French Romanesque and Islam, Parts i and ii: Andalusian elements in French architectural decoration c.1030-1180. Part i: Text, Part ii: Illustrations 9781407390215, 9781407390222, 9780860546252, 9781407347769

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French Romanesque and Islam Andalusian elements in French ar chitectural decor ation c.. 1030-1180

Katherine watson Part i Text

BAR Inter national Ser ies 488(i) 1989

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S488 (I), 1989: 'French Romanesque and Islam' Part I

© Katherine

Watson, 1989

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407390215 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407390222 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860546252 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407347769 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546252 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

CONTENTS SUMMARY, FOREWORD a nd ACKNOWLEDGMENTS G lossary ( p.viii) CHAPTER NOTES.

I I NTRODUCTION. ( p. 1 )

THE

TOPIC OF

( p.

v

I SLAMIC

INFLUENCE.

CHAPTER I I. THE GREAT MOSQUE OF CORDOBA. I TS PLACE IN ANDALUSIAN ARCHITECTURE ( p. 9 ) Building Campaigns in the Mezquita. The F irst Mosque. The F irst Extension. The P uerta S an E steban ( Bab a l-Wuzara"), P ioneer of Mediaeval D oorways. Tripartite d esign: f açade articulation, recessed opening, voussoired l intel, tympanum and discharging arch; extrados, a lfiz, a rcade above; projecting cornice on roll corbels. Stepped merlons. F lanking n iches: stepped l intel on c arved roll corbels, motifs in spandrels, b lind arch above n iches, marble grilles. Further Features of 9 th century Andalusian Architecture: double tiers of arches, superposed c olumns, s aw-tooth moulding. Torre San Juan: a jimez, arcading. The Sources o f these Andalusian F eatures. The Western Character o f Andalusian Art. The Tenth Century. The Minaret. The S econd Extension, the C limax of Caliphal Decoration. The Villaviciosa Chapel. The Mihrab and Maqsura T ract. The Chocolate Door. The T hird Extension. The Anomaly of the 1 1th Bay. Cristo de l a Luz i n Toledo. Caliphal Decorative Motifs. L inear and Geometric Motifs: i ntersecting a rches, polychrome i nlay. P lant and border motifs: . down-turned l eaf, a symmetrical p lant s crolls, n aturalistic acanthus s tem, l eaf c ross, relief studs, rosette and hollowed coupolettes, l ittle f lorets, spiral s tems. Motifs used in Woodwork: the Ceiling o f the Mezquita. The F ez M imbar. Architectural D ecoration in 1 1th Century Andalusia. Malaga. Granada. T oledo. Tudela. S an Millän de S egovia. A ljaferia, Z aragoza: i nterlacing and mixtilinear arches, spandrel c oupolettes, secondary l obing, capitals, the dome and its supports. Non-Architectural S ecular D ecoration, Caliphal a nd 1 1th Century. Marble, the basins. The stilt motif. The 1 1th Century J ätiva b asin. The Jätiva Atlas F igures and Related Compositions ( Silos, Poitou, S aintonge, SaintBenoit-sur-Loire, B erry. T urban H air S tyle. Carved Marble in Toledo: the well-heads. I vory. NOTES, CHAPTER I I ( P. 4 1)

CHAPTER III. ARABIC SCRIPT AND ITS IMITATIONS (p. 65) The Romanesque Examples. The Wooden Doors of the Velay. Le Puy: The Inscription on the Nativity Doors, Plant Motifs, Colour, Interlace. The Lavoute-Chilhac Door: The Inscription, The Cross, The Latin Inscription, Cording, Fan-knot Interlace, Scrolls, Construction. The Chamalieres Door. The Blesle Doors. Discussion of the Workshop. Parallels in Catalunya. Script­ Scroll Ambiguities. The Role of Roofing. Flat Relief and Chip Carving. Saint-Pierre-de-Rhedes. Textiles and Woodwork. The Mock-Kufic Inscription at Moissac. The Impost. The Inscription. The Style of Lettering. Andalusian Examples of Wedge-shaped Hollows. The Capita1 50 Scroll and variants. Further Comparisons, and Affiliations of the Scroll. Spanish Romanesque Scrolls: Fromista, Nogal.The Standing Frontal Figure. Loarre. Conques. NOTES. CHAPTER III (p. 87) CHAPTER IV. ANDALUSIAN FEATURES II. THE LOBED ARCH

IN ROMANESQUE

DECORATION

The Lobed Arch in Andalusia. Types of Lobing in the Mezquita. Applications of Lobing to Architecture in the Mezquita. Andalusian Lobed Arches other than those in the Mezquita. Lobed Arches in Mozarab and Early Romanesque Architecture in Northern Spain. The Lobed Arch in France. Previous Studies and Classifications. The Present Classification: I. Cluny: The Transept Arcades. Associated Features in Cluny Transept. Altar Table Influence. Cluny Doorway. Summary of Cluny lobe characteristics. Examples of Influence of Cluny (a). Similar Lobe Types, Combination with Chevron: Overlapping Points, Scalloped Profile. (b). Similarity of Application, 1. Lobed Interior Arcades, 2. Lobed Doorways. II. The Velay and Rhone Valley: Concentric Trilobes and Polylobes and Other Trilobes. Le Puy. Rhone Valley. Trilobes in the Limousin and Further West. Trilobes in Bessuejouls. Saint-Pierre-Toirac, Rouergue: the Nivernais and Auvergne. III. Quercy and Central France: Cahors South Door. IIIa. Arches with Lobes with Volute or Elaborated Points. Waisted Voussoirs. The Volute. The Jointing. Three Moissac, Saint-Antonin, Restorations reconsidered: Collonges. The Spanish Elements at Moissac. Meymac. Vigeois. The Volute Cusp. Junction with the Jambs. IIIb. Torus (Limousin) Moulding with Lobes.

ii

IV. Arches with C onvex Lobes. Examples in t he S aintonge. V . Lobed Arches with Edged L obes. The Outlined Extrados. VI. Lobes P ortrayed in Sculpture. S ummary NOTES. CHAPTER I V ( P. 1 50) CHAPTER V . I II.

ANDALUSIAN FEATURES THE ROLL CORBEL

IN

ROMANESQUE

DECORATION

Three broad c lasses, a ll with antecedents in Andalusia. Roll Corbels in Andalusia: Shape. R od Corbels i n the Mezquita: D ecoration. F illet Roll Corbels: the Corbels o f the S an E steban Door Cornice. The Corbels o f t he N orth f açade o f the Mezquita. I nterior Arcades o f the S econd Extension. A lmanzor's Extension. D ecorative F illet Roll Corbels. P laster Corbels. The Down-turned L eaf Motif. Mozarabic Roll Corbels. Wooden C orbels. Ceramic Corbels. Corbels i n North Spain. Double and Composite Rolls. Problems o f the Transmission o f the Roll Corbel Form from Andalusia to Romanesque: the F illet Corbel and its R arity in S pain. E arly Corbels in Leön. S an M iguel de F luviä. Corbels at F römista, J aca and Santiago. The P laterias D oorway: rosettes a nd c orbels. Corbels at Iguäcel. Corbels at Loarre. The Roll Corbel in F rance and Compostela. La Trinite, Vendöme. Corbels in the vicinity of Vendöme. S aintBenoit-sur-Loire. Le Mans. P oitiers, S aint-Hilaire. The cornice s labs. F illet Roll Corbels in P oitou. Political A ffiliations. Relations of Poitou with Spain. Other types of roll corbel in P oitou. Roll Corbels and other Andalusian F eatures in Normandy. Jumieges. La Trinite i n Caen. Relations of Normandy with Spain. Roll Corbels in the Rhöne/Saöne Valley: Tournus, I le Barbe and S aint-Martin d 'Ainay. Auvergne. B rionnais: Anzyl e-Duc, S aint-Laurent, Charlieu, Nivernais. B erryBourbonnais. Corbel Types. Volute S tems with Curls. I n Spain. Roll Corbels in S ainte-Foy-de-Conques: 3 Types. Type 1 . North Door and Chapels. Type 2 . S outh Transept Door. Type 3 . Ambulatory, Apse and Transepts. The Spread of I nfluence f rom Conques. F urther Andalusian E lements at Conques. The Relations o f Conques with Spain, and Wider Affiliations. Roll Corbels at Saint-Sernin in Toulouse. The E aves Corbels. The P orte des Comtes a nd t he F ragment in the North Nave Tribune. The Porte M iegeville. The Paris Cornice Fragment. Further Andalusian E lements at S aint-Sernin.

i ii

Roll

Corbels

in

the

Lower

Garonne

Valley

and

Gascony.

Type 1 : Small Curls: La Sauve, Saint-Sever, Pierre-du-Mont, Roquefort, Lagrange, Cadillac,

SaintSaint-

Sardos, Moirax. Type 2 : P lain and P lain Fillet: SaintMacaire, Aubiac, Layrac, Engayrac, Peujard, L'HöpitalSaint-Blaise, Other

Areas.

Oloron.

Limousin.

Dordogne.

Summary NOTES.

CHAPTER V

CHAPTER

VI.

THE

DESIGN Features Doorway Roll

( p.

and

2 16).

CONTRIBUTION

OF

ANDALUSIA

Motifs. and

Other

Foliage. Lobed

CHAPTER

APPENDIX

I .

Romanesque

VI

( p.

FEATURES APPENDIX I I.

( p.

The

Doorways.

West

The

260).

with

Limousin.

A NUMBERED

Volute,

Quercy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY LIST MAPS

( p.

LIST

Split

Dordogne

SPAIN

ILLUSTRATIONS

.

I ,

and

France, III,

OF

SOME

or

ANDALUSIAN

and

Elaborated West.

( b).

Moulding ( Map I II) DOCUMENTED DATES FOR

WITH

Archivolts

OF

FROM

( a).

Points.

EARLY

LIST

PARTICIPANTS

( p.

SPANISH MILITARY

FRANCE

283-294)

general.

IIa,

Distribution

Trilobes.

C l uny/Santiago ILLUSTRATIONS

Two

279)

OF

c1095.

C luny

Distribution. of Transmission

ROMANESQUE BUILDINGS APPENDIX IV. ( p. 276). A CHRONOLOGICAL IN

of

Arch.

SHARED WITH ROMANESQUE. "CAHORS TYPE" LOBED ARCHES.

with Lobed Limousin APPENDIX I II. ( p. 274).

ENCOUNTERS

Door

Lobed

2 55).

AND MOTIFS ( p. 271).

I ntrados

ROMANESQUE

Rosettes.

Arches.

Corbels and General Problems of Early Types of Roll Corbel. Agents

NOTES.

TO

2 47)

Design

I II.

( p.

IV,

Distribution

Axis.

Figures

Spain

of

1 - 332.

iv

in

Lobed of

1 050.

Limousin

Roll

IIb,

Spain

Moulding

Corbels.

V .

The

SUMMARY. An e xamination o f a ll types o f I slamic m onument ( buildings, carved marble, wood, i vory and metalwork) in S pain dated b efore 1 100 AD h as p rovided a l engthy l ist o f s tructural and d ecorative f eatures and decorative motifs s ufficiently d istinctive to i mply t he l ikelihood o f a d egree o f Andalusian ( Spanish I slamic) influence i n c omparable f eatures o f F rench R omanesque d ecoration. A s election o f some 4 0 o f these has been l isted ( Appendix I ) a nd numbered, a nd they a re n oted i n t he t ext i n parenthesis a s they a re found associated with the three main f eatures d iscussed - K ufic writing, l obed a rch a nd r oll corbels i n order to a ssess the recurrence and extent o f an Andalusian i nfluence as a whole. Many of t hese f eatures appear on the S an E steban doorway o f the Great Mosque o f C ordoba ( the " Mezquita"), and this doorway i s s hown f urthermore to b e o f special importance a s the e arliest e xample, on a r eligious b uilding west of t he E uphrates, o f a doorway with a declamatory f unction, and thus t o b e the p ioneer among a ll western mediaeval doorways on r eligious monuments. There are no more than four examples of Kufic s cript i n F rench a rchitectural c ontexts: t wo wooden doors in the V elay, a l intel i n L anguedoc and an impost b lock i n Moissac c loister b ear t his decoration. A ll f our a re c onnected w ith a workshop tradition that includes both Andalusian wooden c eilings o f t he 9 th to 1 4th centuries AD, and carvings o f t he 1 0th and 1 1th c entury in wood and marble f ound on the n orth-west coast o f t he Mediterranean. Toledo c an be i dentified a s the s ource o f the Moissac example, and the antecedents o f t he s croll decoration a ssociated with it a re t raced in early S panish Romanesque a s well as Andalusian d ecoration. Lobed arches i n F rance are compared with the A ndalusian p recedents. P revious c lassifications a re d iscussed and r evised i n the l ight of r ecent chronologies, w ith groupings s uggested to take account of t ypology and g eographical distribution. Convergent i ncentives are c onsidered f or t he adoption o f t his Andalusian practice, and Moissac i s p roposed as the originator of t he " Limousin" t ype. The diverse i nfluence o f Andalusian uses of the corbel f or supporting e aves, decorative c ornices a nd l intels i n d ifferent regions o f F rance i s manifest i n the e arly a doption o f a form w ith rolls which was invented in t he 8 th c entury in Andalusia.

Andalusian influence can thus be s een to have operated i n two areas of activity where t he characteristics of Romanesque architecture are particularly marked: the method of r oofing with overhanging eaves s upported on s culpted corbels, and the adoption and design o f monumental façades a nd doorways. There i s j ustification i n t he historical record a lso f or the conclusion that Andalusian influence was more i ntegral a nd l ess exotic than h as so f ar b een a llowed FOREWORD. R eferences in brackets are to t he l ist of Andalusian f eatures ( F) and decorative motifs ( D) of Appendix I ( p. 2 60). References to my i llustrations a re underlined ( fig. 0 0). For published works to which f requent reference is made, the abbreviation ( see B ibliography, p . 2 79) and f igure or p late n umber a re g iven in brackets ( AHIII f ig. 0 0). I have l imited r eferences to i llustrations in foreign publications a s f ar as possible to works easily accessible i n E ngland, and to as f ew works a s possible. S ince AHIII a nd LTB 1 957 are i ndispensable to a s tudy of Andalusian architecture I have used them wherever possible. T he t erms F rance a nd Spain are taken to describe the areas within t he modern political boundaries and without h istorical connotations. Andalusia describes the parts of Spain under I slamic rule, until the end of the 1 1th century reaching n early to t he Pyrenees ( Map I I). Maghreb denotes the I slamic l ands of North A frica west of E gypt. After the second Arabic words and names

chapter current

diacritics in Spain.

are not used for

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My warm thanks go f irst to P rofessor George Z arnecki, f or a memorable visit to Moissac c loister, and for supervising the thesis that i t inspired. Thanks a lso to Dr Geza F ehervari f or s upervising the I slamic s ections, a nd to Constance Hill and her staff at the C onway Library, R upert Hodge at the Witt, John Hopkins at the Society o f Antiquaries, the staff at the l ibraries o f SOAS and the Warburg I nstitute, who a ll made it a p leasure to work under their care. I wish to express my s pecial appreciation to the staff o f the P ercival David F oundation f or their unfailing welcome, and among them G len Ratcliffe for help with photography. My main d ebt over p hotography i s to Paul F ox of SOAS at home, and Dr O liver Watson especially on s ite, f or their g enerosity w ith time and advice f or my photography over many years. I thank, for their respective kindnesses, Monsieur H . Renou at t he Phototheque o f the Centre for Mediaeval S tudies in Poitiers, Professors Marcel Durliat, Jacques B ousquet, Jean-Claude F au and E liane Vergnolle, Me Marie-Madeleine Gauthier, Me A line Lapicque,

vi

M . and Mme F rancis P errin, Me Genevieve Coste, Me Marguerite G uary, Dr and Mme Jean S entex in France; i n Spain, D r Juan Z ozaya at t he National Museum and Dr C . Ewert at the DAI i n Madrid, Don Antonio Duran in Huesca; in England, D r G . Michell f or the doorway drawings, Arun Weys and Benedick Watson for helping him, Mary-Lou Arscott for t he u se of h er t hesis on Cordoba, Mr N eil S tratford f or help in many forms, Maxwell Watson f or s upport on my travels and f or p hotographs, particularly t he bench at Durro, Dr Rowan Watson for discussions and advice on historical problems, Dr O liver Watson on I slamic topics, my husband William Watson f or every possible help and support; f inally to a ll t he members of my f amily a nd i ts extensions for their unending cooperation, stimulation and endurance.

