are inspected first. Where there is reasonable certainty that an employee is exposed to a hazard likely to cause death or immediate serious physical harm, OSHA will try to respond as soon as possible. OSHA may become alerted to adverse conditions by a complaint or other means (USDOL, n.d.b). Inspectors may see a story on the evening news or may even be driving by a job site where they see an imminent danger situation Severe injuries and illnesses are the second priority. Employers must report all work-related fatalities within 8 hours and all work-related inpatient hospitalizations, amputations, or losses of an eye within 24 hours. Worker complaints, alleging hazards or violation of standards receive the next priority. The employee has the right to remain anonymous to his employer. Referrals of hazards from other federal, state or local agencies, individuals, organizations, or the media receive the next consideration for inspection. Targeted inspections or inspections aimed at specific high-hazard industries or individual workplaces that have experienced high rates of injuries and illnesses also receive priority. Follow-up inspections are given last priority. These are used to determine if previously cited violations have been corrected (OSHA, 2016). INSPECTION PROCESS Inspections are generally conducted without advance notice. In fact, alerting an employer in advance of an OSHA inspection can bring a criminal and/

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or a jail term. If an employer refuses to admit an OSHA compliance officer or if an employer attempts to interfere with the inspection, the Act permits appropriate legal action; however, the employer is legally entitled to request a warrant prior to entry by the compliance officer. Typically, a compliance officer refused entrance to a workplace or access to any part of it returns with a warrant and conducts the inspection as planned. Workplaces with a history of refusing OSHA access can expect the OSHA compliance officer to initiate the inspection with a warrant in hand. Once credentials are presented, the compliance officer will explain in an opening conference why the inspection is being performed and describe the scope of the inspection, walkaround procedures, employee representation, and employee interviews. (OSHA, 2016). Following the conference, the compliance officer usually proceeds to inspect the OSHA records, including the OSHA 300 log. The inspector may also request copies of other required records such as the hazard communication or lockout/tagout programs. A walkaround then takes place. The employer’s representative should accompany the officer and keep a careful record of everything inspected. An authorized representative of the employees also has the right to go along. The compliance officer may speak privately with employees about safety and health conditions, as well as practices in their workplace. When not alone with employees, any comments made by the inspector should be recorded. Split samples should be requested when samples are taken. Copies of any photographs taken should be requested. The compliance officer may inspect the premises before reviewing records, if he or she desires to do so (OSHA, 2016). A closing conference occurs near the end of the visit. During this time, the employer or an employer’s representative should ask questions in order to clearly understand any violations recorded by the compliance officer. The employees’ representative may be present during this conference. No penalties will be assigned at this time (OSHA, 2016).

CITATIONS AND PENALTIES After the compliance officer reports findings, the area director determines what citations, if any, will be issued, and what penalties, if any, will be proposed. Citations inform the employer and employees of the regulations and standards alleged to have been violated and of the proposed length of time set for their abatement. The employer receives the citations and notices of proposed penalties by certified mail within six months of the inspection. The employer must post a copy of each citation at or near the place a violation occurred for three days or until the violation is abated, whichever is longer.

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OSHA may issue any of four types of citations: 1. Citations for willful violations are issued when the employer either knowingly failed to comply with a legal requirement (purposeful disregard) or acted with plain indifference to employee safe. These can be assessed if the employer was aware that a hazardous condition existed and made no reasonable effort to eliminate the condition. The employer need not be guilty of malicious intent to be considered in willful violation. Under OSHA’s penalty structure, the maximum penalty for a willful violation may now exceed $136,000 per violation (OSHA, 2021). The penalties are adjusted annually for inflation. In criminal cases, the evidence is turned over to the Department of Justice for disposition. This rarely occurs. 2. Citations for serious violations are issued when the workplace hazard could cause an accident or illness that would most likely result in death or serious physical harm, unless the employer did not know or could not have known of the violation. Violations of the general duty clause are considered serious. These penalties can exceed $13,600 each. 3. Citations for repeated violations are issued when the agency has been cited previously for the same or a substantially similar condition and, for a serious violation, OSHA’s regionwide inspection history for the agency lists a previous OSHA Notice issued within the past five years; or, for an other-than-serious violation, the establishment being inspected received a previous OSHA Notice issued within the past five years. Penalties may exceed $136,000 per violation and are also adjusted annually for inflation (OSHA, 2021). 4. Citations for other-than-serious violations are issued when a situation would affect safety or health, but there is a small probability of the hazard resulting in death or serious physical harm. There may or may not be a penalty assessed, but the hazard must still be corrected. 5. Repeat violation citations are issued when, upon reinspection, a violation of any standard, regulation, rule, or order where, a substantially similar violation is found and the original citation has become a final order. Violations can bring a fine for more than $136,000 for each violation. Failure to abate within the prescribed period can result in a penalty of more than $13,653 per day for each day beyond the abatement date (OSHA, 2021). It is important to note that the Act also authorizes criminal penalties for certain violations, but as previously mentioned, OSHA rarely pursues this course of action. Penalties may be reduced for employers with less than 251

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employees, good-faith efforts, or a good safety record in the last three years. Penalties for employers governed by state programs may differ. To help prioritize its responses and ease the administrative burdens, OSHA may send a letter requesting the employer conduct its own Rapid Response Investigation (RRI). Within five working days, the company must submit a “root cause analysis” report to OSHA within which it will identify the accident cause and corrective actions taken to prevent future incidents and protect employees. Failing to respond within five working days or to verify corrective measures have been taken may result in an OSHA inspection.

In 1992, a chemical reactor operated by Arcadian Corporation failed. OSHA issued a citation alleging that Arcadian’s operation and maintenance of the reactor violated the general duty clause. It also proposed 87 penalties of $50,000 each, one for each exposed employee, for a total penalty of $4,350,000. In using the number of exposed employees as a multiplier, OSHA was following its so-called “egregious” policy, which instructs enforcement offices that, for violations that are not merely “willful” but “egregious” (a term nowhere used in the Occupational Safety and Health Act). Under the “egregious” approach, a penalty will be proposed as to each exposed employee. OSHA claimed that this was lawful under the General Duty Clause, which states that an employer must furnish safe employment to “each” employee. Arcadian, represented by McDermott, Will, and Emory’s OSHA Practice Group, moved to restrict OSHA to only one proposed penalty on the ground that per-employee penalties are illegal. It argued that various provisions of the OSHAct make clear that a violation is a violative “condition.” An administrative law judge agreed, and the full Commission upheld his decision. OSHA appealed to the Fifth Circuit, whose decision was widely anticipated. Four amici curiae (persons who offer information but are not party to the case) filed briefs, including the US Chamber of Commerce in support of Arcadian and the AFL-CIO in support of OSHA. The Fifth Circuit unanimously upheld the Commission’s decision, holding that OSHA could not multiply penalties by the number of exposed employees under the General Duty Clause. The court held that violations of the General Duty Clause are based on the hazardous condition, not the number of employees affected. The court agreed with Arcadian that the term “each” signifies only “that an employer’s duty extends to all employees, regardless of their

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individual susceptibilities (i.e., age or pregnancy).” (McDermott, Will, and Emory: OSHA Update, June, 1997, http://www​.mwe​.com​/news​/osha0797​ .htm​#arcadian.) The OSHRC further limited the use of OSHA’s per-instance/peremployee “egregious penalty” policy in Secretary of Labor v. Erik K. Ho, Ho Express, Inc., and Houston Fruitland, Inc. The commission concluded that separate, per-employee penalties are appropriate only when the cited standard clearly prescribes conduct unique and specific to individual employees. “For example, it is proper to cite an employer with multiple penalties for each instance of failing to make a proper recordkeeping entry on its OSHA injury and illness logs. On the other hand, such penalties are not permitted where a standard addresses a single work practice to protect against the exposure of multiple employees to a single recognized hazard.” (Gilligan & Morgan, 2004, Jan.1) APPEALS PROCESS Within 15 working days of the receipt of the citation, an employer may submit a written objection to OSHA. Once an inspection takes place, those assigned to receive the citation in the mail for a company need to watch for and turn over any correspondence from OSHA. Companies ignoring the 15-day deadline, or for some other reason failing to meet it, have also missed their right to appeal. Within the 15-day period the employer may contest a citation, a penalty, and/ or an abatement date. An OSHA area director has the authority to make adjustments based on objections. If no agreement can be reached with the director, the objection may be forwarded to the OSHRC, which operates independently of OSHA. Appeals beyond the Commission go through the appeals courts. OSHA-APPROVED STATE PROGRAMS The Act encourages states to develop and operate, under OSHA guidance, state job safety and health plans. Once a state plan is approved, OSHA funds up to 50 percent of the operating costs of the program. State plans are required to provide standards and enforcement programs, as well as voluntary compliance activities at least as effective as the federal program. They must also provide coverage for state and local government employees. In addition, OSHA permits states to develop plans limited to public-sector coverage (state and local government). In such cases, private-sector employment remains under federal jurisdiction. See chapter 20 for a list of state plans.

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STANDARDS DEVELOPMENT Once OSHA has developed plans to propose, amend, or delete a standard, it publishes its intentions in the Federal Register as a notice of proposed rulemaking, or often as an earlier advance notice of proposed rulemaking (US DOL, 1991). The advance notice is to solicit information for use in drafting a proposal. A notice of proposed rulemaking will include the terms of the new rule and provide a specific time for the public to respond. Interested parties who submit written arguments and pertinent evidence may request a public hearing on the proposal when none has been announced in the notice. When such a hearing is requested, OSHA will schedule one, and will publish, in advance, the time and location in the Federal Register. After the close of the comment period and public hearing, if one is heard, OSHA must publish in the Federal Register the full, final text of any standard amended or adopted and the date it becomes effective, along with an explanation of the standard and the reasons for implementing it. OSHA may also publish a determination that no standard or amendment needs to be issued. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS Construction is a hazardous industry and OSHA has recognized those hazards. Construction standards appear in 29 CFR 1926. OSHA has programs giving a high priority to inspection of certain hazards. Refer to chapter 16 on construction safety for more information on focused inspections. NIOSH AND OSHRC The OSHAct also created the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission (OSHRC). NIOSH operates within the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), under the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) to develop occupational safety and health standards for recommendation to the Secretary of Labor and the Secretary of HHS and to fulfill the research and training functions of the Secretary of HHS. It is headquartered in Washington, DC, but carries out many of its functions at its facilities in other locations. It also works through contracts with multiple education and research centers and many training project grantees around the country. These institutions provide research, education, and training in safety and industrial hygiene on behalf of NIOSH.

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The OSHRC is an independent and autonomous quasi-judicial board charged with hearing cases on appeal from OSHA. The president, with the advice and consent of the Senate, appoints its three members. It meets periodically to review cases on appeal. Once the commission hears a case, if either party is dissatisfied, it may appeal through the federal appeals court system. OTHER OSHA PROGRAMS The Safety & Health Achievement Recognition Program (SHARP) works with small business employers who have used OSHA’s On-Site Consultation Program services and operate exemplary safety and health programs. OSHA’s On-Site Consultation Program offers no-cost and confidential occupational safety and health services to small- and medium-sized businesses in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and several US territories, with priority given to high-hazard worksites. Employer participation is limited to those with 250 or fewer on-site employees and less than 500 corporate-wide employees. Companies may request a visit from the on-site consultation office where the OSHA representative will perform a hazard identification survey. Employers then correct the hazards and address OSHA program management guidelines. They are exempt from OSHA-programmed inspections for up to two years with subsequent renewals for up to three years (OSHA, n.d.b). On-Site Consultation services are separate from enforcement and do not result in penalties or citations. Consultants from state agencies or universities work with employers to identify workplace hazards, provide advice for compliance with OSHA standards, and assist in establishing and improving safety and health programs OSHA’s Voluntary Protection Programs (VPP) recognize private companies and federal agencies implementing effective safety and health management systems and maintaining injury and illness rates below national Bureau of Labor Statistics averages for their respective industries. Management, labor, and OSHA work cooperatively and proactively in VPP to prevent fatalities, injuries, and illnesses through a system focused on hazard prevention and control, worksite analysis, training and management commitment, and worker involvement. To participate, employers submit an application to OSHA and undergo on-site evaluation by a team of safety and health professionals. Union support is required for applicants represented by a bargaining unit. VPP participants are reevaluated every three to five years to remain in the programs and are exempt from OSHA-programmed inspections while they maintain their VPP status (OSHA, n.d.c).

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FUTURE TRENDS In 2014 OSHA signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with the US Department of Transportation’s Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) concerning application of certain OSHA standards to aircraft cabin crewmembers while they are onboard aircraft in operation (except for the flight deck crew). The standards concern hazard communication, blood-borne pathogens exposure, and occupational noise exposure. The working conditions addressed by these three standards are the only working conditions subject to OSHA enforcement. FAA will continue to exercise its statutory authority over all other working conditions of aircraft cabin crewmembers while they are on aircraft in operation, and to fully occupy and exhaust the field of flight deck crew occupational safety and health while they are on aircraft in operation. In 2015 the FAA distributed Advisory Circular (AC) 120-92B, Safety Management Systems for Aviation Service Providers, requiring commercial air carriers to implement a Safety Management System (SMS), but the rule is aimed at aviation operational processes only. It is primarily concerned with aircraft accidents, and fails to address the relatively high incidence rate of nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses within the air transportation industry. Additional work needs to be done to integrate safety and health issues into safety efforts across the industry. As the workplace continues to become more complex and OSHA finds that workers are killed or injured in different ways than in the past, the emphasis may shift. Homicide is a primary cause of death for younger workers and for females. NIOSH has carefully studied homicide in the workplace and has produced a number of publications responding to the problem. Another major issue has been that of highway accidents. Employers continue to lose more employees due to vehicular incidents than any other reason. CONCLUSION The OSHAct was the culmination of centuries of governmental response to occupational safety and health problems. Since 1970, a number of additional regulations designed to protect workers have been passed, and these will be addressed in other chapters. As was noted above, incident rates and numbers of fatalities have dramatically declined since 1970 and this decline appears to be a result of legislation. It is important to recognize, however, that conformance to legislation is not enough to create a safe and healthful working environment. It merely creates a baseline for companies that might otherwise have no safety and health program at all. Generally, compliance requirements

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have encouraged a safer and healthier workplace and helped assist otherwise unsafe companies toward preserving the health and safety of their workers. QUESTIONS 1. Can safety and health be legislated? What are the limitations of safety legislation? Where would we be without it? 2. How do you think the future of safety legislation would be affected by another major occupational disaster of the magnitude of a Monongah mine disaster? Do you think passage of new safety and health legislation is still of a reactive nature? 3. Although safety and health fines have gone up significantly in recent years, do you think it matters how high they are when the likelihood of being inspected is so low? Discuss this with people in industry and note their opinions. REFERENCES American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE). (2016). What is the American Society of Safety Engineers? Retrieved from http://www​.asse​.org​/about​/history/. Gilligan, M. J., & Morgan, C. H. (2004, January 1). Curbing OSHA’s egregious penalty policy. Occupational Health & Safety. Retrieved from https://ohsonline​.com​/ Articles​/2004​/01​/Curbing​-OSHAs​-Egregious​-Penalty​-Policy​.aspx. Grimaldi, J. V., & Simonds, R. H. (1989). Safety Management. Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin. McDermott, E., Will, H., & Emory, W. (1997, June). OSHA update. Retrieved from http://www​.mwe​.com​/news​/osha0797​.htm​#arcadian. Michaels, D. (2016). Year one of OSHA’s severe injury reporting program: An impact evaluation. Retrieved from https://www​.osha​.gov​/injuryreport​/2015​.pdf. OSHA. (n.d.a). On-site Consultation. Retrieved from https://www​.osha​.gov​/dcsp​/ smallbusiness​/consult​.html. OSHA. (n.d.b). Safety & Health Achievement Recognition Program. Retrieved from https://www​.osha​.gov​/sharp​/faq. OSHA. (n.d.c). Voluntary Protection Programs. Retrieved from https://www​.osha​ .gov​/vpp. OSHA. (2016). OSHA Fact Sheet: OSHA Inspections. Retrieved from https://www​ .osha​.gov​/OshDoc​/data​_General​_Facts​/factsheet​-inspections​.pdf. OSHA. (2021). OSHA Penalities. Retrieved from https://www​.osha​.gov​/penalties. OSHA Training Institute. (1994). A Guide to Voluntary Compliance in Safety and Health. Atlanta, GA: Author. United States Department of Labor. (1991). All about OSHA. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

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United States Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (2016). Occupational Safety and Health Standards. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. United States Department of Labor. (n.d.a). Occupational Safety and Health Administration. State Plans. Retrieved from https://www​.osha​.gov​/dcsp​/osp​/index​.html. United States Department of Labor. (n.d.b). Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Concerned about Health and Safety on the Job? Retrieved from DOL.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Centers for Disease Control. Retrieved December 12, 2002, from http://www​.cdc​.gov​ /niosh/. Georgia Tech Research Institute. (1994, December 12–16). OSHA 501 Training. Atlanta, GA: Author.

Chapter 3

Workers’ Compensation and Recordkeeping

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to • explain the concept of workers’ compensation; • describe the evolution of workers’ compensation; • describe the different types of workers’ compensation claims; • explain the basis for workers’ compensation rates; and • identify the basic recordkeeping requirements. CASE STUDY Following the onset of a recent pandemic, Joe Derek has been given permission to take work home with him. Joe is uncomfortable working in the office, due to potential infectious exposures. Although his employer has never encouraged him to work at home, he permits the practice and is thankful that the work gets done. One afternoon on the way home from his office, Joe is injured in an automobile accident. His employer is surprised when Joe files for and is awarded workers’ compensation. EARLY WORKERS’ COMPENSATION LAWS Early efforts to compensate victims of workplace accidents date back to the Code of Hammurabi. In modern times, efforts have been made to force employers to pay for injuries suffered by employees on the job. Modern 45

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efforts can be traced to Prussia, where in 1838, legislation was passed permitting railroad workers to collect damages for injuries they suffered on the job. In 1884, Otto von Bismarck enacted the first workers’ compensation law for all German workers. Wisconsin passed the first successful workers’ compensation law in the United States in 1911. The workers’ compensation laws are designed to compensate victims of workplace accidents by forcing the employer to pay the workers money for injuries and time lost. Workers’ compensation is considered “no-fault” insurance. No fault is admitted on the part of either the employer or the employee when a claim is made. Prior to passage of these laws, the only recourse a worker had was to sue the employer under civil law, a form of common law. Common law is a body of unwritten laws based on judicial decisions of the past, as opposed to statutory law that is prepared and enacted by legislative bodies. In early common law suits, employers successfully utilized the following defenses: • Assumption of risk. Employees accept risks associated with the job and by doing so, forfeit any right to collect compensation for injuries. • Contributory negligence. Since the employees contributed to their own injuries, regardless of how little, they are not permitted to recover compensation. • Fellow-servant rule. The employer is not at fault, because the accident was the fault of another employee or other employees. These three common law defenses were eliminated after workers’ compensation laws were enacted by each state. Employers accepted this legislation, because in order to collect compensation, employees had to waive their rights to sue. Employees accepted the legislation, because it eliminated the requirement to sue the employer in order to collect compensation. By 1948, every state had passed workers’ compensation legislation, but that legislation may vary from state to state. When those laws were passed they were referred to as “workmen’s compensation” laws. Today, they are referred to as “workers’ compensation” laws. Prior to the passage of the workers’ compensation laws, the full cost of production was not borne by the employer, but instead was passed on to the employee. Rather than engineer a solution to a simple problem, such as providing a guard on an open saw blade, the employer permitted the employee to run the risk of being injured. It was cheaper to replace the employee than guard the machines. Most states prohibit the suing of businesses complying with the Act except for deliberate assaults and conditions so flagrantly unsafe as to make injury virtually certain. This has generally worked as a win/win situation. In some states, however, employees who have collected workers’

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compensation benefits have been successfully following up with lawsuits against the employer, using loopholes in the laws. Following a successful suit, the employee simply repays the workers’ compensation fund for benefits received. This relatively recent practice is a result of sympathetic juries who often perceive employers and their insurance companies as bottomless sources of cash. Lawyers sometimes engage employees on a no-fee basis where legal expenses are only paid if the suit is successful. This is an attractive proposition for some employees since there are no upfront expenses, and they may profit substantially if the suit is successful. This relationship violates the spirit of the workers’ compensation legislation but is a result of one of the inherent flaws in some state regulations. MODERN WORKERS’ COMPENSATION When a worker is injured and stands to collect benefits, that worker must first typically undergo a waiting period, usually lasting from three to fourteen days. Benefits may or may not be paid retroactively to the first day of lost work and wages. Once the benefits begin, they are limited to two-thirds of the worker’s wages or capped at a given dollar amount per month, depending on the state. Benefits extend for a limited period of time and amount to a maximum sum of money. Because employees off work for a period of time often suffer a decrease in their standard of living, litigation may appear to be an attractive option. If workers were permitted to receive benefits equal to their wages, however, there would be a strong incentive not to return to work. Even at two-thirds wages, some employees may malinger in order to continue to receive benefits without working. Injuries are categorized in one of the following ways: • Partial: when the employee can still work but is unable to perform all duties of the job due to the injury, as is often the case with a broken finger or a severed toe. • Total: when the employee is unable to work or perform substantial duties on the job, as is often the case with a severe back injury or blindness. • Temporary: when the employee is expected to fully recover, as is the case with a broken limb or a sprain. • Permanent: when the employee will suffer the effects of the injury for life, as is the case with a severed limb, blindness, or permanent hearing loss. Specific cases are categorized as temporary partial, temporary total, permanent partial, or permanent total. Other categories of benefits include retraining incentive benefits for employees who may have specific injuries. These

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benefits are paid for a limited period of time to aid the injured in pursuing additional education or training. Vocational rehabilitation services may be offered to employees who are eligible for permanent total disability benefits and actively participate in a vocational rehabilitation program. Survivors of employees killed in industrial accidents may be entitled to benefits as well. Even businesses with only a few employees are required to carry workers’ compensation insurance. Some states require companies to provide benefits even for one part-time employee. A large company having the appropriate financial resources to cover the anticipated losses of self-insurance is one of the few exceptions to the requirement of purchasing workers’ compensation insurance from an outside carrier. Who is covered by workers’ compensation? The following is an example of the coverage that exists in one state: • Every person, including a minor, whether lawfully or unlawfully employed, in the service of an employer • Every executive officer of a corporation • Every person in the service of the state, county, or city • Every person who is a member of a volunteer ambulance service, fire department, or police department • Every person who is a regularly enrolled volunteer member or trainee of the civil defense corps • Every person who is an active member of the National Guard • Every person performing service in the course of the trade, business, profession, or occupation of an employer at the time of injury • Every person regularly selling or distributing newspapers on the street or to customers at their homes or places of business • Owner(s) of a business, whether or not employing any other person to perform a service for hire EXEMPTIONS The following employees are typically exempt from the coverage of workers’ compensation: • Any person employed as a domestic servant in a private home • Any person employed for not exceeding 20 consecutive workdays in or about the private home of the employer • Any person performing services in return for aid or sustenance only, received from any religious or charitable organization

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• Any person employed in agriculture • Any person participating as a driver or passenger in a voluntary vanpool or carpool program while that person is on the way to or from his place of employment • Any person who would otherwise be covered but elects not to be covered If an employee is injured during a work assignment outside the state where employed, he or she is still eligible to collect benefits. In some states, benefits are reduced if the employee is not using the safety equipment required by the employer at the time of the injury.

PREMIUM CALCULATION Rates employers pay were historically based on the annual payroll in a given Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code. SIC codes were the classifications used by the federal government for businesses. Today many insurers use the National Council on Compensation Insurance (NCCI) class code system. Insurers place the type of work into a code and then calculate losses based on loss experiences within that code. Workers’ compensation premiums, or the amounts paid for the insurance, are expressed in dollars per $100 of payroll for companies in a given category or classification. Industries or companies in classifications considered to be higher risk because of higher numbers of injuries or deaths pay more than those in lower classifications or categories (Class Codes, n.d.). For example, employers assigned to high hazard industry, such as roofing or trucking will pay a higher premium than those assigned to a restaurant or clerical code (Certisafety, 2016). The rates are calculated as follows: Manual Premium = Payroll/100 ´



æ based on the individual workers compensation Rate ç ç classification code as determined by the insurer è

ö ÷ ÷ ø

Experience Modification In addition to the classification rate, companies are assigned an experience modifier, based upon the claims activity of their specific business. It begins at one, considered the industry average, and then changes either upward or downward as the claims activity of the business changes. An experience modifier of 1.3 indicates a premium as much as 30 percent more than a company

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with a modifier of 1.0. The standard premium incorporates the experience modifier and is calculated as follows:

Standard Premium = Manual Premium ´ Experience Modifier

Retrospective Rating A company may request the premium be paid on a retrospective-rating basis. Companies with strongly improving safety and health programs sometimes request this rating. The insurer will charge its actual costs for claims plus an appropriate amount for overhead. The retrospective rating adjusts the premium to reflect the insured’s own losses in the current policy period rather than those experienced in the industry.

SELF-INSURED In some states, employers may be self-insured if they are able to furnish to the workers’ compensation board satisfactory proof of their fiscal ability to directly pay the compensation, and if they deposit an acceptable security, indemnity, or bond (Champa, 1982). Other states require companies to buy commercial insurance or participate in the state fund (Self-Insurance Institute of America, 2015). Self-insurance is no insurance. Companies simply pay the claims themselves. Regardless of the program employers use to cover their workers’ compensation insurance, they ultimately pay the cost for that insurance in addition to overhead. Workers’ compensation is a cost of doing business that can be lowered through the administration of effective safety and health programs.

RECORDKEEPING Case Study Jamie Smith is discouraged by the recordkeeping requirements of the company. She keeps forms for OSHA and an additional form for workers’ compensation requirements. When a compliance officer arrives for a routine inspection, she is surprised to learn that she does not have to keep all the forms. She is also surprised to learn a form must be posted during the months of February through April. She has not posted the form in the past, but now

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assumes she should after the comment made by the compliance officer. The biggest surprise arrives three months later when the company receives a citation because the appropriate company official did not sign the form. Background Before the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970, there was no centralized and systematic method for monitoring occupational safety and health problems. Statistics regarding job injuries and illnesses were collected by some states and by some private organizations. National figures were based on less-than-reliable projections. With the passage of OSHA came the first basis for consistent, nationwide procedures, a vital requirement for gauging problems and solving them. Accurate injury and illness records are essential in providing information for the safety and health program. Injury and illness recording is a requirement under law (29 CFR 1904). The information maintained on forms OSHA 300, 300a, and 301 can be used to the advantage of the safety professional to: • Reveal which operations are most hazardous • Determine weaknesses in the safety and health program • Judge the effectiveness of the program by comparing it with past records or records of other similar plans • Aid in accident analysis and investigation • Identify the causes of occupational diseases by relating them to particular exposures, or processes, or both • Satisfy legal and insurance requirements Accurate records can be used to analyze illnesses and injuries, so problem areas can be identified and corrected (NIOSH, 1979, p. 20). Who Must Keep Records Employers with 11 or more employees are subject to OSHA recordkeeping requirements as stated by 29 CFR 1904. Each must maintain a record of occupational injuries and illnesses as they occur. Employers with ten or fewer employees are exempt from keeping such records unless selected by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) to participate in the Annual Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses. Certain low-hazard industries are also exempt. They are, however, subject to the rest of the OSHA regulations applicable to

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their industry and jobs, and must display the OSHA poster. The purpose of keeping records is to permit the BLS survey material to be compiled, to help define high-hazard industries, and to inform employees of the status of their employer’s record (www​.OSHA​.gov). Forms OSHA 300, 300A, and 301 Forms Employers are required by the rule to keep injury and illness records on three forms (see figures 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3): 1. The OSHA 300 Log of Work-Related Injuries and Illnesses. 2. The annual OSHA 300A Summary of Work-Related Injuries and Illnesses. 3. The OSHA 301 Injury and Illness Incident Report. Employers are required to keep separate 300 Logs for each establishment expected to be in operation for one year or longer. They must use these or equivalent forms for recordable injuries and illnesses. Employers are permitted to use an insurance form or any form that keeps equivalent information instead of the OSHA 301 Incident Report. If their insurance form does not have all the information found on OSHA 301, they may add it as needed. Effective January 1, 2017, certain employers may electronically submit injury and illness data they are already required to record on their on-site, OSHA Injury and Illness forms. Analysis of this data will enable OSHA to use its enforcement and compliance assistance resources more efficiently. Some of the data will also be posted to the OSHA website. OSHA believes public disclosure will encourage employers to improve workplace safety and provide valuable information to workers, job seekers, customers, researchers, and the general public. The amount of data submitted will vary depending on the size of company and type of industry (OSHA, n.d.). The rule also prohibits employers from discouraging workers from reporting an injury or illness. The final rule requires employers to inform employees of their right to report work-related injuries and illnesses free from retaliation; clarifies the existing implicit requirement that an employer’s procedure for reporting work-related injuries and illnesses must be reasonable and not deter or discourage employees from reporting; and incorporates the existing statutory prohibition on retaliating against employees for reporting work-related injuries or illnesses. These provisions became effective in 2016 (U.S. DOL, n.d.). Covered establishments must submit Form 300A by March 2. Many are required to submit their information electronically, with the exception of

Figure 3.1  OSHA Form 300

Figure 3.3  OSHA Form 301

Figure 3.2  OSHA Form 300A

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those with fewer than 20 employees at all times during the year. There are different options for submission, and not all employers, regardless of size, are required to submit. Guidance for submission can be found at https://www​ .osha​.gov​/injuryreporting​/index​.html (OSHA, n.d.). OSHA State Plan states must adopt requirements that are substantially identical to the requirements in this final rule (U.S. DOL, n.d.). Recordable Occupational Injuries and Illnesses The employer must enter each recordable injury or illness on the OSHA 300 Log and 301 Incident Report within seven (7) calendar days of receiving information that a recordable injury or illness has occurred. For recordkeeping purposes, an injury or illness is an abnormal condition or disorder. Injuries include cases such as, but not limited to, a cut, fracture, sprain, or amputation. Illnesses include those that are both acute and chronic, such as, but not limited to, a skin disease, respiratory disorder, or poisoning. Injuries and illnesses are recordable only if they are new, work-related cases that meet one or more of the Part 1904 recording criteria. The distinction between injury and illness is no longer a factor for determining which cases are recordable. Any work-related injuries and illnesses that result in one or more of the following must be recorded: • Death • Days away from work • Restricted work • Transfer to another job • Medical treatment beyond first aid • Loss of consciousness • Diagnosis of a significant injury or illness An in-patient hospitalization, amputation, or eye loss must be reported within 24 hours. To make a report in a state covered by federal OSHA, contact is made at the nearest OSHA area office, the OSHA 24-hour hotline at 1-800321-6742, or online at https://www​.osha​.gov​/pls​/ser​/serform​.html. States with OSHA plans have their own contact information available at https:// www​.osha​.gov​/recordkeeping2014​/state​_adoption​_table​.html. First-Aid Cases If a case is only considered to be first aid, it does not have to be recorded. For recordkeeping purposes “first aid” means only the following treatments (any treatment not included in this list is not considered first aid for recordkeeping purposes):

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• Using a nonprescription medication at nonprescription strength • Administering tetanus immunizations • Cleaning, flushing, or soaking wounds on the surface of the skin • Using wound coverings such as bandages, Band-Aids, gauze pads, and so on, or using butterfly bandages or Steri-Strips • Using hot or cold therapy • Using any non-rigid means of support, such as elastic bandages, wraps, non-rigid back belts, and so on. • Using temporary immobilization devices while transporting an accident victim • Drilling of a fingernail or toenail to relieve pressure, or draining fluid from a blister • Using eye patches • Removing foreign bodies from the eye using only irrigation or a cotton swab • Removing splinters or foreign material from areas other than the eye by irrigation, tweezers, cotton swabs, or other simple means • Using finger guards • Using massages • Drinking fluids for relief of heat stress. For recordkeeping purposes, medical treatment does not include visits to a physician or other licensed healthcare professional solely for observation or counseling; diagnostic procedures such as X-rays and blood tests, including the administration of prescription medications used solely for diagnostic purposes (e.g., eyedrops to dilate pupils); or any treatment contained on the list of first-aid treatments (www​.OSHA​.gov). Fatalities If an on-the-job accident occurs, resulting in the death of an employee, the employer is required to report the accident in detail within eight hours (29 CFR 1904.8) by filing a report as addressed in the previous section on Recordable Occupational Illnesses and Injuries. A motor vehicle accident occurring on a public highway, not in a construction zone, does not need to be reported. Privacy Concern Cases The rule requires the employer to protect the privacy of the injured or ill employee. The employer must not enter an employee’s name on the OSHA 300 Log when recording a privacy concern case. The employer must keep a separate, confidential list of the case numbers and employee names, and

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provide it to the government on request. If the work-related injury or illness involves an intimate body part or the reproductive system; resulted from a sexual assault; results in mental illness; leads to HIV infection, hepatitis, or tuberculosis; results from needlestick and sharps injuries contaminated with another person’s blood or other potentially infectious material; or other illnesses, not injuries, if the employee independently and voluntarily requests that his or her name not be entered on the OSHA 300 Log, it is considered a privacy concern case. Posting Annual Summary Requirements After the end of the year, employers must review the log to verify its accuracy, summarize the 300 Log information on the 300A Summary form, and certify the Summary. A company executive must sign the certification. The information must then be posted from February 1 to April 30. The employer must keep the records for five years following the calendar year covered. If the business is sold, records must be transferred to the new owner. An other-than-serious citation will normally be issued if an employer fails to post the OSHA 300A Summary by February or fails to certify the Summary or keep it posted for three months (until May). A citation won’t be issued if the Summary would have reflected no injuries or illnesses anyway. A copy of the OSHA forms can be obtained from the US Department of Labor or the state department of labor—OSH Division. They are also available online at www​.osha​.gov. In summary, OSHA places special importance on posting and recordkeeping. The compliance officer will inspect records the employer is required to keep, and ensure that a copy of OSHA No. 300A is or has been posted and that the OSHA workplace poster is prominently displayed. Information is critical to the effective operation of any safety program, so nothing should occur to inhibit the flow of that information upward.

CASE STUDY Earl Stewart was injured on the job and transported to the hospital the same day. That evening the attending physician received a phone call from the plant manager asking that the next day, Earl be loaded into an ambulance, transported to the factory to sign in, and returned to the hospital. The plant manager did not want a lost workday to appear on any company records because his compensation package was partially based on safety records. The physician refused, but the incident demonstrated a weakness in the company system.

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CONCLUSION Employers need to be careful in the application of laws in particular states. Although the types of awards vary, employers are subject to workers’ compensation liability any time an employee is injured in the course of work. This could occur in a number of ways. In the case of an employee taking work home from the office, that employee is subjecting the employer to a possible claim while en route, as well as while working at home. Employees required to travel in the course of their jobs may also be covered by workers’ compensation even during their off-hours. Managers should make every effort to ensure the safety of their employees at all times. When things go wrong, they must be prepared to track injuries and illnesses. These records must be kept in a timely manner and include all required information. A primary purpose of recordkeeping is to help employers determine problems with the safety system in the workplace. Efforts to circumvent the rules are indicative of deeper problems and faults in the overall safety management system.

QUESTIONS 1. What is the value of records to the employer and to OSHA? Recordkeeping requirements by OSHA are heavily emphasized. Prior to walking around in an inspection, the compliance officer will first look at records. Why do you think he usually reviews the records before the inspection? 2. Is workers’ compensation beneficial to the employer? Although it costs the employer money, why is it desirable from the employer’s perspective? 3. How do complete company records provide protection to the employer? If the law didn’t require them, should the employer still keep detailed occupational safety and health records? REFERENCES Certisafety. (2016). All about Calculating Workers’ Compensation Premiums. Retrieved from http://www​.oshatrain​.org​/notes​/4anotes05​.html. Champa, S. A. (1982). Kentucky Workers’ Compensation. Norcross, GA: The Harrison Company. Class Codes. (n.d.). Workers Compensation Class Codes. Retrieved from https:// classcodes​.com​/workers​-compensation​-class​-codes/.

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National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (1979). Self-Evaluation of Occupational Safety and Health Programs. Washington, DC: NIOSH. OSHA. (n.d.). Injury Tracking Application Electronic Submission of Injury and Illness Records to OSHA. Retrieved from https://www​.osha​.gov​/injuryreporting​/ index​.html. Self-Insurance Institute of America. (2015). Workers’ Compensation Programs. Retrieved from http://www​.siia​.org​/i4a​/pages​/Index​.cfm​?pageID​=4547. United States Department of Labor. (n.d.). OSHA Injury and Illness Recordkeeping and Reporting Requirements. Retrieved from https://www​.osha​.gov​/recordkeeping​ /index​.html.

Chapter 4

Safety-Related Business Laws

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to • Understand the important legal terminology related to civil law • Identify the different types of torts • Understand product liability and associated risks • Understand product safety and the Product Safety Act • Identify the types of warranties • Understand contracts CASE STUDY Larry Wilson’s son was badly burned in a motorcycle accident. Larry decided to sue the manufacturer to see if he could be compensated for uninsured medical bills, pain and suffering on his son’s behalf, and future expected care costs. In a criminal case, where an individual violates a law, a party is presumed innocent until proven guilty. In a product liability case, like this one, a party wins or loses based on the preponderance of evidence; guilt is not necessarily involved. The party with the most convincing argument wins. It is not unusual for a case of this nature to be settled before trial if parties are willing and can reach an agreement on terms. Additional legal expenses can then be saved. However, each is gambling that the company or individual will be financially better off with a settlement. Incidentally, this case was to be tried before a jury, as many such cases are. 61

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The really interesting and ironic aspects were the circumstances surrounding the accident. Wilson had purchased the motorcycle from a neighbor for $15 earlier that day. He pushed it to his house, parked it on the lower level, and closed the door. The next time he thought about the motorcycle was when he heard shouts coming from the area, where he found his son lying on the floor, engulfed in flames. A subsequent investigation by the defendant’s attorneys found the motorcycle gas tank had no cap when Wilson bought it; yet he stored it next to the water heater. He took no steps to warn his son, nor did he give the boy permission to play with the motorcycle. When his son tried to kick-start the motorcycle, he dropped it. Defense attorneys speculated the gas spilled and was ignited by the nearby water heater. The boy was pinned by the weight of the cycle and suffered burns as a result. Additionally, no doors had been opened to permit the exhaust from the motorcycle to leave the house had it, in fact, started. Many involved in the case, including the motorcycle manufacturer’s legal counsel, believed that the manufacturer had no liability. The person most likely to have been sued was the neighbor who sold the motorcycle without a gas cap, but he was dismissed early, because he lacked “deep pockets.” The company managers and defense attorneys believed once the case went to trial, a jury might award a large cash settlement to the Wilson family. Even though preponderance of evidence may not have favored the Wilsons, juries are often sympathetic to the plights of injured people, regardless of fault. They may perceive manufacturers have unlimited funds, and the injured people suing have few financial resources. The company settled out of court for $750,000 before the case ever went to trial.

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY Criminal law is addressed in the courts through prosecution, and the penalty suffered is either a fine or imprisonment. Civil law is addressed in the courts through litigation, and penalties include monetary damages. For example, while driving the company truck John Smith hits the brakes, they fail to operate properly, and the truck runs off the road and into a ravine. As a result of the accident, John suffers severe back pain and is unable to work for several months. John perceives the benefits he receives are insufficient to compensate him for the inconvenience, pain, and suffering he has undergone. John contacts a local attorney, and after discussing the accident with her, decides to sue under civil law. John is seeking recovery beyond the workers’ compensation benefits. After meeting with his counsel, John decides to sue his employer, as owner of the truck; the dealership where the truck was last serviced; the

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manufacturer of the truck; and the owner of the land where the truck went off the road. John is the plaintiff and each of the parties being sued is a defendant. His lawyer has advised John to follow the deep pockets theory and to sue everyone who might have money in the case. As in the Wilsons’ case, John will only go after individuals who are most likely to have the money to pay. After depositions are given by each of the parties in the suit, the landowner is removed from the list, because John’s legal counsel does not believe this party shared fault. Aside from the small piece of property, the landowner has few assets and the defense counsel believes it is in the plaintiff’s best interest to excuse him from the suit. The policy of some companies is to never settle out of court if they do not absolutely believe they are at fault. Their perception is that settlements encourage additional lawsuits. Other companies settle when possible to avoid the legal expenses associated with a long court case, as well as the adverse publicity often accompanying a trial. Lawsuits, like the ones mentioned above, are typically initiated following a tort. A tort is an act, or absence of an act, causing a person to be injured, a reputation to be marred, or property to be damaged. A lawsuit differs from a criminal case in that the purpose of a lawsuit is to obtain compensation for damage suffered. A criminal case seeks to punish the wrongdoer without compensation. A tort may give rise to a criminal action or a lawsuit. Today, any accident resulting in death, injury, or property damage can bring about a lawsuit, criminal prosecution, or both. Anyone can sue another party anytime for practically any reason. Lawsuits range from the justified to the ridiculous. Most are a result of someone who perceives he or she has been wronged and seeks compensation. From a safety perspective, one of the major concerns is liability. Liability is either voluntarily assumed, as by contract, or imposed, as is the case following a lawsuit. Liability resulting from torts is of the latter type. It is important to understand tort law because managers can sometimes, unwittingly find themselves on the losing end of a lawsuit. Activities that can act as catalysts for lawsuits and that are difficult, if not impossible, to defend include the following: • Intentional torts occur when the defendants intended for their actions to cause the consequences of their act; they are knowingly committed. Examples of intentional torts are assault, battery, false imprisonment, and defamation. They are defined below. • Assault occurs when words or actions cause another person to fear personal harm or offensive contact. If one employee threatens to hit another employee with a shovel, the first employee may be guilty of assault. If a person is made to feel apprehensive or afraid that he will be hurt or offensively contacted, then the other party may be guilty of assault. A key

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element of apprehension is the knowledge the assault occurred. If a worker shakes his fist at another worker or threatens another worker in such a way that the other worker is unaware of the motions, then no assault has occurred. • Battery is harmful or offensive bodily contact. If an employee hits another employee or even grabs the other employee by the shirt collar, the offending employee may be guilty of battery. The act may have caused little or no injury, but if it offends a reasonable person, then it may be considered battery. • False imprisonment occurs when a person is restrained within a fixed area against their will. If, however, the restrained individual has a means of exit available, then no false imprisonment has occurred. For example, merchants who restrain suspected shoplifters might be sued for false imprisonment. If, however, the merchant merely stands between the shoplifter and the door to discuss the issue, and the shoplifter has another means of exit, no imprisonment has occurred. • Defamation is the act of injuring another individual’s reputation by disgracing or diminishing that person in the eyes of others. Defamation can occur through libel when the communication is written or broadcast through media such as radio or television. It can also occur through slander where the communication is spoken. Defamation is grounds for a lawsuit. The best defense against a defamation suit is the truth, but employees should be warned about the consequences of defamation lawsuits. A negative reference letter or an adverse report by telephone about someone given may trigger a defamation suit. All of the above are examples of intentional torts. In order to successfully sue someone for an intentional tort, the plaintiff must present a preponderance of evidence as opposed to proving the defendant guilty, as a prosecutor tries to do in a criminal case. In an intentional tort lawsuit, the verdict is awarded to the individual who presents enough evidence to convince the judge or jury he should receive the verdict in his favor. Individuals need to also be aware of unintentional torts when parties are sued due to their unintentional actions. Typically, the parties being sued are negligent. Negligence involves creating an unreasonable risk of harm due to failure to exercise reasonable care. “Reasonable care” is a relative term dependent on the circumstances and the party involved. The legal standard for reasonable care is the reasonable person who always acts prudently under the circumstances and is never careless or negligent. If the party happens to be a professional, the standard is raised. For example, a person who is qualified to work in a profession or trade requiring special skills is expected to act in a manner consistent with that of

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a prudent and careful surgeon, carpenter, accountant, or safety professional. The skill level and expectations are higher for a professional than they are for the nonprofessional in a given area. If standards of performance exist, the professional should be aware of those standards and make every effort to comply with them. For example, industrial hygienists have certain standards that are maintained and published by the American Board of Industrial Hygiene. Safety professionals have standards published by the Board of Certified Safety Professionals. When industrial hygienists, safety practitioners, or other professionals remain ignorant of the standards of their trades or choose to ignore those standards, they increase their risk of being sued and being unsuccessful in the defense of a suit. Professionals are held to a higher standard of performance by the courts. Even though a plaintiff can successfully present a case for negligence and a preponderance of evidence, the defendant may not receive a favorable award because of a successful defense. Successful defenses that have prevented awards include contributory negligence, comparative negligence, and assumption of risk. Contributory negligence occurs when the plaintiff helped cause or actually contributed to the loss. If an employee mops the floor in an area where pedestrians have the option to go around but choose not to, and a person slips, falls, and is injured on the wet floor, the person who fell contributed to the accident through negligence and may be denied an award. In some states, the defendant and the plaintiff may simply share the above award. In a comparative negligence award the amount is apportioned based on the percentage of fault. Therefore, in a comparative negligence defense, if the defendant is found to be 40 percent at fault and the plaintiff 60 percent at fault, and the award is for $100,000, the actual cash paid by the defendant is $60,000. If the plaintiff’s share of fault is found to be greater than 50 percent, then the plaintiff may receive no award. Assumption of risk occurs when the injured party knowingly accepts the risk involved in the action that leads to injury(s). For example, a delivery person chooses to deliver a package by walking up ice-covered steps, falls, and is injured and takes legal action against the owner of the steps. The defendant’s argument could be that the delivery person could see the steps were icy, yet chose to deliver the package and therefore, assumed the risk of falling.

ROLE OF THE SAFETY PROFESSIONAL The safety professional should be aware of the various pitfalls open to management and other employees relative to rules of doing business. Employees unaware of the consequences of their actions may engage in activities

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detrimental to the well-being of the organization. In a lawsuit, even in situations where no dollar amount is awarded to a plaintiff, the company may have to expend large amounts of money in defending itself. The safety professional should look for exposures to litigation due to torts and help the company avoid those exposures through advice to and education of managers and other employees. PRODUCT LIABILITY Within the last few decades, litigation costs surrounding product safety have evolved, with some lawsuits reaching the million- or billion-dollar award level in damages. According to Seiden, products should “prevent and/or mitigate personal injury and illness under reasonably foreseeable conditions of service, including reasonably foreseeable use and misuse” (1984, p. 15). Much of the litigation evolved from the consumer movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s. One result of this movement was the passage of the Product Safety Act. Product Safety Act The Consumer Product Safety Act (CPSA) was officially enacted October 27, 1972, and has four main purposes: • To protect the public against unreasonable risks of injury associated with consumer products • To assist consumers in evaluating the comparative safety of consumer products • To develop uniform safety standards for consumer products and to minimize conflicting state and local regulations • To promote research and investigation into the causes and prevention of product-related deaths, illnesses, and injuries (Bureau Of National Affairs [BNA], 1973, app. 3) This Act, administered by the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), promulgates consumer product safety standards. These standards are “reasonably necessary to prevent or reduce an unreasonable risk of injury associated with such product” (BNA, 1973, app. 7). This law was amended in 2008 and included provisions addressing, among other things, lead, phthalates, toy safety, durable infant or toddler products, third-party testing and certification, tracking labels, imports, ATVs, civil and criminal penalties and SaferProducts​.go​v, a publicly searchable database of reports of harm. The

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CPSC​.g​ov website provides information for businesses on applicable regulations for manufacturers and importers, product testing and certification, labeling requirements, mandatory reporting requirements, and best practices (U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, n.d.). Companies manufacturing products and not considering CPSC requirements place themselves at increased risk for product liability. Product liability “describes an action, such as a lawsuit, in which an injured party (the plaintiff) seeks to recover damages for personal injury or loss of property from a seller or manufacturer (the defendant) when it is alleged that the injuries or economic loss resulted from a defective product” (Colangelo and Thornton, 1981). Manufacturers, in turn, can effectively minimize product liability by developing products with safeguards against predictable types of defects, deficiencies, abuse, or misuse. However, there are many unforeseeable factors that can hamper achievement of this goal. For example, injuries to consumers using (or misusing) products can facilitate product liability litigation, thus increasing the manufacturer’s responsibility for producing a safe product and the cost of that product to consumers. Theories of Product Liability There are four important theories that form the basis of product liability and provide a fundamental understanding of product liability litigation: 1. Strict liability is the concept that a manufacturer of a product is liable for injuries received due to product defects, without the necessity for a plaintiff to show negligence or fault (Hammer, 1972). In some instances, a party may be liable for damages caused, even though there was no negligence or intentional tort. Some activities, though they are desirable and often necessary, are so inherently dangerous they are a risk to others regardless of how carefully they are conducted. In such cases the purveyor of the activity is held to the concept of strict liability or liability without fault. An example of strict liability is when a company stores explosives or even flammable liquids in large quantities, or emits noxious fumes. Once damages are linked to the activity, the manufacturer will generally be held liable, regardless of the circumstances. 2. Negligence is the failure of the manufacturer to exercise reasonable care. In addition, it also includes the responsibility to carry out a legal duty so injury or property damage does not occur to another (Hammer, 1972). 3. Breach of express warranty occurs when the product does not meet the claims made by the manufacturer and, as a result, damage or injury occurs to another (Colangelo & Thornton, 1981). When a company gives

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a statement of performance concerning a product, this statement becomes part of the product. If the product fails to live up to the standards outlined by this statement, then the product breaches the express warranty. This warranty may be written, oral, or simply in the form of a demonstration. The assumption made by the buyer, and justifiably so, is that the product purchased will perform as well as was shown in the demonstration. 4. Breach of implied warranty occurs when a product fails to fulfill the purpose for which it was intended. An implied warranty is one implied by the law rather than specifically made by the seller. The basis for this rests primarily on definitions found in the Uniform Commercial Code. In essence, the seller may be held liable if the seller makes an improper recommendation regarding use of the product (Colangelo & Thornton, 1981). Even though no particular warranties are expressed, products are purchased for a particular purpose. When a product fails to fulfill that purpose, it is in violation of the implied warranty. If, for example, a consumer buys a balloon and the balloon will not hold air, it is in violation of the implied warranty. The assumption made by the purchaser is that all balloons hold air. Manufacturers or sellers are not liable for all injuries that may result from a product. This would be the concept of absolute liability. However, these four basic theories clearly establish the product responsibilities of the manufacturer or seller in most states (Brauer, 2016). Liabilities extend to the final user of the product, regardless of how many times it changes hands. The liability extending to wholesalers, retailers, and to the final user is known as vertical privity. Vertical privity refers to parties up and down the distribution chain. Horizontal privity refers to users on a given level of the chain. Injured bystanders are protected under the concept of horizontal privity. Lawsuits In a product liability lawsuit, the plaintiff must present certain evidence to support the claim. With the exception of express warranty cases, the plaintiff must prove (Brauer, 2016): • The product was defective • The defect existed at the time it left the defendant’s hands • The defect caused the injury or harm and was proximate to the injury • The defendant was negligent in some duty toward the plaintiff In reference to the four theories of product liability, each has its own requirements for evidence presentation (Brauer, 2016):

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• Strict Liability. This focuses on the product qualities causing injury. The plaintiff must prove the product was defective at the time of the injury and when it left the plaintiff’s hands, and that the defect caused the injury and was proximate to it. • Negligence. The plaintiff must show the defendant was negligent in some duty toward the plaintiff. • Express Warranty and Implied Warranty. The plaintiff must show a product failed to meet the implied or express warranty or misrepresented claims for the product. The manufacturers or sellers, on the other hand, have a number of defenses at their disposal for the four theories (Brauer, 2016). They may try to show that, although the product is dangerous, the danger itself is not a defect. According to Brauer, the defendant could try to show the plaintiff “altered the product or unreasonably misused it,” or “the product did not cause the injury or was not the proximate cause.” The defendant might also claim that “the product met accepted standards of the government, industry, or selfimposed standards related to the product, to the claimed defects, and to the use of the product.” There are risks manufacturers or sellers face when they put a product on the market. There are, however, a number of ways liability can be minimized: • Have an effective products liability attorneys team that can defend the manufacturer in design, manufacturing, packaging, and the marketplace (Brauer, 2016). • Remove unreasonable dangers from products and environments; prevent defects from reaching the marketplace; account for the use and misuse of the product; and consider hazards, potential injury, compliance with standards, and claims for products. • Ensure warnings identify remaining hazards and provide instructions necessary for user protection. • Assemble a team of engineers for product design review to thoroughly analyze for hazards and acceptable controls. Experienced personnel that may include safety professionals, attorneys, engineers, and others not involved in the actual design can aid in avoiding liability (Brauer, 2016) At every step in the life cycle of a product, beginning with product conception, the safety professional should have input. (See chapter 9 for additional information.) Safety should not be an afterthought in the design and manufacture of products if liability is to be minimized. Safety must be built into each and every product leaving the facility.

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CONTRACTS A contract is a legally enforceable promise. It may be expressed, impliedin-fact, or quasi-contractual. Contracts can be made in a number of ways. Express contracts are made when a person engages in an oral or written commitment to another to enter into a binding relationship. Implied-in-fact contracts occur when parties indicate through their actions, rather than words, they intend to agree. Quasi contracts occur when one party would be enriched unjustly if permitted to enjoy something received from another party. Usually Party A provides work or services to Party B even though an actual contract did not exist. Party B may have to make reasonable restitution to Party A for the services performed. In order for a contract to be valid, four conditions must be present. First, there must be an agreement; this requires an offer. An offer states, in reasonably certain terms, what is promised and what each party will do. The courts consider the intention of the offering party. For example, if the person is joking, asking for details, or simply negotiating, an offer may not take place. On the other hand, a proposal may be an offer even though all of the terms have not been specified. Once an offer has been extended, acceptance may be made by the other party, or the other party may make a counteroffer. In any case, in order for the contract to come into existence, there must be an agreement to the terms of the offer and then acceptance. If the offer specifies it must be accepted in a particular way in terms of time or means, unless the terms are adhered to, there is no contract. Typically, there is no enforcement of the contract unless there is consideration. Consideration is exchanged in terms of goods, services, or restraint from doing something. Both parties must be obliged to provide something, but the value provided by each party does not have to be equal. Sometimes a promise is exchanged for a small sum, but if fraud or improper conduct is evidenced, the contract is unenforceable. All parties to the contract must have the legal capacity to enter into the contract. They must be of legal age, sober, and of sound mind. If, for example, a party enters into a contract with a minor (one who is typically under the age of 18), the contract may be void. There are exceptions to the above conditions, but these are generally upheld. If the contract has an illegal intent or calls for some action that violates public policy, then it is typically void. Enforcement of contracts occurs under civil law. When one party fails to live up to his or her part of the contract, the other party may attempt to enforce the terms of the contract by bringing a lawsuit. The courts may require an award of money or may force a party in the contract to perform the promise specified. This remedy, known as specific performance, may be

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necessary when a monetary remedy would be insufficient to compensate for the unique requirements of the contract. For instance, if a specific piece of real estate or a rare object of art is involved, the court may require that particular property to be delivered. Certain points of law are sometimes pitfalls for companies. For example, insurance contracts and some leases are considered contracts of adhesion. These documents are often offered to the purchaser or lessee. Because greater power rests with the author of the document, ambiguities and language subject to interpretation will typically be construed against the writer. In such cases, the contract writer is considered to be the expert, so interpretations will tend to favor the weaker party, such as the insured or the lessee. Exculpatory or hold harmless clauses are sometimes written to limit or eliminate liability in certain contracts. For example, when a company hires a contractor to perform work in its business, the contractor may require the company to first sign an exculpatory agreement stating the contractor will not be responsible for any damages the contractor causes. Clauses in contracts similar to this do not provide much protection for contractors or others whose intentional acts or negligence causes injury or damage. Companies still use them, hoping to deter another party from actually suing. Safety professionals should be aware of the parol evidence rule, which states that the written contract supersedes any oral promises. When the written terms are agreed upon, they will govern the contract. For example, a salesperson’s promises, if not included in the contract, will usually not be enforced. It is, therefore, worthwhile to review all written contracts based on a sales pitch. Insurance contracts, leases, and service or maintenance contracts are typical of the types of documents that might differ from the buyer’s expectations.

COSTS OF LAWSUITS Lawsuits can be extremely expensive. Consider the case of Johnson & Johnson, ordered to pay $417 million in damages to one person who sued the company as a result of her developing ovarian cancer attributed to her use of Johnson’s Baby Powder. The company had previously been ordered to pay $110.5 million to another woman who had also developed ovarian cancer. Johnson & Johnson had already lost three similar suits in the same state and had paid more than $300 million for damages the previous year (Mosbergen, 2017). They have now set aside $3.9 billion for talc-related litigation (Povtak, 2021). The lawsuit could be a result of and fault of a company’s supplier. The Takata airbags, installed in numerous brands of cars, have had an adverse

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effect on dozens of vehicles. The airbags have been attributed to the deaths of at least four people, and injuries of over 100 others. Although the company has denied wrongdoing, one of its cases settled for $3 million in damages (Bennett, 2015). The companies installing the airbags may also be brought into the suits. INSURANCE Companies can build safety into a product every step of the way. No unusual warranties may be given, and the salespeople may do an excellent and thorough job of explaining the product features. Buyers can even sign an exculpatory clause. However, even with the best products and the best of intentions, companies may still be sued. Sometimes, the only thing that stands between them and potential bankruptcy is insurance. Insurance companies not only pay up to specified amounts when lawsuits are lost but also provide defense attorneys for the defendant. It is sometimes less expensive to defend against a lawsuit than to simply pay up. Insurance is often the best protection against spurious lawsuits. CONCLUSION Safety practitioners need to be aware of the basic legal environment surrounding the workplace. Although they often depend on legal counsel for specific advice, an awareness of the laws likely to affect the profits of the company is critical. Knowledge of potential pitfalls and methods to avoid those traps can only help to increase company profitability. The concepts discussed in this chapter are complex and hold many exceptions and potential problems for manufacturers and consumers. Complete details are beyond the scope of this text. Additional research or legal consultation is recommended for answers to specific problems or questions. QUESTIONS 1. Is the job of the safety manager one that requires concern for contracts, liability, and insurance, or should the safety practitioner simply be concerned with “safety?” 2. Do you think that there should be a cap on the amounts of jury awards that may be given beyond actual losses? Why or why not? Who pays for these awards?

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3. How does a concern for torts become a part of the safety practitioner’s concerns? Are you aware of situations where an employee or an agent of a company has committed a tort against another and the company was held financially responsible? Who pays in this case? 4. Do you ever use exculpatory or hold harmless clauses in your work? Are you ever asked to sign them when you rent, purchase, or use property? What are the circumstances when you are likely to see them? REFERENCES Bennett, M. (2015). Examples of defective airbag failure class action lawsuits & settlements. ConsumerProtect. Retrieved from https://www​.consumerprotect​.com​/ examples​-of​-air​-bag​-lawsuits​-settlements/. Brauer, R. L. (2016). Safety and Health for Engineers. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Bureau of National Affairs. (1973). The Consumer Product Safety Act: Text, Analysis, Legislative History. Washington, DC: Author. Colangelo, V. J., & Thornton, P. A. (1981). Engineering Aspects of Product Liability. Metals Park, OH: American Society for Metals. Hammer, W. (1972). Handbook of System and Product Safety. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Mosbergen, D. (2017, August 22). Cancer patient wins record $417 million payout in Johnson & Johnson talc case. HUFFPOST. Retrieved from http://www​.huffingtonpost​.com​/entry​/johnson​-johnson​-talcum​-powder​-lawsuit​-417​-million​_us​_599​bf62​ 8e4b​0771​ecb06f40. Povtak, T. (2021, February 24). Johnson & Johnson Preparing $3.9 Billion for Talc Settlements. Retrieved from https://www​.asbestos​.com​/news​/2021​/02​/24​/johnsons​ -billions​-talc​-settlements/. Seiden, R. M. (1984). Product Safety Engineering for Managers: A Practical Handbook and Guide. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. (n.d.). The Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act (CPSIA). Retrieved from https://www​.cpsc​.gov​/regulations​-laws-​ -standards​/statutes​/the​-consumer​-product​-safety​-improvement​-act.

Chapter 5

Accident Causation and Investigation Theory and Application

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to • explain the benefits of understanding accident causation theory; • define the terminology associated with accident causation theory; • identify the activities involved in risk assessment; • compare and contrast the various accident causation theories; • explain the purpose of accident investigation; and • list the activities involved in accident investigation. INTRODUCTION Safety and health professionals are responsible for aiding management in anticipating, identifying, evaluating, and controlling hazards in the workplace. Responsibilities include advising the management team of the risks facing the facility. The professional then calls upon management to eliminate or minimize the hazards associated with those risks before losses occur. Knowledge of accident causation theories permits the professional to more thoroughly recognize and communicate information regarding organizational safety problems. Employees with little safety and health experience might walk near a punch press leaking lubricating oil on a shop floor and recognize a slipping hazard. For the more experienced professional, several questions are raised: • What is the lubricant? 75

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• Is it a fire hazard? • Is it a health hazard? • How do the operators clean the spillage? • Is the solvent used for cleanup a health hazard? • Are hazard communication programs, training, and PPE required to use these products? • Should less hazardous lubricants and solvents be considered as substitutes? Is the punch press guarded? • Are there repetitive motion or other ergonomic hazards associated with the operation of the press? It is possible to greatly expand the list of questions one might ask, given the few signals provided in this simple scenario. The more information and experience available, the more safety and health hazards are likely to be anticipated and recognized. There are many theories associated with the causes of accidents, ranging from simple to complex. Some focus on employees and how their action or lack thereof contributes to accidents. Others focus on management and its responsibilities for preventing conditions leading to accidents. Theories are not facts; they are tools predicting relationships that may exist in the future. Accidents are not events happening by chance; they have specific causes. Nor are they random events; they are usually predictable and preventable. By applying one or more theories, the professional is more likely to predict accidents and initiate activities preventing their occurrence or recurrence. Accidents represent failures in the system or management problems in the organization. Management controls all the variables surrounding accidents. It creates the work environment. It advertises for, hires, places, trains, and supervises workers. Management can reward for work it wants to be done and punish when procedures are violated. If the worker makes a fatal error, both OSHA and the courts will likely hold management responsible. Public opinion rarely favors management in accident situations. In an accident investigation, management may blame the worker. This is referred to as the pilot error syndrome; in other words, the pilot is blamed because he is dead, injured, or considered a weak scapegoat and cannot defend himself. It is important to emphasize the safety professional is looking not for a place to assign blame, but for errors in the system. These errors can then be addressed, so problems and accidents will be prevented in the future. Anytime the professional fails to find the error in the system, causing or permitting the incident to occur, the investigation stops short. Once the worker or pilot is blamed, management and the management system are off the hook; therefore, there is no reason to continue to search for why the accident occurred.

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Anytime the accident investigator seeks to place blame, employees run for cover. Stories will be concocted and the truth may not be found. A safety professional in a major company was investigating a helicopter accident following a crash involving a pilot and a few employees on a surveillance mission of the plant property. Although no one was injured, the copter was a total loss and the investigation yielded no causes to be addressed. All aboard agreed the crash was due to wind shear. Some months later, the investigator was engaged in informal conversation with one of those onboard and questioned him further regarding the incident with a promise of no reprisals. After encouragement, the employee revealed that during the flight, the pilot yelled, “Watch this!” He proceeded to chase a deer through the woods with the copter. With the pilot’s attention focused on the animal, he failed to notice the clearing where he was flying became narrower; nor did he see the rotor clip some trees until it was too late to avoid damage. Once on the ground, the pilot coached the other employees to agree on a story to tell the safety investigator. With newly revealed information the company established a policy regarding flying altitudes, and the likelihood of the problem resurfacing was reduced. The investigator was true to his word and pursued no disciplinary action. To do so would likely have slowed the flow of information in future accident investigations. Even in this case of flagrant employee disregard of safety, management accepted responsibility for the problem and initiated appropriate action.

THE CONCEPTS OF RISK, INCIDENTS, AND ACCIDENTS “Accident” refers to a loss-producing, unintended event. “Incident” is an unintended event possibly not causing a loss. For example, a truck with a flat tire pulls off the side of the road into tall grass, bordering a hill. The driver does not realize the grass is disguising a slope; he doesn’t check the ground before driving onto it, and the truck rolls down the hill. If no slope was present—only solid ground next to the road—the truck would not roll down the hill. In either case, if the driver never checks the slope, it is simply a matter of chance as to whether or not a loss occurs. If the truck does not encounter a slope and no loss occurs, it could be described as an “incident.” Incidents include so-called near misses and other accident-type events not resulting in loss. If the truck rolls down the hill, causing injury, death, or property damage, the event is now described as an “accident.” Whether or not an incident is also an accident, accumulating data about such events is worthwhile. The response to either should be the same in terms of active intervention with engineering or administrative controls or the establishment of other controls.

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As defined in chapter 1, “risk” describes both the probability and severity of a loss event. Probability refers to the likelihood of the occurrence of an event. When used as part of a risk assessment tool in system safety, probabilities can be categorized as frequent, probable, occasional, remote, and improbable (Roland & Moriarity, 1990). By studying safety-related data, it is possible to determine statistical trends for a variety of factors, such as the types of accidents (e.g., falling to the same level, being struck by a falling object, or injuring as a result of overexertion) or location where injuries are taking place (e.g., warehouse, assembly, paint shop). Using the data on the frequency of occurrence of these events, it is possible to classify injuries, property damage, or other loss factors in terms of one of the probability categories. Risk = Probability × Severity Probability and frequency of loss events are only half of the risk picture. The severity of the loss event must also be considered. “Severity” refers to the magnitude of the loss in a given period of time. When used as part of the risk assessment tool in system safety, the severity of a particular condition is classified in one of four categories: 1. Catastrophic 2. Critical 3. Marginal 4. Negligible These four categories correspond to death or loss of a system, severe injury or major damage, minor injury or system damage, and no injury or system damage respectively (Roland & Moriarity, 1990). When viewed on a severity continuum, near misses, scratches not requiring first aid, or brief assemblyline stoppage might be considered negligible reactions to an incident. At the opposite end of the severity continuum, multiple fatalities or explosions that destroy an entire building represent catastrophic loss events. All companies face risk and the resultant potential losses on a daily basis. They willingly accept risk—even welcome it—with the hopes of gaining financial return. All new marketing and business ventures are examples of businesses taking risks. These are considered speculative loss exposures because they offer the opportunities for gain and loss. Exposures offering potential for loss with no opportunity for gain are referred to as pure loss exposures. Examples of pure loss exposures include those of theft, fire, or accident.

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Determining exposures a company faces is a formidable task, but it must be undertaken. The best starting point is usually with the line employees. Ask people doing the job what risks they face and what problems must be handled. The last thing one wants to hear, after the fact, is “That was an accident waiting to happen.” Employees often have more insight into problems and potential problems than anyone else. Companies may also choose to bring in an outside consultant or depend on the advice of a representative, such as a loss-control expert from their insurance company. This person will review activities, procedures, and processes to determine where exposures occur. Once exposures are identified, the company selects the critical exposures and prioritizes them in order of importance, based on risk. A second approach is to follow the process and review each step and the associated hazards. For example, start with the raw materials and consider what could go wrong with each. If materials with hazardous properties could be replaced by those with less or no hazardous properties in an economical manner, attempt to do so. Look at how each material is handled, and ask what could go wrong. As the raw materials make their way through the system, look at them every step of the way. Raw materials eventually become partially or completely finished products. Look at each material and consider hazards as materials are processed and any new interactions take place. This may also require a backward look at given interactions along the way. For example, a manufacturer assembles raw materials and machines them to prepare parts for assembly. At some point, the product may have to be tested. The safety professional now has to question the testing and everything that takes place prior to that process. Are there any new hazards introduced along the way? This must be considered, and steps must be taken to minimize or eliminate associated hazards. A third approach is to ask employees to notify the safety professional anytime a near miss occurs. These can be done anonymously through “suggestion boxes,” and may also include ideas employees have to improve the system. Additional approaches to discovering hazards before they result in accidents are suggested in chapter 9 on System Safety. Companies sometimes use incentive programs to encourage workers to submit information about hazards or problems. If mitigation of the hazards actually reduces risk, employees may be rewarded. Even large corporations have limited resources and must make decisions as to where to commit them. While controlling losses may seem to the safety manager like the most important way to utilize resources, the marketing director may feel that a new product introduction should have precedence. The safety function competes with every other entity in the enterprise for resources, so it is important for the safety manager to clearly understand what needs are to be addressed, why, how much addressing the needs will cost,

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and the projected return-on-investment (ROI). The effects of investments in safety are measured by management against the expected ROI as well as the ROI of other potential ventures. Establishing priorities allows the safety professional to determine problems to attack first and where to spend the allocated safety budget. Non-firstaid injuries occurring with great frequency may appear, at first glance, to be events not ranking very high on the safety professional’s things-to-do list. On the other hand, occasional confined-space entry fatalities are usually of great concern because employee deaths often result. Multiplying the probability of loss from a fire or any event in a given year and the likely amount to be lost from such a fire or event (severity) gives the safety practitioner a relative gauge as to where to place resources for controlling losses. Comparing the cost of controls to the estimated costs of losses saved over time is also useful. By considering both probability and severity, the risk assessment provides the safety practitioner with a much sounder perspective for judging the significance of hazards. Once the risk assessment is performed, it is possible to determine the types of controls that most effectively eliminate the hazards (see figure 5.1) and the potential ROI. The ROI can provide a strong justification for safety initiatives. There are a number of control techniques available for treating loss exposures. These can be broken into two categories: loss control techniques and financing techniques. Loss control techniques include the approaches mentioned in chapter 6, “Introduction to Industrial Hygiene.” A company may choose engineering or administrative controls or personal protective equipment (PPE) to deal with losses. Engineering controls include building a ventilation system to reduce explosive vapor levels, whereas administrative controls might limit exposures to toxic materials. Issuing PPE such as respirators is the last line of defense against hazards in the workplace. Refer to chapter 6 for a detailed examination of these three types of control methods. A company might try to avoid the loss altogether. If a company is in the business of producing football helmets, it may choose not to market the

Figure 5.1  The Balance between Risks and Hazards in the Workplace and the Controls Necessary to Minimize Their Effects

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product due to the potential liability it would face if a wearer of one of its helmets was injured. Instead, to limit liability exposure, it may choose to produce novelty lamps that look like football helmets. Sometimes a company can reduce exposure by substitution. Instead of using a strong acid as a solvent to remove excess glue from a finished product, a company could reduce the likelihood of a worker being injured by use of citric acid for removing glue. Rather than run the risk of loss itself, the company may choose to transfer the liability to another party. If removing glue could not be accomplished safely in the plant, the company may choose to have the product shipped to a contractor who would remove the glue in the contractor’s plant. If the contractor’s workers are overcome by vapors from the solvent, then the contractor would typically hold the liability. Another form of risk transfer is insurance. Insurance is designed to permit the company to shift the financial consequences of the risk to an insurance company. By paying the insurance company’s premiums, the organization can expect specified benefits to remunerate for a loss. The insurance company enters into similar relationships with a number of other companies by selling them insurance policies too. With large numbers of insureds, it can more accurately estimate its own losses. When an insured company turns in a claim, the insurer is able to pay, because it receives enough money from similar insureds not having losses to cover the cost of claims and still make a profit. Some companies simply retain their loss exposures without dealing with them. When companies choose to retain their own exposures, they may ignore them, or attempt to reduce them using one of the methods already mentioned; or they may, in fact, self-insure. Ignoring the risks may make the owners more confident, but dealing with the risks will make them more prepared for loss. Self-insurance is simply no insurance; the company retains the loss exposure. It should only be undertaken by companies with the financial resources necessary to absorb potential losses. The safety practitioner can use accident causation models to pinpoint hazards in the occupational environment. Systematic, proactive hazard identification will assist the practitioner in establishing loss-control strategies and determining the cost-benefits of the controls to be implemented. The following review briefly examines some of the most popular accident causation theories. The bibliography found at the end of this chapter provides additional resources to examine this area in greater detail. The intent is to provide examples of accident causation theories representative of past and current thinking. The bottom line benefit is to provide the tools necessary to seek out and eliminate the causes of accidents.

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ACCIDENT CAUSATION THEORIES Single Factor Theory The Single Factor Theory states there is a single and relatively simple cause for all accidents. A good example of this theory would be in determining the cause of worker hand lacerations. Because utility knives are used in the operation, knowing something about the cause of these accidents does not necessarily stop the problem. Other contributing factors such as the product or the work methods, as well as corresponding corrective actions, are overlooked when a single factor is considered the only cause. This theory is virtually useless for accident and loss prevention. Domino Theories There are several domino theories of accident causation. While each domino theory presents a different explanation for the cause of accidents, they all have one thing in common. All domino theories are divided into three phases: 1. Pre-contact phase: refers to those events or conditions that lead up to the accident. 2. Contact phase: refers to the phase during which the individual, machinery, or facility comes into contact with the energy forms or forces beyond their physical capability to manage. 3. Post-contact phase: refers to the results of the accident or energy exposure. Physical injury, illness, production downtime, damage to equipment and/or facility, and loss of reputation are just some of the possible results that can occur during the post-contact phase of the domino theory. Domino theories represent accidents as predictable, chronological sequences of events or causal factors. Each causal factor builds on and affects the others. If allowed to exist without any form of intervention, these hazards will interact to produce the accident. In domino games, where the pieces are lined up and the first one is knocked over, the first domino sets into motion a chain reaction of events resulting in the toppling of the remaining dominos. In just that same way, accidents, according to the domino theories, will result if the sequence of pre-contact phase causes is not interrupted. Heinrich’s Domino Theory H. W. Heinrich developed the original domino theory of accident causation in the late 1920s. Although written decades ago, his work in accident causation is still the basis for several contemporary theories.

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According to Heinrich’s early theory, the following five factors influence all accidents and are represented by individual dominos: 1. Negative character traits, leading a person to behave in an unsafe manner, can be inherited or acquired as a result of the social environment. 2. Negative character traits are why individuals behave in an unsafe manner and why hazardous conditions exist. 3. Unsafe acts committed by individuals and mechanical or physical hazards are the direct causes of accidents. 4. Falls and the impact of moving objects typically cause accidents resulting in injury. 5. Typical injuries resulting from accidents include lacerations and fractures. The two key points in Heinrich’s domino theory are that (1) injuries are caused by the action of preceding factors, and (2) removal of the events leading up to the incident, especially employee unsafe acts or hazardous workplace conditions, prevents accidents and injuries. Heinrich believed that unsafe acts caused more accidents than unsafe conditions. Therefore, his

Figure 5.2  Heinrich’s Domino Theory of Accident Causation

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philosophy of accident prevention focused on eliminating unsafe acts and the people-related factors that lead to injuries (Brauer, 2006).​ Bird and Loftus’s Domino Theory Bird and Loftus (1976) updated the domino sequence to reflect the management’s relationship with the causes and effects of all incidents. Bird and Loftus’s theory uses five dominos that represent the following events involved in all incidents: 1. Lack of Control—Management. Control in this instance refers to the functions of a manager: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. Purchasing substandard equipment or tools, not providing adequate training, or failing to install adequate engineering controls are just a few examples represented by this domino. 2. Basic Cause(s)—Origin(s). The basic causes are frequently classified into two groups: (1) personal factors such as lack of knowledge or skill, improper motivation, and/or physical or mental problems; and (2) job factors including inadequate work standards, inadequate design or maintenance, normal tool or equipment wear and tear, and/or abnormal tool usage such as lifting more weight than the rated capacity of an overhead crane. These basic causes explain why people engage in substandard practices. 3. Immediate Causes(s)—Symptoms. The primary symptoms of all incidents are unsafe acts and unsafe conditions. “When the basic causes of incidents that could downgrade a business operation exist, they provide the opportunity for the occurrence of substandard practices and conditions (sometimes called errors) that could cause this domino to fall and lead directly to loss” (Bird & Loftus, 1976, p. 44). 4. Incident—Contact. “An undesired event that could or does make contact with a source of energy above the threshold limit of body or structure” (Bird & Loftus, 1976). The categories of contact incident events are often represented by the 11 accident types. The 11 accident types include struck-by, struck-against, contact-by, contact-with, caught-in, caught-on, caught-between, foot-level-fall, fall-to-below, overexertion, and exposure (ANSI Z 16.2). 5. People-Property-Loss. Loss refers to the adverse results of the accident. It is often evaluated in terms of property damage, as well as the effects upon humans, such as injuries and the working environment. The central point in this theory is that management is responsible for the safety and health of the employees. Like Heinrich’s theory, the Bird and Loftus domino theory emphasizes that contact incidents can be avoided, if unsafe acts and conditions are prevented. Using the first

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Figure 5.3  Bird and Loftus’s Theory of Accident Causation

Figure 5.4  Marcum’s Theory of Accident Causation

three dominos to identify conditions permitting incidents to occur, and then ensuring the appropriate management activities are performed, can eliminate accidents and related losses according to this theory.​ Marcum’s Domino Theory According to C. E. Marcum’s 1978 Seven Domino Sequence of Misactsidents, a misactsident is an identifiable sequence of misacts associated with inadequate task preparation leading to substandard performance and miscompensated risks. The misactsident permits individuals and facilities to come in contact with harmful agents, energy forms, forces, or substances in ways that initiate adverse reactions sufficiently extensive so that unwarranted losses are sustained and resultant costs incurred.​ Like the Bird and Loftus theory of accident causation, Marcum’s theory focuses on management responsibility for protecting employee safety as well as preventing the downgrading of an organization. Downgrading of an organization includes incurring losses to equipment and facilities and to intangible

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assets of the organization, such as reputation or corporate goodwill. This theory attempts to examine management accident-response protocols to ensure sustained losses and the subsequent incurred costs are minimized. Marcum keeps these two, post-contact-phase components separate to permit closer monitoring of the two variables during accident-analysis activities. Throughout this theory, Marcum focuses on the human element of misacts. This includes misacts of employees who fail to recognize or appreciate risks in the workplace, as well as misacts of management who permit risks to go unrecognized, unappreciated, and/or uncorrected. Marcum uses the term misactsidents to emphasize the deterministic aspects of his accident causation theory. Accidents, Marcum believed, are considered by most as events occurring by chance. There is no control over them. They may even be considered acts of God. Marcum emphasized that accidents have specific causes and can be controlled—that safety can and must be managed. Multiple Causation Accident Theories Multiple Factors Theory Manuele (1997a) believes the domino theories are too simplistic. He proposes the term unsafe act also be eliminated. He suggests the chief culprits in accident causation are less-than-adequate safety policies, standards, and procedures and inadequate implementation accountability systems. Manuele attempts to pull different causation theories together into one working theory. His approach also incorporates some of the following ideas. Grose’s multiple factors theory uses four Ms to represent factors causing an accident: machine, media, man, and management (Brauer, 2006). Machine refers to tools, equipment, or vehicles contributing to the cause of an accident. Media includes the environmental conditions surrounding an accident, such as the weather conditions or walking surfaces. Man deals with the people and human factors contributing to the incident. Management also incorporates the other three Ms, looking at the methods used to select equipment, train personnel, or ensure a relatively hazard-free environment. The multiple factors theory examines characteristics of each of the four Ms: 1. Machinery: Characteristics include the design, shape, size, or specific type of energy used to operate the equipment. 2. Man: Characteristics are psychological state; gender; age; physiological variables (including height, weight, or condition); and cognitive attributes (such as memory, recall, or knowledge level).

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3. Media: Characteristics may be snow or water on a roadway, temperature of a building, or outdoor temperatures. 4. Management: Characteristics of management include safety rules, organizational structure, or policy and procedures. Multiple factor theories attempt to identify specific workplace characteristics that reveal underlying and often hidden causes of an accident by pointing to existing hazardous conditions. When viewed as a whole, the characteristics can direct the investigator’s attention to the specific causes of an accident. Systems Theory of Causation One variation of the Multiple Causation Theory is R. J. Firenzie’s Theory of Accident Causation. Firenzie’s theory is based on interaction among three components: person, machine, and environment. Human variables of information, decisions, and perception of risks combine with machine hazards and environmental factors affecting the likelihood of an accident. For example, as a person operates a noisy bulldozer on a hot day, other activities must take place for the operator to safely and effectively perform the job. The person consciously or subconsciously collects information, weighs risks, and makes decisions on how to perform the task. How close should the bulldozer get to the 20-foot-high spoil bank or the electrical power lines? How fast should it be moving? The operator, based on knowledge and experience, makes countless decisions—all of which affect the probability of an accident. Psychological/Behavioral Accident Causation Theories Goals Freedom Alertness Theory Dr. Willard Kerr’s theory of accident causation regards an accident as a lowquality work behavior. He considers it as similar to production waste during manufacturing, except that the scrap happens to be human. Raising the level of quality and safety involves raising the level of worker awareness. According to Kerr, alertness can only be obtained within a positive organizational culture and psychological climate. The more positive the workplace climate, the greater the alertness and work quality is. Kerr believes that as alertness decreases, the probability of an accident rises. Motivation Reward Satisfaction Model This theory of accident causation builds on Dr. Willard Kerr’s Goals Freedom Alertness Theory and Herzberg’s Hygienic Management Theory. Stated

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simply, the “freedom to set reasonably attainable goals is typically accompanied by higher-quality work performance” (Heinrich, Petersen, & Roos, 1980, p. 44). If an accident occurs, it is due to a lull in alertness. Safety performance depends on degree of motivation and capability to work; factors affecting these variables will either promote or prevent accidents. According to Petersen, rewards strongly affect performance. They originate from a variety of sources and can be physical and/or psychological. Money or praise is not considered to be the primary motivation factor. Rewards, including doing a good job, learning new skills, expanding personal knowledge, and be participating on a successful team, are some of the numerous intrinsic reinforcements associated with enriched jobs. If employees see the rewards from their work as equitable, they are more likely to be motivated and, in turn, produce positive safety results. Human Factors Theory The Human Factors Theory is based on the concept that accidents are the result of human error. Factors that cause human error are: • Overload: Overload occurs when a person is burdened with excessive tasks or responsibilities. For example, the employee not only must perform his or her job, but must also handle excessive noise, stress, personal problems, and unclear instructions. • Inappropriate activities: Inappropriate activities is another term for human error. When individuals undertake a task without proper training, they are acting inappropriately. • Inappropriate response: Inappropriate response occurs, for example, when an employee detects a hazardous condition but does not correct it, or removes a safeguard from a machine to increase productivity. Overload, inappropriate activities, and inappropriate responses are all human factors causing human error and, ultimately, accidents. Energy-Related Accident Causation Theories Energy Release Theory Accidents result when energy, out of control, puts more stress on a person or property than tolerable. Controlling the energy involved or changing the structures that energy could damage can prevent accidents. William Johnson expanded Haddon’s ten strategies to twelve when they are applied to the accident investigation strategy referred to as Management Oversight and Risk Tree (MORT). Johnson’s barriers to accident-causing energy include:

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• Limit the Energy. Example: Limit the amount of flammable or combustible materials that are stored on the shop floor. Use low-voltage equipment. • Substitute a safer energy form. Example: Use non-asbestos brake pads or select nonflammable or nontoxic solvents. • Prevent the build-up. Example: Utilize fuses, circuit breakers, and gas detectors. • Prevent the release of the energy. Example: Attach toe-boards on scaffolds to prevent tools from striking people or objects below. • Provide for slow release. Example: Utilize safety-release valves. • Channel the release away; separate it in time or space. Example: Ground electrical appliances. • Place a barrier on the energy source. Example: Place machine guards or utilize acoustic enclosures. • Place a barrier between the energy source and the persons or objects to be protected. Example: Use rails on elevated surfaces; use fire doors. • Place a barrier on the persons or objects to be protected. Example: Require PPE and respirators. • Raise the injury or damage threshold. Example: Acclimatize to a hot or cold work environment. • Ameliorate the effects. Example: Incorporate administrative controls such as job rotation to reduce the duration of exposure to loud noise. • Rehabilitate. Example: Treat injured employees or repair damaged objects. Haddon and Johnson focus on energy as the source of the hazard. Identifying energy sources and preventing or minimizing exposures can prevent accidents. Swiss Cheese More recently James Reason, a professor emeritus from Manchester University in the United Kingdom, contributed his theories in which he explains that a widespread myth is that errors occur “out of the blue” and are highly variable in their form. Errors are not random, and they tend to be recurrent and predictable. Most organizations build a safety system with productive “planes” later referred to as “Swiss cheese slices” that provide defenses or safeguards separating potential losses from local hazards. Each layer is an additional defense, that as long as it is not penetrated, no accident will occur. These defenses include such components as reliable equipment, skilled operators, effective training, and effective management. Holes may exist or develop over time in those planes or slices. The slices are constantly rotating or moving and the holes or gaps are constantly opening and shutting. According to Reason (2008), when a series of holes “line up,” an accident trajectory may pass through them, thus

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causing harm to people, assets, and the environment. For example, a driver may back his vehicle out of a parking space by checking the rear-view mirrors but not turning around. Checking the rear-view mirrors provides a safeguard between the moving vehicle and an object in its path. It is usually effective, because there is rarely anyone standing in the blind spot still not seen by the driver. Even if someone is standing there, they would likely hear the car, see the backup lights or movement, and move themselves. Repeating this routine dozens or even hundreds of times has never led to an accident. One day, the backing occurs near a busy intersection where lots of noise drowns out the sound of this vehicle. Movement all around prevents a person, standing exactly in the blind spot, from noticing the backup lights and movement of the vehicle. The circumstances are such that the holes in the layers of cheese or defenses exactly line up to create a set of circumstances where a pedestrian is injured or killed due to ineffective backing practices of the driver. All of the above theories provide explanations of why incidents and accidents occur. As much as management tries to avoid them, they still occur because there is always some residual risk. Living and working involve risk. Enough exposure to enough risk yields incidents and accidents. The job of the safety professional is to identify the risk, advise management to reduce or eliminate as much as is feasible, and continue to monitor to help assure that the assets of the company, especially its employees, are adequately protected from those hazards. INCIDENT INVESTIGATION Incidents include near misses and accidents. Accidents result in loss. Near misses result in no loss. The purpose of any incident investigation is to determine cause(s). As already mentioned, the circumstances differentiating a near miss from a loss-producing incident or accident may be merely a matter of chance; therefore, all incidents can be considered candidates for investigation, since correcting the contributing circumstances may help prevent future incidents. Incident investigation is concerned with fact-finding, not fault-finding. During the accident investigation, it is important to find out answers to the questions who, what, where, when, why, and how. Who questions include: • Who are the victims? • Who are the witnesses? • Who has any information that will help determine the actual causes of the incident?

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What questions include: • What events led up to the accident? • What were victims and witnesses doing prior to and during the incident? • What did individuals notice that may have a bearing on the incident? • What were the backgrounds and experiences of all the parties involved? When questions include: • When did the incident occur? • When did you notice important elements associated with the incident? When did you become concerned that a problem existed? Where questions include: • Where were victims and witnesses prior to and during the incident? • Where were equipment and/or machinery? • Where were the PPE or the locks and tags for energy sources? Why questions include: • Why, in your opinion, did the incident take place? • Why were particular methods used to perform a task? • Why were these conditions existing at the time of the incident? How questions include: • How did the incident take place? • How did the victims and witnesses react in given situations? • How did you first learn of the incident? When an investigation team arrives at the scene, key elements of personnel, tools/equipment, raw materials or finished product, and structure and environment must be searched for possible clues. Systematically consider each as a source of clues and pull those clues together to find likely causes. Preplanning and preparation are of vital importance. Know roles and responsibilities of each investigator and prepare for prompt arrival at the accident scene so evidence does not disappear and witness recollections are not lost. Ensure all tools and equipment necessary to conduct the investigation are organized and available at all times. Utilize a checklist to confirm all appropriate individuals are contacted—from the plant manager or corporate CEO to OSHA and EPA officials. Periodic mock drills ensure effective

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responses to emergencies by highlighting weaknesses. An enterprise was checking its building evacuation plan for the first time and ran a mock drill. When the occupants filled the stairwells, the weight forced the door frames at the base of the stairs onto the doors so they would not open. Had this happened in an emergency, all occupants would have been trapped inside the building. The drill enabled members of the management team to identify a risk that would have otherwise remained undetected. Drills also aid in effective decision-making. Effective decisions are more likely made during practice than in the heat and scrutiny of a critical investigation. Publicity, time constraints, and political pressures inhibit effective decision-making. These factors are less intense and less likely to exist during practice. Standard operating procedures should be developed during mock investigations. The following is a brief protocol of some of the steps that can be followed at a facility to prepare for accident investigations.

When an accident occurs: 1. Notify the following individuals immediately (list important individuals here). Be certain next of kin are told before media reports occur. 2. Secure the scene to prevent additional accidents; bring in accidenttrained technical personnel to determine: • damage to and hazard from power, gas, and fluids distribution systems; • the structural integrity of the building and equipment; and • the best way to remove or make harmless explosives and/or hazardous materials. Also: • barricade the area to prevent removal or defacement of possible evidence; and • isolate potential witnesses. Caution: make sure the positions of switches, equipment, and materials are recorded before they are moved or removed. 3. Evaluate the condition of any injured personnel; determine: • What is the degree of injury? • What must be done immediately to save life? • What should be done to relieve suffering until the injured individual can be removed to a medical facility? • What can be done to remove all danger of increased injury? Caution: move an injured person only if there is danger of further injury.

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4. Identify the elements at the accident scene: • People involved ○ injured ○ principals ○ witnesses • Equipment involved ○ in use ○ standby ○ secured or standing ○ materials involved ○ in use ○ ready for use ○ stored in area • Environmental factors ○ weather ○ lighting ○ heat ○ noise • Any additional contributing factors • Keep detailed notes for reference 5. Collect and preserve the evidence: • Take photos and make drawings of the area. Keep a separate notepad, recording the angle and perspective of each photo to assure understanding when reviewed. • Pick up, store, and label evidence. • If evidence cannot be removed from the scene or it is too large to bag, take pictures or make drawings, making sure to note the location on the drawing of the area. • Make notes of any observations regarding the accident scene. 6. Develop witness questions: • Form open-ended questions based on initial observations and evidence collected. • Include control questions to ensure the accuracy of the statistical data and to permit later evaluation of witness reliability. 7. Interview the witnesses: • Interview each witness separately. • Find a suitable location. • Be prepared to take notes on and/or record the interview. • Take short notes as a memory device. • If a recording device is used, ask for permission to record before the interview.

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• Watch for witness cues during the interview. • Take into account personality types: ○ introvert ○ extrovert ○ suspicious ○ prejudiced ○ other personality traits • Notice any nonverbal messages: ○ body language ○ voice changes • Establish initial communication. • Assure the individual that the purpose of the interview is for accident prevention, not assigning blame. • Note whether the witness was: ○ the injured party ○ an eyewitness ○ an “ear witness” • Take an initial statement. • Have the witness describe the incident in his or her own terms. • Avoid interrupting the witness during the statement. • Expand the interview for detail. • Ask the developed open-ended questions. • Space the control questions throughout this portion of the interview. • Close the interview. • Ask the witness for his suggestions on how the accident could have been prevented. • Thank the witness for his or her time. • Evaluate the witness statements. • Develop a witness analysis matrix based on the control questions. • Place the control question numbers on the horizontal axis. • Put the witness statements on the vertical axis. • Place an X in those columns where the witness has accurately answered the control question. • Check credibility of individual testimony based on control questions. • High witness credibility is based on the number of accurate responses to the control questions. Caution: Just because a witness gives inaccurate answers to the control questions, it does not totally invalidate the testimony. 8. If necessary, conduct follow-up witness interviews:

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• Let the witness know there is a gap or deficiency in a critical area of the investigation. • Allow the individual to reconsider or reexamine his or her observations. Caution: be sure to remain nonjudgmental. 9. Synthesize the information gathered from the witnesses interviewed and evidence collected to determine the accident cause. 10. Use the data gathered from the accident to perform an accident trend analysis. 11. Make changes to operating procedures, equipment, and/or training based on the accident trend analysis Caution: some interviewers prefer to use audio and/or video equipment to record witness interviews. Interviews may include witness speculations, hearsay, and unfounded conclusions on the part of biased or uninformed individuals. Recordings of those interviews may later be subpoenaed during litigation or criminal hearings. When only notes are taken, speculations can be omitted and signatures can be affixed to statements limited to facts. CONCLUSION Several accident causation models have been presented in this review. The theories focus on people variables, management aspects, and physical characteristics of hazards. The benefit of understanding accident causation is in recognizing how hazards in the workplace result in losses. Eliminating hazards before they result in losses is the proactive responsibility of everyone in an organization. Professionals recognize it is not always possible to identify and eliminate all hazards. Accidents may still occur in spite of a proactive safety program. It is at that point where an effective accident investigation program is of vital importance for the collection of critical data.

QUESTIONS 1. What are some of the benefits associated with understanding accident causation theory? Explain your answer. 2. What are the advantages of considering accidents as management problems? 3. What are the two factors associated with risk? Explain how these two factors impact on the selection of accident controls.

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4. Is it important to conduct accident investigations? Why? 5. What are the six key questions that should be asked during accident investigations? Explain the importance of these six questions to the health and safety professional.

REFERENCES Bird, F. E., & Loftus, R. G. (1976). Loss Control Management. Loganville, GA: Institute Press. Brauer, R. L. (2006). Safety and Health for Engineers. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Heinrich, H. W., Petersen, D., & Roos, N. (1980). Industrial Accident Prevention. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Manuele, F. A. (1997a). On the Practice of Safety. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reason, James. (2008). The Human Contribution. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company. Roland, H. E., & Moriarty, B. (1990). System Safety Engineering and Management (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Bird, F. E., Jr., & Germain, G. L. (1992). Practical Loss Control Leadership. Loganville, GA: International Loss Control Institute, Inc. Ferry, T. S. (1984). Safety Program Administration for Engineers and Managers. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Ferry, T. S. (1988). Modern Accident Investigation and Analysis (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley and Sons. Goetsch, D. L. (1993). Industrial Safety and Health: In the Age of High Technology. New York: Maxwell Macmillan International. Grose, V. L. (1992, August). System safety in rapid rail transit. ASSE Journal, 22, 18–26. Hale, A. R., & Glendon, A. I. (1987). Individual Behavior in the Control of Danger. New York: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. Kuhlmann, R. L. (1977). Professional Accident Investigation: Loganville Investigative Methods and Techniques. Loganville, GA: Institute Press. Marcum, C. E. (1978). Modern Safety Management Practice. Morgantown, WV: Worldwide Safety Institute. Manuele, F. A. (1997b). A causation model for hazardous incidents. Occupational Hazards, 160–165.Rasmussen, J., Duncan, K., & Leplat, J. (Eds.). (1987). New Technology and Human Error. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Chapter 6

Introduction to Industrial Hygiene Tracy L. Zontek and Burton R. Ogle

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, students will be able to • define terms and acronyms associated with industrial hygiene; • identify the classes of occupational hazards; • describe basic toxic effects and routes of entry; • identify various agencies and organizations providing support to industrial hygiene; • characterize the roles and responsibilities of the industrial hygienist (IH); • identify the various disciplines that form the foundations of industrial hygiene; • understand the primary approaches to protecting workers in their work environment; • describe the primary controls employed by IHs to control workplace exposures; • explain the various types of sampling that may be conducted by the IH; • understand the concepts of equipment calibration and accurate laboratory analysis; • identify how industrial hygiene fits into an overall occupational safety and health program; • analyze how IHs respond to emerging hazards; and • plan how IHs can prepare for pandemics and public health emergencies.

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CASE STUDY A manufacturing firm recently began a new process of cleaning using xylene. Xylene was chosen because it was less hazardous than the previous solvent (a potential human carcinogen). Employees have been complaining that the xylene has an annoying, sweet odor and has caused dry skin on their hands, eye and throat irritation, and headaches. Xylene is used intermittently to clean out machines and tools, approximately one-half gallon per cleaning. Operators manually spray the xylene, and then wipe down equipment and tools. They always wear safety glasses and occasionally wear leather gloves when handling sharp objects, along with hearing protection if they will be in the area for more than a few minutes, since the background noise level is typically 85–90 decibels. The IH from their insurance carrier has been asked to evaluate this use of xylene. Upon arrival, the IH reviews the Safety Data Sheet (SDS) for xylene with the supervisor and employees who are using it. During review, the employees are surprised to find that xylene is very flammable and decide that spraying the xylene should be discontinued. In addition, they need to ensure there is no ignition or static discharge source present when the xylene is in use. To determine how much xylene employees are exposed to, the IH conducts air monitoring in the employee breathing zone while they are using the xylene. During the sampling, the IH notes that the odor threshold is about 1 ppm. This is much lower than the regulatory limits; however, the odor threshold should never be used to determine if chemical concentrations are safe. The only way to determine the actual concentration is to take air samples; personal samples for employees are taken both in the short term (15 minutes), using a direct reading instrument and over the entire day (8 hours), using a charcoal tube connected to a sampling pump. These procedures follow those provided in the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Manual of Analytical Methods. The short-term sample is above the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL); the long-term sample is below both the ACGIH Threshold Limit Value-Time Weighted Average (TLV-TWA) and the OSHA Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL). The IH also discusses other hazards of xylene use with management and employees. Xylene can be absorbed through intact skin; therefore, the air monitoring results represent only one route of exposure. The actual employee exposure to xylene was likely much higher, since employees did not wear the appropriate, chemically resistant gloves and absorbed some xylene through their skin. Xylene has also been shown to act synergistically with noise exposure, causing more hearing loss than if the employee was exposed to noise alone.

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Based on these observations, the IH leaves the company with the following recommendations: 1. Find a less hazardous cleaning solvent to substitute for the xylene for this operation. 2. If a less hazardous solvent cannot be found, use the hierarchy of controls to limit employee exposure. Ask: a. Can the operation be automated or enclosed to reduce employee exposure? b. Can local exhaust ventilation be used to remove the chemical and prevent employee exposure? c. Can a smaller amount of the chemical be used to clean? Can the xylene just be used for a final cleaning? 3. Until a less hazardous solvent can be found, employees must: a. Wear goggles and a chemically resistant apron and gloves to prevent skin exposure and absorption of xylene. Leather gloves should never be worn when working with solvents. b. Ensure that all ignition and static discharge sources are controlled. c. Utilize local exhaust ventilation on equipment to remove xylene vapors whenever possible. 4. If exhaust ventilation cannot be used, employer must institute a respiratory protection program. Since the ACGIH STEL has been exceeded, respiratory protection must be worn during the cleaning operation if a less hazardous product or local exhaust ventilation is not used. Employees using xylene must wear hearing protection due to the synergistic effect of noise and solvent. WHAT IS INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE? Industrial hygiene has most often been described as the art and science devoted to the recognition, evaluation, and control of workplace health hazards. In addition to these three tenets, it has been suggested that a fourth be added, anticipation. One must be careful to avoid “expecting the expected.” Emphasis on the anticipation of workplace hazards may result in overlooking the unexpected health hazard. A well-trained, well-prepared IH is equipped to deal with virtually any situation that arises, especially if the IH contemplates (anticipates) common issues based on the perceived hazards (chemical, physical, or biological) and type of facility (research, manufacturing, or office) prior to beginning their survey. The concepts of recognition, evaluation, and control are considered later in this chapter.

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What Is Meant by the “Art” of Industrial Hygiene? “Art” implies that industrial hygiene cannot be practiced by simply following a recipe. With each unique workplace setting and each new day, an IH must reinvent him- or herself based on the evolving conditions. An IH not only simply report the measurements and levels of workplace hazards but also interprets those results. Often, industrial hygiene measurements lie within “gray” areas; that is, they are neither safe nor unsafe. Toxicology data to determine a “safe” level does not currently exist. An IH must make professional recommendations based on a preponderance of the quantitative data gathered, as well as intangible threads of information gathered by observation. Experience, preparation, and study of the associated sciences will help enable the IH become a competent practitioner of the craft. There are many emerging hazards not thoroughly researched or with regulatory standards developed; therefore, the IH must rely on fundamental scientific concepts and professional judgment. The field of occupational health is a collaborative one; there are no secrets in safety. It is important to gather diverse perspectives when approaching new situations, and only practice in areas of competence. The other aspect of the “art” of industrial hygiene is people. Human beings have the innate ability to understand a health hazard but fail to avoid it; this is termed the health behavior gap. For example, eating ice cream contributes to weight gain, but people still eat it. Occupationally, well-trained workers will understand hazards and avoid them, usually. The IH and other occupational health and safety professionals must also understand some (industrial) psychology to adequately train and develop a strong safety culture, so employees choose the safer option when faced with a hazardous situation. A strong safety culture begins at the top, with safety prioritized over production. The Science of Industrial Hygiene Industrial hygiene is steeped in a variety of sciences, including engineering, epidemiology (the study of the distribution of disease within a population), physics, statistics, biology, microbiology, chemistry, anatomy, physiology, and toxicology. Knowledge of the applied sciences, such as public and environmental health, computer applications, geographic information systems, and industrial psychology, is essential to the IH who wishes to practice comprehensive industrial hygiene. Health Hazards In theory, the IH is responsible for chemical, biological, physical, and ergonomic health hazards within the work environment. In practice, no one individual can

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be an expert in all these areas. Control of workplace health hazards has become so complex, that in larger workplaces where most or all these hazards are present, the management of these hazards is assigned to a team of occupational health professionals. Such a team might include an occupational physician, occupational nurse, IH, safety professional, health physicist (radiation protection), environmental specialist, and others. Workplaces with high-risk microbiological exposures may also employ biological safety professionals. Industrial hygiene requires the cunning of a detective, the discipline of a scientist, and the persuasion of a televangelist. The IH must uncover the secrets of the often-invisible hazardous agents. What are they? Where do they originate? How much is present? How long is the exposure? What harm might they cause? How can they be controlled or eliminated? Industrial hygiene investigations must be performed with scientific method. Procedures must be reproducible, accurate, precise, and well documented. In order to be effective, an IH must sell the recommendations. The IH must convince the worker that recommended practices and controls are absolutely necessary for a safe and healthful workplace. The IH must convince management those investments in workplace hazard control are worth every dime. A knowledge of return on investment and business practices is essential. While traditional academic training for an IH may not include business classes, it is essential the IH understand this connection within their organization in order to effectively leverage their resources. HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE While industrial hygiene is a relatively young discipline, the historical references to occupational medicine and toxicology date back to early civilization. Diseases resulting from exposure to hazardous substances have existed as long as people have interacted with their environment. Below is a brief introduction to a select group of distinguished historical characters who made an immeasurable contribution to the discipline of industrial hygiene: Hippocrates (470–410 BCE), a Greek physician, is best known as the Father of Medicine. He believed in the natural healing process of rest, a good diet, fresh air, and cleanliness. Hippocrates wrote of the plight of miners exposed to lead and other work-related contaminants. Hippocrates developed a treatise of medical ideology that modern physicians acknowledge prior to beginning their practice. This is better known as the Hippocratic Oath. Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) was a Roman senator, writer, and scientist. In his writings, he described the dangers to workers exposed to zinc and sulfur. He is believed to be the first to recommend respiratory protection when he suggested that miners cover their mouth and nose with an animal bladder

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when working in the mines. Pliny, a scientist to the end, lost his life trying to investigate the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Georgius Agricola (1494–1555), a.k.a. Georg Bauer, a Saxon physician, is best known as the Father of Geology. Agricola’s most famous work—De Re Metallica (“On the Nature of Metals”)—describes illnesses experienced by miners, the need for ventilation (an advanced industrial hygiene control measure), and ergonomic issues related to mining. This book was so respected that it remained the standard text on mining for two centuries. President Herbert Hoover (formally educated as a geological engineer) and his wife, L. H. Hoover, translated many of Agricola’s works into English. Paracelsus (1493–1591), a Swiss physician and chemist, is best known as the Father of Toxicology. Along with many of his predecessors, he wrote of the toxicity related to mining. In his work On the Miners’ Sickness and Other Diseases of Miners, he established the important concepts of acute and chronic toxicity. Unique to Paracelsus was his claim that all substances were poisons—the dose differentiates a poison from a remedy. This concept is the basis for the dose-response relationship. Bernardino Ramazzini (1633–1714), an Italian physician, is best known as the Father of Occupational Medicine. His most famous work, De Morbis Artificum (“Diseases of Workers”), urged all physicians to ask their patients, “Of what trade are you?” This simple question became a powerful tool to help establish the previously often overlooked relationship between occupation and illness. Percival Pott (1713–1788), a London surgeon, is best known for being the first to establish the relationship between an occupation (chimney sweep), a toxin (polyaromatic hydrocarbons [PAH] from soot), and malignancy (testicular cancer). Pott was a brilliant physician whose discoveries and theories are in a large part still accepted and utilized today. Alice Hamilton (1869–1970). This remarkable American physician was a true hero in the field of industrial medicine. She was the first woman to be named to the Harvard Medical School staff; her writings included Industrial Poisons in the United States (1925), Industrial Toxicology (1934), and Exploring the Dangerous Trades (1943). Dr. Hamilton was a pioneer who performed much of her own field research. When she sought to better understand the hazards associated with lead, she introduced herself to lead workers, went to their modest homes, interviewed their family members, and observed them firsthand performing their dirty, dangerous jobs. TOXICOLOGY Toxicology is the science of poisons. We know from Paracelsus that all substances are toxic—it is the dose that makes the poison. Further, we know that

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for all non-carcinogenic substances there is some level below which there is no adverse effect. This level is known as the threshold level or no observed effect level (NOEL). As that level or dose is increased within any population, there will be some measurable response to that dose. This relationship is referred to as dose-response. Within any given population there will be sensitive and tolerant individuals. Those sensitive individuals will typically respond to much lower doses than the majority of the population, while the tolerant individuals must receive a greater dose than the majority of the population in order to elicit a response. If the response being studied is mortality, then the dose that elicits death in exactly one-half of the studied population is called the lethal dose-50 (LD50). Routes of Entry In order for any substance to cause injury to an individual, it must first be taken up by the body. Knowing the way in which substances are taken up is critical to understand and prevent toxicity. The body may be exposed to toxic substances through any one or a combination of four routes: • ingestion—taken into the body orally • inhalation—taken into the body through the lungs • absorption—taken into the body from the outer surface of the skin • injection—taken into the body through broken skin Occupationally, inhalation is the most common route of entry by toxic substances. It is fairly common for substances to have more than one route of entry, and some may cause injury through all four routes. Acute and Chronic Exposures When an individual receives a relatively large dose over a single (or brief) time period, this type of exposure is referred to as acute. An example of an acute exposure is when an employee spills a chemical (e.g., bleach, acid, solvent) on the skin. When an individual receives a relatively low dose over a long time period (perhaps over a lifetime), this type of exposure is called chronic. An example of a chronic exposure is that of tobacco smoke exposure; most harm from tobacco takes decades to manifest. Seldom do chronic and acute exposures to the same toxin have much in common. Often the symptoms vary, and the health effects are quite dissimilar. For example, passive cigarette smoke may cause an individual to cough and experience symptoms of eye and upper respiratory irritation. Over a lifetime, a person regularly exposed to secondhand cigarette smoke may experience cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease, and even cancer. Often one is tempted to

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examine acute symptoms to predict chronic exposures; however, it can be observed from this example that the acute symptoms from passive cigarette smoke provide no information that would help predict chronic outcomes. No matter which mode of entry a toxin takes, the health effects can be either local or systemic, depending upon the physical and chemical characteristics of the substance. Local effects are the tissue reactions of the body areas that come in direct contact with the contaminant. Systemic effects, on the other hand, occur in the target sites of the body, which are not the initial contact locations, but which, because of their affinity for that particular substance, readily absorb it. Once the substance is in the body, it can be transported throughout via the circulatory system, causing harm in some tissue/organs. This reaction may occur far away from the point of initial contact. If an employee worked with sulfuric acid and inhaled sufficient quantities of it, irritation of the upper respiratory system would be likely (irritation of the nose, bronchi, trachea, etc.), an example of a local effect. Inhalation of heavy metals, such as lead, would have systemic effects (lead does not have a substantial impact upon the respiratory system, which in this case is the site of contact). However, the primary dangers from lead are to the central nervous system, the blood, and the kidneys. Similarly, when one consumes alcohol, there is little irritation to the mouth and esophagus, but the adverse health effects are seen primarily in the central nervous system and liver. Chemical Interactions When two or more substances are taken into the body, there are three possible interactions that may take place: antagonism, additive effects, and synergism. From toxicological studies, one can understand and predict the amount of injury caused by many individual substances. When multiple substances are combined, and the effects are the same as the individual substances, this is called additive. It is expressed as 1 + 1 = 2. When two or more substances are combined and a lower, overall effect (negative health effect) is observed, that is, their combined effect is less than the sum of their individual effects, this is referred to as antagonism. This is expressed as 1 + 1 2. From the case study in the beginning of this chapter, the exposure to xylene and noise can create a synergistic effect—more hearing loss that would be expected from the noise exposure alone. When evaluating toxicity and potential health effects simultaneously, it is critical to understand if any interactions will come into play.

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Classification of Toxic Materials There are numerous ways to classify toxic materials. In general, toxic materials are categorized according to their physical or chemical characteristics or the physiological organs they target. This type of classification can help the IH plan for unknown situations; knowing the basic properties or hazards of a group can help predict and respond to unknowns. The following categories are representative of common methods used to classify toxic substances (Clayton & Clayton, 1981). Physical Classification This method of classification attempts to examine toxic agents according to the form in which they exist in the occupational environment. These classifications include solids, liquids, gases, and vapors. This can affect the route of exposure, and help the IH assess risk. For example, exhaust-ventilation, flow rate will be higher if the hazard is particulate versus a gas. Chemical Classification This method of classification uses the chemical structure, nature, and composition a substance possesses. Examples of chemical classifications include aliphatic compounds, aromatics, acids, alcohols, ketones, esters, and ethers. Knowing a chemical is in a certain family based on structure can help the IH identify target organs, and understand how similar chemicals (especially those with no regulatory limits) can be controlled. Physiological Classification This extensive method of classification uses potential human injury as a means of categorizing certain agents. Below are several physiological classifications. Irritants Chemicals that are not corrosive, but that cause a reversible inflammatory effect on living tissue by chemical action at the site of contact. Understanding these classifications can help the IH prioritize the hazards. Asphyxiants Substances that prevent the body from taking in or utilizing oxygen, resulting in deprivation and suffocation. Simple asphyxiants are those agents that displace oxygen in an atmosphere, resulting in what is called an “oxygen-deficient”

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atmosphere. An oxygen-deficient atmosphere is typically considered as one containing less than 19.5 percent oxygen by volume (normal ambient atmosphere contains about 21 percent oxygen). Methane, carbon dioxide, argon, nitrogen, and hydrogen are examples of gases that can displace oxygen and reduce its concentration below the level necessary to support life. Chemical asphyxiants are substances that prevent the uptake, use, and/or transportation of oxygen by the body. Gases such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, and hydrogen sulfide are examples of chemical asphyxiants. Nephrotoxins Agents that produce kidney damage. Examples of these agents include heavy metals (such as cadmium, chromium, lead, and mercury), halogenated hydrocarbons (such as bromobenzene and carbon tetrachloride), antineoplastic drugs such as cisplatin, and others. Neurotoxins Agents that produce damage to the central and/or peripheral nervous system. Examples of neurotoxins include carbon monoxide, lead, methyl mercury, cyanide, alcohols, and others. Hepatotoxins Agents that produce liver damage, such as liver necrosis, fatty liver, cirrhosis, and carcinogenesis. Examples of hepatotoxins include carbon tetrachloride, aflatoxins, phosphorus, ethanol, bromobenzene, and nitrosamines. Respiratory Toxins Agents that irritate or damage the pulmonary system. These agents may cause coughing, chest tightness, and/or shortness of breath or no immediate (acute) symptoms at all. Examples of respiratory agents include asbestos, silica, sulfur dioxide, ozone, oxides of nitrogen, chlorine, phosgene, and many others. Reproductive Toxins Agents that affect the reproductive capabilities, causing, for example, chromosomal damage (mutations) and/or effects on fetuses (teratogenesis). Reproductive toxins may affect both females and males. Examples of these agents include lead and dibromochloropropane (DBCP), which can lead to birth defects or sterility. Exposure to the Zika virus (transmitted via

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mosquitos) can lead to microencephaly in the fetus. A substantial portion of the population is employed in work that requires frequent work outdoors. Hematopoietic Agents Chemical agents that act on the blood to decrease the hemoglobin function or to deprive the body tissues of oxygen. Symptoms affecting the body include cyanosis and the loss of consciousness. Chemicals that cause effects such as these include carbon monoxide and cyanides. Cutaneous Hazards Substances that cause skin injuries, such as defatting, rashes, or irritations. Examples of cutaneous hazards include ketones and chlorinated compounds. Eye Hazards Substances that injure the eye or otherwise reduce visual capacity. Examples include organic solvents, alkalis, acids, infrared and ultraviolet radiation, physical hazards, and others. Carcinogens Substances that result in uncontrolled cell growth. Examples of carcinogens are cigarette smoke, benzene, carbon tetrachloride, ultraviolet radiation, asbestos, and others. Mutagens Substances causing cell injury that results in chromosomal damage. Examples of mutagens are X-rays and benzo(a)pyrene. Teratogens Substances that lead to a birth defect. Examples of teratogens are cigarette smoke, alcohol, thalidomide, and others. Toxicity versus Risk The toxicity of a chemical is not the only factor to consider when evaluating risk. Toxicity is the ability of a substance to cause harm or adversely affect an organism. Hazard is simply the probability that harm will occur. Risk can be expressed as toxicity hazard; that is, how toxic is the substance multiplied by the probability this type of exposure will occur?

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When one fails to examine the actual risk of a substance or activity, humans tend to let emotion take over and cloud their perception of risk. For example, most believe that performing in a rodeo or hang gliding is a risky activity. Nevertheless, the actual risk of serious injury from these activities is much lower than it is for motorcycle riding or cigarette smoking. When a substance has been labeled by the scientific community as hazardous or carcinogenic, such as saccharin, the public perception is that contact with these substances should be eliminated. One must bear in mind that all substances are toxic; it is the dose that makes the poison. IHs minimize risk by choosing less toxic substances and decreasing the probability that employees will come into contact with them. Precautionary Principle When a toxin is perceived to be so dangerous that it raises significant threats of harm to the environment or human health, or if the substance has unknown toxicological properties, and scientific data is sparse, precautionary measures should be taken; this is the consensus definition of the precautionary principle. If one is unsure of the risk, it is best to proceed conservatively until additional evidence is available. An application of the precautionary principle is with nanotechnology. Nanotechnology deals with particles that are less than one-ten-thousandth of the size of the human hair. The existing health and safety information on nanoparticles is limited. Particulate matter of this size can penetrate to the alveolar region of the lungs and be transported via the circulatory system throughout the body. Nanoscale materials are composed of many different types of substances and may exhibit different properties than their parent material (e.g., nanoscale gold appears a rose color). Prudent practices with nanotechnology assume that vigorous protective measures are necessary for safe handling. Science may later tell us that our current practices were overkill, but one would rather accept the trouble and expense of excessive protection than find out that our precautions were too meager. INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE PRACTICE As discussed earlier, the tenets of industrial hygiene are the recognition, evaluation, and control of workplace health hazards. The goal of the IH is to provide a safe and healthful work environment for all workers. Recognition The initial tenet, recognition, also includes anticipation of hazards. Prior to completing an industrial hygiene investigation, the IH should examine the

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processes and procedures that will be used and research applicable regulations, consensus standards, and best practices. Ultimately, other hazards may be present, and the IH should be open and vigilant to investigate all potential hazards. The recognition phase requires the IH to perform what is known as a “walk-through” survey or inspection. If an IH is unfamiliar with the workplace or processes, an initial literature review, internet search of credible sources, and/ or review of OSHA 300 logs for the industry may provide insight into the types of hazards commonly found. A walk-through survey includes but is not limited to the following: performing a visual reconnaissance of all areas of the workplace; taking pictures; preparing drawings; interviewing employees; reviewing company safety policies and programs, previous inspection reports, injury logs, and medical records; and taking other necessary measures. By thoroughly examining the workplace and observing work practices and hazard controls, the IH will be able to recognize visible hazards and/or identify areas needing additional monitoring for contaminants that cannot be evaluated visually. It is important to talk to employees at all levels: line, supervisors, managers, and Human Resources. These discussions can be formal or informal and are key to helping the IH understand if written policies and procedures are being followed consistently. Reviewing standard operating procedures and company policies, along with a walk-through inspection, can elucidate whether safety policies are just a piece of paper or an actual day-to-day practice in the field. When revising potential hazards, it is important to consider all types of environmental stressors. IHs categorize occupational health hazards into four categories, referred to as environmental stressors: chemical, physical, biological, and ergonomic (Confer & Confer, 1994). 1. Chemical stressors include substances such as solvents, acids, caustics, and alcohols. 2. Physical stressors include ionizing radiation (alpha, beta, gamma, neutron, and X-ray radiation), nonionizing radiation (infrared, ultraviolet, visible light, radio frequency, microwave, and laser radiation), noise, and temperature. 3. Biological stressors include hazards such as bacteria, viruses, mold, fungus, and insect-related contaminants. 4. Ergonomic stressors are the human psychological and physiological injuries or illnesses associated with repetitive and cumulative trauma, fatigue, and exertion. Knowledge of work processes and an awareness of environmental stressors allow safety and health professionals to anticipate and recognize potential health hazards. It is important to ask many questions during the walk-through phase. Employ cunning as a detective; ask why, how, how often? The more

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information gained during the walk-through inspection, the fewer unknowns in the hazard evaluation. Questions to be answered during preliminary investigations and inspections might include: • What environmental stressors are present in the facility? • Where are the points of origin of those environmental stressors? • What are the forms that those environmental stressors take? Are they dusts, vapors, gases, mists? Heat or cold stress? Radiation? Exposure to viruses? • What are the work processes at the facility? • Have these work processes changed in any way? • What are the raw materials, intermediate products, and finished products that are involved in the work process? Do they pose health risks? • What physical and mental tasks are required? Do these tasks require frequent repetitive motions or excessive forces for long durations? • Do employees have the correct equipment, knowledge, and adequate time/ staffing to perform operations safely? • What control methods are currently being used? How are they tested/ maintained? Once these basic questions are answered, the safety and health professional must then evaluate the potential health hazards by determining the concentration and duration of exposure to the contaminant or stressor. Evaluation After the initial walk-through and recognition phase, the IH must prioritize evaluations based on risk (toxicity and probability of the hazard). Prioritization is often necessary due to limited time or resources. The potential mode of entry or exposure to the stressor must be determined. Based upon the physical and chemical properties of the stressor, the probability of contact, absorption, inhalation, or ingestion must also be addressed. Then, the rate of generation of the contaminant must be determined. The IH must determine if, based upon the nature, toxicity, concentration, and duration of exposure, a significant health risk exists, thus creating the potential for causing injury or illness. The majority of industrial hygiene evaluation is based upon analytical measurement of workplace hazards, and the most commonly monitored hazards are airborne chemical hazards. During the evaluation phase, the IH may collect the sample on a sampling media in accordance with standard methods, as described in the OSHA Technical Manual or NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods. The IH seeks to measure the amount of the contaminant present in the ambient atmosphere, such as volume of gas, weight of dust, or number

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of fibers. The volume of air sampled may also be readily determined. This is established by pre- and post-calibrating the sampling equipment used to establish the volume of air crossing the sample-collection media during a fixed unit of time. Once again, the volume of air sampled is the product of the volume of air passing across the media during a given interval of time. The quantitative amount of the substance collected (generally a mass measurement determined by an analytical laboratory) is then divided by the volume of air sampled and expressed in terms of ppm, percentage, mg/m3, or fibers per cubic centimeter (cc), depending upon the specific substance being monitored. A variety of sampling strategies are utilized to conduct IH sampling, namely, personal and area monitoring. Personal monitoring requires that a pump (usually) and some type of sampling media (method outlined in NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods) are worn by the employee; this type of sampling can be compared to OSHA standards. Area monitoring occurs when the pump and sampling media are strategically placed in the workplace to determine general conditions; this type of sampling cannot be compared to OSHA standards. Prior to evaluation, the IH must understand the way the potential contaminant is present in the workplace. Contaminants can take a wide variety of forms. The following are some of the key terms associated with contaminant forms (Confer & Confer, 1994): • Dusts: Solid particulates generated by crushing, grinding, chipping, or abrasion. Examples of dusts include coal, wood, and sand. • Fumes: Solid particulates (metals or polymers) generated by condensation from a gaseous state. An example of fumes is welding emissions. • Aerosols: Liquid droplets or solid particulate dispersed in air. An example of an aerosol is overspray from spray painting. • Mists: Suspended liquid droplets generated by the condensation from gas to liquid state. • Gases: Substances in the gaseous state at normal temperature and pressure (NTP). Examples include oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide. • Vapors: Gaseous phases of a material which is ordinarily a solid or liquid at room temperature. Examples are gasoline, toluene, xylene, and benzene. For many substances, including dusts, fumes, and mists, measurement is typically expressed in terms of weight of the substance captured on the sampling media per unit volume of air sampled. This is usually represented in milligrams of contaminant per cubic meter of air sampled. The volume of air sampled is determined by the flow rate of air volume passing through the sampling media over a fixed period of time. The flow rate is based on the analytical method for the chemical. The laboratory analysis will provide the amount of the substance on the sampling media.

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Fiber density is measured as the ratio of fibers to the volume of air sampled, typically in cubic centimeters. Fibers such as asbestos, cotton, or fiberglass are collected on the surface of the sampling media as a unit volume of air crosses the media surface. Fibers are typically counted via light or electron microscopy. While particulates are primarily sampled to determine toxic effects upon workers, flammability and explosivity may also be of concern. For some chemical, the primary hazard may be flammability. Combustible dusts, such as sugar or grain, may explode when concentrations are sufficiently elevated, and an ignition source is present. When monitoring is done to evaluate explosive hazards in the occupational environment, dust-to-air concentrations, as well as particle size and sources of ignition, must be determined. Gas and vapor toxicity is measured in units of concentration comparing the volume of the contaminant to the volume of air sampled. This volumeto-volume ratio is stated in parts per million or ppm. The percentage of a gas or vapor is used as the unit of measure when monitoring for flammable or oxygen content in the ambient atmosphere. This percentage represents the ratio of the gas or vapor of concern to the total volume of the air sampled. Once the concentration of the contaminant in the employees’ breathing zone has been established, the health and safety professional or IH compares the results to established criteria. Established criteria have been set by three groups: OSHA, NIOSH, and the ACGIH. As previously discussed in earlier chapters, OSHA requirements are mandatory, legal standards. This means professionals must ensure that employee exposures fall below the specified limits, or risk citations and penalties for failing to comply with these standards. OSHA standards are US laws and must go through the legislative process to be created or updated—a lengthy, complicated, and political process. NIOSH provides RELs; these are voluntary guidelines. The ACGIH standards are also voluntary; however, they are reviewed annually by panels of recognized scientists and experts. Companies are not required to comply with the ACGIH standards, which tend to be more conservative (lower recommended concentrations); although, many do comply to protect their employees in accordance with the most current scientific principles. ACGIH standards are the gold standard for IHs as they are scientifically determined and not influenced by politics, only human health. The OSHA health chemical hazard standards are referred to as PELs. The NIOSH recommendations are referred to as Recommended Exposure Levels (RELs). The ACGIH standards are referred to as Threshold Limit Values (TLVs). TLVs are reviewed and published annually in the publication Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices (AGCIH, 1994). TLVs are based on the best available, scientific information from industrial experience, human exposures, experimental animal studies, and—when possible—all three. They are based upon science and not typically influenced by

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congressional politics. Many OSHA PELs have not been changed since their inception in 1970, despite advances in our understanding of workplace health hazards. Since PELs are law, they must pass through Congress, and are subject to both politics and lobbyists, thus limiting their timelines and effectiveness in promoting a safe workplace. When protecting employees, an IH often references the ACGIH TLVs to use the most current and scientific standards. There are three categories of TLVs: 1. TLV-TWA: The time-weighted average concentration for a normal 8-hour workday and a 40-hour work week, to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day, without adverse effects. 2. Threshold limit value-short term exposure limit (TLV-STEL): The concentration to which workers can be exposed continuously for a short period of time without suffering (1) irritation, (2) chronic or irreversible tissue damage, or 3) narcosis of sufficient degree to increase the likelihood of accidental injury, impaired self-rescue, or material reduction of work efficiency, provided the TLV-TWA is not exceeded. The STEL is equal to a 15-minute, TWA exposure, which should not be exceeded at any time during a workday, even if the 8-hour TWA is within the TLV. There should be at least 60 minutes between successive exposures, for a maximum of four exposures/day or work shift. 3. Threshold limit value-ceiling (TLV-C): The concentration which should not be exceeded, even instantaneously. OSHA’s PELs are typically expressed in terms of time-weighted averages or ceilings, using the same definition and parameters as ACGIH’s TLVs (the first PELs were the 1968 TLVs). OSHA PELs are published in the tables found in Subpart Z of 29 CFR 1910. While health and safety professionals know that the OSHA PELs must be met to avoid citations, progressive companies attempt to meet the more conservative ACGIH standards. By meeting the TLV recommendations for maximum worker exposure to contaminants, health risks are reduced, and there is a greater margin of compliance if health hazard control methods are compromised. Control Controls can be defined as processes, procedures, or method changes that reduce employee exposures and prevent or minimize the risk of health hazards in the workplace. The IH must understand the source of the hazard, the pathway it can reach the employee, and the receptor (employee and route of entry). This will assist in fully understanding the potential employee exposure and how to prevent it.

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NIOSH has defined the hierarchy of controls, in order of importance, as elimination, substitution, engineering controls, administrative controls, and personal protective equipment (PPE) (figure 6.1; NIOSH, 2015). The hierarchy begins by completely removing the hazard, becomes less protective as people are isolated from the hazard, and least protective when the hazard is present in the workplace and employees are required to correctly wear PPE to avoid exposure. Elimination and substitution are the most effective controls, but often the most difficult to implement. These are most easily addressed during the design phase of the process. Elimination may involve completely rejecting a process as too dangerous, or redesigning it. Substitution involves using a lesshazardous chemical or process. The use of citric acid–based solvents in place of a cancer-causing agent like carbon tetrachloride or the use of enamel-based paint in place of lead-based paint are examples of substitution. When making these decisions, the IH should utilize a team of engineers, supervisors, line workers, management to ensure they understand the implications to both health and the bottom line. Engineering controls are often chosen because of their ability to isolate or eliminate existing health hazards. By eliminating health hazards at the point of origin, the occupational health and safety professional eliminates the release of the contaminant into the workplace environment, ultimately

Figure 6.1  NIOSH Hierarchy of Controls Source: CDC/NIOSH, https://www​.cdc​.gov​/niosh​/topics​/hierarchy​/default​.html.

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preventing (or greatly reducing) employee exposure. Examples of engineering controls include the use of exhaust ventilation systems to reduce the concentration of contaminants or enclosing and shielding work areas. Effective exhaust ventilation removes the hazard “at the source,” before it can reach the worker’s breathing zone (receptor). (Note: exhaust ventilation captures the chemical at the source, general HVAC ventilation will recirculate the chemical throughout the facility.) Enclosures place a barrier between the employee and the health hazard point of origin. In both examples, the employee is separated, and thus protected, from the health hazard in the workplace environment. This may be as simple as a machine guard or more complex by adding exhaust ventilation. When it is impossible to implement engineering controls or when fabrication and construction of engineering controls will take time to install, administrative controls and PPE options may be required. Administrative controls are those health-hazard, control methods that are employee oriented or process-management oriented. In other words, they are the control methods the management of a facility has influence over through manufacturing methods, policies and procedures, or employee work assignment activities. Job rotation, moving employees from one workstation or task to another at regularly assigned intervals, is an administrative control. For example, if noise is the workplace health hazard of concern, it may be possible to rotate the employee to a less noisy area during portions of the shift. In this example, the overall exposure to the noise hazard is reduced, thus reducing the employees’ risk of hearing loss. (Note: job rotation is only used for physical hazards, not chemical or biological hazards.) Other administrative control options include establishing training programs to make the employee aware of the existing health hazard, providing signage (e.g., restricted area), developing procedures, requiring only certified/trained operators who can run dangerous equipment, buying only “Quiet” equipment, preventive maintenance programs, and scheduling high-risk/exposure activities when few workers are present. PPE is the last category of health hazard control available to the IH. It is considered the last line of defense, because the hazard has been left in the workplace, and the barrier separating the employee from the health hazard must be worn correctly and consistently every time. This is a flawed control due to human nature—one may walk into a lab with safety glasses perched on top of their head rather than covering their eyes. If the employee does not wear the PPE or it fails, he or she will be at greater risk for illness or injury. It is an unfortunate fact that for many occupational safety and health programs, PPE is the symbol of the safety program rather than a last resort. It is the last line of defense and requires extensive training, education, and a strong safety culture to be effective. The main reason why administrative controls and

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PPE are not considered the preferred methods for protecting worker health is that the health hazards still exist in the workplace and can present risk. In many instances, both administrative controls and PPE can be circumvented. Employees, for example, may use the wrong respirator for a particular hazard. This mistake will result in the employee inhaling toxic vapors or dusts, thus increasing the risk of occupational disease. In many workplaces, IHs evaluate risks and determine control methods using a method termed control banding. The underlying assumption of control banding is that there are only a finite number of methods to control hazards; therefore, the hazards can be put into bands or groups. Each hazard band then has a certain set of controls (safe handling and practice, substitution, enclosure/isolation, ventilation). Hazard bands are created by evaluating the chemical toxicity, work process, process duration, quantity used, physical state, and other relevant factors. For example, a chemical that is a sensitizer may be placed in a more stringent control band to ensure adequate engineering controls. A chemical that is a skin irritant could be placed in a less stringent control band that only requires general safe handling practices. Control banding, as a method to control hazards, is being used in a wide spectrum of workplaces; NIOSH, the American Chemical Society, and the American Industrial Hygiene Association provide examples online (e.g., COVID, chemistry lab, silica) of successful use. INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE ETHICS The IH’s primary responsibility is to advocate for the workers; their health and safety is the ultimate duty. The IH is the voice for those who do not understand how the environmental stressors can cause injury to human health. As the IH is paid by the employer, it can seem that this is where the primary loyalty should lie; however, the organization needs healthy workers to do their job. In a literature review, it was found that construction sites with a higher safety climate experienced a lower accident rate (Han, Son, & Kim, 2021), providing one example of how safety improves productivity and reduces accidents. The American Industrial Hygiene Association and the ACGIHs have developed member ethical principles that align with the Board for Global EHS Credentialing (AIHA, 2017). Besides following all laws and regulations, while acting in a professional manner, the IH must realize the principles also focus on independent and professional decision-making, while recognizing the limitations of one’s professional ability, and only practicing in areas of competence. Industrial hygiene is a vast discipline, and one cannot be an expert in every aspect. Further, the AIHA (2017) stated that work with professional associations and others is critical to approaching ethical issues

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so that equal opportunity and diversity are upheld throughout the profession. As innovations in health and safety appear, the IH must ensure practice in an ethical manner in a rapidly changing environment. INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE The basic tenets of industrial hygiene have been discussed; however, the field is evolving quickly, especially post-COVID pandemic. Emerging socioeconomic trends, such as growing reliance on technology, globalization, supply chain issues; the structure of employment relationships (patterns of employment and unemployment; work experiences; worker health outcomes; and climate change impact the role of the IH and the ability to protect vulnerable workers. In this section, modeling, artificial intelligence (AI), work as a social determinant of health, NIOSH’s Total Worker Health (TWH), and pandemic planning will be addressed to help navigate complex and developing trends in occupational health and safety. Artificial Intelligence AI, or the ability of computers to think like humans, is often termed “machine learning.” Common consumer products like Alexa, Siri, and Google, use AI to understand habits and predict what will be needed next. IHs strive, when possible, to collect quantitative data to determine the hazard and assess risk. Historically, “smart sensors” have been revolutionary in this quest. They may indicate if a firefighter has not moved in 10 seconds and needs assistance. They may also serve as an end-of-life indicator on a respirator cartridge or a carbon-monoxide sensor alerting both the worker and confined space rescue team of adverse concentrations. This technology has certainly improved occupational health and safety. As more technology is added and connected to the Internet of Things, there is a blurring of lines between personal and professional. While the above examples are overwhelmingly beneficial, keystroke trackers, GPS sensors, monitoring of personal health indicators (e.g., pulse, respiration rate), competition with business systems (robotics, cobots), and increasing interactions between workers and machines can cause workers to feel a loss of privacy, depersonalization, and heightened stress (Howard, 2019). As human resource departments strive to integrate more wellness and productivity tools, there may be monitoring of employee body movements, fatigue, micro-facial expressions, and voice inflection (European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2021). While these all have legitimate uses to improve employee health and safety, there are concerns with privacy and the ethical use of the data.

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Work as a Social Determinant of Health The COVID pandemic changed the way of life and work as a social determinant of health. Social determinants of health are the conditions where people live, work, play, and learn. They affect health functioning, risks, and outcomes (US Department of Health and Human Services, n.d.). Work strongly impacts where and how people live, work, and play. Work is where people spend 8 hours per day, 5 days per week, and represents much of their time. As COVID emerged, many workers were able to work remotely from home, while others (healthcare, retail, delivery) were placed at increased risk due to the nature of their work. This can also be explained by socioeconomic status (SES). Higher SES workers were more likely to work from home, while lower SES workers faced increased workload, job stress, and occupational exposure. There is an unequal distribution of occupational exposures and resources among the US workforces. In a broader scale, the construct “work” may explain some of the overall health disparities. Work is associated with status, income, health and other insurance, social support and other workrelated benefits; however, racism/discrimination may underlie the unequal distribution of these factors. The COVID pandemic allowed workers a chance to re-evaluate the personal cost of work and led many to resign, change jobs, or leave the workforce in order to balance the demands of work and personal/family health. COVID also disproportionately affected low-income workers, specifically essential services (grocery, healthcare, those in precarious work). Employee wellness programs are not enough to improve employee health; the structure of work must change to consider holistic stressors and overall health. As employment evolves with different types of jobs (remote, gig workers), the decrease in the power of unions, the increase in the use of technology, and the movement of workers to obtain jobs with better benefits and flexibility, there is a natural restructuring of work, post-COVID. Key areas of work design include expanded job control such as schedule determination, worker voice/input; expanded demands to include longer hours, enhanced productivity surveillance, “always on” availability; and expanded social relations, such as supervisor support for family/ life, enhanced teamwork and social relations (Lovejoy, Kelly, Kubzansky, & Berkman, 2021). Employers and IHs are challenged to address work hazards and the broader scope of work in overall health. Modeling Exposures and Controls As technology and AI have developed, modeling exposures and controls are being used to predict those exposures prior to placing employees at risk. Models to assess and rank occupational hazards have appeared in the literature as

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a way for IHs to predict and control the most serious hazards. Control banding is the first step in classifying exposures and controls. Modeling can take that process further by predicting potential employee exposure and allowing for controls in advance. Modeling can help predict contaminant concentrations and times when more staffing is needed to reduce job stress. It can also provide a structured systems approach to considering hazards. For example, a model was developed and tested for a shopping mall construction project, identifying the three most serious hazards (collision with or struck by, fall from height, and trap/crush between objects). It provided an opportunity for enhanced controls prior to groundbreaking (Ran Liu & Hu-Chen Liu, 2020). Sorensen et  al. (2021) have updated their conceptual model that serves both the IH and researcher to consider how social determinants of health and the cultural, political, and other overarching conditions may impact efforts to decrease adverse occupational outcomes (figure 6.2). While the IH may be focused on how to prevent a hazard; changing economic and social conditions should also be considered as factors that may impact their efforts. The employer’s ability to find, train, and retain workers is strongly influenced by the employment patterns; currently job flexibility and opportunity are driving workers to find new positions. There is increased pressure on the organization to provide working conditions to better meet employee needs. Further, the COVID pandemic has painfully highlighted the importance of understanding the impact of social/political/economic as well as environmental and employment and labor patterns. In addition, it has illuminated the risk of infection at work and disparities in workers with exposures in jobs requiring them to deal with the general public. NIOSH has developed a more holistic approach to considering hazards and work, and how work is a social determinant of health.

Figure 6.2  Expanded Conceptual Work Health Model Source: Sorensen et al. (2021).

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Total Worker Health NIOSH The systems approach to health has been operationalized through NIOSH’s TWH program. TWH extends the paradigm of ensuring employees are safe at work, to considering the job-related factors that impact the well-being of workers, their families, and communities (NIOSH, 2020). TWH is meant to be the next level after the traditional occupational health and safety hazards have been addressed and controlled. TWH programs are an extension of and complement to employee wellness programs and seek to address issues such as wages, work hours, workload, interactions with others, and access to paid leave for family support. Research studies have demonstrated improvements in workplace safety and health, based on the use of TWH. Readers are encouraged to review Promising Practices for Total Worker Health (https:// www​.cdc​.gov​/niosh​/twh​/practices​.html) which provides examples from a variety of working environments (NIOSH, 2021). PANDEMIC PLANNING FROM AN INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE PERSPECTIVE The recent COVID pandemic has created a plethora of quickly emerging issues related to occupational health and safety. While the COVID pandemic has felt like the first “big” one in this lifetime, history is replete with examples. Pandemics In 2007, with the threat of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), the AIHA Biosafety and Environmental Microbiology Committee (2007) published The Role of the Industrial Hygienist in a Pandemic. The anticipation and recognition of the possibility of a pandemic and a lack of guidance led to this document, just in time for the H1N1 flu epidemic in 2009. An epidemic is a severe outbreak within a region or group; whereas, a pandemic is more widespread and affects a whole region, continent, or the world due to a susceptible population, and causes a high degree of mortality or death (Davis, 2021). The following is a sample of past pandemics and how each was solved (Healthline, n.d.): 1633–1634: Smallpox carried by European settlers. A vaccine was developed from cowpox to help the human immune system resist smallpox. Following a large vaccine initiative in 1972, smallpox was eliminated from the United States, and vaccines were no longer needed.

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1793: Yellow fever epidemic in the Caribbean. This made its way onto ships traveling to the northeastern United States. It was eventually determined that mosquitos spread the disease. While there is no cure, eliminating mosquitos has controlled yellow fever. 1832–1866: Cholera in three waves in the United States. Between 5 and 10 percent of the populations in large cities died in the United States, and it still causes nearly 100,000 deaths worldwide. Modern sewage and water treatment have helped eradicate it in some areas, but not worldwide. Vaccines are now available, but the risk is also significantly lowered through personal cleanliness and avoidance of contaminated water. 1906–1907: Typhoid fever in New York. It killed over 25,000 people. A vaccine was developed in 1911 and an antibiotic treatment became available in 1948. 1918: H1N1 flu. A pandemic, sometimes referred to as the Spanish flu. Vaccines were developed over the years, but mutations make current vaccines less than totally effective. 1916–1955: Polio. In 1955 a vaccine was approved and quickly adopted throughout the world. The United States has seen near elimination of polio since 1979. 1957: H2N2 flu. A major flu outbreak, originating in birds and first reported in Singapore and then Hong Kong, appeared in coastal cities in the United States in 1957. There were more than a million deaths worldwide and over 100,000 in the United States. It was caught early, and a vaccine, based on knowledge from the first vaccine in the early 1940s was developed. 1981–present: HIV and AIDS. AIDS is the final stage of HIV. HIV/AIDS is managed with medication in developed countries; it is not a death sentence and can be controlled for a long, healthy life. In developing countries, HIV transmission is high, with few resources for prevention, early detection, or medical management. 2009: H1N1 flu. It was detected in the spring and referred to as the “swine flu.” CDC estimates that since H1N1 has been detected, approximately 75,000 deaths have occurred worldwide (CDC, 2019). Influenza vaccines include various strains to best predict and protect from the most severe and transmissible forms. 2020–current: COVID-19. The SARS-CoV-2 virus appears to spread easily throughout the population in the community. There have been more than 5.1 million deaths in the world (WHO, 2021), and as of this writing, the variants continue to spread. Vaccine development has decreased the severity and fatality rates of COVID-19. A common theme among the lessons learned from previous pandemics was the use of vaccines to prevent the disease. In the NIOSH hierarchy of controls, this could be interpreted as an elimination strategy. The vaccine strengthens

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the body’s immune response, so the virus cannot effectively propagate. If the IH can decrease the probability of exposure and require everyone to be vaccinated, worker health and organizational productivity can be maintained. Individuals and organizations must be prepared for appropriate response to pandemic conditions. This requires a plan; appropriate preparedness; and a prompt, proactive response to the anticipated risk. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a pandemic goes through several phases, as they describe for a response to influenza. A summary of the WHO (n.d.) recommendations, as applied to an individual organization, is as follows: 1. Develop, exercise, and periodically revise a preparedness and response plan. Communicate the plan within the organization and promote appropriate behaviors for self and community protection. 2. Direct and coordinate rapid containment activities within the organization to limit the spread of infection. Increase surveillance and monitor containment actions. Promote and communicate recommended interventions to prevent the spread. 3. Continue active monitoring of the evolving pandemic and provide updates to employees. 4. Anticipate the need for and provide access to any additional resources necessary during the pandemic response. 5. Coordinate and prepare for the acquisition of and response with additional resources in case of a future wave of the pandemic. 6. Once the pandemic has returned to a relatively normal level, review the response and lessons learned, and conduct a thorough evaluation of all implemented interventions. Prepare for the next pandemic appropriately. The following serves as a limited case study of items for the IH to consider when pandemic planning. TOXICOLOGY When evaluating environmental stressors that cause a pandemic, the IH is focused on biological agents. Biological agents can be the most difficult to understand from a toxicological perspective, as there may be wide variation in individual susceptibility and prognosis if infected. Many IHs may only have addressed mold or anthrax as a biological agent in their careers. Those working in healthcare, food, or research may have had more exposure to biological agents. In order to understand biosafety practices, the Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories provides guidance for laboratories and

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can assist the IH in understanding biological agents and controls. Coronavirus is listed in this document in terms of SARS and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (NIH, 2020). Further, OSHA (n.d.) has published a page on biological agents, such as Ebola (close contact with individuals), Hantavirus (droppings of mice and rats), Legionnaires’ disease (poorly maintained cooling towers and water systems), and Zika virus (mosquitoes). Many of the emerging infectious diseases are viral in nature, limiting treatment options to supportive care. For viral disease, a vaccine is the best prevention and defense. President Biden stated he would require federal employees and contractors and employers with 100 employees or more to ensure every worker is vaccinated or completes weekly COVID testing and wears a facemask in the workplace. In addition, health care workers at facilities that participate in Medicare and Medicaid must be fully vaccinated (White House, 2021). Other infectious diseases are bacterial, and the rise of microbial resistance to antibiotics has led to a lack of treatments of world killers such as tuberculosis. This is seen most acutely in healthcare settings, for example retrospectively, the emergence of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcal aureus (MRSA) and other nosocomial infections. Routes of Entry Biological agents can enter the body via all the routes of entry previously discussed (inhalation, ingestion, skin absorption, and injection). Of increased concern for biological agents is the absorption via the mucous membranes. This can also add to their complexity of recognition and evaluation. During the emergence of COVID, the medical community was not sure if it was spread via inhalation or contact through touch and transfer to the mucous membranes, allowing entry into the body. While inhalation is the primary route of exposure, SARS-CoV-2 has been reported to be transmitted via people touching surfaces an ill person has recently coughed or sneezed on and then touching their mouth, nose or eyes; transmission via an object is termed fomite transmission (CDC, 2021a). INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE PROCESS To prepare for any pandemic with a biological agent, IHs must plan. As COVID caught many organizations without a contingency plan for a pandemic or other similar crisis, others who had considered their response in advance were better able to pivot and maintain productivity during turbulent times. The following section outlines the industrial hygiene process and how it can be applied to pandemic planning. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

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has resources for the US National Pandemic Strategy that can be used to better understand how local, state, and federal response is structured (CDC, 2021b). Anticipation and Recognition Recognizing that the current COVID pandemic could continue and that another infectious agent may emerge (e.g., influenza), the IH must first understand the agents that are likely to cause an epidemic. One way to monitor emerging health threats is to review the CDC’s Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (CDC, 2021c). At the beginning of the COVID pandemic, OSHA developed a system for classifying worker exposure according to risk, and then developed controls based on those categories. This has been refined, and the criteria for determining worker risk level is based on the extent of community transmission, severity of illness, preexisting conditions in workers, environmental conditions (working or living in close quarters), and the success of medical intervention (OSHA, 2021). These considerations in the hazard evaluation step of the process are markedly different from those employed for chemical or physical hazards (OSHA, 2021); specifically, the most effective way to protect against severe illness or death from COVID-19 is vaccination. During the initial phase of an epidemic, the agent/route of exposure may be unknown, and vaccination may not be an option. Thus, the following risk levels can provide insight for a biological agent with little known toxicology. As more is known about transmission mode and virulence of different agents, more refined plans can be developed. • Very high exposure risk jobs encompass employees in the medical, postmortem, or medical laboratory fields who may generate exposures or be exposed to aerosols due to patient procedures. • High exposure risk jobs have a high potential for exposure and include healthcare delivery and support staff, medical transport employees, and mortuary workers. • Medium risk jobs are those where employees may have frequent and/or close contact (6 feet) with people who may be infected (schools, retail, high population density environments). • Lower risk jobs are those that do not require contact with people suspected of disease (OSHA, 2020). While OSHA’s guidance may serve as a starting point, each employer must complete a hazard analysis to consider the potential for infection in their individual process, among other health and safety matters.