v ii

G LOSSARY Andalusia The a rea o f S pain under Muslim rule ( Ar. a lAndalus) Andalusian The c ulture d eveloped i n Spain throughout t he c enturies o f t he Muslim r egime Mozarab i s s trictly a t erm applied to Christians " arabized" by l iving under Muslim r ule; i t i s e xtended t o t he p eople who emigrated to t he Christian k ingdoms o f northern Spain at various p eriods, b ringing their c ulture w ith them Mudejar Muslims l iving under Christian r ule i n S pain, r etaining many A ndalusian c ultural t raits Mezquita The S panish t erm f or Mosque. T he a bbreviation o f M ezquita a ljama ( Chief or F riday Mosque) i s t he n ame g iven by S paniards to t he G reat Mosque of C ordoba t o t his day. I t i s u sed here f or the b uilding with a ll i ts e xtensions. F irst or a l-Hakam I I's Mosque r efer respectively t o t he o riginal M osque o f 7 87 and t o t he s econd, 1 0th century extension which w as v irtually a " Mosque w ithin a Mosque" ( LTB 1 957, p . 4 83). F irst a nd t hird e xtensions a re r eferred t o a s s uch, or by their building patrons n ames, A bd a rR ahman I I a nd A lmanzor. a lfiz ( sometimes c alled arraba) The r ectangular f rame o utside an a rch, s ometimes a l ine o f moulding, s ometimes a band e nclosed within two or s everal s uch l ines. a jimez A small twin window, w ith c olonnette a nd c apital i n the centre extrados " The upper or exterior curve o f an arch; e sp. t he u pper c urve of t he voussoirs or s tones which immediately f orm the arch ( 0.E.D.) i ntrados " The l ower or i nterior c urve o f an a rch; s pec. the l ower c urve o f the voussoirs or s tones which immediately f orm the arch ( 0.E.D.) maqsura T he s creened-off a rea r ound t he m ihrab a nd m imbar in a Mosque, r eserved for the ruler mihrab a rcade o r n iche denoting d irection f or p rayer mimbar P ulpit q ibla The d irection o f Mecca, and the direction i n which Mosques were o fficially o riented, s o that t he e nd wall o f the s anctuary h olding t he mihrab f aced t hat way. I n f act t he M ezquita i s o riented l ike S yrian Mosques and f aces more t o the s outh than t owards M ecca.

v iii

C HAPTER

I

I NTRODUCTION The t opic o f I slamic i nfluence o n R omanesque a rchit ectural d ecoration e mbraces t wo f ields o f s tudy t hat have t raditionally r emained w ide apart. O n t he o ne h and t he o bs ervations o f I slamic specialists o n Romanesque f eatures h ave u sually l acked t he a uthority o f f irst-hand a cquaint ance w ith F rench monuments ( 1), a nd o n t he o ther A ndalus ia, being i ncluded i n t he I slamic f ield, h as been g iven s cant a ttention f rom a ll b ut a v ery f ew h istorians o f West E uropean a rt. T here h as t herefore b een a l ack of a wareness o f t he d ifferences f rom t he r est o f I slamic a rt t hat make Andalusian a chievements part o f t he western t radition ( 2). Male l ed t he way i n i dentifying a n umber o f f eatures of R omanesque decoration w ith p recursors i n A ndalusia ( 3), a nd d etails o f Andalusian d ecoration a dopted i nto Romanesque, b ut h e p resented t hem e ntirely a s e xotic r eferences t o a n a lien world, a nd t his i s t he c urrent v iew: t he l obed a rches a nd c orbel f orms whose Andalusian o rigin w as n oted b y M äle a re r eferred t o w ith a s imilar v ocabulary d ecades l ater by C onant ( 4), t hough i n C onant's v iew Andalusian i nfluence w as l ess s uperficial o r s olely d ecorative, a nd e xtended t o v aulting a nd o ccasionally t o doorway d esign. F ocillon's point o f v iew ( 5) r eflects t he i ntern ationalist t endencies o f t he 1 930s; h e r ejected t he a ss umption o f c losed c ultures h eld h itherto a nd s ought f or i ndications o f i nfluence more i n t erms o f s timulus ( eveil) a nd t he p ropagation o f m ethods a nd w ays o f s eeing t han o f d irect i mitations; h is a nalysis o f t he " life o f f orms" i nt roduced t he i dea o f a c omplexity o f l evels a t which s culpt ors could b e e xpected t o r espond t o d ifferent s ources. Most o f t he i nvestigations i nto " oriental" o r Andalusian f eatures i n Romanesque s culpture t hat h ave s ince appeared h ave b een d ue t o h is i nspiration; n evertheless i n s tudies o f Romanesque t he p eculiar d imension o f Andalusia s till r emains unexplored. Among t hese i nvestigations t hat o f t he monuments o f L e P uy b y F ikry, t he o nly s pecialist i n I slamic a rchitect ure t o s tudy F rench monuments a lso, a gain t ends t o b lur d ifferences b etween C ordoba a nd t he r est o f I slam i n p urs uit of h is t hesis t hat a n a rchitect t rained i n I slamic m ethods worked a t L e P uy. F ikry w as d ealing h ere i n f act w ith a u nique c ase, f or n owhere e lse c ould s uch a c ircums tance even b e postulated; h owever t he t hesis i s confounded b y r ecent work ( 6). N either h ave t he v arious s tudies o f F rench l obed a rches s hown t hem t o r elate s ignificantly t o t raditional o r t o contemporary A ndalusian f ashions i n a rchb uilding ( 7); t he c urrent v iew n ow i s t hat l ittle b eyond t he i nitial i dea o f a l obed a rch, a s c onceived a t C ordoba i n t he t enth c entury, was o wed t o A ndalusian models. I n C hapter I V t his v iew w ill b e m odified t o i nclude a s econd

1

wave o f i deas f rom A ndalusia, but t his modification i s o f t rivial i mport i n comparison w ith t he u nderpinning, given by t he f act t hat l obed a rches o riginated i n Andalusia, t o t he c ontention p ropounded i n t he c onclusion t o t his t hesis t hat A ndalusia i s a t t he o rigin o f t he new f unction of t he d oorw ay i n Romanesque c hurch f açade d esign: t he monumental d oorway o f w estern a rchitecture i s f irst conceived a t C ord oba. S ingle monuments and s ingle motifs h ave n ot y ielded c onc lusive " proof" o f t he k ind of A ndalusian p resence e xp ected, a nd t he e nthusiasm o f t he 1 930s i n s earching f or A ndalusian i nfluence h as g iven w ay, e specially among F rench s cholars, t o a s uspicion t hat t he w hole t opic l acks p recis ion a nd i s t ainted w ith a d ecidedly amateur overemphasis o n p ilgrimage r outes o r c rusades. I ronically, j ust when And alusian monuments b ecame a ccessible w ith a dequate i llust ration a nd a nalysis ( 8) i n t he d ecade a fter t he s econd w orld war, F rench i nterest b egan t o w ane. F ar f rom g iving a p lace t o A ndalusia a s a component o f w estern c ivilization, t he t rend o f t hinking h as b een t o d iscount t he Andalusian p articipation i n s hared motifs o r s tyles a s i rrelevant i n c omparison w ith t heir c onsistency w ith C arolingian o r c ont emporary M editerranean t radition ( 9). T his t rend f inds i ts most emphatic e xpression i n a t ypic al r emark b y J alabert: " ...it was n ot n ecessary [ for P yren ean m arble workers] t o g o t o Spain i n t he e arly 1 1th c ent ury t o b ecome a cquainted w ith t he h orseshoe a rch" [ for e xample o n t he l intels a t S ureda a nd S aint-Genis]. At t his j uncture t he i ssue o f i nfluence n eeds r aising once more, a nd f rom a nother s ide, i n t he f ollowing t erms: c onsidering t he h igh l evel o f A ndalusian c ivilization f rom t he e arly 1 0th century ( 11), t he e xtent of F rench i nvolvement i n both C hristian a nd M uslim Spain i n t he 1 1th ( 12), and t he e xtens ive and g rowing evidence f or s ocial a nd c ommercial t raffic a cross t he P yrenees a nd t hrough t he ports o f e astern a nd n orthern S pain t hroughout t he 1 1th a nd 1 2th c enturies ( 13), i s i t possible t o r egard s imilar motifs a nd equivalent m ethods a s s olely o r even p rimarily t he r esult o f i ndepend ent p arallel d evelopments f rom u ltimate c ommon s ources? S ince a f ew u ndeniable Andalusian m otifs a re persistent i n R omanesque i s i t not l ikely t hat t he a doption o f a l ess obv iously I slamic motif was e ncouraged when Andalusian a nd o ther models c oincide? A nd i s i t n ot t hus r elevant t o r ecord t he R omanesque motifs p resent i n A ndalusia i n p reR omanesque c enturies, e ven i f t he s ame motifs may h ave been a vailable a s models e lsewhere a lso? T his t hesis s ets o ut f rom t he p remiss that t he p resence a nd p ersistence o f u ndeniably Andalusian e lements i n Romanesque d ecoration s ignify a c ultural c ontinuum o n s ome a rtistic, t echnical o r h uman l evel i ndependent o f t he r eligious, pol itical o r o ther s ocially d ominant i nstitutions. T his i s i n k eeping w ith t he t hree " Laws" g overning t he f unctioning o f c ultural i nfluence o bserved b y H amilton G ibb ( 14), t hat p redicate s ome c ommon g round t o a llow borrowings t o b e v i-

2

a ble. T aken t ogether t hese l aws s uggest t hat t he most p rof ound e xamples o f i nfluence w ill b e t he l east i mmediately r ecognisable a s a n a lien e lement. I t w ill b e a rgued h ere t hat Romanesque d esigners d id " go t o S pain"; t hey went n ot o nly f or f anciful d etails b ut, a mong o ther t hings, f or i nspiration i n t wo much more i mport ant, n ot necessarily r elated c oncerns. T hese a re f irst, t he t echnique o f r oofing, i n c onnexion w ith which both " Kufic" motifs a nd, apparently s eparately, r oll c orbels w ere a dopted i nto t he r epertoire, a nd s econd t he s tructure a nd character o f doorways. T he e vidence o f t he d irect c ont act o r c ommon g round t hat c ould m ake p ossible s uch i nspir ation c an be f ound i n t he n umber o f f eatures a nd d ecorat ive motifs s hared between A ndalusia a nd Romanesque F rance. A p reliminary s urvey of Andalusian monuments y ielded a l ist o f s ome f orty e lements t hat c an be matched i n R omanesque d ecoration fo f t hese 2 2 a re s tructural a nd m iscellaneous a nd 1 7 a re d ecorative. T hey a re n umbered F 1-22 a nd D 1 -17 ( Appendix I ) s o t hat t hey c an b e n oted i n p arentheses i n t he t ext t o s how t heir p resence a t t he s ites c onsidered i n C hapters I II, I V a nd V . T hese c hapters d iscuss t he t hree u niversally a ccepted " Islamic" f eatures i n Romanesque d ecor ation: K ufic w riting, l obed a rches and r oll corbels a nd t heir a ssociations. I n t he c ase o f t he t wo l atter a n A nd alusian o rigin i s g enerally a greed. I n C hapter I II i t i s a rgued t hat t he f ew R omanesque a rchitectural e xamples o f K ufic a ll h ave t he s ame derivation, a nd t hat t he main a gent o f t ransmission o f K ufic a nd r elated motifs w as t he woodworking f raternity, w ho w ill b e s een i n C hapter V t o h ave b een i nvolved a lso i n t he i ntroduction o f corbels. I n C hapters I V a nd V r espectively l obed a rches a nd c orbels a re t reated i n b roadly r egional g roups. f or t he f ormer t his c lassification b uilds on e arlier work by F ikry ( 1934), H eliot ( 1946 and 1 951), a nd Vergnolle ( 1966). Romanesque c orbels h ave e njoyed n o s uch a ttention ( 15). T he s ubject i s v ast a nd h as h ardly b een b roached. C hapter V i s t herefore n o more t han a n e xploration o f t he u se of t he Andalusian r oll f orm. D etailed t ypological a nd i conographic s tudies o f a ll c orbels f orms, s uch a s would n eed a s izeable t eam t o c arry out, would r eveal m any c ross c urrents a nd movements o f c raftsmen a nd i deas, e ven f rom t he s tone e xamples t hat a lone s urvive, t hough t he f act t hat wooden e xamples h ave a ll p erished means t heir h istory w ill a lways be i ncomplete. As w ell a s t he p rocesses o f t ransmiss ion f rom Andalusia, mapping t he d istribution o f c orbel m ot ifs and f orms would t hrow l ight o n s uch questions a s w hether c orbels w ere normally p roduced o n s ite o r a t q uarr ies ( devices a nd t hemes r ecur a t s urprising d istances), w hether t hey w ere t he work o f c apital o r d oorway s culptors, o r apprentices, m asons o r s pecialists, o r w hether d ifferent s ites a nd r egions w ere c onnected, a s r egards r oofing p ract ices, o n t he s ame p attern a s f or s culpture o r o ther e lem ents. The

u ncertainties

o f

c hronology

3

s till

i mpinge

o n

a ll

q uestions a ffecting R omanesque s culpture. Awareness o f t he a chievements o f Andalusian b uilders a nd t he o pportunities f or F rench p atrons a nd d esigners t o c ome i n c ontact w ith t hem ( 16) e ncourages a p reference f or a " high" r ather t han a " low" c hronology w hen t here i s doubt. F urthermore i t i s b ecoming i ncreasingly d ifficult t o a ccept t hat t he d ecade 1 095-1105 c an possibly h ave c oncentrated a s much a ctivity a s would h ave been t he c ase w ere e very a ttribution t o i t i n r ecent years c orrect ( 17). E ach c orrelation may b e s ubject t o d oubt o f s ome k ind, b ut i f i n t he a ggregate s ome c onnexi on i s n ot a llowed t he paradoxical c onclusion t hreatens t hat t he b uildings r ecorded were a lmost t otally e phemeral o r l eft u nfinished, while w hat n ow s tands i s a ll t he r esult o f a n a ctivity f or w hich n o r ecord s urvives ( cf. Appendix I II).