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Evaluation Evaluation is the phase in the industrial hygiene process when quantitative and/or qualitative measures are used to better understand employee exposure. Typically, this is completed using air sampling to assess the concentration of chemicals in the workplace. Bioaerosols can currently only be assessed via a semi-quantitative or a mostly qualitative approach. This is due to analytical difficulties or uncertainty regarding airborne and fomite transmission (where/how/when to sample air and/or surfaces?). If the IH does have an assessment of bioaerosols (typically described as low, moderate or high exposure); differences in worker susceptibility, lack of occupational exposure limits, limited epidemiological data for bioaerosol exposure, and high variability in exposure makes it difficult to act due to numerous confounding factors. Thus, the evaluation stage is often made with data other than that captured by the IH. Community transmission levels (e.g., weekly case rate) are important in understanding the risk to local employees; for multisite employers, this may vary widely. Individual susceptibility may vary by person and pathogen. For example, the 2009 H1N1 influenza epidemic primarily struck young people, while the elderly are a population at higher risk of severe health effects from seasonal flu. Variants of SARS-CoV-2 (e.g., Delta) differentially caused disease in the population and was much more transmissible (able to spread person to person) than previous variants. Controls Using the NIOSH hierarchy of controls, several potential measures can be taken to reduce risk for employees. While the hierarchy of controls is an excellent starting point, attention should also be directed to NIOSH’s TWH program, as it considers factors from work and life that may contribute employee risk. One additional tool important to consider is the chain of infection and how it impacts business and occupational health and safety (figure 6.3). In this model, one considers the source of the pathogen, the pathway it travels, and the receptor as possible points to reduce or eliminate exposure and subsequent disease. This provides an alternative perspective for the IH when considering controls. Elimination strategies include vaccination; although this does not remove the hazard from the workplace, it makes those who are vaccinated able to fight off infection and reduce/eliminate their time away from work. Additionally, if remote work is possible, elimination can also be achieved by employees working from home using web conferencing applications.

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Figure 6.3  Evaluating the Chain of Infection Source: Zisook et al. (2020).

Substitution strategies do not currently exist, as the environmental stressor is an evolving biological agent in the general population. It is not something acquired by the company by choice. Engineering controls may include ventilation, isolation/enclosure, handsfree equipment, and use of surface coatings on high touch points. Ventilation solutions can include isolation rooms (those with HEPA filtered negative pressure exhaust); these are present in some healthcare facilities to handle those with infectious respiratory diseases such as tuberculosis. General ventilation handled by the building heating, ventilating and cooling (HVAC) system can be adjusted to increase the percentage of outside air, thus reducing the potential for re-circulation of pathogens. Increased air flow, filtration systems, and/or ultraviolet germicidal lamps also help. Isolating or enclosing workers can be accomplished via drive-through-style partitions and windows, Plexiglas screens, and private workspaces. Hands-free options can be installed on doors, faucets, soap and towel dispensers, lights and other high touch points. During the COVID pandemic, copper and other coatings on high-touch surfaces were investigated to determine which best reduced the viability of survival and transmission. Administrative controls can be policies and procedures, marking/signage, education/training, and employee scheduling. Policies may include time off to receive a vaccination and any necessary recovery time, mandatory vaccination, employee health monitoring (temperature checks), offering the ability to stay home when ill or with a family member, providing the option to work

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remotely due to childcare/school deficits, and others. Procedures may include social distancing requirements among employees and customers, floor markings and other barriers to maintain distance from others, one-way aisles, staggered work shifts and breaks, cleaning and disinfection procedures, hand hygiene, and minimization of high-density areas (cafeteria, breakroom, fitness equipment). Education and training should be provided to ensure employees understand both the hazards and controls. Last, PPE, the last line of defense, encompasses a variety of solutions. The most pervasive method to reduce exposure to COVID has been the use of face coverings/masks (not classified as respiratory protection) and hand washing/ sanitizer. Requirements for face coverings during COVID were provided by the CDC; face coverings are not considered respiratory protection and should not be substituted when a respirator is necessary. For those in contact with potentially infected persons, additional equipment such as safety glasses/goggles, face shields, gowns, gloves, N95 and other respirators may be required, based on the hazard assessment. For example, healthcare workers may need to employ many of these items. CONCLUSION Employee health and well-being are dependent upon the IH’s ability to recognize, evaluate, and control environmental stressors. It is a very complex and demanding area of occupational safety and health, but the rewards more than outweigh the demands. QUESTIONS 1. What are some of the responsibilities of an IH? 2. Why is industrial hygiene an art and a science? Provide an example that requires both art and science to solve a workplace health hazard. 3. Are all substances toxic? Can you explain why a substance may or may not be toxic? 4. What are the routes of entry for substances to be taken up by the body? Provide an example of each type. Which route is the most common occupational route of entry? 5. Differentiate between the terms acute and chronic using the appropriate dose level and time period. 6. Why should an IH consider both local and systemic effects of substances? 7. Differentiate between the additive, antagonistic, and synergistic effects of substances in the body.

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8. What are the three classification methods of toxic materials? 9. Discuss the influence of emotion when characterizing toxicity and risk. 10. What is the difference between PELs and TLVs? Explain why knowledge of these exposure measurements is important. 11. What are the three categories of health hazard controls? Provide two workplace examples for each category. 12. What type of health hazard control should be instituted first? Why is PPE a last resort for controlling exposure? 13. How can NIOSH’s TWH program be used to better protect employees’ overall health? 14. How can industrial hygiene ethical principles be applied to the use of monitoring of employee vital signs? 15. Consider how a pandemic plan could be developed for an influenza epidemic. REFERENCES American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. (1994). TLVs Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices for 1994–1995. Cincinnati, OH: Author. American Industrial Hygiene Association. (2017). Member Ethical Principles. Retrieved from https://aiha​-assets​.sfo2​.digitaloceanspaces​.com​/aiha​/resources​/ about​-aiha​/membership​-ethical​-principles​.pdf. American Industrial Hygiene Association. (2017). The Role of the Industrial Hygienist in a Pandemic. Retrieved from https://www​.ioha​.net​/wp​-content​/uploads​/2020​ /06​/The​Role​ofth​eInd​ustr​ialH​ygie​nist​inaP​andemic​-copy​.pdf. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). Influenza. Retrieved from https:// www​.cdc​.gov​/flu​/pandemic​-resources​/burden​-of​-h1n1​.html. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021a). Science Brief: SARS-CoV-2 and Surface (Fomite) Transmission for Indoor Community Environments. Retrieved from https://www​.cdc​.gov​/coronavirus​/2019​-ncov​/more​/science​-and​-research​/surface​-transmission​.html. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021b). National Pandemic Strategy. Retrieved from https://www​.cdc​.gov​/flu​/pandemic​-resources​/national​-strategy​/ index​.html. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021c). Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Retrieved from https://www​.cdc​.gov​/mmwr/. Clayton, F., & Clayton, G. (Eds.). (1981). Patty’s Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Confer, R., & Confer, T. (1994). Occupational Health and Safety: Terms, Definitions, and Abbreviations. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers. Davis, C. P. (2021, March). Medical definition of pandemic. MedicineNET. Retrieved from https://www​.medicinenet​.com​/pandemic​/definition​.htm.

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European Agency for the Safety and Health at Work (EU-OSHA). (2021). Impact of artificial intelligence on occupational safety and health. Retrieved from http://osha​ .europa​.eu. Han, B., Son, S., & Kim, S. (2021). Measuring safety climate in the construction industry: A systematic literature review. Sustainability, 13. https://doi​.org​/10​.3390​ /su131910603. Healthline. (n.d.). The Worst Outbreaks in U.S. History. Retrieved from https://www​ .healthline​.com​/health​/what​-is​-a​-pandemic​#past​-pandemics Howard, J. (2019). Artificial intelligence: Implications for the future of work. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 62, 917–926. https://doi​.org​/10​.1002​/ ajim23037. Liu, R., Mou, X., & Liu, H.-C. (2020). Occupational health and safety risk assessment based on combination weighting and uncertain linguistic information: Method development and application to a construction project. IISE Transactions on Occupational Ergonomics and Human Factors, 8(4), 175–186. http://doi​.org​/10​.1080​ /24725838​.2021​.1875519. Lovejoy, M., Kelly, E. L., Kubzansky, L. D., & Berkman, L. F. (2021). Work redesign for the 21st century: Promising strategies for enhancing worker well-being. American Journal of Public Health, 111(10), 1787–1795. http://doi​.org​/10​.2105​/ AJPH​.2021​.306283. National Institutes of Health (NIH). 2020. Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories, 6th ed. Retrieved from https://www​.cdc​.gov​/labs​/pdf​/SF_​_19​ _308133​-A​_BMBL6​_00​-BOOK​-WEB​-final​-3​.pdf. NIOSH. (2015). Hierarchy of Controls. Retrieved from https://www​.cdc​.gov​/niosh​/ topics​/hierarchy​/default​.html. NIOSH. (2020). Total Worker Health. Retrieved from http://cdc​.gov​/niosh​/twh. NIOSH. (2021). Promising Practices for Total Worker Health. Retrieved from https://www​.cdc​.gov​/niosh​/twh​/practices​.html. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.). Safety and Health Topics – Biological Agents. Retrieved from https://www​.osha​.gov​/biological​-agents. Occupational Health and Safety Administration. (2020). Guidance on Preparing Workplaces for COVID-19. Retrieved from https://www​.osha​.gov​/sites​/default​/ files​/publications​/OSHA3990​.pdf. Sorensen, G., Dennerlein, J. T., Peters, S. E., Sabbath, E. L., Kelly, E. L., & Wagner, G. R. (2021). The future of research on work, safety health and wellbeing: A guiding conceptual framework. Social Science & Medicine, 269. Retrieved from https:// doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.socscimed​.2020​.113593. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (n.d.). Social Determinants of Health. Retrieved from https://health​.gov​/healthypeople​/objectives​-and​-data​/social​ -determinants​-health. White House. (2021). Fact Sheet: Biden administration announces details of two major vaccination policies. Retrieved from https://www​.whitehouse​.gov​/briefing​ -room​/statements​-releases​/2021​/11​/04​/fact​-sheet​-biden​-administration​-announces​ -details​-of​-two​-major​-vaccination​-policies/. World Health Association. (2021). WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. Retrieved from https://covid19​.who​.int/.

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World Health Organization. (n.d.). WHO pandemic phase descriptions and main actions by phase. Retrieved from https://www​.who​.int​/influenza​/resources​/documents​/pandemic​_phase​_descriptions​_and​_actions​.pdf. Zisook, R. E., Monnot, A., Parker, J., Gaffney, S., Dotson, S., & Unice, K. (2020). Assessing and managing the risks of COVID-19 in the workplace: Applying industrial hygiene (IH)/occupational and environmental health and safety (OEHS) frameworks. Toxicology and Industrial Health, 36(9), 607–618. http://doi​.org​/10​ .1177​/0748233720967522.

Chapter 7

Ergonomics and Safety Management Andrew R. Dattel, Hui Wang, and Andrey K. Babin

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to • define ergonomic terminology; • list and describe the components of the operator-machine system; • explain the role of anthropometrics when solving ergonomic problems; • explain the role of biomechanics when solving ergonomic problems; • list the categories of workstations; and • identify when selected types of workstations should be considered the design of choice. CASE STUDY A safety department at a large passenger airline was receiving frequent, multiple back-injury reports from its employees. Most of the injured employees were ramp agents responsible for loading and unloading passenger baggage in and out of aircraft cargo bins. Management decided to investigate the issue by collecting more information and performing a job analysis of baggage handling operations, from the moment a bag was checked at the terminal to when it was loaded inside the aircraft cargo bin. Additionally, the airline asked all employees to submit voluntary reports any time they experienced back discomfort from handling passenger baggage. This would be useful in case an injury report was not required. After a careful review of collected data, it became evident that most instances occurred on the ramp near the aircraft. Typically, an airport tug, 131

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pulling a set of baggage carts, drove up to the aircraft, where an agent picked up each bag and put it on a belt loader. This is a vehicle with a moving conveyor belt on an extended arm, parked with the extended side facing the aircraft cargo bin. The loader then moved the bag to the inside of the aircraft. A typical baggage cart at this airline is a large metal box on wheels with a wide shelf in the middle, splitting the cart into a bottom and middle level. Most injuries were reported after agents picked up the bags from the bottom level to transport and put them on the belt loader, located close to an agent’s knee level. After interviewing ramp employees and subject-matter experts, management determined one common denominator was that injuries typically occurred with bags weighing 50 lbs. (standard weight limit for airline passenger bags) or more. To combat the issue, management considered the use of additional equipment for heavy weight lifting (e.g., back belts), but this was rejected because of the potential for improper use or lack of availability in every appropriate situation. Because most injuries occurred when employees picked up bags from the bottom level of the baggage carts, it became apparent that a change to baggage handling procedures was warranted. This would help ensure the safe lifting and carrying of heavy objects. The airline hired a Certified Professional Ergonomist (CPE) to perform a detailed review of the issue and provide recommendations for the most optimal procedure. An airport ramp is a dynamic environment, with employees frequently moving from one location to another, working in various weather conditions and under elevated noise levels. They often have to wear additional clothing and equipment while performing their duties. All of these factors had to be considered by the CPE when determining the available range of body motion for ramp agents loading passenger baggage. To accurately measure the risk involved in lifting heavy items and identify the best practices, the CPE utilized the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) lifting equation. By using the lifting height and position of the baggage cart in relation to the belt loader, the CPE determined that, given the working conditions of the ramp agents, the most optimal height for picking up heavy items was about knuckle height. The bags should then be transported to the belt loader and loaded at the knee level, avoiding high lifting motion. Per the CPE’s suggestions, new procedures and policies were adopted. To indicate and identify heavy baggage, the airline management designed and introduced stickers of bright red color (which could be easily visible on a carrier of any color) stating the word, “HEAVY.” Because each bag is weighed during the check-in process, the stickers are placed at the airport ticketing counter. If a bag exceeds 45 pounds at the weigh-in, a terminal agent is now required to put a sticker on it. Per the revised ramp policy, all heavy bags are loaded only on the middle level of the baggage cart, as that places them

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close to the ramp agents’ knuckle height. A company-wide communication campaign was launched to increase awareness of the issue, and notify the employees of the new changes. The training program and company documentation have been amended to highlight the risks of back injuries from incorrect handling of heavy items and the proper lifting techniques. After the initial implementation period, management noted a reduction in injury reports—a pleasant result! As a positive side effect, employee performance also improved, due to a strong morale boost. It had become apparent within the workforce that leadership prioritized workplace safety.

INTRODUCTION TO ERGONOMICS Due to its significance as a health and safety issue—in terms of medical costs, employee days lost from work, and human suffering—ergonomics has caught the attention of management. Operations requiring lifting and moving parts or other materials, repetitive motion, unusual postures, or stationary positions are likely to cause sprains, strains, and musculoskeletal problems. Many problems can be minimized with relatively simple and inexpensive interventions. Some require intervention on a higher level, such as through workstation or plant redesign, to reduce the amount of material handling required. Definition of the Term “Ergonomics” Ergonomics is based on two Greek words: ergos, meaning work, and nomos, meaning “the study of” or “the principles of.” In other words, ergonomics refers to the study of work. Ergonomics is the discipline examining the capabilities and limitations of people. There are several fields of study contributing to the discipline. Information about human characteristics and their connection with workplace tools, materials, or facilities are compiled. Ergonomics applies this information to the design of working and living environments. Differences in Ergonomics and Human Factors Unlike in many countries where the terms, ”human factors” and “ergonomics” are used interchangeably, in the United States, the two terms have distinct meanings. Ergonomics emphasizes physical capabilities and limitations (e.g., comfortable physical furniture, placement of targets within accessible reach). Human factors emphasizes cognitive applications that involve human processing and behavioral capabilities and limitations such as response time, memory capacity, and so on.

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Ergonomics Is Multidisciplinary Ergonomics involves knowledge of sociology, psychology, anthropology, anatomy, physiology, chemistry, physics, mechanics, statistics, industrial engineering, biomechanics, and anthropometry. For the behavioral and social sciences (i.e., sociology, psychology, anthropology), knowledge of human adaptation, limitations, and capabilities are frequently applied. For the mathematical sciences (i.e., statistics, mechanics), average dimensions and physical attributes for 90 percent of humans are typically considered. For the natural sciences (i.e., chemistry, physics, anatomy, physiology), knowledge of human lifting capabilities and environmental conditions, including air quality, are necessary; and for the engineering sciences (anthropometry, biomechanics, industrial engineering), range of movement, hygiene, and environmental stressors are important factors. This knowledge is applied to the principles and practices in the industrial environment through active occupational layout and design, product design, safety engineering, occupational medicine, and industrial hygiene. Various disciplines and sciences may overlap within a design of one system; some can be seen in our day-to-day life. Consider a typical office cubicle as an example. The paneling between office spaces blocks potential distractions and allows workers to focus (behavioral and social sciences); the office chair (and sometimes the desk) may be adjusted to account for the difference in the height of the general population (mathematical sciences) and provide comfort. Ceiling lamps provide necessary lighting for reading and/or writing, especially crucial when natural lighting is less than optimal (natural sciences), and frequently used objects, such as a phone or a notebook, are placed within reach of an employee for easy access (engineering sciences). Ergonomics Objective The primary objective of ergonomics is to improve human health, safety, and performance through the application of sound workplace principles. Modern ergonomics started at the dawn of the twentieth century, when contributors such as Frederick Taylor and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth designed systems and tools that were more effective and efficient for human use. For example, Lillian Gilbreth designed the trashcan pedal, freeing up a hand by using a foot to open the lid (Graham, 1999). Ergonomists can best serve as part of a team that includes engineers, managers, medical personnel, and even line workers. The ergonomics team systematically analyzes job requirements from a worker capability and limitation perspective, analyzes workplace layout and design, and recommends improvement of the production process. Ideally, these activities are performed proactively by integrating them into both safety and production processes. The goal is to eliminate problems before they occur.

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Applying Ergonomics: An Overview Effectively pinpointing ergonomic hazards depends on the triad of recognition, evaluation, and control. Recognition of ergonomic hazards usually involves the search for symptoms. Physiological stresses and muscular strains, psychological stresses, and general complaints or discomfort are typical of ergonomic problems. Excessive movement of the product on the production floor can also be an indicator. The professional asks why a product is moved before packing, or why it goes from point A to point B before the inspection. Anytime a product is handled, the value should be added; otherwise, handling occurs for no reason. Through the review of records, preliminary observation of the workplace, and interviews with key personnel, safety practitioners determine where employees are exposed to potential ergonomic hazards. Additionally, companies are encouraged to provide and promote a database where employees can anonymously report safety hazards. If ergonomic exposures are a problem, it is necessary to initiate evaluation activities. Opponent Process Theory The role of the job has changed dramatically in the last few decades. Many positions now require the user to interface with computer displays and monitors. Monitors help the user navigate software, as well as provide visual feedback to the user (e.g., task completion, processing, error). In safety-critical, occupational positions, the Opponent Process Theory for Color Vision (Hurvich & Jameson, 1957) should be considered. The Opponent Process Theory for Color Visions states that humans have three opposing process visual receptors (black/white; red/green; blue/yellow). For example, visual receptors can only see the color red or the color green serially (not simultaneously). If one stares at a green color for a particular length of time, then that receptor will become fatigued, and the opponent color (red) may take over during an afterimage (a visual hue that lingers). Thus, it is important to design displays so that an afterimage doesn’t interfere with critical color displays (such as an alerter that is based on color). This blending of color may make it difficult to correctly recognize hues (what may appear red at one setting may now appear as a different color, maybe orange), which can confuse the operator of the actual color being displayed. Working conditions that frequently change in brightness can be blinding. Many people experience a time period where seeing is difficult after being exposed to bright light followed by dark light (Coren et al., 2004). Dark adaptation may take up to 30 minutes, before typical night vision is fully restored. For example, pilots who are flying at night are told to use a flashlight with a red lens, so as not to impair their night vision (Federal Aviation Administration, 2021). Light that has a longer wavelength (around 700 nanometers) appears

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red. Red light is more sensitive to the cone visual photoreceptors (Wickens et al., 2004). However, red light is less effective when sight for detail is needed. Other examples of appropriate light adjustments include steps taken by traffic engineers. They have addressed problems with dark adaptation (and light adaptation), by providing orange lights (long wavelengths) near tunnel openings on a roadway, and changing to white lights near the tunnel exits (Yi, 2019). Another potentially hazardous issue exists for highway construction crews working at night. They often use bright, white-lighting projectors, so they can better see work details. Unfortunately, the bright light is dangerous to drivers. When a driver is exposed to bright light, it is difficult for him or her to see cars and other objects on the road. It could potentially cause a collision with an object or a worker on the side of the road. A solution is to orient the light, so that it benefits the construction crew, but is angled away from the driver’s field of view. Participatory Ergonomics The most valuable commodity of any company is arguably their employees. Employees are frequently at the heart of the operation (e.g., front-line, firstresponders). Being fully involved in the operation, these employees can contribute valuable information for improving the safety and smooth operation of the organization. To take advantage of employee knowledge, companies should engage in participatory ergonomics when the opportunity permits. Participatory ergonomics recognizes that employees have expertise in certain areas and may be able to contribute to the planning, design (e.g., of machinery), job position, and workstations constructively. Employee input can increase the productivity output, reduce errors, and foster safe operations in the workplace (Brown, 2005; Wilson & Haines, 1997). Burgess-Limerick (2018) showed that when participatory ergonomics is employed, it is not only effective in reducing injuries, but is also more likely to be accepted by employees, which can increase morale. Evaluation of Hazards and Risk Assessment Evaluation implies the collection of information to help determine the extent and location of the problem. Review of written records, including OSHA 300 logs (documents required by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration [OSHA] for specific work-related injuries and illnesses; OSHA, n.d.), first aid or nurses’ logs, and workers’ compensation forms should be considered the starting point in the evaluation process. More detailed evaluation activities are performed if there are significant numbers of ergonomic injuries and illnesses. Indicators include cases of back injuries, carpal tunnel

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syndrome, tendinitis, tenosynovitis, and muscle strains or sprains. Written records should contain the name of the individual involved in the incident, the job title, and the job location at the facility. Follow-up activities are initiated for jobs or locations where the greatest frequency of incidents or the most severe ones occur. Detailed, field data collection through personnel interviews, supervisor interviews, workplace observations, and employee health surveys are typical follow-up evaluation activities to provide insight into the extent of the ergonomic problem. Approaches to mitigate issues such as personal injuries, equipment damage, and even training design, can be improved by conducting job analyses and task analyses. A job analysis is an in-depth systematic analysis that determines what is typically accomplished in a job, what capabilities are needed, and what limitations exist. Job analyses provide a holistic look into hazards that one may encounter when performing a job through a review of the job and its environment. The review includes such elements of the job as job description, classification, evaluation, human resource requirements, training, employee reviews, and so on (Brannick et al., 2007). Some factors that may be identified through a job analysis include poor lighting or loud noises. For a more detailed look, a task analysis is performed. A task analysis is a method of analyzing how people interact with available tools to accomplish a goal. The specific, accomplished goal is broken down into subtasks (frequently from a hierarchical perspective), thereby providing each step needed to accomplish the goal (Maldonado-Macias et al., 2015; Rose & Bearman, 2012). Similar to a task analysis, a cognitive task analysis focuses on the cognitive processes required to complete a task (Lercel & Andrews, 2021). For example, Durso et  al. (2008) interviewed air-traffic controllers who were required to “mark” a flight progress strip after each flight took off (e.g., physically write on the strip that a clearance for takeoff was given to the aircraft) as an aid to memory. Despite the requirement to aid memory, the controllers reported that just the action of making the mark improved their situation awareness and reduced their workload. Therefore, a required procedure may satisfy its initially intended purpose, but it may also be more beneficial for a different purpose other than initially intended. Knowing how a person processes information can provide for optimal work design, optimal workspace design, optimal output, and better mental and physical quality of employees (Durugbo, 2020; Hoffman & Militello, 2012). Task analysis looks into the completion of each task, step by step, and assesses the factors that may pose a safety risk to employees during the completion of each step. Factors studied during each step of the job and/or task may include: • Frequency of potentially harmful motions, including repetitive motions • Length of time the task is performed

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• Pace employees maintain during the shift • Internal muscle forces employees exert to perform tasks • External forces exerted on employees, such as from the weight of objects carried • Range of motion required to complete a task • Awkward postures When performing on-site observations (such as task analyses) at the job site, it is strongly recommended to visually record tasks being completed as an additional measure. Video recordings are particularly important in fastpaced environments, as some details may be unintentionally omitted during the initial observation. A review of recordings will allow the ergonomist to get a closer look at the main hazards identified during a field observation and take a closer look to search for additional elements possibly missed. This review is particularly beneficial when analyzing fast-paced environments. Jobs and tasks recorded on video can be broken down into discrete behavioral steps, so each step is monitored and frequency measures are noted. In addition to field observations, interviews with employees performing the task can help the observer understand personal struggles with the task (which may not be caught through simple observations) and the cognitive processes in employees completing these tasks. Hazard and Risk Control With job-related data in hand, control measures are determined. Depending on the availability of resources, different approaches may be applied for hazard control. The NIOSH (2015) hierarchy of controls, as explained in chapter 6, can be used to address the hazards.

APPLYING ERGONOMICS: IN DETAIL Operator-Machine Systems Once potential ergonomic problems have been recognized and superficially evaluated for specific jobs or locations, the operator-machine system analysis is used to categorize major conditions contributing to ergonomic problems. Operator-machine system analysis examines factors associated with the people, equipment/machinery (including workplace layout), and environment. The approach directs the evaluator toward an understanding of the cause of and potential solutions for ergonomic problems by studying the interaction of the operator with the machine. Consideration is given to the quality

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of interaction based on expectations of machine operation, actual machine operation, output, and other factors related to the environment. It provides safety professionals with a systematic procedure to study the three categories of causes resulting in ergonomic hazards in the occupational setting: humans, machines, and environments. HUMANS Limitations in human capabilities can contribute to the ergonomic problem. These limitations include physiological dimensions, psychological factors, and psychosocial factors. One or more of these conditions has the potential to cause injuries or illnesses in the workplace. Examination of mental and physical job demands determines whether job demands exceed human capabilities. Designing a system permitting humans to process greater information by utilizing all senses can reduce mental workload, consequently allowing for improved decisions and actions. Knowledge of human physiological dimensions (anthropometry) and movement (biomechanics) is a critical component. The actions of employees while performing their tasks, are compared to movement categories based on anthropometric and biomechanical classifications. Types of movements, whether they are performed properly and efficiently, and their frequency are noted. A quantitative evaluation of motions, forces, or other contributing factors can then be performed. Anthropometry Anthropometry is the measurement and collection of the physical dimensions of the human body. It is used to improve the human fit in the workplace or to determine problems existing between facilities or equipment and the employees using them. There are two types of anthropometric dimensions useful for the study of human physiology and its effect on workplace layout and design: 1. Structural or static anthropometry: The body measurements and dimensions of subjects in fixed, standardized positions are referred to as “structural” or “static” anthropometrics. Common structural anthropometric measurements include stature (height), sitting height, body depth, body breadth, eye height sitting or standing, knuckle height, elbow height, elbow to fist length, and arm reach. 2. Functional or dynamic anthropometry: Functional or dynamic anthropometry refers to the body measurements and dimensions taken during physical activities. Frequently used functional measurements

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include crawling height, crawling length, kneeling height, overhead reach, bent torso height, and range of movement for upper-body extremities. Anthropometric measurements help designers determine furniture or workplace-layout requirements, based on typical human body sizes. Prior to the utilization of ergonomics and anthropometrics, many machines and workplaces were designed for the so-called “average” employee. Unfortunately, average statistical measurements represent less than 1 percent of the normal distribution of body measures. For example, if a standing workplace were designed for an average American male, it would not fit 99 percent of the American population. The evolution of automobile interiors illustrates the value added by the application of ergonomics. Years ago, seats could be adjusted forward and backward to accommodate the leg length and pedal reach requirements of the driver. Height, pedal, and steering-wheel adjustments were not typically available. Cars were designed for the “average” person in the population, causing short individuals to look through the steering wheel and tall individuals to strike their heads against the roof. Today, ergonomists use anthropometric measurements to include at least 90 percent of the population. Most workplace designs attempt to achieve this goal by including people dimensions between the 5th and 95th percentiles. To accommodate this segment of the population, automobile manufacturers have provided adjustable devices, such as automobiles with multi-directional power seats, moveable pedals and steering wheels, reclining seat backs, and mobile head rests. Percentile statistics are used extensively in anthropometrics to represent the number of people with measurements less than or equal to the dimensions of interest. If a person has an anthropometric measurement that places them in the 95th percentile, their measurement is as large as or larger than 95 percent of the population. A total of 90 percent of this male and female population could be accommodated for height, if the workplace is designed to be adjustable for people between the 5th and 95th percentiles. As the size of the average American increases, measurements of each percentile increase accordingly. In other words, individuals within a given range continue to grow larger. As an example, a bell curve chart in figure 7.1 shows the distribution of heights (in inches) among Americans (men and women combined). The shaded area represents 90 percent of the population. A person in the 95th percentile will be placed on the right end of the shaded area. Taking anthropometric measures and adjusting the workstation may help eliminate ergonomic problems. According to the recommendations associated with the NIOSH lifting equation (the gold standard for workplace design and evaluation of material handling risks), standing at the start of a lift at knuckle

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Distribution of Average Human Height in the United States (in Inches)

height, produces the least amount of stress upon a worker’s back. In addition, if one can minimize the destination (height of the shelf), where the box has to be placed, this will also reduce back stress. Thus, back muscle stress could be greatly reduced if the boxes could be removed from a scissors pallet and stored, both at knuckle height. Accomplishing this task requires taking employee measurements, or when working with large numbers of workers, referring to anthropometric data for knuckle height standing. Adjustability can be a key solution to many ergonomic problems. Biomechanics Mechanics is the science of motion and force. Biomechanics is the human equivalent of this concept. It is the study of the mechanical operation of the human body or the science of motion and force in living organisms. In biomechanics, the function of the body components is monitored, and job requirements are modified to lower internal and external stresses. The musculoskeletal system provides the foundation data for the study of biomechanics. As in anthropometrics, there are two types of biomechanical measurements: 1. Dynamics: the study of moving bodies. 2. Statics: the study of bodies remaining at rest (equilibrium) as a result of forces acting upon them. The two measures provide the ability to determine how moving body components contribute to ergonomic injuries. Factors such as extension and force applied by the arm and leg muscles while pushing a hand truck, can be calculated using biomechanics. The load on a hand truck, friction coefficient of the walking surface, and other external forces affecting employee

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performance can also be determined. The measurement of primary concern is force, especially as it relates to loads and stresses on the body. In biomechanics, there are two categories of force creating motion of biological matter or movements like walking or lifting: 1. Load: the external forces upon a structure or organism. 2. Stresses: the internal forces generated in the structure due to loading. In human bodies, movement is possible due to the application of load and stress to biological levers. The field of biomechanics teaches about joints, bones, and muscles and provides safety professionals with an understanding of how the musculoskeletal levers of the body are designed to work. This awareness can be applied to the identification and elimination of unnatural movements that may result in ergonomic problems. Evaluation activities, such as monitoring frequency and duration of movement or examining postures and positions, can be initiated to determine the level of ergonomic risk. Internal and external forces should also be evaluated as a part of a job or task analysis. Twisting and other unnatural movements or postures observed during a task analysis are warning signals. They will eventually result in ergonomic injuries. Ease of work activity or biomechanical advantage is only possible when the weight is held and moved using natural posture and body position. CLASSIFICATION OF BODY MOVEMENT, POSTURES, AND POSITIONS The level of ergonomic risk can effectively be determined by performing ergonomic task analyses. This requires the breakdown of an activity into discrete behavioral steps. Once the steps have been sequentially developed, each can be logically broken down into the movements observed. Steps are recorded and used for calculating repetition rates and duration. Ergonomic problems may correlate with the frequency and duration of biomechanical motions. There are two different systems used to classify and evaluate body movements: 1. Physiological classification systems examine the way body parts move. 2. Operational classification systems group body movements by the particular work activity being performed. Physiological Categories of Movement Listings of body movements are used to classify the biomechanical movement of the individuals performing a task. Table 7.1 provides a list of

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The movement of a body part away from the center plane of the body

Adduction

The movement of the body part toward the center plane of the body

Flexion

The movement of a joint that decreases the angle between the bones

Extension

The movement of a joint increases the angle between the bones

Neutral Plane

The normal and low-stress position of segmental physiological components

Deviation

The movement or position of a body part away from the neutral plane. Bending the wrist with the hand bent toward the thumb is referred to as radial deviation. Bending the wrist with the hand bent toward the small finger is referred to as ulnar deviation.

Example

(continued)

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Table 7.1  (Continued) Definition Supination

The turning of the forearm or wrist such that the hand rotates and the palm is facing upward.

Pronation

The turning of the forearm or wrist such that the hand rotates and the palm is facing downward

Circumduction

Rotary movements which circumscribe an arc. Swinging the arm in a circle is an example of circumduction

Rotation

A movement in which a body part turns on its longitudinal axis. The turning of the head or arm is an example of rotation

Example

physiological movements with a brief description of each term (Kroemer et al., 2010). Figures in the “Example” column provide clarification of the movements represented. Operational Categories of Movement Operational classification of movement refers to the task being performed by the operator at the time of the job observation. Following is a list of the terms used to represent the operational classification of movements: • Positioning: Moving an object and corresponding extremity from one position to another. An example of positioning would be reaching for a bolt stored in a bin to the right of an employee. • Continuous movement: A single movement involving muscle control to adjust or guide a machine or other piece of equipment. An example of continuous movement would be the steering of a forklift. • Manipulative movement: The handling or assembling of parts. This movement classification is usually limited to hand or finger movement. An

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example of manipulative movement would be the assembly of component parts. • Repetitive movements: The same movements recurring repetitively. Hammering or using a screwdriver are examples of repetitive movements. • Sequential movements: A series of separate movements joined in a specific order to complete a given task. Reaching for a tool with the right hand, grasping a component in the left hand, moving the two hands toward one another, and adjusting the component using the tool are examples of sequential movements. • Static movements: Maintaining the position of a body member in order to hold something in place. Though movement may not be involved, the muscles are required to maintain the steady position of the object. Holding a board or plasterboard in place on the ceiling of a room while screwing it into position is an example of static loading of muscle groups or static movement. ADDITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HUMAN VARIABLE There are three elements of the human component of the operator-machine system, including psychology, psychosocial factors, and physiology. The human component of the operator-machine system also considers psychological factors affecting worker performance. Psychology is a science studying human behavior and mental processes. From an ergonomic perspective, psychological factors such as memory, attention, fatigue, boredom, job satisfaction, and stress contribute to a wide variety of potential problems. Psychology also studies how humans expect machines to perform. For example, humans expect positioning a toggle switch in the up position to turn a system on and positioning a toggle switch in the down position to turn a system off. Psychosocial factors, the second element of the human component of the operator-machine system, refer to an individual’s behavior in a group environment. The term “psychosocial” is derived from the phrase “social psychology.” The ergonomist is interested in attitude formation, attitude change, leadership styles, power and influence, conflict, occupational stress, organizational structure, employee motivation, and organizational reward systems. All can influence employee performance in the social context of an organization. For example, as employers started experimenting with increasing productivity in office workers, a concept of an open office has emerged. As the name implies, an open office is void of closed-off cubicles for employees and instead, follows the idea of collaboration. Expected to improve productivity

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through communication among and within teams, the concept received mixed acceptance. Several studies note that open offices produce more distractions and, thus, can have a negative impact on employee productivity. Many workers prefer having a noise-free work environment (Al horr et al., 2016; Ogden, 2018). Conversations regarding optimal office environment for improved employee performance have gained attention during the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced many office workers to temporarily work from home. A number of workers who temporarily transitioned to remote work have reported that working from home (WFH) leads to an increase in morale and motivation (Manko, 2021). The human component of the operator-machine system also incorporates physiology—the branch of the biological sciences concerned with the function and processes of the human body. Physiological capabilities and limitations include the structure, strength, and movement of anatomical components. Physiology also includes the study of the human body at the cellular level, such as when light stimulates the retina, which is further reduced to the neurological level. It can also include such complex phenomena as gross motor functioning when studying how various muscle groups of the body tense and relax to provide movement and balance while lifting and carrying an object. Cumulative Trauma Disorders Cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs), also referred to as repetitive-motion injuries, result from excessive use of hand, wrist, or forearm. As with overexertion injuries, the frequency and costs of CTDs are growing to epidemic proportions. Some of the most common cumulative trauma disorders are carpal tunnel syndrome, cubital tunnel syndrome, tendinitis, and tenosynovitis. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Carpal tunnel syndrome is a common wrist injury caused by compression of the median nerve in the carpal tunnel. The carpal tunnel is an opening in the wrist surrounded by the bones of the wrist and the transverse carpal ligament. The sensation in the thumb, index, and middle fingers is generated by the median nerve. The ligament compresses the median nerve when the wrist is forced to flex, extend, or deviate toward the ulnar (small finger) or radial (thumb) position. In effect, these motions pinch this nerve as it passes through the carpal tunnel. Symptoms include tingling, pain, or numbness in the thumb and first three fingers. The level of repetitive motion tolerated without undue risk of injury varies widely depending on age, sex, and other health factors. While no specific limits have been established to avoid CTD symptoms, factors increasing risk include

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repetition of motion, work-rest cycles, force, and duration of the task. Carpal tunnel syndrome has been increasingly found among data-entry clerks, cashiers, and individuals who perform keypunch tasks due to the static, restricted posture and high-speed finger movements. Moreover, due to the abundance of jobs that require the use of computers, addressing CTD becomes even more critical. Cubital Tunnel Syndrome Cubital tunnel syndrome is compression of the ulnar nerve in the elbow, thought to be caused by resting the elbow on a hard surface or sharp edge. Symptoms include tingling in the ring finger and little finger. In severe cases, prolonged compression of the ulnar nerve can lead to muscle atrophy and require surgery. CTD is common in workers whose job tasks involve elbow flexion for extended periods of time (e.g., holding a telephone). Tendonitis Tendonitis, the most frequently diagnosed CTD, results from inflammation of tendons due to excessive use. Common symptoms are burning sensations, pain, and swelling at various sites in the hand, wrist, or arm. Tendinitis is common for workers required to extend their arms overhead during assembly activities. Tenosynovitis Tenosynovitis is soft-tissue trauma and injury to tendons or tendon sheaths, frequently occurring in the wrists and ankles where tendons cross tight ligaments. The tendon sheath swells, making it more difficult for the tendon to move back and forth inside. It often results from the overworking of muscles or the wrenching and/or stretching of tendons. Common forms of tenosynovitis are de Quervain’s disease and trigger finger (Parker & Imbus, 1992). These disorders are commonly found in employees whose jobs include buffing/grinding and packing because of repetitive wrist motions, vibration, and prolonged flexing of shoulders. Tenosynovitis is often associated with ulnar deviation during rotational movements such as using a screwdriver. CTD Symptoms Symptoms of repetitive motion disorders have been described as appearing in three stages (Chatterjee, 1987). Stage 1: Victims may experience aches and tiredness; at this time, the disorder is fully reversible and may even subside after periods of rest.

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Stage 2: There is the addition of swelling and pain. The symptoms do not dissipate overnight; they usually last for several months and result in a reduction in job performance. Stage 3: Victims may experience constant pain even while performing light duties. This condition can last for months or years. Psychological, physiological, and psychosocial elements can occur either in isolation or in combination with one another, as they do in shift work. Shift work refers to work performed during nontraditional employment hours of a day. It is any regular employment outside the day working window, and usually extends beyond the typical “nine-to-five” workday (work between 9:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m.). Work shifts include the morning, evening, night, rotating, on-call, and weekend shifts (Wright et al., 2013). For example, shift work can refer to working on a fixed shift and on the same schedule, like a cat-eye shift. Cat-eye shift is a phrase used in coal mining, where miners typically work a fixed schedule from 11:00 p.m. to 7:00 a.m. Shift work also refers to rotating schedules where employee working hours are changed on a regular basis. An example of a rotating shift is when employees work midnight to 8:00 a.m. for one week, 8:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. the next week, and 4:00 p.m. to midnight the third week. Nontraditional hours may lead to ergonomic problems. Because these shifts occur at different times of the day, some work shifts can be more vulnerable to health than others. Early morning and late-night shifts are more likely to cause sleep disturbance and sleepiness. In general, disturbed sleep results in health and safety problems. One of the most notable issues is disruptions in circadian rhythms, where some work shifts present biological challenges for workers to balance work and sleep-wakefulness cycles. Workers may have difficulties maintaining alertness and performance efficiency on duty. In addition, long-term effects of circadian rhythm sleep disorder would not only generate greater risk for physiological obstacles (e.g., increase the chance of developing cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and types of cancer) but also result in the impairment of social and occupational skills (Sooriyaarachchi et al., 2021; Wright et al., 2013). Physiological hazards and strain are created when the body attempts to fight its natural circadian rhythm. Circadian rhythms, as a subcategory of biological rhythms or biorhythms, are the body’s attempt to conform to the 24-hour day in terms of metabolism, physiology, and psychology. During each 24-hour period, humans have cycles of greater alertness and lower alertness. Susceptibility to fatigue increases when people have work schedules conflicting with these cycles of rhythms. Physiological strain is manifested by an increased number of cardiovascular and gastrointestinal

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problems for individuals required to perform shift work (Rahimimoghadam et al., 2020). To improve alertness, employees required to work varying time shifts should be rotated on a weekly or monthly basis. If weekly or monthly shifts are not an option, shift rotation should be scheduled on a forward rotation (i.e., day, afternoon, night), with days off between night shifts and days shifts. Psychological factors associated with shift work include the stress and depression accompanying unusual work schedules. Individuals performing shift work are less effective in terms of cognitive abilities and attentiveness on the job. Safety records for shift workers are worse than those for day-shift employees (Stock et al., 2019), possibly due to the strains on interpersonal relationships. The psychological problem becomes a psychosocial one, when shift workers do not have the opportunity to interact with spouses or friends for long periods of time, creating a void in their social support system. This loss of emotional support can result in marital difficulties and elevated frequencies of divorce. The resulting stress, in turn, manifests itself as a workplace safety or ergonomic problem. Rest Period In order to mitigate the effects of physiological strain, incorporating short, frequent rest periods during work shifts is considered a practical approach, because it can help reduce fatigue and temporarily improve performance and productivity (Fritz et al., 2013; Tucker, 2003). Regular rest periods are also suggested to decrease accident risk over the prolonged performance of tasks (Ahlstrom et al., 2021). The US Department of Labor defines a rest period as a 5 to 20 minutes break during a work shift that promotes on-job efficiency. In California, for example, the rest period is based on the daily working hours and must be at least 10 minutes for every 4 hours worked for nonexempt employees (California Department of Industrial Relations, 2021).

MACHINE VARIABLES Machines or equipment include a variety of variables that must be evaluated. Examples are as follows. Machines • position of the displays and controls associated with the operation and monitoring of machinery • distance of part storage bins from the worker

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• distance of the conveyor systems from the worker area • table height of the work surface Tools: • shape and size of handle for correct fit • vibration translation to hands or other parts of the body • correct use of tool Offices: • design and layout of computer components • back support of a chair • height of keyboard surface • position of the monitor • layout of aisles and walkways A worker operating a bucket lift may find himself using different controls than when using a different bucket. A simple layout includes a vertical stick he pushes back and forth, if he wants the bucket to move backward and forward. He also has a horizontal stick he moves up and down, if he wants the bucket to move in either of those directions. He deals with a dilemma when, unfamiliar with the operation of this particular bucket, he is faced with a series of levers, all in a row, with the labels and instructions worn away over the years. Although the worker may practice in a wide-open space, the possibility exists that in the middle of the job he’ll forget how each lever works. A wrong move could send the bucket into a high-voltage wire or through a window. When the accident occurs, it is often attributed to operator error, when, in fact, it is also a result of poor equipment design and an improper interface between the person and the machine. Machines or jobs requiring large numbers of repetitions can also be problematic. Task requirements should be modified if any of the following factors are observed: • Tasks requiring over 2,000 manipulations per hour. • Manual task work cycles that are 30 seconds or less in duration. • Repetitive tasks with a duration exceeding half of the worker’s shift. Problems may be exacerbated when excessive force must be applied, or frequent use of stressful postures is necessary. Studies indicate that arthritis; diabetes; poor renal, thyroid, or cardiac function; hypertension; pregnancy; and fractures within the carpal tunnel increase the chances of an employee experiencing CTD symptoms (Parker & Imbus, 1992).

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ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES Environmental variables include temperature, lighting, noise, vibration, humidity, and air contamination, any of which can result in elevated ergonomic risks. Fatigue often accompanies high temperatures and levels of humidity, ultimately reducing the worker’s mental capability to focus on a task. Health concerns such as heat stress, heat exhaustion, and heatstroke are additional dangers. Compared to a 60-degree day, working on a day with temperatures above 90 degrees Fahrenheit, increases the chances of a workplace injury by 5 to 7 percent; on a day with temperatures in the triple digits, the chance of injury may go up to 15 percent (Park et al., 2021). Lighting or workplace illumination is another risk factor. Computer glare on a monitor in an office environment can cause eye fatigue and eyestrain problems. Insufficient illumination in a warehouse can result in slipping and tripping incidents. Excessive illumination or glare can result in operator errors while using heavy equipment outdoors. Airport ramp environment is one of the areas where environmental factors must be taken into account to ensure employee safety and well-being. For instance, day temperatures in the Southwestern region of the United States can frequently reach triple digits in the summer, adding heat stress to the list of workplace hazards. In addition to ambient air temperature, such elements as aircraft engine exhaust, direct sunlight, and required personal protective equipment (PPE) (e.g., a reflective vest which must be worn when outside) add to the heat accumulation. Some estimates show that an airport tarmac temperature may exceed 160 degrees Fahrenheit on a hot summer day! In some cases, working inside on hot days will only exacerbate the situation. Typical airport jetways, which represent large metal containers connected to the terminal on one side and to the airplane on the other, have no air conditioning or proper ventilation. If the boarding process takes longer than usual, passengers and airport agents assisting with the boarding process may congregate inside the jetways for extended periods of time, which puts them at the risk of heat-related illnesses. Some environmental variables become so extreme that additional PPE is advised or even required. Wildfires, a common natural disaster in the summer months, can spread smoke particles and contaminate the air for thousands of miles across the country. These particles can be harmful and life-threatening to people with preexisting conditions that affect their breathing, such as asthma. Other examples of disasters that affect communities worldwide are viral outbreaks, endemics, and global pandemics, such as SARS COVID19, which can cause significant impact to nearly all levels of employees, from frontlines to senior management. In both of these examples, people are

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required to wear respiratory protection (i.e., face masks or respirators) when performing duties. If training and proper fit are not considered before an organization starts issuing the PPE, it may not provide the required protection from the environmental hazards, leading to discontent, reduced worker performance, and compromised safety. There are no federal regulations that strictly define and regulate countermeasures to these hazards. Because such environmental factors are frequently regional in nature, safety practitioners seeking guidance are advised to refer to local workplace safety organizations, such as state-run OSHA, in states where such hazards are common. For example, CalOSHA, the division of California state government responsible for workplace safety, provides clear temperature thresholds and air-quality levels, exceedance of which will mandate implementation of controls, such as provision of water, required breaks, and the use of PPE, to ensure that employees are protected from hazardous conditions related to the state’s climate. The ultimate responsibility for worker safety lies on the organization and its leadership. The organization must seek suitable paths to reduce the risk of injury and fatality. WORKPLACE LAYOUT AND DESIGN Once the task analysis has been performed and ergonomic problems have been observed, a determination is made as to how to eliminate the hazards. One method to achieve this goal is by examining how the work area is laid out and redesigning the workplace to eliminate the problems. Knowledge of workstations will help the safety professional in this process. Proper attention should be paid to the design and layout of workstations to ensure worker productivity and motivation. Uncomfortable seating position, inconvenience when viewing a monitor due to its distance from the worker, and noise/ distracting sounds are among factors that, if not addressed, can negatively impact employees, leading to burnout and morale decrease. It is obvious that workplaces vary considerably across work domains (e.g., construction site, factory for manufacturing of raw materials, clerical office). However, consideration should also be given for workplace differentiation within domains. For example, clerical offices differ considerably. Workplace design of a large clerical office on the 75th floor will be vastly different from a small clerical office attached to the showroom of an automobile dealership. Issues such as climate, personal protective clothing (including ear plugs), vibration, assessment of reach, strength required, as well as frequency of rest breaks should be considered. Individual differences should also receive consideration in workplace design. Typically, workplace design, such as the position of equipment,

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requirements of reach, and strength required for certain actions are designed to meet 90 percent of the population (5th percentile to 95th percentile). However, other demographic considerations such as disabilities (hearing impaired), age (e.g., older employees), and health issues (e.g., diabetes, arthritis) should be taken into account (Vanderheiden & Jordon, 2012). Interventions—Workstations Ergonomists recommend seated workstations when: • all tools, equipment, or components required to perform the tasks are easily reached from the seated position; • the primary tasks require fine manipulative hand movements or inspection activities; • frequent overhead reaches are not required; • the force exertion requirements to perform the task are minimal; • less than 10 pounds of lifting force is required; and • there is adequate leg space available (adapted from Eastman Kodak Company, 1983). Workspace design specifications include a minimum of 20 inches in width, 26 inches in depth to allow for adequate leg clearance, a minimum of 4-inch clearance from the edge of the workstation, and an approximate ideal work area of 10 by 10 inches where activities are performed. Seated workstations are recommended for detailed visual tasks, for precision assembly work, or for typing and writing tasks. Standing workstations are typically recommended when: • the operator is required to move around a given area to perform the given task; • extended and frequent reaches are required to perform the intended tasks; • substantial downward forces or lifting heavy objects, typically weighing more than 10 pounds, is required; and • there is limited leg clearance below the workstation surface (adapted from Eastman Kodak Company, 1983). Standing workstations are for precision and detailed work and heavier work activities. Because of anthropometric differences in male and female workers, the ideal working height for tasks will vary, but anthropometric charts can help determine measurements. Generating the maximum force in the upperbody extremities requires employees to keep elbows close to normal elbow heights or slightly below elbow height while standing. When employees

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stand in a normal, relaxed position and then bend their elbows at a 90-degree angle, the measurement between the elbow height and the floor will furnish the elbow-height standing position. This measurement is the ideal height for light, work-related activities while standing. Elbow standing height is reduced 4 to 12 inches for heavier work requirements or raised by 4 to 8 inches for more detailed work activities. The combination workstation is recommended when: • several tasks requiring mobility are performed; and • reaching overhead or at levels below seated positions is required—especially when forward or side position reaches must be accomplished at a variety of levels above the work surface (adapted from Eastman Kodak Company, 1983). Grandjean (1988) recommends seven guidelines for workplace layout and design: 1. Avoid any kind of bent or unnatural posture. (Bending the trunk or the head sideways is more harmful than bending forward.) 2. Avoid keeping an arm outstretched either forward or sideways. (Such postures lead to rapid fatigue and reduce precision.) 3. Work sitting down as much as possible. (Combination workstations are strongly recommended.) 4. Use arm movements in opposition to each other or symmetrically. (Moving one arm by itself sets up static loads on the trunk muscles. Symmetrical movements facilitate control.) 5. Maintain working fields (the object or table surface) at an optimal height and distance for the eyes of the operator. 6. Arrange handgrips, controls, tools, and materials around the station to facilitate the use of bent elbows close to the body. 7. Raise arms where necessary by using padded supports under the elbows, forearms, or hands. Sit-Stand Workstations Over the last few decades, office workers have been exposed to increased sedentary time. More specifically, office workers spend approximately 76 percent of their working time sitting (Keown et al., 2018). By having high, sedentary time and minimal muscle activity during work, workers have greater possibility of having health issues like musculoskeletal disorders and cardio metabolic issues. Sit-stand workstations have been invented and implemented to promote a healthier working environment.

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Different from traditional sitting workstations, sit-stand workstations, usually electric, manually adjustable, or crank type, allow users to alternate postures between sitting and standing, by adjusting the height of the desk surface. Using sit-stand workstations has been shown to reduce workers’ sitting time when workers are permitted to stand up and do their job (Chambers et al., 2019). Hence, sit-stand workstations can be beneficial to prevent static postures when working, increase light muscle activity time, reduce strain on the lower back from sedentary position, and decrease the perceived discomfort and negative effects of spinal shrinkage (Gao et al., 2016). When using sit-stand workstations, workers should optimize the time between sitting and standing to avoid static postures (either sitting or standing too long), move around when possible for either positions, use foot rest and/or foot mat to encourage light activity in lower limbs, and limit the foot discomfort. Interventions—Manual Material Handling Manual material handling is a common activity in most occupational environments. Workers handle raw materials, tools, finished materials, containers, and packing materials on a daily basis. Moving objects, regardless of weight, can result in arm, back, and leg strain. The costs of injuries due to material handling are enormous—from both medical treatment and workers’ compensation. Losses from these injuries are compounded when the costs of days absent from work are added. NIOSH lifting guidelines (NIOSH Publication No. 94-110, 1994) identify certain motions increasing the risk of back injuries (California Department of Industrial Relations, 2007). They include combinations of bending, twisting or turning, standing, and sudden position changes. Bending and twisting/ turning are particularly troublesome. Lifting is hazardous due to the effects of leverage exerted on the spine during the movement. The force from the weight of the object is multiplied by a factor of as much as 10 or more, depending on the distance of the object from the body. The adult spine is composed of 24 bones (also referred to as vertebrae). A fluid-filled disc with a fibrous outer layer is located between each pair of vertebrae to serve as a shock absorber, preventing the rubbing and abrasion of the vertebrae. Disc rupture and herniation are injuries often cumulative in nature. A variety of factors, including age and repeated poor lifting practices, are prime culprits resulting in damaged discs (Liyew, 2020). Sometimes, back pain is attributed to a lift or sudden motion, but the underlying cause is the poor state of the back due to weakened muscles or previous injuries. It can be caused by the fluid in a disc pushing through the fibrous layer, applying pressure on the nerves in the spinal cord. Although only about 5 percent of back injuries are attributed to disc damage, it is often more serious and longer lasting than other forms of back injuries.

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To avoid back injuries, employees must know proper lifting techniques. Traditionally, employees have been taught to use a bent knee/straight back technique with the object between the knees. However, this can only be performed if the object fits between the knees. Research indicates the legs may not always be strong enough to lift heavy objects using this technique, and it may cause awkward and stressful postures (McGill, 2015). There is no single lifting technique that applies to all situations; the goal for safety professionals is to eliminate manual material handling whenever possible. Engineering controls like cranes and conveyors to eliminate lifting and carrying activities are ideal. If engineering controls are not feasible, administrative controls such as requiring assistance from coworkers for objects of a certain weight can be implemented. Some additional considerations: • Ensure the weight of the object is as close to the body as possible when employees lift manually. • Eliminate bending and twisting motions when lifting. • Require lifting aids, whether mechanical ones or coworkers, when exceeding NIOSH-recommended weight limits. Interventions—Video Display Terminal Workstation Design As workers spend more time on computers, there is an increasing frequency of ergonomic injuries and illnesses. Poor workstation design is often the cause of both physiological and psychological problems (Alyan, 2020). For example, a monitor that is set too high or not horizontally aligned with the best field of view from the worker’s position, can create stress and neck discomfort. Items that frequently must be reached during work should not require excessive bending or excessive reach. In order to avoid physical discomforts, fatigue, mental stress, or injury to the worker, the layout and design must be geared to human capabilities and limitations (DeChiara et al., 2001). Computer workstations should be of great concern to safety professionals in both the layout of new facilities and improvement of existing office and other occupational settings. Several individuals of varying body sizes, weights, shapes, ages, physical conditions, attitudes, aptitude, or mental abilities may use workstations; therefore, adjustability is necessary. The work environment should incorporate anthropometric designs to enable all workers to function within their capabilities and perform their job tasks optimally and comfortably (Marmaras & Nathanael, 2021). Anthropometric data supply a standard guide of measurements, both static and dynamic, to provide an optimal dimensional layout of the workstation (Realyvásquez-Vargas et al., 2020).

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Other critical factors in the workplace design or redesign process are illumination, equipment and control display arrangements, warning signals, visual displays, control devices, traffic spaces, and storage requirements (Tillman et al., 2016). The nature of the task will determine the type of workstation layout appropriate for the setting: seated for data-entry and telecommunication jobs; standing for assembly and machine control jobs; and combination for technical positions and computer design work. A combination workstation often meets the needs of tasks performed in both office and manufacturing environments (Grandjean, 1988). The key is having equipment and furnishings easily adjustable to ensure proper fit and conformance to anthropometric requirements. Seated workstations should have easily adjustable chairs, work surfaces, equipment, and footrests (Eastman Kodak Company, 1983). A good chair is probably one of the most important workstation investments. When a chair is properly adjusted with feet firmly on the ground, the hips and knees will assume a horizontal plane position at a 90-degree angle, and the pan of the seat will measure 15 to 20 inches from the floor. In the correct working position, workers’ arms should dangle by their sides, and then be raised to a horizontal plane position at right angles to their bodies. When the body is assuming its neutral position, stress is relieved from the shoulders and back area, resulting in a decrease in fatigue and tension (Grandjean, 1988). To ensure a chair has as many ergonomic comfort and safety qualities as possible, it should have the following features: • adjustable backrest and seat (to fit different body sizes) • good lumbar support (lower back) • five legs (for better stability) • wheels (for mobility) • reclining seat backs and adjustable seat pans (to control the pressure on the back and thighs) • armrests and footrests (if necessary to the situation) (Barnes, 1994) Numbness, pain, and fatigue may still occur due to reduced blood circulation, if an individual has been seated for an extended amount of time. Therefore, the furniture or equipment being used should have rounded edges to prevent discomfort (Braganza, 1994). In addition, frequent breaks and stretch activities should be incorporated into the employee’s daily activities. Breaks do not necessarily imply coffee breaks. Changing activities can meet the needs of an employee. Filing information while standing constitutes a break from computer data-entry activities and provides therapeutic benefits.

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The area of the work surface, the configuration of the work surface, and the height of the work surface are additional ergonomic concerns safety professionals should not neglect (Marmaras & Nathanael, 2021). Pencils, paper, and other frequently used materials should be located near the body in a range of reach from 16 to 18 inches. Arm movements should also be made in a symmetrical or opposing action while the elbows are slightly bent to prevent unnatural twisting or stretching of the body. Moving one arm by itself can cause static loads on the trunk muscles, whereas symmetrical movements allow for added control (Marmaras & Nathanael, 2021). Standard anthropometric data suggest that most desks are 30 inches high—too high for an ergonomically correct computer workstation. Depending on the height of the individual, the adjustability of the work surface should be optimally between 23 and 28½ inches high. This satisfies the seating requirements of 90 percent of seated adults (Barnes, 1994). Thigh and knee clearance is another key consideration in designing a workstation (Barnes, 1994). A full range of movement and sufficient clearance for the thighs are necessary while sitting. Without sufficient clearance, an employee might twist the torso in order to get closer to the workstation. This twisting could cause injury. The minimum thigh clearance (measured from beneath the work surface to the floor) is 20-2/5 inches (Braganza, 1994). If this clearance is not available, a standing workstation might be the layout of choice. Anthropometric measurements should also be used to determine the proper angle and height of the monitor to reduce fatigue and eyestrain. The top of the monitor should be aligned with the standard sight line, and the center of the screen should be 15 degrees below eye level (DeChiara et al., 2001). The screen should be tilted back 0 to 7 degrees to eliminate glare, and should be located between 18 and 28 inches from the eyes for ease in focusing (Grandjean, 1988). In addition, other items that require the worker to frequently monitor should be placed at the same height and plane as the screen to decrease neck and eye strain (also called asthenopia; Barnes, 1994). The monitor, documents, and keyboard should be positioned to best suit the task being performed, reducing twisting and bending while one is using the equipment (Grandjean, 1988). Figure 7.2 shows a visual representation of general ergonomic recommendations for workstation design. Purchasing ergonomically adjustable furniture will not necessarily eliminate ergonomic problems. Employees must be instructed as to how to adjust workstations to meet their specific needs. For ergonomic programs to be effective, employees must also know how to ergonomically lay out and design their workstations, as well as adjust their furniture to eliminate stresses. Training is an important part of all ergonomics programs.

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Figure 7.2  Recommendations for Ergonomically Correct Workstation Design Source: Yamavu (2013), CC0 1.0.

WORKPLACE AUTOMATION As technology advances, the use of automation has changed the way of human lives, including the workplace. Automation at the workplace allows the system to accomplish tasks automatically with minimal involvement of humans. By applying preprogrammed criteria and actions, automation consists of both hardware (e.g., machinery) and software to carry out performance in various systems (Newcome, 2004). Initially, workplace automation was implemented

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to relieve humans from repetitive and time-consuming work tasks, like assembly-line and factory jobs. In recent decades, the rapid development of automation has extended its capabilities to assist human workers for more complex jobs (e.g., autopilot, national defense; Newcome, 2004). Workplace automation has been changing the way of how jobs are performed in many industries during modern times. For example, the automated customer support system has become more common. In their customer experience trends report, Zendesk (2020) predicted that 20 percent of global customer service would be handled by artificial intelligence systems. Consistent and reliable automation applications can reduce human workload, decrease performance errors, and increase job efficiency (Costa, 1995). Implementation of automation in the workplace has benefited companies and businesses in many ways. First, tasks that can be done by the automated system save labor and operational costs. Software tools like DocuSign enable the use of electronic signatures, which mitigates the amount of time and expenses for people who would previously print and sign documents manually. Second, consistent work output has been maintained using automation. A productive and efficient workflow can be performed by automation, resulting in fewer human errors, unexpected emergencies, and sick leaves of workers. Third, workers’ satisfaction has been improved by utilizing automation (Zapier Editorial Team, 2021). Human workers can invest more time into jobs requiring ingenuity and creativity, while automation can help perform systematic tasks. A survey showed that 65 percent of workers agreed that automation has made them less stressed and happy (Zapier Editorial Team, 2021). The pandemic situation with COVID-19 that started in 2020 will most likely forever change the way we approach communication at work. The rise in automation technology has become a significant facilitator for effective communication in remote working. For instance, online programs such as Microsoft Teams and Zoom provide a platform for workers to be responsive with cooperation agenda and objectives, as well as the accessibility of direct engagement in collaborations with colleagues (Saeed et al., 2020). It appears that such potential of technology will have prolonged usage and effect even after the pandemic is over. Considerations for Remote Work Advances in computer technology have made remote working more accessible and convenient, particularly among office workers in various industries. The self-isolation requirements brought on by the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020 made companies nationwide explore the WFH option for the majority of their employees, even if temporary. The convenience and flexibility of WFH have created a mood shift and a desire among many Americans to

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continue with this lifestyle. Many businesses returned to working from the office as the pandemic waned; however, the preferences for the new worklife balance have remained. The vast majority of Americans, whose job can be performed remotely, prefer to continue working fully or partially remotely post-pandemic (Parker et al., 2020; Saad & Wigert, 2021). The rate of search for remote jobs grew by 360 percent in 2021 compared to 2019 (Zhang, 2021), and to a growing number of Americans, the opportunity for remote work is one of the factors when considering remaining at the current job or seeking new opportunities (Korolevich, 2021). Upwork estimates that, by 2026, fully remote workers will comprise nearly 28 percent of the American workforce (Ozimek, 2021). To embrace the future changes, many businesses are implementing various remote working policies, from full-time WFH to hybrid models that allow employees to vary their work location between the company office and home throughout the week. Employers should stay cognizant of their workers’ preferences for remote work and ensure that good working environments are afforded to everyone. Most employers do not provide office furniture or equipment for their remote workers (Nulab, 2020), and unlike in a company office, have little control over the environment in an employee’s home. Hence, the responsibility for ensuring that a WFH workstation is comfortable and ergonomically sound lies on the employee. As a result, it is crucial for each worker to understand the importance of proper workstation design (e.g., proper posture, adequate distance from the monitor, location of the mouse and keyboard) and environmental factors that affect a worker’s well-being and performance (e.g., natural lighting, noise). Giving an employee an opportunity to furnish a home office with company-provided equipment can help address some of these factors. Furthermore, employers should provide all remote workers with relevant information on ergonomically sound workstations and workspace design that helps ensure employee health and safety. The information can be delivered through company-wide communication (e.g., information bulletins) and training (e.g., online presentation/course on ergonomics). It is advised that businesses maintain awareness of the importance of ergonomics in office workstations and encourage employees to seek guidance and support in maintaining a healthful WFH environment. CONCLUSION Ergonomics has become an increasingly important part of the safety professional’s job responsibilities. With an effective implementation plan, ergonomic activities can make a significant difference in the loss-control effectiveness of the organization. Through workplace layout and task analysis

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activities, the safety professional may identify many ergonomic hazards. Consideration is given to the operator-machine systems, anthropometry, and biomechanics during walk-through inspections. For some complex ergonomic hazards, organizational ergonomic factors must also be considered. Some of these hazards may be associated with factors such as shift work schedules or product flow problems. Work-rest cycles may also be an issue. Depending on the nature of the work activities, psychological factors such as fatigue and boredom can impact worker productivity and efficiency. No matter what the ergonomic problem might be, it is important for safety practitioners to use the operator-equipment system. This approach will ensure that all of the variables affecting ergonomic performance will be examined. Management practices, worksite analysis, and control methods are critical in reducing ergonomic-related injuries and illnesses. Although there is no specific ergonomics standard, OSHA may look for certain practices under the general duty clause. Ergonomic tools for baggage handling, beverage delivery, computer workstations, grocery warehousing, hospitals, poultry processing, and sewing can be found on the OSHA website at www​.osha​ .gov. QUESTIONS 1. What are the components of the operator-machine system? Provide an example of a work activity using this system. 2. How can the use of the industrial hygiene triad be applied to ergonomic problems? 3. How can videotaping jobs be useful in the evaluation of ergonomic problems? 4. How can anthropometrics and biomechanics be used to solve ergonomic problems? 5. How does anthropometrics use statistical measurements and methods? 6. What are the costs associated with material handling and repetitive motion injuries? Why are these two types of ergonomic problems of concern to the safety professional? REFERENCES Ahlstrom, C., van Leeuwen, W., Krupenia, S., Jansson, H., Finer, S., Anund, A., & Kecklund, G. (2021). Real-time adaptation of driving time and rest periods in automated long-haul trucking: Development of a system based on biomathematical

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modelling, fatigue and relaxation monitoring. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, 1–9. https://doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.buildenv​.2016​.06​.001. Al horr, Y., Arif, M., Kaushik, A. K., Mazroei, A., Katafygiotou, M., & Elsarrag, E. (2016). Occupant productivity and office indoor environment quality: A review of the literature. Building and Environment, 105, 369–389. https://doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​ .buildenv​.2016​.06​.001. Alyan, E., Saad, N. M., & Kamel, N. (2020). Effects of workstation type on mental stress: FNIRS study. Human Factors, 63(7), 1230–1255. https://doi​.org​/10​.1177​ /0018720820913173. Barnes, K. (1994, August). Is your office ergonomically correct? HR Focus, 71, 17. Braganza, B. J. (1994, August). Ergonomics in the office. Professional Safety, 39, 22–27. Brannick, M. T., Levine, E. L., & Morgeson, F. P. (2007). Job and Work Analysis: Methods, Research, and Applications for Human Resource Management (2nd ed.). SAGE. Brown, O. (2005). Participatory ergonomics. In N. Stanton, A. Hedge, K. Brookhuis, E. Salas, & H. Hendrick (Eds.), Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics Methods (pp. 751–758). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Burgess-Limerick, R. (2018). Participatory ergonomics: Evidence and implementation lesson. Applied Ergonomics, 68, 289–293. https://doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.apergo​ .2017​.12​.009. California Department of Industrial Relations. (2007). Ergonomics Guidelines for Manual Material Handling (DHHS [NIOSH] Publication No. 2007-131). California Department of Industrial Relations. (2021). Rest Periods/Lactation Accommodation. Retrieved from https://www​.dir​.ca​.gov​/dlse​/faq​_restperiods​.htm. Chambers, A. J., Robertson, M. M., & Baker, N. A. (2019). The effect of sit-stand desks on office worker behavioral and health outcomes: A scoping review. Applied Ergonomics, 78, 37–53. https://doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.apergo​.2019​.01​.015. Chatterjee, D. S. (1987). Repetition strain injury-a recent review. Journal of the Society of Occupational Medicine, 37(1), 100–105. https://doi​.org​/10​.1093​/occmed​/37​ .1​.100. Coren, S., Ward, L. M., & Enns, J. T. (2004). Sensation and Perception (6th ed.). Wiley. Costa, G. (1995). Occupational stress and stress prevention in air traffic. International Labour Office: Working paper: CONDI/T/WP, 6.DeChiara, J., Panero, J., & Zelnik, M. (2001). Time Saver Standards for Interior Design and Space Planning (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. Durso, F. T., Dattel, A. R., Johnson, B., Manning, C. A., Hackworth, C., Dillbeck, R., Hubbard, R., Hutson, R., & Wunn, R. (2008). Real time use of paper in air traffic control towers: Criticality & benefits. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 18, 268–289. Durugbo, C. M. (2020). Affordance-based problem structuring for workplace innovation. European Journal of Operational Research, 284(2), 617–631. https://doi​.org​ /10​.1016​/j​.ejor​.2019​.12​.044. Eastman Kodak Company. (1983). Ergonomic Design for People at Work (Vol. 2). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

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Federal Aviation Administration. (2021). Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H8083-3C). United States Department of Transportation. Fritz, C., Ellis, A. M., Demsky, C. A., Lin, B. C., & Guros, F. (2013). Embracing work breaks: Recovering from work stress. Organizational Dynamics, 42(4), 274–280. https://doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.orgdyn​.2013​.07​.005. Gao, Y., Cronin, N. J., Pesola, A. J., & Finni, T. (2016). Muscle activity patterns and spinal shrinkage in office workers using a sit-stand workstation versus a sit workstation. Ergonomics, 59(10), 1267–1274. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/00140139​ .2016​.1139750. Graham, L. D. (1999). Domesticating efficiency: Lillian Gilbreth’s scientific management of homemakers, 1924–1930. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 24(3), 633–675. https://doi​.org​/10​.1086​/495368. Grandjean, E. (1988). Fitting the Task to the Man (4th ed.). London: Taylor & Francis. Hoffman, R. R., & Militello, L. G. (2012). Perspectives on Cognitive Task Analysis: Historical Origins and Modern Communities of Practice. Taylor & Francis. Hurvich, L. M., & Jameson, D. (1957). An opponent-process theory of color vision. Psychological Review, 64(6), 384–404. https://doi​.org​/10​.1037​/h0041403. Keown, M. K., Skeaff, C. M., Perry, T. L., Haszard, J. J., & Peddie, M. C. (2019). Device-measured sedentary behavior patterns in office-based university employees. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 60(12), 1150–1157. https://doi​.org​/10​.1097​/JOM​.0000000000001467. Korolevich, S. (2021). The State of Remote Work in 2021: A Survey of the American Workforce. Goodhire. Retrieved from https://www​.goodhire​.com​/resources​/ articles​/state​-of​-remote​-work​-survey/. Kroemer, K. H., Kroemer, H. J., & Kroemer-Elbert, K. E. (2010). Engineering Physiology: Bases of Human Factors/Ergonomics (4th ed.). Springer. Retrieved from https://teknik​.umri​.ac​.id​/wp​-content​/uploads​/2016​/08​/9.​-Engineering​-Physiology​ -Bases​-of​-Human​-Factors​-Engineering​-Ergonomics​-4th​-Edition​.pdf. Labor, 29 U.S.C. § 785.18 (2021). Retrieved from https://www​.ecfr​.gov​/current​/title​ -29​/subtitle​-B​/chapter​-V​/subchapter​-B​/part​-785. Lercel, D., & Andrews, D. H. (2021). Cognitive task analysis of Unmanned Aircraft System pilots. The International Journal of Aerospace Psychology, 31(4), 319–342. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/24721840​.2021​.1895797. Liyew, W. A. (2020). Clinical presentations of lumbar disc degeneration and lumbosacral nerve lesions. International Journal of Rheumatology, 2020, 1–13. https:// doi​.org​/10​.1155​/2020​/2919625. Maldonado-Macias, A., Realyvásquez, A., Hernandez, J. L., & Garcia-Alcaraz, J. (2015). Ergonomic assessment for the task of repairing computers in a manufacturing company: A case study. Journal of Prevention, Assessment & Rehabilitation, 52(2), 393–405. https://doi​.org​/10​.3233​/WOR​-152118. Manko, B. A. (2021). Considerations in the use of work-from-home (WFH) for postpandemic planning and management. Management, 25(1), 118–140. https://doi​.org​ /10​.2478​/manment​-2019​-0062. Marmaras, N., & Nathanael, D. (2021). Workplace design. In G. Salvendy & W. Karwowski (Eds.), Handbook of human factors and ergonomics (5th ed.). https:// doi​.org​/10​.1002​/9781119636113​.ch14.

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McGill, S. (2015). Low Back Disorders: Evidence-based Prevention and Rehabilitation (3rd ed.). Human Kinetics. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (2015, January 23). Hierarchy of Controls. Retrieved from https://www​.cdc​.gov​/niosh​/topics​/hierarchy​/default​.html. Newcome, L. R. (2004). Unmanned Aviation: A Brief History of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. https://doi​.org​ /10​.2514​/4​.868894. Nulab. (2020, July 13). Adjusting to remote work during the COVID-19 crises. Retrieved from https://nulab​.com​/blog​/collaboration​/adjusting​-to​-remote​-work. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.). OSHA Forms for Recording Work-Related Injuries and Illnesses [Booklet]. https://www​.osha​.gov​/sites​/default​/ files​/OSHA​-RK​-Forms​-Package​.pdf. Ogden, J. (2018, June 15). What science says about open offices—and 6 things you can do about it. Workfront. Retrieved from https://www​.workfront​.com​/blog​/what​ -science​-says​-about​-open​-offices. Ozimek, A. (2021). Future workforce report 2021: How remote work is changing businesses forever. Upwork. Retrieved from https://www​.upwork​.com​/research​/ future​-workforce​-report. Park, J., Pankratz, N., & Behrer, A. P. (2021). Temperature, Workplace Safety, and Labor Market Inequality (IZA DP No. 14560). IZA Institute of Labor Economics. https://docs​.iza​.org​/dp14560​.pdf. Parker, K., Horowitz, J. M., & Minkin, R. (2020). How the Coronavirus Outbreak Has—And Hasn’t—Changed the Way Americans Work. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from https://www​.pewresearch​.org​/social​-trends​/2020​/12​/09​/how​-the​ -coronavirus​-outbreak​-has​-and​-hasnt​-changed​-the​-way​-americans​-work/. Parker, K., & Imbus, H. (1992). Cumulative Trauma Disorders. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers. Rahimimoghadam, S., Khanjani, N., Naderi, M., & Rasekh, R. (2020). Comparing the prevalence of gastrointestinal disorders between day workers and shift workers at Kerman university of medical sciences. Asian Pacific Journal of Environment and Cancer, 3(1). https://doi​.org​/10​.31557​/apjec​.2020​.3​.1​.19​-25. Realyvásquez-Vargas, A., Arredondo-Soto, K. C., Blanco-Fernandez, J., SandovalQuintanilla, J. D., Jiménez-Macías, E., & García-Alcaraz, J. L. (2020). Work standardization and anthropometric workstation design as an integrated approach to sustainable workplaces in the manufacturing industry. Sustainability (Basel, Switzerland), 12(9), 3728. https://doi​.org​/10​.3390​/su12093728. Rose, J. A., & Bearman, C. (2012). Making effective use of task analysis to identify human factors issues in new rail technology. Applied Ergonomics, 43(3), 614–624. https://doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.apergo​.2011​.09​.005. Saad, L., & Wigert, B. (2021, October 13). Remote work persisting and trending permanent. Gallup. Retrieved from https://news​.gallup​.com​/poll​/355907​/remote​-work​ -persisting​-trending​-permanent​.aspx. Saeed, N., Bader, A., Al-Naffouri, T. Y., & Alouini, M. (2020). When wireless communication faces COVID-19: Combating the pandemic and saving the economy. Frontiers in Communications and Networks. https://doi​.org​/10​.3389​/frcmn​.2020​.566853.

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Sooriyaarachchi, P., Jayawardena, R., Pavey, T., & King, N. (2021). Shift work and body composition: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Minerva Endocrinology. https://doi​.org​/10​.23736​/s2724​-6507​.21​.03534​-x. Stock, D., Hankinson, S. E., Rosner, B., Eliassen, A. H., Willett, W., Strohmaier, S., Cotterchio, M., Raboud, J., Knight, J. A., & Schernhammer, E. (2019). Rotating night shift work and menopausal age. Human Reproduction, 34(3), 539–548. https://doi​.org​/10​.1093​/humrep​/dey390. Tillman, B., Tillman, P., & Rose, R. R. (2016). Human Factors and Ergonomics Design Handbook (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill Book Company. https://www​.acc​esse​ ngin​eeri​nglibrary​.com​/content​/book​/9780071702874. Tucker, P. (2003). The impact of rest breaks upon accident risk, fatigue and performance: A review. Work and Stress, 17(2), 123–137. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​ /0267837031000155949. Vanderheiden, G. C., & Jordon, J. B. (2012). Design for people with functional limitations. In G. Salvendey (Ed.), Human Factors and Ergonomics (4th ed., pp. 1409–1441). Wiley. Wickens, C. D., Lee, J. D., Liu, Y., & Gordon Becker, S. E. (2004). An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering (2nd ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall. Wilson, J. R., & Haines, H. M. (1997). Participatory ergonomics. In G. Salvendy (Ed.), Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics (pp. 490–513). John Wiley and Sons. Wright, K. P., Bogan, R. K., & Wyatt, J. K. (2013). Shift work and the assessment and management of shift work disorder (SWD). Sleep Medicine Reviews, 17(1), 41–54. https://doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.smrv​.2012​.02​.002. Yamavu. (2013, August 1). English: Cleanup of File: Computer Workstation Variables​.j​pg [Figure]. Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved from https://commons​.wikimedia​.org​/wiki​/File​:Computer​_Workstation​_Variables​_cleanup​.png. Yi, W. K. (2019, May 6). Why are Tunnel Lights Orange and White? Torque. Retrieved from https://www​.torque​.com​.sg​/advice​/why​-are​-tunnel​-lights​-orange​ -and​-white/. Zapier Editorial Team. (2021). Zapier Report: The 2021 State of Business Automation. Retrieved from https://zapier​.com​/blog​/state​-of​-business​-automation​-2021/. Zendesk. (2020). Zendesk Customer Experience Trends Report 2020. Retrieved from https://d1eipm3vz40hy0​.cloudfront​.net​/pdf​/cxtrends​/cx​-trends​-2020​-full​-report​.pdf. Zhang, J. (2021). Out of office: Job seeker interest in remote work persists, up 360%. Glassdoor. Retrieved from https://www​.glassdoor​.com​/research​/remote​-job​-search​ -aug​-2021/.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2021). Injuries, illnesses, and fatalities. Retrieved from https://www​.bls​.gov​/iif​/oshsum​.htm Floyd, R. T., & Thompson, C. (2020). Manual of Structural Kinesiology (21st ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

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Laflin, K., & Aja, D. (1995). Health care concerns related to lifting: An inside look at intervention strategies. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 49, 63–72. National Safety Council. (2017). Injury Facts. The National Safety Council is the publisher. Putz-Anderson, V. (1988). Cumulative Trauma Disorders: A Manual for Musculoskeletal Diseases of the Upper Limbs. London: Taylor & Francis. Waters, T. R., Putz-Anderson, V., & Garg, A. (1994 & rev. 2021). Applications Manual for the Revised NIOSH Lifting Equation (Publication No. 94-110, 1994). National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved from https://doi​ .org​/10​.26616​/NIO​SHPU​B941​10re​vise​d092021. Watt, S. (1986/1987). Nurses’ back injury: Reducing the strain. Australian Nurses Journal, 16, 46–48.

Chapter 8

Fire Prevention and Protection

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to • list the components of the fire tetrahedron; • define key fire terms; • identify the classes of fires and extinguishers; • explain the purpose of the NFPA and prominent safety-related regulations; • identify placards and labels; and • list the components of the fire program. CASE STUDY The Imperial Food Products plant, located in Hamlet, North Carolina, was owned and operated by Emmet J. Roe. Its 30,000-square-foot, one-story, brick-and-cinder-block facility had no windows but had nine exits, including loading docks. The 200 employees were predominantly female. Chicken breasts were cooked, frozen, and packaged for resale to restaurant chains and frozen-food companies. The facility did not have a building-wide sprinkler system at the time of the fire, but a carbon dioxide fire-extinguishing system had been installed in the cooking area following a fire in the early 1980s. It was not known if the system was operational at the time of the fire (Rives & Mather, 1991, p. 1A). The incident began when an overhead hydraulic line ruptured and sprayed flammable hydraulic fluid on the floor in the frying area. Natural gas burners, used to heat the large chicken fryers, ignited the vapors of the fluid and 169

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caused a fire killing 25 workers and injuring an additional 49 employees (Hughes, 1991, p. 8J). As employees tried to leave the burning building, they found the fire exit doors locked. Management had locked several of them to prevent employees from stealing chickens. One door was kicked down as employees fled from the fire and suffocating smoke. A fire investigator later found a door marked “Fire Exit—Do Not Block” padlocked. Some employees could not find a way out and tried to hide in the freezer; most of them died by suffocation. It was later learned the employees had never received any type of fire evacuation training (Hughes, 1991, p. 8). The Imperial Food Products plant opened its doors 10 years prior to the fire. Over those ten years, the plant never had an inspection by the state, local, or federal inspectors. The town of Hamlet was not required to make inspections, although it was up to the municipality to enforce fire regulations. Ironically, every day the plant was in operation, there was a federal inspector on site to make sure the chicken processed was acceptable for consumption. Locking a fire door is a violation of North Carolina’s fire code, a misdemeanor in this case. The state fire code requires all municipalities to have a fire inspector, even though a minimum number of inspections is not specified. Under occupational safety regulations, a locked exit door constitutes a serious violation and because management locked fire exits knowingly, it would have been a willful violation (Diamond, 1991, p. 7A). OSHA’s General Industry Standards contains the Means of Egress regulations for evacuating workplaces during emergencies. The rule requires “a continuous and unobstructed way of exit travel from any point in a building”’ (Occupational Safety and Health Administration [OSHA], 2003, p. 33). In 1980, OSHA added requirements for employee emergency plans and fire prevention plans to the Means of Egress regulations. Employers must: • Develop emergency plans • Create evacuation routes • Install alarm systems • Create regular emergency response training programs For the first time, victims of work-related injuries and deaths could seek prosecution for willful violations causing bodily injuries (Diamond, 1991, p. 1A). Emmett Roe, the owner of Imperial Food Products, was sentenced to 19 years and 11 months in jail as part of a plea bargain that let his son Brad, the plant’s operations manager, stay out of prison. The sentence was for illegally locking plant doors and not having a sprinkler system, leading to the death of the 25 workers. Roe first became eligible for parole in March 1994 and was

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released in slightly less than four years into his sentence (Facility Executive, n.d.) The irony of the fire is in the reminiscence of the infamous Triangle Shirtwaist Fire that occurred in New York City in 1911. There were 146 workers killed and another 70 seriously injured when fire broke out in a fireproof building where garments were manufactured. Some exits were only 20 inches wide and the employer locked others to prevent theft. Workers were eventually able to break through a door to reach a fire escape, but it soon collapsed. Some workers jumped to their deaths. FIRE TETRAHEDRON Four components are necessary to sustain combustion: 1. Fuel 2. Heat 3. Oxygen 4. A chemical reaction A fire will not burn without the presence of all four. Fuels include numerous materials, both liquid and solid, but all must be in a vapor state before they can burn. Once vaporized, they mix with oxygen to form a combustible mixture capable of burning when exposed to heat. During the burning process, a chemical reaction among the components of fuel, oxygen, and heat causes the chemical components to change form and release other gases. The following example will illustrate this process. Greg Lee, owner of a boat sales and repair shop, inspected a boat his assistant was repairing in the shop. During the inspection, he smelled gasoline vapors, so, before opening several doors to air out the place, he instructed his assistant not to activate a grinder. As the owner turned to enter the showroom, he heard the grinder and spun around to see about a dozen fires burning throughout the repair shop. Both men escaped with minor burns, but the boat was destroyed and the shop suffered extensive damage. The assistant may have assumed there were not enough vapors to cause a fire. He may also not have considered the electrical grinder might spark when activated, and ignite those vapors. Had the vapors not reached the lower flammable limit, they would not have ignited. The lower flammable limit, also known as the lower explosive limit, is the lowest concentration of gas or vapor (percentage volume in air) that burns or explodes if an ignition source is present. The upper flammable limit or upper explosive limit is the highest concentration of a gas or vapor that burns

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or explodes if an ignition source is present. A mixture can have too little of the concentration (and be too lean) or too much of the concentration (and be too rich) to burn. In the case of the boat repair shop, the concentration was between the limits, so it ignited. Incidentally, the closer the mixture gets to the limits, the less complete the combustion. The optimal mixture for complete combustion is near the midpoint between the limits.​ Gasoline is hazardous because it has a low flash point, the temperature at which a substance gives off enough vapors to form an ignitable mixture, causing the substance to burn or explode. The source of ignition might be a flame, hot object, spark from a tool, or static electricity. Although it is possible for the mixture to exceed the upper flammable limit where it becomes too rich to burn, any mixture above 10 percent of its lower flammable limit should be considered a hazard and treated accordingly. Fuel, oxygen, and an ignition source combined to cause an explosion when the assistant activated the grinder. Vapor density becomes a key issue in determining where a vapor might be found in the atmosphere. If the vapor has a low density (below 1.0), it will float in the air; therefore, ignition of such a fire might occur anywhere in a room or at a point above the source of the vapors. If the vapor has a high density (above 1.0), it will tend to move downward. Vapors released from a gasoline spill will often float downhill. An ignition source below the gasoline may ignite it and cause the fire to spread from the point of ignition to the source of the spill. Police often evacuate a wide area on a highway surrounding a gasoline spill because a nearby car could become a source of ignition and cause the remaining contents of the tank to burn, explode, or both. A liquid having a flash point at or above 100 degrees (Fahrenheit) is combustible. If the liquid ignites at a temperature below 100 degrees (Fahrenheit),

Figure 8.1  Flammability Relative to the Oxygen/Fuel Mixture

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it is referred to as flammable. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) subcategorizes the classifications of combustible and flammable. Knowing these subcategories can be useful in determining how to protect some properties. Although OSHA and the NFPA agree on these definitions, the Department of Transportation (DOT) now defines a flammable liquid as having an upper limit of 141 degrees (Fahrenheit) to conform to United Nations (UN) definitions for international transportation. There are exceptions to this (NFPA, n.d.)​ CATEGORIES OF FIRES AND EXTINGUISHERS Fires are categorized according to types of materials involved: • Class A fires involve ordinary combustible materials such as paper, wood, cloth, and some rubber and plastic materials. • Class B fires involve flammable or combustible liquids, flammable gases, greases and similar materials, and some rubber and plastic materials. • Class C fires involve energized electrical equipment where safety requires the use of electrically nonconductive extinguishing media. • Class D fires involve combustible metals such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium, lithium, and potassium. • Class K fires involve cooking oils and fats. Fire-extinguishing agents are categorized by the types of fires they extinguish; that is, Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class K extinguishers are used on corresponding types of fires. Some extinguishers can be used on different classes of fires; therefore, Class A–B and Class A–B–C extinguishers are available. Each type can be recognized as follows. An extinguisher for Class A fires may be rated as 1-A, 2-A, 3-A, 4-A, 6-A, 10-A, 20-A, 30-A, or 40-A. A 4-A extinguisher will extinguish about twice as much fire as a 2-A extinguisher. Class B extinguishers are rated similarly. Class C extinguishers are tested only for electrical conductivity; however, no extinguisher gets a Class C rating without a Class A and/or Class B rating. Class D extinguishers are tested on metal fires. The agent used in a Class D extinguisher depends on the metal for which the extinguisher was designed. The extinguisher faceplate will indicate the effectiveness of the unit on specific metals. Class K extinguishers work on the principle of saponification where the chemical reacts with the burning cooking oil or fat. The use of multipurpose ABC extinguishers on commercial kitchen fires is discouraged (Colorado Springs Fire Department, 2012).

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Fire extinguishers are distributed in the workplace so that the travel distance for Class A extinguishers is 75 feet or less. Class B extinguishers require travel distances of 30–50 feet, depending on the level of hazard and the extinguisher capacity. Class C travel distances are based on the appropriate pattern for Classes A or B. Class D extinguishers are located not more than 75 feet from the hazard and Class K extinguishers not more than 30 feet. Extinguishers shall be mounted and located so they are readily accessible with the carrying handle normally mounted 3½ to 5 feet from the floor. Larger extinguishers should be mounted about 3 feet from the floor. They require a monthly visual check and an annual maintenance check in addition to any applicable hydrostatic testing. A good example of a typical heavy-duty fire extinguisher can be found in figure 8.2. Employees who use this type of extinguisher are typically members of an on-site fire brigade.

Figure 8.2  Example of Fire Extinguishers Found in the Occupational Environment (A) 150-pound wheel fire extinguisher for protection of facilities where larger fires could occur. (B) Handheld fire extinguishers. Source: Photographs provided by and reprinted with the permission of Ansul, Inc., Marinette, Wisconsin.

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NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION The NFPA was founded in 1896 to design sprinkler systems and develop techniques for their installation and maintenance. Since then, the organization has evolved to become the pre-eminent fire prevention group in the United States. Its goal is to safeguard people and their environment from destructive fires through the use of scientific and engineering techniques and education. The NFPA’s activities involve development, publication, and dissemination of codes and consensus standards (Ferry, 1990). The NFPA’s Fire Protection Handbook was first published in 1896 and is now in a current edition consisting of thousands of pages. It has become increasingly large because of the expansion of the body of knowledge and the complexity of industries that have evolved. The NFPA also publishes other literature, including the Life Safety Code, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems, Recommended Practices for Responding to Hazardous Materials Incidents, and Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace. It publishes the Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, which provides best practices in fire protection engineering and performance-based fire safety. This book provides information on fire dynamics, hazard calculations, fire risk analysis, and modeling. Standards and Codes Since the inception of the association, standards and codes have become more than simple standardization, installation, and maintenance guides for sprinkler systems. There are currently hundreds of codes covering a large range of fire-related topics, with numerous NFPA committees developing standards and codes through a democratic process. All are published in the National Fire Codes or can be requested individually in pamphlet form. Some of the most widely used include NFPA 70, National Electric Code; NFPA 101, Life Safety Code; NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code; NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems; NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code; and NFPA 99, Health Care Facilities Code. NFPA 70 The purpose of NFPA 70 (National Electrical Code or NEC) is to provide a guide for the practical safeguarding of persons and property from hazards arising from the use of electricity. It covers requirements on electrical wiring and equipment installation issues, including minimum provisions for the use of connections, voltage markings, conductors, and cables. The NEC addresses recent changes in standards and practices and provides a comprehensive set of rules for all types of electrical wiring and equipment (NFPA, 2016).

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NFPA 101 NFPA 101 was designed to establish minimum requirements for life safety in buildings and structures. Life Safety Code addresses a wide range of topics from fire and similar emergencies: construction, protection, and occupancy features necessary to minimize the dangers from fire, smoke, fumes, or panic. It identifies minimum criteria for design of egress facilities permitting prompt escape of occupants from buildings, or where possible, into safe areas within the building. The Life Safety Code also recognizes that fixed locations occupied as buildings such as vehicles, vessels, or other mobile structures shall be treated as buildings. NFPA 101 is published using mandatory language that may be adopted in a given jurisdiction. Usually the state fire marshal determines who has authority for enforcement (NFPA, 2016). NFPA 30 The Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, NFPA 30, was developed with the intent of reducing hazards to a degree consistent with reasonable public safety. It does not seek to eliminate all hazards associated with the use of flammable and combustible liquids because the goal was not to interfere with public convenience. The code provides safeguards to reduce the hazards associated with the storage, handling, and use of flammable and combustible liquids (NFPA, 2016). An approved storage cabinet for keeping small containers of flammable and combustible liquids is shown in figure 8.3. Approved containers are shown in figure 8.4 (NFPA, 2002). NFPA 13 NFPA 13 is the industry benchmark for design and installation of automatic fire sprinkler systems. It addresses sprinkler system design approaches, system installation, and component options to prevent fire deaths and property loss. Comprehensive requirements include sprinkler system design, installation, and acceptance testing; hanging and bracing systems; underground piping; and seismic protection (NFPA, 2016). NFPA 58 NFPA 58 pertains to safe LP-Gas storage, handling, transportation, and use. NFPA 58 addresses mitigating risks and ensuring safe installations to prevent failures, leaks, and tampering that could lead to fires and explosions. Topics address design, construction, installation, and operation of LP-Gas systems including piping, equipment, containers, venting, and highway transportation of LP-Gas (NFPA, 2016).

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Figure 8.3  Flammable Liquid Storage Cabinets with Examples of Different Types of Safety Containers Source: Photographs courtesy of Justrite Mfg. Co. L.L.C., Des Plaines, Illinois.

NFPA 99 The Health Care Facilities Code, NFPA 99, establishes criteria for levels of healthcare services or systems based on risk to the patients, staff, or visitors in facilities to minimize hazards of fire, explosion, and electricity. Requirements address installation, inspection, testing, maintenance, performance, and safe practices for facilities, material, equipment, and appliances, including medical gas and vacuum systems (NFPA, 2016).​​ NFPA 704 NFPA 704 is a Standard System for the Identification of the Hazards of Materials for Emergency Response. The standard presents a simple, readily

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Figure 8.4  Example of Flammable Liquid Safety Can with Illustrated Safety Features Source: Photograph courtesy of Justrite Mfg. Co. L.L.C., Des Plaines, Illinois.

recognized, and easily understood system of markings, commonly referred to as the "NFPA hazard diamond." The diamond symbol is broken into four quadrants. The top portion is shaded red and represents the flammability hazard. Health hazards are indicated in the blue portion. Yellow represents the corrosivity hazard. The bottom portion is white; any special hazards will appear here. For example, a W with a line drawn through it means the chemical is water reactive. A radioactive, poison, or other symbol might also appear here. In the top three blocks, the extent of each hazard is represented with a numbering system of 0 to 4. Zero represents a minimal hazard, while four represents the greatest hazard. These are demonstrated in figure 8.5. Tables in the standard provide the criteria for the ratings, and placard specifications, such as letter size and arrangement of numbers and colors, are provided in the standard (NFPA, 2016) Educational Materials In addition to developing codes and standards, the NFPA also produces educational materials for consumers of all age groups and educators. They

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Figure 8.5  Sample of NFPA 704 Label for Storage Containers of Hazardous Materials

provide training on standards, as well as research on new technologies, fire and building-related products, and recent fire-related trends relate. The NFPA website at www​.NFPA​.org gives insight into the offerings.

DOT MARKING SYSTEM The DOT Hazardous Materials Regulations specify the requirements for placarding and labeling of hazardous materials shipped within the United States. Labels are attached directly to the container or on tags or cards attached to the containers. Placards are placed on both ends and each side of freight containers, cargo tanks, and portable tank containers. DOT utilizes United Nations Hazard Class numbers appearing on the bottom of the label or placard, as well as a four-digit, hazard-class identification number (see figure 8.6). This number can be cross-referenced in the DOT Emergency Response Guidebook to identify the material and to learn about protective measures to be taken to either avoid or respond to a spill or leak (see figure 8.7). The Guidebook and other relevant materials are available for free downloading. The DOT aligned with the Globally Harmonized System for Hazard Communication in 2008 in the classification of toxic materials and flammable liquids, so DOT labels and GHS pictograms are consistent with one another (Keller, 2016)

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Figure 8.6  Shipping Papers and Example of Placard and Panel with ID Number Source: Courtesy of Emergency Response Guide, U.S. Department of Transportation.

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Figure 8.7  Placards and Initial Response Guidelines Source: Courtesy of Emergency Response Guide, U.S. Department of Transportation.

OSHA REGULATIONS OSHA deals with fire protection from an employee safety standpoint, and many of the points covered in the OSHA standard are solid management practices for property safety as well. Subpart E, Means of Egress, is taken from NFPA 101, the Life Safety Code. The emphasis of this subpart is on protecting the employee once a fire has started. It informs the employer what to do to protect workers during the fire by addressing egress methods, automatic sprinkler systems, fire alarms, emergency action plans, and fire prevention plans. Means of egress refers to a continuous and unobstructed way of exit travel from any point in a building or structure to a public way. Safe exit travel consists of three separate and distinct parts: 1. The way of exit access (such as an aisle or hallway) 2. The exit (such as a doorway) 3. The way of exit discharge (such as a sidewalk outside the building)

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In addition, it should be noted that: • Exits cannot be disguised or obstructed by mirrors, decorations, or other objects. • They should be marked by readily visible signs. • Any door, stairway, or other passage possibly confused with an exit should be marked “Not an Exit” or identified as “Linen Closet,” “Basement,” and so on, so employees can find the way out of the building. An overview of means of egress is addressed in 29 CFR 1910, Subpart E. A building supervisor planned a drill to provide employees and occupants the opportunity to practice evacuation during an emergency. Although the seven-story office building was decades old, no evacuation drill had ever been performed. When the alarm sounded, occupants rushed to the stairwell and began descending. When the first person reached the door at the bottom of the stairs and pushed the crash bar, the door would not open. Although the stairwell was used daily by building occupants who chose to exit via stairs rather than by elevator, the door was frozen shut. An investigation revealed the weight of so many people in the stairwell at one time pushed the doorframe against the top of the door; thus, it would not open. The Life Safety Code of the NFPA specifies the numbers and types of different occupancies and, also the sprinklers and alarms appropriate for each. Sprinklers and alarms are not required in all instances. Subpart L of the OSHA regulations addresses fire protection. It contains requirements for fire brigades, all portable and fixed-fire suppression equipment, fire detection systems, and fire and employee alarm systems. Safety practitioners have the responsibility to ensure management is aware of how to be in compliance with all applicable fire laws and how to protect workers from fire hazards. This implies instructing employees on how to prevent fires and helping ensure workers are protected if a fire begins. Typical approaches to the fire problem include good housekeeping. Conditions should be monitored relative to neatness and cleanliness, because fires may result from conditions such as a stack of oily or greasy rags being left in a pile or an open container. As the rags decompose, they become hot and sometimes ignite through a process known as spontaneous combustion. Other materials such as damp hay, grass, or paper products exposed to dampness or combustible liquids can undergo the same process. The fire begins spontaneously with no apparent outside ignition source. Oily rags should be kept in approved safety cans, as shown in figure 8.8, to avoid contacts with ignition sources and incidents involving spontaneous combustion. In crowded facilities aisles and doorways are convenient drop points for tools, bicycles, and boxes because shelves and appropriate areas are remote or full. Employees

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Figure 8.8  Example of Oily Waste Safety Can Source: Photograph courtesy of Justrite Mfg. Co. L.L.C., Des Plaines, Illinois.

may block means of egress by using these empty spaces as storage areas. These hazardous conditions must be monitored and management is advised to take corrective action.​ Ensuring fire alarm and suppression systems are in good working order is not only a regulatory requirement but also a requirement of insurance company contracts. The loss-control representative from the insurance company often provides services to aid in ensuring all fire prevention and protection systems are in good working order. Both the rep and the safety professional check alarm systems and other methods of alerting workers in the event of a fire or other emergency. Alarm systems typically consist of mechanical or electronic devices such as bells or sirens located throughout the plant. Smaller businesses, when permitted by the regulations, may depend solely on someone yelling, “Fire.” Suppression systems such as fire extinguishers, sprinklers, or standpipes are also inspected. Sprinklers are the devices, often located on the ceiling, that release water when a fire occurs. Typically, the melting of a fusible link by a hot fire activates the sprinkler head. As each link is activated, water is released from it and only it. A dry sprinkler system is used in freezing conditions, so the water is only released into the pipes when a remote sensor opens a valve. Water will rush to all the sprinkler heads and be released through those with melted links. In a deluge system, all sprinkler heads are open so water will be released through all heads. Properly installed and maintained sprinkler

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systems are nearly one-hundred percent effective in protecting building occupants from fire. Standpipes include the piping and hoses located throughout buildings, accessible during a fire. Some standpipes are dry, meaning no water is in the pipes, until it is pumped in during the emergency. In a tall office building, for example, the hoses and pipes in the system may be for use by the fire department. When firefighters arrive at the scene, they do not want to take the time to drag hoses to the top floors. A dry standpipe system permits them to connect to a water supply at the base of the building and activate the standpipe system on the top floors. Until they connect their water supply, however, no water is available. These systems often employ large-diameter hoses at the receiving end likely to be too unwieldy for untrained persons. Wet standpipes are typically designed for use by properly trained occupants to protect the people and contents of the building. These systems have a constant supply of water and are smaller in diameter for occupants’ use. The loss-control representative of the insurance company attempts to ensure, through the insurance contract, all suppression systems are operating at all times or standby, substitute arrangements are in place during periods of shutdown for maintenance and repair. Some companies depend on fire brigades, consisting of employees trained to respond to fire emergencies. Incipient fire brigades may have been taught to use only fire extinguishers for response to incipient or small, early-stage fires. Structural fire brigades may have been prepared to a level comparable to that of members of a municipal fire department for response to large, structural fires. Structural fire brigades may maintain equipment, including fire trucks and turnout gear, like that found at the fire department. Unless employees have appropriate training and equipment, it is recommended to instruct them to immediately evacuate and sound an alarm when a fire occurs. Even an incipient fire can present a threat to the lives of employees when untrained personnel attempt to extinguish it. For liability and insurance purposes, many companies are reluctant to assume the risk of utilizing an in-house fire brigade as a defense for fires on their properties. FIRE CASE HISTORY This account was submitted by Greg Roberts, a master’s degree student at East Carolina University, who had worked for a department store chain. While safety manager, I received a call from Waldorf, Maryland notifying me a store had been partially destroyed by fire. The details were at best sketchy, so I boarded our corporate plane immediately to survey the damage and report on the cause.

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The store was of a typical design with a 54,000-square-foot interior and an additional 5,000-square-foot garden shop attached outside. It met all building codes in Maryland for fire protection and was less than one-year-old. When I arrived, the store manager and the inspector in charge of the investigation met me. What we discovered was the fire began in the garden shop and spread via the cantilever roof to the inside structure. However, the fuel source was a surprise. As many large retailers do, the buying department purchases boxcar loads of merchandise. The merchandise is then segregated and shipped in large quantities to each store. During the summer months, the store stocked and sold a great deal of peat moss, cow manure, and 10-10-10 fertilizer. During shipping, unloading, or storage, the plastic bags containing the peat moss were damaged, allowing rain water to accumulate inside them while in our parking lot. The peat moss, usually in 40-pound bags with 40 to 50 bags per pallet, was located in the parking lot, until it was needed in the garden shop area. When the restocking took place, an entire pallet (40 to 50 bags) was retrieved from the parking lot and placed under the cantilever roof for customer convenience. The bags were protected from rain after being placed under the roofline, but they were not protected from direct sunlight during the afternoon. This allowed the sun to heat the material, and, as a result, ignite the peat moss, or as described by the inspector, allowed spontaneous combustion to occur. They had never experienced an event like this, and, fortunately, no one was injured. The vast majority of the merchandise was destroyed by the sprinkler system, as the valves were chained in the open position, locked, and blocked by the last shipment of merchandise that was unloaded. These violations prevented the fire department from reaching the shutoff valve, and, as a result, the sprinklers operated well after the fire was extinguished. The company learned a great deal from our misfortune in Waldorf, Maryland. They were able to establish a storage policy mandating all spontaneously combustible material storage must occur away from the building in the parking lot or inside to reduce exposure to the elements. Additionally, they reinforced the policy regarding locked and blocked sprinkler valve shutoff and took disciplinary action against the store manager in Waldorf for these violations. (personal communication, March 29, 1995)

MANAGING THE FIRE PROGRAM All in-plant and out-of-plant systems are carefully evaluated to ensure plant and emergency response personnel are notified in a timely manner. If fire disables the alarm system, backup systems should be available, and employees should know to utilize them. An effective fire plan incorporates as many of the emergency systems into the daily plant operations as possible, in order to ensure they are in operational order, and personnel are aware of how to use them.

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Management commitment is critical to the success of the fire program and can be measured in terms of the resources and time that management makes available to the program. There should be clear lines of authority leading from manager of the organization to personnel responsible for ensuring a successful fire program. Since fire equipment is located throughout the plant, it may be impractical to have supervisors handle inspections in their respective sections and report to the safety department. A better approach is to work with a member of the maintenance or engineering staff to handle these responsibilities. It is generally good practice to involve as many personnel in the fire program as possible to encourage awareness and support.

WRITTEN PROGRAM 29 CFR 1910.38 requires companies to have an emergency action plan in writing covering the following elements: • Procedures for emergency escape • Procedures to be followed by employees who remain to operate the plant • Procedures to account for all evacuees • Procedures for rescue and medical personnel • Protocols for alarm systems • Procedures for training A written fire prevention plan is also required and should contain the following elements: • A list of major workplace fire hazards and their proper handling and storage procedures, potential ignition sources and their control procedures, and equipment or systems which can control a fire involving them. • The names or job titles of personnel responsible for maintenance of equipment and systems installed to prevent or control ignitions or fires. • The names or regular job titles of the personnel responsible for control of fuel-source hazards. Training is critical. Employees need awareness of the alarm systems and appropriate responses to an alarm. Where the possibility exists for different types of disasters, employees need awareness of the different types of alarms. For example, a continuous bell may indicate an evacuation of the building, as with a fire. An intermittent bell may indicate employees should seek appropriate shelter in the building, as with a tornado.

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Employees should also be trained in how and when to use fire extinguishers. Employees are to use extinguishers only if they have been properly trained; to do otherwise would be a violation of OSHA regulations. This is so that employees do not attempt to fight fires beyond their capabilities or the capabilities of the available equipment. If training is not mandated for employees, they have no alternative but to evacuate when a fire occurs. CONCLUSION Although most safety practitioners are not required to know the minute details of fire safety, it is imperative they have an awareness of the terminology surrounding fire to effectively communicate with building inspectors, fire marshals, OSHA regulators, fire equipment vendors and maintenance personnel, and insurance representatives. They must also maintain an awareness of the conditions leading to fires and work to help eliminate them throughout the facility. An effective fire program requires constant vigilance and an ongoing partnership with key representatives from industry, government, and insurance companies. Relationships should be cultivated with as many of them as possible to maintain an effective fire prevention and protection program. QUESTIONS 1. What is the NFPA? Contact the NFPA and request a catalog of its products. The NFPA can be reached at (617) 770-3500, or you can write to them at One Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269. Explain what products are available from the NFPA and how these products would be of help to you in industrial safety. 2. Can you find any reference to NFPA in the OSHA Standards? Where? How are you affected by the NFPA and ANSI standards? How are they the same or different from laws? 3. Why do you think NFPA evolved as it did? Are the issues tackled by the NFPA issues that the federal government should be addressing? Explain your answer. REFERENCES Ashford, N. (1977). Crisis in the Workplace. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Colorado Springs Fire Department. (2012, January 6). Class K fire extinguishers. Fire Department Connection. Retrieved from https://www​.springsgov​.com​/SIB​/files​/ Class​_K​_Fire​_Extinguishers[1].pdf.

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Diamond, R. (1991, September 4). Plant never had safety inspection. The Raleigh News and Observer, pp. 1A, 7A. Facility Executive. (n.d.). 17 years after the chicken plant fire (from the workplace safety council). Retrieved from http://facilityexecutive​.com​/2010​/09​/17​-years​-after​ -the​-chicken​-plant​-fire​-from​-the​-workplace​-safety​-council/. Ferry, T. (1990). Safety and Health Management Planning. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Hughes, J. T. (1991, September 15). Nowhere to run. The Raleigh News and Observer, pp. 1J, 8J. National Safety Council. (1983). Protecting Workers’ Lives: A Safety Guide for Unions. Washington, DC: National Safety Council. NFPA (National Fire Protection Association). (various dates). National Fire Codes. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association. (www​.nfpa​.org). Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (2003). Code of Federal Regulations, Part 1910, General Industry. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Rives, J. P., & Mather, T. (1991, September 4). 49 Injured as doors bar safety routes. The Raleigh News and Observer, pp. 1A, 7A.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Chissick, S. S., & Derricott, R. (1981). Occupational Health and Safety Management. New York: Wiley and Sons. Follmann, J. F. (1978). The Economics of Industrial Health: History, Theory, Practice. New York: AMACOM. Keller, J.J. (2016). Hazard Communication (HazCom) and GHS. Retrieved from https://www​.jjkeller​.com​/shop​/content___​_bi​-hazcom​-faqs___. Lacayo, R. (1991, September 16). Death on the shop floor. Time, 28–29. Ladwig, T. W. (1991). Industrial Fire Prevention and Protection. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Meier, K. J. (1985). Regulation: Politics, Bureaucracy, and Economics. New York: St. Martins Press. Price of Neglect. (1992). September 28. Time, 24. Robertson, J. (1975). History and philosophy of fire prevention. In Introduction to Fire Prevention. Beverly Hills, CA: Glencoe Press.

Chapter 9

System Safety Celeste A. Winterberger and A. Michael Shekari

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to • describe the different elements that compose system safety; • explain the development of system safety into a discipline; • describe the importance of system safety today; • identify the elements of the system life cycle; • explain how a system safety program is managed; • list the different tools and techniques in the analysis of system safety; • describe safety management systems (SMS) relationship to the system safety concept; • describe SMS; and • explain how SMS is implemented. SYSTEM SAFETY Celeste A. Winterberger, PhD CASE STUDY It was early summer evening on I-35W in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Commuters were heading home from work and the typical rush-hour traffic around the metropolitan area was streaming across the eight-lane bridge crossing the Mississippi River. Without warning the bridge collapsed. The span had been packed with rush-hour traffic, and dozens of vehicles plunged to the river 189

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and roads below, leaving drivers and the occupants of their cars scrambling to get out. Those less fortunate died from the fall or drowned. At final count, 13 were known dead and 145 were injured. Peter Siddons, a senior vice president at Wells Fargo Home Mortgage, was heading north over the bridge toward his home to White Bear Lake when he heard “crunching.” “I saw this rolling of the bridge,” he said. “It kept collapsing, down, down, down until it got to me.” Siddons’ car dropped with the bridge, and its nose rolled into the car in front of him and stopped. He got out of his car, jumped over the crevice between the highway lanes and crawled up the steeply tilted section of bridge to land, where he jumped to the ground. “I thought I was dead,” he said. “Honestly, I honestly did. I thought it was over” (Levy, 2007). The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) determined the probable cause of the collapse was the inadequate load capacity, due to a design error of the gusset plates. They failed due to a combination of factors including previous bridge modifications and concentrated construction loads on the bridge on the day of the collapse. The design error was permitted due to failure of quality-control procedures and inadequate design review by Federal and State transportation officials (National Transportation Safety Board, 2008, p. xiii). The collapse of the bridge was a result of numerous failures in a series of systems including design, modification, and inspection. The NTSB noted the failures

Figure 9.1  Minnesota Bridge Collapse Source: Copied from National Transportation Safety Board (2008).

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in the system, and they were a result of errors on the part of management. Until management errors are identified and corrected, systems will continue to fail.​ DEFINITIONS To understand system safety, one must know the fundamentals that go into defining the discipline. A “system” can be defined as “a group of interconnected elements united to form a single entity.” Systems may include something as simple as a toaster or as complex as a chemical refinery. Perhaps the most important thing about systems is that they can sometimes be and often are further defined into subsystems, assemblies, subassemblies, and components (see figure 9.2). If the subsystems contain interdependent entities, they then also can be defined as systems. For example, a car brake can be defined as either a stand-alone system or a subsystem of an automobile.​ Safety can be defined as making something free from the likelihood of harm. Roland and Moriarty (1990, p. 7) state that “safety in a system” is “a quality of a system that allows the system to function under predetermined conditions with an acceptable minimum of accidental loss.”

Figure 9.2  Block Diagram Showing the Different Parts of a Car Engine (System)

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A hazard is anything that can possibly cause danger or harm to equipment, personnel, property, or the environment. It is a circumstance that has the potential, under the right conditions, to become a loss. Risk involves the probability that an incident will occur or the chance of occurrence and the resulting loss. The batting average of a baseball player can be described by a pitcher as the risk that the batter will get a hit. If someone has a batting average of .200, it means that if the pitcher throws ten pitches it would be likely that the batter would hit two fair. Obviously, the higher the risk (including probability and cost of loss), the more important it becomes to find and mitigate the hazard. In the case of the bridge collapse, the risk was high because failure of the gusset plates would likely cause death if it occurred. An accident is a dynamic occurrence caused by the activation of a hazard and consists of a number of interrelated events resulting in a loss. It can cause injury or death of individuals, as well as property damage to equipment and hardware. A related term that is sometimes used to refer to accidents but is actually a different kind of event is an incident. An incident is also an unplanned event but may or may not have an adverse effect. An incident may simply be an occurrence with no losses. These are sometimes referred to as near misses. System safety can be defined as “an optimum degree of safety, established within the constraints of operational effectiveness, time, and cost . . . achievable throughout all phases of the system life cycle” (Malasky, 1982, p. 17). The system-safety concept deals with the before-the-fact identification of hazards as opposed to the after-the-fact approach used for years. Consider the bridge collapse example; the accident occurred and the problem was found and resolved. Using the system-safety approach would have meant that information concerning the performance of the gusset plates was gathered prior to design and testing and was also gathered throughout implementation. There may have been a number of solutions to this problem. Even if the problem had been discovered before the fact, and no immediate solution was present, procedures might have been in place to lower the bridge load or divert traffic under appropriate load conditions—until the problem was addressed and the plates were replaced.

HISTORY OF SYSTEM SAFETY One of the first mentions of the concept of system safety appeared in the technical paper “Engineering for Safety” presented at the Institute for Aeronautical Sciences in 1947. It stressed that safety should be designed into airplanes, and it continued by stating that safety groups should be an important

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part of the organization. It wasn’t until the early 1960s and the development of ballistic missile systems that the concept gained a more formal acceptance. Contractors were given the responsibility for safety, replacing the practice of shared responsibility by each individual involved in the process. The first system-safety requirements were published by the Air Force in 1962. These were modified in 1963 into the Air Force specification MIL-S-38130. In 1966, the Department of Defense adopted these specifications as MIL-S-381308A. MILSTD-882 System Safety Program for Systems and Associated Subsystems and Equipment; Requirements for, developed in 1982, contained the specifications for the system-safety program required by all military contractors. NASA also implemented a system-safety program patterned after the Air Force standards. These programs were instrumental to the successful completion of many NASA projects, including the Apollo moon missions. The private sector has begun to develop system-safety programs because of the successes of the military and NASA. Leading the way are the nuclear power, refining, and chemical industries. The adoption of system safety in those industries manufacturing consumer products has generated returns in terms of more effective products, fewer accidents, and longer product life.

IMPORTANCE OF SYSTEM SAFETY TODAY As society becomes more technically advanced, its tools become increasingly sophisticated. In some cases, the machine has advanced further than the human capacity to control it. Jet fighters are good examples. These machines are capable of performing in g-forces that incapacitate most humans. Safety professionals need to be aware of the limits of human performance, as well as the fallibility of the individual in a mechanized system. Product liability is also a major concern for many companies. The McDonald’s coffee award is a good example. In this case, a woman placed a cup of McDonald’s coffee between her legs in a car. The coffee spilled and the woman was severely burned. McDonald’s was found liable for the injuries, even though McDonald’s cups contain a warning stating the contents are hot. A systems-safety approach could have prevented this event.​ Table 9.1  Typical Job Titles Appropriate to Level of Training Training Level

Typical Job Titles

Awareness Familiarization Advanced

Associate, machinist, laborer, customer service agent, technician Lead, supervisor, shift manager, engineer, operations specialist President, director, general manager, project manager, superintendent, safety professional

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SYSTEM LIFE CYCLE The system life cycle consists of six phases: concept, definition, development, production, deployment, and disposition. At the end of each phase, a safety review is conducted. A decision is then made whether to continue the project or place it on hold, pending further examination. During the concept phase, historical data and technical forecasts are developed as a base for a system hazard analysis (SHA). A Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA) is conducted during this phase. At the gross level, a Risk Analysis (RA) is performed to ascertain the need for hazard control and to develop system-safety criteria. Safety management will be doing the initial work on the System Safety Program Plan (SSPP). Three basic questions must be answered by the time the concept phase is completed: • “Have the hazards associated with the design concept been discovered and evaluated to establish hazard controls? • Have risk analyses been initiated to establish the means for hazard control? • Are initial safety design requirements established for the concept so that the next phase of system definition can be initiated?” (Roland & Moriarty, 1990, p. 23). The definition phase is used to verify the preliminary design and product engineering. Reports presented at design review meetings typically discuss the technological risks, costs, human engineering, operational and maintenance suitability, and safety aspects. In addition subsystems, assemblies, and subassemblies of the system are defined at this time. The PHA is updated and a Subsystem Hazard Analysis (SSHA) is initiated so it can later be integrated into the SHA. Safety analysis techniques are used during this phase to identify safety equipment, specification of safety design requirements, initial development of safety test plans and requirements, and prototype testing to verify the type of design selected.

Figure 9.3  System Safety Functions

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Environmental impact, integrated logistics support, producible engineering, and operational use studies are done during the development phase. The SSHA and safety design criteria are also completed during this phase. Interfaces with other engineering disciplines within the organization are fostered. Using the data collected, a go/no-go decision can be made before production begins. The production phase of the system life cycle involves close monitoring by the safety department. In addition, the quality-control department becomes important because of its focus on inspection and testing of the new product. Training begins during this phase. Updating of the analyses started during the definition and development phases continues. Finally, all the information collected during this phase is compiled into the System Safety Engineering Report (SSER). The SSER identifies and documents the hazards of the final product or system. When the system becomes operational, it is in the deployment phase. Data continues to be collected and training is conducted. If any problems occur, individuals responsible for system safety must be available to follow up and decide on possible solutions. The system safety group in the organization also reviews any design changes made on the system or product. A sixth phase of the system life cycle, the disposition or termination phase, is the time a product or system is removed from service. In certain cases, the removal of a product may in itself create a hazardous situation. A good example is asbestos removal from a building or light transformer replacement due to PCBs. Safety professionals monitor these situations so both the worker and the public are protected. TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR SAFETY RISK MANAGEMENT In safety risk management (SRM), a company must identify the types of techniques used in analyzing and evaluating system hazards. The following section will discuss some of the tools commonly used by the safety practitioner. Preliminary Hazard Analysis A PHA is the initial effort in identifying hazards which singly or in combination could cause an accident or undesired event. PHA is a system-safety analysis tool used to identify hazard sources, conditions, and potential accidents (Roland & Moriarty, 1990). At the same time, PHA establishes the initial design and procedural safety requirements to eliminate or control these identified hazardous conditions. A PHA is performed in the early stages of the conceptual cycle of system development. It can be performed by engineers, contractors, production line supervisors, or safety professionals. Management must always first look at any risk involved in the operation of the system.

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After identifying hazards and their resultant adverse effects, the analyst will rate each according to the Hazard Classification class, which could be one of four categories: • Class I—Catastrophic: A condition(s) that will cause equipment loss and/ or death or multiple injuries to personnel. • Class II—Critical: A condition(s) that will cause severe injury to personnel and major damage to equipment, or will result in a hazard requiring immediate corrective action. • Class III—Marginal: A condition(s) that may cause minor injury to personnel and minor damage to equipment. • Class IV—Negligible: A condition(s) that will not result in injury to personnel, and will not result in any equipment damage. Roland and Moriarty (1990) show how to develop a Hazard Assessment Matrix to determine a Hazard Risk Index using frequency of occurrence and hazard category (see figure 9.4).​

Figure 9.4  Hazard Assessment Matrix Source: Adapted from Roland and Moriarty (1990).

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Subsystem Hazard Analysis A SSHA is performed to identify hazards in the component systems within a larger system. For example, in the bridge collapse accident, the gusset plates could be considered a subsystem. When the plates, components of the subsystem, broke, a total system breakdown began as a cascade effect that ultimately destroyed the bridge. An analysis of all design components should be started no later than the definition phase in the system life cycle and continue until the beginning of the system production phase. Analysis techniques include Fault Hazard Analysis (FHA) and Fault Tree Analysis (FTA), discussed in more detail in the next section (Roland & Moriarty, 1990). Hazard Analysis Techniques The role of the safety professional is to anticipate, identify, and evaluate hazards; give advice on the avoidance, elimination, or control of hazards; and attain a state for which the risks are judged to be acceptable. To achieve this, the safety professional adopts a system-safety concept that includes • an understanding of the hazards; • an understanding of the risks; • an identification of the hazards and risks within their system; • an understanding of unwanted releases of energy and unwanted releases of hazardous materials being the causal factors for hazard-related incidents; and • a knowledge of the principles and techniques used to control hazards and reduce their associated risks to an acceptable level (Manuele, 1993). A hazard analysis is used to identify any dangers that might be present in a proposed operation, the types and degrees of accidents that might result from the hazards, and the measures that can be taken to avoid or minimize accidents or their consequences (Hammer, 1989). SHA is primarily performed during the definition and development phases of the system life cycle (Roland & Moriarty, 1990). However, it should be continuously implemented throughout the life cycle of a system, project, program, and activity to identify and control hazards. The purpose of performing an analysis during the early stages of the life cycle is to reduce costs. If the analysis is done after the system is in operation, the system may need to be redesigned and consequently withdrawn from service. In addition, if the system is close to the end of its life cycle, it might not be cost-effective to change it (Brauer, 2006).

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A hazard analysis should contain the following information: • Descriptive information System mode Subsystem mode of subsystem of hazard origin Hazard description Hazard effects Likelihood or relative likelihood of each hazard • Causation events of each hazard Identification of events precisely as to subsystem mode, system mode, and environmental constraints • Subsystem interface problems of special significance Identification of subsystem involved Identification of system and subsystem modes • System risk evaluation Severity listing of each hazard Likelihood of each hazard { { { { {

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(If a full quantitative evaluation is conducted, a risk evaluation should be presented for each hazard.) • Risk summary Listing risks of each hazard and for the system as a function of system modes A logical evaluation of acceptability of system risks Recommendations as to system risk control {

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This analysis can and must begin as soon as the idea for a new system or operation is conceived (Roland & Moriarty, 1990). Technic of Operations Review In 1987, D. A. Weaver developed the Technic of Operations Review (TOR) (Ferry, 1988). It was designed to uncover management oversights and omissions instead of hardware or operator problems. The four steps of a TOR analysis are state, trace, eliminate, and seek. During the state portion of the analysis, detailed information about the hazard is gathered. If the hazard is discovered as the result of an accident, a summary of the mishap report is reviewed. The trace portion uses a sheet displaying possible operational errors under eight categories: • Training includes all errors related to inadequate preparation of the employee.

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• Responsibility considers errors in the organizational requirements which may have contributed to the hazard. • Decision and direction look at the lack of or inadequacy in the decisionmaking process which causes errors in the performance of the product or employee. • Supervision refers to errors due to problems with the direction of employee work. • Work group problems can be traced to the interpersonal relationships within the group. • Control deals with errors related to inadequate safety precautions. • Personal traits can be traced to the individual’s personality and how it affects the individual’s job performance. • Management can be traced to poor managerial control. Under each category is a list of numbered operational errors in that group. (A complete copy of the TOR analysis materials can be obtained from The FPE Group, 3687 Mt. Diablo Road, Lafayette, CA 94549, who are the sole distributors of this analysis instrument.) To begin the analysis, a single number or prime error under one of the eight categories is chosen. Using the Minnesota bridge collapse disaster, the prime number may be under category five, control: number 61, unsafe condition. Each subcategory number on the TOR sheet then points to other possible factors that may have contributed to the hazard or mishap. Possible factors that could have contributed in the bridge collapse include: 65. Deficient inspection, report, or maintenance (main category: control). 36. Failure to investigate and to apply the lessons of similar mishaps (main category: decision and direction). 43. Unsafe act; failure to correct before the accident occurred (main category: supervision). 86. Accountability; failure to develop appraisal and measurement of key goals and objectives (main category: management). These factors are then discussed by the group. Those found to have contributed to the accident can be further broken down until all the causative factors have been identified. When the trace portion of the analysis is finished, the “eliminate” step begins. Sometimes the trace step can identify a large number of contributing factors, a number often overwhelming to the group evaluating the hazard. Therefore, the “eliminate” step is used to discuss each contributing factor and evaluate its merit to the process. The final step, “seek,” looks for possible actions that need to be taken to correct the problem. These solutions should then be implemented.

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Technique for Human Error Rate Prediction Swain and Rook developed Technique for Human Error Rate Prediction (THERP) in 1961 to quantify human error rates due to problems of equipment unreliability, operational procedures, and any other system characteristic that could influence human behavior (Malasky, 1982). THERP is an iterative process consisting of five steps executed in any order: • Determine system failure modes to be evaluated. • Identify the significant human operations required and their relationship(s) to system operation and system output. • Estimate error rates for each human operation or group of operations that are pertinent to the evaluation. • Determine the effect of human error on the system and its outputs. • Modify system inputs or the character of the system itself to reduce the failure rate (Malasky, 1982, p. 257). THERP is usually modeled using a probability tree. Each branch represents a task analysis showing the flow of task behaviors and other associations. A probability is assigned based on the event’s occurrence or nonoccurrence. Failure Mode and Effects Analysis A Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) is a sequential analysis and evaluation of the kinds of failures that could happen and their likely effects, expressed in terms of maximum potential loss. The technique is used as a predictive model and forms part of an overall risk assessment study. This analysis is described completely in the MIL-STD-1629A. The FMEA is most useful in SHA for highlighting critical components (Ridley, 1994). In this method of analysis, the constituent major assemblies of the product to be analyzed are listed. Next, each assembly is broken into subassemblies and components. Each component is then studied to determine how it could malfunction and cause downstream effects. Effects might result on other components, and then on higher-level subassemblies, assemblies, and the entire product. Failure rates for each item are determined and listed. The calculations are used to determine how long a piece of hardware is expected to operate for a specific length of time. It is the best and principal means of determining where components and designs must be improved to increase the operational life of a product. In addition, it is used to analyze how frequently and when parts must be replaced if a failure, possibly related to safety, must be avoided (Hammer, 1989).

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Figure 9.5  Basic FTA Symbology

The FMEA is limited to determination of all causes and effects, hazardous or not. Furthermore, the FMEA does very little to analyze problems arising from operator errors or hazardous characteristics of equipment created by bad design or adverse environments. However, the FMEA is excellent for determining optimum points for improving and controlling product quality (Hammer, 1989). (An example of an FMEA for a bicycle can be found in figure 9.5.)​ Fault Hazard Analysis A FHA is an inductive method for finding dangers that result from singlefault events (Roland & Moriarty, 1990). It identifies hazards during the design phase. The investigator takes a detailed look at the proposal system to determine hazard modes, causes of hazards, and the adverse effects associated with the hazards. Fault Tree Analysis The most widely used analytical technique, FTA, is a symbolic logic diagram graphically depicting the cause-and-effect relationships of a system (Ferry, 1988). (See figure 9.6.)​ The hierarchy of fault tree events can be classified as follows: 1. Head event (top event): The event at the top of the tree that is to be analyzed. 2. Primary event: The main malfunction of the component. 3. Secondary event: The effect that is caused on another component, device, or outside condition.

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Figure 9.6  A Simple FTA

4. Basic event: “An event that occurs at the element level and refers to the smallest subdivision of the analysis of the system” (Ferry, 1988, p. 153) Using this basic hierarchy, an FTA is conducted using three steps. The first is the determination of the head event. Once the head event is set, primary and secondary events can be determined. The final step is the resolution of the relationship between the casual events and the head event using the terms AND and OR. An example of a simple FTA may help explain how AND and OR logic is used to define relationships. If an analysis is done on the failure of an electric light bulb, the following fault tree can be developed. The tree shows two OR gates. After the light fails, there are two possible alternatives. Either the bulb will burn out or there is a power failure. If there is a power failure, there are two possible outcomes: either the power has failed to come into the building or an internal circuit breaker has failed. On the other hand, if there is an AND gate, both outcomes must occur for the event to happen. If an AND gate was placed after the power failure, both a power company failure and an internal circuit failure must happen for the event to take place. There are limitations to this type of analysis. A specific knowledge of the design, construction, and the use of the product is necessary for successful

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completion of the FTA. In addition, FTA logic assumes that all events are either successes or failures. Many times such a concrete decision is not possible. JOB SAFETY ANALYSIS (JSA) Reasons for Conducting a JSA JSA is an analytical tool that can improve a company’s overall performance by identifying and correcting undesirable events that could result in accidents, illnesses, injuries, and reduced quality and production. It is an employer/ employee participation program in which job activities are observed; divided into individual steps; discussed; and recorded with the intent to identify, eliminate, or control undesirable events. JSA effectively accomplishes this goal because it operates at a very basic level. It reviews each job and breaks it down into an orderly series of smaller tasks. After these tasks have been determined, the same routine of observation, discussion, and recording is repeated, this time focusing on events which could have a negative impact on each step in the task. Once potential undesirable events are recognized, the process is repeated for a third time and corrective actions are identified. Conducting a JSA can be a valuable learning experience for both new and experienced employees. Not only does it help them understand their jobs better, but it also familiarizes them with potential hazards and involves them in developing accident-prevention procedures. Workers are more likely to follow procedures if they have a voice in planning. Finally, the JSA process causes employees to think about safety and how it relates to their jobs. Who Should Conduct JSAs? The responsibility for the development of a JSA lies with first-line supervision. These individuals have firsthand knowledge of the process, its potential hazards, and the need for instituting corrective actions at each step. This also provides the interaction with hourly employees necessary to complete the JSA. Initially, first-line supervisors must receive training in hazard recognition and procedures necessary to perform a JSA. This training will give them the knowledge necessary to explain the JSA to employees, what it is expected to accomplish, how it is conducted, and what their part will be in the program. A well-organized and maintained JSA program can have a very beneficial effect on accident prevention, improved production, and product quality.

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Responsibility for this program, as with any other program, must start at the top and be conveyed to all employees. Procedures and Various Methods Used to Perform JSAs A JSA is a procedure used to review job methods and uncover hazards that • may have been overlooked in the layout of the plant or building and in the design of the machinery, equipment, tools, workstations, and processes; • may have developed after production started; or • may have resulted from changes in work procedures or personnel. The principal benefits of a JSA include • giving individual training in safe, efficient procedures; • making employee safety contracts; • instructing the new person on the job; • preparing for planned safety observation; • giving pre-job instruction on irregular jobs; • reviewing job procedures after accidents occur; and • studying jobs for work-methods improvements. A JSA can be performed using three basic steps, but a careful selection of the job to be analyzed is an important preliminary step. Various Methods for Performing JSAs There are three basic methods for conducting JSAs. The direct observation method uses observational interviews to determine the job steps and hazards encountered. A second way to perform a JSA is using the discussion method. This method is typically used for jobs or tasks that are performed infrequently. It involves pulling together individuals who have done the job and letting them brainstorm regarding the steps and hazards. The third way to perform a JSA is called the recall-and-check method. This method is typically used when a process is ongoing and people can’t get together. Everyone participating in this process writes down ideas about the steps and hazards involved in the job. Information from these individuals is compiled and a composite list is sent to each participant. Each person can then revise the list until consensus is achieved. The following list gives the three basic approaches used to determine how to perform a specific JSA.

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• By a specific machine or piece of equipment (e.g., lathe) • By a specific type of job (e.g., machining) • By a specific occupation (e.g., machinist) Selecting the Job A job is a sequence of separate steps or activities that together accomplish a work goal. Jobs suitable for a JSA are those a line supervisor chooses; jobs are not selected at random. Those with a poor work accident history or high associated costs are analyzed first to yield the quickest possible results. In selecting jobs to be analyzed and establishing the order of analysis, top supervision is guided by the following factors: • Frequency of accidents. A job repeatedly producing accidents is a candidate for a JSA. The greater the number of accidents associated with the job, the greater its priority claim for a JSA. • Rate of disabling injuries. Every job having a history of disabling injuries should have a JSA performed. Subsequent injuries prove that preventive action taken prior to their occurrence has not been successful. • Severity potential. Some jobs may not have a history of accidents but have the potential for causing severe injuries. The more severe the injury, the higher the priority is for a JSA. • New jobs. Changed equipment or processes obviously have no history of accidents, but the accident potential may not be understood. A JSA should be conducted for each new job. Analysis should not be delayed until an accident or near miss occurs. After the job has been selected, the three basic steps in conducting a JSA are as follows: • Breaking the job down into its component steps. • Identifying the hazards and potential accidents. • Developing solutions. 1. Breaking the job down into its component steps. Before the search for hazards can be started, a job should be broken down into a sequence of steps, each describing what is to be done. There are two common errors to avoid in this process: a. making the job breakdown too detailed so that an unnecessarily large number of steps results, and b. making the job breakdown so general that the basic steps are not recorded.

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To perform a job breakdown, use the following steps (see figure 9.7).​ • Select the right worker to observe. Select an experienced, capable, and cooperative person who is willing to share ideas. • Observe the employee performing the job. • Completely describe each step. Each step should tell what is done, not how it is done. • Number the job steps consecutively. • Watch the operator perform the job a number of times until you are sure that all the steps have been noted. • Check the list of steps with the person observed to obtain agreement on how the job is performed and the sequence of the steps. 2. Identifying hazards and potential accidents. The purpose of a JSA is to identify all hazards, both those produced by the environment and those connected with the job procedure. Each step must be made safer and more efficient. Close observation and knowledge of the particular job are required for the JSA to be effective. The job observation should be repeated until all hazards and potential accidents have been identified. 3. Developing solutions. The final step in a JSA is to develop a safe job procedure to prevent the occurrence of accidents. The principal types of solutions are as follows: • find a new way of doing the job • change the physical conditions that create the hazards • change the work procedure and/or • reduce the frequency of the job Completing the JSA After the worksheet is complete, the data compiled is transferred to the actual JSA form. Once it is entered and verified, signature approval is obtained for the JSA from an upper-level manager. After that, the findings are discussed with employees performing the job. Any necessary safety procedures are reviewed and equipment required to perform the job is discussed with employees. In addition, a copy of the JSA is available for employees to use when they perform the job—particularly for jobs not done on a regular basis. No job is static; JSAs are critiqued on a regular basis and any necessary changes are made. Effectively Using a JSA in Loss Prevention The major benefits of a JSA come after its completion. Supervisors can learn more about the jobs they supervise and can use JSAs for training new

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Figure 9.7  Job Safety Analysis Worksheet

employees. JSAs provide a list of steps needed to perform the job and identify the procedures and equipment needed to do it safely. Employees can use JSAs for improved safety knowledge and as reviews before performing unfamiliar jobs. Supervisors occasionally observe employees as they perform the jobs for which the analysis was developed. If any procedural deviations are observed, the supervisor alerts the employee and reviews the job operation. JSAs should be reevaluated following any accident. If the accident is a result of an employee failing to follow JSA procedures, the fact is discussed

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Figure 9.8  JSA for a Hydraulic Line Replacement

with everyone doing the job. It can be made clear the accident would not have occurred had the JSA procedures been followed. If the JSA is revised following an accident, these revisions are brought to the employees’ attention. (See figure 9.7 for a sample JSA worksheet.)

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An Example Performing JSAs is a complex process. To better understand the importance of this analysis tool, figure 9.8 shows a completed JSA for hydraulic line replacement. Please note accident categories described in the potential hazards section. These potential hazards will aid in determining what safety measures and personal protective equipment are necessary for a given job.​​ ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION Accident investigation techniques are discussed in chapter 5. However, it is important to note that the accident investigation is a form of system safety analysis. During the deployment phase, accidents may occur and the findings of the investigation may result in a redesign, retrofit, and/or recall of the product or system. Accident Types The following discussion of accident types assists in determining the potential hazards for the JSA. 1. Struck-by. A person is forcefully struck by an object. 2. Struck-against. A person forcefully strikes an object. 3. Contact-by. Contact by a substance or material that is by its very nature harmful and causes injury. 4. Contact-with. A person comes in contact with a harmful material. 5. Caught-on. A person or part of the person’s clothing or equipment is caught on an object that is either moving or stationary. 6. Caught-in. A person or part of the person is trapped, stuck, or otherwise caught in an opening or enclosure. 7. Caught-between. A person is crushed, pinched, or caught between either a moving object and a stationary object or between two moving objects. 8. Foot-level-fall. A person slips, trips, and/or falls to the surface the person is standing or walking on. 9. Fall-to-below. A person slips, trips, and/or falls to a level below the one the person was walking or standing on. 10. Overexertion. The person performs a task beyond his physical capabilities, resulting in sprain or strain injuries. 11. Exposure. Employee injury results from her close proximity to harmful environmental conditions in the workplace.

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CONCLUSION System safety is an important part of the product life cycle. Allowing the individual employee to find the problems associated with work is no longer acceptable. A proactive approach is necessary because of increased product-liability litigation and increased employee awareness of processsafety concerns. Therefore, the safety professional must make every effort to understand the concepts of system safety. Chapter 10 addresses SMS models currently being used by many organizations. SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS A. Michael Shekari, MS, GSP The following three events are from unrelated industries: an airliner accident, a fire at a chemical facility, and a potentially catastrophic crack discovered in a bridge span of a major interstate. The technical causes of each event vary substantially, but all share fundamental failures in safety management from a systems perspective. ASIANA FLIGHT 214 On July 6, 2013, a Boeing 777 passenger jet operated by the South Korean air carrier, Asiana Airlines, was on approach to runway 28L at San Francisco International Airport (SFO) when it struck a seawall. Three of the 291 passengers died in the accident, and 40 passengers, 8 flight attendants, and one of the pilots received serious injuries. Also, during the emergency response following the crash, after being ejected from the main wreckage, one of the fatally injured passengers was hit by airport firefighting equipment twice, and substantial command, control, and communications breakdowns occurred throughout the incident (NTSB, 2014). At the time of the accident, the weather was ideal, the crew was not under the influence of any substances, and no apparent malfunctions or other emergencies were occurring on the aircraft. On the airport side, SFO had a new emergency response manual approved by the FAA in 2012. So, what happened? The nearly one-year-long NTSB investigation made several findings, allowing the opportunity for the accident to occur on the parts of Asiana and Boeing, including: 1. Many Asiana pilots had an inaccurate understanding of the autothrottle, under-speed protection, and other automation systems.

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2. Asiana did not place enough emphasis on manual flying skills for their Boeing 777 crews, leaving them at a disadvantage in detecting unexpected airspeed loss situations. 3. Test pilots identified a hazard in both the Boeing 777 and 787 autothrottle system logic due to a discrepancy where the autothrottles would not “wake up.” Guidance on the 777 and 787 fleets differed, despite having identical functionality, with 777 manual wording being more difficult to interpret than that of the 787. Rather than change the system design, Boeing opted to change the manuals. NTSB investigators also identified systemic issues in emergency response capabilities that hampered the effectiveness of rescue and firefighting efforts: 1. The incident commander and fire attack supervisor were not trained to respond to aircraft accident fires. 2. When their radios were reprogrammed, the city removed the planned, interoperability radio channel between it and airport fire departments. 3. Medical supply buses in emergency operations plans were not delivered to the scene, because the designated drivers were engaged in other duties. Also, one of the two buses would not start when an attempt to deploy it for secondary triage was eventually made. The investigation determined that mechanical reliability issues of the buses were known before the accident and they were not used in practice exercises. In this case, safety professionals should note that the hazard of pilots’ incomplete understanding of systems went undetected at Asiana, indicating a lack of systemic “checking” to detect problems in their training program. It could be argued that Boeing under-assessed the risk associated with the hazard in the autothrottle system logic, and therefore did not implement adequate controls. It is also apparent that in the airport’s emergency response preparation, quality assurance efforts were incomplete. ARKEMA CROSBY ORGANIC PEROXIDE FIRE When Harvey stalled over Texas in 2017, the storm brought unprecedented rains exceeding both the 100-year and 500-year floodplains in many areas, including Crosby, Texas, where the Arkema Group operated an organic peroxide manufacturing and storage facility. The facility, employing approximately 50 people, made organic peroxides used in products like plastic plates and PVC. Most organic peroxides are volatile and must be kept at subzero

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temperatures to prevent the chemicals from reaching their self-accelerating decomposition temperature (SADT), which is also the point where the material will self-combust (Chemical Safety Board, 2018). Leading up to Harvey’s landfall, the Arkema Group activated its corporate, crisis-response team; shut down production operations; placed sandbags based on the company’s previous flood experience; and called in the facility’s ride-out crew. However, water levels rose much higher than expected, knocking out the facility’s primary power. This eventually forced the rideout crew to power down the emergency generators, thereby preventing an electrical safety hazard. So the organic peroxides would not reach their SADT after shutting down emergency power to the cold storage areas, the ride-out crew transferred the material into refrigerated trailers and attempted to move them to higher ground within the facility. However, floodwaters continued to rise, and the ride-out crew could not move all the trailers, before their moving equipment became inoperative due to the flooding. Increasing hazards eventually forced the evacuation of the ride-out crew as well. After the ride-out crew’s evacuation, it became apparent the organic peroxide would eventually reach its SADT, so local emergency responders formed a unified command, and an evacuation radius was established. Two separate fires broke out in the trailers on their own, but not knowing how long it would take for the remaining organic peroxide to combust, the unified command arranged a controlled burn to eliminate the rest of the material. Residents were then permitted to return to their homes once the fires were depleted of fuel and the fire gases dissipated. In total, over 350,000 lb. of organic peroxide burned. According to the Chemical Safety Board’s final report, Arkema’s preparedness and emergency response efforts at the facility were up to the standards of the time. Existing guidance from industry and governmental organizations also would not have changed the outcome of the incident. Arkema also performed a risk assessment, following OSHA’s process safety-management standard. Arkema’s overall safety management cannot be viewed as negligent; however, if additional systems thinking had been applied to the safety management practices, perhaps the common failure mode of Arkema’s risk controls (flooding) would have been detected. The secondary chemical disaster created by Hurricane Harvey may have also been prevented. HERNANDO DESOTO BRIDGE I-40 BRIDGE FRACTURE When inspection crews discovered a critical fracture in the Hernando de Soto Bridge on May 11, 2021, automobile traffic moving across I-40 between Tennessee and Arkansas came to a grinding halt. River traffic underneath the bridge was also paused in the interest of safety. A disaster was avoided;

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however, the Arkansas Department of Transportation (ARDOT) ’s considered criminal charges against Monty Frazier, a bridge inspector. These actions revealed deficiencies in the management culture of the organization and how the agency managed the safety from a systems point of view. A brief timeline of the fracture that took at least seven years to discover (Stroud, 2021): • 2014—A French tourist captures a photo of the bridge, showing the crack. • 2016—The crack is visible in photographs shared by a kayaker. • 2017—The crack is missed during an official inspection by Michael Baker International. • 2018—An ARDOT inspector misses the crack. • May 2019—Footage taken by an unmanned aircraft system (UAS) flown by Michael Baker International captures the crack, but goes unnoticed by inspectors. • September 2019—An ARDOT team led by Monty Frazier misses the crack during another inspection. • September 2020—Another ARDOT team led by Monty Frazier missed the crack during this inspection. • May 2021—Inspectors from Michael Baker International finally detect the crack, and the bridge is shut down. For such a critical failure to go undetected for so long, safety and quality assurance processes were clearly deficient. In this case, a weak safety policy and poor safety culture were also evident, because such harsh action was taken against an individual employee, when dozens of individuals missed the same defect. An alternative approach would have been making system-based changes to prevent future failures in the bridge inspection program and possibly holding ARDOT senior management responsible. Fraizer’s case was also problematic, because he had, in fact, raised safety concerns about the under-bridge inspection unit not being mobile enough to be moved to where the crack would be visible to an inspector. SYSTEMS-BASED THINKING AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Using more systems-based thinking would have prevented or minimized the effects of all three of these events. A systems-based thinking can continuously reduce the risk of events by integrating an organization’s operations and safety program through the concept of safety management systems (SMS).