CHAPTER

I

N OTES

1 . e .g. L . T orres B albas, ' Los Modillones de L obulos', AEAA 1 936; ) . G rabar, I slamic A rchitecture a nd t he W est: i nfluences a nd p arallels', I slam a nd t he M ediaeval W est, L oan E xhibition, U niversity A rt Gallery, S tate U niversity, N ew Y ork, B inghampton 1 975; M . Gomez Moreno k new b oth A nd alusian a nd S panish Romanesque a rt i ntimately, b ut n ot e nough o f F rance t o c ompel a ttention t o h is v iews o f a rchit ecture a cross t he P yrenees. H . T errasse, L 'Art h islanom auresque, P aris 1 932, d evoted a f ew pages t o speculating w hy, a s h e s aw i t, Andalusian a rt h ad a v ery m inor e ffect i n F rance. H e c oncluded t hat t he b arrier w as s ocial: Rom anesque a rt w as popular, l ocal a nd r ural a s against t he u rban a ristocratic a rt o f I slamic Spain. T he e xception to t his d ivided s pecialization i s A . F ikry, w ho i n t he s ame y ear p ublished b oth L a Grande Mosquee d e K airouan, P aris 1 934 a nd L 'Art r oman d u P uy e t l es i nfluences i slamiques, P aris 1 934. T his l atter i ncludes a f ull b ibliography o f t he t opic t o d ate. A . G rabar i s a lways s pecific: ' Les mosaiques d e G ermigny d es P res' C ah.Arch. 1 954 g ives e vidence o f c ons iderable M ozarab a nd Andalusian i nfluence i n C arolingian F rance; H . S tern's d iscussion i n t he s ame volume o f t he mos aics o f S aint-Genes i n T hiers, which h e d ates w ith t hose o f L escar i n t he e arly 1 2th c entury, l ikewise i nvokes a l asting t radition f rom Andalusia, w ith a l ink e xisting a t R ipoll. I t i s now u niversally a greed t hat after c 1040 a rtistic c onnexion b etween ' France' a nd C hristian ' Spain' w as s o r apid a s t o m ake t hem p art o f a s ingle sphere a s f ar a s a rchitecture a nd d ecoration were c oncerned. T he o ld d ebates o f K ingsley P orter e t a l. a s t o p riorities no l onger a rise. 2 . E . L ambert a lso b ridges t he g ap: L es v o tes n ervees h ispano-musulmanes d u X Ie s iècle e t l eur i nfluence p ossible s ur l 'art c hretien', H esperis 1 928; a nd ' Les p rem ieres v oates n ervees f ran9aises e t l es o rigines d e l a c roisee d 'ogives', Rev. A rch. 1 933, b ut n ot c oncerned w ith d ecoration. I t i s s ymptomatic t hat not o ne o f t he t welve

4

a nnual meetings a t S aint-Michel-de-Cuxa ( CSCM 1 970-1981 h as g iven a ny a ttention t o s pecific e xamples o f A ndalusian a rt, t hough p assing r eferences t o " Cordoban i nfluence" may b e f ound i n e very v olume. F . G arcia Romo, ' Influencias H isp ano-musulmanes y M ozarabes en g eneral y e n e l R omanico F rances d el s iglo X I ( Capiteles C orintios)' AE 1 953, w as a lready w riting o f t his n eglect o f Andalusia a nd i ts spec ial s ituation " ignored e ven b y F ocillon" ( p. 1 74). R omo's a rguments f or d istinguishing a Mozarabic w orkshop i n t he M iddle L oire r egion ( ' Un Taller E scultörico d e I nflujo M usulmän e n e l L oire M edio ( antes d e 1 030-1050)', a l-Andalus 1 960 - a s earch p rompted b y F ocillon w ho w as h ighly sympathetic t o s uch i deas, c f. H . F ocillon, L 'Art d es S culpteurs r omans, P aris 1 964, p . 2 22) w ere b ased o n s uch f ine d istinctions b etween t he work o f U nbertus i n t he t ower porch o f S aint-Benoit a nd t hat of h is " Muslim-influenced workshop" t hat t hey d id n ot c arry c onviction, a nd b ecause t he conclusions h ave b een r ejected h is many p ertinent o bs ervations h ave b een i gnored. L a E scultura d el S iglo X I ( Francia-Espana) y s us P recedentes H ispänicos, B arcelona 1 973 contains a ll h is a rticles t o date. 3 . E . M ale, ' La M osquee d e C ordoue e t l es e glises de 1 -Auvergne e t d u V elay', Revue d e l 'art a ncien e t moderne 1 911 a nd ' L'Espagne a rabe e t l 'art r oman', Revue d es Deux Mondes N ov.1923. T he f ollowing l ist emerges f rom t hese t wo a rticles: l obed a rches, a lfiz, r oll c orbels, hollowed s off it r osettes, p olychrome masonry w all p atterns a nd a rches, i mitation o f K ufic, l ow r elief c arving, horseshoe a rch. At v arious t imes t his h ad b een a dded t o by o ther w riters t o i nclude t win w indows, pointed a rches, r ectangular-rib v aults, d ouble c olumns, a ngle c olumns, p ierced o culi, b lind a rcading, s lender c olumns. L .Courajod h ad a lready i ntrod uced a d iscussion o f I slamic i nfluence i nto t he s tudy o f F rench a rchitecture, L e9ons p rofessees ä l 'Ecole d u L ouvre 1 887-1896, P aris 1 899, a nd d efended t he s tance o f L ongp erier b efore h im, w ho h ad been a ccused o f l owering t he s tatus o f F rench a rt b y s uggesting f oreign i nfluences, b ut C ourajod's i deas were r egarded a skance u ntil a fter t he f irst world war. T he m ain w ritings w ith r eferences t o I sl amic i nfluence, a fter t hose a lready q uoted, h ave b een A .K. P orter, R omanesque S culpture o f t he P ilgrimage Roads, B oston 1 924; P uig y C adafalch, L e P remier A rt R oman, P aris 1 928 ( e.g. p . 3 3), D ecorative F orms o f t he F irst Romanesque S tyle. T heir D iffusion by M oslem A rt', A rt S tudies 1 926, a nd ' More D ecorative F orms.. A rt S tudies 1 934 a nd ' La f rontiere s eptentrionale de l 'art mozarabe', C RAcIBL 1 943; W . W. C ook, ' Stucco A ltar F rontals o f C atalonia' AS 1 924 s tressed t he h igh s tandard o f s tucco c arving i n A nd alusia, d erived f rom C optic e xample, e voked I slamic i nflue nce i n R omanesque r epresentations o f h eraldic e agle a nd l ion passant, s lender c olumns a nd a s plit p almette a s a n i solated u nit; J .R.Colle, ' Essai s ur l es i nfluences mozarabes d ans l 'art r oman d u S ud-Ouest' R evue d e S aintonge e t d e l 'Aunis 1 956 c ited M ozarab i nfluence i n quatrefoil columns, o ctagonal b elfry, f açade f riezes, d oorway m assif. F or a rticles o n l obed a rches s ee n ote 2 7, C hapter I V.

5

4 . K .Conant, CRA 1 966, e .g. p .105; p .175, " oriental s pice". O n p .143 t he possibility o f f ine c raftsmen f rom M uslim S pain i s e ntertained a s o ne a mong s everal e xplanat ions f or t he f ine e arlier a canthus f oliage a t C luny I II, a nd t he " exceptional d elicacy a nd c lassical c haracter o f t he e arlier moulding p rofiles". C onant a lso comments o n " Moorish" f eatures a t L e P uy a nd a t t he g reat west door a t C luny. ( pp.104-5). 5 . H . F ocillon, L 'Art d es s culpteurs r omans, P aris 1 931 a nd 1 964; L a v ie d es f ormes, P aris,5th e d. 1 970; A rt d 'Occident, P aris 1 938; Moyen Age: s urvivance e t r eveils, P aris 1 945; ' Recherches r ecentes s ur l a s culpture r omane e n F rance a u X Ie s iècle' B M 1 938. 6 .

C A

1 976.

s ee

7 .

s ee . C hapter

C hapter

I V,

note

I V. 2 7.

8 . M . Gomez M oreno, A rs H ispaniae I II, Madrid 1 951 ( henceforth AH I II); L . T orres B albäs, H istoria d e E spana V , M adrid 1 957 ( henceforth L TB 1 957). T he i llustrations i n t hese t wo w orks w ill be constantly r eferred to t hroughout t his book. 9 . M . D urliat g ives more n otice t o possible Andalusian " currents" t han t he majority o f t he F rench " establishment", b ut i n C A 1 976 t he " mirage o riental" i s a ttacked f or t he " flou d e l a p ensee" ( p. 1 7) w ith s ome s pirit, a nd i n C SMC 1 978 t he s equels t o t he R ipoll c apitals o f C ordoban i nspir ation ( F. H ernandez, ' Un a specto d e l a i nfluencia d el a rte c alifal e n C ataluna' AEAyA 1 930; G . G aillard, P remiers e ss ais..Paris 1 938) a re described a s h aving a s tyle w ith o rig ins which m ay b e " Visigothic, M uslim o r more g enerally M editerranean"; P . Verdier, ' La s culpture d u c locher-porche d e S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire d ans s es r apports a vec l 'Espagne c alifale e t mozarabe', E tudes l igeriennes 1 975, r evived Romo's t hesis i n c onnexion w ith S aint-Benoit c apitals, a nd w as s cathingly d ismissed i n a r eview by E rlande-Brandeburg ( BM 1 975, p . 3 28). T he s culpture o f S aint-Benoit i s now a ut horitatively published by E . Vergnolles, S aint-Benoit-surL oire e t l a s culpture du X Ie s iècle, P aris 1 985. 1 0. D . J alabert, L a f lore s culptee d es monuments d u moyen a ge e n F rance, P aris 1 965, e .g.p.45; f or t he " lintels", Roussillon r oman f igs 2 0,21. 1 1. E . L evi-Provençal, H istoire d e l 'Espagne musulm ane, P aris 1 950; LTB 1 957; H . T errasse, op. c it.; A . G rabar, a rt. c it. ( CA 1 954) s ee n ote 1 , r egards Germigny a s a w itness t o a more w idespread l iking f or, o r t aste s hared w ith, Andalusian a rt i n t he C arolingian period. 1 2. M . Defourneaux, L es f ranqais e n E spagne a ux X Ie e t X IIe s iecles, P aris 1 949. I n A ragön, where P ierre de R odez ( Pedro d e Roda), Rotrou d u P erche a nd Gaston d e B eam nwere o f t he c lose r oyal e ntourage, t he k ing's s on and o ther n o-

6

b les h abitually s igned t heir n ames i n A rabic, a nd h ad p roba bly b een e ducated i n M uslim H uesca: R . M enendez P idal, L a E spaha d el C id, 7 th e d. 1 969, p . 5 72; A . D uran G udiol, ' La I glesia d e A ragon..." A nthologica A nnua 9 , Rome 1 961 p res ents a n umber o f s uch d ocuments. 1 3. P . Wolff, T he Awakening o f E urope, L ondon 1 972 a nd H istoire d e T oulouse, T oulouse 1 965; C . V erlinden, ' The R ise o f S panish T rade i n t he M iddle Ages' I HR 1 940, ( p.44ff. o n C onques); L 'Esclavage d ans l 'Europe F r i gd ievale, B ruges 1 955; W .G. E ast, An H istorical G eography o f E urope, L ondon 1 966; A .R.Lewis, T he d evelopment o f S outhern F rench a nd C atalan S ociety, T exas 1 965, i d., T he S ea a nd M ediaeval C ivilizations, L ondon 1 978; J .-M. L acarra, ' Aspectos e con ömicos d e l a s umiciön d e l os r einos d e t aifas", H om. J . V icens V ives 1 965; i d., U n a rancal d e aduanas d el s iglo X I, Z aragoza 1 950; i d.,'Colonisation ' franca' e n Navarre e t A ragon' A duM 1 953,p. 3 33; i d., ' Desarrollo u rbano d e J aca e n l a E dad M edia", E st. . Corona d e A ragon 1 953, e tc. M . D urliat, ' Premiers e ssais.."GBA 1 966 points t he c orrespond ence o f a ctivity o f t he marble a teliers a nd t he g rowth o f t he s uburbs o f N arbonne, C arcassonne a nd T oulouse w ith c irc ulation o f g old f rom A ndalusia ( with f urther b ibliograp hy). C ustoms h ouses h ad t o b e e xpanded i n B arcelona i n 1 029, 1 050 a nd 1 058: J . W. T hompson, E conomic a nd S ocial H istory o f t he M iddle Ages, L ondon 1 948. 1 4. S ir H . G ibb, ' The I nfluence o f I slamic C ulture o n M ediaeval E urope', B ull. J ohn Rylands L ibrary 3 8 ( 1955); A . G rabar, ' Le s ucces d es a rts s ecularises ä l a c our b yzantine s ous l es m acedoines', L 'Art d e l a f in d e l 'Antiquite e t d u M oyen Age, P aris 1 968, v ol.1,also d efines t hree d egrees o f i nfluence: t ransfer, a doption a nd i ntegration, o f w hich t he m ost f ar-reaching i s i ntegration, w here s econdary o r l imin al f eatures t ake o n n ew s ignificance i n a n ew s etting. 1 5. L . T orres B albäs, ' Los M ödillones d e L obulos", A EAyA 1 936 ( I. J an.-Apr.;II, M ay-Aug.): t he F rench m aterial i s mostly e xtracted f rom C A; R . C rozet, A rt r oman e n B erry, p . 2 25, n .1; E . L ambert, ' L'Art h ispano-mauresque e t l 'art r oman', H esperis 1 933; M . D eshoulieres, ' Les c orniches r om anes', B M 1 920. 1 6. N ot o nly i n C ordoba, a s i s u sually i mplied s ince M äle's p oetic e vocations; M . D elcor, ' Problemes p oses p ar l 'eglise d e S aint-Michel-de-Cuxa.." CSMC 1 977, p . 5 0 r efers t o Mozarab t raits a s t he work o f " a C hristian f rom t hese p arts w ho h ad s een t he M uslim a nd C hristian b uildings o f C ordoba o n t he o ccasion o f s ome j ourney a nd w ho, r eturning n orth o f t he P yrenees, h as t ried t o i mitate t hem". E ven i n t he 1 0th c entury o ther A ndalusian c ities, o n t he e ast c oast a nd n orthern M arches, were t o b e s een , a nd t hey e xpanded e ven more i n t he 1 1th. 1 7. T he c onsensus o f m eetings a t S aint-Michel d e a lready p ut t here J aca, S aint-Sernin i n T oulousp, S antiago, F römista, Arlanza, L oarre, t he P anteon

7

C uxa h as C onques, i n L eon,

S aint-Sever, L a S auve-Majeure a nd many more...It was e ven r ecently p roposed f or t he porch o f S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire, w ith S elles-sur-Cher, S aint-Outrille, M eobecq a nd I ssoudun ( M. S chmitt, ' Traveling carvers i n t he Romanesque' AB L XIII,1, 1 981). A w ider, m ore c onvincing c hronology i s now e stablished f or m any o f t hese i n t he masterly work o f E . V ergnolle, S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire... I guäcel i s a n e xample o f t he p roblem. T he i nscription date o f 1 072 i s q uestioned b y most a uthorities because t he s culpture i s p recocious i n comparison w ith what h as been d ecided, o n s tylistic g rounds, i s t he date o f S an P edro i n J aca. B ut I guäcel h ad many c ontemporaries o f which o nly Nog al ( in r uins) a nd F römista s urvive, i ncluding g reat r oyal f oundations: N äjera, C ogolla, A storga, L eön c athedral, O f la a nd B urgos were f inished o r i n c onstruction by 1 075, Vall adolid, A rlanza a nd S ahagün not m uch l ater. T he P anteön i n L eön t oo may f ollow v ery s oon a fter t he e stablishment o f A lfonso VI i n L eon i n 1 072 ( J. W illiams, AB 1 973). A ccepti ng t he r ecorded d ates a s a working h ypothesis, t he p lant s crolls o f t he c apitals o f N ogal ( 1063) a nd F rdmista ( 1066) i llustrate h ow s culptors i n N orth S pain i n a bout 1 070 h ad a lready a ssimilated Andalusian motifs i nto t heir r epertoire b efore t he wholesale o ccupation o f c ities t hat b egan w ith T oledo i n 1 085. T he f igured c apitals i n t he e arliest p arts o f S antiago i n C ompostela s how t his was not t he o nly t radit ion; t he t echnique o f c arving a t N ogal makes c lear t he c onnexion w ith woodworking w hich i t w ill b e contended was o ne o f t he main modes of t ransmission o f Andalusian d ecorat ion.