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What Are Safety Management Systems? There is also no universally agreed-upon definition of SMS, but here are a few, currently published: • “Set of interdependent elements that establish or support processes of the occupational health and safety (OHS) policy and objectives as well as mechanisms to achieve those objectives and continually improve OHS”—ANSI/AAP • “Set of interrelated or interacting elements of an organization to establish policies and objectives and processes to achieve those objectives in occupational health and safety”—ISO • “Continuous improvement process that reduces hazards and prevents incidents”—NSC • “Systematic approach to managing safety by organizational goals, policy, structure, planning, accountability and safe standard operating procedures.”— Safeopedia • “Formal, top-down, organization-wide approach to managing safety risk and ensuring the effectiveness of safety risk controls that includes systematic procedures, practices and policies for the management of safety risks.”—FAA The definitions share a few common themes: policy, objectives, interrelated components, managing risks, and continuous improvement. However, an optimized definition of SMS that combines the FAA and Safeopida wording is “the formal, top-down, organization-wide approach to managing safety risk and ensuring the effectiveness of safety risk controls that includes systematic procedures, practices, policies and accountability for the management of safety risk.” Depending on the context of SMS, it may also be referred to as Occupational Safety and Health Management System (OSHMS) or Occupational Health and Safety Management System (OHSMS). The names refer to the same concept. It is also important not to confuse SMS with systems safety, more of a product-based, technical safety discipline meant to minimize or design out hazards in physical and software systems. SMS does borrow from systems safety concepts in the area of risk management. SMS should be viewed as more operations-based with the intent of seamlessly integrating business processes with the safety attributes of responsibility, authority, procedures, controls, interfaces, process measurement, and safety ownership through a management framework. This viewpoint makes SMS different from traditional safety programs in that it is part of business process, rather than a mere add-on like a fall protection, confined space entry, or hot-work program.

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The Deming Cycle—The Theoretical Basis of SMS Before expanding into general industry during the mid to late 1990s, modernday SMS originated from the aviation industry with roots tracing back to system safety and Quality Management System (QMS) concepts. The QMS concept is based on continuous improvement of product quality and services through the minimization of variance. This was based primarily on the PlanDo-Study-Act (PDSA) Cycle of Dr. W. Edwards Deming, an American academic and business consultant best known for helping to rebuild industries in post–World War II Japan. The “Plan” phase of the Deming Cycle involves asking several questions: What is the current status? What is desired? How will the desired state be achieved? What is the predicted outcome of planned actions? What data is available? Are new observations required? Essentially, the goal is to deliberately design for the desired end state. The second or “Do” phase of the cycle is exactly that, executing the actions needed to accomplish what was planned, ideally on a small scale first. Trials on a small scale are desirable since this allows for investigation of an idea without committing too many resources, and prevents unnecessary shocks to organizations and environments intolerant of rapid change. In a safety management context, small trials also allow for the containment of potential substitute risks, or those unanticipated second and third-order consequences of change in a system. A good example is testing of a new vacuum system in one building as part of a multi-building manufacturing facility. The plan is to remove machining waste from working surfaces, but it is discovered that the ducting of the system accumulates potentially explosive quantities of dust in inaccessible areas. The small-scale test determined a major risk in a limited portion of the facility’s operations prior to full-scale implementation. The ‘Study” phase of the cycle involves critically reviewing the results of actions taken and asking what was learned and what may have gone wrong. It is essential, during this phase, not to simply determine if the plan was a success or a failure, because learning why an expected outcome was not achieved can be as valuable, or even more valuable in the long run. The overarching goal of the Deming Cycle and SMS is attaining continuous improvement. Finally, in the “Act” phase of the cycle the decision is made whether to adopt the plan under consideration on a full scale, abandon it, or run through the cycle again with change for improvement. Over time, even if a plan receives full acceptance, the overall system will iteratively recycle through all the PDSA steps. This concept was evolved by an unknown Japanese author into the more popularly known Plan, Do, Check, Act (PDCA) cycle following Dr. Deming’s seminars with the Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) (Moen & Norman, 2010). Deming never embraced PDCA because “check”

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was associated more with “did the plan work?” whereas “study” focused on “what did we learn.” Both PDSA and PDCA are generally based on the scientific method, but the safety professional should keep their mindset more on the study than the check realm. When the Deming-based QMS was combined with systems safety to create SMS, quality was replaced with safety, products and services were replaced with processes, and variance was replaced with risk. With these combined concepts, SMS serves as a framework for efforts to continuously improve the safety of processes through the minimization of risk. Objectives of a SMS The primary objective of any SMS is to seamlessly embed risk management and a culture of safety throughout the organization with a top-down approach through absolute commitment of senior leadership in an organization. If an SMS implementation cannot satisfy this high-level objective, more technical objectives associated with it are doomed to fail. The next major objective of an SMS is to develop and maintain a feedback loop, so that lower echelons of that organization can provide objective and subjective input to aid leaders in making sound risk-management decisions. SMS implementation should also strive to create a greater risk awareness across all levels of the organization through operational monitoring, by collecting and communicating data consisting of both leading and lagging indicators. This allows leaders to detect positive and negative trends in safety performance, and act in a manner to achieve continuous improvement in the safety realm. Another SMS objective is to systematically reduce the frequency and severity of negative safety events through proactive efforts, rather than respond to problems after they occur. Replacing an organization’s existing safety programs is not an objective of an SMS. On the contrary, the objective is to harmonize programs with business processes through a systems-based framework. Why Should an Organization Use SMS? The benefits of SMS include: 1. Reduced numbers of incidents and accidents 2. Lower direct and indirect costs of accidents, due to lower probability of occurrence and reduced severity of consequences 3. Safety recognition by customers, suppliers, and regulators 4. Less expensive insurance premiums 5. Proof of diligence in the event of legal or regulatory safety investigations 6. Improved eligibility for voluntary safety recognition programs like OSHA’s VPP.

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It can also be argued that having an SMS can make an organization more efficient and therefore, more profitable or effective, because the systems thinking used. Currently, the literature on benefits associated with SMS typically discuss how causality could not be established between SMS implementation and improved safety performance, and that evidence of SMS’s ROI is more anecdotal than scientific in nature. There are multiple reasons for ambiguity in SMS benefits. SMS is still a relatively new concept, and there is a wide degree of variability in how it is implemented in various industries. Also, in academic research, causality can only be established by an experimental research design with randomly assigned groups of subjects with similar characteristics and controllable, independent variables. Performing such research with SMS is not practical, because the subjects in this scenario would be entire companies rather than individual. This makes getting a large enough sample size all but impossible. Even if a sufficient sample size is obtained, the variability in SMS implementation relative to the individual characteristics of an organization makes implementation status an unreliable, independent variable; however, leaders from organizations with a mature SMS generally speak about the favorable results it has achieved. The Structure of SMS Since SMS evolved over time in various regions and from different industries, multiple, commonly accepted SMS structures have developed. However, two of the more mature SMSs are those in the aviation sector developed through the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Annex 19 (along with the Federal Aviation Administration [FAA] implementation in the United States) and through the ISO 45001 standard (along with the ANSI/ASSP Z10 tailored to the US context). Both structures have their merits and are described below. The best approach to actual SMS implementation most likely occurs when an organization adopts critical parts from each of the two approaches. Aviation SMS, as is known today in the aviation industry, emerged from the systems safety concepts of the 1960s and 1970s from quality management programs. These culminated in ICAO Annex 19 in 2013 and the Federal Aviation Administration SMS rule (14 CFR Part 5) for commercial airlines in 2015. Its structure, explained in greater detail in FAA Advisory Circular 120-92B, relies on four basic components: 1. Safety Policy 2. Safety Risk Management

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3. Safety Assurance (SA) 4. Safety Promotion In addition to the four basic components, all operational systems in the organization are also expected to have seven safety attributes:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Responsibility (Linked to Safety Policy) Authority (Linked to Safety Policy) Interfaces (Linked to SRM, and SA) Procedures (Linked to SRM) Controls (Linked to SRM) Process Measurement (Linked to SA) Safety Ownership (Linked to Safety Policy)

Safety Policy The safety policy component of an SMS involves creating safety objectives for the organization and committing to fulfill them at the highest levels of leadership, while also making a clear statement about the provision of human and financial resources to support the SMS (FAA, 2015). A robust safety policy will also include an emergency response plan and specify safety reporting and unacceptable behavior policies. This component also encourages a just culture by building mechanisms where employees can disclose errors and concerns affecting safety without fear of reprisal or negative consequences. Within this component the organization is also intolerant of willful or reckless behaviors. A critical element of the safety policy is the concept of the accountable executive (AE). This person is the senior leader in the organization holding responsibility and authority over its safety performance. This leads to three of the FAA’s system safety attributes: Responsibility, Authority, and Safety Ownership. Responsibility is a clearly identified person or group accountable for ensuring resources, financial and human, are provided to maintain the reliable safety performance of processes and systems (FAA, 2020). The AE’s authority includes the freedom to plan, direct, and control resources; change procedures; and make key determinations, including safety risk acceptance decisions. In smaller organizations, responsibility and authority may be held exclusively by the same person. In larger organizations, the span of control a single person can manifest is limited. Therefore, the need for delegation may arise. However, responsibility cannot be delegated away from the AE, but authority can be to ensure adequate safety oversight of operations is provided. For example, the CEO of a company may hire a safety professional to provide

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technical administration of safety programs, and grant authority to line management to cease or modify operations to reduce risk. The CEO is still accountable for overall performance, regardless of authority delegated. The delegation of authority for safety leads to the third safety attribute associated with safety policy, safety ownership. This requires every member of the organization to understand how their role contributes to risk management and safety performance, and they maintain responsibility for their respective roles at their own levels. Safety Risk Management Under the FAA’s SMS structural doctrine, SRM is probably the most visible and recognizable component, because it deals with the technical analysis of systems, identification of hazards, assessment of risk, and development of controls. Risk management is often discussed in every safety discipline, and there are several methods of performing hazard identification and risk assessment, as discussed in other chapters. Unique within the SRM component of SMS, is that it defines when an organization should perform risk management activities and what must be considered when a “trigger” is identified before deciding if hazards are present or not. Under the SRM component, FAA regulations require organizations to perform a system/task analysis, conducted whenever one of the following triggers occur: • Implementation of new systems. • Revision of existing systems. • Development of operational procedures. • Identification of hazards or ineffective risk controls through the SA processes. As a best practice, these events should also be considered triggers: • Changes in the physical environment outside of the organization’s control. • Changes in the regulatory requirements imposed on the organization. • Substantial changes in organization composition or governance structure (i.e., change from sole proprietorship to corporation with a board of trustees). When one of the SRM triggers is identified, the organization should perform the system/task analysis, to consider: • The function and purpose of the system.

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• The system operational environment. • Processes and procedures in the system. • Personnel, equipment, and facilities in the system. Alternatively, the Man, Machine, Media, Management, Mission (5M), or Software, Hardware, Environment, Liveware (SHEL) models could be used to conduct the system/task analysis, depending on what is more appropriate to the organizational context. Also, when performing the system/task analysis, it is critical to consider the interfaces, procedures, and controls of safety attributes (FAA, 2020): • Interfaces—Interactions between processes, systems, and organizations that must be managed in order to ensure the desired outcome. • Procedures—Methods or practices that include checks and restraints that are written or unwritten and designed into processes to accomplish a desired result. • Controls—Means to ensure mitigation of unacceptable risk in the system. Once the system/task analysis is complete, different hazard identification methodologies may be applied. If no hazards are identified, documentation generated during the SRM serves as a record that the system was considered for safety risk. If hazards are identified, they should, at a minimum, be assessed based upon risk, or the probability of a negative event and the severity of possible consequences. It is also prudent to consider sources of uncertainty and factors affecting the credibility of a risk assessment. After completing the risk assessment, careful consideration should be put into feasible controls that will reduce risk to as low as reasonably practicable or achievable. Once the control plan is in place, the system task analysis should be reexamined to ensure no unanticipated, “substitute hazards” were introduced by the control plan, and if they are, consideration of whether the risk is acceptable or if additional/different controls are needed. During this time, an operational monitoring plan should also be developed for the risk to be tracked effectively during SA activities and throughout the product/process life cycle. Finally, the overall risk needs to be accepted by the AE or person delegated authority. As discussed in the safety policy section of this chapter, overall responsibility for risk acceptance ultimately remains with the AE. Safety Assurance The SA component of the SMS is the one that most closely resembles the quality assurance concepts from which SMS originated. The goal of SA is to monitor the adequacy of existing risk controls and discover hazards that

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may not have been considered previously. This ideally occurs before hazards result in an accident or mishap. Also, the root cause and contributing factors should be identified when deficiencies in the system become apparent. Under FAA regulations, SA consists of the following activities (FAA, 2015): • Monitoring of operational processes. • Monitoring of the operational environment to detect changes. • Auditing of operational processes and systems. • Evaluations of the SMS and operational processes and systems. • Investigations of incidents and accidents. • Investigations of reports regarding potential noncompliance with regulatory standards or other safety risk controls. • Confidential employee reporting systems in which employees can report hazards, issues, concerns, occurrences, incidents, as well as propose solutions and safety improvement. Within the safety assurance component, leading and lagging indicators of safety/risk management performance will be identified. This requires measuring the outputs of a process and identifying problems or potential problems in order to take corrective action. In other words, the process measurements should serve as the basis for continuous improvement planning.

Safety Risk Management and Safety Assurance Relationship SRM and SA should be considered feedback loops to each other under the aviation SMS structure because SRM drives the SA surveillance requirements, and the results of SA can be a trigger for SRM. This is also an important consideration when allocating finite resources to monitoring and controlling hazards, because effective SMS processes should prioritize tracking the highest known risks, and mitigation resources should be spent dealing with hazards of the highest risk and under the least control. Safety Promotion The safety promotion component of the SMS focuses heavily on employee safety competencies and communication throughout the organization (FAA, 2015). An organization needs to ensure all employees are aware of the SMS, so they will utilize reporting processes. Employees with higher levels of responsibility and authority will likely need familiarization (General Processes, System/Task Analysis, and Hazard Identification) or advanced training (detailed processes, full understanding of SRM principles, and Safety Assurance Data Interpretation), depending on the nature of the employees’ duties. Table 9.2 describes typical job titles appropriate to each level of training.

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Table 9.2  SMS Structures ISO 45001

ANSI/ASSP Z10

Context of the Organization Leadership and Worker Participation Planning Support Operation Performance Evaluation Improvement

Management & Worker Participation Planning Support Implementation & Operation Evaluation & Corrective Action Management Review

On the communications side of safety promotion, FAA regulations state there needs to be mechanisms within the organization to convey relevant hazard information to employees, explain why safety actions and risk controls have been taken, and clarify why safety-related procedures are created or modified. It is also recommended to actively communicate the progress of major mishap or accident investigations and regularly recognize employees for safety-related achievements. General Industry The general industry, SMS structure, adopted by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in the 45001 (Released in 2018), and the related American National Standards Institute (ANSI) / American Society of Safety Professionals (ASSP) Z10 (Released in 2005 with the most recent revision in 2019) standards are also closely related to QMS principles. However, they have a more proximate relationship to the British OHSAS 18001 safety management standard from 1999. There are many differences between these successor SMS structures and their predecessor; the most significant is a shift in philosophy from hazard control to business-process integration. Noteworthy facts about these standards are that ISO 45001 is the first occupational health and SMS standard developed by international consensus, and it is currently the only SMS standard available to general industry for organization conformance certification. Since Z10 is aligned with ISO 45001 with additional requirements, an organization adopting a Z10 SMS should also be able to receive ISO 45001 certification. Table 9.1 describes the outlines of the two structures. These SMS structures have many similarities to the FAA SMS components, but additional considerations include the preservation of worker mental health, impacts to external entities, organizational interfaces with contractors, disability accommodations, and resource procurement processes (Shekari, 2020).​ The ISO 45001 & ANSI Z10 standards for SMS implementation in general industry do have a cost associated with gaining access to full texts; however, safety professionals and organizational leaders can also turn to International

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Labour Organization’s ILO-OSH 2001 guidelines for free access to SMS guidance material. QUESTIONS 1. What steps make up the product life cycle? Include examples of the activities that occur during each step. 2. What is the importance of the system safety function to an organization? 3. What are the differences between system safety and industrial safety? 4. Can you develop a fault tree for a simple system? Make sure to include both AND and OR gates. 5. Using the hazard assessment matrix, what is the level of risk for the following activities? • Getting hit by a vehicle while walking across a busy street • Having a grease fire in the kitchen • Being involved in a plane crash. 6. Can you perform a job hazard analysis of a simple system using established criteria? 7. How has SMS improved the overall ability to insert safety into the overall organization? 8. What are the components of an SMS? 9. What steps should be taken to implement an SMS?

REFERENCES / ADDITIONAL READINGS ANSI/ASSP. (2019). Occupational health and safety management systems (ANSI/ ASSP Z10.0). Brauer, R. L. (2006). Safety and Health for Engineers. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Chemical Safety Board. (2018). Arkema Inc. Chemical Plant Fire. Retrieved fromhttps://www​.csb​.gov​/arkema​-inc​-chemical​-plant​-fire-/. Department of Defense. (1984). MIL-STD-882B: Task Section 100 Program Management and Control. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). (2015, January). AC 120-92B: Safety Management Systems for Aviation Safety Providers. Retrieved from https://www​.faa​ .gov​/documentLibrary​/media​/Advisory​_Circular​/AC​_120​-92B​.pdf. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). (2020). 8900.1 Volume 10 “safety assurance system policy and procedures.” Retrieved from https://fsims​.faa​.gov​/PICDetail​ .aspx​?docId​=8900​.1​,Vol​.10​,Ch1​,Sec1​_SAS. Ferry, T. S. (1988). Modern Accident Investigation and Analysis (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

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Hammer, W. (1989). Occupational Safety Management and Engineering. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall International Labor Organization (ILO). (2009). Guidelines on occupational safety and health management systems (2nd ed.; ILO-OSH 2001). Retrieved from https:// www​.ilo​.org​/wcmsp5​/groups​/public/--​-dgreports/--​-dcomm/--​-publ​/documents​/ publication​/wcms​_publ​_9221116344​_en​.pdf. International Organization for Standardization (ISO). (2018). Occupational health and safety management systems—Requirements with guidance for use (ISO 45001:2018). Laing, P. M. (Ed.). (1992). Accident Prevention Manual for Business and Industry: Engineering and Technology. Itasca, IL: National Safety Council. Levy, P. (2007). 4 Dead, 79 Injured, 20 Missing after Dozens of Vehicles Plummet Into River. Minneapolis, MN: Star Tribune​.co​m. Retrieved from http://www​.startribune​.com​/local​/11593606​.html. Malasky, S. W. (1982). System Safety: Technology and Application (2nd ed.). New York: Garland STPM Press. Manuele, F. A. (1993). On the Practice of Safety. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Mansdorf, S. Z. (1993). Complete Manual of Industrial Safety. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Moen, R. D., & Norman, C. L. (November, 2010). Circling back: Clearing up myths about the deming cycle and seeing how it keeps evolving. Quality Progress, 43(11). Retrieved from https://asq​.org​/quality​-progress​/articles​/circling​-back​?id​ =5e4​d209​50fa​d4b5​1913​3490​466ccbf0a. National Safety Council (NSC). (n.d.). Take safety to the next level. Retrieved from https://bit​.ly​/31gWmYl. National Transportation Safety Board. (2008). Collapse of I-35W Highway Bridge Minneapolis, Minnesota August 1, 2007. Retrieved from http://www​.ntsb​.gov​/ publictn​/2008​/har0803​.pdf. National Transportation Safety Board. (2014). Descent below visual Glidepath and impact with seawall: Asiana flight 214. Retrieved from https://www​.ntsb​.gov​/ investigations​/AccidentReports​/Reports​/AAR1401​.pdf. Ridley, J. (1994). Safety at Work. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd. Roland, H. E., & Moriarty, B. (1990). System Safety Engineering and Management (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Shekari, A. M. (2020). Safety management system standards & guidelines - A comparative analysis. Professional Safety Journal. Retrieved from https://www​.assp​ .org​/docs​/default​-source​/psj​-articles​/f2shekari​_0920​.pdf​?sfvrsn​=86db8847​_2. Safeopdia. (2017, October 31). Safety management system (SMS). Retrieved from https://www​.safeopedia​.com​/definition​/1050​/safety​-management​-system​-sms. Stroud, M. (2021). One cracked bridge. One person fired. A troubling rush to judgment raises major questions about bridge inspections. Arkansas Times. Retrieved from https://arktimes​.com​/arkansas​-blog​/2021​/07​/21​/one​-cracked​-bridge​-one​ -person​-fired​-a​-troubling​-rush​-to​-judgment​-raises​-major​-questions​-about​-bridge​ -inspections. Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations, Part 5 “Safety Management Systems.” Retrieved from https://www​.ecfr​.gov​/current​/title​-14​/chapter​-I​/subchapter​-A​/part​-5.

Chapter 10

Managing the Safety Function

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to • explain the functions of management and how they relate to safety; • identify the purposes of the line and staff parts of the organization; • differentiate between audits and inspections; • identify the role of safety in the staffing process; and • explain the OSHA guidelines for safety management. CASE STUDY Bob Renee had worked his way up from a mid-management position to a point where he was manager of a large production facility within a major corporation renowned for its safety efforts. Bob’s safety performance was considered as important as high levels of quality production. As a result, Bob developed a strong relationship with a nearby medical center, and his company retained the services of an occupational physician in residency there. On a spring morning, one of Bob’s workers was injured on the job and transported to the medical center. That night, Bob called the occupational physician and asked her to place the injured employee in an ambulance and transport him to the plant the next day, so he could “sign in.” The employee could then return to the hospital immediately, but the subsequent workday would not be considered “lost time” since the employee came to the plant. Bob was disappointed when the physician put the welfare of the patient first and refused the request. Although Bob wanted to maintain the appearance of 225

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having a safe facility, both he and his employer were emphasizing appearing to be safe over actually managing safely.

OVERVIEW The famous economist Milton Friedman is attributed with saying, “The business of business is business.” The business of safety is also business. The safety system is an integral part of the overall management system of any organization. The mission of safety must be completely integrated into the management system. Certain members of management leadership are concerned with the welfare of employees. The question becomes, “How concerned?” How much is management willing to spend on an operation that may save an employee’s finger? Is there a limit? How much for an arm? How much for a life? Is management willing to spend an unlimited amount of funds to correct the problem? Of course not. There is a point where a member of top management will draw the line. Safety competes with every other entity in the organization for resources or funds to accomplish its mission. Funds are allocated on the basis of perceived return on investment. There is dollar value to saving employees from injury or illness beyond a simple dollar value, but at some point, management is unwilling to bear the costs of risk mitigation to save an employee. If the safety professional approaches management and suggests making a machine modification now likely to cause a loss during the coming year, the inevitable questions are, “What is the likelihood of the loss occurring?” “What will be the cost of that loss?” “How much will it cost us to fix the problem?” The ultimate question is, “What is the return on investment for the company?” In other words, “What is the risk?” and “What will it cost us to mitigate or completely eliminate the risk?” The safety function and any related endeavors must be justified on a cost-benefit basis. As mentioned in chapter 9, companies attempt to bring risk to an acceptable or practicable level. Safety, like many other management activities, consists of planning, organizing, controlling, staffing, directing, and communicating. All facets of management are incorporated into the safety function and safety should be incorporated into all facets of management. They must be integrated for either to be effective. Actually performing safely means more than just looking good, as Bob Renee tried to do in the introductory case. This actual incident demonstrates what can happen when the emphasis is placed on appearances rather than performance. The safe welfare of the employees and the company can be jeopardized by the efforts to simply appear to be safe. Safety depends on proper performance, a function of effective management. Careful measures must be put in place to emphasize effective management performance rather than mere appearances of safety.

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PLANNING “A job well planned is a job well done.” “A job well planned is a job half finished.” These axioms have been repeated for decades, and they hold some truth. Planning is essential to the ongoing success of any enterprise and certainly to the components of the enterprise, including safety. A well-planned operation involves taking a series of deliberate steps. First, the safety practitioner must forecast the needs of the safety department for the coming year and years to come. This involves reviewing the records of successes and failures as well as all the resources used in the past. It also means anticipating the obstacles that may be encountered during the future planning periods. Most companies tend to operate on a one- to five-year cycle, with planning for budgets occurring each year. This forecasting of coming needs or predicting when they will occur is a result of looking at the past and studying the future. There are a number of texts that can guide the reader as to how to forecast. Once forecasts are made, the practitioner must anticipate resources needed to meet those needs, and make requests accordingly. A proposed safety standard coming into effect may require unusual demands, as will the planning or start-up of a new facility. This is part of a proactive, as opposed to a reactive, approach to safety. The practitioner does not wait for incidents to occur, but rather attempts to anticipate problems and plans to deal with them before they result in mishaps. Change is a key word. When change that could possibly affect safety is anticipated, it must be addressed prior to its implementation. Established plans often become standards by which the practitioner can judge the performance of the safety program. They should evolve from the mission and the objectives of the organization. This can occur by carefully reviewing organizational goals with top management and writing safety objectives to complement or aid in the accomplishment of organizational goals. Once safety objectives are written and methods by which those objectives can be accomplished are laid out, budgets and timetables are formulated. A careful review of the documents is made with management, and agreement is sought. Management supports safety efforts to the extent these efforts support those of the organization. Resources necessary to accomplish the task will be allocated on a basis relative to how well the accomplishment of the task helps the organization achieve its goals. Of course, personalities, personal ambitions, and politics can interfere in the process. It is critical for the efforts of the safety department to be tied to those of the organization. Safety competes with every other entity in the organization for resources. A strong business case demonstrating return on investment for funds expended helps strengthen the case for safety and shows the effectiveness of safety relative to other departments or programs.

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Critical to this effort is the establishment of programs to effectively identify hazards, estimate probabilities, and minimize overall risk. The inclusion of personnel from all levels of the organization to help recognize potential problems and generate mitigating interventions is critical for success. Specific tools, such as job hazard analyses, checklists, employee interviews, near-miss investigations and utilization of what-if questions can help identify potential problems before they lead to incidents. Once potential problems and their related hazards are identified, steps must be taken to prioritize them, based upon risk, the expected severity multiplied by the probability of a loss. The Expected Loss Method works well for this. The annual probability of loss (usually based on historical data) is multiplied by the annual expected value of the loss. This results in the expected loss for a year. This figure can be used to annualize expected dollar losses and the present value of losses expected in years to come can be compared to the cost of mitigation to help determine a return on investment. At that point, a case can be made to management for resources to be allocated to help reduce those future losses. By hiding the effects of an accident or on-the-job injury, as Bob Renee attempted to do, efforts to address the problems with appropriate resources will be stifled, since information is buried and true costs are hidden. Accurate information drives the safety process at every level. Information is the lifeblood of safety.

ORGANIZING Unlike most management activities, safety usually operates from a purely staff position. The implications of this pervade safety and affect the way it operates in the organization. To understand the management of safety, an understanding of line and staff positions is essential. Line positions are charged with carrying out the major function or functions of the organization. In an army, the line fights; in a production operation, the line does the producing; in a sales organization, the line sells. First-line supervisors, plant managers, and even company presidents are considered line officers within an organization. Staff positions, on the other hand, are charged with supporting or helping the line positions. Typically, staff positions have no real authority over line activities; staff members only assist and advise the line officers. Any authority staff positions possess beyond that of assisting or advising is only a result of a line manager giving that authority. In some organizations staff members are given authority over certain functions and any activities that relate to those functions. If a safety member in such an organization recognizes a problem in safety, he or she could be given authority to correct that problem. Such discretion is referred

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to as functional authority. Even in organizations where no functional authority is given, some members of line management may perceive the authority exists anyway. This could be particularly true of lower-ranking members in line positions who perceive that staff members have authority over them when, in fact, they do not. Safety managers, safety engineers, safety professionals, and safety technicians are nearly always considered staff personnel and nearly always operate from staff positions. A safety manager’s job is to monitor safety, compare what is found against existing standards, and advise line management as to any corrective actions to be taken. The ideal position within the organization is reporting to the chief executive officer, but typically, the safety practitioner reports to a personnel or human resource department. The rationale for reporting to the top is obvious. No person within the organization is exempt from safety. If however, safety is subordinate to personnel, human resources, or some position other than the chief executive officer, the opportunities for abuse and the potential for conflict of interest are high. Proper monitoring and appropriate advising of the enterprise cannot readily take place from the middle of the organizational hierarchy. The full-time safety practitioner monitors safety and advises management on what changes are needed and why. To do otherwise interferes with the job of the line manager. If a conflict occurs between the safety practitioner and the production manager, the production manager’s orders will take precedence. Exceptions to this rule sometimes occur when the staff person is given functional authority or authority over the safety function. He or she has authority over all matters as they relate to safety and can overrule the line manager if orders contradict those of the safety practitioner relative to safety. Of course, the safety practitioner may also have line authority over any personnel that work for and report to him or her, such as an industrial hygienist, an occupational nurse, or a safety assistant.​ Generally, the safety professional is in a better position to positively influence the organization if a purely advisory role is maintained. The safety professional monitors the organization, looks for problems, and advises the line manager—essentially becoming a part of the line management team. The safety professional is simply there to help avoid and minimize safety problems that can otherwise adversely affect the line manager’s resources, including personnel. By becoming part of the team, the safety professional can help a line manager perform a better job and avoid conflicts. This approach squarely places the responsibility for safety on the shoulders of line management. If an unsafe condition occurs and the line manager is informed, the manager cannot reasonably state that he or she is unaware of the condition. It is the manager’s job to be aware of unsafe conditions and have them corrected.

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Figure 10.1  Typical Organizational Chart

All members of the organization must buy into safety to establish a safety culture. This only happens with support and continual input from top management. The safety professional does not lead the safety effort but rather acts as a member of the different safety teams throughout the enterprise. Teams may be in the form of safety committees, individual crews, or work cells. It is the safety practitioner’s responsibility to help those teams help themselves relative to safety. The safety professional acts as a resource or guide in helping the team establish itself. Management of safety becomes a responsibility of the line manager or leader of the work group, as well as individual members. Carl Wagner is supervisor of an eight-member production group. The group’s job is to produce a high-quality, pearl-like finish on metal furniture. Carl’s responsibilities are to ensure quality production occurs safely. When the plant safety manager observes one of Carl’s workers not using the prescribed personal protective equipment, she addresses the problem with Carl. If Carl is not around, the safety manager discusses the problem with the worker. It’s actually Carl’s job to see to it the employees in his crew work safely. If Carl learns the employee is not wearing personal protective equipment because it is uncomfortable, then he discusses the issue with the safety professional. The safety professional’s job is to aid Carl and help him resolve the employee’s problem. Because of this relationship, Carl considers the safety manager not a threat, but a resource he can call on to help him and his crew to do a better job. On Monday morning, Carl approaches Janet Reeves, the safety manager, and complains that the new respiratory equipment is too hot, and his employees do not like to wear it while working with lubricants. If Carl believes the safety equipment is simply a nuisance, hindering his employees, and tries to

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obstruct the safe-practice methods used in the plant, it is Janet’s job to convince Carl the equipment is necessary to the safety of his workers and help him convince his employees. As she discusses the situation, both Janet and Carl know that top management fully supports the safety effort. Janet discusses the problem with Carl, and they decide to take time during the next “tool box talk” to discuss it with employees. Before going into the meeting, Janet makes Carl aware that OSHA requires respiratory equipment for this operation, and working without it may cause employees to develop respiratory problems. After a long discussion, Carl decides to lead the talk himself and to ask his employees if they understand the consequences of not wearing the equipment. After a little verbal sparring, the employees reluctantly agree they realize the importance of wearing the equipment. Janet also suggests it is possible to shorten the time employees wear the respirators. After some discussion, all agree that at least two employees should perform any job demanding more than thirty minutes. After one employee wears the respirator for thirty minutes, he can switch off to permit another employee to finish. No employee will have to wear a respirator for more than thirty minutes at a time. All agree this is a workable idea and they decide to give it a try. If Carl is unable or unwilling to comply with his safety responsibilities, Janet is in a position to discuss the matter with Carl’s boss, his boss’s boss, or even the chief executive officer of the company. With top management support of the safety effort, Carl’s performance is measured on how well he supervises safe production. If he is unable or unwilling to try to produce safely, then his performance ratings will suffer. He is penalized for failing to follow procedures regarding production or any other critical activity within the company—including safety. Not only is Carl held responsible and accountable for safe production, but also his direct manager and every other manager in the line production operation are held responsible and accountable.

CONTROLLING Controlling occurs through a number of subfunctions. It involves looking at what is happening in the organization by monitoring or comparing the results of the observations to established standards, and taking appropriate corrective actions. This occurs through inspections, audits, records reviews, interviews with employees and supervisors and a careful watch on what is happening in the organization. The results of monitoring are compared to results from previous years, existing safety regulations or published or internally developed standards. Any deficiencies are noted and plans are made for correction.

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Before drastic changes occur, management approval and support are sought. Once this happens, it is up to line management to make any and all appropriate corrections. Of course, management will only make corrections when it perceives they are appropriate and beneficial. This perception is frequently based on line management’s understanding of the need to make corrections and the consequences of not making corrections. The safety professional often finds that being a persuasive salesperson is as important as knowing what to do and what to sell. The safety professional soon learns requests for change typically cost money, time, or other resources. In addition, these requests are competing with those from production, marketing, and other branches of the organization whose managers believe they can best utilize the company’s resources. If money is spent on safety, it may not be available for raises for personnel, a new dental benefits plan, research on a breakthrough for a promising new drug, or a marketing effort that could reap millions. The management team will consider the safety request, weigh it against those from other parts of the organization, and respond accordingly. If the safety professional is unable to make a convincing case for project resources, then the project won’t happen. Management support for safety is a result of its perception of how well safety supports the organization. If the safety department is well aligned with the mission of the organization and the safety professional can build a strong case, usually in terms of the cost benefit to the organization, safety will be supported. However, if management does not perceive that safety supports the organization or believes that it does not provide an adequate return, it will not support it. To reiterate, the role of the safety professional is to monitor what is occurring in the organization relative to safety, compare findings to existing standards, and advise on necessary changes. It is critical to carefully review and analyze the consequences of any proposed changes before they are implemented. The what-if exercise can be very useful here. Various scenarios are played out and the questions, “What if this?” or What if that?” are asked before implementation occurs. New chemicals introduced may produce adverse side effects, or new procedures may have dangers not yet anticipated. Results of changes perceived to improve safety can sometimes result in hazards that might not otherwise be anticipated, so any changes must be carefully scrutinized and addressed before they are fully implemented. Allegedly, the major tool used by professionals to monitor the state of safety in the organization has been the audit. Audit is a term loosely used by professional and semiprofessional safety practitioners. It can mean anything from a cursory inspection of hand tools by shop personnel to a complete review of the safety program by the safety staff and numerous collaborating personnel. In reality, the audit is a tool that permits the assignment of a quantitative or numerical value to some aspect of the safety program. It

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is used to determine where that program is relative to where it ought to be. As many as a dozen or more audits might be done on an annual basis in any company. An example will illustrate this point. Suzy Harris is the safety manager for Atlantic Widgets. She has developed nine safety programs in the following areas: 1. Hazard Recognition and Control 2. Fire Prevention and Protection 3. Industrial Hygiene Monitoring and Control 4. Ergonomics 5. Waste Prevention and Minimization 6. Security 7. Manpower Training and Development 8. Environmental Operations and Emergency Response 9. Technical Standards and Legislative Compliance Suzy remains open to new ideas for safety programs and plans to initiate more as time permits. Each of the above programs is reviewed annually in a different month by other plant managers and members of the safety committee. Suzy always tries to bring in at least one outside person to get fresh insight into what she is doing. In January, she audits the Fire Prevention and Protection program. During the audit, Suzy attempts to determine whether the company is in a state of readiness for any fire eventuality. She does so by evaluating the systems that are in place to ensure continuity of an effective program through interviews, observations, and a thorough records review. Suzy and two members of her team interview Steve English, the plant manager, and ask him, “How are your supervisors specifically evaluated, for purposes of promotion or salary increases in the performance of their jobs, relative to fire prevention and protection?” She will assign a subjective rating to the following table based upon her evaluation of Steve’s response: “All plant supervisory personnel are evaluated on their performance in the area of fire prevention and protection for purposes of promotion and salary increase.” No evaluation exists

1

Evaluation occurs but there is a link to salary and promotion. 2

An effective evaluation occurs; there is a marginal impact on salary and promotion 3

An effective evaluation occurs with appropriate impact on salary and promotion 4

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Suzy continues with similar questions developed to measure the program. She may have developed these questions with the help of others in the plant, or she may have purchased an audit instrument from a firm specializing in safety consulting. After assigning scores to all of the questions, Suzy totals the scores and makes a determination, based on a predetermined scale, as to the strength or weakness of the fire prevention and protection program. As a side benefit, Suzy is also in a position to make recommendations based on her findings as to what changes need to be made to strengthen the program. These can be prioritized by what the cost of not making the changes might be. The following paragraph provides an example. Suzy learns through her audit the only protection for an infrequently used warehouse is provided by fire extinguishers. The contents of the warehouse are considered to be museum pieces, and the owners are reluctant to part with them. Suzy makes a determination of the probability of a fire occurring in the warehouse in any given year. She can do this based on the past record of a large company or by estimates provided by her insurance company. The calculations indicate that a fire would likely occur only once in every 200 years with projected losses expected to run about $400,000. This amount assumes that the nearby fire department would be able to extinguish the fire with only 50 percent losses. Next, Suzy uses the expected value technique and multiplies the probability of the loss occurring in a given year, 1/200 or .005 times the expected loss of $400,000, to estimate the expected value of a loss at $2,000. This value approximates how much the company might be willing to invest in protecting the building from a fire in a given year. Two thousand dollars would be the break-even point in a given year. In other words, the company could only expect to save $2,000 in a given year by protecting the warehouse from fire. How much would Suzy be willing to invest to save that money? It depends on a number of factors but primarily on how much return Suzy or the company can expect to get on its investments elsewhere. Suzy may decide that there are higher priorities for safety when she determines other findings through using this mathematical process. Even if she decides that this is a high priority, she must still convince management that it is the best investment it can make with the available funds. Whether she makes that recommendation depends on the return management normally receives on its investments. If management expects a 15 percent return in a given year, then Suzy will use the 15 percent figure as her standard of performance. She won’t make a recommendation that will not result in at least a 15 percent expected return. If Suzy finds that she can come up with a relatively inexpensive system, she will make the recommendation based on her comparison to the standard.​

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SAFETY AUDIT STEPS 1. Determine the area to be audited. 2. Develop or acquire an audit instrument based on the needs of the company. Be aware that no generic audit purchased or acquired from an outside firm will exactly fit the needs of the company. 3. Set up a pre-audit conference with all collaborating personnel. Discuss the purpose and scope of the audit. 4. Perform the audit, based on a predetermined evaluation system. Use interviews, observations, and records reviews. 5. Compare the audit results to the standards of performance established by the organization and the safety department. 6. Report to management based on the existing standards and variances from them. Suggest corrective actions and completion dates. Strong rationales must be prepared for any changes to which management might object. Changes must be tied to the organizational mission and objectives. 7. Follow-up to ensure changes agreed on have been made. 8. Suggest corrective actions and negotiate completion dates with management.

After Suzy has been at the facility for a while, plant personnel begin to understand the expectations management has for them regarding safety. Suzy finds it is necessary to perform the audit only once per year. Obviously, this is not frequently enough to monitor the overall fire program. Suzy has taught the supervisors to use their own employees to make periodic fire inspections. Inspections involve the monthly check of pressurized extinguishers, as well as a comparison of other safety features in the plant to given standards. One difference between audits and inspections is that in inspections, no quantitative evaluations are made. Suzy simply asks, “Is this done or not?” The inspection determines adherence to the operating standards. Audits are used to find out if inspections are taking place, as well as the effectiveness of those and other safety tools. Suzy also makes periodic inspections simply to ascertain supervisors are doing their jobs and ensure compliance with the key safety standards of the organization. The supervisors realize Suzy’s inspections will affect their own future in the company because she reports to management on the supervisors’ compliance with internal safety standards. Unsatisfactory findings are considered adverse performance reports for the supervisors and their superiors. Positive reports are considered, along with other performance variables, in promotion and salary increases. This is not the only measure of safety that

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management depends on, but it is one factor in the determination of a given supervisor’s or manager’s future in the company. One of the keys in the whole process is to take corrective action based on the findings. It sounds so obvious, yet audits and inspections are performed regularly with recommendations reported to management, many of which are never acted on. It isn’t unusual, following a major disaster that results in loss of lives and property, workers stand around saying they knew it was coming. “We tried to tell management, but no one listened.” Often the problems were identified in the regular audit or inspection procedure and recommendations were made, but no corrective actions took place The safety professional must successfully sell management on the necessary course of action. A critical feature of any effective safety program is constant improvement. The audit is one tool that can help monitor the safety program and provide useful information regarding areas needing improvement. This and other tools are necessary for use on a regular basis to provide regular feedback regarding effectiveness and find holes or areas needing improvement. DIRECTING The safety professional does not actively direct or lead in the organization, unless he or she has a staff. This job of directing belongs primarily to line management. Ideally, the safety practitioner is given adequate resources, including a safety budget, to help line management accomplish its objectives. A typical safety budget would be 2 to 3 percent of sales volume. One day, Carl Wagner approaches Suzy Harris with a safety problem. He believes his employees will be safer if they have hard hats to wear when they are working in “the yard.” The cost of supplying the hard hats for the whole crew is $600. Suzy believes this is a worthwhile project and agrees to pay for the hard hats. The fact that Suzy has control of a budget puts her in the enviable position of having managers come to her to request not only her verbal, but also financial input. Safety personnel operating from a staff position will only be successful with support, including financial support, from line management. STAFFING The opportunity to hire productive, creative people is conducive to the growth and advancement of the whole organization. The safety professional should be aware the process contains pitfalls. The Civil Rights Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) have requirements prohibiting discrimination against protected populations. If a job requires strength and endurance,

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the safety practitioner should ensure the company has a clear, written job description. Applicants are only hired contingent on their ability to meet all predetermined physical requirements. A careful review of all affirmative action regulations is necessary to ensure company screening procedures are in compliance with the acts. Well-meaning companies have found themselves subject to lawsuits from state human rights commissions because they were unaware their hiring practices discriminated against protected populations. Specific guidelines should be obtained from the appropriate state human rights commission.

COMMUNICATIONS The ability to communicate effectively is critical to the success of safety professionals. They must be able to speak in terms that management understands. This requires knowledge of accounting, economics, and modern production and quality theory. Strong human relations skills and related language ability are important to any successful safety effort. The safety practitioner will be working with top management and front-line workers. An effective safety professional needs to have the personality and ability to relate to both groups. The typical safety professional spends significant time in front of people, often in training activities. Public speaking skills can be useful in these situations. Thoughts need to be well organized and the presentation should always be polished. This requires preparation and practice. Safety professionals who are not properly prepared in public speaking may join professional groups or may take courses to help them prepare. In any case, they must learn to effectively communicate in a variety of situations and with a variety of groups. Effective writing skills are equally important. The credibility of any communication and the person doing the communicating is largely dependent upon the use of appropriate and proper grammar. The matching of subject and predicate, the use of parallel construction, integration of proper punctuation, and the application of a strong and appropriate vocabulary are particularly critical to effective written communications. Errors are easily spotted and often transmitted repeatedly. Every error tends to reduce the effectiveness of the message so carefully proofread all written communications. Communication is also critical in terms of involving individuals throughout the organization in the overall safety effort. From the CEO to the front-line worker, all employees must participate and be actively involved in the safety effort. This involvement is often a result of communications. Employees feel free to speak about problems they encounter and suggestions they may have. They can speak to their immediate supervisor or directly with the safety professional. When they believe it is necessary, they have the option of expressing

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concerns anonymously, through a written or electronic system. Regardless of the reporting method, no actions will be taken against the employee unless safety rules or guidance has been violated. Feedback will be provided, so employees know their communications are heard and management is responsive.

EVALUATION OF THE SYSTEM Since the safety professional operates from a staff position, success is a result of his or her ability to enlist the support of line personnel. This is a result of integration into the organizational structure and culture and having the ability to enlist the support and cooperation of the line managers. Obviously, to accomplish this, two things are needed. First, top management must have already endorsed safety as important to the organization, and it must have already given safety an appropriate level of support. This occurs because management perceives that safety is a worthwhile and contributing entity within the organization and that its activities are cost-effective. Management will provide support for safety to the level and degree it perceives it is getting a reasonable return from its investment. Support comes not only in terms of resources, but also in terms of commitment to holding all members of the management team responsible and accountable for safety within their own operations. Each and every manager is responsible, not just for production, but for safe production. The manager’s performance is measured relative to how well he or she performs in a manner leading to safe production. Within the organization, the results of this measurement are used in evaluating the manager for promotion and salary. Emphasis on final results sometimes yields cover-ups and false representations as might happen when results aren’t reported or attempts are made to subvert the truth. Second, the safety manager must be perceived as an integral part of the management team. Line managers can call on the safety manager for advice and help in making their own operations safer. The safety manager’s guidance will help them to create and maintain a safe workplace for their employees. Line managers can make proposals and compete for the safety staff’s time and budget to help them; but, ultimately, the responsibility and accountability for safety rest on the line manager’s shoulders. Implementing the safety program is difficult, because the line manager must believe the safety staff can help accomplish his or her objectives. The safety manager and staff become exofficio members of his team. When the line manager meets with his or her own staff to discuss safety problems, a request may be made to have a member of the safety staff participate in those sessions. A serious mistake members of some organizations make is believing they can have two separate systems for evaluating production and safety. This occurs when

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no measurement for safety is built into the normal evaluation system and a safety incentive program is initiated to reward safe performance. The line manager is rewarded in terms of salary and position for having an exemplary production record. At the same time, the manager is punished by not receiving the perks associated with having no incidents or no lost-time accidents or whatever else the quota of the month is. The mixed signals do little to encourage safe production, but, instead, give the manager incentive to cover up any information he perceives will inhibit him or her from receiving the reward or bonus associated with the safety program. GUIDANCE FOR SAFETY MANAGEMENT Most organizations have a system for managing safety. It may have been self-developed, or a result of adoption of a current system. In some cases, the system is required by law. In other cases, there are incentives for adopting the system. The incentive may be in the form of a compliance-inspection bypass, OR it may be a result of attempts to protect our most valuable assets--the employees. In any case, there are many variations of systems for managing safety. Following are examples of a few. OSHA GUIDELINES On January 29, 1989, OSHA published voluntary safety and health guidelines for general industry. OSHA concluded that effective management of worker safety and health protection is a decisive factor in reducing the extent and the severity of work-related injuries and illnesses. Effective management addresses all work-related hazards, including those potential hazards that could result from a change in worksite condition or practices. It addresses hazards whether or not they are regulated by government standards. In general, OSHA advises employers to maintain a program providing a systematic approach to recognize and protect employees from workplace hazards. In October 2016, OSHA published Recommended Practices for Safety and Health Programs. Core elements are shown below (OSHA, 2016).​ A thorough explanation of the Safety and Health Program Management practices can be found on the OSHA website. In a memo dated March 12, 2012, Richard E. Fairfax, Deputy Assistant Secretary of OSHA advised regional administrators that certain policies could discourage reporting and be unlawful (Fairfax, 2012). These include: 1. Disciplining employees injured on the job, regardless of the circumstances of the injury. Reporting of injuries is always protected, regardless of fault.

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2. Creating circumstances discouraging employee reporting of injuries or illnesses. For example, if an employee is punished for not reporting an injury quickly, then that employee might be discouraged from reporting

Figure 10.2  Core Elements of the Safety and Health Program Recommended Practices

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an injury not recognized right away. That would be a violation of OSHA rules. 3. Enforcing rules more stringently against employees who are injured as a result of rules violations. In other words, whether an employer is injured or not when violating rules, the punishment should be the same; otherwise, it would be considered discrimination. 4. Creating incentive programs that discourage employees from reporting their injuries. For example, it would be a violation to reward employees for not suffering an injury or illness over a specified period of time; an employee may not report the injury or illness in order to win the award. Incentives should never dissuade reasonable workers from reporting injuries. SAFETY MANAGEMENT: AN ANSI/ AIHA/ASSP Z10 PERSPECTIVE The American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) and the American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE) worked under the auspices of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) to develop a voluntary consensus standard and integrated approach to incorporating a safety management program into an organization. ANSI is a nonprofit organization overseeing the development of voluntary consensus standards by signifying organizations meet the Institute’s requirements in their own standards development. Z10 provides guidance for improving the overall safety and health management system in an organization. Elements include: • Management leadership and employee participation; • Planning; • Implementation and operation; • Evaluation and corrective action; and • Management review (Commonwealth of Virginia, 2017) Safety Management through SMS: An FAA Perspective Safety Management Systems (SMS) is an approach required for certain entities and recommended for others. This is mandated for scheduled airlines to implement by March, 2018. From an FAA perspective SMS is aimed at correcting problems in operational processes—as they relate to the aircraft and aircraft accidents. Although adoption is encouraged by the Advisory Circular throughout the organization, it is not required. The FAA does not address the problem of employee safety. That could be handled by SMS or through another approach—possibly one previously mentioned. Although

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this approach is not necessarily intended by the FAA to protect all employees, effective implementation would certainly be indicative of a proactive approach to safety. The four components of SMS, as outlined by the FAA are: • Safety policy to identify senior management’s commitment, expectations, and objectives • Safety risk management which outlines requirements for identifying and mitigating risk • Safety assurance to provide guidance for safety performance monitoring and measurement • Safety promotion to address safety training, communication and other actions to create a positive safety culture (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015) Additional explanation of each of these components is provided in Chapter 9.

Safety Management: An International Standards Organization (ISO) Perspective: 45001 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a nongovernmental institution composed of representatives from various national standards organizations from 163 member countries. It is the world’s largest developer of voluntary international standards, based in Geneva, Switzerland. The USA member body is ANSI. This standard is designed to help businesses improve safety and reduce costs by providing a framework to improve employee safety and reduce workplace risk through the creation of safer working conditions worldwide. It is designed for use by any organization of any size, regardless of the work being done. It is also structured to help companies meet their legal requirements worldwide. An ISO 45001-based OH&S management system will enable an organization to improve its OH&S performance by addressing the following (not a comprehensive list): • Understanding the needs and expectations of interested parties • Determining the scope of the management system • Emphasizing involvement from top management and employees • Planning, including establishing objectives and implementation timelines • Support to include resources needed, competence, awareness, communication, and documentation • Operations to include hierarchy of controls, management of change, and outsourcing • Performance evaluation • Continual Improvement (NQA, 2016)

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In 2021, ISO 45003 was added to provide guidance relative to the management of psychosocial risks and the promotion of workplace well-being. It was written as an addition to ISO 45001 to provide further assistance to how psychological risk analysis can be incorporated into the overall safety and health management systems. CONCLUSION Because the safety practitioner is operating from a staff position, any success is a result of his ability to enlist the support of line personnel. This comes about as a result of being well integrated into the organizational structure and culture and from being able to enlist the support and cooperation of the line management. Two things are needed. First, top management must have already blessed safety as being important to the organization, and it must have already given safety an appropriate level of support. This blessing occurs because management perceives that safety is a worthwhile and contributing entity within the organization and its activities are of cost benefit. Management will provide support for safety to the level and degree it perceives a return from the same. Support comes not only in terms of resources, but also in terms of commitment to holding all members of the management team responsible and accountable for safety within their own operations. Each and every manager is responsible, not just for production, but for safe production. The manager’s performance is measured relative to how well he or she performs in a manner leading to safe production, and the results of this measurement are used in evaluating the manager for promotion and salary within the organization. Second, the safety manager must be perceived as an integral part of the management team. Line managers should be able to call on the safety manager for advice and help in making their own operations safer. The safety manager’s guidance will help them create and maintain a safe workplace for their employees. Line managers can make proposals for and compete for the safety staff’s time and budget to help them; however, the responsibility and accountability for safety rest on their shoulders. Implementation difficulties arise from the fact that the line manager must have reason to believe the safety staff can help him accomplish his own objectives. The safety manager and his staff become ex-officio members of the line manager’s team. When the line manager meets his staff to discuss safety problems, he may request a member of the safety staff’s participation in those sessions. Lastly, the safety professional must exercise caution when advising management of programs that might appear to encourage safety, but actually discourage reporting. Information is critical to the success of any safety program and the management team should make every effort to encourage reporting in their effort to mitigate hazards and provide for a safe and healthful working environment.

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QUESTIONS 1. Do you think safety practitioners should ever be given more than simple staff advisory authority? Why or why not? Do safety practitioners run the risk of assuming others’ safety responsibilities when they do? 2. If there is a conflict between safety goals and production goals, which should take precedence and why? Ask the same question while playing roles of different individuals in the organization, such as different types of managers. Also assume roles of interested parties outside the organization, such as stockholders, bankers lending to the company, and government officials. 3. What steps should management take to ensure employee involvement? Should any of these steps be legal requirements? 4. How do safety practices today compare with those of several decades ago? Talk to some old-timers in industry and ask them if they are aware of any safety cover-ups that occurred in their industry. Discuss your responses. 5. What are the opinions of younger and older working adults about safety on the job, OSHA, and other safety-related issues? Do an informal survey. If a difference of opinion exists between the two groups, why do you suppose that is? As a manager, how would you approach each group to get its involvement? REFERENCES Commonwealth of Virginia. (2017). ANSI Z10: The Blueprint for a Better Health and Safety Program. Retrieved from http://www​.covwc​.com​/templates​/System​/details​ .asp​?id​=48008​&PG​=resources​&CID​=30648. Department of Labor. Federal Register, 29 CRF Part 1910. Fairfax, R. E. (2012, March 12). Employer safety incentive and disincentive policies and practices memorandum. Retrieved from https://www​.osha​.gov​/as​/opa​/whistleblowermemo​.html. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Safety Management Systems for Aviation Service Providers. Retrieved from https://www​.faa​.gov​/documentLibrary​/media​/ Advisory​_Circular​/AC​_120​-92B​.pdf. NQA. (2016). Draft ISO 45001. Retrieved from http://www​.giagi​.pt​/data​/ fileS201683095053​.pdf. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). (1989). Retrieved from https://www​.osha​.gov​/pls​/oshaweb​/owadisp​.show​_document​?p​_table​=FEDERAL​ _REGISTER​&p​_id​=12909. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). (2016). Recommended Practices for Safety and Health Programs. Retrieved from https://www​.osha​.gov​ /shpguidelines/.

Chapter 11

Psychology and Safety The Human Element in Loss Prevention

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to • define the terminology associated with the study of psychology; • explain the concepts associated with motivation and safety; • differentiate between Behavioral and Goal-Directed theories of motivation; • explain the principles associated with behavior modification and safety; • describe the importance of establishing a positive safety culture; • identify the pitfalls inherent in safety incentive programs; and • describe the benefits of employee empowerment and job enrichment. CASE STUDIES An electrical maintenance supervisor with 15 years of experience ordered his assistant to de-energize a machine they were about to service. Before the assistant could “cut the power,” the supervisor reached into the back of the unit, made contact with bare leads, and was electrocuted. The supervisor had been an outstanding employee with no record of accidents or related lost workdays, but while performing this task he violated several company safety policies. An electrician with his years of experience should never have made these mistakes. The results of the accident investigation revealed the supervisor was having marital problems. In addition, his spouse had indicated just days before the incident that the victim had shown her the location of his life insurance policies. *** 245

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A small Midwestern manufacturing facility reported 23 of their 75 employees had experienced back injuries. A job satisfaction survey indicated very low employee morale and workers who do not trust management. The survey results also indicated management is only concerned with profits and production, not employee safety. *** Above its main entrance a company mounted a stop light that remained green as long as there were no OSHA-recordable accidents. As it moved to break the company record of time worked with no such events, the organization provided very positive feedback and rewards anytime a major milestone was reached. When it neared a new record of 1.5 million man hours without a recordable accident, management planned a huge banquet and festivities in celebration. Many employees were shocked when the light turned red a few days before the banquet. A worker had died as a result of fatal injuries. INTRODUCTION It is difficult to be effective in safety without an understanding of human motivation, capabilities, and limitations, because human error results in as many as 85 to 95 percent of all accidents. Traditional approaches to the study of motivation are examined in this chapter to assist safety professionals in recognizing some of the factors contributing to worker behavior. The intent is to provide useful strategies for correcting or eliminating adverse psychological safety factors from both the worker and employer perspective. BASIC TERMINOLOGY Psychology is the study of behavior, considering clinical, developmental, educational, experimental, industrial, social, and physiological perspectives. Attitudes are enduring reactions toward people, places, or objects, based on beliefs and emotions. For example, if a person is taught to believe tall people are complainers, when a tall person hurts his back, the reaction is likely to be, “That tall person is exaggerating his injury; he is not really hurt. There was no problem with the job; he should have been able to lift the 180-pound load. If he really wants to work, he has to accept all of the responsibilities of the job.” Notice how this attitude influences the way the injury scenario is viewed. Bias is an especially important consideration when safety professionals are concerned with hazard identification, incident-trend analysis, and accident investigation. Individual attitudes may guide attention and effort in the wrong direction.

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Job satisfaction is the specific attitude and emotion individuals have about their jobs. When workers enjoy what they do, they are said to be receiving satisfaction from the job and this, in turn, may influence employee morale. Morale is the meeting of individuals’ needs and the extent to which employees recognize this meeting of needs comes from jobs. Some researchers believe if morale is low, employee motivation will also be low. Motivation is the inner drive, impulse, or need that creates a personal incentive toward behavior; it is an individual’s tendency toward action in a given situation. MOTIVATION People cannot and do not motivate others. It is the individual who acts or behaves in a given situation. Environmental conditions can be established to increase the likelihood of action and performance, but it is up to the individual to respond. How an individual actually responds depends upon personal experiences forming attitudes that influence behaviors. The Goal-Directed and the Behavioral Schools of study represent two of the most popular views of motivation. In the Goal-Directed School of Motivation, the inner drives of individuals are examined to explain why human behavior takes place. Examples of goal-directed theories include the NeedsHierarchy Theory, the Need-Achievement Theory, and the Motivational Hygiene Theory. Examples of Behavioral theories are Pavlovian theory and Operant Conditioning theory. Goal-Directed School Maslow’s Needs-Hierarchy Theory The goal-directed study of motivation states that people have various types of needs. Depending on the specific theory of interest, these needs can be physiological (the need for food, clothing, or shelter) or psychological (the need for love, recognition, and affiliation with others). Needs help individuals to establish goals guiding behavior to gain rewards and satisfy needs (see figure 11.1: the model first developed by Deci that pictorially describes the relationship between needs and behavior).

Figure 11.1  Goal-Directed Model of Motivation Based on the Research of Deci

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Dr. Abraham Maslow’s Needs-Hierarchy Theory is based on the goaldirected model of motivation (see figure 11.2 for a pictorial representation of Maslow’s model of motivation). According to Maslow’s theory of motivation, people have basic needs—hunger, thirst, and desire for warmth—that must be satisfied before more advanced needs become motivating influences. It is only after these basic physiological needs are satisfied that individuals seek safety and security, the need to be protected and preserved in terms of health and well-being. Living in a location free from turmoil and conflict is an example. Once the safety and security needs are satisfied, individuals seek to establish close friendships and loving relationships with others. With this social support system in place, they strive to satisfy needs associated with self-esteem and esteem by others. Esteem refers to the individual’s sense of personal worth. Self-respect, dignity, independence, and confidence are some of the attributes individuals are trying to achieve at this level. Maslow theorized that the individual, having satisfied all the lower levels of needs, now has the potential for self-actualization, a concern for the wellbeing of others or the state of society. Examples of self-actualized individuals include Eleanor Roosevelt and Mother Teresa. There is little evidence to justify the accuracy of this theory in explaining human motivation; Maslow’s work is based on post-hoc studies of selected individuals. Researchers have found, however, that certain needs must be satisfied before individuals can or will pursue other needs. Any of Maslow’s needs could serve as motivators for individuals, depending on their psychological state. People or employees are motivated by unsatisfied needs only. Once needs are met in a given category and the future appears to hold the same,

Figure 11.2  Maslow’s Needs-Hierarchy Model of Motivation

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individuals will move to a higher level of need. In the United States, most employees in an industrial or construction setting have their basic needs met through wages and benefits. Unmet needs of employees are likely to be of a psychological rather than of a physiological nature. Motivation toward safety should likely focus on something other than meeting physical needs. McClelland’s Need-Achievement Theory A goal-directed theory that has acquired significant attention due to tangible research supporting its premise is McClelland’s Need-Achievement Theory. According to McClelland, there are three essential motives that drive human behavior: 1. Achievement 2. Affiliation 3. Power Achievement is the accomplishment of tasks and activities. Individuals having a high need for achievement are very comfortable working alone. They tend to be very creative and can develop unique solutions to the challenges presented them. Those with a need for affiliation seek the company of others and find satisfaction in close relationships. They may gain satisfaction from knowing or meeting famous people. The enjoyment of being a part of a certain work crew and talking with coworkers may satisfy this need. Pride associated with the wearing of team or company clothing is an example of outward display of affiliation. The need for power is probably the most misinterpreted of McClelland’s three needs. Power, in this context, does not necessarily mean insidious and tyrannical control over people but rather the ability to positively influence others. Managers often have high power and achievement profiles. They have a need to get tasks accomplished through the use of and influence over subordinates in the organization. According to this theory, many teachers and trainers have a high need for power. They gain satisfaction from students’ successes and accomplishments. While some individuals may have a predisposition toward one of the three needs, it is more likely they will possess two or all three of them. Frequently, we attempt to influence the behavior of others by using rewards that seem important to us. It is possible to influence the behavior of others only when you know what is important to them. By considering all three of McClelland’s motives and analyzing individuals to determine what needs each has, it becomes theoretically possible to structure rewards in such a way that individuals’ needs are met through higher safety performance.

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Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory Frederick Herzberg, in his Motivation Hygiene Theory, states that employee motivation depends on characteristics of the job referred to as intrinsic job factors. When Herzberg performed his study, he asked workers what about their job motivated them. The responses included achievement, activity, authority, creativity, importance, independence, interest, knowledge, personal growth and development, promotion opportunity, recognition, responsibility, service to others, utilization, and variety. He learned that some of the factors not directly related to the job, such as a clean work environment, had no effect on motivation. These external factors can be addressed, and although the workplace may be clean or hygienic—having nothing to make the worker dissatisfied—it does nothing to satisfy or motivate the worker. A few of the less-obvious intrinsic job factors or motivators deserve exploration. Activity refers to a steady and physically acceptable level of performance. Physical and mental workloads are balanced and reasonable. When workloads become either excessive or minimal, occupational stress, resulting from fatigue or boredom, can become a safety problem. Authority refers to the amount of power inherent in a job to influence or control the work activities of others. Here again, occupational stress is often overlooked. When individuals have extensive responsibilities but little control over the accomplishment of tasks, stress may result. Job satisfaction may be closely tied to the appropriate balance of responsibility (accountability for performance, decisions, and outcomes) and authority. Creativity reflects the opportunity for individuals to apply inventiveness, resourcefulness, and personal talents to the work situation. Many individuals enjoy the process of developing new and innovative solutions to problems in the workplace. Jobs that tap into an individual’s creativity often seem more enjoyable because they tend to be less routine. Importance refers to the perceived value of the work performed. When employees believe they make a difference in the organization, job satisfaction increases. When coupled with interest, the chance to perform activities compatible with the individual’s personal preferences, importance makes employee motivation tend to soar. Employers may also affect employee motivation by offering opportunities for promotion, recognition, paths for advancement, and appreciation for strong performance. Intrinsic job factors are only motivational if the individual considers them as such. Not everyone desires advancement or promotion, so they may not be motivating to an individual who desires to remain a member of a crew or team. The more intrinsic job factors there are, the greater the job satisfaction. Job satisfaction describes the positive feeling workers have about their jobs. It implies employees are meeting their needs through their work. Several

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studies suggest a negative correlation between job satisfaction and accidents; that is, the greater the job satisfaction of employees, the fewer the accidents. If the intrinsic job factors are removed, the worker is no longer motivated to perform. Factors not intrinsic to the job, external factors, are more related to the environment and are not considered motivators. A dirty workplace would be external. A clean environment might be pleasing, but it does not contribute to motivation. By making a dirty workplace clean, we make it less undesirable, but we do not make the worker more motivated. We can remove all of the undesirable external factors and will still not motivate the worker; all we have is a clean or hygienic work environment. From a safety-application perspective, truly effective motivators are relatively inexpensive since they have to do with the job itself. Enhancing the job, by making it more interesting or by empowering the worker to make more decisions, provides a more efficient work environment and tends to be motivational. Simply enhancing the environment of the job by providing more pleasant work surroundings may do nothing to actually provide motivation for the employee. The effective manager will attempt to determine employee needs and provide an environment that helps the employee to meet those needs by performing the job in a safe and effective manner. Behavioral School The Behavioral School examines environmental factors influencing human performance. Two of the most widely known behavioral theories are the Pavlovian, also known as the Classical Conditioning Theory, and Operant Conditioning or the Skinnerian theory. Pavlov Pavlovian conditioning explains behavior as reflexive in nature. The traditional example is of dogs salivating when a stimulus, a bell, is paired with the presentation of food. After repeated pairings, Ivan Pavlov found the conditioned or learned stimulus produces the same response as the unconditioned or natural stimulus. An example of this type of motivation is the fear and anxiety people feel when they enter a location where they have been injured. The location becomes a conditioned stimulus or cue producing the natural emotional response. People involved in serious automobile accidents often experience anxiety when they attempt to drive again. One industrial example is the near-fatal shock of an electrician at a high-voltage substation. When he returned to work after a six-month absence, the employee could not pass through the gates of the power substation without experiencing debilitating anxiety. The

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power substation became his conditioned stimulus associated with severe and intense pain. Skinner B. F. Skinner proposed operant conditioning, a process in which the frequency of occurrence of behavior is modified by the consequences of the behavior; that is, the consequences of people’s actions will determine future actions. The external consequences, referred to as the environment or environmental stimuli, may increase, decrease, or have little effect on behavior. When the likelihood of a positive response increases or a negative response decreases, following the presentation of an event or stimulus, the process is referred to as positive reinforcement. Praise, recognition, and financial rewards are just a few possible examples of positive reinforcers. By definition, a stimulus is not a positive reinforcer unless it increases the likelihood of the behavior reoccurring in the future. When the likelihood of a positive response decreases or a negative response increases following the presentation of an event or stimulus, the process is referred to as punishment. Figure 11.3 shows the relationship between the presentation and removal of environmental events and their effect on behavior. When workers associate safety with pleasant results or positive reinforcement, their safe behavior is likely to continue. When safe behavior is associated with unpleasantness, it is likely to discontinue. If a worker equates PPE (personal protective equipment) with discomfort, he or she is less likely to wear it. If, on the other hand, PPE is associated with being able to spend more quality time with family, being in line for a raise, or positive feedback from someone respected, the employee is likely to utilize it. Supervisor praise for employee compliance with a company safety hardhat policy is an

Figure 11.3  Operant Conditioning Model of Environmental Processes and Their Effect on Behavior

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Table 11.1  Operant Conditioning Model of Environmental Processes and Their Effect on Behavior Stimulus Behavior ↑ ↓

Presentation Positive Reinforcement Punishment

Removal Negative Reinforcement Extinction

environmental stimulus considered positive reinforcement if it increases the likelihood of the employee wearing the hard hat in the future. If the supervisor is disliked and has no authority to discipline the employee, praise from the supervisor may be seen as negative reinforcement and it could even decrease the likelihood of employee use.​ If employees are suspended every time they are observed performing unsafe behaviors and over time the unsafe behaviors decrease in frequency, this process would be considered punishment. If an employee only wears safety gear when the supervisor is in his work area, this behavior would be considered avoidance, being maintained by negative reinforcement. Extinction is the removal of a positive stimulus, reducing the likelihood of a behavior recurring in the future. Incentive programs are often used to improve safe performance. Frequently, when incentive programs are eliminated, safe performance will decline. Behaviorists could explain the reduction in desired safe performance a result of the process of extinction. Before providing substantial safety awards, prizes for safety competitions, or other expensive incentives, one must consider how long the company is prepared to maintain them. How much is the company willing to spend? What happens when the incentives are discontinued? Once rewards are given, employees view them as entitlements. Entitlements may cease to serve as reinforcers of behavior, but remove the entitlements and the company can face significant anger and disappointment from its workers.

THE RATIONAL EMPLOYEE: APPLYING MOTIVATION THEORIES Employees are rational; they always do the rational thing—in their own minds. They have specific reasons for behaving the way they do. The challenge is to determine the factors supporting undesirable performance and develop strategies to modify behavior. There are several possible factors leading to undesirable safety performance, including employee background, peer influence, and company environment. Although no two employees will necessarily respond in a like

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manner to the same stimulus, motivational theories attempt to apply what has been learned about a few to the whole population. What works for one will not necessarily work for another, because each person has different needs; therefore, it is important to understand each employee and his or her needs. Suppose a new employee must work near a vat of acid. The employee has been trained in recognizing hazards in the workplace but still does not wear PPE. Is it irrational not to wear eye protection near acid? Most people would probably say “Yes!” This undesirable behavior seems to be irrational, but is it? If coworkers heckle the new employee for talking about safety and wearing PPE, is the worker being irrational for not wearing it? The new employee may have a strong need for affiliation and may choose to follow the norms established. This scenario can also be examined from the perspective of the Operant Conditioning Theory. Coworker verbal abuse might be considered as a punishing stimulus. If the new employee is punished every time he is observed wearing eye protection, he is likely to choose not to wear it. The safety professional must also look at the organizational environment maintaining poor performance. In the above safety scenario, the new employee will compare the importance of the social reinforcer of going along with what the crew wants with the likelihood of punishment from the employer. The selection of the social reinforcer is especially likely if inconsistent enforcement prevails or if the discipline is only a slap on the wrist. Resulting employee behavior of choosing not to wear eye protection is far more rational to the employee than working safely.

ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND THE SAFETY CULTURE From a behavioral perspective, organizational actions are just as important as organizational directives. In a Fortune 500 company, for example, senior management decided it was good for employee relations to emphasize safety. Safety slogans were visibly posted throughout company facilities and weekly toolbox safety meetings were mandated for company work crews. Safety messages were included in all employee payroll envelopes. The company spent freely to promote safety awareness. During programmed maintenance shutdowns at this same company, however, employees were instructed to get equipment running again quickly. Employees were informed that approximately $1 million was lost every day this particular plant was not operating. The underlying message to the employees was to get production moving no matter what the cost. Several mechanics and utility workers were seriously injured during the maintenance shutdown, because employees took shortcuts and failed to use the correct tools and procedures

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to perform many of the tasks. This example is not unique. An organization’s actions and the types of statistics it measures clearly communicate what is important. Several authors have pointed out that when safety performance is measured in terms of injury statistics, there is a tendency for employees not to report incidents. A company may look good on paper at the same time fat/cats (fatalities and catastrophic accidents) are lurking in the corner. A key part of any safety program is the upward flow of information regarding incidents and minor accidents. Programs that encourage employees not to report incidents or accidents hinder the flow of information upward. Hazards and their causes may remain hidden until a tragic accident that can no longer be disguised occurs. It isn’t surprising that a program that goes for months or years without a recordable suddenly experiences a fatality or other catastrophic accident. Another example would be responding to the fears associated with OSHA inspections and citations or to pressure from an insurance company to fix hazards or reduce costs. Short-term, Band-Aid approaches will not build a safety culture supported by employees. Workers recognize when budgets are provided for quick fixes and behave accordingly. Company motives are more transparent to employees than some managers believe. When a manager looks the other way to increase the flow of production or make a certain part of the organization look good on paper, it rarely goes unnoticed by the workforce. The term safety culture is frequently used, but what does it really mean? When considered from a safety management perspective, safety culture should be viewed as a nurturing and cultivating environment that values low risk in actions of the organization. In his best-seller, The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, Stephen Covey discusses the relationship among paradigm, values, principles, and success. As Covey points out, a paradigm is a model or frame of reference. It is used to understand what is happening at any given point in time, as well as where we want to go. Organizations need a culture or paradigm to help them interpret events. They also need a culture with clearly specified goals of what the organization wishes to achieve. An organizational paradigm and a clear conceptualization of values, principles, and goals are the foundations of a culture that will promote the right actions to achieve excellence and success. An example of the influence of organizational paradigms, values, and safety cultures on management decision-making was observed when a textile manufacturer was constructing a new facility. Upper-level management, including the safety and operations managers, agreed that every contractor would have to comply with all company health and safety rules during the project. In all of the written contracts, this was clearly noted. If the textile manufacturer observed a violation, the employee of the subcontractor would be temporarily removed from the job site. A repeat violation meant termination of the subcontractor’s contract.

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Six months into the two-year project, one of the major subcontractors responsible for multistory steel-beam erection had employees working over 30 feet in the air without fall protection. After the second observation of this violation, the plant safety manager ordered the workers down, informed the contractor of the repeat violation, and initiated the process to terminate the contract. The contractor was removed from the project and replaced by a firm that accomplished all the goals initially established by the textile manufacturer. The plant manager in this scenario did not compromise. As a result, the project was completed on time with only one OSHA-recordable injury. The other extreme occurred when a large plant, operating in a corporate environment renowned for safety, had a worker who suffered heat stress on the job but failed to show signs of the stress until after his shift ended. Although the worker succumbed to the stress in the company parking lot and was sent to the hospital in an ambulance, the company refused to recognize the event as work-related. They also failed to take steps to correct the problems associated with heat stress. Although the employee died on the way to the hospital, the facility continued to expose workers to the same hazardous conditions. The manager’s incentive for not recording a fatality was so strong he was willing to put his company at risk by not reporting to OSHA within the mandatory 8-hour period. In some organizations, similar motivation exists at every level. Both examples demonstrate the effect of value systems and the safety cultures on personal safety behaviors Values influence behavior. They impact the way people work, the way people treat others and the way people react to figures of authority. This paradigm also holds true for organizational cultures. Values are not part of the paradigm or guidelines that magically appear overnight. For most people their parents, brothers and sisters, sports heroes, teachers, friends, and religious leaders are just a few of the many individuals who influence their values. For organizations, it is primarily managers’ values that mold the organizational values and establish, whether consciously or unconsciously, the safety culture and how it defines success. It is critical for the safety professional to work within the organization and its management to establish the safety paradigm and safety culture. The safety professional must cultivate the knowledge of those in influential positions, taking advantage of every opportunity to educate management on the benefits of a safety culture. Gathering necessary data, knowing the regulations, and presenting positive examples of what other organizations are doing are part of the job of safety. Sometimes actions must be taken because they are the right things to do but this will be possible only if the organization has clearly established safety values and principles in place. The safety professional’s goal must be to assist in the development of those values and principles.

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INCENTIVES VERSUS INHERENT REINFORCEMENT The premise behind the use of incentives is that employees require added encouragement to work safely. Many incentive programs use statistical measures, such as recordable accidents on the OSHA 300 log or days without a lost-time accident, to determine the winners. Awards have taken a variety of forms. They can be anything from baseball caps, T-shirts, or jackets to automobiles and trucks. It is an unfortunate fact that incentive programs frequently create more problems than they solve. Research repeatedly demonstrates incentive programs improve safety numbers while they are in place, but once the incentive program ends, performance returns to previous levels at best; in some instances safety performance is much worse. Employees may view incentive programs as entitlements and come to expect them as bonuses. According to the operant conditioning theory of motivation, extinction occurs when a reinforcer is removed and behavior terminates. Employees will sometimes sandbag reports of accidents and injuries until the end of the incentive program, at which time the incident is reported as if it has just happened. Incentive programs create unhealthy competition when individuals, crews, departments or plant managements undermine the activities of their competitors to gain the awards. At one company, the department with the cleanest work area during the previous month was rewarded with a steak dinner. Trash dumping in competing departments caused the incentive program to backfire. Incentive programs based on statistics may produce the unwanted side effect of inaccurate recordkeeping. At another company, employees had worked over eleven months without a lost-time accident, presumably because of a new safety award program initiated earlier that year. Word circulated around the facility that the company CEO planned to fly to the facility and present the award for going one year without a recordable accident. Approximately two weeks before the big day, an employee slipped while using a prybar. The prybar struck him in the face, shattering his safety glasses. While the employee avoided a serious eye injury, he received a facial laceration requiring stitches. Under normal circumstances he would have been sent home after a visit to the emergency room, but supervisors and coworkers pressured the employee to return to work. The incentive program motivated the employee to return to work; however, the message sent was that it is OK to have an accident if a lost-time workday is avoided. Positive reinforcement by management may not be positive to the participants of the incentive program. Coal miners at one facility had the opportunity to be in a drawing for a new pickup truck if they met certain safety criteria. When asked why the incentive program failed, interviewed miners reported they received workers’ compensation benefits matching approximately 70

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percent of their normal salary. In addition, their homes, cars, boats, and other loans were automatically paid for by the loan insurance that went into effect when they could not work, as a result of an injury. A positive reinforcer increases the likelihood of behavior. Winning a pickup truck was not a reinforcer; sustaining an injury and collecting benefits was a reinforcer. Incentive programs cannot be used in place of effective safety programs and positive safety cultures. Safety incentive programs are not magic; they may have a negative effect on safety efforts. OSHA now prohibits employers from discriminating against employees because they report an injury or illness (U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration [OSHA], 2012, March 12). Reporting a work-related injury or illness is a core employee right. Employers must know of and correct dangerous conditions that put the workforce at risk.

EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT AND JOB ENRICHMENT With the current emphasis on safety culture and Total Quality Management (TQM), progressive companies are recognizing the value of employee-driven safety programs. Terms like “employee empowerment” and “job enrichment” reflect the importance of intrinsic job factors for the promotion of safety. Employees of today are generally not receptive to authoritarian styles of management. As discussed in the motivational hygiene section of this chapter, intrinsic job factors that are inherently reinforcing are more likely to motivate employees. Incentive programs are extrinsic reinforcers “artificially” incorporated into the organization to increase the likelihood of desired performance. Once the artificial reinforcer is removed, natural behavioral activities return to the work environment. Intrinsic reinforcements are those positive aspects of behavior and environment that are self-perpetuating. Watching television is an example. It is entertaining, relaxing, enjoyable, and has intrinsic reinforcement. Intrinsic reinforcers can exist in all activities. In an organization, job enrichment and empowerment refer to the incorporation of intrinsic job factors into the work. Job enrichment involves adding more tasks to the job to make it more interesting and enjoyable. For example, an employee who formerly called upon someone else to maintain his equipment is taught how to maintain it and given time to do so when the equipment needs maintenance. Taking time off from routine tasks to perform this needed function may make the job more interesting and more enjoyable to the employee, thereby enriching it. Some individuals desire jobs with responsibility and authority. Empowerment or delegating the role of decision-making to an employee by giving more autonomy over the decisions governing the workday may make the employee

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feel the job is more interesting and important. Both of these are examples of permitting the employee to participate in the organization by giving more autonomy over the job and future. The employee participates in the success of his job and that of the organization. By sharing responsibility for success, including success in safety, everyone becomes a player with a vested interest. CONCLUSION This chapter included a brief discussion of the theories of motivation and examined the importance of the organizational environment and the safety culture, along with the strengths and weaknesses of incentive programs. Job enrichment and employee empowerment were discussed as methods to increase employee buy-in to the safety process. References at the end of this chapter can assist the safety professional in learning more about psychology and safety. QUESTIONS

1 How does job satisfaction influence an individual’s safety? What role does worker attitude play in accident prevention? 2 Why is knowledge of worker motivation important to a safety professional? 3 How are goal-directed theories different from the behavioral theories of motivation? 4 How can the motivational hygiene theory of motivation be used to improve a safety program? 5 What is meant by the term safety culture? How do you establish a positive safety culture? 6 How can positive reinforcement and punishment be used in a behavior modification–oriented safety program? Give examples.

REFERENCES Covey, R. S. (1989). The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People. New York: Simon & Schuster. U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration [OSHA]. (2012, March 12). Memorandum for regional administrators, whistleblower program managers. Retrieved from https://www​.osha​.gov​/as​/opa​/whistleblowermemo​ .html.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Catania, A. C. (1968). Contemporary Research in Operant Behavior. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company. Daniels, A. C. (1989). Performance Management: Improving Quality Productivity Through Positive Reinforcement. Tucker, GA: Performance Management Publications. Everly, G. S., & Feldman, R. H. L. (1985). Occupational health promotion. In Health Behavior in the Workplace. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Geller, S. (1994, September). Ten principles for achieving a total safety culture. Professional Safety, 39, 19–24. Henderson, C. J., & Cernohous, C. (1994, January). Ergonomics: A business approach. Professional Safety, 39, 27–31. Kamp, J. (1994, May). Worker psychology: Safety management’s next frontier. Professional Safety, 39, 32–38. Katz, D., & Kahn, R. L. (1978). The Social Psychology of Organizations. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Kohn, A. (1993). Punished by Rewards. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Krause, T. R. (1995, February). Driving continuous improvement in safety. Occupational Hazards, 57, 47–49. Krause, T. R. (1995). Employee-Driven Systems for Safe Behavior: Integrating Behavioral and Statistical Methodologies. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Krause, T. R., Hidley, J. H., & Hodson, S. J. (1990). The Behavior-Based Safety Process. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Lenckus, D. (1994, October). Safety awareness alone not enough to sow the seeds for fewer injuries. Business Insurance, 42(3), 15–17. Liebert, R. M., & Neale, J. M. (1977). Psychology. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Makin, P. J., & Sutherland, V. J. (1994, May). Reducing accidents using a behavioural approach. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 15, 5–10. Minter, S. G. (1994, January). A safe approach to incentives. Occupational Hazards, 57, 171–172. Nirenberg, J. S. (1984). How to Sell Your Ideas. New York: McGraw-Hill. Preston, R., & Topf, M. (1994, March). Safety discipline: A constructive approach. Occupational Hazards, 56, 51–54. Reynolds, G. S. (1968). A Primer of Operant Conditioning. Glenview, Scott Foresman and Company. Saari, J. (1994, May). When does behavior modification prevent accidents? Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 15, 11–15. Stein, D. G., & Rosen, J. J. (1974). Motivation and Emotion. New York: Macmillan. Weinstock, M. P. (1994, March). Rewarding safety. Occupational Hazards, 56, 73–76.

Chapter 12

Improving Safety Performance with Behavior-Based Safety Earl Blair

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to • define terminology related to behavioral safety; • identify common misconceptions about behavioral safety; • recognize the relationship between behavioral safety and safety culture; • explain how to implement behavioral safety processes; • describe the three-part safety coaching model; • recognize the role of incentives and rewards in behavioral safety; • identify success factors for improving safety performance; • explain leadership’s role in making behavioral safety efforts succeed; and • have an awareness of the potential for Lean BBS as a superior approach. INTRODUCTION Behavior-based safety is commonly called behavioral safety. Behavioral safety is not an alternative to traditional safety programs; it is one component of a comprehensive safety effort. Thorough understanding and proper application of behavioral safety processes typically enhance safety performance. Behavioral safety is not meant to replace other safety initiatives, but rather to enhance and complement them. There are a wide variety of theories and techniques under the name behavior-based safety. Many of these approaches are not based on sound research or experience. On the other hand, this is not intended to imply there is only one correct way to implement and proceed with behavioral safety. Once the 261

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basic behavioral principles and techniques are understood, flexibility is recommended. The behavioral process should be customized for each organization and site. This chapter presents basic principles, proven strategies, and practical implementation steps that have worked well for many organizations. A common distinction is to view behavioral safety as a process rather than a program. This is not to belittle or diminish the importance of programs. Rather, a process approach provides certain desirable benefits: 1. It encourages everyone to recognize the daily importance of safety. 2. It views safety performance as a long-term process—a process that can be continually improved. McSween observes that an organization may initiate a series of programs under the umbrella of an ongoing safety process (McSween, 1995, p. 34). Krause emphasizes that continuous improvement is a factor that distinguishes a genuine process from a program (Krause, 1997, p. 73). Ultimately, the purpose of behavioral safety is not simply to improve individual behaviors, but to positively impact the overall safety culture and related safety systems. As these goals are accomplished, safety performance will continually improve. MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT BEHAVIORAL SAFETY There are a number of misconceptions about behavioral safety that can impede progress in behavioral safety approaches. Following each misconception are brief suggestions for consideration by safety professionals in handling them. The following is a brief list of common misconceptions about behavioral safety followed by the author’s comments: • Behavioral safety fails to address system causes of injuries. Reality: Behavioral Safety can and should address system causes. In fact, it is an effective way to determine root causes of injuries, at-risk behavior or hazardous conditions. Once at-risk behaviors/conditions are identified, system barriers to safe work performance can be identified and removed. Many organizations can demonstrate that behavioral safety actually provides an excellent tool for addressing system causes of injuries. An organization is not using behavioral safety to its potential if system improvements do not result from the behavioral effort. This will be addressed further later in the chapter. • Behavioral safety is used to blame employees. Reality: Behavioral experts agree if behavioral safety is used to blame employees, it will not work. Blaming employees is the opposite behavior than a proper approach to behavioral safety. Proper applications of behavioral safety generally

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include a “blame-free” or “no-fault” understanding as part of the process itself. • Behavioral interventions are the least effective intervention. Reality: Most safety professionals agree with the traditional safety hierarchy: (1) Eliminate the hazard; (2) Engineer the hazard out; (3) Control the hazard; (4) Guard against the hazard; and (5) Use training and personal protective equipment as a last resort. Even though the behavioral component is low in the hierarchy, it should not be overlooked. Behavioral interventions are not the first intervention priority. Elimination of hazards, substitution of less hazardous materials, and engineering solutions are all higher priority interventions than behavioral efforts. However, these higher-level solutions are not always possible or fully effective (nor “fool-proof”). Once the appropriate engineering safety interventions have been implemented, behavioral initiatives are often the most effective supplemental interventions that are capable of significantly improving safety performance. As an example, think of engineering solutions for automobiles, combined with behavioral interventions targeting sober driving. The engineering solutions and behavioral solutions work in concert; it’s not either engineering or behavioral efforts; rather both kinds of interventions are taken to supplement and complement the other. • Behavioral safety allows management to abdicate responsibility for safety. Reality: Management’s behavior is without a doubt the most important behavior in behavioral safety. Unfortunately, there are some behavioral implementations that target specifically hourly employees’ behavior and don’t address the behavior of management and professional staff. This kind of implementation results in a number of negative consequences, including lack of effort and apathy on the part of management members; reduced morale and interest in safety on the part of hourly workers; and most likely, poor safety performance. Everyone’s behavior is important to safety performance; appropriate safety-related behaviors should be defined, measured and reinforced for managers and all levels of employees. • Behavioral safety is a magic bullet. Reality: There is no silver bullet or magic pill providing a “quick fix” for safety performance. Improving safety performance requires a thorough understanding of related areas of psychology, leadership, and culture. In addition to this knowledge, in order to achieve positive results with a behavioral safety approach, there must be a strong management commitment to safety; an effective implementation, ideally combined with local customization; innovation; and a willingness to allow the process to evolve over time. For additional review of behavioral safety misconceptions, see Blair’s Behavior-Based Safety: Myths, Magic & Reality (1999).

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BASIC DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY At-Risk Behavior Actions increasing the potential consequence of injury or illness. The term was coined by Deborah Pivaronas (Krause, 1997, p. 10) as a way of describing critical, safety-related behaviors without the associated negative connotation. The term is more neutral and less evaluative than unsafe behavior. Attitudes 1) Enduring reactions toward people, places, or objects based on beliefs and emotional feelings. Attitudes include thoughts, feelings, and predispositions, and are difficult to change. 2) A semi-permanent cluster of human emotions, feelings, and cognitions about a situation, thing, or idea. An attitude may or may not manifest itself in overt behavior, depending on factors such as intensity, opposing or conflicting forces, the value system applied to a particular situation, motivational forces, timing, and other influencing or controlling forces. An attitude may produce a predisposition toward behavior in certain ways, depending on its intensity, assuming the forces of all other behavior-influencing factors are equalized (Lack, 2001, p. 8). Behavior-Based Safety 1) The use of applied behavior analysis methods to achieve continuous improvement in safety performance (Krause, 1997, p. 3). 2) Applying safety process elements to positively effect the acts or actions that can be observed by others (Lack, 2001, p. 10). See additional definitions in chapter text. Culture: The things people do and say in an organization, and why they say or do those things. Organizational cultures develop over time and consists of traditions, beliefs, values, and the way things are done at the organization. The culture consists of the internal atmosphere or climate and commonly includes subcultures and countercultures. Intervention: An action taken in an effort to correct or improve a practice or process. In safety an intervention usually involves an attempt to eliminate or reduce a hazard or risk. Motivation: An inner drive, impulse, or need that creates a personal incentive toward behavior. It is an individual’s tendency toward action in a given situation.

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Process: A number of steps/actions taken in order to accomplish a goal (McSween, 1995, p. 45). Psychology: The study of human behavior. The New Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines psychology as “The science of mind and behavior,” and “The mental and behavioral characteristics of an individual or group” (p. 587). Values: Deep-seated beliefs that influence behavior. Core values are commitments individuals hold without compromise.

PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF BEHAVIORAL SAFETY Behavioral approaches are based on years of research in the field of Applied Behavior Analysis. Geller (2001) notes, “Behaviorism has effectively solved environmental, safety, and health problems in organizations and communities; first, define the problem in terms of relevant observable behavior, then design and implement an intervention process to decrease behaviors causing the problem and/or increase behaviors that can alleviate the problem. The behavior-based approach is reflected in research and scholarship” (Geller, p. 21). Applied behavior analysis methods are useful to achieve continuous improvement in safety. Krause explains, “These methods include identifying and operationally defining critical safety-related behaviors, observing to gather data on the frequency of those behaviors, providing feedback, and using the gathered data for continuous improvement” (Krause, 1997, p. 3). Research in behavioral safety was conducted in the United States during the 1970s and 1980s with documented (and often dramatic) reductions in injuries (Komaki, Barwick, & Scott, 1978). Despite these successful studies, behavioral safety did not catch on and become common in the United States until the 1990s when it became largely mainstream practice in many organizations. COMMON PROBLEMS WITH SAFETY EFFORTS McSween notes four common problems that seriously hinder safety efforts (McSween, 2003): 1. Severe Consequences for Reporting Injuries. There cannot be any pressure to hide injuries and incidents in successful safety efforts. It is important for organizations to learn from their

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incidents and prevent additional or more serious injuries. Reasons for underreporting include (1) the organization responding to reporting with punishment and (2) peer pressure when incentive programs are based on injury outcomes. 2. Safety Awards Not Related to Behavior. Safety award programs typically do not reinforce safe behavior on the job. As noted above, awards and incentives tend to influence the behavior of not reporting injuries. Many organizations base their awards on outcome measures (injury statistics) rather than process measures— people’s compliance with safety procedures on the job. 3. Dependence on Management or Staff for Planning and Decision-Making. Many companies expect managers to enforce safety rules and procedures. Consequently, employees tend to rely on managers to ensure safe behavior rather than looking out for each other. Employees are not adequately challenged to improve safety and many of them tend to look to someone else for primary responsibility of their safety. 4. Reliance on Punishment to Reduce Risky Behavior. Many safety programs are based primarily on punishment. Punishment is reactive, focusing on unsafe acts rather than emphasizing safe behavior. McSween notes there are numerous additional problems with punishment that are not readily apparent. For example: • Punishment is effective only in the presence of the punisher. • Punishment tends to teach the wrong lesson (i.e., don’t get caught). • Punishment damages relationships and curtails involvement. • Punishment is difficult to maintain. Generally, punishment must be consistent to be effective. Punishment works if it is given immediately and consistently when unsafe behavior occurs. Another problem with punishment is it does not encourage new behavior patterns. The overall and underlying effect of punishment can cause anxiety and resentment resulting in lowered morale in the workplace (McSween, 2003, pp. 11–18). The point about punishment is not that it is never appropriate, but it must be balanced. Punishment should be considered a last resort, not a first response. Safety professionals should understand that punishment should not be associated with any part of a Behavioral Safety process. Punishment or discipline should be separate from BBS, as a part of an organization’s HR policies. Unfortunately, overcoming these four common problems does not ensure effective safety efforts. Solving these problems is a step in the right direction and helps establish a solid foundation to build on.

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A PROCESS FOCUSING ON IMPROVING SAFETY BEHAVIOR Brief definitions of Behavior-Based Safety were provided under the Basic Definitions and Terminology section. More detailed definitions describe activities involved in the behavioral safety process: From Dan Petersen “Behavior-based safety is, in fact, one of the primary answers to future improvement, but only if and when it does the following: • Defines the behaviors needed at each level of the organization from bottom to top • Ensures that each person clearly understands the required behaviors • Measures whether the behaviors are, in fact, there • Rewards (reinforces) the behaviors on a regular basis Behavior-based safety systems that are real management systems do not turn safety over to any one level of the organization. It is great to get worker involvement—in fact, it is crucial. But to eliminate and isolate management from the process is dangerous to both sides. Management has the legal accountability for safety.” (Petersen, 2001, p. 38)

From Dominic Cooper Behavioral Safety is a process that creates a safety partnership between management and the workforce by continually focusing everyone’s attention and actions on their own, and others, safety behavior. (Cooper, 2009, p. 5) From Thomas Krause With so many different initiatives being referred to as ‘behavior-based safety’ it is important to discuss criteria for the definition of the activity . . . the most effective way to approach BBS is as an integrated, interdisciplinary activity, drawing not only from applied behavior analysis, but from quality management, organization development, and safety and risk management. The four key activities are 1) identify critical behaviors; 2) gather data on those behaviors; 3) provide ongoing, two-way feedback, and 4) remove barriers to safe behavior. Although this list may seem familiar, the fourth activity is the least understood and the most important for long-term success. Companies must understand the significance of using data gathered during observations to continuously improve the facility and the work process. (Krause, 2002, p. 27)

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One long-term goal of the behavioral safety process is to establish a strong and lasting safety culture. Erickson states, “It is the organization itself, through its culture, that determines the level of safety performance that will be achieved. There is overwhelming scientific evidence supporting this statement” (Erickson, 2001, p. 142). She continues by advising safety professionals that no matter how advanced their knowledge and skills are for building a strong safety program, they cannot, by themselves, effectively provide a safe and healthful working environment. Manuele confirms the notion that behaviors are determined by the culture. He states, “An organization’s culture consists of the values, beliefs, legends, rituals, mission, goals and performance measures, and the sense of responsibility to the employees, customers and community, all of which are translated into a system of expected behavior” (Manuele, 1997, p. 18). He further believes A company must have established—as part of its culture—that employees are expected to, and have responsibility to, report risky behavioral situations to management. Furthermore, management must have established through its actions, that such references will receive proper consideration. If this is not the case, the behavioral problem is principally one of culture, for which action at the first-line level of employment will have limited success. (Manuele, 1998, p. 33)

BEHAVIOR SAMPLING FOR PROACTIVE MEASURES It is unrealistic to think that every behavior or even a majority of behaviors can be observed. Organizations simply do not have the resources to observe all behaviors. The strategy then is to observe a sample of behaviors. The behaviors that are observed are the ones that have been identified as critical to safety performance. One of the main purposes of behavioral observation is regular sampling of the safety process (Krause, 1997, p. 195). Selectively sampling safety-related behaviors is a powerful tool. First, conduct of critical behaviors are predictors of future safety performance. In this respect, behavior sampling is a leading indicator, rather than a lagging indicator such as injury rates. Trends can be analyzed and an organization can know precisely what needs to be addressed to be proactive. Second, behavior sampling focuses primarily on the safety process, not outcomes. By specifically focusing on key process activities the outcomes can be improved.

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EMPLOYEE-DRIVEN PROCESSES AND PARTIAL EMPOWERMENT Another strategy used in most behavioral safety processes is the employeedriven or bottom-up approach. This does not infer that management should abdicate responsibility and fail to be actively and visibly committed and involved in the safety effort. Rather, employees (including management) drive the behavioral safety process with support and resources provided by management. This is contrary to many traditional approaches to safety that are driven from the top down, or from outside influences such as OSHA. Safety scholars believe in the employee-driven process strongly enough to write books about it: Tom Krause wrote Employee-Driven Systems for Safe Behavior, Dan Petersen wrote a book entitled Authentic Involvement, and Scott Geller wrote The Participation Factor: How to Increase Involvement in Occupational Safety. Krause presents the following formula in Employee-Driven Systems for Safe Behavior: “Employee Involvement + Scientific Method = Continuous Improvement.” Furthermore, he states the proper use of methods to manage safety hinges on two factors: 1. Scientific measurement and management of all levels of employee workplace behaviors. 2. The involvement of all employees in this ongoing feedback and problem-solving process. Petersen discusses the concept of limited empowerment versus total empowerment. Limited empowerment suggests we live within some ground rules. We all play with the same rules that make the game fair and safe. Most football rules are, in fact, safety rules, and most teams find them easy to follow. Limited empowerment means management establishes some ground rules for everyone to follow (Petersen, p. 63). Employees are empowered within this framework to participate in decision-making for improving safety performance. IMPLEMENTING BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES How to Implement Behavioral Safety—Common Steps Cooper recommends a nine-step implementation process (Cooper, 1999). The following is an abbreviated adaptation of the recommended steps, plus the important step of solving system problems and pursuing continuous improvement:

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1. Seek/gain workforce buy-in to the behavioral process prior to implementation. Conduct briefings and educational awareness sessions so everyone is informed and knows what behavioral safety entails as well as potential benefits. 2. Select a Project Team or Steering Team to implement and run the system. 3. Identify the critical safety behaviors that should be addressed. This may be accomplished similar to the way priorities are chosen for JHA: review the past three years injury records to determine behaviors and system factors contributing to injuries. 4. Develop specific behavioral checklists that cover the critical behaviors identified. 5. Train personnel from each workgroup how to conduct behavioral observations and how to provide feedback to others. 6. Establish a baseline of safe behavior by monitoring behavior for four to six weeks. Determine the average safe behavior levels during this baseline period. 7. Ask each workgroup to set a safety improvement target, using their baseline average as the starting point for comparison. 8. Monitor progress on a daily basis and provide detailed feedback to each workgroup on a weekly basis. 9. Review performance trends to identify barriers to improvement. (Cooper, 1999). 10. Concentrate on continuous improvement of the system and behavior at all levels by solving any problems in the management system that encourages risky behavior or create/allow hazards to exist. Organizations may be unsuccessful in implementing behavioral safety if they omit recommended steps. For example, if an organization fails to gain personnel buy-in (step #1), there will likely be a high level of resistance and possibly widespread efforts to defeat the process. If organizations omit step #10, they will not realize the full benefit that behavioral safety approaches can provide. Applying all steps increases the probability of a successful behavioral effort as well as sustainability of the process. How to Conduct a Safety Assessment Assessments are commonly conducted prior to the implementation of behavioral safety processes. Assessments may be conducted internally, or numerous safety consultants offer safety assessments. The purpose of safety assessments is to determine an organization’s current level of safety performance and provide recommendations for improvement.

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McSween (2003, pp. 40–49) notes that making an assessment is somewhat analogous to completing a puzzle and recommends the following steps to conducting an assessment: Step 1. Review the organization’s safety data including injury statistics and actual accident reports. Determine if the organization is above or below industry average. Identify groups of workers with the highest and lowest incidence rates. Step 2. Conduct interviews with people from a diagonal slice of the organization. The interviewer should get very precise answers to questions such as: How often area safety meetings are held? Does leadership regularly talk to employees about safety? Is safety data graphed and reviewed? McSween notes, “Constructing a well-designed survey requires experience or training in survey construction.” Step 3. Observe safety meetings, safety audits, and safety practices in work areas. The observer should ask himself or herself if meetings are well run. Do employees participate in meetings, and observe for safe and unsafe work practices? Step 4. Analyze information, and develop an improvement plan. McSween recommends ideal areas for pilot testing recommendations are those areas representative of the organization and have high incidence rates and management personnel willing to support the behavioral process. Step 5. Make a final report and presentation. This is essentially a sales presentation; as one of the main purposes of assessment is to create management support. Stress the realistic benefits of systematic implementation prior to discussing the details of recommendations. For additional details about this five-step assessment process (such as recommended survey questions and an outline for the assessment report), refer to McSween’s book The Values-Based Safety Process: Improving Your Safety Culture with a Behavioral Approach (2003). Developing an Inventory of Critical Safety-Related Behaviors Behavioral safety involves measuring safety-related behaviors. Krause notes the behavioral inventory is how we measure behavioral safety performance. Benefits of using a Critical Safety Behavior inventory for continuous safety improvement include: • Problem-solving driven by data accumulated is accurate instead of superstitious.

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• Performance feedback based on these data is true, rather than false feedback that impairs people’s judgment about the causes of accidents. • Safety training and incident analysis based on the behavioral inventory are useful for new employees and veterans alike (adapted from Krause, 1995, pp. 112–113). What Are Critical Behaviors and Why Develop an Inventory of Critical Behaviors? Critical behaviors are those actions that contribute to good safety performance or conversely that lead to injuries. Krause observes, In most accidents at-risk behavior is the final common pathway. Each facility, characterized by particular production processes, products, and workforce, has a characteristic cluster of these final common pathways that are responsible for a highly significant percentage of its safety incidents. (Krause, 1995, p. 113)

The challenge is to (1) identify the specific safety-related behaviors for a particular site; (2) establish an inventory of operational definitions for these behaviors; and (3) prepare a checklist based on these critical behaviors for observers to use. Developing this critical behavior inventory serves the following purposes: • Directs the Steering Team where to focus its efforts for maximum impact. • Provides detailed descriptions, through operational definitions, of the safe way to perform critical behaviors. • Establishes the criteria for behavioral observations and checklists. • Provides an upstream measurement for safety performance. How Can We Identify Critical Behaviors? Krause (1997, p. 180) suggests four ways to identify critical behaviors of a site:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Behavioral analysis of incidence reports Interviewing of workers Observation of workers while they work Reviewing work rules, job safety analyses (JSAs), and procedure manuals

These four approaches are rather self-explanatory, but the reader interested in learning more detail is referred to The Behavior-Based Safety Process: Managing Involvement for an Injury-Free Culture (Krause, 1997). Ultimately

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each site should develop its own inventory of critical behaviors, and the list is usually not that long—perhaps 15 to 25 behaviors that are genuinely crucial to safety performance. Earnest advises the list be kept to five or ten critical behaviors (Earnest, 1994, p. 3). It is worth noting again that developing job-specific behaviors is very similar to performing JSA or job hazard analysis (JHA). JHAs and JSAs, however, are not normally written as operational definitions of behavior. It is suggested that organizations upgrade their JSAs to include behavioral standards (Krause, 1997, p. 185). Steps of the Observation Process There is no one best way to perform observations—techniques and methods depend on the organization and the existing safety culture. It is recommended each site tailor the observation process to its particular needs. If a site benchmarks to another site, the suggested strategy is to use the benchmark sites’ approach as a guide but develop specific procedures to accommodate the process locally. The following steps are provided as a broad guide for observations: 1. Select specific behaviors to observe as derived from the Critical Behavior Inventory. The strategy for this step is to pinpoint safe practices (McSween, 1995, p. 106). These behaviors should be very clear and specific, so that everyone trained in the observation process can agree on the safe way to perform a task. If the organization has developed a critical behavior inventory and established operational definitions for safe behaviors as part of the inventory, then critical safe practices have already been identified. 2. Develop behavioral checklists for particular jobs and departments. When checklists are developed, they are not cast in stone. First, draft checklists, and then revise and improve them as necessary to aid the observation process. In general, checklists should be developed for each area. Keep the list of checklists as small as practical. A good practice is to keep the checklists short and manageable. Ensure checklists focus on the critical behaviors. Don’t forget to include management and leadership levels in the mix for critical behavior checklists. 3. Develop specific procedures for the observation process. Determine who will observe and who will be observed, when observations will take place and how long observations should take and other details of the process. In general, it is recommended that behavioral observations be conducted at least once per shift (Earnest, 1994, p. 4). Various organizations follow different schedules, depending on the size of the

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workforce and the level of risks existing at the site. A problem with infrequent sampling is that it is not as effective. Depending on their circumstances, organizations may conduct weekly, daily, or various other schedules of observations. 4. Determine procedures for data processing and feedback. Who will collect the data? Who will analyze the data? How will the data be shared with workgroups and the site as a whole? How often will the data be shared? What will be the criteria for the data to be tracked and shared? The answers to these questions should be customized for the particular location based on elements such as the level of exposure to hazards and the existing safety culture. Steps for Continuous Improvement Establish a system to continuously improve the observation process. Items to consider for inclusion in this system: • Trial runs and fine-tuning the observation checklist and process (McSween, 1995, p. 134). • Conducting a management review of the process to encourage management input. • Analyzing data to identify areas for follow-up. Examples include trend analysis and Pareto charts to determine priorities. • Following up on targeted items. This is an opportunity for problem-solving so that the same problems do not occur over and over. Organizations may use continuous improvement tools, such as Geller’s DO IT process. This tool presents behavioral safety as a continuous four-step process as follows: D: Define the critical target behavior(s) to increase or decrease. O: Observe the target behaviors during a pre-intervention baseline period to set behavior-change goals. I: Intervene to change target behavior(s) in the desired directions. T: Test the impact of the intervention by continuing to observe and record the target behavior(s) during the intervention program (Geller, 2001, p. 131). In addition, or in place of DO IT, organizations are encouraged to use their existing continuous improvement systems, such as Deming’s Plan, Do, Study, Act—PDSA to improve their behavioral safety process (Deming, 1986). This helps to integrate the behavioral safety process into the

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management system and culture. Two important, related points to keep in mind: • Behavioral safety is about integrating behavioral management into the management of safety in your company. • Behavioral safety is a process to improve behaviors at all levels, not just a sequence of activities, meetings, and observations (Pounds, p.7). SAFETY COACHING Geller defines coaching as “essentially a process of one-on-one observation and feedback” (Geller, 2001, p. 239). One-on-one coaching is a high-level intervention and involves imparting both direction and motivation. Recent evolution of behavioral safety coaching commonly involves peer-to-peer coaching, although supervisor-to-worker coaching is not uncommon. Sports teams need good coaches to perform their best. Similarly, workgroups and organizations need good coaches to meet the objective of improving behavior and reducing injuries. In sports, athletic coaches normally have a higher status than their players. In the workplace, safety coaches are more similar to Player-Coaches: they are at the same level as their coworkers whom they observe and provide feedback to. An employee does not become an expert or superior just because he or she functions as a safety coach. It is normally a peer-to-peer process. The long-term effectiveness of behavioral observations is contingent on appropriate feedback or coaching following an observation. Feedback is a powerful consequence to influence future behaviors. Steps in the Coaching Process Shawn Galloway and Terry Mathis provide a proven model of safety coaching in their book Forecasting Tomorrow: The Future of Safety Excellence. They note the “purpose of a coach is to help others work toward their strengths and be the best they can be. A coach is not a problem performance manager; this more often falls into the category of counseling” (Galloway & Mathis, 2015, p. 52). Here is an overview of the three-part coaching model they claim has been extremely effective: 1. Focus—What specifically do you want the individual to do? 2. Feedback—Effective forms of feedback involve positive reinforcement to encourage the continuation of desired behaviors and the expression of concern to help break risk-taking behaviors.

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3. Facilitate—Make it easy for employees to successfully accomplish the tasks in the safest manner possible. This may require the removal of roadblocks to ensure the desirable behavior is possible (Galloway & Mathis, 2015, pp. 53–54). Sarkus reveals Seven Cs for coaching in his book The Safety Coach. The book is divided into three sections illustrating (1) the power of reinforcement, (2) the power of relationships, and (3) the power of information. The Power of Reinforcement. Positive feedback tends to reinforce safe behavior. This feedback should be confirming, or socially rewarding between coaches and coworkers. Sarkus notes that confirming feedback should be immediate, frequent, and favorable to be most effective (Sarkus, 2001, p. 32). Sarkus recommends consistently confirming in favor of correcting to help coworkers become more committed to safety and less fixated on mere compliance. Correcting feedback may be needed when employees are working at risk. Sarkus suggests starting by asking questions to determine if there are obstacles to working safely. Correcting feedback must be delivered in a constructive manner, or it may be perceived as punishment. The safety coach should skillfully open the door for safer performance by asking questions, encouraging two-way conversation, and redirecting behavior as appropriate. There are usually many more opportunities for confirming feedback than for correcting feedback. In either case the feedback should be very specific. Vague feedback, such as “Good job” or “Be more careful” has no place in safety coaching. The Power of Relationships. Good coaches build positive relationships. Sarkus discusses four Cs to help safety coaches develop their relationships: Caring: Caring leaders develop a sense of community where people support each other. Caring is a foundation that provides meaning to the actions safety coaches take to prevent injuries. • Collaborating: Collaborating means involving workers in meaningful ways to improve safety. Survival in today’s competitive society, much less great safety performance, requires collaborating employees. • Coaching: Coaching is about modeling the way and setting a great example. Great coaches set high standards and have a strong desire to bring out the best in others. • Conciliating: To conciliate means to resolve disputes or conflicts so that relationships can be repaired. Some tips Sarkus gives for conciliating include focusing on the issue, listening up, and sticking to the facts (Sarkus, p. 90). The Power of Information. The final “C” Sarkus discusses is clarifying. Safety coaches and leaders influence behavior by clarifying safety values.

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Values in particular, and feedback in general, may be imparted through oneto-one communication or in group settings. HOW TO PROVIDE MEANINGFUL FEEDBACK Safety coaches observe and then give feedback. Feedback must be meaningful and meet certain criteria to be effective. The following are characteristics of meaningful feedback, whether the feedback is confirming or constructive, or a combination of the two: • Feedback should be specific. Vague feedback is essentially useless, and potentially counterproductive or harmful. • Feedback should be immediate or soon. In general, the sooner feedback is provided, the more effective it is. Sports coaches have a good opportunity to help players improve by providing immediate feedback during practice and games. • Individual feedback should be given privately. There may be occasional exceptions to this, but the intent or outcome of feedback should not embarrass others. • Coaches should listen actively. Allow your coworker to finish what he/she says without interrupting. Maintain eye contact and ask open-ended questions to clarify the meaning of statements. As Covey advises, “Seek first to understand, then to be understood” (Covey, 1989). THE ROLE OF INCENTIVES IN BEHAVIORAL SAFETY An element of controversy surrounds the topic of rewards for safety, especially regarding incentive programs. Psychologists who have become involved in the area of safety vary greatly in their opinions about the effectiveness of safety incentive programs and safety rewards in general. Alfie Kohn wrote Punished by Rewards: The Trouble with Gold Stars, Incentive Plans, A’s, Praise, and Other Bribes and insists that motivation and incentives come from intrinsic sources, and that external rewards defeat the purpose of motivation. The book review states: The basic strategy we use for raising children, teaching students, and managing workers can be summarized in six words: Do this and you’ll get that. We dangle goodies (from candy bars to sales commissions) in front of people in much the same way we train the family pet. Drawing on a wealth of psychological research, Alfie Kohn points the way to a more successful strategy based on working with people instead of doing things to them. “Do rewards motivate people?” asks Kohn. “Yes. They motivate people to get rewards.”

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Whether safety professionals agree with Mr. Kohn or not, other psychologists who concern themselves with safety appear to extend from one end of the spectrum to the other, when it comes to the issue of safety rewards. Aubrey Daniels claims it doesn’t matter what some psychologists or people claim about incentives, these are only opinions. He states the empirical research and common experience in industry demonstrates that incentives do work—but the caveat is in how they are designed and implemented. The astute safety professional could read the works of various prominent psychologists who have delved into the safety field, and discover they range from believing that no incentives should ever be offered under any circumstances to espousing that rewards and incentives are highly desirable—the more the merrier. Other psychologists are more in the middle of the spectrum, and similar to the platitude expressed by Aubrey Daniels, believe that incentives can be effective, but an organization must carefully consider the ramifications and potential side effects of implementing safety incentives prior to embarking on that journey.

WHAT ARE INCENTIVES? In general, an incentive involves some kind of award or reward, often including a variety of tangible items. Incentives are typically designed to encourage or influence people to do something they would otherwise be unlikely to do without the award. There is an aspect of incentives that can be unsavory. There are a number of derisive terms for incentives including “Bribery, Gimmicks, and Dangling a Carrot.” At the core of incentives is an “If/Then” understanding. If employees will take certain behaviors or have a specific accomplishment, then they will be rewarded for the improvement or achievement. So perhaps the main purpose of incentives is to incite employees to do better (such as improve the quality of) a job they already do. WHAT ARE SOME BASIC WAYS TO INCENTIVIZE BEHAVIOR? There is a difference between a reward and an incentive. Rewards may be given for performance and achievements, even if the recipients had no idea they would be rewarded. Incentives, as noted, include the element of If/Then: If an employee performs a specific behavior or makes a

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certain achievement, then the employee will be rewarded. So the incentive pre-dates or is a precursor to the reward, and may influence individual behavior. Some of the basic methods to incentivize behavior include: • Rewards—A reward is a tangible item of value that is intended to influence behavior in a particular direction. • Recognition—Recognition is a symbolic way of showing appreciation for some accomplishment and includes items such as plaques, trophies, or letters of commendation. Recognition may be provided in a group setting or given privately. • Feedback—Feedback is information about behavior that allows the performer to change specific behavior. WHAT INCENTIVES ARE NOT Most safety professionals, no doubt, recognize the limitations with safety incentives, but organizations sometimes seem to rely on incentives in the wrong way, regardless. Here are some explicit precautions about safety incentives that are likely widely recognized. 1. Safety incentives are not a replacement for a proactive safety process. There may be a place for safety incentives under certain circumstances; however, they should never be a replacement for a solid safety management system. At most, they should be used in an effort to enhance the safety management system, kind of like icing on the cake. But to repeat, incentives are not the safety program. 2. Safety incentives are not a panacea to cure all problems in the safety effort. Incentives are not substantive solutions compared to actual efforts that organizations may take to reduce hazards and exposures. The substantial solutions include those categories espoused in the Safety Hierarchy of Controls such as engineering controls, substitution of less hazardous materials, guarding, administrative controls, etc. Perhaps incentives fit in the category of a low-level administrative control—or an administrative motivation tool. 3. Safety incentives are not a quick fix for safety culture. It is possible that incentives could influence certain actions and habits that impact safety culture, but often the impact of safety incentives is short-lived and become extinct once the incentive program is no longer in place.

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WHY DO ORGANIZATIONS IMPLEMENT SAFETY INCENTIVE PROGRAMS? There are three basic reasons organizations implement Safety Incentive Programs, according to research conducted by Goodrum and Gangwar in the construction industry, and published in the Professional Safety Journal in 2004. They sampled 165 companies in 14 states for their study. The top three reasons organizations implement safety incentive programs from their research: 1. To change workers’ (safety-related) behavior 2. To improve workers’ awareness of safety 3. To reduce recordable injuries One of Goodrum’s and Gangwar’s main conclusions is that a safety incentive program should not exist by itself. Rather, it should be part of an overall, comprehensive SH&E program involving workforce training and integration of safety into the work process. Incentive Programs are a Form of Safety Intervention: an Effort to Influence Positive Changes Incentive programs are a form of safety intervention. As such, their function is to supplement a solid safety process rather than replace it. As an intervention, incentives may be or may not be effective, depending on their design and implementation. One definition of the word intervene from Merriam-Webster Dictionary is: To become involved in something in order to have an influence on what happens. There are countless ways to intervene in safety. Organizations constantly intervene in safety, since an intervention is an attempt to step in and change the behaviors or circumstances to improve results. There are issues with safety incentive programs that safety professionals need to be aware of before deciding whether to develop or implement one. COMMON CONCERNS WITH INCENTIVE PROGRAMS Perhaps the single biggest concern with incentive programs is incentivizing the wrong behaviors. As Alfie Kohn asked, “Do rewards motivate people? Yes. They motivate people to get the rewards.” When the motivation for employees is based on an external reward, then employees may not necessarily follow the intended behaviors that were the reason for the incentive program in the first place. The primary example of incentivizing the wrong behavior in safety is when incentives are based on injury rates, especially

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when a reward will be given based on no injuries. Then it is common for false feedback to occur or for employees to fail to report minor workplace injuries, so they will still be eligible for the prize. Some common problems with safety awards, especially when they are incentive based include: • The rewards are not related to safe behavior. • The reward is so large it overshadows the efforts to improve the safety process. • The rewards are perceived by employees as an ongoing entitlement. • A bunch of injuries are reported right after the incentive program ends.

OSHA CLASSIFICATION OF INCENTIVE PROGRAMS Safety professionals in some organizations mistakenly believe OSHA does not allow incentive programs. This is not true. There is an important distinction between the kinds of incentive programs OSHA frowns upon and the ones that are acceptable. The basic distinction is whether the incentive is based on injuries (or the lack of injuries) or based on behaviors. OSHA recognizes certain incentive programs are likely to encourage underreporting of workplace injuries. Types of programs include: 1. Traditional Programs: These are programs with a results focus, based on lagging measures such as injuries and illnesses. They are often based on no injuries occurring. 2. Nontraditional Programs: The focus in these programs is on active participation; leading indicators, such as behavior-based programs. An OSHA letter of interpretation states: “OSHA does not approve or disapprove designs or effectiveness of Safety Incentive Programs; however, OSHA does not look favorably on safety incentive programs that encourage underreporting of workplace injuries.” What Are the Most Powerful Incentives to Encourage Employees to Work Safely? Based on research and experience, the two most powerful incentives that tend to lead to improved behaviors and performance over time are Feedback and Recognition. There are substantial benefits to incentivizing behavior with feedback and recognition: 1. Feedback and recognition are not expensive. 2. Feedback and recognition do not tend to become entitlements.

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3. Feedback and recognition clarify safety expectations and responsibilities for employees. 4. Feedback and recognition may have a positive impact on workplace morale. 5. Feedback and recognition can improve relationships in the workplace. A few things to consider in planning for effective feedback and recognition: • Feedback is most effective when it is immediate or soon after the behavior or achievement, versus feedback that occurs days, weeks, or months later. • Feedback is more effective when it is given regularly, such as, on a daily basis versus weekly or monthly or less often. • Although there are exceptions, feedback should generally be given privately. Feedback and recognition for improving safety performance can be administered by peers in the workforce Positive reinforcement for safety performance does not need to come solely from management and supervision. Many organizations do not take advantage of the opportunities for peer-related reinforcement. According to research conducted by Aubrey Daniels, peers are the most effective source of reinforcement at work, yet a paradox is that peers are generally the most under-utilized source of reinforcement at work. Organizations may want to consider the use of peer reinforcement for safety performance. Peer-related reinforcement can be highly effective and tends to: • Lead to more frequent improvements • Make improvements occur much faster (versus management reinforcement) • Improvements appear to last much longer when made through peer reinforcement GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING SAFETY INCENTIVE PROGRAMS 1. Incentive programs should focus on prescriptive behaviors and the safety process. This is contrasted to many traditional safety incentive programs that focus on the proscriptive, which is about what people should not do. Safety isn’t simply about a lack of injuries, it’s about what an organization does to ensure that no one gets injured. 2. In general, many small rewards are better than one large reward. One reason many small rewards are better than one large reward is because

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everyone has a chance to be a winner compared to a lotto-style drawing with one winner for a large reward. Also, when many small rewards are available and the rewards are based on behaviors, the focus is more likely on actually improving the safety process rather than on obtaining the large reward. 3. Tangible rewards with a message are better than cash rewards. Tangible rewards with a message help people relive and remember what they’ve done for safety and to take pride in their safety efforts. 4. Safety incentive programs should be based on activities that are measured and reduce risk in the workplace. 5. The focus of the specific behavior expected for the award should be periodically changed. 6. Incentive programs should be linked to a leading metric the organization already measures. This is a good way to integrate incentive programs with ongoing efforts that have already been identified as priorities. COMMON PERFORMANCE METRICS FOR BEHAVIORAL SAFETY

Most organizations measure safety performance based on injuries and injury rates. Measuring behaviors adds another dimension: upstream or leading metrics to the existing trailing metrics of injuries. Probably the most common behavioral measure is percent safe, a measurement of the critical behavior inventory calculating the percentage of safe behaviors from the total behaviors observed (or sampled). Although the percent safe measure is unlikely to be absolutely accurate, it’s usually close enough to give a good idea of actual behaviors. Safe behavior results should be tracked, graphed, and posted regularly for everyone to see. There are at least two benefits expected from posting safe behavior percentages: 1. Posting provides everyone with knowledge of results. No one knows what the percent safe behavior is in various areas without behavioral sampling, tracking, and posting. This awareness of risky behavior and trends is a beginning step toward improvement. 2. Tracking and posting safe behavior scores can be motivational. If tracked on a regular basis, everyone can see if performance is improving, maintaining, or declining. People recognize they have an opportunity to contribute to the safety process. It should be noted that percent safe should not be overly emphasized as there can be a temptation to falsify the numbers.

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Other behavioral measures include, but are not limited to: • Recording the number of behavioral observations performed over a period of time. Organizations may choose to establish goals for the number of behavioral observations to conduct per week or per month. Too much emphasis should not be placed on the number of observations conducted, as the quality may suffer in order to produce a large quantity of observations. • Another positive measure is the percent of employees participating in the behavioral process over a period of time. Each site can establish its own criteria for participation. • Other behavior/activity measures include participation in safety meetings, submission of safety suggestions that are implemented, number of near-hit reports over a period of time, number of JSAs performed or updated, and number of safety corrections made from Work Orders or similar avenues. As noted earlier, these measures add a proactive dimension to traditional safety measures, which tend to be based on injuries, failures, and mistakes. These behavioral measures are all positive and measure what an organization and individuals achieve and accomplish, rather than failures. POTENTIAL BARRIERS TO SUCCESSFUL IMPLEMENTATION OF BEHAVIORAL SAFETY Although the concepts and principles of behavioral safety are simple and straightforward, implementation issues can be difficult to handle and complex to understand. It only takes one persistent problem to undermine a behavioral safety effort. The following list gives common examples of barriers that may be encountered: • Failure to adequately plan and train prior to implementation. Employees must know what to observe and how to effectively intervene (Petersen, 2001, p. 53). • Lack of planned, ongoing feedback to measure the effectiveness of the behavioral approach. • Treating behavioral safety as a separate program rather than integrating it into existing management systems. • Overemphasis on results (injury measurements). In numbers-oriented companies, when the results are not achieved the tendency is to find someone to blame (McSween, 2003, p. 22). • The void in the worker-focused model of behavioral safety when evidence of root-causal analysis of behavior is missing. This means it is a mistake

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to look at the behavior only without looking at the cause for the behavior. Manuele stresses that “analysis be performed to identify root-causal factors of at-risk behavior. It should also be made clear that, for systemic causal factors, engineering and work method revisions must be the first considerations” (Manuele, 1998, p. 37). • Overemphasis on process (clarifying requirements, standardizing procedures, and establishing measures for key steps). Many of the problems in organizations are not in a particular process but in relationships between employees and managers. In many cases the cause of problems is managerial practices that destroy interpersonal relationships, creating distrust and discouraging employees from bringing safety matters to the attention of management. Most current, problem-solving tools are useful for addressing process issues, but are often inadequate for addressing behavioral issues (McSween, 2003, p. 23). • Lack of workforce buy-in. This may come about because the management team, without consultation, has imposed the system on the workforce (Cooper, 1999). • Observation checklists that fail to target behaviors leading to injuries and that do not define critical behaviors with sufficient precision. • Lack of participation by the workforce in developing behavioral checklists and the unacceptable, targeted behavior. • Observation checklists focusing on unsafe conditions instead of risky behaviors. Behavioral safety should not be used as an audit of unsafe conditions, although sometimes behaviors lead to unsafe conditions. • The percentage safe scores that do not reflect reality in the workplace, because people try to convey an optimistic picture of safety in their area. • People being punished for failure to behave safely as indicated on the behavioral checklist. Punishment will undo everything the behavioral safety system tries to accomplish. • Problems in safety improvement target setting meetings. Common problems include insufficient preparation, insufficient time, inconvenient times (everyone cannot attend), and one or two individuals hijacking the sessions to air their grievances concerning what management has traditionally done or not done about safety. • Observations taking place at the same time every day. Observation sampling should be performed at random times throughout the week so they are unpredictable. • Lack of a standardized procedure for people to hand in their completed observation checklists resulting in the data for feedback becoming lost or mislaid. • A lack of a computerized means to calculate and analyze the observation scores. It is cumbersome to process the data by hand and the quality of feedback suffers.

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• Failure to conduct regular weekly feedback sessions. People are busy and stretched for time. The resulting perception is management does not value the behavioral safety process, creating lack of buy-in. • Lack of ongoing management support. Managers do not see themselves as part of the problem and conclude they do not have anything to offer. The last 12 bullets above are adapted from an article by Sulzer-Azeroff and Lischeid (1999, pp. 31–36). An overall barrier that permeates many organizations is the quality of relationships. The problem that impedes progress in safety performance is not always due to the use of poor techniques or methods but may be caused by problematic relationships in the workplace. This is a potentially comprehensive and complex situation requiring absolution before the organization can move forward. Behavioral safety efforts must anticipate and overcome the barriers to succeed. The next section gives advice on specific success factors. SUCCESS FACTORS FOR BEHAVIORAL SAFETY For a successful behavioral safety effort, numerous factors must work together in harmony. Ultimately, the key to safety success lies with management. The following are essential features of the behavioral safety process: MANAGEMENT COMMITMENT AND VISIBLE SUPPORT OF BEHAVIORAL SAFETY Management must be visibly committed to the process. Examples of support include allowing people time to conduct observations, encouraging everyone to behave safely, setting a safe example personally, facilitating target setting and feedback sessions, providing needed resources for the effort, and being willing and able to handle any barriers that arise. Krause notes, “The ability of leadership to demonstrate its willingness to address issues is probably the single most important (success) factor” (Krause, 1998, p. 41). • Leadership must address the safety issues (hazards) existing in the environment and risks that occur in working situations. Leadership must deal with management system inadequacies. • Leadership must desire to develop the safety culture. This is a leadership issue; leadership is responsible for establishing the safety culture. Pounds explains how this is ultimately a leadership issue: “A culture is, at its core, the sum total of those behaviors that leadership rewards and punishes . . .

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consequently, the behaviors and results that a front-line supervisor rewards or punishes (values) reflect the behaviors, results and values demonstrated by the top of the organizational hierarchy. For the behaviors, changing a culture, therefore, means systematically determining the behaviors that are wanted by an organization, then systematically rewarding those behaviors when they occur” (Pounds, 1997).

EMPLOYEE KNOWLEDGE, CLARITY OF ROLES, AND ENGAGEMENT IN THE PROCESS There must be a significant level of workforce participation in and understanding of the behavioral safety process. Workers must be partially empowered in meaningful ways. They must clearly understand specifics of the behavioral process, such as how observation data will be used, what their own role in the process is, and how strongly management is committed to the process. Workers must possess a strong technical knowledge of how behavioral safety works. “Profound knowledge drives success, not buzzwords” (Hansen, 2001, p. 114). • Training and communication must be adequate for all levels to possess the necessary skills to identify critical behaviors, conduct observations, provide feedback, and perform problem-solving activities. • Safety champions must be carefully selected and groomed. Individuals with leadership skills, even if not in positions of authority, should be considered for roles as safety champions. These individuals are enthusiastic about safety, well respected by their peers, considered team players, and carry considerable influence by their words and actions. Safety champions are needed at every level of an organization. • All levels of personnel must be involved in the process. THE QUALITY OF THE IMPLEMENTATION TEAM Selection, training, and guidance of the Implementation Team are predictors of success (Krause, 1998, p. 41). DATA COLLECTION, ANALYSIS, AND UTILIZATION Data must be collected and used for decision-making and for continuous improvement. The collection, analysis, and publication of data are integral

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components of the process. All employees need to be aware of the progress or lack of progress in safe behaviors. Failure to analyze and utilize the collected data are major shortcomings in many behavioral safety efforts. THOROUGH PLANNING OF THE BEHAVIORAL SAFETY PROCESS IN ADVANCE The process must be well planned in advance. It is better to make sound decisions at the outset rather than to be blind-sided by unexpected crises once the process has begun. Behavioral safety initiatives are major undertakings requiring thorough planning and understanding prior to beginning. • The basic premise and key objective of a behavioral safety initiative must be clearly established. “It’s about process improvement . . . not finding and fixing careless employees” (Hansen, 2001, p. 114). • The superior approach is to focus on positive achievements rather than lack of failures. Emphasis should be placed on safe rather than unsafe and achievements should be celebrated. Failures should be viewed as temporary obstacles or challenges that will be overcome during the long-term process of continuous improvement. CUSTOMIZATION The behavioral process must be designed to meet the specific needs and peculiar circumstances of the organization. “One size does not fit all” (Hansen, 2001). SAFETY CULTURE AND READINESS FOR A BEHAVIORAL SAFETY PROCESS For a Behavioral Safety approach to succeed, there needs to be some safety culture in place at an organization. There are two points safety professionals should understand about the relationship between behavioral safety and safety culture: 1. A behavioral safety approach is unlikely to succeed without a safety culture in place. Behavioral safety and safety culture are two different things, but properly understood they are complimentary, not antagonistic (See DeJoy, 2005). 2. One of the primary purposes of behavioral safety, in addition to improving safety performance, is to develop the safety culture. Although safety

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culture is primarily influenced by leadership, as noted earlier, leadership behaviors are the most important. There are other influences on safety culture beside leadership, although without a doubt, management leadership is the main influence. A high level of trust is ordinarily a prerequisite to successful implementation. LONG-TERM SUCCESS AND CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT There must be an emphasis on long-term continuous improvement of behaviors and performance rather than short-term gains. There must be systematic procedures for structured problem-solving and resolution/follow-up for process improvement. • Patience and persistence are required. Organizations must allow time for trust to evolve and allow the process to work. “Behavior change in an organization is a long-term process that needs continuing investment over time” (Hansen, 2001, p. 115). RECOGNITION AND FEEDBACK Recognition for safe behavior and safety-related accomplishments should be integrated into the daily work culture. Safe behaviors may cease if individuals are not recognized and encouraged to continue working safely. Peer recognition and feedback are powerful tools to improve safety performance. CONCLUSION The approach to BBS recommended by this chapter author is Lean BehaviorBased Safety as advocated by Shawn Galloway and Terry Mathis. Here are some concluding tips from their book Lean Behavior-Based Safety: BBS for Today’s Realities: • It is important to integrate BBS into your distinctive culture: “Do not attempt to make your organization fit a methodology; Make the methodology fit your organization.” (p. 2) • According to the authors experience, Lean BBS is less expensive, faster, and more efficient than traditional approaches to Behavior-Based Safety.

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• The most common cause of failure in BBS processes are inflexible approaches. (p. 3) • Injury-prevention behaviors (often mandatory) versus safety culture behaviors (typically voluntary and discretionary) The book continues to describe basic goals and benefits of BBS as well as Common pitfalls and 7 Deadly Sins of BBS (chapter 2). The lean approach is recommended as being both effective and more efficient than traditional approaches to BBS.

QUESTIONS 1. Why are leadership behaviors the most important in Behavioral Safety? What are some examples of leadership behaviors that impact safety performance? 2. Describe some ways to meaningfully engage employees in workplace safety. 3. What are the criteria for effective safety coaching? 4. Discuss the use of specific behavioral metrics in safety. Why should behavioral measures be considered in addition to traditional lagging measures? 5. Whatbarriers do you think are the greatest impediment to behavioral safety success? How would you propose to overcome these barriers? 6. List and explain five critical success factors for behavioral safety.

REFERENCES Blair, E. (1999). Behavior-based safety: Myths, magic & reality. Professional Safety, 44(8), 28–32. Blair, E. (2013). Building safety culture: Three practical strategies. Professional Safety Journal, 58(11), 59–65. Blair, E. (2014). Safety interventions: Strategies for effective design. Professional Safety Journal, 59(11), 50–55. Cooper, D. (1998). Improving Safety Culture: A Practical Guide. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. Cooper, D. (2009). Behavioral Safety: A Framework for Success. BSMS. Covey, S. R. (1989). The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People. New York: Simon & Schuster. Daniels, A. C. (2000). Bringing Out the Best in People: How to Apply the Astonishing Power of Positive Reinforcement (pp. 54, 60–62). McGraw-Hill.

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Deming, W. E. (1986). Out of the Crisis. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Center for Advanced Engineering Study. DeJoy, D. M. (2005). Behavior change versus culture change: Divergent approaches to managing workplace safety. Safety Science, 43, 105–129. Earnest, R. E. (1994). What counts in safety? Insights into Management. National Safety Management Society, pp. 2–6. Galloway, S. M., & Mathis, T. L. (2015). Forecasting Tomorrow: The Future of Safety Excellence. SCE Press. Galloway, S. M., & Mathis, T. L. (2017). Lean Behavior-based Safety for Today’s Realities. SCE Press. Goodrum, P. M., & Gangwar, M. (2004, July). Safety incentives: A study of their effectiveness in construction. Professional Safety. 24–34. Geller, E. S. (2001). The Psychology of Safety Handbook. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers. Hansen, L. H. (2001). Behavioral safety – Does it work? “Yes and K(No)w”… the difference. In Behavioral Safety Symposium: The Next Step. Des Plaines, IL: American Society of Safety Engineers. Hopkins, A. (2006). What are we to make of safe behavior programs? Safety Science, 44, 583–597. Kohn, A. (1999). Punished by Rewards: The Trouble with Gold Stars, Incentive Plans, A’s, Praise, and Other Bribes. Mariner Books. Komaki, J., Barwick, K. D., & Scott, L. R. (1978). A behavioral approach to occupational safety: Pinpointing and reinforcing safe performance in a food manufacturing plant. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63(4): 434–445. Krause, T. R. (1995). Employee-Driven Systems for Safe Behavior: Integrating Behavioral and Statistical Methodologies. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Krause, T. R. (1997). The Behavior-Based Safety Process: Managing Involvement for an Injury-free Culture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Krause, T. R. (1998). The challenge of behavior-based safety. In Proceedings of Light Up Safety in the New Millennium: A Behavioral Safety Symposium (pp. 26–42). Des Plaines, IL: American Society of Safety Engineers. Krause, T. R. (2002). Cross-functional improvement: Behavior-based safety as a tool for organizational success. Professional Safety, 47(8), 27–33. Lack, R. W. (Ed.). (2001). The Dictionary of Terms used in the Safety Profession. American Society of Safety Engineers. Manuele, F. A. (1997). On the Practice of Safety (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Manuele, F. A. (1998). Perspectives on behavioral safety: Observations of ASSE’s behavioral safety symposium. Professional Safety, 43(8), 32–37. McSween, T. E. (1998). Culture: A behavioral perspective. In Proceedings of Light Up Safety in the New Millennium: A Behavioral Safety Symposium (pp. 43–49). Des Plaines, IL: American Society of Safety Engineers. McSween, T. E. (2003). The Values-Based Safety Process; Improving Your Safety Culture with Behavior-Based Safety (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Petersen, D. (2001). Authentic Involvement. National Safety Council: NSC Press.

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Pounds, J. (1997). Behavioral safety and future trends for change management. Performance Management Magazine, 16(1). Pounds, J. (1996). High-risk safety: The six biggest mistakes in implementing behavior-based safety. Performance Management Magazine, 15(4). Sarkus, D. J. (2001). The Safety Coach: Unleash the 7 C’s for World Class Safety Performance. Donora, PA: Championship Publishing. Sulzer-Azaroff, B., & Fellner, D. (1984). Searching for performance targets in the behavioral analysis of occupational health and safety: An assessment strategy. Journal of Organizational Behaviour Management, 6(2), 53–65. Sulzer-Azeroff, B., & Lischeid, W. E. (1999). Assessing the quality of behavioral safety initiatives. Professional Safety, 44(4), 31–36.

Chapter 13

Workplace Violence J. Brett Carruthers

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to • describe the extent of the workplace violence problem in the United States; • compare the frequency of workplace violence fatalities to other causes of death on the job; • identify the high-risk work environments experiencing workplace violence; • list several occupations where workplace violence statistics indicate a problem of concern for the safety professional; • list some of the factors that contribute to workplace violence; • explain the importance of establishing a workplace violence prevention program; and • describe some strategies companies can use to prevent or minimize the effects of workplace violence. CASE STUDY Jane Doe had walked to work on a January evening, because she could not afford a car. Minimal skills and education left her vulnerable in many ways. Jane worked as a clerk in a combination gas station–convenience store. At approximately 1:30 a.m., an unknown assailant walked into the store, ostensibly to make a purchase, but in reality, to rob the store. Maybe Jane knew the assailant, or possibly he was afraid that she would recognize him later. In either case, before he left, Jane was dead, the victim of multiple stab wounds to the chest and neck. A few hundred dollars were missing from the cash 293

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drawer. Jane’s body was discovered when the next customer came in for a purchase; her assailant has yet to be found. INTRODUCTION Robbery and criminal acts are often the motivation for work homicides, accounting for many of these senseless deaths. Many homicide victims work in retail establishments such as grocery stores, restaurants, bars, and small gas stations, making employees of traditional nighttime retailers particularly vulnerable. Being a Lyft, Uber or taxi driver can be a money-making gig, but it also can be a dangerous job. These drivers face a society that has become less civil and more prone to unsolicited violence. They face workplace hazards such as name calling and harassment and more serious consequences such as physical assaults and homicide, often related to robberies. Managers and small business owners who have done little or nothing in the past to protect their property and, more importantly, their employees from robbery find themselves being attacked on all fronts. Not only are they more vulnerable to losses from criminal activity, but they also find themselves increasingly subject to litigation and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) scrutiny. WORKPLACE EPIDEMIC OF VIOLENCE Dennis Johnson, clinical psychologist and president of Behavior Analysts & Consultants, a management firm that closely tracks workplace violence, stated, “Workplace violence is the new poison of corporate America. It is not just a reflection of a violent society, but of that violent society interacting with workplace dynamics that are significantly changed from 10 or 15 years ago” (Dunkel, 1994, p. 40). In recent decades the numbers have continued to increase, especially when terrorist actions are considered forms of workplace violence. Background Homicide remains a leading cause of job-related deaths, with many violent crimes committed while the victim is working or on duty. The motive behind many of these homicides may be disputes among coworkers, customers, or domestic partners. The vastness of the workplace violence is epidemic:

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• There are now nearly two-million violent victimizations per year in the workplace. • Occupational homicide has been a leading cause of death by injury in the workplace for women. • One in every four women and 1 in 10 men will experience domestic violence in their careers, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

VICTIMIZATION OF THE AMERICAN WORKFORCE Profile of Victims The victims of workplace violence can be anybody, and no one is immune. Examples of certain activities that tend to put workers at risk are • Working with the public • Handling money, valuables, or prescription drugs (e.g., cashiers, pharmacists, pharmacist technicians) • Carrying out inspection or enforcement duties (e.g., government employees) • Providing service, care, advice, or education (e.g., healthcare staff, teachers) • Working with unstable or volatile persons (e.g., social services or criminal justice system employees) • Working in premises where alcohol is served (e.g., food and beverage staff) • Working alone, in small numbers (e.g., store clerks, real estate agents), or in isolated or low-traffic areas (e.g., washrooms, storage areas, utility rooms) • Working in community-based settings (e.g., nurses, social workers, and other home healthcare providers) • Having a mobile workplace (e.g., taxicab, delivery personnel) • Working during periods of intense organizational change (e.g., strikes, downsizing) (http://www​.ccohs​.ca​/oshanswers​/psychosocial​/violence​.html) Cost to Business Workplace violence has a staggering impact on the emotional and fiscal health of an organization. Direct and indirect costs include direct legal and medical expenses, out-of-court settlements, death benefits, employee assistance programs (EAPs), security-related services and products, business disruption, negative public and media relations, diverted resources, emotional scarring, extended litigation, fear, loss of personnel, name/product tainting, facility repairs, turnover, and wasted knee-jerk reaction expenses.