8

C HAPTER

I TS

I I

T HE GREAT MOSQUE O F CORDOBA P LACE I N ANDALUSIAN ARCHITECTURE

T he G reat M osque o f Cordoba ( commonly c alled T he M ezquita) i s t he o nly c omplete b uilding t o s urvive, f or t he most part u nchanged, f rom t he period of Umayyad r ule i n S pain ( 750-1010)(1). F ortunately, a s t he c hief mosque of t he c apital c ity t hroughout t he years o f t he emirate ( 7509 29) and c aliphate ( 929-1010) of Andalusia, i t c an c onfid ently be r egarded a s t he p ioneer o f s tructural a nd d ecorat ive i nnovation ( 2) t hroughout t he c enturies o f Umayyad r ule, and a s t he s ource of developments f or s ome t wo c ent uries more i n w estern I slam. T his s upreme, a nd most r epr esentative e xample possible o f r eligious a rchitecture i s c omplemented b y t he v estiges o f s ecular building o f t he 1 0th and 1 1th c enturies, n otably t he r emains e xcavated ( 3) a t M adinat a z-Zahrä - , t ogether w ith a f ew f ragments i n T oledo, G ranada, M alaga, S egovia a nd Z aragoza. A ll t he e vi dence points t o t he absolute dominance of t he C ordoban s tyle, a nd t he M ezquita a nd i ts d ecoration c an be r egarded a s t he a uthoritative model f or d educing t he c haracter o f t he b uildings i n t he t owns a nd c ities s uch a s T oledo, H uesca, B arbastro, L erida, Valencia, T udela o r Z aragoza t hat l ay nearer t o F rance, were k nown t o h ave b een f req uented b y many c lasses o f F rench, and were i n more d irect a nd continuous c ontact t han C ordoba i tself w ith t he c entres o f Romanesque b uilding i n F rance. T he most c ursory c omparisons s how t hat i t i s t he t rad itional C ordoban e lements o f t he 9 th a nd 1 0th c enturies t hat f ind g reater a ffinity w ith Romanesque d ecoration t han t he 1 1th c entury s tyle o f a rchitectural d ecoration, s urvivi ng only i n s ecular b uildings, w hich was e volving i n And alusia a t t he s ame t ime a s R omanesque s culpture was b eginn ing to d evelop f urther north. A s ummary o f t he h istory o f t he Mezquita and a s hort description o f t he o ther s urviving A ndalusian monuments i s t hus necessary a s a c ontext f or d istinguishing t he f eatures w hich s how a nalogies o r conseq uences i n Romanesque d ecoration. S ome of t hese f eatures w ill r eceive s hort c omment a s t hey a rise i n t his s ummary, w hereas K ufic w riting, l obed a rches a nd r oll corbels, w ith a ssociated f eatures, w ill b e d iscussed i n s eparate c hapt ers. O ne s tumbling-block t o a r eadier r ecognition o f t he a ffinities between Andalusian and Romanesque d ecoration m ust be t he horseshoe a rch. T hough n ot a n i nvention o f And alusian a rchitects ( 4), i ts wholesale adoption a nd c onsist ent t reatment i n c aliphal a rt ( 5) has s tamped i t i rr evocably a s Andalusian, f or R omanesque designers a nd mode rn a rt h istorians a like, a nd i ts h ighly d istinctive a sp ect, which f ound v irtually no r esponse i n R omanesque a r-

9

c hitecture, m ay well e xplain t he p revalent absence o f f urt her s crutiny o f Andalusian work f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f i ts i nfluence on Romanesque. I n f act t he l ack o f r esponse t o t his f eature i n R omanesque a rchitecture, beyond o ccurr ences which may well be a ccidental, d emonstrates r ather t he n ature of borrowings f rom Andalusia t han t heir a bs ence.It w ill b e a rgued h ere t hat A ndalusia was d rawn upon e ither c onsciously o r i ntuitively f or i deas o f a ll k inds, a lthough t here was v irtually never a ny a ttempt t o r eproduce a n Andalusian-looking monument. T he horseshoe a rch w ill r eceive n o c omment i n t he f ollowing d iscussions o f A ndalus ian d esign. Very occasionally t he s hape s eems d eliberate: a t C häteaumeillant a nd L a C elle-Bruere i n t he B erry a nd t he P orte M iegeville of S aint-Sernin i n Toulouse, f or e xample, a nd e specially a t D eols a nd V igeois ( Chap.IV), Andalusian i nspiration s uggests i tself. B uilding

C ampaigns

i n

t he

M ezquita

T he p lans a nd r econstructions p ublished by G omezM oreno and T orres-BalbAs ( fig.1)(6) s how f our s uccessive s tates of t he b uilding f rom AD 7 86 t o 9 87 a s i t w as e nl arged t o a ccommodate a g rowing p opulation. A lthough t he s econd e xtension u nder a l-F jakam I I d uring t he years 9 61-965 i s i n s ome ways best r egarded a s a s eparate " mosque w ithin a mosque" ( 7), t he u nity o f t he b uilding was maintained t hroughout t he e xtensions a nd t he c haracter o f t he o riginal d esign was r espected i n i ts e ssentials a nd i n many d etails. T he

F irst

Mosque

T he f irst mosque c ontained ( 8) a s anctuary o f t en a rc ades o n c olumns; e ach a rcade c onsists o f e leven h orseshoe a rches bearing p ilasters w hich c arry r ound-headed a rches. T he a rcades r un n orth t o s outh and f orm e leven a isles t welve bays i n l ength, t he c entral one w ider and t he o utermost narrower t han t he r est ( 9). T he a rches a re b uilt o f v oussoirs o f white s tone a lternating w ith f ive n arrow b ricks. The c olumns a nd c apitals were a ll r eused f rom R oman o r V isigothic s ites. Above t hese t he system o f s upport f or t he r oof i s entirely new. I t u ses s everal s tages o f c orbelling t o c arry a w ider upper o rder of a rches a nd a wall ( fig.2); t hough never apparently r epeated o utside t he M ezquita, many a spects o f i t were " copied" i n t he m ediaeval s ense o f " selective t ransfer"(10). T he d istinctive l obed " roll" c orbel t hat i nitiates t he g radual w idening o f s upport f rom t he i mpost i mposed i ts s hape on every t ype o f s upporting member i n A ndalusian a rchitecture a fter t he 9 th c entury, making l obing a c haracteristic Andalusian motif. I ts e ffect on Romanesque d ecoration w ill be t raced i n C hapt er I V. This s ystem o f c orbels a nd p ilasters i n t he M ezquita i s a f irst manifestation of t he Andalusian t end ency t o c arry t he emphasis, n ot only o f s tructural b ut o f d ecorative weight, upwards; t he horseshoe a rch f orm a lso c ontributes t o t his s ometimes t op-heavy e ffect ( Fe).

1 0

The s anctuary, a nd a patio w ith r ows o f t rees p lanted t o c ontinue t he l ines o f t he a rcades o f t he s anctuary, were a ll s urrounded b y a w all o f s olid F lemish-bond masonry. T his was r einforced by r ectangular b uttresses a t i ntervals ( 11) and c rowned b y s tepped merlons ( 12). T here were t wo doors e ach on e ast a nd west, o ne i nto t he s anctuary a nd o ne i nto t he patio, a nd a c entral g ate on t he north. T he w hole e ast f açade h as d isappeared, b ut t he w est door l eading i nto t he s anctuary, p erhaps r edesigned i n p art i n t he 1 0th c entury, s urvives. T his door i s k nown a s t he San E steban d oor ( Puerta S an E steban). I t i s c rucial t o s ubsequent d esign i n s everal r espects, t o b e d iscussed bel ow.(fig.3). A m inaret w as built by ' Abd a r-Ra l l imän I s s on H ishäm ( 788-822), t o w hom was l eft t he t ask o f putting t he f inishi ng t ouches t o t he mosque b uilding. T hree c haracteristic e lements o f Romanesque c hurch b uilding a re t hus a lready f ound a t C ordoba i n t he 9 th c ent ury: a t all t ower, a monumental d oorway, a nd a c loister. T he

F irst

E xtension

' Abd a r-Rahmän I I ( 822-852) e xtended t he s anctuary s outhward b y d emolishing t he s outh wall, l eaving p iers t he t hickness o f t he a rcades a nd t he depth o f t he wall, s o t hat t he r hythm o f t he a rcades continued v irtually u nbroken; h e a dded e ight c olumns t o e ach a rcade a nd a n ew q ibla wall w ith a m ihrab p rojecting o utside i t ( in t he manner o f a Roman apse), and h e e xtended t he s ide walls, r einforced w ith t he s ame r ectangular b uttresses a s before. S ome o f t he mat erial w as r e-used b ut a n umber o f c apitals w ere n ew; t hey a re sophisticated copies o f v arious t ypes o f Roman and s ubRoman d esigns. T here i s n o s tandard s hape; t here a re e ither o ne o r t wo r ows o f a canthus l eaves w ith t he h eavy o utcurvi ng points a lready f avoured i n V isigothic and M erovingian s culpture a nd d estined t o be c haracteristic o f Mozarabic a canthus c apitals. T hese l eaves a re common on t he capitals o f Spanish a nd s outh-west F rench Romanesque c hurches ( F3). T he d rill was u sed i n t he carving, on t he whole sparingly ( 13). T he f our c apitals t hat f lanked t he m ihrab s how t he m astery o f t he s culptor a t h is best ( fig.4); d iversity i s p lainly s ought a fter, one of e ach pair h as a r ound r osette o n t he c onsole, t he o ther a r ectangular. T he l ooped s tems o f t he i nside c apitals c onstitute a motif f requent i n both Andalusian a nd R omanesque d ecoration ( D1). T hese c apitals, w ith t heir paired columns, o ne dark g reen o ne r ed e ach s ide, were s o h ighly p rized t hat t hey w ere moved t o t he s ame place o f h onour i n t he n ew e xtension ( 14). Abd a r-Rahmän I I, l ike h is g randfather, l eft h is work t o be f inished b y h is s on; Muhammad ( 852-888) c elebrated t he c ompletion o f t his a ssignment i n an i nscription o n t he S an E steban door ( F2). I t i s carved on a s tone f illet

1 1

a cross t he diameter o f the tympanum a nd round i ts edge, i n r elief a s i s u sual f or i nscriptions i n A ndalusia ( fig. 5 )(15); i t i s d ated 2 41/855. Relief i nscriptions on F rench R omanesque buildings are rare; t here a re two examples i n s outhern F rance, in Roman l ettering, a t Marcilhac ( Lot) a nd S aint-Sernin i n T oulouse ( figs 6 ,7); i n both cases other i ndications of c onnexions with S pain, i f not w ith Andalusia a re to be f ound ( Chap. I II). T he s ame r elief t echnique i s u sed f or the f our o rnamental applications o f Arabic s cript on R omanesque buildings ( see C hapter I II). T he P uerta S an E steban val Doorways

( B b a l-Wuzara"),

P ioneer o f Mediae-

This doorway i s the f orerunner o f many aspects o f l ater d esign i n Andalusian a nd Maghrebi a rchitecture; m any f eatures o f Romanesque doorway design and Romanesque decor ation a lso c an be t raced t o i ts i nspiration. I t o ccupies t he central o f the three bays c ontained between buttresses on t he w est f açade o f t he original o ratory. P arts o f i t a re b adly weathered and others restored ( 16). There has been much p atching, b ut t he a uthenticity o f t he i nscription s urr ounding t he tympanum has never been q uestioned. I t h as n ot b een observed h itherto t hat this doorway c omplex i s unprecedented, a s the entrance t o a r eligious building, i n t he N ear E ast or t he West: religious entrances i n earlier architecture are d isguised behind porticoes o r a re modest a nd p urely f unctional. H ere t he e ntrance, p roj ecting at the roof l ine, i s t he f ocal point o f the whole f açade a nd announces t o t he o uter world t he e ssential f eat ures o f the i nterior: the double a rcades, a mihrab f ramed i n a r ectangular moulding ( alfiz), e ven t he r oll c orbels s upporting t he arches. Q uite apart f rom t he d etails o f d es ign and decoration yet t o b e d iscussed, i n i tself t his new declamatory f unction o f t he doorway makes t he S an E steban door the e arliest expression o f, a nd i ndeed the a ncestor t o, t he great t radition o f mediaeval c hurch d oorways t hroughout western E urope. T hat t his i s s o i s verified by t he details o f s tructure a nd d ecoration that were adopted f rom i t i nto Romanesque doorway design. I ndia i s ( fig.8) the nearest r egion where monumental e ntrances to r eligious buildings a re f ound e arlier t han t his one. The f ollowing f eatures d istinguish t he S an E steban d oorway: T ripartite design: a c entral e ntrance s ection w ith arcading above the door p rojects f rom the roof l ine a nd i s wider than t he s ections t o e ither s ide. These l atter s ections contain b lind n iches o n the l evel o f the d ischarging arch o f t he d oor o pening. R oman t riumphal a rches and t he G olden G ate i nto t he palace c ity o f D iocletian at Split, a nd more i mmediately t he p alace gateways o f the early Umayyads i n S yria ( 17) provide models o f f lanking n iches or o f a rcades a bove a d oorway, but t heir i mplications o f f orce and defence a re r eplaced h ere by s plendour o f c olour a nd c arving f or d isplay. The many 1 2th

1 2

c entury f açades o f western F rance exhibiting s imilar design a nd intent show t he p otency o f t his e xample, l aunched perhaps at C luny ( Chap.VI). E ach s ection o f t he doorway i s a lso divided i nto t hree h orizontally; t he c entral s ection e specially concentrates i nterest and decoration i n t he upper part ( F5), with cornice, a rcades, d ecorated mouldings, and d ecorated voussoirs. T he a rticulation o f t he f açade does not c orrespond i n a ny way w ith t he i nterior t o which t he d oor g ives a ccess. F ar from being p laced opposite an arch, the door opens onto a column o f t he nearest a isle a rcade, a nd i s n ot even exa ctly c entred on i t ( 18). The Romanesque f açades o f churches i n t he Ango l lmois a nd S aintonge o ften do n ot c orres pond to the i nterior p lan: s ingle nave c hurches h ave t ripartite f açades, or f açades imply non-existent t ribune g all eries. I n each c ase i t i s the s anctuary, mihrab or apse w ith a ltar, t hat i s announced: t he i nterior architectural d isposition i s n ot t he r eference. The door o pening i s manesque d oor openings.

r ecessed,

a s

a re a lmost a ll

R o-

The opening has a voussoired l intel , and a t ympanum with a d ischarging a rch above. The decoration o f t he tympan um has n ot s urvived. Later M ezquita d oorways modelled on this one have tympana o f s tone with inlaid brick patterns. L ike t he a rches of t he i nterior a rcades, t he d ischargi ng arch over t he tympanum i s composed o f a lternate stone a nd composite b rick v oussoirs ( F13); h ere t he s tone vouss oirs are c arved with s tylized p lant s crolls, and project s lightly b eyond t he p lane o f t he brick ones. E ach s tone voussoir i s bordered i n s ome way ( F14), s everal with a f ine r ibbon motif o f t wo s trands that occasionally c ross e ach other ( 19). Many o f the enriched b locks o f the b lind a rcadi ng and f lanking n iches a re s imilarly e dged w ith f oliage motifs. The extrados i s c avetto moulding ( F15).

marked

by

a

p rojecting

e nriched

The s ame moulding f orms a rectangular f rame ( F12) ( alfiz), a cross t he t op a nd down t he s ides o f t he a rch. P rojecting chamfered b locks c onnect t he l ower e nds o f t his f rame with t he b ottom o f t he extrados. Though i t m ay b e tempting t o attribute the uncarved s tate o f these b locks to l ater restoration ( 20) i t i s t o be n oted t hat there i s no example i n Andalusia u ntil a fter t he 1 1th c entury o f an a lf iz turning i nto t he extrados. Above the a lfiz r an a t riple arcade, ( F17) with shallow b lind niches, a nd p ilasters enriched with p lant s crolls. Two courses above these a rches r uns a s alient f illet moulding; i t s uggests the upper l ine o f a wide a lfiz t hat may originally have f ramed t he t riple arcade.