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Another area which gets overlooked in the workplace violence equation is domestic violence spilling over into the workplace. What happens “out there” too many times gets settled “here.” Victims of domestic violence lose million days of paid work per year in the United States, resulting in high dollars of loss in productivity to employers. One incident of workplace violence can decimate a smaller business and ravage a larger one. Victims of violence not only have to undergo the pain of the attack but the resulting personal losses including lost workdays and mental anguish. The number-one source of security liability claims is rape/sexual assault of women. The average settlement award for these claims can easily be hundreds of thousands of dollars, and the verdict award can easily be in the millions. OSHA PERSPECTIVE OSHA has developed several different guidelines and recommendations to reduce worker exposure to violence, but it has not yet initiated rulemaking. The various guidelines are available at OSHA’s Website: www​.osha​.gov. The guidelines are being enforced via the OSHA’s general duty clause. High-Risk Workplaces All workplaces are vulnerable to violence: family–owned businesses; government; major corporations; manufacturers; the military; nonprofit, private, and public organizations; retail, service; and other small businesses. Historically, the occupation with the highest rate of occupational homicide has been taxicab drivers/chauffeurs. Other historically, high-risk occupations include law enforcement officers, hotel clerks, and gas station workers. Retail trades have some of the highest number of occupational homicides. Parking lots and garages on work premises account for a large percentage of violent crime locations. NIGHTTIME RETAILING Due to the problems of violence, OSHA has paid particular attention to retailing in recent years and has developed guidelines accordingly. The reasons are obvious and are based on the dangers faced by employees, particularly of nighttime, retail operations. Employees like Jane Doe can and must be protected. Here’s how it can be done. As in any other area of safety, a written plan outlining policies designed to deal with the anticipated problem is written. The plan includes procedures for

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cash management, handling customers, and generally minimizing the likelihood of robbery. More importantly, employees are trained, educated, and drilled on the steps to take should a robbery occur. Planning includes acquiring and installing certain basic equipment. Many nighttime retailers, particularly convenience stores and gas stations, benefit from the following: • Installing security camera(s) capable of recording robberies or criminal activities. This acts not only as a deterrent, but also as a means to prevent a perpetrator from returning to the establishment or other operations, if apprehended. As a complement to the camera(s), height markers displaying measurements from the floor are placed adjacent to the entrance. The camera and the clerk can use these to help identify assailants. • Installing a drop safe or other cash management device to limit the amount of accessible cash. Conspicuous notices stating the cash register contains small amounts of money, such as $50 or less, are placed near the entrances and cash registers. Employees are carefully instructed in cash management procedures—particularly to keep cash on hand low (OSHA National News Release, USDL 98-179, April 28, 1998). • When feasible, installing a silent or personal alarm system to notify police or private security forces when a crime is in progress (OSHA National News Release, USDL 98-179, April 28, 1998). Wireless personal alarms are available and can be worn by personnel and activated by depressing the device button. Prompt notification and response by law enforcement may save a life. • Ensuring the store and parking lot are well illuminated during all operating hours. Limit the number of access doors that are open. Install mirrors to observe areas not directly observable from the check-out area. Avoid permitting employees to exit into poorly lit, unmonitored areas or isolated spots such as garbage areas and outdoor freezers. Employees might be assaulted leaving the premises and the assailant may use the door as a means of entrance (OSHA National News Release, USDL 98-179, April 28, 1998). • Having at least two employees working at night to help protect each other. Many times a clerk is the victim of two would-be shoppers. One will distract the clerk while the other pulls a weapon, attacks, and disables the victim. If a second employee is not an economically feasible alternative, then protective enclosures for the lone attendant are a must (OSHA National News Release, USDL 98-179, April 28, 1998). Shields used to create barriers for COVID-19 exposures also create around-the-clock protection. By upgrading the materials of construction, they can stop the penetration of clubs, knives, and small-caliber firearms. These

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enclosures should meet Underwriters Laboratory (UL) or American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standards. All monies and the worker stay behind the protected counter. After traffic thins out and the store becomes more vulnerable, a bullet-resistant, composite-glass shield is dropped into place from overhead. With plate steel behind the counter and a clear shield between the employee and would-be assailant above the counter, a high level of protection is afforded against robbery and violence. In some cases, the unit is placed at the door of the store, with a transparent turnstile permitting the employee to pass goods to and receive money from customers. If the owner believes this will inhibit the sale of merchandise from the store, the enclosure can be placed around the employee inside the store. The Gas Mart where Jane was killed had advertising signs plastered all over the windows. Automobile and pedestrian traffic were unable to see into the store or to observe any crime in progress, permitting the murderer to commit his crime in relative privacy. His only concern was that a random shopper might enter the store before he left. Most convenience stores have large expanses of windows, and if they do not, they should. These windows should be kept open to the street with signage removed. A would-be thief is more likely to avoid a well-lit, windowed store because a crime in progress can be more easily spotted by a passerby or police patrol in the area. Jane was wearing street clothes when the crime in her store took place. All store personnel should wear distinctive smocks or uniforms. Many stores engage in this practice for image purposes, but it is also a sound safety practice. In the event the police are summoned to a crime in progress, it will be easier for them to distinguish the perpetrator from the victim(s). In spite of the above precautions, if a robbery does occur, store personnel should be instructed to fully cooperate with the robber. The silent alarm should be activated only if it can be done so discreetly. Employees are instructed to speak only in direct response to the perpetrator’s questions and not to volunteer additional information. They should be as observant as possible and attempt to avoid confrontation (Butterworth, 1993). Once the robber leaves the store, employees should immediately lock the doors and call the police. They should ask any witnesses to stay until police arrive and to not discuss the incident until that time. Everyone should avoid touching any surfaces the perpetrator may have touched (Butterworth, 1993). Anticipating and preparing for events such as robberies should be an important part of any employer’s plans—especially for nighttime retailers. The costs of formalizing and executing these plans are minimal compared to the potential saving of the lives and well-being of employees. Relatively inexpensive steps to protect the establishment’s business investment and employees against robbery and associated violence can save in terms of criminal losses and litigation.

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HEALTH CARE AND SOCIAL SERVICE OSHA has also paid particular attention to health care and social-service workers due to the high number of violent acts directed toward these groups in terms of both homicides and nonfatal attacks. These workers face an increased risk of work-related assaults stemming from several factors to include: • The prevalence of handguns and other weapons among patients, their families or friends. • The increasing use of hospitals by police and the criminal justice system. • The increasing number of acute and chronic mentally ill patients being released from hospitals without follow-up care (these patients have the right to refuse medicine and can no longer be hospitalized involuntarily unless they pose an immediate threat to themselves or others). • The availability of drugs or money at hospitals, clinics and pharmacies, making them likely robbery targets. • Factors such as the unrestricted movement of the public clinics and hospitals and long waits that lead to client frustration; increasing presence of gang members, drug or alcohol abusers, trauma patients or distraught family members; low staffing levels; isolated work with clients during examinations or treatment; solo work, often in remote locations with no backup or way to get assistance, such as communication devices or alarm systems (this is particularly true in high-crime settings). • Lack of staff training in recognizing and managing escalating hostile and assaultive behavior, and • Poorly lit parking areas. Workplace violence prevention programs should include: • Management commitment and employee participation. Affirm management commitment to a worker-supportive environment that places as much importance on employee safety and health as on serving the patient or client. Create and disseminate a clear policy of zero tolerance for workplace violence, verbal and nonverbal threats and related actions. Ensure that managers, supervisors, coworkers, clients, patients, and visitors know about this policy. Set up a company briefing as part of the initial effort to address issues such as preserving safety, supporting affected employees, and facilitating recovery. • Worksite analysis and hazard identification. Systematically review previous incidents, obtain input from colleagues in similar environments, and obtain input from employees and subject-matter experts to anticipate and prepare for response to workplace violence.

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• Provide safety and health training to employees on what to report and how to respond. Ensure that no employee who reports or experiences workplace violence faces reprisals. Encourage employees to promptly report incidents and suggest ways to reduce or eliminate risks. • Require records of incidents to assess risk and measure progress. • Outline a comprehensive plan for maintaining security in the workplace. This includes establishing a liaison with law enforcement representatives and others who can help identify ways to prevent and mitigate workplace violence. • Assign responsibility and authority for the program to individuals or teams with appropriate training and skills. Ensure that adequate resources are available for this effort and the team or responsible individuals develop expertise on workplace violence prevention in health care and social services. (Adapted from various documents at OSHA​.go​v, 2021). DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN THE WORKPLACE What happens when domestic violence plays out in the workplace? This occurs too frequently, and employers must be ready to deal with these volatile situations. Kim Wells, executive director of the Corporate Alliance to End Partner Violence stated, “Domestic violence and sexual assault walk in the doors of each and every workplace every day here in the United States.” In most instances employers have no plan for dealing with workplace domestic violent acts. According to research conducted by the Society for Human Resource Management, only 20 percent of workplaces have plans and do training for these situations. Measures that can address these domestic violence situations include: • Utilizing subject-matter experts from inside and outside of the organization to formulate a domestic violence policy that complies with laws and regulations and is approved by legal counsel. • Senior leadership commitment with communications of support and enforcement of this program. • Training staff in the recognition and appropriate reaction to domestic violence. Ensure confidentiality among all members. • Implementing an EAP or utilizing the services of domestic-violence support agencies. Proper Security Measures Security is an issue often problematic in the healthcare industry, but the principles of prevention apply to other industries as well. Sound security measures begin with the most basic and yet the most difficult measure—controlling

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access to the facility. Each entrance to a building should have some type of access-control device. These devices can be as simple as keyed entrances or as complex as bar code, magnetic card readers, biometric readers, or closedcircuit cameras with intercoms and buzzers. Diligent access control will be the most daunting element an organization must overcome when implementing improved security measures. Another access measure is controlling the visitor entrance to the facility by having specific procedures for handling visitors. Visitors are required to sign in at specified point(s) and, in sensitive areas, must be always accompanied by an authorized escort. They are never to be given the freedom to roam at will within a facility. One final means of controlling access to a facility is to ensure that devices installed to control facility access are not compromised. Compromising security includes purposefully leaving or blocking doors open, revealing access codes, duplicating keys, and leaving fence gates unlocked. Access control is only as good as management’s commitment to facility security management. Security is not a matter of convenience! Another basic security measure is to issue color photo identification cards. The following information should be on the identification badge: • Employee’s name and signature • Employee’s identification badge serial number • The signature of the person authorized to authenticate and issue identification badges The key to a successful security program is to customize the measures necessary for the organization’s needs. Finally, whether a company takes a low-profile approach (access control, identification badges) to security or a highly visible approach (closed-circuit television cameras, private security officers), a facility’s security management program should be given the same management attention as safety, operations, sales, and marketing (Vincent Piazza, personal interview, May 20, 2013). PROBLEM EMPLOYEES: FORMULA FOR FAILURE Violence in the workplace sometimes involves employees only—one or more against another. Jim Gary was a large man, not easily intimidated. As foreman of a relatively rough bunch of workers, Jim made sometimes unpopular decisions and took criticism personally. After a particularly loud and confrontational disagreement, he wasn’t surprised to see one of his crew

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waiting for him after work with a jack handle in one hand, slapping it against the other. The crew member stood just outside the company gate, and when he caught a glimpse of Jim, he stood in front of the open gate, waiting for Jim to leave company property. Jim’s approach did not follow company policy. He hopped in his pickup truck and slowly drove toward the employee. When he was within twenty-five feet, he gunned the engine and tried to run over his aggressor. Although he missed, he made his point, and wasn’t threatened again. This behavior—on either party’s part—could have easily escalated into a situation where one or both were injured or killed, and the company may have become the final victim through financial liability and adverse publicity. The Ingredients List Fear and violence among workers can be ascribed to various factors: • Loss of a job or position • Interpersonal conflicts on the job • Technological innovations • Prevalence of violence in society • Diversity and change in the workplace • Shifts of responsibility at home • Job loss or demotion Historically, researchers have attempted to profile perpetrators of workplace violence. They have considered such characteristics as having a fascination with guns. This could apply to hunters, military officers, or members of police departments. Many of the other characteristics are even less useful. Knowing someone is from a broken home is no reason not to hire that individual or to use him or her in a sensitive position. The same could be said about aggressiveness. On one hand, a person with a history of violent behavior is more likely to exhibit the same characteristics in the future. However, otherwise docile employees can be pushed to the breaking point under high-pressure conditions. Descriptions by neighbors of murderers from their neighborhoods bear this out. “He was a likeable individual.” “He pretty much kept to himself and didn’t bother anyone.” Economic demands put considerable pressure on otherwise stable employees. Displacement or wage loss through company relocation, downsizing, or market changes creates extremely adverse conditions for workers. Domestic disturbances and problems are being carried into the workplace at an alarming rate. With schedules and demands on American workers pushing them to the breaking point, some will and do suffer breakdowns. For the typical wage

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earner with a mortgage, car payments, and other debts, even small changes in the monthly paycheck can create considerable frustration and devastation. Other Ingredients A highly stressed workplace is the most susceptible to violence. The following factors add considerably to the problem: • Management does not talk with or delegate control to employees. • Employees are micromanaged by doting managers. • Employee work is fast-paced and performed in poor environmental conditions. • Overtime is frequent and mandatory. • Employee benefits have recently been cut (Joyner & McDade, 1994, p. A8). If workplace downsizing is coupled with a combination of any or all of the above, an extremely stressful situation has been created. As stress from the workplace and family builds, the displaced worker, who may already be on the edge, becomes more desperate and isolated. This combination can become lethal—making the time ripe for acts of violence to occur. RECOGNIZING THE POTENTIAL AGGRESSOR Aggressors can be anyone: clients (current and former), competitors, criminals, current and former employees, current and former relationship partners, customers, drug addicts, gangs, or terrorists. Whoever the aggressor may be, there are usually red flags present. Disgruntled Employee Red Flags Employees exhibiting marked changes in their demeanor and performance— for example, those who are normally quiet suddenly becoming loud, boisterous, or disgruntled—may signal the beginning of a volatile situation. During the satellite video conference on workplace violence presented by The George Washington National Satellite Network (1994), FBI Special Agent Eugene A. Rugala tendered the following list of red flags of human behavior that should be closely monitored: • History of exhibiting violent behavior • Obsessing with weapons, and collecting and compulsively reading gun magazines

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• Carrying a concealed weapon • Making direct or veiled threats • Using intimidation or instilling fear in others • Maintaining obsessive involvement with job • Acting as a loner • Exhibiting unwanted romantic interest in coworker • Sexually harassing opposite gender coworkers • Exhibiting paranoid behavior • Exhibiting lack of willingness to accept criticism • Carrying a grudge • Exhibiting recent family, financial, and/or personal problems • Undue interest in publicized violent events • Testing limits of acceptable behavior • Suffering from stress in the workplace such as layoffs, reduction in forces, and labor disputes • Showing extreme changes in behavior or stated beliefs (Rugala, 1994). Special Agent Rugala emphasized one key point: “An employee can manifest one or all of these traits and never act out violently! This is where the importance of having solid employee/supervisor relationship cannot be underscored!” (Rugala, 1994). Employee Disenchantment Employee disenchantment can be a major source of stress, and through time, stress can build to the point of the person “snapping,” according to Special Agent Rugala. The following list highlights causes of employee disenchantment: • Confusion • Lack of trust • Not being listened to • No time to solve problems • Office politics • Someone solving problems for you • Not knowing whether you are succeeding • Indiscriminate application of rules • Boss takes credit for others’ ideas and work • Believing you cannot make a difference • Meaningless job (Rugala, 1994). The response to stress may be an act of violence, often exhibited as revenge (Walton, 1994):

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Revenge Revenge comes in a variety of forms. Carefully plotted revenge can destroy a company. The following are different types of revenge: • Product tampering • Rumor mongering • Theft of property • Theft of secrets • Stalking • Kidnapping executives • Threats • Harassment The following are examples of revenge: • A terminated employee on his way out of the company’s headquarters building lobby gouged several priceless Van Gogh paintings, destroying them. • A discharged telephone company employee tapped the telephones of several prominent citizens in the community and then attempted to extort money from them to keep the information he acquired quiet. • An employee who was fired from a fast-food restaurant changed the slogan on the cash register receipt to a racial epithet, insulting numerous customers. • An information technology director knowing he was about to be terminated inputted the system “key” wiping out all company servers and the data on them. When this “key” was inputted and acknowledged, all data was wiped clean with no means for recovery. These are only a few examples of thousands of acts of revenge that take place in the workplace annually. A malicious employee wanting to pay back the company because he was discharged can cause significant damage to an organization’s image and reputation. Violence Unfortunately, some individuals resort to violent acts, including • Intimidation • Assault • Rape • Robbery • Property destruction Proactive intervention is required on the part of the employer

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DEFUSING A TIME BOMB: THE VIOLENT EMPLOYEE While there is no cure for workplace violence, there are proactive, preventive steps that can be implemented to provide a realistic approach to defusing workplace violence before it occurs:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Establish a clear non-harassment policy Perform pre-employment screening Establish a drug testing program Conduct employee and management training in stress management and communications 5. Plan for crisis management 6. Establish proper security measures 7. Foster a working liaison with local law enforcement 8. Conduct security-related drills (Vincent Piazza, personal interview, May 20, 2013)

Non-Harassment Policy Senior management must make it crystal clear to its employees that harassment and threats will not be tolerated. Garry Mathiason, a San Francisco lawyer who specializes in workplace liability law, stated, “If you have a policy or plan in place, then what is tolerated and what is not become part of the culture” (Dunkel, 1994, p. 70). This is especially important with verbal threats. Company policy must be firm that verbal threats will not be tolerated. Mathiason goes on to say, “If you doubt me, (ask yourself) when was the last time you made a joke going through an airport metal detector?” (Dunkel, 1994, p. 70). Pre-Employment Screening The significance of this tool cannot be understated. How involved your organization gets with pre-employment screening will be a function of the nature of your company’s business, its culture, and the sensitivity of the position being filled. Before any pre-employment screening is done, consult with your organization’s legal counsel on the proposed pre-employment screening to be conducted. This is vitally important and can save your organization significant expense should a pre-employment screening tool be considered to discriminate in your state (Susan McClaren, personal interview, April 18, 2013). Target Stores in Oakland, California, asked prospective security guards to take the Rodgers Condensed CPIMMPI written prescreen (a psychological screening tool). An attorney for the plaintiffs, in a class-action lawsuit, hinted that a number of the questions on the long-used exam were “extremely

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invasive on matters of sexuality, religion, bodily functions, and the like” (Albrecht & Mantell, 1994, p. 50). Under the settlement agreement, Target Stores paid $1.3 million to 2,500 awardees and agreed to ban the test in its 113 California stores. What pre-employment screening tools should be used? The following are a minimum:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Work history verification Military history verification Credit history Driving record check Criminal history check

Before using any of the above screening tools, check with legal counsel because all the above may not be legal in every state. Red flags are unexplained gaps in employment of greater than 30 days; scant details of disciplinary matters in military service; dire financial circumstances (high debt, home foreclosure, etc.) in the credit history; and numerous accidents or traffic violations on the driving record. Obviously, one must evaluate these from a big-picture perspective; one negative report may not be too bad but taken as part of the whole it may be significant (Vincent Piazza, personal interview, May 20, 2013). Drug Testing As with the pre-employment screening, company legal counsel and personnel experienced with EAPs and workplace drug testing must be consulted before a drug-testing program is started (Bruce Wilkinson, personal communication, February 8, 2013). Drug testing is conducted in three ways: pre-placement, random, and for-cause or reasonable suspicion. The total testing procedures are typically handled by an outside firm to avoid casting any suspicion on the process, including the selection of employees for random testing. Employment offers are conditional upon negative results from candidates’ drug tests. Employee and Management Training Employee and management training are critical to successfully handling a potentially explosive situation. Areas include stress management, conflict resolution, negotiating, and interpersonal communications. The training must be tailored to the organization’s philosophy and culture.

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Training should be presented at two levels. First, it should be presented at the employee level to establish a baseline—a common foundation. Second, it must be presented at supervisory and managerial levels to establish a consistent manner in which various situations will be handled. Additionally, the training should include role-playing to provide participants the opportunity to experience a variety of situations in a controlled learning atmosphere (Vincent Piazza, personal interview, May 20, 2013). Crisis Management Planning Planning for an incident involving workplace violence should be no different than planning for a fire or chemical spill. As a result of the terrorist events on September 11, 2001, in this post-9/11 world, preplanning for an incident of workplace violence is mission critical. Having a plan of action in place that is easily executable will provide structure to an otherwise chaotic situation. What should be in a crisis management plan for handling a workplace violence incident? In their book Ticking Bombs: Defusing Workplace Violence in the Workplace, Steve Albrecht and Michael Mantell provide the following list: • Telephone numbers of local law enforcement and emergency services • Notification of key company personnel (This list must include the company’s legal counsel.) • Procedure for protecting the scene of a workplace violence incident for investigators • Procedure for checking the integrity of your company’s data and computer systems • Arrangements and retainer contracts for on-scene employee counseling immediately following a significant event (24-hour coverage) • Training of senior site management in dealing with the media • Designating an official company spokesperson and media relations procedure • Procedure for providing grief- and trauma-recovery time for victims and related witnesses, bystanders, and employees • Procedure for company sanctions and/or punishment for the instigators in lesser cases • Arrangements with company EAP and psychological counseling programs to help employees cope with post-incident stress management • Procedure for handling family notification(s) of the victim(s) and the company’s aid package • Procedure for handling cleanup and scene restoration (1994, pp. 221–242)

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While the steps above deal specifically with handling an incident of workplace violence, another important procedure that must be developed is an effective termination procedure. The termination procedure should include details on how to handle the termination process and must include at a minimum • Handling the individual’s personal effects • Preventing facility and information system access • Collecting company property (credit cards, keys, access cards, identification badges, proprietary information, etc.) • Handling outstanding expense reports • Handling severance, vacation pay, and other continued benefits • Handling difficult employee terminations (Vincent Piazza, personal interview, May 20, 2013). The above steps are not all-inclusive and may not apply in all situations. They must be tailored to each company’s structure and uniqueness. SECURITY EMERGENCIES There are numerous approaches to consider when a security emergency occurs. Three possible responses include lockdown, lockout, and shelter-inplace. A lockdown may occur as a result of an armed intruder, active shooter civil expression, domestic violence, or an irrational visitor. To do it right, procedures need to be developed and implemented, training conducted and plans tested. A lockdown is initiated when there is a crisis or physical threat inside the building and movement by occupants may place them in jeopardy. Lockdowns can help contain the threat, keep individuals away from where the threat may be present, and protect individuals by getting them away from places where the threat may be approaching. Depending on the situation, lockdowns may last a short time or could go on for hours. Law enforcement must be notified immediately. Each facility and emergency is different. The following recommendations should be used as a starting point or reference to evaluate existing plans: During a lockdown the following actions must be taken immediately: • Immediate notification of building employees and visitors that a lockdown is in place. Specified personnel must secure building perimeter doors. • Individuals inside the building should remain in the room or office where they are located and lock the door.

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• If in a corridor, elevator or stairwell, occupants must proceed to the nearest office to take shelter and ensure the door is locked. • All individuals should move down onto the floor and remain away from windows and doors. • All individuals should make as little noise as possible. Individuals should place cell phones and pagers into “vibrate or silence” mode. • All windows are secured and blinds and/or curtains are closed. Lights are turned off. Doors are opened for no one. When the building has been cleared, the door will be unlocked by law enforcement personnel and occupants will be given instructions as to the next actions to take. Lockouts are typically implemented when a crime occurs near a building. They prevent the physical threat from gaining entry. As with lockdowns, lockouts may be quick or protracted. During a lockout the following actions must be taken immediately: • Immediately notify building employees and visitors that a lockout is in place. Specified personnel must secure building perimeter doors. • Keep personnel inside the building • Secure all windows and close blinds and/or curtains. Turn lights off. • Keep away from windows. • Be prepared to move into lockdown. Shelter-in-Place is initiated in the event of an external event, such as a release of hazardous chemicals or a large, yet-to-be controlled fire, where it is not possible or advisable to evacuate a building. Shelter-in-place is also used where internal control is needed because of a medical emergency in the building. Shelter-in-place events are usually shorter term in duration. During a shelter-in-place event, the following actions must be taken immediately: • Immediately notify building employees and visitors that a shelter-in-place in underway. Specific instructions will follow if building systems need to be turned off. • Close all windows and perimeter doors. • Turn off heating, air conditioning, and ventilation systems. • Have a designated individual check all building openings to ensure none have been overlooked. • Have a designated individual to monitor the media for further updates, and have occupants remain in the shelter-in-place until authorities indicate it is safe to leave.

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Developing the Plan Emergency procedures must consider the specific construction characteristics of the facility. When the plan is developed the following need to be considered: • What are the structurally safest areas of the building? Develop diagrams that identify these areas, and as necessary, identify the appropriate routes to proceed to these areas. • How good is the intercom system? Does it reach all interior areas? Will it reach people who are outside of the building? Are there other options, such as notifying employees by cell phones and/or computers? • Is the facility shared with other organizations? If so, what are their emergency plans? As the controlling interest in the building, the management will need to assist these organizations with their plans and include them in drills. • Are there other stakeholders in the building(s)? Site-specific plans should be developed with all stakeholders involved. Sharing knowledge among them will help provide knowledge of the facility to aid in making plans more effective and in ensuring key responsibilities are assigned to appropriate building personnel. • Are strong communications established among the stakeholders? Communication with both affected and non-affected facilities/buildings is important, so all may prepare to take action as appropriate. Communicating the Plan Once the plan is developed and implemented, it must be communicated to building employees. They must know and understand the differences among the three key security emergency scenarios: lockdown, lockout, and shelterin-place. Employee training sessions need to be held to communicate these plans and answer employee questions that may arise. PRACTICING THE PLAN Finally, lockdown, lockout and shelter-in-place drills are conducted to ensure employees understand procedures as they are very different than evacuation drills. If drills indicate further training is needed, refresher training sessions to review procedures are conducted. Poor performance during a drill usually indicates poor performance and reaction during an actual emergency. These are not times for complacency.

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Liaison with Local Law Enforcement During a crisis situation, it is helpful to know the key personnel in the local law enforcement organization and their commitment to assisting the organization. This is not the time to be exchanging initial introductions (Arthur Kelly, personal communication, February 22, 2013). This plan does not guarantee workplace violence will not occur; however, it will better prepare the organization, should an event occur. The following link offers an excellent video of an active shooter drill, to include different first responders. It is an excellent example of inter-agency response and cooperation. http://www​ .cffjac​.org​/go​/jac​/media​-center​/video​-gallery​/tcm​-active​-shooter​-scenario/

CONCLUSION This chapter reviewed the occupational epidemic sweeping the United States commonly referred to as “workplace violence.” It is a problem many safety professionals address in an attempt to reduce the risk of serious injury to thousands of working men and women across America. The workplace aggressor can be anyone from a disgruntled employee to a psychologically disturbed competitor. Workplace violence can be as traumatic as a seriously deranged man shooting an ex-boss and coworkers, as insidious as product tampering, or as horrendous as a terrorist attack. As with any other loss in the occupational environment, the prevention of workplace violence requires a comprehensive approach that includes everything from pre-employment screening to crisis management planning. No workplace is immune. With workplace homicide being the number-one cause of occupational death for women and the third leading cause of death for all workers, safety professionals’ responsibilities include workplace security. QUESTIONS 1. What is workplace violence? How far-reaching is this problem in the United States? 2. Why is knowledge of workplace violence important to a safety professional? 3. What are some of the factors that contribute to workplace violence? 4. List and describe some of the red flags that could indicate a disgruntled employee might become violent. 5. What are some of the acts of violence associated with workplace violence?

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6. List and briefly describe the components of a comprehensive workplace violence program.

REFERENCES Albrecht, S., & Mantell, M. (1994). Ticking Bombs: Defusing Violence in the Workplace. Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin Professional Publishing. Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2001). Violence and Theft in the Workplace. U.S. Department of Justice: Office of Justice Programs. Available: http://www​.ojp​.usdoj​ .gov​/bjs​/pub​/ascii​/thefwork​.txt (accessed January 21, 2000). Butterworth, R. A. (1993). Convenience Business Security Act: Robbery Deterrence and Safety Training Guidelines. Tallahassee, FL: Office of the Attorney General. Chavez, L. J. (1999). Workplace Violence Defined. Available: http://members​.aol​ .com​/endwpv​/definition​.html (accessed November 13, 1999). Dunkel, T. (1994, August). Danger Zone: Your Office. Working Woman, 19, 39–71. Florida Department of Legal Affairs, Division of Victim Services. (1993). Additional Statement to the Secretary of State Rule (Chapter 2A-5). Tallahassee, FL: Legal Document Reproduction. Joyner, T., & McDade, S. (1994, March 31). Workplace Violence Blamed on Stress. Niagara Gazette, p. A8. OSHA. (2004). Guidelines for Preventing Workplace Violence for Health Care & Social Service Workers. Available: http://www​.osha​.gov​/Publications​/osha3148​ .pdf (accessed July 29, 2009) OSHA National News Release, April 28, 1998. USDL 98-179. OSHA National News Release, May 9, 2000. USDL. Rugala, E. A. 1994. Recognizing the Potential Aggressor. Address presented at The George Washington National Satellite Network Video Conference: Washington, DC. Toscano, G., & Windau, J. (1994, October). The changing character of fatal work injuries. Monthly Labor Review, 117, 17–18. Warchol, G. (1998, July). Workplace Violence, 1992–1996. National Crime Victimization Survey (Report No. NCJ-168634). Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. Available: http://www​.ojp​.usdoj​.gov​/bjs​/ abstract​/wv96​.pdf (accessed December 12, 1999). Workplace Violence. Available: http://www​ .workplaceviolence​ -hg​ .com (accessed November 29, 2002).

BIBLIOGRAPHY 6,271 Job-related deaths counted in 1993; Vehicle crashes, homicides lead all causes. (1994, July 27). Niagara Gazette, p. A6. Bachman, R. (1994, July). Violence and theft in the workplace. Crime Data Brief, 1–4.

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Bell, C. A. (1991, June). Female homicides in US workplaces. American Journal of Public Health, 729–732. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2001). Available: www​.osha​-slc​.gov​/osha​.info​/prior​.res​/ violence​.html (accessed November 29, 2002). CAL/OSHA. (1995). CAL/OSHA Guidelines for Workplace Security. California Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Occupational Safety and Health. March 30, 1995. CAL/OSHA. (1995). Model Injury and Illness Prevention Program for Workplace Security. California Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Occupational Safety and Health. March 30, 1995. Carder, B. (1994, February). Quality theory and the measurement of safety systems. Professional Safety, 39, 23–28. Catania, A. C. (1968). Contemporary Research in Operant Behavior. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company. Daniels, A. C. (1989). Performance Management: Improving Quality Productivity Through Positive Reinforcement. Tucker, GA: Performance Management Publications. Firearm Injury in the U.S. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, CDC. http://cdc​.gov​/injury​/wisqars​/index​.html. Gunman kills 2, wounds 2 at Ford union meeting. (1994, August 14). Buffalo News, p. A7. Homicide in US workplaces. (1992, September). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1–7. “How Prevalent is Gun Violence in America?” National Institute of Justice. (2010, October 26). U.S. Department of Justice. http://www​ .nij​ .gov​ /topics​ /crime​ /gun​ -violence​/welcome​.htm. Johnson, D. L., Kiehlbauch, J. B., & Kinney, J. A. (1994, February). Break the cycle of violence. Security Management, 38, 24–28. Johnson, D. L., & Kinney, K. A. (1993). Breaking Point. Chicago, IL: National Safe Workplace Institute. Jorma, S. (1994, May). When does behavior modification prevent accidents? Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 15. Lincoln, B. (2006). Holy Terrors – Thinking about Religion after September 11 (2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. Menendez, C., & Dalsey, E. (2019). NIOSH fast facts: Taxi drivers—How to prevent robbery and violence. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. https://doi​.org​/10​.26616​/NIOSHPUB2020100. Meyer, C. (2012, June). How awareness stops negligence, presents workplace violence in healthcare. Security Magazine. Nater, F. P. (2013, February). 10 Ways to prevent workplace violence escalation. Security Magazine. NIOSH urges immediate action to prevent workplace homicide. (1993, October 25). NIOSH Update.

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NIOSH Current Intelligence Bulletin 57. (1996). Violence in the Workplace: Risk Factors and Prevention Strategies. Northwestern National Life Employee Benefits Division. (1993). Fear and Violence in the Workplace. Minneapolis, MN. OSHA. (2021). Retrieved from OSHA​.go​v. Preventing Homicide in the Workplace. (1993, September). NIOSH Alert. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Simonowitz, J. A. (1993). Guidelines for Security and Safety of Health Care and Community Service Workers. California Department of Industrial Relations. Division of Occupational Safety and Health, Medical Unit. Sprouse, M. (1992). Sabotaging the American Workplace. San Francisco, CA: Pressure Drop Press. Survey reveals the cost of workplace violence to employers. (1995, May 15). OSHA General Industry News. Santa Monica, CA: Merritt Publishing. Sygnatur, E., & Toscano, G. (2000). Work-related homicides: The facts. Compensation and working conditions (available at the Bureau of Labor Statistics website, www​.bls​.org). Tarasuk, V., & Eakin, J. (1994, May/June). Adding insult to injury. OH&S Canada, 10, 44–47. U.S. Department of Justice. (2010, October). How prevalent is gun violence in America. National Institute of Justice. Retrieved from http://www​.nij​.gov​/topics​/ crime​/gun​-violence​/welcome​.htm.

Chapter 14

Terrorism Preparedness J. Brett Carruthers

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to • understand the compelling reasons for preparing for a terrorist attack in business; • identify some of the key historical events causing the United States and its citizens to prepare for terrorism; • list critical areas of concern needing to be addressed in terrorism preparation; and • understand the role of the safety and health professional in company terrorism planning activities. CASE STUDY Steve Smith is sitting at his desk on Monday morning when the call comes through. A bomb has been placed in the pesticide plant where he works. A quick mental review of chemicals stored on-site brings to mind vessels of materials that have IDLHs (Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health) as low as 1 part per million. Steve closes his eyes for five seconds before dialing 911. His panicked voice has more questions for the dispatcher than the dispatcher has answers. Steve is quickly transferred to a police official with little knowledge of pesticides or their potential for damage to the environment and the surrounding community. Steve is searching for answers as to what to do next, but he is having trouble finding those answers. 317

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HISTORIC INFORMATION February 26, 1993: An explosion roars through the underground parking garage at the World Trade Center in New York City. Smoke rises and begins filling corridors and some escape routes. Six people are killed and over a thousand are injured, primarily due to the effects of smoke inhalation. The device—made primarily of urea nitrate, a fertilizer-based explosive—also included three large metal cylinders of compressed hydrogen gas. All of this was placed inside a rental truck and detonated by fuse. The explosion punched a hole approximately 150 feet in diameter and 50 feet deep. This was the first major attack in the United States to bring the reality of international terrorism home to all United States citizens. April 19, 1995: An explosion rips through the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. It completely tears off the north wall and leaves 168 dead, including 19 children. The terrorists had purchased ammonium nitrate from a farm cooperative and nitromethane racing fuel at a racetrack for materials to construct the bomb. It was rigged in a rental truck and parked in front of the building. A detonation-delay mechanism allowed the bomber to escape prior to the explosion. This had been the most lethal terrorist attack to ever occur in the United States. September 11, 2001: Four commercial airplanes are hijacked on the east coast. American Airlines Flight 11 out of Boston crashes into the North Tower of the World Trade Center with 92 people on board. United Airlines Flight 172, also out of Boston, crashes into the South Tower of the World Trade Center with 65 passengers on board. American Airlines Flight 77 out of Washington Dulles crashes into the Pentagon with 64 on board. Flight 93 out of Newark, New Jersey crashes into a rural western Pennsylvania field with 44 people on board. An estimated additional 2,666 people on the ground die in the World Trade Center and another 125 are dead in the Pentagon. Over 3,000 people die in one day as a result of terrorist attacks (U.S. Department of State, 2002). April 16, 2007: Twenty-seven students and five faculty members die after being shot on the campus of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University by a lone gunman who later commits suicide. The campus is eventually fined by the US Department of Education for not issuing a prompt, campuswide warning after the first two victims are shot (History, 2016). December 2, 2015: Two masked killers enter a conference room at the Inland Regional Center in San Bernadino, California and begin firing automatic rifles at the people gathered (Perez-Pena & Goldman, 2016). The center is a nonprofit, community-based agency serving developmentally disabled individuals and their families living in the area (Inland Regional Center, 2016). After releasing more than 100 rounds in just a few minutes,

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the murderers flee, leaving 14 dead and 24 wounded (Perez-Pena & Goldman, 2016). “It was the worst thing imaginable—some people were quiet, hiding, others were screaming or dying, grabbing at your legs because they wanted us to get them out, but our job at the moment was to keep going,” the patrol officer said. “That was the hardest part, stepping over them.”

The two killers are tracked by police and shot dead later that day (Perez-Pena & Goldman, 2016). June 12, 2016: A man enters the Pulse Night Club in Orlando, Florida, carrying an AR-15 assault rifle and a pistol. Before being killed by Orlando police, the attacker murders 49 people and wounds more than 50. The Orlando Chief of Police said, “It appears he was well organized and well-prepared.” This becomes the worst mass shooting in US history (Ellis et. al., 2016, June 16). October 1, 2017: A man in a hotel room at the Mandalay Bay Hotel in Las Vegas opens fire on the crowd attending the Route 91 Harvest Music Festival across the street from his room. The perpetrator fired more than 1,000 rounds, fatally wounding 58 people and wounding 411. The ensuing panic caused by the shooting brought the total injury count from this incident to 867. The perpetrator was found dead in his hotel room from a self-inflicted gunshot wound. This becomes the worst mass shooting in US history (Torres-Cortez, 2021).

OVERVIEW Nearly every American resident is touched, appalled, and angered by the tragedies mentioned above. The common thread is terrorism. The constant theme is increased violence, destruction of property, and loss of life. Each attack has taken terrorism to a new level in terms of audacity, mayhem, cost, and human suffering. The challenges and problems of terrorism are difficult. The terrorist lives among us. He or she socializes, works, and moves around with the same freedoms as nearly every American citizen. Terrorists have access to as much information and know as much about our vulnerabilities as nearly any one of us—more than most because they have been studying our weaknesses. They pose as tourists, students, employees, every day “Joe’s” and concerned Americans. Prior to their attack, the September 11 terrorists were living and moving among us, and we, as Americans, were accepting of them and their behaviors. Terrorists may come in domestic forms, as evidenced by Tim McVeigh, conspirator in the Oklahoma City bombing. Disgruntled employees, estranged

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spouses, extortionists, and others can terrorize our employees and business enterprise. A determined terrorist can wreak havoc on the most organized and otherwise safe business or government enterprise. Two-thirds as many Americans were lost in one day on September 11 as were killed in the workplace in a whole year. Most of those Americans were at work. Since 9/11, over 4,600 responders and survivors enrolled in the World Trade Center Health Program have also died (Haelle, Sept. 10, 2021). The attacks in Oklahoma City, New York City, and Washington were similar in that each was aimed at an American institution. The government and the capitalist system were attacked. Targets of terrorist attacks are frequently symbolic of a philosophy, system, or group the terrorist opposes. The more noted the symbol, the more satisfying the target may appear to the terrorist. Depending on the motive, future terrorist attacks may continue to target major US symbols. These might include centers of the US philosophy, including large buildings, tourist attractions, and centers of activity. Of course, military bases, factories, recreational facilities, and even schools and hospitals—any institutions supporting the infrastructure of the United States or places where large crowds gather— face the risk of terrorist attack. Schools have suffered in recent years, with students turning on their employers, their teachers, and their peers with acts of mayhem and violence. From sniper attacks to confrontational shootings, enterprises are faced with the problem of protecting their employees as they work and move about performing their business and that of the enterprise. RESPONSIBILITIES Although no written, anti/counter terrorism program is required by law, it could easily be included in any comprehensive safety or loss-control program. At minimum, it should be part of the organization’s emergency preparedness program. Many companies address bomb threats or even worker unrest, such as strikes or walkouts. Companies are expanding their programs to incorporate terrorism, civil unrest, and acts of subversion from within. New architecture, building plans, and company activities are viewed considering potential adverse effects of terrorist and similar activities. Chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear explosives (CBRNE)—may all be considered within the context of a terrorist or other attack. Following a rash of shooting events in public places, many organizations are considering events that, little more than a decade ago, would have been given no thought. Planning The approach to countering terrorism is like that of other safety problems. First, is consideration of vulnerabilities and probabilities of attack. Similar

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industries in the United States and abroad are considered, along with problems they may face. Associations in given industries may be able to help, by providing input on what other members are doing. Sometimes companies attempt to suppress adverse publicity, but a thorough search may turn up information not readily available. A determination of whether a particular company or other similar companies have faced terrorist problems in the past must be considered. History often repeats itself. In the initial stages of evaluation of a facility, a careful consideration of each of the following points is necessary to assess the facility for target potential. Activities What activities take place that might be attractive to a terrorist group? On 9/11, it was airlines transporting large numbers of peoples in airplanes to be used as missiles that attracted terrorists. If the goal was to hurt large numbers of innocent people, cripple the transportation system for days, make travelers reluctant to travel, slow down the trading of commodities and strike a blow at the financial network, the terrorists were successful. Numerous organizations, engaged in various activities, were adversely affected. The ongoing ripple effect throughout the economy and the American public was likely unforeseen by even the terrorists. The safety professional must consider the possibilities and how destruction of personnel and/or property could adversely affect not only the future of the organization but that of the nation. The results of contemplation may provide insight into whether or not the organization could be a potential target. Production If a company manufactures or maintains inventories of any products that could conceivably be turned into weapons or agents of destruction, it may be an attractive target. From the activities in Oklahoma City and New York, it is obvious that seemingly innocuous items intended for useful activities can be turned against the company or others for terrorist purposes. Chemicals in large quantities—explosives, fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, fuels, energy sources, poisons—or mechanical devices are just a few of the items requiring careful guarding. Processes are followed from beginning to end to identify easy or high-risk targets. They must be protected first. Manufacturers of food products, drugs, cosmetics, or other items of mass consumption are potential targets. Vulnerability to determine how the product could be contaminated or altered to pose a threat to a large portion of the population is assessed. If a company hosts events or maintains facilities with large gatherings of

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customers or even employees, it could be considered a target. Even the name of the company could be considered a drawing card. It was more than a coincidence that United and American Airlines were targeted for attacks on September 11. Terrorist networks seek spectacular attacks that cause mass casualties and do severe damage to the US economy. They attempt to produce maximum psychological trauma. Prime targets may be the air transportation industry, significant landmarks, or the energy industry, especially nuclear power plants. Of course, one of the approaches of terrorism is to strike where it is not expected. Special precautions should be taken by the otherwise unsuspecting “soft” institutions, such as hospitals, universities, and schools, and other areas where vulnerabilities exist, and peoples’ guards may be down. The bombing at the Boston Marathon in 2013 was totally unexpected. Financial institutions or those transmitting large amounts of financial data can consider themselves targets. Terrorists may operate from locations outside of the United States, and with the expertise required to hack into any computer network, utilize their skills to raise funds and adversely affect institutions and individuals from anywhere in the world via cyber attacks. Bottlenecks Areas of operation that might act as bottlenecks in the event of attack must be considered. Once vulnerabilities have been evaluated, the next step is to determine where problems are most likely to occur. During the events of 9/11, occupants of the World Trade Center had only the stairs to evacuate. Given the limited amount of time and the access denied to those on the top floor, many were unable to leave. Had the chemical leak at Bhopal, India been a result of a terrorist attack, the results would have been no different. Multiple escape routes and consideration of how and where to flee in the event of an attack can save lives. During the planning process, how evacuation will take place, how long the evacuation will take, whether the primary means of evacuation could be cut off and whether alternate means of getting out are feasible must be considered. Once this is determined, employees are trained on evacuation signals, routes, and gathering spots. Drilling and practice of evacuation procedures help ensure employees will maximize the probability of escape during a terrorist attack. Location of Your Property Obviously, companies in populated areas with high traffic are less likely to notice unusual activity near the facility than those located in rural areas with one road in and one road out of the plant. Terrorists planning to impact large

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numbers of people may well prefer to be in a more populated area for maximum effect. New properties should be carefully examined, from a security standpoint, with special consideration given to the difficulty of protecting real estate. Although much of the decision may be governed by marketing or logistics, there are a few points that should be evaluated. Is the organization in a high-profile area likely to be targeted? City centers, airport, and tourist destinations have been targeted in the past. Is the location easily accessible by vehicular or even pedestrian traffic? Can intruders be kept at a distance from facilities via fences or other barriers? Remote locations are less likely to have police presence, and they can be easier for terrorists to spot from the air. On the other hand, they can be less expensive to protect from ground intruders. Fences and Entrances Protecting the perimeter is relatively easy and inexpensive. Once the perpetrator is inside the facility, the capacity to inflict harm increases dramatically. The likelihood a perpetrator would want to come into the facility by crashing through entranceways or climbing a fence must be considered and plans made accordingly. Fences can be made as secure as desired. Security barriers to prevent cars or large vehicles can be installed. Detectors are available to virtually eliminate the possibility of a perpetrator entering without security forces being made aware. If the perimeter cannot be made “bullet proof,” consideration of what can be done to protect the premises once the intruder is on the inside is made. Airports, arenas, and any public gathering places could be targets. Inspection of bags and other devices that could conceal bombs or weapons, along with screening devices, should also be considered. If it is impossible to screen all entrants to the property, then screening of all entrants to given buildings or venues may be feasible. The ability to lock down specific parts of the establishment or to visually monitor and keep visual recordings of key areas may also serve as protection and deterrence. Common arguments by management are that “this is poor public relations” or “this may damage our business.” The aftereffects of a single attack can dramatically change that line of thinking and an organization’s reputation forever. Clear Area around the Premises Shrubbery, walls, planters, and sculptures may all become potential hiding places for intruders or explosives. Depending on requirements to maintain a field of view, a clear area extending to a specific distance around each building should be maintained. Intruders must not have a place to hide themselves or their explosives.

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Doors, Windows, and Other Openings Doors, windows, and other openings into the property should be secured and possibly alarmed. Technology permits notification anytime a building is penetrated. This is critical when no one is on the premises. If there is a way into the property, it is likely to be through an existing opening. All must be checked, including those on the roof. Guards or alarms can repel access by outsiders. Bullet-resistive film is available to be installed on curtain glass panels, doors and windows of facilities. There are varying levels of protection available, with some film able to stop high-powered assault rifle shots. The cost is relatively low, and when properly installed, the material is highly resistive to the elements. Ventilation and HVAC Systems Ventilation and HVAC systems can be used as points of penetration or as delivery mechanisms for chemicals, including gases. All parts of these systems should be located behind fences or out of reach and secured. Lighting Systems Lighting by itself is a deterrent to some intruders. Poor planning with lighting can cause shaded areas that provide more cover for intruders than no lighting at all. Removing or lowering obstructions that cast enough shade for intruders to hide can make a difference. If they cannot be removed or lowered, lighting to illuminate the shaded areas should be installed. Parking lots provide a special problem with lighting, but isolating them behind fencing with secure entrances to and from the premises can be done. Advances in LED lighting make perimeter lighting more effective, with less light pollution to adjacent areas. Communications Systems Any communication systems used should be tamperproof to the extent possible. Backup systems and secondary backup systems help ensure continuity of operations during an emergency. Communications with outside emergency responders, to help them meet their needs during an adverse event, should be done during the planning process. Safety professionals must check communication systems in day-to-day activities to maximize their effectiveness and familiarize employees with their use. This can also help ensure systems will operate in times of emergency.

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Continuity of Operations Some organizations are including continuity of operations (COOP) plans as supplements to their safety plans to ensure their companies continue to operate, albeit with more limited resources. The ability to continue to operate, even on a less-than-optimal basis, may enable a company to maintain all or a large part of its existing customer base. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) template for COOP plans is available at https://www​.ready​ .gov​/business​/implementation​/continuity Security Systems Technology enables unguarded areas to become virtually impossible to enter undetected. Even moderately sophisticated security systems cannot be disabled or disarmed without sending out an alarm; thus, all openings to the property can be protected. Fences can be enabled to send an alert if any intruder attempts to get close to, cut, climb, or get through them in any way. Pressure systems determine an intruder’s presence, and detectors prevent unnoticed cutting or climbing. Keypads can be located near common entry doors to control access. The systems may also include other devices: • Magnetic contacts to protect doors and windows that open • Glass-breakage sensors to protect windows and glass doors • Motion sensors to detect movement within a defined area • Panic switches that can be manually operated to summon the authorities and/or sound an alarm siren • Window alarm screens, that allow alarm protection with windows wide open • A siren to alert employees and neighbors when an alarm is activated • Smoke and heat detectors to alert employees and the Fire Department of a fire • Environmental sensors such as freeze alarms, water leakage detectors, and carbon monoxide detectors The typical security system can be designed in several ways with several levels of protection. For example, when the business is closed and no one is on the premises, all sensors and windows are activated. If a few employees are working in the evening, they may choose to have the door and window magnetic contacts activated and the motion sensors off. The magnetic contact is a two-part device that protects doors that open. One part of the contact is a switch, installed in the door or window jamb or frame; the other is installed in the door or window itself and contains a magnet that signals an alarm when it moves “out-of-contact” (range) with the switch.

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There are two basic types of glass-breakage sensors: an “acoustic” sensor that is mounted on a wall or ceiling and listens for the sound of breaking glass in a window or door and a “shock” sensor mounted on the window and “feels” the shock of breaking glass. Optimally, a glass-breakage sensor could detect an intruder while he is still outside. A passive infrared motion detector (PIR) is a sensor that detects an intruder by sensing his body heat as he passes through the area “covered” by the PIR. Since PIR’s are motion sensors, they are designed to be used when no one is present or not be moving through the protected areas. Surveillance Systems When combined with an appropriate security system, surveillance systems can be triggered anytime there is movement at any specified level. Sensitivity settings can be adjusted to ignore dogs or other small creatures but to detect human entrance. Cameras record all movements of people on the premises and can easily be connected to a server for 24-hour Internet access. The motion detector can also send an alert via pager or e-mail when there is a disturbance. When a door/window sensor is triggered, it will take snapshots and upload to a remote server for later investigation. The system can automatically link events on one system to actions on others. For example, if it detects an intrusion, it calls up live video in the command center and shows the alarm location on a graphic map. This reduces false alarms and helps security staff respond more quickly. Motion detectors, security codes, and cameras provide information to a smart security system, allowing it to determine whether an individual is an employee, a cleared visitor, or an intruder. Motion detectors trigger an alert, letting the artificial intelligence program know there is someone or something to be evaluated. Facial recognition software and security codes allow the security system to permit employees to enter the facilities while restricting access to other individuals, based on preprogrammed information. In the event the system detects someone unknown, it can provide video of the visitor to security personnel. Visitors who are welcome can be given clearance and allowed in, remotely. Unwelcome visitors can be ignored, and individuals attempting to break in will trigger a security response and a call to the police. Intruders are not the only dangers. A smart security system can also protect and issue an alert to some unanticipated problems. Using the same cameras and motion detectors that protect the outside, the smart system can learn about the habits and normal movements of the employees. When the employee does something unexpected and does not resume normal activities, the system can alert security and emergency services.

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Guards and Sentries Guards may be needed when mechanical or electronic surveillance devices are inadequate. Guarding may require 24-hour, 7-day-per-week coverage or a minimum of four full-time personnel. Depending on needs, animals may provide an adequate level of security, and systems can be adjusted, so animals do not trigger them. Guards must be continually trained and notified of specific threats. Guards are also the most expensive means of security, usually only justified following a cost-benefit analysis. Entry and Movement of Vehicles and Visitors A pass system may be initiated to check all entrants to the premises. Visitors can be screened by checking identification cards or prearranged passes. Employees may also be required to carry identification cards or to wear badges. Electronic badges or biometric identification points are used to monitor movement inside the premises and to limit access to certain locations. Entry and Movement of Employees Another likely scenario is one of the perpetrator entering as an employee. Potential perpetrators may apply for jobs or pose as employees, customers, or visitors. Carefully reviewing the credentials and backgrounds of all new employees is standard practice under any circumstances, but even more so if the facility is subject to terrorist attack. Legal, background, and criminal checks minimize the possibility of employing individuals who propose to destroy the organization. Some states, however, prohibit the use of criminal record checks without permission. Long, unaccounted-for time periods are especially important for review; why potential employees have large gaps in their employment history and work should be questioned and verified. Another level of screening—and one which airport operators have long urged FAA/TSA to implement—is a requirement to re-badge all employees on a regular (possibly, two-year) basis (Robert Raffel (personal communication, August 11, 2009). Excessive cost has been cited as the major reason this hasn’t happened. Computers and Networks Sensitive data, vulnerabilities, access points, and other critical information are frequently stored on accessible computers. Implementing the use of a firewall to help prevent outsiders from roaming through the system can help prevent intrusions. If that isn’t feasible, computers with sensitive information

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can be physically and electronically isolated from others in the operation. When not in use they, can be made more inaccessible by disconnecting them from any internet or intranet system. Threats Terrorist threats may come indirectly via alerts received in the news media, as disseminated by the FBI or Homeland Security. They may also come directly as bomb threats or other threatened hostilities aimed at disrupting company operations. The goal is often to disrupt operations, whether or not a bomb exists or other hostilities are planned. Threats need to be taken seriously, but decisions concerning their handling should be made in advance. Cool thinking prevails as the “What if?” game is played. In the heat of a terrorist disaster or even a threat, it may be difficult to make wise decisions. For possible threats faced, as with any other potential emergency, standard operating procedures (SOPs) must be developed. Regularly scheduled tabletop and fullscale exercises can be extremely worthwhile for anticipating hypothetical, but potentially real situations. Once the threat of disaster no longer fits the mold around which the SOPs are developed, then the necessary, subsequent changes must be made. By following SOPs, the whole organization operates in a more rational, cohesive, and intelligent manner. Terrorist threats are often designed to disrupt the organization. A threat of a bomb or some other terrorist action may only be done to slow or halt production. Yielding to such demands may be the only response the terrorist seeks and may encourage the action to be repeated. Attempting to identify the terrorist or the person delivering the threat is helpful. Receptionists and others receiving the call are instructed to learn all they can about the caller. It is important not only to ask questions about the type of bomb and where it may be hidden, but also to ask the caller for name and address. The caller may respond to the question without thinking and, when otherwise not identifiable, the source of the call is then learned. Their responses may also give insight into the true nature of the threat. Whether or not a threat is perceived to be legitimate, decisions must be made as whether to evacuate or protect-in-place. It may be safer to stay inside than to move outside the building. A threat may, in fact, be designed to lure workers or a particular employee outside the building for malevolent reasons. Mail and Packages Procedures for handling of mail and packages help lessen the possibility that bombs or toxic substances can be delivered to the mailroom and disseminated. Hand-addressed envelopes and packages are automatically suspect,

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as are those of unknown origin or with no return address. Mailrooms should always be located on the perimeter of the building so, in the unlikely event of an explosion or contamination, damage can be limited. SAFETY PROFESSIONAL’S ROLE Once the possibilities have been considered, management is advised as to the risks the company faces. A plan to deal with threats and acts of terrorism is prepared. Consideration for employees at every level and their appropriate responses are addressed. In most cases, employees are instructed to evacuate. Thought must be given as to how and where they will move. Employees with loved ones will likely want to unite with them quickly. In major cities, evacuation routes may be jammed and chaos will prevail if companies and municipalities have not worked together to determine routes and destinations. A written plan to be implemented in conjunction with municipal plans is essential. Following the disaster at the World Trade Center, bridges and tunnels were closed for security purposes. Many employees were trapped in Manhattan and unable to communicate with loved ones. In some cases, days or months passed, before relatives learned whether loved ones had been injured or killed. Appropriate preplanning with governmental authorities can help minimize the effects of transportation and communication problems. Careful coordination with appropriate agencies that will become part of any response to terrorist activity is important. Representatives of local fire departments, police departments, and emergency-aid providers should be consulted and included in any planning activities. They are often willing to work with organizations in response to hypothetical scenarios that may play out at some time in the future. INSURANCE The last approach to any loss-control problem is insurance. Companies purchase insurance, in case all efforts at loss prevention or control fail. Historically, insurance companies have refused to pay losses resulting from acts of war. Some major insurance companies are also excluding acts of terrorism. The potential for loss from such acts can be catastrophic for an individual carrier, and it may not be willing to run the risk. The federal government has promised to help, but it has capped its own liability. Companies may be forced to negotiate with insurance carriers in agreeing to take certain precautionary measures resulting in higher standards of prevention efforts in return for coverage. The alternative may be no coverage or very limited coverage.

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CONCLUSION There is no way to absolutely eliminate the risks faced with terrorism. As with all forms of safety, the goal is to minimize exposure. Huge sums of funds can be spent in pursuit of this task; however, one thwarted terrorist attempt may make this expenditure a worthwhile investment. A thorough risk analysis of the potential problems and the resulting costs should be incorporated into the overall safety analysis. QUESTIONS 1. Talk to representatives from the local fire and police departments. Ask what preparations for terrorism they are helping local companies to make. 2. Why has the safety and health professional become the primary individual responsible for corporate terrorism response preparation? What is his or her role relative to that of line management? 3. From an insurance perspective, why would carriers be unwilling to underwrite companies against terrorist losses? What alternatives are available to the companies? 4. What companies are vulnerable to terrorist attack in your community? Why? Do they appear to be taking efforts to thwart those attacks? What efforts are they taking? 5. What steps can the government take that companies are unable to take in order to lessen the probability of terrorist attack? REFERENCES Ellis, R., Fantz, A., Karimi, F., & McLaughlin, E. C. (2016, June 13). Orlando shooting: 49 killed, shooter pledged ISIS allegiance. CNN U.S. Retrieved from http:// www​.cnn​.com​/2016​/06​/12​/us​/orlando​-nightclub​-shooting/. Haelle, T. (2021, September 10). Health effects of 9/11 still plague responders and survivors. Scientific American. Retrieved from https://www​ .scientificamerican​ .com​/article​/health​-effects​-of​-9​-11​-still​-plague​-responders​-and​-survivors/. History. (2016). This day in history. A&E Networks Digital. Retrieved from http:// www​.history​.com​/this​-day​-in​-history​/massacre​-at​-virginia​-tech​-leaves​-32​-dead. Inland Regional Center. (2016). Our mission and core values. Retrieved from http:// inlandrc​.org​/about​-us​/our​-mission​-core​-values/. Torres-Cortez, R. (2021). Las Vegas to Mark 4th anniversary of October 1st tragedy. Retrieved November 30, 2021, from https://lasvegassun​.com​/news​/2021​/sep​/30​/las​ -vegas​-to​-mark​-4th​-anniversary​-of​-oct​-1​-tragedy/. U.S. Department of State. (2002). September 11, 2001: Basic Facts. Retrieved September 6, 2006, from http://www​.state​.gov​/coalition​/cr​/fs​/12701​.htm.

Chapter 15

Handling Hazardous Materials and Wastes Tracy L. Zontek

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to • determine the difference between types of waste; • describe the purpose and intent of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA); • describe the purpose and intent of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA); • describe the purpose and intent of the SARA; and • outline the Hazard Communications Standard (HAZCOM); • describe why the Globally Harmonized System for Hazard Communication of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals (GHS) is critical to hazardous material management; • analyze how different pieces of legislation have controlled hazardous materials exposures; • identify gaps in current regulations; • study ways to better manage hazardous waste in the future CASE STUDY Two employees of a North Carolina company were helping to unload a truck on a warm, sunny day when they inadvertently punctured a container of an unknown liquid chemical. A quick check of the contents revealed they had spilled a concentrated pesticide, intended to be mixed with water before application. Their first response was to grab a garden hose and use the water 331

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pressure to push it to one side. In a short time, they began to feel faint and short of breath, so they decided to ask for help. Since no one at the facility had specialized training to deal with the spill, the manager on duty called the local fire department and an ambulance. When the fire department arrived, it soon became evident their personnel lacked the training to deal with spills of hazardous chemicals. They formulated a plan to wash the remainder into the storm drain and use a vacuum truck to intercept the waste as it flowed through the system. A few minutes after the flushing began, the crew at the spill site received a call from the group at the truck asking how soon the flushing would begin. As it turns out, the truck was stationed at the wrong storm-sewer opening, and it missed capturing the contents. By the time all the mistakes were remedied, cleanup costs amounted to over $50,000. The employees were held overnight at the hospital for observation and released with no lasting health effects.

THE ROLE OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) wears many hats: developing standards, conducting inspections, implementing enforcement actions, providing grants, studying environmental issues themselves and with businesses and nonprofit organizations, teaching people about the environment, and publishing information about environmental issues in plain language. The EPA is divided into multiple offices at EPA headquarters and ten regional offices around the nation. The first role of the EPA is to write regulations for Congress to authorize, thus becoming legally enforceable. EPA regulations are found in the US Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Title 40: Protection of Environment. State-level agencies administer how EPA regulations are implemented, including compliance assistance, permits, and training. Each state can create more stringent regulations than the EPA, but they must meet minimum EPA requirements. The EPA also ensures compliance, conducting inspections and investigating incidents. The Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance (OECA) conducts inspections to ensure compliance with environmental requirements, such as hazardous waste generation facilities and treatment, storage, and disposal facilities (TSDs). EPA forms and reporting are completed online, and a review of these documents provides a first look into regulatory compliance. The compliance officer may also inspect the facility and fill out an inspection report. During the inspection, the compliance officer will do a walk-through tour of the facility, take pictures of any violations, and review the necessary paperwork. The compliance officer will have a closing

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interview with the operator of the facility and point out any violations. A notice of violation (NOV) will be sent by certified mail. Any violations must be corrected within the mutually agreed-upon period specified on the NOV. The compliance officer will conduct a follow-up inspection to make sure all the violations are corrected. At a certain level, the EPA acts as judge and jury when a violation is not corrected within the given period or when penalties for a violation are assessed. Enforcement actions can include civil penalties or criminal charges, which can lead to fines and/or imprisonment. If an EPA inspection does result in a citation, the facility may choose to contest the citation through an appeal process within the EPA, instead of paying the fine. The facility has 30 days after receiving the NOV to contest the citation. The vast majority of federal environmental violations are handled directly by the EPA. However, some critical and contested cases do wind up in the federal courts. Many environmental statutes contain provisions for criminal penalties. Violations of the criminal provisions are adjudicated in the courts rather than through administrative actions. Under certain, rather narrow circumstances, companies may appeal adverse EPA decisions on regulatory violations to the courts. The Office of General Counsel is responsible for providing legal guidance on policy development, providing legal approval of state environmental programs, and litigating enforcement actions. EPA also has separate federal offices for different environmental issues: Office of Air and Radiation, Office of Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention, Office of Land and Emergency Management, and Office of Water. In addition, there are ten regional offices strategically placed around the United States that work more locally on environmental issues. The regional offices support local, collaborative research and work with companies to address specific regional issues.

HAZARDOUS MATERIALS Hazardous materials encompass a wide range of ingredients essential to the manufacture of products used in everyday life. Examples include explosives, flammables and combustibles, and highly toxic and radioactive materials. Manufacturers are responsible for each material from ordering or manufacturing it (cradle) to the ultimate use or disposal (grave). This includes any issues during transportation, storage, transfer, production, intermediary/ by-product releases, and disposal. Materials that have a health or physical hazard are determined hazardous and they are regulated by different agencies and rules based on their use and process. The next section will discuss how hazardous materials are regulated in the United States. It is important to note

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that all OSHA regulations must also be followed and are not addressed in this section; see the chapter on industrial hygiene for insights into protecting workers.

LEGISLATIVE OVERVIEW The increase in environmental regulation may be the most significant lifeimproving development in the United States in the last 50 years. As climate change impacts every community and organization, the careful use and disposal of hazardous materials is critical to the future of the planet. Occupational health and safety practitioners need at a minimum, a basic understanding of the structure, scope, and framework of these laws to effectively measure and evaluate the nature of the compliance task before them. Many of the environmental problems faced by the safety practitioner are covered or touched on by the RCRA. When this act was passed in 1976, Congress was attempting to complete a series of legislative acts designed to protect citizens and the environment. A brief overview of some of the legislation that led to the passage of RCRA is insightful to understanding the origins of the regulation. The Hazardous Materials Transportation Act (HMTA) was passed in 1975 to give the Department of Transportation (DOT) the authority to regulate the transportation of hazardous materials by air, waterways, rail, or highway. To avoid exposing large, populated areas to significant risks from exposure to hazardous materials, the DOT was given authority to establish the safest routes for hazardous materials shipping. In 1976, Congress passed the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), giving broad powers to the EPA to regulate the production and use of potentially hazardous chemicals and to ensure that new chemicals do not pose unreasonable hazards. TSCA was updated in 2016, requiring timelines for EPA chemical evaluation and updated risk-based safety standards. Under the TSCA, the EPA may require a company to submit test data on specified chemicals. Any company intending to manufacture or import a chemical not listed on the TSCA Chemical Substance Inventory must submit a pre-manufacture notice (PMN) at least 90 days in advance of the manufacture or import of a new chemical or hazardous material. The EPA may then prohibit the manufacture, process, or distribution of the chemical. EPA may also place limits on the chemical production or ban its production. The purpose of TSCA is to investigate the health and use implications of new chemicals; however, it does not cover food, drugs, cosmetics, or pesticides. After the passage of the HMTA and TSCA, Congress put the finishing touches on its hazardous material legislation with the passage of RCRA.

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RCRA gives the EPA the authority to control the generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous chemicals. RCRA requirements often fall within the scope of the safety practitioner’s responsibilities, not only because of the natural relationship that management perceives between environmental and safety responsibilities, but also because of subsequent legislation that will be discussed later. For those facilities handling large amounts of hazardous materials, the Accidental Release Prevention Requirements: Risk Management Program Requirements under the Clean Air Act, analogous to OSHA’s Process Safety Management regulation, requires businesses to consider and plan for accidental releases and their appropriate response. The GHS was adopted by the United Nations in 2003 to reduce trade barriers and make hazard information uniform, thus increasing productivity, reducing confusion across country borders, and decreasing incidents. The GHS provides an updated method to classify health and physical hazards; labels to delineate a signal word, pictogram, and hazard statement for each hazard class and category; a 16-section format to Safety Data Sheets (SDS), formally known as Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS); and information and training requirements for the system. Although the GHS is not international law, the United States has changed its regulations to align with the GHS. A more detailed analysis of key legislation related to hazardous materials and waste is detailed for more in-depth understanding. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act The RCRA was passed by Congress to implement a program to protect human and environmental health from the indiscriminate management of hazardous and nonhazardous waste. It is what is commonly referred to as the “cradle-to-grave” regulation for hazardous waste. (See Figure 15.1) RCRA can be administered by the EPA or under state EPA plans. State-administered EPA programs must meet and/or exceed the standards set by the federal EPA. The program has evolved to restore contaminated lands, promote incentives to reduce greenhouse gases, and increase municipal solid waste recycling/ composting rates. RCRA has three distinct programs: • Subtitle C: Manages hazardous waste from cradle to grave • Subtitle D: Manages nonhazardous industrial solid and municipal solid waste • Subtitle I: Manages Underground Storage Tanks Hazardous Waste Waste is something unwanted, usually a solid, liquid, or contained gas. It is the responsibility of the generator to determine if the waste is nonhazardous,

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hazardous, or acutely hazardous. The EPA classifies waste as hazardous if, through improper handling, it can cause injury or death or can damage or pollute the environment. To determine if a waste is hazardous, it is necessary to refer to the Code of Federal Regulations at 40 CFR Part 261, “Identification and Listing of Hazardous Waste.” In this section, a waste is considered hazardous if it is (1) a listed waste or (2) a characteristic waste. Listed wastes include four lists identified by the letters F, K, P, and U that together describe 400 hazardous wastes. The F-list includes hazardous waste from nonspecific sources or generic waste streams, whereas the K-list covers hazardous wastes from specific sources. F-list wastes are more general and K-list wastes are generated by a specific manufacturing process. Those on the P-list are considered acutely toxic hazardous wastes. The U-list identifies commercial chemical products, chemical intermediates, and off-specification chemical products. Some states may include additional lists in this section, such as Kentucky’s N-list, which covers nerve and blistering agents. Wastes that appear on any of these sections are referred to as “listed wastes.” If a waste cannot be found on one of the RCRA lists (and most are not), this does not mean it is not hazardous. Unlisted waste must still be tested to determine if it has certain properties or characteristics that render it hazardous. A characteristic waste is hazardous if it has one or more of the following properties: ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity. On a practical basis, the SDS should provide information to determine if the product meets any of these definitions. Ignitable wastes have a flash point lower than 60°C as tested by the Pensky-Martens Closed Cup Method or the Setaflash Closed-Cup method. Corrosive wastes are those that are acidic (at or below a pH of 2) or caustic (at or above a pH of 12.5), based on the ability of the liquid to corrode steel. Reactive wastes produce violent results under normal conditions or when mixed with water, air, or other chemicals. Results include explosions and the generation of toxic gases. Toxic characteristic wastes contain specified percentages of specific metals, pesticides, or organic chemicals and are discovered by testing the waste stream with the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP). This test is used to determine the amount of chemicals that would leach into the groundwater under specific conditions. Wastes that exhibit any one of the above characteristics are referred to as characteristic wastes or TCLP wastes and are coded as D wastes. Mixed wastes are those wastes that have both hazardous materials and radioactive materials. These are regulated under RCRA and the Atomic Energy Act of 1954. Generally speaking, the radioactive component takes priority over the chemical components of mixed waste. These types of wastes are complex and costly to dispose of, so minimization is critical.

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Determining Generator Status Once it has been determined the waste produced is hazardous, the facility becomes a hazardous waste generator. To determine the generator status of a facility, the total hazardous waste generated per calendar month must be determined. The correct generator status is significant because different regulations apply to each different status. A facility is a very small quantity generator (VSQG) if it produces less than 100 kilograms or less of hazardous waste per month and no more than 1 kg of acutely hazardous waste per month. If, however, a VSQG stores more than 1,000 kilograms of hazardous waste on-site at any time, it becomes a small-quantity generator. A VSQG is not required to obtain an EPA identification number, but most licensed waste haulers will require an EPA identification number to ship the waste off-site. As a VSQG, it is still required that all waste is sent to a facility that is regulated, permitted, licensed, and/or registered to appropriately handle the type of waste generated. A facility is a small quantity generator (SQG) if it produces between 100 kilograms and 1,000 kilograms of hazardous waste per month. SQGs are required to obtain an EPA identification number and complete the hazardous waste manifest. They can accumulate up to 6,000 kilograms of hazardous waste in any 180 days. If, however, the hazardous waste is to be transported more than 200 miles, the generator is allowed to accumulate hazardous waste up to 270 days. SQGs must also ensure they have completed the preparedness and prevention requirements of the regulation, and at least one employee must be available at all times to respond to an emergency. A large quantity generator (LQG) is a facility that produces 1,000 kilograms or more of hazardous waste or more than 1 kilogram of acutely hazardous waste per month. LQGs are allowed to accumulate hazardous waste for 90 days, and there is no limit to the quantity stored on-site. There are additional containment requirements for hazardous waste, and for prevention and emergency procedures. Unique to LQG, facilities must also submit a biennial, hazardous waste report. Only VSQGs are exempt from most RCRA regulations. Other generators must have EPA identification numbers. Some states may have regulations more stringent than those of the federal government. The practitioner should check with the state EPA, if there are any questions about a given facility. In addition, there are unique requirements for universal wastes (batteries, pesticides, mercury-containing equipment, aerosol cans, and bulbs), pharmaceutical hazardous wastes (hospitals, healthcare facilities, pharmacies), and waste generated at academic laboratories.​ There are six steps to complying with the regulations for hazardous waste. First, every hazardous waste generated must be identified. A waste may not

Figure 15.1  An Overview of the EPA’s Cradle-to-Grave Hazardous Waste Management System Source: EPA (2021), https://www​.epa​.gov​/hw.