1 3

Above t his again r uns a projecting cornice on n ine c lose-set roll c orbels ( F1).

supported

T he t op o f the wall i s crowned a ll round the roof l ine by s tepped m erlons. These f ollow t he p rojection o f t he r oof l ine at t he c entral s ection o f t he doorway i n the s ame way a s t hey f ollow t he projections o f t he b uttresses, w ith a ng led merlons a t the corners. The recessed n iches ( fig.9) f lanking the door, though much weathered and patched, c an be s een to h ave been c overed w ith c arved decoration. Most o f t he s crolls a re i n a s tyle different f rom t hat o f t he voussoirs o f t he dischargi ng arch, a nd more s imilar t o t hat o f t he f ragments o f n iches f ound under the f loor o f the e ast end o f t he M ezquita, n ow propped against o ne o f t he p illars ( 21). T he edges o f the b locks a re c arved with border motifs. T his e dging i s now i nconsistent, but t he g eneral s hape o f t he n iches was c learly a lways rectangular, with a stepped l intel e choing the shape of t he merlons above ( F19). B elow t his l intel a nd i ts c orbels r uns a s cotia moulding; T orres B albäs t hought i t may have b een t he e xtrados of a vouss oired l intel. T he t wo c orbel b locks o f each n iche are edged with a s tepped p lain f illet while t he u pper l intel b locks w ere bordered with a l ittle trefoil motif ( 22). T he s tepped l int el r ests on what appear t o be s imulated roll corbels c arved w ith s crolls. T he upper b lock o f the southern n iche l intel i s c arved with a c rossed l ooped s tem, a nd t he n orthern o ne was doubtl ess t he s ame. This motif ( D1), and t he r elated crossed s tems o n t he i nner m ihrab c apitals, p ersist through t he 1 0th and 1 1th centuries i nto t he Romanesque r epertoire. T he s pandrels o f t he n iches w ere decorated with volute bosses ( F19). Motifs s et i n t he s pandrels between arch and a lfiz are c haracteristic o f s ubsequent Andalusian decorat ion. O n t he 1 0th century mihrab t he boss becomes a p lant s croll; i n t he 1 1th c entury at Z aragoza ( figs 1 0,51) i t adopts t he f orm of a hollow r osette ( D15), l ike t he g reat a rch s pandrels under t he dome i n t he 9 th c entury G reat Mosque o f Q airawan . The great p lay made w ith spandrel decoration i n S panish Romanesque a rchitecture c an b e a ttributed t o the p recedent s et i n Andalusian design, and i n F rance t here was s ome r esponse t o t he s ame i nspiration. I n 1 0th c entury Andalusia the rosette appears both a s a small r elief medallion a nd t o decorate t he c eiling of d omes with l arge coupolettes ( fig.11). S pandrel motif and hollow r osette, though not combined, both f igure in Romanesque decoration. Over

each n iche

are t races o f a shallow b lind a rch

1 4

h ollowed i n the masonry. This probably r ested on n ettes, l ike t he n iches f lanking s ubsequent doorways t he surviving c arved b locks f ormed t he j ambs.

c olon ( F10);

I nserted i nto e ach o f t hese a rcades, or f ramed by t hem f rom the beginning, i s a p ierced marble grille ( 23). T his g rille i s s tandard on s ubsequent doorways, p ierced with various geometric p atterns. F urther F eatures o f

9 th century Andalusian Architecture

By the mid-9th c entury at l atest t he i nterior arcades a nd west door w ere i n a ll important r espects a s they are now ( see n .6), with t he i nterior arcades consisting o f the u nique d ouble t iers o f a rches, t he l ower o f round horseshoe f orm, the upper s emi-circular. T he double t ier o f arches i s a t heme r eflected i n t he a rcading ( F17) over d oorways and m ihrabs, nbt only i n t he Mezquita but i n a ll s ubsequent Andalusian a rchitecture, a nd i t a ffected R omanesque doorway d esign. I n the mosque o f a l-Hakam I I t he p ilasters o f the upper order a re s ometimes r eplaced by e ngaged c olumns: the arcades o f S an P edro d e Roda h ave superposed columns; two r egisters o f columns buttress the chevet at S aint-Sernin i n T oulouse ( fig. 1 3) and at S ainte-Foy i n C onques ; t he apse at the I le de R e i s s imilarly s upported ( F9). T he e xtrados o f t he upper a rches i s edged with a l ine o f s aw-tooth moulding o f small bricks between brick f ill ets. This ornament, i ndigenous to t he b rick architecture o f M esopotamia, i s not u ncommon i n s tone on F irst Romanesque buildings ( for example at S aint-Guilhem-le-desert) n or i n painted r epresentations o f a rchitecture, a nd i t occ asionally enters Romanesque architecture ( 24). The c eiling i s l ikely t o have c onsisted of wooden p ane ls l aid f lat o n t ransverse beams between the a rcades. Those that survive are f rom t he s econd e xtension a nd will b e described i n t hat c ontext. A l-Idrisi described the ceili ng i n t he l ate 1 2th c entury, but he d oes not distinguish d ifferent areas; i t i s l ikely that the early parts had c arved a nd p ainted d ecoration l ike t he l ater, but t he s tyle o f decoration i s n ot k nown. T orre

S an J uan

F rom the 9 th c entury, i n a ddition to " Abd ar-Rahmän"s extension to t he M ezquita, t here s urvives t hough in b ad r ep air a small minaret, now the bell tower o f the church o f S an J uan in C ordoba. O n e ach f ace i s a r ecess: on o ne s ide i t i s pierced with twin windows ( ajimez,F11), on the others t here are twin b lind n iches d ivided by a s lender c olumn ( F8) with a c apital. A bove t hese r an a f rieze o f a rcading on marble c olonnettes ( F17), s even t o each s ide. T he t win window or n iche, not y et s een i n t he Mezquita, became one o f t he characteristics o f 1 0th c entury s tyle, both on Andalusian and Mozarab monuments. I t was l ater adopted i n

1 5

C atalunya and France

( fig.14).

T he S ources of t hese Andalusian F eatures. o f Andalusian Art

Western Character

The Mezquita at the e nd o f t he s econd c ampaign, i n 8 55, was a n ew t ype o f building i n t he west o f E urope. W hile it was intended t o r eproduce t he ancestral S yrian monuments o f t he Umayyad dynasty a nd t o a ssert t he i dentity o f t he ruling h ouse ( 26), t he methods and details o f i ts s tructure a nd decoration l ink d irectly w ith t he pre-Islamic b uilding p ractices o f t he p eninsula, s o t hat the r esult i s an I berian, Western i nterpretation o f t he S yrian models. I n the r eign o f ' Abd a r-Rah r ään I I ( 822-850) t he f ashi ons o f t he Abbasid c ourt at B aghdad, i ts t aste f or e xotic l uxuries, i ts manners and protocol, dominated t he p alace a nd h igh s ociety o f C ordoba under t he t utelage o f t he s inger Z iryäb ( 27); s ecular a rchitecture i s l ikely t o h ave b een s trongly a ffected by t his i nfluence, but none s urv ives. I t i s s urprising how l ittle t he r eligious building r eflects t he s tyles o f c ontemporary M esopotamia. T he a rchit ects and d esigners working i n the Mezquita appear t o h ave maintained a vigorous i ndependence: t he f orms n ew t o t he West, d ictated by I slamic t radition, evoked r esponses evolved f rom f eatures r ooted in t he l ocal t raditions: t he c learest example o f t his i s t he way t he multiple aisle arc ades a re i nterpreted w ith c orbels a nd s tabilizing a rches i nstead of t he u sual I slamic t ie b eams. The masonry s ystem, buttresses, a lternating b rick a nd s tone i n t he a rches, horseshoe shape and double t iers o f a rches, roll corbels a nd t he c ompletely n ew d eparture i n d oorway design, i n s hort every detail except t he merlons c resting t he e aves, c ontinue i deas i nherent i n t he R oman monuments of t he West, many o f which s till s tood i n s outhern S pain i tself ( 28).

I t h as b een u sual among a rt h istorians o f t he R omanesque to r efer, i f a t a ll, t o C ordoban f eatures and inf luences i n F rance a s " oriental" ( 29). I n this they t ake i nsufficient account o f t he f act t hat even at i ts b eginn ings t he a rchitecture o f t he Muslim conqueror in S pain, and its d ecoration, i s only t o a l imited extent a f oreign i mplantation, but i s primarily an e arly Western response, a fter the i nertia o f t he M igration period, to a r evived s timulus f rom t he E ast, c orresponding to t he c ontemporary C arolingian r esponses t o B yzantium ( 30). I t s hares f eatures a nd t astes with C arolingian a rchitecture. T he u se o f polyc hrome masonry common t o both Andalusian and Carol-ingian i s an o bvious e xample, but much more g enerally, Andalusian a rt i s best r egarded a s one o f t he r ichest a spects o f the western revival r epresented f urther n orth by C arolingian a rt.

1 6

The

1 0th C entury

I n the 1 0th c entury t he s ame i ndependence i n the choice a nd t reatment o f a vailable motifs becomes even more apparent. D uring the l ater 9 th c entury Cordoban h egemony was challenged by t he emergence o f s everal s trong provinc ial Muslim powers. Toledo a nd Z aragoza were among t he numb er o f quasi-independent r egions. T he C hristian k ingdom o f A sturias naturally j oined i n t he r esistance to C ordoban s upremacy a nd i n Andalusia t his provoked p ersecutions o f the Mozarab p opulation by the sorely t hreatened c entral power. T hese p ersecutions i n t urn provoked t he emigration o f Mozarabs t o t he north; they c ame bringing with them much o f Andalusian c ulture ( 31). T he l ist o f Mozarab buildings b egins w ith S an J uan de l a P e f ia in 8 50 and Valdedios in 8 93, a nd grows l ongest in t he f irst h alf of t he 1 0th cent ury ( 32). The l egacy o f Mozarabic art to R omanesque decor ation i s most a pparent i n t he i vory a nd metal workshops o f L eön and Cogolla and i n the capitals o f S an Miguel de E sc alada, b ut Mozarabic b uildings w ith s tone corbels, r ibbed domes, t he u se o f twin windows and the a lfiz a lso s how Andalusian f eatures i n t he Christian context. The s urvival o f Mozarab monuments does a l ittle to f ill the gap c reated by the disappearance ( 33) o f a ll Andalusian b uildings o f t he p eriod b etween 8 55 in t he r eign o f Muhammad, when t he extension o f " Abd a r-Rat pän I I was completed, a nd t he t ime when " Abd a r-Ral : Imgn I II s ucceeded i n re-consolidating Cordoban rule and was r eady t o c elebrate h is s uccess ( 34). This he d id i n 9 29 by declaring h imself C aliph, t hereby a sserting h is equality o f s tatus with t he r ulers o f. B aghdad, Q airawän a nd C onstantinople ( 35). This new position r equired s uitably magnificent buildings. Most o f 'Abd a r-Rak lmän"s building e nergy a nd r es ources were devoted t o h is n ew p alace-city o f Madinat a zZ ahra" on t he o utskirts o f C ordoba; work b egan in 9 35 under t he personal s upervision of his s on, l ater t he c aliph a lH akam I I. T he w hole c omplex was r ansacked a nd obliterated e arly in the 1 1th century, but vast quantities o f c arved s tone and building f ragments h ave been r ecovered in excavat ions during the p resent c entury ( 3). I n C ordoba i tself nothing r emains o f ' Abd a r-Rahmän I II"s p alace b uildings, which were extensive. I n the M ezquita h e e nlarged t he p atio n orthward a nd a dded p ortic oes on i ts three s ides. These were r ebuilt early i n the 1 6th c entury but t he o riginal o rder was p reserved, w ith three arches on columns s eparating masonry p iers with engaged half columns; t his a rticulation i s t he Byzantine a nd Syrian arrangement, adopted by the builders o f t he p atios o f t he U mayyad mosques o f Damascus, Rusafa a nd H ama ( 36). The c loisters o f S ilos and Moissac are early examples o f a s imilar d isposition o f s upports f or a c loister gallery.

1 7

T he M inaret ' Abd ar-Rahmän"s new m inaret c ontained two i nner s taircases which' only met at t he h igh o uter g allery o f t he t ower. The division w as marked on t he outside by the two pairs o f twin w indows l ighting t he t wo s taircases on t he s outh and north f aces. T he dual s tructure i s echoed, and n ow with no j ustification f rom t he i nternal s tructure, i n the exterior design o f s ome C atalan belfries, for example S an Miguel de F luviä, S aint M ichel de C uxa, R ipoll, S an P ere de Roda. H ernandez b elieves s uch dual designs show an i nfluence f rom t he C ordoban m inaret, a nd h e t races t he i nf luence f urther i nto I taly, G ermany and France ( 37). T he w indows o f t he n ew minaret a ll c onsisted o f a t hick springer b lock and three voussoirs, but the arch was f aced with l imestone a nd p lastered i n s imulation o f multip le voussoirs, with a n extrados centred well above the c entre o f t he s offit ( F16). These s imulated voussoirs a re white s tone a lternating with r ed s tucco ( F13), on a p lane projecting about 2 0 mm b eyond t he r ed. T he heads o f t he voussoirs are g iven contrasting ends, the white s tone a rec essed r ed, a nd t he r ed " brick" a r aised white end, a nd t he j oin i s s haped in a double l obe. The device of decorating t he extrados with d iminutive l obes w as widely a dopted in l ater Andalusian and North African a rchitecture, and will be s een to h ave h ad s ome r epercussions in Romanesque a lso . I n 9 58 the north wall o f the s anctuary o f the Mezquita was reinforced with an a dditional f açade, doubling t he original t ransverse a rcade which was l eaning f rom the thrust o f t he i nternal arcades, n ot s urprisingly a fter two c enturies. These arches, l ike those o f the minaret, are drawn with a h igher c entre ( but o nly s lightly) f or t he ext rados ( F16), a device h enceforth constant a nd i ncreasingly exaggerated i n Andalusian a rchitecture u ntil t he e nd o f the 1 1th century. The extrados o f t hese a rches i s s imulated by a s tucco moulding ( F15) which a lso f rames t he i ntermediary p anels. I t i s l ikely that the arch f ace was a lso o riginally g iven s imulated v oussoirs down t o t he i mpost by means o f a s tucco f acing. The eaves o f t he additional roofing r est on horizontal s tone s labs s upported on r oll c orbels ( F1) decorated with a variety o f engraved motifs ( AHIII, f ig.96). T he

S econd E xtension.

T he

C limax o f C aliphal

D ecoration

I n 9 61 a l-Hakam I I s ucceeded h is f ather a s c aliph and immediately i nitiated a n ew extension t o t he Mezquita, alr eady p lanned i n t he t ime o f h is f ather. T he a rchitects and builders who had been enlisted at Madinat a z-Zahrä",some f rom a s f ar a field a s C onstantinople a nd B aghdad ( 38), now t ransferred temporarily to t he capital before returning to resume work at t he M adinat. This e nt f rom

s econd extension t o t he M ezquita i s very d iffert he s imple a nd s ober b uilding which it e nlarged

1 8

( 39). T he exterior walls w ere continued a s b efore, with minor modifications i n the masonry bonding ( 40), with the s ame rectangular buttresses; monumental doorways on t he model of the S an E steban door were i nserted between them where previously a s ingle public door had sufficed on e ither s ide. The central o f the three new main doorways s tands f orward s lightly f rom t he wall l ine, l ike t he c entral tract of i ts model, but l ittle e lse can now be ascertained about i t: a ll three doors are s o much r estored t hat many details must be d iscounted ( 41). The previous south wall was p ierced by e leven l arge double a rches, t hose i nto the extension of the c entral n ave and f lanking a isles being r ichly c arved a nd decorated. The Villaviciosa

Chapel

( AHIII

f igs

1 46-152)

The f irst t hree c entral bays of t he nave extension are r oofed w ith a d ome. The a rcades a re s tabilized by a n et o f s uperposed intercrossing l obed arches ( F20,21,Chap.IV). The s outh s ide of t he dome r ests on f our c olumns at each c orn er, with two i ntermediary columns s upporting a complex s ystem of l obed a nd intercrossing b lind a nd open a rches under a 1 3-lobed b lind arch spanning the whole width. The dome i s f ormed by eight thick s emi-circular a rches of c ut s tone ( F22), l eaving a s quare in the centre, with l ong voussoirs that r ise b ehind t he f illing w eb b etween t hem ( 42). These spring directly f rom the cornice s et above the various a rches d efining t he t ract. The web b etween t he r ibs i s carved with m iniature domes ( D15), three of t hose i n the corners with a p attern of r ibs s imilar to t he main domes, but lobed and f orming h exagons, not squares; the fourth i s f luted, with s ix wide a nd s ix n arrow undulations, a nd contained i n a hexagon. The other spaces contain hollow rosettes a nd small medallions i n r elief ( F4) w ith geometric devices, or stars ( 13). I n t he centre i s an octogon containing an evenly-fluted l ittle dome w ith twelve undulat ions . The Mihräb and Maqsura

Tract

( AHIII

f igs

1 53-191)

The central nave has p ilasters decorated with geometr ic motifs i n c arved p laster ( figs 3 7,38) r esting on t he roll c orbels ( many of these with a d ouble f illet). I t l eads f rom this dome t ract to the c entral o f three domes which a re raised on d ouble c olumns ( F6 f igs 1 8,16) i n f ront o f t he n ew m ihrab a nd i ts f lanking b ays, to f orm a k ind o f transept. The domes here are again c arried on thick rectangular-section i ntersecting arches ( F20), l eaving a c entral space. The mihrab t ract dome i s f aced with mosaic ( 43); a f luted cupola, one wide undulation between two narrow ones, rests on an i mpost c ornice f aced w ith g lazed c eramic. The s urviving f lanking dome on the west i s l ike t he entrance dome, carved with h ollow s hells, s tars a nd r osettes, a nd relief medallions.

1 9

I n t hese domes t he r ibs do n ot f all directly onto t he walls a s t hey do at t he e ntrance, b ut on colonnettes whose bases overhang a cornice. L obed squinches, their a rches f ramed i n an a lfiz, c reate an o ctagonal drum. T rilobed a rches a lternate with the squinches ( figs 1 1,14). L ambert a nd T orres-Balbäs ( 44) believed t hese domes t o be ancestral t o G othic r ibbed v aults; they f ulfil the s ame mechanical a nd s tructural f unction. F rom t he point o f v iew o f decoration their i nfluence i s evident, f irst in T oledo at B ab a l-Mardum ( Cristo de l a L uz), t hen i n Spain in t he C astilian Mozarab domes o f S an M illän d e S uso ( Cogolla) a nd S an B audelio d e B erlanga; i n t he l ater Romanesque a t A lmazän and T orres del R io. I n F rance i n the 1 2th c entury they w ere d irectly r eproduced at t he H öpital S aint Blaise ( Landes) and i n S ainte-Marie i n O loron ( figs 1 2, 1 51 7).These two c lose imitations o f Cordoban domes represent t he h eight o f a t radition t hat e arlier h ad g iven r ise t o a number o f h umbler R omanesque domes a nd vaults with h eavy r ibs o f rectangular s ection, often s pringing f rom t he s ides a s well a s, or i nstead o f, t he c orners o f s upporting walls, f or example at Aubiac, Mouchan, B essuejouls, S aint-Pierre T oirac, S aint-Hilaire i n P oitiers, C omminges, or t he t ower porches of M oissac, Cormery a nd S aint-Ours i n Loches. The domed maqsura tract, s eparated f rom the congregation by l ow pierced s creens b elow and intercrossing arches a bove ( 45)(F20), i s g iven i ncreasingly s umptuous d ecoration r ound t he mihrab and into t he domes. H ere was c oncentrated the greatest wealth o f materials a nd f orms: marble, g lass, c er amic, c arved and p ainted p laster, brick and stone; a lmost every s urface w as c arved, with much u se o f p ainting and g ilding. The s crolls were painted with r ed grounds, and ins criptions w ith b lue ( 46). C apitals w ere g ilded. A ll the c olumns were new, a lternately dark mottled g reen marble b earing Corinthian-type c apitals, a nd p ink breccia under composite. I n the central nave the d ecorated pil asters a lso h old a lternately Corinthian a nd c omposite c api tals. The a lternation o f types, p articularly o f the columns, o ffers a model f or t he a lternation of s upports in s ome e arly Romanesque churches, f or example, J umieges, S aint-Hilaire i n P oitiers, Conques, J aca, S antiago de C ompostela, Notre-Dame-du-Pre i n L e M ans, and the differing rhythms o f r ibs a nd engaged columns in t he naves o f the g reat Auvergnat churches. T he Mihrab

( fig.18)

T he analogy o f a l-Hakam's mihrab with a doorway i s evi dent. To what e xtent i t f ollows t he p revious mihrab i s not known, except t hat the c olumns o f the entrance were moved thence. I t p erpetuates, with e laborations, many o f t he f eat ures o f the S an E steban door: the entrance i s recessed, i ts arch i s c ontained i n an a lfiz, i t i s s urmounted b y arc ading, t he f lanking b ays c ontain s econdary m ihrabs ( niches) s urmounted by grille windows, the mosaic d ecora-

2 0

t ion, before r estoration, a lternated l ight and dark s crolls on a contrasting g round on t he " voussoirs". As e laborations we f ind t he e ntrance a rch i s n ow s upported on twin columns ( 47), the a lfiz i s c omposite, the a rcading above i t i s t rilobed. T he i ncrease o f decoration t owards the roof i s enhanced n ot o nly by t he w idened h orizontal b and of t he a lf iz b ut by t he d esign o f t he main a rch a nd t he a rches o f the arcades, a ll of which h ave the centre o f the c ircle o f t he extrados r aised r elative t o t he i ntrados. The r oll c orbels c arved i n the marble panels beneath t he extrados moulding a nd t he a lfiz a re a lso e laborated: their concave p rofile i s f illed with a down-turned l eaf ( D16, f ig.19), a motif which a lso d ecorates s ome o f t he c orbels o f the n ave ( LTB 1 957, f ig.364). This wholly unc lassical notion occurs i n very s imilar guise, not on c orbels b ut on c apitals i n R omanesque s culpture, s tarting a t R ipoll i n C atalunya and l ater a t Moissac i n the c loister, a nd at C onques, L oarre or Mourens ( figs 2 0-26). I n t he r ecessed s pandrels of t he mihrab l arge c ircular medallions l ike buds ( F19), i n various depths o f carving but everywhere c omparatively deep, s prout f rom s tems, a s a variant on more c onventional s pandrel bosses and hollowed r osettes. These i nnovations will be s een r eflected on l ater doorways. The Chocolate Door

( AHIII,

f igs

1 92,193)

The only s urviving doorway o f a l-Hakam's east f açade i s a c lear imitation o f t he m ihrab; t he s pandrels r epeat t he bud medallion, the a lfiz i s composite; a t wo-fold rec ession of corbels, with down-turned l eaf f illing t he prof ile, s upports a rchivolt a nd e xtrados. The i ntersecting arches o f the d ome t racts are a cknowledged in the i nters ecting a rches o f t he a rcading a bove. T he Third Extension The f inal a nd l argest extension was c arried out by A lmanzor ( 48), c hief minister o f a l-Uakam I I's s on H isham I I, and d e f acto ruler ( 978/9-1002). I t was begun i n 9 87/8 ( 49). A l-Hakam's extension h ad a lready come s o c lose t o the r iver bank t hat a p latform h ad h ad t o be built to s upport the south wall. A lmanzor therefore enlarged the mosque eastwards, s ince t he r iver b locked f urther e xtension s outhward and t he palace s tood on the west. H e added e ight a isles a long i ts w hole l ength. T he i nterior i s a ustere: A lmanzor, at pains t o s ecure t he backing o f the M alikite c lergy, c ultivated an i mage o f p iety a nd h umility t o comp ensate f or his u surpation o f c aliphal power. H e forbad any i nscriptions b earing h is n ame, a nd e qually a ny mention o f the l egitimate c aliph f or whom he was r egent ( 50). F or t he f irst t ime however s ome columns bear t he e ngraved s ignatures o f masons.(51)

2 1

A l-Hakam's mihrab and mac isura were r etained, and a ll t he earlier arrangements were r espected: t he a rcades r epeat t he previous model; t he a rches a re in f act o f s tone throughout, but a re painted t o s imulate a lternate brick and s tone. C apitals h ave no d ecorative c arving, b ut t he c orbels are carved with c urls a t t he s ides; a number have s hell or l eaf motifs f illing t he p rofile, a nd there a re t races o f paint ( F1, D 16). The arches p iercing the previous east wall have b een encased in l ater c enturies, but a small s ection o f t wo o f them has been recently u ncovered, revealing i n one case the impost a nd s pring o f a r ound horseshoe a rch, a nd i n t he other a convex-lobed a rch ( fig.27). A long t he new eastern f açade were p laced seven spectacular doorways ( AHIII, f igs 2 16-223, L TB 1 957, f igs 3 823 91), n ow h eavily r estored. T hese f aithfully reflected the model of the S an E steban doorway with the addition o f p ious r eferences t o t he m ihrab a nd o ther e nrichments o f A lmanz or's predecessors. E ach entrance was f lanked by twin n iches ( F11) a nd t he c olumns w ere s upported o n roll c orbels with a c entral downturned l eaf or p rojecting rectangular f illet; i n o ne c ase at l east t he a rches over t he w indow g rilles to e ach s ide o f the door were l obed ( 52). T he Anomaly o f

t he E leventh B ay

The curl motif p revalent s ince i ts u se on the r oll c orbels o f t he f irst mosque f inds a r ather b aroque exp loitation i n t he design o f one arch ( C-D and G -H on p lan f ig.28) o f t he t ransverse a rcade i n t he 1 1th b ay o f a lH akam's extension. Curls a re c arved and painted on t he f ace o f t he o nly undisguised pointed a rch i n t he b uilding, whose s offit i s f ormed o f 4 4 c onvex l obes ( fig.29). The authent icity o f this arch a s part of a l-Hakam's design i s quest ionable on s everal c ounts, a lthough B risch ( 53) maintains that t he arcade c ontinuing t he l ine o f the mac isura t o the e ast and west walls i s original. T his h e argues l ess on grounds o f t he s tyle o f t he c arving o f t he p ierced grilles a nd their positioning, which i s anomalous, than f or s truct ural r easons: t he s tone b eam that r uns a long t he t ransverse arcade above the l evel of t he a rches i s necessary to buttress t he t hrust o f t he d omes. An i nscription p ainted i n p laster on the northern f ace o f this b eam in the westernmost a isle i s i n a s tyle o f l ettering c onsistent w ith a c aliphal date and h as convinced h im of t he originality o f t he whole arcade i n spite o f i ts i rregularities. D oubt must s urely arise however when i t i s observed that t he f inal a rches both t o e ast a nd west a re designed to c oincide with a doorway, t hat i s c ertainly o riginal, i n the outer wall. T he impost o f t he f inal a rch to t he west i s i ns erted off c entre i nto the masonry tympanum to r est on the voussoired l intel ( fig.30). The c orresponding east d oorway, where A lmanzor cut through a l-Hakam's wall f or h is exten-

2 2

s ion, i s w alled i n, a nd t he t ransverse a rch i s s upported on a medley o f masonry, one p iece o f which bears two mason's marks i dentical w ith marks t hat occur s everal t imes on columns i n A lmanzor's extension. This p iece i s s imilar i n s ize a nd s hape t o t he impost b locks above t he s hort columns that l ined the openings made by A lmanzor i n a l-Hakam's e ast wall. M .-L. A rscott h as argued f or a date i f not i n t he 1 3th c entury a t a ny r ate at a date a fter the east wall doorway aperture h ad b een f illed and smoothed by A lmanzor's c ampaign i n 9 87 ( 54). S tylistically t he three outer arches o f t he t ransverse arcade on e ach s ide, a nd t he grilles i n t heir s pandrels, a re out o f keeping with the rest o f a l-Uakam's extension. O n t he unrestored w est s ide, t he pointed arch f lanking t he maqsura and the t wo f lattened horseshoe arches f urther west h ave concentric i ntrados and extrados, whereas the c entre o f t he e xtrados i s e lsewhere r aised well above t hat o f t he i ntrados,with the a im o f h eightening the e fffect o f the a rch. T he a rcade b ounding t he north o f t he G othic nave c rea ted by B ishop I f iigo Manrique i n 1 489, westward f rom t he V illaviciosa c hapel, i s t he l east a ltered part o f t he j unction o f the s econd extension with the f irst, and provides an example o f what a re c ertainly a l-Uakam's o riginal e ast-west arches ( fi2 .31). These resemble the a rches o f ' Abd ar-Rat.l män I II's f açade on the north f ront, w ith a r aised c entre f or t he extrados; they a re q uite u nlike t he arches o f the 1 1th bay t ransverse arcade. F urthermore the a rch 1 1C-D with c url voussoirs i s t he o nly o ne with arms n arrower than t he p latform provided by the corbel s upporti ng it ( figs 3 2-34). There i s thus a n accumulation o f details f or questioni ng the p resent a rrangement. What s tructure p receded i t, a nd how f ar t he b uttressing of t he domes was spread l atera lly in the f irst instance, i s open to d ebate. The applicat ion of t he curl motif to e lements o ther t han corbels, part icularly t o a rches, i s well attested for the 1 1th c entury, i n t he A ljaferia in Z aragoza and i n North A frica in M erinid S edrata ( 55). A lready the curl was exploited i n a variety o f ways at Madlnat a z-Zahra' a nd a f ragment o f c arved s tucco o f the 1 0th c entury a lso survives f rom G ranada: i t i s part o f an arch w ith a smooth s offit edged with c urls i n d eep relief, a s on one s ide o f a f illet c orbel ( AHIII,fig.317). C risto de

l a Luz,

Toledo

The only s urviving Andalusian s tructure o f t he 1 0th c entury outside C ordoba i s t he oratory o f a s mall mosque which stood at t he gateway called B ab a l-Mardum i n T oledo. T he mihrab a nd a ll s urface d ecoration h as g one; an apse was added on the north-east in t he 1 2th century when t he mosque w as converted i nto a c hurch named Cristo de l a L uz. A r el ief i nscription in brickwork on the s outh-west f açade dates t he building to Muharram 3 90 ( December 9 99) a nd g ives