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be labeled as “unknown,” as an analysis is required before it can be disposed of properly. Unidentified waste tends to be extremely costly, so careful management (including accurate labeling) of all hazardous materials is essential. Next, a facility should sum the total weight of all hazardous wastes to determine generator status: large, small, or very small. After identifying the waste, the facility must notify the EPA using the consolidated RCRA Subtitle C Site Identification form. This form will assist with reporting requirements and obtaining an EPA Identification number; many states and the EPA use the online MyRCRAID system for electronic reporting options (not available in all states). In addition, this discussion focuses on EPA requirements, states and municipalities may have additional, more rigorous requirements. Fourth, the facility must then manage the hazardous waste according to their status requirements. The management of hazardous waste must be documented carefully to demonstrate compliance. When waste is ready to be transported off-site, SGQ and LQG must complete a hazardous waste manifest; this ensures the hazardous waste is tracked cradle-to-grave. The fifth step in the process allows small and large quantity generators to recycle and/or treat their hazardous waste, so that it can be disposed of as nonhazardous waste. Recycling or treating on-site hazardous waste does not generally require a permit. An example of an on-site treatment is neutralizing an acid to a neutral pH (about 7), assuming the resultant mixture will not be otherwise hazardous. Hazardous waste may not be disposed of on-site, unless a disposal permit has been obtained. Since most facilities do not dispose of waste themselves, they must select a licensed hazardous waste hauler and disposal facility. Companies must ship waste with qualified haulers and to facilities with EPA ID numbers. Either the waste generator or the hauler must package and label wastes for shipping and prepare a hazardous waste manifest. Once the hazardous waste is shipped off-site, it is still the responsibility of the generator (cradle-to-grave). Incineration of the waste by a licensed treatment facility is usually the selection of choice because the waste is destroyed, and no future liability can be incurred. Land disposal requires land ban exemption forms to be filed and future liability ensues. Managing Hazardous Waste On-Site There are many regulations regarding how and where hazardous waste can be stored on-site. These include requirements for the type of containers or tanks used for waste accumulation and secondary containment. They also address labeling, proper identification of the waste, accumulation start and stop dates, and operational logbooks. Proper storage during the accumulation period is necessary to prevent accidents and/or spills (See Figures 15.2–15.5). Some of the basic requirements for temporary storage include the label “Hazardous Waste,”

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proper identification of the waste, and the accumulation start dates for each container or tank. Containers or tanks must be kept closed except when filled or emptied, and operational logbooks must be kept, recording any activity, including weekly inspections for leaks. Safety equipment must also be provided and inspected weekly. Inspection reports and a written emergency plan must be kept on file. Incompatible chemicals must be segregated, and three feet of aisle space must be maintained in the accumulation area. Signs must be posted, identifying the area as a hazardous materials storage. Documentation is essential to demonstrate compliance. Hazardous waste-generation management requires many levels of detailed procedures and recordkeeping. When hazardous waste is transported off-site, the package must comply with the US DOT regulations. DOT has implemented the GHS to assist in the safe transport of hazardous chemicals. There are specific regulations if hazardous materials and/or waste are imported or exported to the United States; these should be investigated thoroughly before shipping. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) Once RCRA was passed in 1976, Congress no doubt believed most of the environmental problems with hazardous chemicals had been addressed. It wasn’t until the discovery of Love Canal and other similar problems in the late 1970s that Congress realized there was a significant hole in its plan. Love Canal was built near Niagara Falls, New York, in the 1800s to link waterways. Although it was never completed, the canal, in the form of a halfmile ditch, remained until the Hooker Chemical Company purchased it in the early part of the twentieth century as a dumpsite for hazardous waste. Once full, the canal was covered and eventually wound up as the building site for a school with residential properties nearby. When this and other abandoned sites were exposed as significant threats to human and environmental health, Congress realized it had not addressed the problems associated with existing waste sites. Thus, in 1980, the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) was passed. CERCLA, or Superfund, as it is sometimes called, gives the government authority to pursue potentially responsible parties (PRPs) for past and future cleanup costs at abandoned waste dumps and other places where hazardous substances have been released. This is funded via a trust from taxes on the chemical and petroleum industries. PRPs include existing owners and operators, former owners and operators, transporters to the site, generators of the waste, and others. Any person found to be even partially responsible for creating the hazardous waste site could potentially be held completely responsible for its cleanup. This law affects sites that were in existence before

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the legislation was passed, as well as sites that may have been legal at the time of their creation. EPA cast a wide net to encompass as many potentially responsible parties as possible under this regulation. Unknowing parties could be held responsible for thousands or even millions of dollars of cleanup costs through CERCLA. When PRP cannot be found or are bankrupt, the trust provides some funding for abandoned or uncontrolled hazardous waste sites. This offers financial incentives for companies to correctly and safely manage their hazardous materials and waste. CERCLA authorized two types of response actions: short-term removal (requires a prompt response) and long-term removal (not immediately lifethreatening). To qualify for a long-term remedial response, the site must appear on EPA’s National Priorities List. Sites can be placed on the National Priorities list, if they score 28.8 or higher on the Hazard Ranking System, are identified by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry with a public health advisory, or are designated by a US state or territory. Another aspect to CERLCLA is the National Contingency Plan, establishing national and regional response teams following notification of any discharge or release to the National Response Center. This provides the framework for a wellplanned emergency response effort. In summary, CERCLA was designed to restore lands previously contaminated with hazardous materials and provide disincentives for improper management of hazardous waste. This in turn, decreases threats to human health and the environment. Unfortunately, the measures taken still required further refinement, as seen in the next section SARA.​​​​ Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) One of the most immense tasks an individual responsible for environmental regulations must do is gather and maintain documentation and ensure it is submitted in a timely fashion to the correct agencies, state, or federal. These responsibilities were increased with the passage of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) in 1986. SARA was proposed as a more stringent response to hazardous waste management, based on the first six years of the CERCLA. SARA and CERCLA address hazardous substance releases into the environment and the cleanup of inactive hazardous waste disposal sites. The passage of SARA focused more on permanent solutions using innovative treatment technology, standards found in other state and federal regulations, additional enforcement and settlement tools, increased state involvement, a focus on human health, and stronger citizen participation in the cleanup process. Titles I and II feature the major changes to sections of CERCLA, while Title V discusses Superfund and its revenues. One update from SARA was

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Figure 15.2  Example of a Hazardous Material Accumulation/Dispensing Center with Spill Containment Source: Photograph courtesy of Justrite Manufacturing Co., LLC, Des Plaines, IL.

the revision of the Hazard Ranking System that places hazardous waste sites on the National Priorities List. Superfund sites, where known releases of hazardous substances have occurred or are threatening to occur, are found on the National Priorities List (NPL), based on their hazard ranking. These sites are areas where the land is significantly contaminated and warrant further study and/or remediation through the EPA. EPA’s website has an interactive “Search for National Priorities List (NPL) Superfund Sites” function that allows citizens to learn about Superfund sites in their geographical location. The Hazard Ranking System was updated to more accurately assess the degree of risk to human health that is posed by the uncontrolled hazardous waste site.

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Figure 15.3  Example of a Single-Drum Hazardous Material Collection Station Source: Photograph courtesy of Justrite Manufacturing Co., LLC, Des Plaines, IL.

The most significant section is Title III of SARA, the Emergency Planning & Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA), developed in response to the Bhopal, India tragedy when methyl isocyanate was accidentally released on an unknowing public, leading to widespread death and decades of environmental contamination and human suffering. EPCRA ensured that companies submit their inventory of hazardous materials to the Local Emergency Planning Commission (LEPC) made up of local health officials, local government, industrial facilities, emergency managers, media, and community members. Local governments are required to prepare chemical emergency response plans and review at least annually; state governments coordinate

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Figure 15.4  Example of a Four-Drum Hazardous Material Pallet with Spill Containment Source: Photograph courtesy of Justrite Manufacturing Co., LLC, Des Plaines, IL.

local planning efforts via State Emergency Response Commissions. Facilities above threshold limits of hazardous chemicals must submit SDS to local fire departments and state and local governments. Facilities are also required to provide emergency notification of accidental releases when the release has met reportable quantities (RQ); in addition, they must annually submit a toxic chemical release inventory form. In 2018 as part of America’s Water Infrastructure Act, states were required to notify drinking water treatment facilities of any reportable released and hazardous chemical inventories. These regulations allowed communities, their emergency response workers, local government, and media to understand the hazards present and how they are being controlled and in an emergency, how response will take place. Emergencies are prevented, and in the unlikely event they occur, an integrated plan has been developed for response, hazard communication, and recovery. In addition to community benefits, workers involved in the investigation and remediation of Superfund sites are better trained and monitored to prevent adverse health effects from cleanup efforts, as seen in the Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response regulation.

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Figure 15.5  (A) Example of Hazardous Material Perforated Absorption Mat, (B) Example of Spill Containment Sock Source: Photograph courtesy of New Pig Corporation, Tipton, PA.

Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) sets requirements for the health and safety of hazardous waste workers, RCRA site workers, and emergency responders. These requirements are found in the Code of Federal Regulations at 29 CFR 1910.120, Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER), which is an outgrowth of SARA Title I.

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Employees who work in hazardous waste operations should be able to perform their duties safely and be assured their health is not at risk. HAZWOPER is a group of standards that facilities must follow to protect the health and safety of their employees in a hazardous waste operation or emergency response involving hazardous substances. This regulation applies to workers involved in hazardous-waste-site cleanup operations; those who work at treatment, storage, and disposal facilities; and emergency response operations with hazardous substance releases. In addition, for those states who have OSHA-approved State Plans, local and state public-sector workers may also be covered. HAZWOPER is applied to activities that require immediate attention where there is an uncontrolled release of a hazardous substance, or where an uncontrolled release is likely to occur. This includes facilities that generate hazardous waste and have the potential for an emergency to occur. HAZWOPER regulations are broad in scope to protect worker health and safety. The following describes key measures taken that upgrade traditional OSHA regulations due to the increased risks placed on employees. • Written safety and health program identifies, evaluates, and controls hazards, also describes emergency response procedures. • Site Characterization and Analysis requires a formal hazard analysis of the site and the development of a site-specific plan for worker protection (engineering controls, work practices, personal protective equipment). • Site Control requires the controlling of employee exposure to hazardous substances before the initiation of hazardous waste operations. • Training Requirements ensure there is initial and routine training of workers before they are permitted to engage in hazardous waste operations that could expose them to toxic substances. Training should be site and job-specific. • Medical Surveillance necessitates a program of regular medical examination, monitoring and surveillance of workers engaged in hazardous waste operations (chest X-ray, pulmonary function test, blood analysis for chemical metabolites, hearing test). • Controls must start with engineering controls, then administrative, and the last line of defense is personal protective equipment. • Monitoring ensures air concentrations do not exceed the OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits (PEL) or Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH) limits for workers engaged in hazardous waste operations, including the necessary air monitoring and assessment procedures to ensure compliance and employee safety. • Informational Programs inform workers engaged in hazardous waste operations before they begin work at the site.

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• Handling hazardous substances requires procedures for opening, managing, moving, handling, transporting, labeling, and disposing of waste. Each potential action and negative outcome is considered and planned for in advance. • Decontamination involves ensuring workers are properly decontaminated, and contaminated equipment is properly disposed of or decontaminated. • Working conditions require site to have potable water, toilets, handwashing stations, showers, change rooms, temporary sleeping area, and food handling facilities. Workers must also have proper illumination. • New technology programs should be developed and implemented to improve worker protection. • Emergency Response include the requirements for emergency response and protection of workers engaged in hazardous waste operations. Furthermore, HAZWOPER sets standards on the amount of training employees at hazardous waste sites must have to protect their health and safety. Workers involved in hazardous waste operations must be trained for a minimum of 40 hours of initial instruction, off-site, including three days of actual field experience under trained supervision. The employees must have additional training, if the hazards they are working with are unique or special. Supervisors must have the same training as the other employees, plus an additional eight hours of specialized training on managing a hazardous waste operation. Workers at treatment, storage, and disposal facilities and emergency responders must have a minimum of 24 hours of initial training. Workers in all categories must complete an eight-hour refresher course annually. Workers at sites where hazardous waste is generated must also be trained in 29 CFR 1910.1200, the Hazard Communication Standard (also referred to as HAZCOM). Although SDSs and some other parts of the standard are not required for hazardous waste generation, they must be addressed relative to the chemicals that have been identified on-site. HAZCOM requires companies to maintain a file of all SDSs, label all hazardous chemicals, and train workers in the handling of hazardous chemicals. As hazardous materials and waste are moved off-site from a Superfund site or a company, the DOT regulations enter the compliance obligations. Hazardous Waste Manifest System The DOT Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) regulations and EPA require hazardous waste to be properly packaged in containers acceptable for transportation on public roads. This entails additional requirements and training to ensure proper labeling of containers includes the identification of the waste, the words “Hazardous Waste,” and the proper DOT waste codes and placards based on hazards. DOT has implemented the

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GHS. DOT also requires a uniform hazardous waste manifest; available via the e-Manifest online system. This is a shipping document that must accompany all hazardous waste shipments. A Hazardous Waste Manifest must be used for all generators of hazardous waste who transport hazardous waste or offer hazardous waste for transport, off-site treatment, recycling, storage, or disposal. The generator must ensure the manifest is completed with the type and quantity of each waste, along with handling instructions and signature lines for everyone involved in the ultimate disposal. Each party handling the waste must sign the manifest and retain a copy to ensure accountability throughout the process to disposal. Each party is now (partially) responsible for that waste. The system is designed so that hazardous waste can be tracked from the generator to the final destination or disposal, or cradle-to-grave. The waste in the shipment must be the same as the waste listed on the manifest; no exceptions or unknown waste are permitted. Hazard Communication Standard HAZWOPER introduced the Hazard Communication Standard to protect employees from hazardous materials. OSHA estimates tens of millions of US workers are potentially exposed to one or more hazardous chemicals in their workplaces. There are hundreds of thousands of hazardous chemicals found in the workplace, with numerous new ones being introduced each year. The chemicals can be either health hazards, physical hazards, or in some cases, both. Simple rashes or more serious conditions such as burns, sterility, lung damage, heart ailments, kidney damage, or cancer is associated with exposures to hazardous chemicals and wastes. Protecting the employee from the harmful effects of hazardous chemical exposures is a formidable task for the employer. In order for a chemical to harm an individual’s health, it must come in contact with or enter the body via inhalation, absorption, ingestion, and injection. For the employer to develop and implement control measures to block these routes of entry, all pertinent information about a chemical is essential. In 1983, OSHA enacted the Hazard Communication Standard to confront the seriousness of this health and safety problem. Many employees did not understand the threats to health and protective measures involved in using hazardous materials. The purpose of this standard was to ensure the hazards from all chemicals produced or imported are evaluated, and the hazard information is transmitted downstream to all affected parties. The rule also guarantees the workers’ right to know about the hazardous chemicals in their workplaces; therefore, it was often referred to as the right-to-know standard. After the passage of SARA, it has been typically referred to as the HAZCOM Standard.

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Global Harmonization The HAZCOM standard has been updated to align with the GHS. The most significant change from HAZCOM to GHS is the use of hazard classes and categories. GHS provides more quantitative measures to assess the hazard class and category of a chemical or mixture. Health hazard classification guidance is given for the following: acute toxicity; skin corrosion/irritation; serious eye damage/eye irritation; respiratory or skin sensitization; germ cell mutagenicity; carcinogenicity; reproductive toxicity; specific target organ toxicity and aspiration hazard. Physical hazard classification guidance is given for: explosives; flammable gases; flammable aerosols; oxidizing gases; gases under pressure; flammable liquids; flammable solids; self-reactive chemicals; pyrophoric liquids; pyrophoric solids; self-heating chemicals; chemicals which, in contact with water, emit flammable gases; oxidizing liquids; oxidizing solids; organic peroxides and corrosive to metals. This provides common definitions, language, and hazard classes among all countries. Interestingly, hazardous waste under RCRA and CERCLA is excluded from the provisions of the standard; however, there are similar, often more stringent, requirements under these standards. There are four basic requirements under HAZCOM: a written hazard communication program, labeling, SDS, and employee training. While these may seem simple upon first glance, compliance is complex. For example, the employer must develop, implement, and maintain a written hazard communication program that contains at least the following information: • Information explaining labels and other forms of warning. • Information on location and availability of SDSs. • Details of how the employee training requirements are to be satisfied. • A list of all the hazardous chemicals known to be present in the workplace. • Methods the employer will use to inform employees of the hazards involved in nonroutine tasks and the hazards associated with chemicals contained in unlabeled pipes in their work areas. Organizations requiring contracted services in their facility where hazardous materials are used or stored must inform those contracted employees of all hazards present. This must be part of the written program: the methods and procedures the employer will use to provide all contractors with SDSs, information on labeling and other forms of warning, and information concerning precautions needed to protect their employees and contractors while on-site. As noted earlier, documentation is critical. The first thing an EPA or OSHA compliance offer will request is documentation. Thus, employees must understand and abide by employer efforts to comply with standards.

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Chemical manufacturers, distributors, or importers must ensure that each container of hazardous chemicals leaving their locale is labeled, tagged, or marked with the following information: • Identity of the hazardous chemical • Signal word • Hazard statement(s) • Pictogram(s) • Precautionary statement(s) • Name, address, and telephone number of the manufacturer, distributor, importer, or other responsible parties Concerning labeling, it should be noted that other information is often required to comply with other regulations and standards beyond the scope of HAZCOM, such as DOT packaging requirements. When receiving shipments of chemicals and then storing and using on-site requires the employer to: • Ensure that all incoming shipments are properly labeled and the information is in English • Ensure each container of hazardous chemicals in the workplace is labeled, tagged, or marked with the GHS shipping label OR product identifier and words, pictures, symbols, or a combination that provide chemical hazard information • Ensure all labels on existing stock are in place, legible, and are not removed or defaced • Ensure chemical labels are revised within six months of new information • Ensure all portable containers are labeled unless it is for the immediate use of the employee that makes the transfer.​ Safety Data Sheets Chemical manufacturers or importers must develop an SDS for each hazardous chemical or product. These SDSs should be sent to the distributor (e.g., Grainger) or user before or with the initial chemical shipment. An SDS must be sent with each initial shipment after each subsequent SDS update— updates are required within three months upon new significant information regarding chemical hazards or controls. The employer must maintain a current SDS for each hazardous chemical or mixture present in the workplace. These SDSs must be readily accessible to all affected employees on all shifts without the employees having to leave the work area. Electronic management is acceptable as long as employees have continuous access.

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Figure 15.6  Examples of Required Labels Under the Globally Harmonized System of Classifying and Labeling Chemicals

The SDSs themselves have information requirements. The complete SDS contains the following information in English (the employer should maintain copies in other languages appropriate to their employees): • The identity used on the label • Hazard(s) identification • Composition/information on ingredients • First-aid measures • Firefighting measures • Accidental release measures • Handling and storage • Exposure controls/personal protection • Physical and chemical properties

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• Stability and reactivity • Toxicological information • Ecological information • Disposal considerations • Transport information • Regulatory information • Other information, including date of preparation or last revision Last, employee training must be conducted during the initial assignment to a work area containing one or more hazardous chemicals, and each time a new chemical hazard is introduced into the workplace. The employee training shall include the following: • Any operations in their work area where hazardous chemicals are present • The location and availability of the written program, including lists of hazardous chemicals and SDSs • Methods and observations used to detect the presence or release of hazardous chemicals in the work area • The physical and health hazards, such as simple asphyxiation, combustible dust, pyrophoric gas hazards, carcinogens, or liver toxins • How employees can protect themselves from the chemical hazards • Details of the hazard communication program developed by the employer, including an explanation of the labeling system on shipped containers and workplace labeling system if different, the SDSs including the order of information, and how employees can obtain and use the appropriate hazard information. In summary, hazard communication is the first step to ensuring employees understand the hazardous materials they are using, and how to protect themselves effectively from adverse health effects. The legislative web of hazardous material and waste requirements is immense and requires careful, detail oriented management at all levels. EMERGING ISSUES IN HAZARDOUS MATERIALS AND WASTE The United States alone has more than 80,000 chemicals in commerce, with approximately 2,000 new chemicals annually; many of these do not have adequate toxicological information to determine safe use. This is a conundrum for the occupational health and safety professional and often requires

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use of the precautionary principle. As the world is gets smaller with globalization, climate change threatens our everyday lives, and the need for energy resources continues to grow, hazardous materials and waste must be carefully considered to avoid further long-term environmental assaults. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2021) reviewed environmentally sound management of chemicals and wastes worldwide and identified several, concerning challenges for the future. These issues include chemicals in products, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, environmentally persistent pharmaceutical pollutants, hazardous substances in the life cycle of electrical and electronic products (lead, mercury, and other metals, flame retardants, and some phthalates); highly hazardous pesticides, lead in paint, nanotechnology and manufactured nanomaterials, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFOS and PFOA). Several of these will be discussed in additional detail to consider relative to the legislative overview presented. The rapid development of computers, tablets and phones (e-waste), and the quest for the next generation of technology has left tons of waste with only about 25 percent undergoing any recycling, and the rest ending up in landfills. For those who do recycle, workers are potentially exposed to contaminants such as heavy metals (lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium) and chemicals that can cause severe health effects such as cancer, neurological damage, fetal developmental issues and diminished IQ. Much of the e-waste is shipped from high-income to low-income countries, resulting in contaminated land and soil and exposure to those informal workers (often women and children) who scavenge the waste for saleable materials. This has resulted in millions of children and informal workers being exposed to lead and mercury due to discarded electrical or electronic devices (e-waste). Solar panels have been installed ubiquitously in society to harness the power of the sun and reduce dependence on fossil fuels; however, they also contain many hazardous materials with high recyclable value. Disposal in landfills allows these hazardous materials to leach back into the soil and groundwater. In order to eliminate these issues in the future, planning the entire product life cycle is critical. Per-fluorinated compounds (PFOA and PFOS) are prevalent in society from firefighting foams, nonstick products, polishes, waxes, and paints. These compounds have a long half-life in the body and therefore bioaccumulate. Besides bioaccumulating in the body, these compounds have also been found in the groundwater. They have a wide range of health effects (development effects for the fetus, cancer, liver damage, immune system effects, and others) that are only being understood now; yet, they will persist in our bodies, homes, and environment for years. Nanotechnology and nanoscale materials offer waste problems and solutions. Nanoscale materials can enter the body easily due to their size (10-9 m), and can contain by-products, dopants, or other materials (e.g., nickel,

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arsenic) which may then be transported throughout the body. These materials often have unknown toxicological properties, and due to their high surface and activity and toxicological properties, they may differ significantly from the parent material. Nanoscale materials also present safety risks due to their ability to stay suspended in air for a long time and may accumulation in the environment. On the positive side, their small size makes them excellent filters for wastewater and for separation and purification of gases and pollutants. Nanosensors also provide the ability to more accurately measure dust and chemicals to alert communities and workplaces when necessary. These technologies will allow dramatic improvements in the ability to clean the air, water and soil, and prevent hazardous materials from landing there in the first place. CONCLUSION Compliance with regulations governing the handling, storage, transportation, and disposal of hazardous materials and wastes is a critical component of any safety practitioner’s job. The mishandling of hazardous materials can be costly in many ways. Monetary losses and human suffering can result from poorly planned actions on the part of untrained personnel or lack of adequate planning. Violators can find themselves at the mercy of the EPA, OSHA, the courts, and the media. The proactive safety practitioner should become familiar with existing regulations at both the federal and state levels and make every effort to stay apprised of changes in the law, as they affect the workforce. Finally, the health and safety professional is responsible for health of their employees and communities; each decision has the potential for far-reaching future effects on health and society. QUESTIONS FOR DEEPER UNDERSTANDING 1. What hazardous chemicals are located in your area? Contact your Local Emergency Planning Commission and tell them you wish to learn about hazardous chemicals in your area. Ask them if copies of SDSs are available and where they can be found. Consider attending a LEPC meeting. 2. What are the responsibilities of environmental managers? Find someone who has environmental responsibilities and discuss their day-to-day activities. Ask specifically about filing SDSs with the fire department and emergency planning officials. What training is required for workers to respond to spills of any hazardous chemicals? What keeps them up at night?

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3. Why do you think many companies complain about the difficult legal framework and red tape they face in trying to comply with all applicable regulations? Take a look at some of the OSHA and EPA websites. Why is this paperwork important? Could it be simplified? 4. Using EPA’s “My Environment” tools, discover hazardous materials being used in your community. Use the MyMap feature to see EPAregulated facilities in your community, click through the MyAir and MyWater to discover the most prevalent environmental issues in your community, understand the energy sources (coal, natural gas) your community uses via MyEnergy, identify toxic air pollutants that may cause cancer or serious health problems in MyHealth, and finally understand the greenhouse gas emissions in your community with MyClimate.

REFERENCES Bowman, V. (1988). Checklist for Environmental Compliance (4th ed.). Newton, MA: Cahners. Chandler, R. L., Iannaccone, M., & Toki, A. (Eds.). (1995). Best’s Safety Directory: Industrial Safety (Vol. 2). Oldwick, NJ: A. M. Best Company. Department of Toxic Substances Control. (2021). Chemicals of emerging concern. State of California. Retrieved from https://dtsc​.ca​.gov​/emerging​-chemicals​-of​ -concern/. Freeman, H. (1990). Hazardous Waste Minimization. New York: McGraw-Hill. Kaufman, J. (Ed.). (1990). Waste Disposal in Academic Institutions (2nd ed.). Chelsea, MI: Lewis. Noll, G. G., Hildebrand, M. S., & Yvorra, J. G. (1995). Hazardous Material: Managing the Incident. Stillwater, OK: Fire Protection Publications. United Nations Development Programme. (n.d.). Strategic approach to international chemical management. Retrieved from https://saicmknowledge​.org​/program​/hazardous​-chemicals​-electronics. United Nations Development Programme. (2021). UNEP Assesses Eight Issues of Concern for Chemicals and Waste Management. Retrieved from https:// sdg​.iisd​.org​/news​/unep​-assesses​-eight​-issues​-of​-concern​-for​-chemicals​-and​-waste​ -management/. U.S. Department of Labor. (2002). Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response: 29 CFR §1910.120. Washington, DC. Retrieved from www​.osha​.gov. U.S. Department of Labor. (2012). Red Line Strikeout HCS Final Regulatory Text 2012. Retrieved from https://www​.osha​.gov​/dsg​/hazcom​/redline​.html. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2021). My Environment. Retrieved from https://www​.epa​.gov/. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2021). Hazardous Waste. Retrieved from https://www​.epa​.gov​/hw.

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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2012). Hazardous Waste Generator Regulations: A User Friendly Reference Document. Retrieved from http://www​.epa​.gov​/ waste​/hazard​/downloads​/tool2012​.pdf. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2012). Pesticides: International Activities. GHS Implementation in EPA’s Office of Pesticide Programs. Retrieved from http:// www​.epa​.gov​/oppfead1​/international​/ghs​/implement​.htm. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2013). Superfund. Retrieved from http:// www​.epa​.gov​/superfund​/index​.htm. World Health Organization. (2021). Children and digital dumpsites. E-waste exposure and child health. Retrieved from https://www​ .who​ .int​ /publications​ /i​ /item​ /9789240023901.

Chapter 16

Construction Safety and the Multiemployer Worksite Doctrine William F. Walker and Dan Nelson

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to • list the major hazards typically found on a construction worksite; • know how to deal with the major hazards found on construction worksites; • explain the doctrine of a multiemployer worksite as viewed by OSHA; and • list the components of a company’s effective multiemployer worksite policy. CASE STUDY An 18-year-old male worker contacted electrical energy when he kneeled to plug a portable appliance into a 100–120 V/20 amp floor outlet. After a scream was heard, the victim was found convulsing on the damp floor, with one hand on the plug and the other on the receptacle box. A supervisor went to the electrical panel but was unable to locate the appropriate circuit breaker. A coworker attempted to take the victim’s pulse and received an electric shock, but was uninjured. After contacting medical help, the supervisor returned to the panel and de-energized all circuits (three to five minutes after the worker contacted the electrical energy). After five minutes, a second call was placed to the emergency squad, and the supervisor yelled for another employee, who came and performed CPR. It was over six minutes from the time the employee was injured. Emergency services were on the scene within 10 minutes of the first call and began treating the employee. He was pronounced dead at the hospital. 357

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INTRODUCTION Although many safety practitioners in general industry have few, direct responsibilities regarding construction safety, they often find themselves in situations where knowledge of construction and safe practices is useful, if not imperative. The federal regulations regarding construction safety and health are found in either 29 CFR 1926 (or in parallel regulations set forth by Agreement States with approved State Plans). They provide essential guidance relative to safety for professionals desiring to steer clear of government-imposed sanctions. Knowledge of those regulations can also help in the management of safety and health on a construction site. Even though a company may not be in the business of construction, it is important to know whether others engaged in construction practices on the site are following appropriate safety procedures in their work. OSHA’s regulations only provide a starting point for a quality safety program. OSHA’s experiences have caused the government to approach the construction problem in a manner important to understand. OSHA learned that their compliance officers at construction sites were spending too much time on issues of little importance and too little time inspecting for the hazards most likely to cause fatalities. This resulted in a change in inspection policy. When OSHA visits a construction site today, the compliance officer (CO) determines whether there is project coordination by the general contractor and whether that contractor has an adequate safety and health program. COs use OSHA guidelines to determine whether the program is adequate. The inspector also considers whether a designated competent person responsible for and capable of implementing the program plan is on-site. If so, the CO will proceed with a focused inspection, which zeroes in on a few key areas. Otherwise, the employer can expect a general inspection. A competent person is one who is capable of identifying existing and predictable hazards in the surroundings or working conditions which are unsanitary, hazardous, or dangerous to employees; understands how to mitigate those hazards; and has authorization by the employer to stop work until the hazards are appropriately addressed. The CO determines adequacy of a safety and health program by looking at the comprehensiveness of the plan, its degree of implementation, whether there is a designated competent person or persons (as dictated by standards relevant to the work being performed on that particular jobsite), and how the plan is enforced. Plan enforcement looks at management policies and activities, employee involvement, and training. During the course of a focused inspection, citations will be issued for violations of the four leading hazards (OSHA calls them collectively the “Focus Four Hazards”) and any other serious hazards observed. The four leading hazards include:

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• Falls • Struck by • Caught in-between • Electrocution If a worksite has multiple employers, citations are issued to any employers whose employees are exposed to hazards. In addition, the employer creating the hazard, the employer responsible for jobsite safety and health conditions, and the employer who has responsibility for correcting the hazard are also cited. The conditions employers typically expose their employees to include not only the above but also those commonly found in general industry violations. CONSTRUCTION SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS Prevention is the primary goal of any occupational safety program. Prevention isn’t always possible, so workers on construction sites should never be alone. In the event of an incident, someone needs to be able to call for help. All workers should be trained by a competent person about the hazards they face on a construction site, and they should also be equipped with the appropriate personal protective equipment. When hazards can be engineered out to eliminate them or to reduce exposure to or below the permissible exposure limit, they should be. The safety professional needs an in-depth knowledge of potential construction hazards, so that he or she knows how to take an engineering approach. Worker attitude and behavior must be addressed. Horseplay, shortcuts, and lack of attention can and do kill on a construction site. New workers and experienced employees lulled into a routine after months or even years on the job need reminders to stay alert while working around construction sites. Construction workers should be equipped with hard hats, safety glasses, and safety-toed boots at a minimum and the equipment should be worn at all times while on a construction site. Traditional steel-toed boots of the past are being rapidly replaced by safety-toed boots containing a composite material offering the same protection in a lighter boot with no electrically conductive toe. An often-overlooked PPE is gloves. Hazards to the hands should be assessed and identified, and gloves appropriate to those hazards should be supplied to the workers by the employer. Materials to manufacture cut-resistant gloves have evolved to where fairly lightweight gloves that still provide tactile feel will afford a high amount of cut resistance. Other personal protective equipment, such as hearing, face shield, and metatarsal protection, are also sometimes necessary.

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It is up to the employer to ensure appropriate PPE is utilized. To do this, the employer must identify the hazards by assessing the work being performed, and then prescribe the appropriate PPE, based on that assessment. OSHA requires almost all PPE be provided by the employer, but safety-toed shoes/ boots and prescription safety glasses are exceptions for which the employer is not typically required to pay. Many companies are able to take care of their own construction safety problems, but they run into problems when interfacing with other companies. They may have employees who work with employees of other companies. They may hire companies who bring employees onto their site. Contractors may bring on subcontractors, and the subcontractors bring on lower-tier subcontractors. Today, many companies performing the actual work are also utilizing temporary workers. These issues all create problems of their own. Falls from Elevations Falls continue to be the leading cause of construction-worker fatalities in the United States. Construction employees often work from heights, which can be hazardous. In observing a worker at height, the supervisor should ask if he or she would be comfortable in that same job. If the answer is no, there may be a problem. The employer should ensure that any worker performing his or her job on any walking/working surface at a height of six feet or more above a lower level is adequately protected from falls. This isn’t simply a matter of complying with OSHA; this is a matter of protecting employees. OSHA requires a competent person designated by the employer to assess, identify, and address fall-related issues on a construction site, as well as to properly train workers in fall protection. For example, a competent person for fall protection is one who is capable of identifying existing and predictable fallrelated hazards in the surroundings or working conditions and understands how to properly address them. After years of watching construction workers perform death-defying feats, many employers have become complacent and even nonchalant about worker safety. This is true on commercial construction sites as well as on many residential construction sites. (See figure 16.1 for an example of a residential construction site where no fall protection measures have been taken and no personal protective equipment has been issued to workers.) If the worker is doing a job at a height where a fall could injure or kill, the employee must be protected from a fall. Protection can come in the form of guardrails, fall protection systems (such as safety nets), fall arrest systems (such as body harnesses and lanyards), or monitoring of the separation from the fall hazard by distance from the edge. It is up to the employer to ensure that the appropriate steps have been taken to protect the worker, regardless of the regulations.

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Figure 16.1  Lax Safety Practices in Residential Construction

Also, adoption of fall-protection best-practices beyond the minimal OSHA requirements should be considered, such as the recommendations of ANSI/ ASSP Z359 “Fall Protection and Fall Restraint.” Whenever there is a break in elevation of 19 inches or more, stairways or ladders are needed to move between levels. Two or more ladders are needed if there are 25 or more employees on the site. OSHA recognizes working from a step ladder too close to a perimeter cable that is designed to protect people from falling from an elevated, building work surface creates a “fall from elevation” hazard. For example, a worker on an 8-foot step ladder might otherwise have a fall exposure to the working surface of 6 feet or less, but when working close to an open side of an elevated surface, guarded only by perimeter cabling, the worker would have the 6-foot fall plus whatever distance it is to the ground below. A best-practices approach would be to require the worker to utilize a personal fall arrest system and tie off whenever the worker has to work closer than the sum of the ladder height plus 4 feet to the edge. For example, utilizing the 8-foot stepladder mentioned previously, the minimum safe distance from the edge, without tying off, would be 12 feet (8 foot ladder height + 4 feet). OSHA estimates there are as many as three dozen fatalities per year due to falls from stairways and ladders used in construction. (See figure 16.2 for an example of a construction worker not observing OSHA standards for ladder use.) Scaffolding is another critical area requiring special attention to protect workers from falls. There are many different types of scaffolds, and each has

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Figure 16.2  Ladder Hazard

its own requirements. Certain guidelines apply to all types. Among others, there must be: • Firm and adequate footing or anchorage to support the intended load. • A competent person to erect, move, dismantle, or alter, as well as perform the required daily documented inspection of the scaffold. • Standard guardrail systems or personal fall arrest systems (harnesses) at a working height of more than 10 feet above a lower working level (a suggested best practice is to require guardrail systems at 6 feet or more above the lower working level). • Capability of supporting four times the intended load.

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• Planking of scaffold grade (it will have markings to show it is appropriate). • “Where platforms are overlapped to create a long platform, the overlap shall occur only over supports, and shall not be less than 12 inches unless the platforms are nailed together or otherwise restrained to prevent movement.” Each platform unit (e.g., scaffold plank, fabricated plank, fabricated deck, or fabricated platform) shall be installed so the space between adjacent units and the space between the platform and the uprights is no more than 1 inch wide, except where the employer can demonstrate that a wider space is necessary (for example, to fit around uprights when side brackets are used to extend the width of the platform). • Unsecured scaffold planking extends a minimum of 6 inches beyond the ends of the scaffold support. • Flat planking extends no more than 12 inches past the scaffold support if the planking is 10 feet or less in length, and no more than 18 inches if the planking is over 10 feet in length (both with exceptions). • Overhead protection provided. • No slippery conditions. • No work during high winds or storms. • Adequate protection of workers below from falling objects. These and other conditions are found in 1926 Subpart L—Scaffolds. The bottom line is that employers can prevent falls from heights on their worksites by: • Planning ahead to do the job safely before starting each and every job. • Providing the right equipment for working at heights. • Training workers to use their equipment properly and to work safely on roofs, ladders, and scaffolds. Struck-by and Caught In-between “Struck by” hazards, as assessed by OSHA, can include a number of different sources, and includes multiple objects, such as falling objects from above, flying objects from tools, and moving equipment such as a forklift. A construction site is loaded with moving objects. It is up to the employer to ensure the moving objects don’t strike the employee so as to cause injury or death. This can be accomplished in a number of ways. Safety professionals should not automatically resort to PPE to solve construction worksite problems. Behavior modification and engineering are better approaches than reliance on PPE, for protecting workers from fast-moving objects. There are many recorded cases of workers being struck by moving equipment or machinery on a construction site. The employer should implement

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procedures to ensure equipment is never moved without someone watching where the equipment is moving and making certain everyone is out of the way. Backup alarms on heavy trucks can be useful, but on a major construction site, alarms are sounding all the time. Employees soon tune them out. Some companies rely on spotters to make certain the way is clear and to physically keep people out of their paths. The same should be done for any moving equipment where people might be in the path, and the operator cannot see where the equipment is moving. Training the employee on the ground to develop the habit of always keeping eye contact with an equipment operator is another approach to keeping out of harm’s way. If you can see the operator’s eyes, then he or she can see you. Workers must be protected from falling objects. To protect from falling objects, toeboards or adequate netting are required to be installed on open perimeters walking/working surfaces at elevation, as well as interior floor openings (floor openings may be properly covered, cover secured, and marked “Hole” in lieu of toeboards). As already mentioned, hard hats and safety-toed boots are essential. Relatively few workers who sustain head injuries wear hard hats, although most are required to wear them for the tasks they perform. Less than one in four workers with foot injuries wears safety toes and less than half of workers with eye injuries wear eye protection. Protective equipment works, but only if employees use it. The same is true for ear, respiratory, and other forms of protection. Another struck-by hazard includes exposure to flying projectiles and debris, such as those produced by powder-actuated nail guns and unguarded side grinders. Unsecured or improperly secured loads can also be a problem. Improper instruction of workers regarding movement about the worksite and around machinery can also cause accidents. Workers can be caught between moving equipment or a shifting load and stationary objects. Proper training on worksite procedures can help prevent caught in-between incidents. Supervisors should be trained to watch out for the welfare of employees, and correct them when they see unsafe behaviors. A worker getting caught between the superstructure of equipment and a wall, a worker being mashed when a piece of hydraulically operated equipment unexpectedly falls, and a worker caught under a shifting load are only a few of the incidents reported on the OSHA website. Case Study An employee was installing a small-diameter pipe in a trench 3 feet wide, 12–15 feet deep, and 90 feet long. The trench was not shored or sloped, nor was there a box or shield to protect the employee. Further, there was evidence

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of a previous cave-in. The worker may not have been aware of that. The employee apparently entered the trench and a second cave-in occurred, burying him. He was found face down in the bottom of the trench. Trenching represents another important caught in-between hazard. Trenching is a particularly hazardous area on construction sites. Even relatively shallow trenches are capable of trapping and suffocating a worker within their walls. One cubic foot of soil weighs, on average, 100 pounds. This means a cubic yard weighs 2,700 pounds, or the weight of a small car. Imagine this sliding into a trench and striking or even covering a worker. Many accidents occur because no one took into account the specific conditions associated with the site of the trench. Traffic, heavy structures nearby, a high water table, weather, and soil type are among factors contributing to weakened trenches. Before beginning the job, a thorough analysis of the area to be trenched must be performed by a competent person. The trench also requires ongoing inspection by a competent person on at least a daily basis, or whenever conditions change (such as rain or windy conditions). A best practice is to require the competent person to be present whenever work is being performed in the trench. A practical solution is to train and designate the equipment operator to be the competent person. Large or complex trenching operations may require more; employees must be protected from cave-ins. A small person in a shallow trench might be bending to perform work when the trench collapses. Even though the worker’s head is above the ground, the weight of the earth can prevent breathing and suffocate the worker before a rescue. At a depth of 5 feet or more, OSHA requires protection via sloping or shoring/trench box. However, the competent person may determine that unstable conditions mandate stabilization and/or protection at any depth. While OSHA requires that vehicles, heavy equipment, and even the spoil pile not be placed closer than 2 feet from the edge of the trench, a best practice for unprotected trenches is to require all vehicles, equipment, and the spoil pile be placed at least 5 feet away from the trench. OSHA requires adequate means of egress in the form of ladders, steps, ramps, or the like for any trench 4 or more feet deep. These need to be placed within 25 feet of travel for any worker. Another best practice is to require a way in or out; once the trench depth is at 19 inches, or even better, always dig a ramp out of the trench. This will make the work easier, while protecting the worker’s knees. Electrical Shock Hundreds of occupational electrocutions occur each year. One of the primary goals of any safety program should be to prevent workers from contacting electrical energy. A secondary goal must be to provide appropriate medical

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care to workers who come in contact with electrical energy. The National Electrical Code (NEC) divides voltage into two categories: 600 volts or less (low voltage) and greater than 600 volts (high voltage). Live parts of 50 volts or more must be guarded against accidental contact. Brief contact with low voltage may not cause a burn, but it could cause ventricular fibrillation (a rapid, ineffective heartbeat). High-voltage contacts can cause the heart to stop completely. When the circuit breaks, the heart may resume beating normally. But if there are also extensive burns, death may result anyway. There is an old saying, “It ain’t the volts, but it’s the amps that kill you.” One milliampere is 1/1000 of an amp. It provides just a faint tingle. Muscular control can be lost from 6 to 30 milliamperes. Somewhere between 50 and 150 milliamperes, extreme pain, respiratory arrest, and severe muscular contractions will occur. If an employee is holding on to something when the shock occurs, he can’t let go. Death is possible at this point. Between 1 and 4 amps, death is likely. A 100-watt light bulb operates at 833 milliamperes of current. Environmental conditions can greatly affect how severely the body is shocked. An employee performing heavy labor on a hot, humid day could come into contact with a level of electrical energy exactly the same as six months before and have completely different results. On a cold, dry day with little moisture on the skin, the energy may result in a relatively mild shock. On a hot, humid day, injury or death may result. For obvious reasons, an employee on the construction site should have a working knowledge of basic electricity. All work is to be done in compliance with the NEC, unless the regulations provide otherwise. Electrical energy needs to be kept separate from all employees. This means that any electrical equipment or tools not double insulated must be grounded, and all extension cords should be heavy duty and of the three-wire type with ground. All power tools and extension cords are required to be inspected daily, prior to use by a competent person. If damage to the cord or plugs on the power tools or extension cords is observed immediately, the damaged equipment is to be removed from service and tagged, “Do Not Use.” On the construction site, cords are not to be spliced. All electrical boxes are kept closed and made certain there is no way accidental contact with a bare wire could occur. All openings, including holes, to electrical panels must be kept covered. Electricity and water don’t mix. All cords are kept out of standing water and protected from equipment traffic such as scissors lifts and pallet jacks. Ground-fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs) should be a part of all corded tools and any equipment or appliances that might be used in a damp location; GFCI protection is required in almost all applications on a jobsite. The GFCI is a fast-acting circuit breaker that senses small imbalances in the circuit caused by current leakage to ground and, in a fraction of a second, shuts off the electricity. The GFCI continually matches the amount of current going to

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an electrical device against the amount of current returning. Whenever the amount going differs from the amount returning by about 5 milliamps, the GFCI interrupts the power within as little as 1/40 of a second. All temporary, power branch circuits used for construction-related activities are required to be GFCI protected (unless an assured equipment grounding conductor program is in place, where then only 120-volt, single phase, 15- and 20-amp branch circuits are required to be GFCI protected). GFCIs on a jobsite should be tested daily before initial use to assure they are in proper working condition. Each disconnecting means for motors and appliances and each service feeder or branch circuit is to be clearly marked to indicate its purpose. Employees should not be permitted to look for a particular circuit by switching them individually. A shutoff and restart could seriously injure someone who stops to inspect an electric tool to determine the problem. Every disconnect switch and breaker must be clearly marked to indicate its purpose. Any mounted, temporary electrical systems should be inspected regularly (at least weekly) for proper connections and polarity. A polarity tester should be used to ensure all ground wires are properly connected. All regulations regarding lockout/tagout must also be followed; particularly when dealing with electricity. Other Hazards Construction sites often have many of the same hazards present in manufacturing operations and other non-construction workplaces. Other hazards commonly found on construction worksites include those related to confined space, respirable silica, trenching, and equipment. OSHA has promulgated 1926 Subpart AA—entitled Confined Spaces in Construction in an effort to address the hazards found in confined spaces related to construction. It is important to note that OSHA has now identified areas such as attics and crawlspaces as being confined spaces. Additionally, OSHA has modified 1926.1153—entitled Respirable Crystalline Silica. The main result of this modification is the reduction of the action level of airborne, respirable crystalline silica. The modification will cause changes to various, current construction processes including addition of HEPA dust collection equipment; a stoppage of dry cutting of concrete; specific training; and potential, employee medical monitoring. (See figures 16.3, 16.4, and 16.5 for examples of hazards at construction sites.)

MULTIEMPLOYER WORKSITE POLICY Employers around the country are finding that hiring an expert, independent contractor is riskier than ever imagined, with the possible exception of

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Figure 16.3  Confined Space Hazard

government regulators. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is citing host employers for safety violations committed by independent contractors and their employees. Why? Host employers have an obligation to provide safe working conditions to any person working at their facilities, even the employees of another employer. This multiemployer worksite doctrine first arose in the construction industry, where the presence of numerous contractors and subcontractors on one site sometimes made it difficult to determine who was responsible for safety violations. In response to this problem, OSHA established a rule that basically imposed responsibility on any employer who had control of the site. The rule has been and continues to be challenged in courts across

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Figure 16.5  Saw without Guard

Figure 16.4  Potential for Collapse

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the country, and rulings tend to support individual employer-employee responsibility. Safety professionals need to analyze and define contractor safety requirements. Contractors are being used extensively on- and off-site by a large number of companies. There are some facilities that provide safety direction and supervision to contractors, while others provide little or no safety direction and/or supervision. Contractors can cause injury to host employees, other contractors, the general public, and property in the vicinity. The legal relationships presented by associations of these groups remain complex. Questions continually arise over responsibility and process ownership. If an employee creates a hazard while working with others, who is responsible? What if the other employers ignore the hazard and continue to work or even contribute to the situation? How does a compliance safety and health officer (CSHO) handle the audit and/or citation? Multiemployer worksites can be complicated by these differing, work relationships. Early in the development of the multiemployer doctrine, OSHA’s attempt to clarify issues was the usual one-standard-fits-all approach. The WilliamsSteiger Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 requires employers to provide their employees a safe workplace. In fact, the original multiemployer doctrine is entirely based on the following standard quotation: (a) Each employer (1) shall furnish to each of his employees’ employment and a place of employment which are free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to his employees; (2) shall comply with occupational safety and health standards promulgated under this Act. (OSHA ACT 1970, Section 5, Duties [29 USC 654(a)])

OSHA sees these two statements as imposing two distinct duties. First, (a)(1) requires employers to protect their own employees from hazards in the workplace. The employer’s duty under (a)(1) owes only to its employees, as indicated by the language requiring a hazard-free workplace for “his employees.” Second, (a)(2) requires employers to comply with the Act’s safety standards. Unlike (a)(1), it does not limit its compliance directives to the employer’s own employees, but requires employers to implement the OSHA safety standards for the benefit of all employees in a given workplace, even employees of another employer. OSHA issues citations based on the multiemployer doctrine can be found under (a)(2) (Briscoe; Universal Construction Co., Inc. v. OSHRC). Doctrine History The multiemployer doctrine is one of many processes outlined in OSHA’s Field Inspection Reference Manual (FIRM). The FIRM is a manual that

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provides guidance regarding some of OSHA’s operational processes. Position responsibilities within OSHA are also outlined here, along with inspection procedures. In 1974, OSHA’s enforcement policy on multiemployer worksites was first stated in the Field Operations Manual (FOM). The policy provided for the citing of employers who exposed their employees to hazards. Over the years, this policy was changed to provide for the citing of controlling employers. In 1981, OSHA issued directive CPL 2.49, Multiemployer Citation Policy, which was incorporated into the FOM. The actual manual revision was eventually published in 1983. An employer who has general supervisory authority over the worksite, including the power to correct safety and health violations itself or require others to correct them, can be said to have control. Control can be established by contract, or in the absence of explicit contractual provisions, by the exercise of control in practice. The courts accepted this interpretation in one form or another. (See Marshall v. Knutson Construction Co. [8th Cir., 1977], or Brennan v. OSHRC, [2nd Cir., 1975] for more information on this.) Eventually, the OSHA policy evolved to also provide for the citing of correcting and creating employers as well. Currently, the doctrine is not only intended for construction sites, but is equally applicable to temporary employees and professional contractors within the workplace. The policy has had legal bumps and bruises along the way. The changing workplace and legal opinions have prompted yet another change in the doctrine. The multiemployer directive, CPL 2-0.124 (11/99), is a result of court opinions recognizing individual company and employee behavior on multiemployer worksites (e.g., Silberman, IBP, Inc. v. Herman [DC Cir., 1998]). This revision continues the OSHA existing policy for issuing citations on multiemployer worksites. Court opinion holds that the following can be held liable: • An employer who is engaged in a common undertaking, on the same worksite, as the exposing employer and is responsible for correcting a hazard. This usually occurs where an employer is given the responsibility of installing and/or maintaining particular safety/health equipment or devices. • The employer that caused a hazardous condition that violates an OSHA standard. A subcontractor whose employees are threatened by a hazard created and controlled by another subcontractor has only two options: request the offending subcontractor to abate the hazard, or request the general contractor to correct or direct correction of the condition. As a practical matter, the general contractor may be the only party on-site with authority to compel compliance

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with OSHA safety standards (decision, Briscoe). (Also see Anning-Johnson Co. v. OSHRC [7th Cir., 1975].) The multiemployer doctrine is particularly applicable to multiemployer construction worksites. The nature of construction requires that subcontractors work in close proximity with one another and with the general contractor at the same worksite. In these situations, a hazard created by one employer could be seen as reasonably affecting the safety of other employers (Bratton Corp. v. OSHRC [8th Cir., 1979]). Specific areas of expertise or job area responsibility may limit a subcontractor’s ability to abate hazards posed to its own employees, if created by another subcontractor, general contractor, or host employer (IBP, Inc. v. Herman [DC Cir., 1998]). J. Anthony Penry, an attorney in Raleigh, North Carolina, states, “Every serious accident and even some not-so-serious accidents, will result in a failure-to-inspect citation, because it is now very easy to prove. Expect an increase in third-party claims. Because courts often confuse the OSHA standard for liability and liability for negligence, and because the cases are less than clear on this issue, expect injured subcontractor employees to assert more claims against general contractors” (Risky Business, Summer 2005, p. 1). If outside contractors are working at a facility, the written contract should clearly set forth the contractor’s safety responsibilities, along with requirements to maintain Workers’ Compensation Insurance and General Liability Insurance with set, minimum, required limits. It is also a good idea to adopt a specific, outside-contractor-safety program and require the outside contractor to write a comprehensive site-specific safety plan to both cover their work and incorporate fully implement the company’s safety program requirements. Competent person designation, weekly documented weekly toolbox safety talks, and task hazard analysis (THA) should be required as part of the outside contractor’s site-specific safety plan. Contractor Qualifications and Programs Contractor programs are administered in one of two ways: hands on and hands off. Both methods incorporate varying degrees of the following recommendations. Whichever approach is chosen, consistent application and thorough documentation are necessary. Each of these approaches requires an equal amount of initial paperwork. The first things that must be reviewed are the contract and the safety qualifications of the prospective contractor, otherwise known as “contractor qualifications.” Four sources of information provide ways for an employer to evaluate the probable safety performance of a prospective contractor: • Experience modification rates (EMR) for workers’ compensation insurance

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• OSHA incident rates for recordable injuries and illnesses • Review of the actual workers compensation insurance records, called loss runs • Contractor safety practices and written procedures. The insurance industry has developed experience-rating systems, producing an EMR as an equitable means of determining premiums for workers’ compensation insurance (see chapter 3 on workers’ compensation). These rating systems consider the average worker’s compensation losses for a given firm’s type of work and payroll and predict the dollar amount of expected losses to be paid by that employer in a designated rating period (usually three years). The rating is based on comparison of firms doing similar types of work and in each work classification. Losses incurred by the employer for the rating period are then compared to the expected losses to develop the ratio factor. The EMR for the prior three years should be reviewed, with the EMR being obtained via a letter from the contractor’s insurance agent, and not directly from the contractor. It is important to note that the EMR should be considered only as a potential lagging indicator of safety performance, as it reflects past losses and may not be a true indication of the company’s current safety performance. Also, a company’s losses unrelated to construction may be included in an increased EMR. For example, a vehicular accident involving a work van that injured a number of workers, a major injury or fatality involving a willful act of an employee, or even a claim involving Workers’ Compensation employee fraud may increase the EMR. Additionally, the National Council on Compensation Insurance (NCCI) changed the way the EMR is calculated, adding additional weight to lower cost injuries (from $5,000 up to $18,000 for the Primary), which creates an increase on a companies’ EMR with everything else remaining constant. The EMR number should never be solely used to eliminate a company from consideration. An EMR that is relatively “high” should cause further questioning to the contractor being vetted to better understand what is driving the EMR number. Consider whether it is a true indication of the contractor’s safety culture, or is it possibly driven by other factors? The second suggested analysis should take the contractors’ OSHA incident rates into consideration. OSHA requires employers to report and record accident information on occupational injuries and illnesses on the annual OSHA 300 log. The employer must retain completed forms for five years and the following information can be obtained from them: • Number of fatalities and injuries • Number of days involving lost or restricted time

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• The Days Away, Restricted, or Transferred (DART), Lost Time Rate (LTR) and the Incidence Rate (IR). These should be requested for the prior three years, along with the OSHA 300 Logs (names redacted) and accompanying OSHA 300A Summary for each of those three years. All three rates are calculated based on the respective number of injuries, compared to the total annual hours worked by the contractor. The LTR will give an indication of severity of injuries, while the IR will only provide frequency. The IR is the least reliable of the three, as many employers pay out-of-pocket expenses for small injuries and may exclude those from any OSHA reporting, thereby artificially reducing their IR, while other employers report all such injuries and include them in their IR. The DART includes both lost time and restricted or light duty and may or may not provide meaningful severity indications. For example, both an amputation of a hand and a cut of the hand with three sutures, requiring light duty for a week to allow the injury to heal, are counted equally in the DART calculation Another enlightening analysis, is to request the workers compensation insurance carrier send copies of the contractor’s loss runs directly. This provides a validated document containing almost all, if not all of the injuries that caused employees to be out of work, and most of the injuries causing work transfer or light duty. The carrier will most likely redact names from the records, but this provides a description of injury and a severity based on dollars for both medical costs and pay compensation. Another performance measurement, very important in determining a company’s safety record and attitude, is to consider that companies holding their project management accountable for accidents, along with productivity, schedules, and quality, etc., are usually the ones that carry the best safety records. As with any safety program, a few of the things to be considered are: • Management commitment • Written safety program • Hazard assessments • Training programs and employee qualifications • Emergency plans and procedures • Accident reporting and investigation protocol • Regular safety meetings and inspections • Uniform disciplinary actions for willful violation of the company’s safety rules Once the prospective contractor qualifies, an agreement in the form or a written contract, must be prepared. This contract, at a minimum, should state

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the host company’s safety beliefs and expectations, and include comments extending these to the contractor. Thus, the contract would include statements similar to the following: • Contractor employees are required to adhere to all company, and applicable federal and state and other relevant occupational safety and health requirements as they apply to this contract. • The contractor shall enforce the host company’s safety rules and practices as they apply to the contractor’s employees, temporary workers, and lowertier subcontractors, in addition to the contractor’s own safety rules and procedures,. • The contractor is required to write a comprehensive, site-specific safety plan to cover their work and incorporate fully implement the company’s safety program requirements. Competent person designation; weekly, documented, toolbox safety talks; and THA should be required as part of the outside contractor’s site-specific safety plan. • The contractor shall require their subcontractors provide employees copies of all safe working procedures, conduct their own documented inspections and weekly toolbox safety talks, and shall ensure their enforcement. Without relieving the contractor of full responsibility to comply with all appropriate safety requirements, the host employer should ensure that a project manager is assigned and advised to keep management apprised of all activity and work progress. With regard to construction managers, host employers should be aware of the following OSHA interpretation: To the extent that a construction manager has a role in directing the manner or timing of the work, it may be cited as a “creating” employer if a violation occurs as a result of its direction. Depending on the circumstances, including contractual responsibility or the assumption of a safety-monitoring role, a construction manager may also be a controlling employer. A controlling employer is one having the responsibility or authority to have violative conditions corrected. General (or prime) contractors are controlling employers for many types of violations that occur on construction sites, but they may choose to carry out their safety role in whole or in part through a construction manager. (OSHA 8/5/93)

Contractor safety orientation is another critical step in ensuring contractor employees understand hazards related to the job, know site safety practices and rules, and are familiar with local emergency practices related to the site. Contractor safety-orientation methods involving classroom sessions

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or video presentations can be very effective in preventing needless losses. The duty of a contractor in a host employer’s workplace should be, at a minimum, to maintain the same level of safety and compliance that the host employer practices. These requests and requirements should be outlined in the scope of work and contract documentation. The host employer should also bear in mind that the contractor’s responsibility (liability) only applies to the extent to which the contractor has control of or can reasonably be expected to have control of the site. Those actions by the host employer that may create or expose employees to hazards remain the responsibility of that employer. The contractor must abide with the requirements of the contract, but also has a duty to put in place additional requirements if the contractor identifies work hazards not addressed by the host employer. These identified, additional hazards should be addressed in the aforementioned, sitespecific safety plan. In summary, OSHA has determined that employers at a multiemployer worksite fall into four basic categories: controlling, creating, correcting, or exposing. The controlling employer is the employer who, by contract or actual practice, has the responsibility and authority for ensuring that hazardous work conditions are corrected. This employer is usually the general contractor, or GC. When a company acts as the general contractor for a construction project, it is considered the controlling employer and would be responsible for the safety and health of all workers at the site. The creating employer is the employer whose activities actually create a hazardous condition, while the correcting employer is the employer that has the responsibility for correcting the hazardous condition. An exposing employer is any employer whose workers are exposed to the hazardous condition. Depending upon the situation, any employer at a construction site could fall into one or more of these classifications and could be issued a citation by OSHA. Employers should consider the multiemployer-worksite rules whenever their workers are working with other employers, or whenever employers are acting as project managers for such an activity. In situations where the host company is acting as the general contractor, the burden of providing a safe worksite rest with the project manager and each of its supervisors involved with the project. However, even on those projects where an outside contractor is acting as the general contractor, subcontractors, or other separate entities including the host employer’s employees are still responsible for their own workers’ safety. Any hazardous condition should be brought to the attention of the general contractor and/or host employer. If the condition is so hazardous as to be imminently dangerous, supervisors should stop work immediately, remove their workers from the worksite and contact their assigned safety representative and/or management.

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CONCLUSION Even companies operating under general industry standards find themselves dealing with construction practices and standards. While OSHA standards provide a basis for practices, safety practitioners not dealing with construction on a regular basis may not be familiar with even basic construction safety principles. This lack of knowledge can create a triple-barreled shock to the employer. An injured or killed worker who may not be employed directly by the host company can create problems in terms of dealing with the tragedy, paying costs associated with the tragedy directly, paying for litigation and increased insurance premiums, and suffering from OSHA fines. Safety practitioners need to familiarize themselves with basic construction-safety practices and with the multiemployer worksite doctrine when dealing with outside contractors.

QUESTIONS 1. Why is it important for the safety professional to be familiar with construction safety practices? 2. What are the major construction safety problems the safety practitioner is likely to encounter on the job? 3. Interview a safety professional in general industry. Ask about this person’s familiarity with construction safety practices. Ask if the professional’s employer hires construction contractors and what the company policies are regarding these contractors. Are both the company and the safety professional prepared to deal with the multiemployer workplace problem? 4. How has the multiemployer worksite doctrine changed since this chapter was written? Review the OSHA website at www​.osha​.gov and determine what changes have been made.

REFERENCES Anning-Johnson Co., Petitioner, v. OSHRC, Respondents. 516 F.2d 1081 (7th Cir., 1975). Bratton Corporation, Petitioner, v. Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission, and Ray Marshall, Secretary of Labor, Respondents. 590 F.2d 273 (8th Cir., 1979). IBP, Inc., Petitioner/Cross Respondent v. Alexis M. Herman, and DOL, Respondents/ Cross-Petitioners. 144 F.3d 861 (DC Cir., 1998).

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OSHA ACT 1970, Section 5, Duties. [29 USC 654(a)(1)(2)] OSHA Directive, Multiemployer Citation Policy. CPL 2-0.124, 12/10/99. OSHA Field Inspection Reference Manual (FIRM). Instruction CPL 2.103, 9/26/94. OSHA Letter of Interpretation. Duties of a “construction manager” on a multiemployer worksite. 8/5/99. Peter J. Brennan, Secretary of Labor, Petitioner, v. OSHRC and Underhill Construction Corp., Respondents. 513 F.2d 1032 (2nd Cir., 1975). Ray Marshall, Secretary of Labor, Petitioner, v. Knutson Construction Company and Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission, Respondents. 566 F.2d 596 (8th Cir., 1977). “Risky Business.” Summer 2005. Outcome of New Lawsuit May Create More Exposure than GC. Raleigh, NC: Builders’ Mutual. Universal Construction Co., Inc., Petitioner, v. OSHRC, Respondent. 182 F.3d 726 (10th Cir., 1999). United States, Plaintiff-Appellee, v. Pitt-Des Moines, Inc., Defendant-Appellent. 168 F.3d 976 (7th Cir., 1999).

Chapter 17

Transportation Safety Scotty Dunlap

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to • define what a hazardous material is according to Department of Transportation (DOT) regulations; • explain the safety implications of transporting hazardous materials; • describe the components of commercial motor vehicle driver qualifications; • differentiate between the two DOT regulations that address drug and alcohol testing; and • describe how the components of DOT safety can be applied to fleet safety. CASE STUDY After receiving her degree in agriculture, Ellen entered the grain industry where she was able to successfully work her way up the ladder. She began her career as a production supervisor at a grain elevator that purchased, stored, and shipped corn and soybeans from local farmers. Through numerous promotions within her company, she decided to take the bold step of accepting a position as Vice President of Operations with another grain company. Within the new organization, Ellen learned they not only handled grain, but they also sold agricultural chemicals to farmers. On a tour of one of the facilities Ellen saw many familiar sites. There were the towering concrete grain bins, a maintenance shop, and an office building; however, the agricultural chemical area was new to her. She soon realized the complexity of the operation. Plant employees delivered anhydrous ammonia 379

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in tanks that were pulled behind company-owned pickup trucks. There was also a fleet of five mid-sized cars used by plant sales managers. Ellen’s previous company was very safety conscious, so she immediately began inquiring about the safety implications of the operation. A production supervisor sufficiently answered her questions regarding the safety precautions used at the plant when anhydrous ammonia was being received into the large storage tanks and when it was later transferred into the smaller transport tanks. She was also concerned about what happened once the rubber wheels of the company trucks and anhydrous ammonia tanks touched the public roads. In normal driving activity she remembered seeing large trucks on the road, hauling chemicals that had placards on each side of the trailers, but she did not notice such placards on the anhydrous ammonia trailers. When she asked the production supervisor about it, he simply stated those rules did not apply to their operation. She did not receive information that was much better when asking about the maintenance of the cars used by the sales managers or the process by which drivers were approved to operate company vehicles. Several days later when Ellen was back at her office, she felt uneasy about what was being done in the transportation of anhydrous ammonia, but she had never experienced issues related to the DOT in her career, so she was not certain of where to start. The phone rang, and when she answered it, she was greeted with a panicked plant manager. A company truck pulling an anhydrous ammonia tank had been involved in an accident. The driver was injured and was being transported to a hospital. The fire department, local police, and a DOT enforcement officer were on the scene. Ellen had a sickening feeling in the pit of her stomach. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS TRANSPORTATION Safety issues related to transportation are complex and large in number. In this chapter key issues will be addressed for vehicles regulated by the DOT, and also for those unregulated, but included as part of an organization’s fleet. One of the greatest areas of motor carrier exposure to legal liability is in hazardous material handling, and it also presents some of the most complex compliance issues. What Is a Hazardous Material? As defined in 49 CFR 171.8, a hazardous material is: a substance or material that the Secretary of Transportation has determined is capable of posing an unreasonable risk to health, safety, and property when transported in commerce, and has designated as hazardous under section 5103

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of Federal hazardous materials transportation law (49 U.S.C. 5103). The term includes hazardous substances, hazardous wastes, marine pollutants, elevated temperature materials, materials designated as hazardous in the Hazardous Materials Table (see 49 CFR 172.101), and materials that meet the defining criteria for hazard classes and divisions in part 173 of this subchapter.

This definition addresses both what hazardous materials are and what they include. A “hazardous material” is any material so designated by the DOT. The three key considerations are: 1. unreasonable risk to health, safety, or property 2. the health and safety of individuals including drivers, warehouse workers, emergency response personnel, motorists, and pedestrians 3. concern for conserving the environment and maintaining the integrity of privately owned property. Anyone offering the service or performing the act of transporting hazardous materials is covered by the requirements of this standard. The standard also provides a number of features for transporters, to help minimize the risk, including a hazardous materials table, shipping papers, emergency response information, placarding, and provisions for driver training, emergency equipment, spill prevention, response training, and an emergency response plan. Hazardous Material Table Information and governing guidelines for truck drivers and emergency response personnel are addressed in the Hazardous Materials Table in 49 CFR 172. This table identifies all materials considered hazardous during the transportation process. The table lists hazardous materials alphabetically by their proper chemical name and provides other relevant information in columns across the table including hazard class or division, identification numbers, and packing group. Shipping Papers A by-product of the Hazardous Materials Table, shipping papers, is required in 49 CFR Subpart C to be carried by truck drivers at all times during the delivery of hazardous materials. Shipping papers list hazardous materials in the load and serve as a resource for emergency response personnel in the event of an accident or spill by providing proper shipping name, identification number, hazard class or division, and packing group. These four items together are known as the “proper description” of the hazardous material. The

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proper shipping name and identification number are used to find emergency response information as shown later. The class or division identifies the type of hazard. The packing group provides the degree of danger the hazardous material presents. Altogether, this information supplies the first few pieces of the puzzle for responders to a hazardous material incident. Emergency Response Information Emergency response information must be available in the event of an accident. Primary concerns are that: • Information is written in English for emergency response personnel (fire, police, EMS) • It is available to employees • It contains an emergency contact phone number in case of an incident Forms of emergency response information include shipping papers, the DOT Emergency Response Guidebook, and Safety Data Sheets (SDSs). In the event a tractor-trailer is involved in an accident where hazardous materials have been spilled, shipping papers carried by the truck driver will be the first source of information. The proper description will be listed on the shipping papers, including the name of the hazardous material, its identification number, its hazard class or division, and the packing group to which it belongs. This information will first alert emergency response personnel to the type and danger of the involved hazardous material(s). The Emergency Response Guidebook will be the next piece of information to be referenced. This publication of the DOT directs the user to useful information for handling a hazardous material leak, spill, or fire. The book is divided into five sections, each having its own color of paper: • White—contains introductory remarks and a depiction of the various placards used by motor carriers • Yellow—lists all hazardous materials numerically by their identification number • Blue—lists all hazardous materials alphabetically by their proper name • Orange—provides emergency response information for the individual hazardous materials • Green—provides initial isolation and protective action distances Placarding Placarding requirements are given in the .500 series of regulations in 49 CFR 172. Part 172.504 states that with certain exceptions, placards must be

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placed on both sides and both ends of hazardous materials transport containers. Weight calculation is also addressed in .504, and tables are provided to assist in the proper selection of placards. The tables include three columns of information: • Hazard class or division or other appropriate description • Placard name • Placard design section reference The hazard class or division must first be found by using the Hazardous Material Table. Once it is located on the table, the placard name, such as “EXPLOSIVES 1.1” and the placard design section reference, such as “172.522” can be located. “EXPLOSIVES 1.1” provides the name of the placard to be used and “172.522” provides the reference for the regulation that delineates the specific requirements related to that placard. Requirements for placarding subsidiary hazards are discussed in .505. In .506 the shipper is required to provide the driver with the appropriate placards when presenting a hazardous material for transportation. Motor carriers are prohibited from transporting hazardous materials when the load is not properly placarded. Driver Training Drivers and other workers associated with the safe transportation of hazardous materials must be properly trained, as indicated in 172.704. The training must include the following: • General awareness training to address a basic understanding of hazardous materials regulations and a familiarity with requirements to enable recognition and identification of the materials • Function-specific training to cover issues directly related to each person’s responsibilities • Safety training concerning personal safety and emergency response information • Security awareness training to provide awareness of recognition and response to security risks • In-depth security training to help with understanding of the organization’s specific security plan Emergency Response Planning Planning for possible emergencies by qualified personnel to include breakdown, violence (road rage), vehicle accidents, hazardous material release or

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spill, or ignition of a hazardous material is critical, so that appropriate response measures can be generated to adequately and safely address each risk. Actions may range from the driver directly handling the situation, to simply calling 911. In any case, the safety of the driver and others is the primary consideration. Emergency Response Equipment Each driver should be provided with emergency response equipment to include portable fire extinguishers, reflective triangles, a spill response kit, and at the discretion of the motor carrier, possibly other equipment, such as firstaid kits. Drivers must be properly trained in the use of all equipment provided. Spill Prevention and Response Regulations published by the DOT and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) also address spill prevention and response. DOT regulation 49 CFR 130.11 requires a means of communication for shipments containing oil, stating that oil is part of the shipment. This can be accomplished through the use of properly completed shipping papers. Prior to shipments of oil falling under the requirements of this regulation, a plan must be developed to address various areas of emergency response. As stated in 130.31, the emergency response plan for oil shipments must include: • A description of how emergency response will occur • Consideration of the worst possible scenario by considering the maximum amount of oil that may be released from the packaging • Delineation of resources for emergency response • Delineation of who must be notified in the event of a spill, to include individuals and governmental agencies In the event an incident causes the release of a hazardous material during the transportation process, there may be applicable reporting requirements governed by the EPA. Information is provided in 40 CFR 355 informing the user of spill quantities requiring immediate reporting to the EPA. The information is listed in Appendix A of the regulation in alphabetical order and in Appendix B, by CAS number of the various hazardous materials. Hazardous materials incident reporting requirements are detailed in 171.15 and .16. Incidents requiring immediate reporting to the DOT, as listed in 171.15 include those where: • A fatality has occurred • Injuries have occurred that result in at least one person requiring off-site medical attention

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• An evacuation of the general public lasts one hour or more • At least one major transportation artery or facility is closed for one hour or more • The operational flight pattern or routine of an aircraft is altered Part 171.16 expands the reporting requirement to include any other unintentional release of a hazardous material during loading, transporting, unloading or while in temporary storage. Security Plan The events surrounding 9/11 gave rise to the development of security plans to effectively protect hazardous materials shipments. Part 172.802 indicates that such plans must consider: • Personnel security addressing the hiring process of those who will transport hazardous materials • Unauthorized access establishing who may or may not be authorized to access the material • En-route security addressing the risk analysis to protect the hazardous material while in transit

FEDERAL MOTOR CARRIER SAFETY REGULATIONS Commercial Driver’s License Obtaining a Commercial Driver’s License (CDL) is necessary to drive a commercial motor vehicle on public roads. Regulation 49 CFR 383.1(a) states the purpose of the CDL process is: to help reduce or prevent truck and bus accidents, fatalities, and injuries by requiring drivers to have a single commercial motor vehicle driver’s license and by disqualifying drivers who operate commercial motor vehicles in an unsafe manner.

Although the CDL process provides measurement for a level of expertise and a standard of performance, the main purpose is to provide for the safety of human life. Applicants are responsible for reporting certain convictions, in addition to issues related to their standard driving license. Though a standard driver’s license and a CDL are separate, offenses made under a standard driver’s license may influence the ability to obtain a CDL. In applying for a CDL, an applicant must be tested according to the type of vehicle(s) that he or she wishes to operate. Regulation 49 CFR 383 Subpart F

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contains the divisions for the different groups of vehicles. In the table below, GCVR refers to gross combination vehicle weight rating and GVWR refers to gross vehicle weight rating. The groups are as follows:​ Provided a driver has the appropriate endorsement, he or she may operate a vehicle in any group below that tested. For example, if a driver has tested and passed in group A and has received the proper endorsements on their license, he or she may also operate commercial motor vehicles in either group B or C. Driver Qualifications In order to operate a commercial motor vehicle, prospective drivers must meet minimum qualifications, according to 391.11: • Must be at least 21 years of age • Must be fluent in English to the extent that he or she can communicate with the public, understand road signs, and make appropriate log entries • Can safely operate their motor vehicle • Satisfies DOT requirements for being physically fit • Has a current CDL • Has provided their employer with a list of appropriate driving violations, if any • Has not been disqualified to drive a motor vehicle under DOT regulations • Has passed a road test given by their employer Some exemptions are given, as is the case in some farm-use applications. All appropriate documentation must be maintained in a “driver’s qualification file.” Once each year, the employer is responsible for reviewing the file to ensure the driver has not committed any infraction disqualifying him or her from operating a motor vehicle. The employer must also conduct a road test to allow the driver to demonstrate the ability to safely operate the motor vehicle to be driven. Prior to operating a vehicle for a motor carrier, drivers must also pass an exam considering physical condition, health issues, vision, and hearing. Table 17.1  Divisions for Different Groups of Vehicles Group

Type

A

Combination Vehicle Combination

B

Heavy Straight Vehicle Small Vehicle

C

Configuration

Single Vehicle Single Vehicle or Combination

Specifications GCWR >26,000 lbs. (vehicle(s) towed >10,000 lbs.) GVWR >26,000 lbs. (trailers must be