2 3

t he name o f t he private f ounder ( 56). N ine m iniature d ome b ays c reate a central p lan u nique i n Andalusia ( AHIII, f igs 2 59-263)(57). E ach dome i s d ifferent; a ll have thick rectangular s ection r ibs ( F22) f orming p atterns, d evoutly i f c rudely imitating t he domes o f the Mezquita. The ribs r est on a cornice c resting t he walls o f e ach b ay a nd o verhang i t. The i nscription on the exterior runs r ight across t he f açade a nd i s s et above a b and of l attice work a nd a r ow o f i nterlaced arcading i n relief ( F20) r esting on trapezoidal imposts. T he three entrances beneath a re d isparate, t he westernmost f ive-lobed and two-centred, t he c entral r oundh eaded w ith r aised extrados, a nd t he s outhernmost, nearest the mihrab, a round horseshoe. I nside on a l evel between t he arcades a nd t he domes are walls p ierced with o ne o r t wo openings, complemented by n iches on t he outer walls; m any o f t hese openings a nd n iches a re t rilobed, a nd over t he mihrab was s et an arcade with i ntersecting t rilobe a nd h orseshoe a rches ( fig.35)(58). Ewert's examination and analysis of the building h as l ed h im to t he c onclusion that not o nly t he d ecorative patterning o f t he dome r ibs, but every essential part o f t he building pays t ribute t o t he M ezquita ( 59). I t i s f rom buildings such a s this, which f ollowed e ither the religious or s ecular t raditions o f c aliphal d esign, t hat will h ave c ome t he greatest impact f rom Andalusia on Romanesque a rchitectural d ecoration. C aliphal

D ecorative Motifs

A review o f the b asic t ablished b y t he e nd o f t he l ater developments.

decorative r epertoire e sc aliphal p eriod w ill c larify

T he u sual comment evoked by t he r ichness o f Andalusian d ecoration i s t hat i t i s " dense, compact, c overing a ll t he s urface l ike a t extile"(61). An equally valid comment, r arely m ade, i s t hat Andalusian decoration a lso c arefully a rticulates the a rchitecture: openings, a rches and n iches a nd o ften t heir c omponents, are outlined with b ands a nd p lain f illets, walls are divided i nto dadoes and panels, imposts a nd l intels p icked o ut, d ifferent p lanes emphasized o r s uggested. T he i ntegration o f d ecoration to s tructure, with i ts marked t endency to c oncentrate d ecorative w eight upwards, i s d ifferent f rom the Romanesque approach, b ut it i s n ot absent. While p lant motifs p redominate, a nd e voked t he greatest i nventiveness among Andalusian designers, s ome a spects o f t he l inear a nd g eometric p atterns, minor i n t he 1 0th c entury but which were l ater t o b ecome i nsistent in I slamic decoration, b oth western a nd i n t he E ast, a lso f ound repercussions i n R omanesque. L inear a nd G eometric Motifs I ntersecting arches with i ntersecting arches

( F20). Relief decorative arcading on the exterior f açades o f s ome of

2 4

a l-Hakim I r's a nd A lmanzor's doorways i nto the Mezquita, a nd i n T oledo a t Cristo de l a L uz p rovides a precedent f or this motif i n N orman E ngland and R omanesque S icily. I t i s s een o ccasionally i n Normandy i tself, at G raville S ainteHonorine a nd a f ew other p laces, perhaps i nfluenced f rom E ngland ( 61), a nd i ntroduced i ndependently o f t he roll c orbel, which appears early at J umiäges and C aen. P olychrome i nlay executed i n brick or t erra c otta i nto s tone i s c onfined t o motifs i n s traight l ines; the e arliest examples a re i nside t he minaret o f ' Abd a r-Rahman I II, on walls and in t he vaults over the s taircases. At Madinat a zZ ahra" i t i s u sed f or pavings a nd f or dadoes, a nd in t he l ast two extensions o f the Mezquita f or many vertical s urf aces: v oussoirs, a lfiz b ands, tympana, n iches. T he s ame s imple r ectilinear z ig-zag and key patterns, swastikas, l ozenges, are u sed to decorate t he f acetted p ilasters o f a l-Hakam I I's c entral n ave, moulded in p laster, a nd t he p ierced marble g rilles a ssume t hem a s well a s rounded p lant f orms a nd c ircular i nterlace ( 62). There are i nstances o f this i nlay t echnique i n the Rhöne valley: c oloured c ement i s i ncrusted in stone at S aint-Maurice in Vienne and S aint-Apollinaire i n Valence, terra c otta on t he t ympanum o f S aint-Pierre i n V ienne ( 63). I n Languedoc a n umber o f c hurches have s imple designs i nl aid in b asalt. T hese i nclude S aint-Pierre-de-Rhedes, which has the l intel with a mock-Kufic i nscription ( Chap.III). The polychrome s tone mosaic on t he f açade o f L e Monastier in the Velay and on many l ater Auvergnat c hurch exteriors has been c laimed a s i nspired by I slamic exterior d ecoration ( fig.36). The p ilasters o f a rcades, some f luted a s i n the Mezquita,and at C luny I II, on t he apse and choir o f S aintEtienne i n Nevers . a nd those o f L a-Charité-sur-Loire ( fig.37) and o ther exteriors, particularly i n the B erry ( fig.38) ( many r esponding to t he r adiation of i nfluence f rom these) and i n t he S aintonge, are c arved with geometric designs t o p roduce a s imilar e ffect t o t he p ilasters in a lH akam I I's nave. The mihrab mosaics are o f course i n a different category; they share motifs with o ther media o f decoration, a s painti ng a nd r elief c arving. Mosaic f looring c oming to l ight i n G ascony, a t S aint-Sever, S ordes, L ayrac o r Lescar s uggests a continuing a nd s hared t radition, b ut t he c onnecting l inks are hard t o f ind ( 64). Smaller p lant and border motifs. Many of t hese dep loyed i n the mosaic and c arved decoration at Madinat a zZ ahra" a nd in t he M ezquita h ave a p lace i n R omanesque decoration. The themes are nearly a ll common t o the d ifferent media employed, b oth in buildings a nd f or l uxury o bjects, but woodworkers a nd i vory c arvers s how certain preferences more p eculiar to t heir own c raft t raditions. These motifs are nearly a ll versions o f a wide-ranging Mediterranean r epertoire; s ome which a re t o be f ound i n R o-

2 5

manesque a nd i n which a C ordoban i nfluence i s to b e d isc erned are l isted in Appendix I with c omments. A f ew of t he most obvious m ay b e t ouched on h ere. T he d own-turned l eaf ( D16) will be d iscussed i n c onnexion w ith corbels. A symmetr ical p lant s crolls a nd meanders ( D8) o ften a ppear on vouss oirs as a consequence o f the shape d ictated by s imulated j ointing s ystems ( AHIII,figs 1 82,193)(65). T hey a re r epeated with a s tronger s uggestion of K ufic l ettering i n the spandrels o f t he l obes of s ome of t he e arlier c arved marble a ltar tables f rom t he P yrenean and N arbonne workshops, for example those o f Q uarante, G erona a nd R odez, a nd on imposts at Roda ( 66). Round the outer border o f the mihrab a lfiz a r elatively naturalistic acanthus s tem f lows e ntwined w ith curling indented l eaves ( D9). I t i s r eproduced a lmost exa ctly on t he f açade o f S aint-Pierre i n Angouleme ( 67) and other buildings in t he a rea ( fig.39(68). T he square composite f loweror l eaf-cross D 10, g iven prominence on the marble mihrab panels ( fig.19), i s a lso the main motif on t he relief s tuds d ecorating the V illaviciosa and maqsura domes and t heir walls. I t h as c lose affinities with t he rosette t hat dominates the dome decoration in t he f orm o f hollowed c oupolettes, as i s manif est in t he eaves panels o f Madinat a z-Zahra lfig.20) where t he composite f lower i s f ramed in a medallion s haped l ike these coupolettes. I t occurs on corbel B -1 at Tudela ( 69) a nd i t r eappears on t he wooden doors o f C hamaliäres a nd L avoüte-Chilhac ( figs 7 7,78). The l ittle f lorets D 3 t hat accompany t he composite f lower i n the Mezquita, at Madinat a z-Zahra" and on corbel B -1 at Tudela a lso p ersisted i n t he w oodworking r epertoire particularly i n connexion with c eiling decoration, at T oledo, M alaga, G ranada, S egovia and f inally on t he wooden doors of Le P uy. P laster c eiling members i n the A ljaferia a re a lso bordered w ith t hem. ( AHIII f igs 1 51, 1 13, 1 78, 3 07, 3 16,290-292). On s ome caliphal c apitals acanthus s tems are entwined or more r arely twisted i nto s pirals ( LTB 1 957, f igs 4 75,487, 4 99, 5 03). S piral s tems a re more f requent in t he 1 1th c entury in t he A ljaferia ( fig.40). The s piral " column" among acanthus was exploited on Mozarabic c apitals a nd i s o ne of the diagnostics used by G arcia-Romo ( 70) to trace a Mozarabic i nfluence on e arly s culpture in t he L oire region, f or example at S aint-Benoit, ( fig 9 1 and Vergnolle, S aintB enoit-sur-Loire n os 4 4b,51b,31a t ower r .-de-ch), Cormery, S aint-Hilaire i n P oitiers and Meobecq. T he h ollow r osettes or coupolettes o f t he C ordoban domes were r egarded by Mäle a s a ncestral t o the rosettes i n t he soffits of Auvergnat c orbel t ables. S imilar r osettes decorate s ome o f the miniature stud medallions i n the maqs ura. The a ffection o f Andalusian d esigners for many forms

2 6

o f r osette w as s hared by R omanesque artists; i n a ddition t o the Auvergnat h ollow rosette ( anticipated on s offits at Madinat a z-Zahra" w ith an i ntermediary s uggested by t he wooden c eiling i n S egovia f ig 4 6), the great rosettes o f t he Moissac and Thezels l intels and an a ltar p anel f rom C luny ( 71), or o f t he eaves s offits and metopes o f J aca, Moirax and t he P orte M i geville o f S aint-Sernin i n T oulouse, h ave Andalusian p recursors i n p lenty i n a rchitectural decoration and i n the l obed medallions o f applied a rt. T he mihrab of t he A ljaferia mosque c hapel h as p articularly f ine examples i n the spandrels o f the a rch ( fig. 1 0). Motifs

u sed in Woodwork:

the C eiling o f

the Mezquita

The decoration o f the wooden c eilings in the Mezquita i ntroduces e lements not f ound i n s tone or p laster c arving ( LTB 1 957, f igs 3 43-351 and col.p1.opp.p.544)(72). Colour i s more varied, adding green,black, white and brown to the b lue, r ed and g old of t he s tone a nd p laster c arving ( 73). T he variety o f combinations o f s traight l ine, angle and c urve produces c artouches a nd medallions o f ever d ifferent s hapes; they run a long t he s eparate p lanks o f the ceiling t o c reate f rames, executed in gold d ots a long a b lack b and, w ithin which other c arved or p ainted panels were nailed. N one of these panels s urvives. T he b eams, underneath a nd on t he s ides, were c arved with f ormal p lant motifs, specially running palmette s crolls ( fig 4 1)(LTB 1 957, f igs 3 46-351, 3 93). The l egacy o f t his wood workshop i s s een persisting i n t he 1 1th century a nd s till o perative i n mudejar work i n S pain into the 1 4th ( AH I II f ig.278a, 1 3th c entury) ( 74). T here were s igns o f trans-Pyrenean r amifications t oo i n the Romanesque p eriod: t he d ouble h alf-palmette ( D7) m eander i s r epeated a lmost exactly on wood in t he Velay, in a ssociat ion with t he f lower c ross, f lorets a nd s plit p almette mot ifs of caliphal marble decoration, and it r eappears i n the s ame woodworkers' t echnique o f l ow two-plane f lat r elief o n s ome distinctive s tone imposts, not only i n 1 1th century S pain at J aca, N ogäl ( fig.43) a nd L eön, but i n t he Vendee a t Maillezais ( fig.42) i n the mid-llth c entury, a f ew d ecades l ater a t S aint-Outrille i n the B erry, s lightly grooved ( Berry r oman, f ig. 1 6), a nd t hen at V illesalem i n P oitou. T he Fez

M imbar

Another rare s urvival of caliphal wood c arving i s a p anel f rom t he mimbar o f t he Andalusians" Mosque i n F ez ( 75). A relief i nscription ( fig.44) c ontaining the names o f H isham I I and a l-Mansur i bn Abi ' Amir ( Almanzor) s urrounds a nd bisects i t, d ating i t to t he l ate 1 0th c entury. I t meri ts a detailed description s ince t he c arved decoration adds a number o f motifs to t he r epertoire o f c aliphal adoptions i nto Romanesque. A mihrab, a t rilobe a rcade on columns, oc-

2 7

c upies t he vertical p anel o f t he t op arched s ection. T he arch i s a p lain f illet f rom which r ise a t t he top two d ivergent half-palmettes h eld w ith t wo binders ( D6). T he n iche contains t hree l eaf s crolls i n a f orm which a lso d ecorates a border i nside t he upper i nscription b and of f oliated K ufic. This c onsists of a c ircle d ivided by an S -curve ( D14), s haped by a p ear-shaped p ine c one ( D2) occupying o ne h alf o f the c ircle, t he other p art o f which i s f illed w ith a half-palmette. A s imilar motif o ccurs on Mozarab c hancel p anels, and i t i s l ittle c hanged a s impost decoration i n Moissac c loister. C ircular f loral medallions ( D15) c ontaini ng l eaf bosses, with a n outer r ing o f petals holding f lor ets ( D3), a re s et e ither s ide a nd b elow t he c entral s ect ion o f t he p anel. The l ower r osette i s f lanked by geometr ic medallions w ith r osettes in t he i nterstices ( D13), m ade o f grooved l ines. The columns o f t he r epresentations o f the mihrab a re a lso grooved, a s a re t he o utlines o f t he rosettes and i nner borders ( D12). T he inscription and a ll t he edging of t he l ower s ection i s a p lain f illet. T he c entre of the l ower s ection i s o ccupied by a s uccession o f stepped " mihrabs" ( F19) c ontaining h alf-palmette s crolls, on e ither s ide i s a rosette i n a s quare over a horizontal p anel c ontaining mock K ufic. T he l etters of t he i nscription round three s ides o f this s ection a re angular, while those o f t he upper o ne a re r ounded. B oth a re p artly f oliated, with half-palmette t erminals. There a re no f leurons over t he small l etters a nd t hey a re r ounded, but s ome t riangular f orms might s uggest t o a non-Arabist a triangular mim s uch a s appears on the Le P uy door ( Chap.III). T he d etails o f t he decoration o n this p anel exemplify a tradition which c an without d ifficulty i nclude t he nonf igural decoration of a ll f our wooden doors i n t he V elay t o be d iscussed i n Chapter I II, and i ndeed t he general c ompos ition o f t he F ez panel h as many a nalogies w ith that o f t he other three doors in t he n eighbourhood o f L e P uy. Architectural

D ecoration i n

1 1th C entury A ndalusia

N othing c omparable to t he M ezquita remains f or t he post-caliphal period. I n Toledo t he c hapels o f N .S. d e B el en i n S anta F e, a nd o f S an L orenzo i n t he p arish church o f t hat name, are quoted or i llustrated by G omez-Moreno ( AH I II, pp. 2 07 f f.) t ogether with details f rom S an s alvador a nd Las T ornerias, a s examples o f t he continuation o f the C ordoban t radition t hrough t he 1 1th i nto t he 1 2th a nd 1 3th c enturies. Corbels f rom Tudela ( fig.45) and an 1 1th c entury wooden c eiling f rom S egovia ( fig.46) a re o ther s uch examp les t o be examined. W ith the d eath o f A lmanzor i n 1 002 b egan the f ragment ation o f Andalusia i nto t he t aifa k ingdoms. T he a ccumul ated wealth of t he c aliphate was n ow d ispersed among a var iety of c ity s tates, a nd a dded to t he revenues f rom their e ver-thriving i ndustries a nd t rade ( 76). E very l arge c ity became a capital with a royal court, yet o f a ll the palaces

2 8

built during t he 1 1th c entury o nly rare s tanding; these are primarily i n M alaga and

t races r emain Z aragoza.

T he s tyle o f decoration, e specially i n s tone a nd p laster, surviving on these f ragments a nd on f inds e lsewhere s uch as those i n G ranada and A lmeria, i s c onsistent enough to a llow of the g eneralization t hat Andalusian a rchitectural d ecoration had entered a " baroque" p hase. The model was s till C ordoban, i ts i diosyncracies l ike l obed and i ntersecting arches, the top-heavy l oading o f c olumns, voussoir d ecoration or p alm-leaf a rabesques are a ll heightened and exaggerated s o that s urface decoration becomes p rogressively more e laborated a nd unstructural ( AH I II, f igs 3 05, 2 286, 2 95). T he a pproach was thus a lien t o t he organic and architectural character of the contemporary experiments in C hristian decoration ( 77). Even so s ome o f t he motifs and methods were adopted by R omanesque d esigners. M alaga

( AHIII,

f igs

3 05-309)

I n Malaga a f ew pavilion arcades a re attributed t o the r eign o f Y ahya ( 1023-1035),Intersecting arches ( F20) a re s upported on s lender columns ( F8); the decentralisation o f t he extrados ( F16) i s h igher than i n c aliphal a rches a nd t he contrast t hus more marked between the h eavy a rch and i ts s lender s upports. T he a lternation o f c arved a nd p lain voussoirs ( F14) i s echoed in t he extrados which consists of a broad, p lain-grooved moulding i nside a band o f c arving. T he decoration makes much of t he g eometricized and s tylized p lant interlace a nd t he e longated f ern-like palm l eaf t hat h ad a lready begun t o make i ts appearance at Madinat a zZ ahra" ( 78) a nd on t he C hocolate D oor ( AHIII, f ig.193). T his i s an aulic " baroque" s tyle s uited t o p laster c arving a nd doubtless developed by p lasterers. A d ifferent s tyle i s however apparent in t he decorat ion o f t he wooden beams o f the s ame building, now i n the museum ( AHIII, f ig.307) w ith i nscriptions a nd c orbels c arved with bands o f l ittle i solated f lorets ( D3) o r rings i n f lat t wo-plane r elief. The ends o f t he c orbels a re s haped a s a down-turned l eaf ( D16), and the heart-and-dart ( D11) i s t aken f rom t he mihrab p anels or i ts imitation a t Madinat a z-Zahra" ( 79). G ranada

( AHIII,

f igs

3 16,

3 26)

I n G ranada t he l ions o f the fountain court ( D17h) and s ome f ragments i n t he museum b elong to t he Z irid p eriod ( 1012-1090)(80). T here i s a lso the B ahuelo, a baths buildi ng next to t he arch o f t he I slamic c ity wall a cross the D arro, n ear t he A lhambra. I t c ontains a s eries o f c apitals ( AHIII, f igs 3 13-315), s ome of which show d evelopment o f t he s ame t ype as t he e arly c apitals of R ipoll ( 81). The vol ute s tems o f t he Granada capital a re p lain a nd r ise v ertic ally, l ike e arly Romanesque capitals at Tournus, F römista

2 9

or

I guäcel

( see F römista,

Chap.III).

R oof members o f wood i n t he museum are carved i n the s ame w ay as t hose o f M alaga, s ome w ith a l ittle more att empt at the kind of r elief achieved i n p laster work, but w ith the s ame b order bands and motifs, downturned l eaf and s crolls. Among p laster f ragments i s t he a rch w ith curl b order a lready quoted, a nd a heavy acanthus l eaf-point f rom a c apital. S croll c arving i ntroduces m any l ittle r ings o r c urls, both where s tems branch, and a t the ends o f f olio les, i n contrast t o C ordoban l eaves which t ended t o h ave s imilar rings or eyelets between t he f oib les. Toledo F ragments o f c arved marble p laques and a f ew c apitals a re a ll t hat i s l eft o f t he f amous G aliana palaces i n Toledo, built by the D hu-n-Nunids I sma'il a z-Zafir ( 10281 043) a nd Y aeya a l-Ma'mün ( 1043-1075) ( AHIII, f igs 2 702 78) ( 82). Their public works will b e d iscussed i n t he s ection below on marble carving. T udela

( fig.

4 5)

A s impler f orm o f the c ircular half-palmette type o f branching scroll t han on t he T oledan f ragments i s a pplies a s a half-palmette i n a number o f versions i n low relief on t he s tone c orbels t hat s urvive f rom t he mosque o f T udela ( 83). These will b e compared i n Chapter I II with s crolls on t he 1 2th century wooden doors o f t he Velay. O nce a gain we f ind roof e lements, a lbeit this t ime o f s tone, approximati ng to t he f lat s tyle o f a ll s urviving Andalusian woodwork, described above i n connexion with M alaga and Granada. S ome s tem b ranchings on these T udela c orbel s crolls a re h eld i n a double band, s imilar to the characteristic t riple-V b ands o f R omanesque capital s crolls, s uch a s at T oulouse. S an Millän de

S egovia

( fig.46)

S trong evidence f or the role o f roof a nd ceiling work i n t he t ransmission o f Andalusian m otifs i nto R omanesque comes from S egovia(84). R emains o f a wooden ceiling d iscovered b ehind t he 1 7th c entury vaulting of t he church o f S an M illan are parts of t he c eiling o f t he church built during t he repopulation of t he c ity after i ts o ccupation by C hrist ian f orces in 1 088. The c eiling i s c onstructed in t he s ame manner a s t he c eiling o f t he M ezquita, a nd c arved i n t he s ame s tyle, and there i s even a K ufic i nscription o n the architrave p anels: " al-mulk l illah" " The k ingdom i s A ll ah's". This i s t he s ame, very c ommon, phrase a s i s ins cribed o n t he doors of L e P uy, a nd on t he c eiling p anels o f the 1 1th century i n the G reat Mosque of Q airawan. " There a re f our-lobed coupolettes [ i.e. h ollow r osettes, D 15] on the soffits o f the S an M illan ceiling, j ust l ike t hose o f t he cornice at Ebreuil"(85), which i s to s ay l ike a ll t he typical Auvergnat c ornices. The corbels a t S egovia are ei -

3 0

t her f illet-roll corbels or " prow-shaped" w ith a downt urned l eaf ( D16); they and the a ccompanying panels are c arved w ith l ittle f lorets ( D3), d etached or i n c ircles, palmettes i n h earts ( D11) or c oiling s crolls ( D7), a ll i n two-plane r elief, a nd b ordered with p lain r ectangular-sect ion f illets " exactly l ike t he woodwork f rom Malaga, Granada, t he c eiling members o f the Mezquita a nd i ndeed o f the Great Mosques o f Q airawan and T lemcen" ( 86). T he A ljaferia,

Z aragoza

( AHIII,

f igs

2 79-299)

Restorations in t he A ljaferia and excavations at B ala guer ( 87) have r evealed a small part o f t he a chievements o f a mid-llth c entury workshop i n the northern marches, working f or t wo r ival members o f t he s ame princely f amily. The i nterlacing arcades o f the A ljaferia were r emoved t o t he museums o f M adrid a nd Z aragoza i n 1 866 ( AHIII, f igs 2 95-298). T he o ratory a nd m ihrab a re p reserved i n s itu and n ow restored. T he s urrounding wall a nd defensive t ower, probably an e arlier construction, a re o f s tone; the i ntern al work i s a ll o f b rick a nd p laster. T he a rcades of the porticoes, which s tood at e ither end o f a l arge court, s imu late with a b ewildering c omplexity o f i nterlacing a rches and columns a s eries o f f ive-lobed arcades, a ll r endered with outlines o f a b road c omposite p laster moulding against a l attice o f foliage. T he s ame 5 -lobed and mixtilinear a rches t hat s urround t he oratory on t wo r egisters a re h ere j umbled with t heir columns tossed at a ll angles on a s creen t hat s panned t he width o f t he p atio; Romanesque wheel r ose w indows, s uch a s t hat at B alaguer, on a small church on the v ery s ite of t he r uined palace ( fig.47), e xemplify a s imp ler s tricter d iscipline i mposed on this c omposition ( 88). The mihrab a rch of t he A ljaferia has deep coupolettes i n t he spandrels, s imilar to t he rosettes i n t he m ihrab t ract of the Great Mosque of Q airawan. They correspond to t he i ncrusted bacini popular i n Romanesque I taly. I n F rance, a r are example o f the u se o f bacini survives at S aint-Antonin ( Lot) ( figs 4 8,49) where the incrusted bowls a re F atimid o f the 1 1th century, whether imported f rom E gypt direct or v ia S pain i s unknown ( 89). S t Antonin a lso h as lobed arches. The process f irst s een in " Abd ar-Rat . imän I II's minaret a nd developed i n a l-Hakam I I's mosque ( fig. 5 0) of marking e xtra l obing at t he h ead of e ach or a lternate voussoir t o g ive a f iligree o r f ishtail e ffect i s t aken f urther on the i ntrados o f arches in t he A ljaferia, w ith s econdary l obing: t his marks a s tage t owards t he l ambrequin profiles o f A lmoravid arches. I t p rovides a possible s ource f or t he f isht ail and voluted voussoirs o f the group o f l obed a rches c onnected with t he C ahors s outh door ( Chapter I V).

a s

The c apitals o f the A ljaferia belong to the s ame t ype t hose noted a t Granada, r epresented a lso in t he e arly

3 1

c hurches a t R ipoll and C ornella, i n t he t radition o f t he c aliphal models of t he l ater 1 0th c entury ( fig.21). T he l arger A ljaferia c apitals h ave h eavy p rojecting a canthus l eaf points ( F3) ( fi2s 4 0) and t he d ecoration i s profuse. I t i ncludes twisted columns between the acanthus l eaves and t he Cordoban c rossed s tem ( D1) u nder t he c onsole ( which i ts elf h as a lmost or entirely vanished) . T he p lant decoration c arved i n p laster in t he A lj aferia and at B alaguer i s e verywhere r estricted to s inglef oliole palm l eaves o f b aroque a spect; t he c arving o n t he members i n and s upporting t he dome ( fig.52) at Z aragoza however comes c loser t o the s tyle found on t he roof members described above f rom T udela a nd S egovia than t he d ecoration i n the r est o f the p alace: t he two-plane r elief i s d ominant, t he s offit a nd metope p anels a re bordered w ith s epar ate small f lorets ( D3), both f eatures c onstant on wooden ceiling work at M alaga a nd G ranada a s w ell a s S egovia. The downturned l eaf ( D16) i s much exploited on the corbels, as will be s een in Chapter V .. Non-Architectural S ecular C entury: Marble and I vory

Decoration,

Caliphal

and

1 1th

What survives o f marble and ivory carving must r epres ent a ll t hat i s l ost f rom t he palaces o f Andalusia. T here a re many recorded buildings which do not s urvive, t he A lc azaba o f M alaga, f or example, r ebuilt by B adis o f G ranada ( 1057-1063), and a l arge palace built by J arrän ( 10121 028) i n A lmeria, a s w ell a s b aths a nd f ortifications; many r ecords are s till unexamined. B aths were o ften decorated, a nd t he r oofs p ierced with p atterned openings. They w ere much f requented: I bn ' Idhäri r eports t hat t here were 3 00 baths i n Cordoba a lone in t he 1 0th c entury ( 90). A nimate themes and the peculiarities o f design i n the A ljaferia s how s ecular a rchitecture f ollowing t he l ead o f i deas i nit iated i n the precious materials. T wo new f eatures s tand o ut, b oth testimony to t he western c omplexion o f A ndalusian artists' a spirations. I t i s highly appropriate that i t was in western I slam, among t he i vory c arvers o f C ordoba, t hat animate t hemes, h itherto only countenanced on t extiles and c eramics, s hould be a dapted to s culpture. A ndalusia w as h ere a p ioneer i n t he f ormation o f the " general Mediterranean s tyle", and with t hemes p articularly relevant f or Romanesque d ecorat ion. The s econd i nnovation i nitiated by these a rtists i s t he n ew prominence g iven to a device u sed o nly o ccasionally i n the Byzantine t radition: the inclusion o f borders i n the f ield o f design by i nterlacing t hem with t he o utlines o f t he l arger e lements, such a s medallions, c artouches o r arches, a s well a s l inking t he medallions themselves i n t he more u sual Byzantine manner ( 91). T his device brings added movement to t he whole p attern. I t w as l ittle c ultivated by t he architectural d ecorators i n Andalusia until t he 1 1th c entury, when i t was e xploited w ith s ome p anache i n parts

3 2

o f the pavilion i n t he Malaga A lcazaba and i n the A ljaferia ( 92). There n ot o nly a re m edallions c reated by t wisting t he f rame of a f rieze ( a s imilar border i s c arved on the wooden door o f B lesle i n t he V elay), but a rch mouldings t hemselves l ink with medallions, c artouches, a lfiz or f raming a rchit rave; t he l oops b etween a re dotted w ith f lorets o r i nterl ace studs. Marble Marble troughs and basins ( 93) i llustrate a r epertoire o f a nimate motifs i n d ecoration which a re vouched f or i n Andalusian l iterature ( 94) but l ittle known i n surviving b uildings. D iscoveries at M adinat a z-Zahra' s ince t he war ( 95) have i ncluded many vestiges o f R oman s arcophagi, deemed to be evidence o f a l-Uakam I I's f amous e nthusiasm f or collecting a ntiquities. These might encourage Andalus ian s culptors t o a ttempt o ther t han p lant decoration even i n architecture; the carved l imestone f acings o f the halls a nd pavilions of t he palace built d uring h is reign i nclude a f ew fragmentary animate motifs s uch a s b irds i n f oliage.

The p lant d ecoration o f t he b asins on t he whole d iff ers l ittle f rom that o f t he a rchitecture. S ome f ragments o f p anels ( AHIII,figs 2 42;243), p robably f rom b asins, s how a greater exploitation than i s f ound i n the Mezquita o f l arge rosettes ( D15), l ike t hose on early I slamic architect ure i n t he E ast, a s at M shatta ( 96), but equally l ike the d ished c ircles on s ome R oman s arcophagi. They a re f ramed i n p lain stem medallions or in a rcading. The u se made o f this l arge rosette m otif i n R omanesque decoration, among other examples a t C luny, Vienne, Valence and Lyon, and o n the l intels o f Moissac, B eaulieu a nd Thezels, i s s trikingly s imilar in e ffect ( 97). As t o animal motifs, two c apitals and the volute o f another a re t he o nly known a rchitectural p ieces, a part f rom wall f acings, w ith animals carved on them ( AHIII, f ig.245, LTB 1 957, f ig.502). O ne c apital, f rom t he s ite o f a palace west of Madinat a z-Zahra h as consoles c arved a lternately with animal attack ( two l ions attacking a gazelle) a nd c onf ronted basilisks ( D17e); the volute f ragment i s f rom the s ame s ite a nd c onsists o f a l ion h ead ( D17f) or moustached mask without a j aw, spitting a f oliage s croll, and l ittle b irds in p rocession r ound t he s ides. The other c apital, o f unspecified provenance and l ocation, h as a g eometricized l ion head r eplacing t he v olute o f a c ylindrical c ompositet ype capital. T orres-Balbäs groups i t with C orinthians o f t he period o f a l- pkam I I, w ithout c ommenting on t he v olute f orm ( 98). The f igure d ecoration o f the b asins i s much more prominent. I t i s based on a s tandard c omposition. None i s dated earlier than A lmanzor, and t he whole s eries i s genera lly a ttributed t o 9 87 a nd a fter, a s f urnishings f or A lman-

3 3

z or's vanished palace of Madlnat a l-Zahira ( 99). The animal repertoire of t he main d ecoration i s r estricted, on t he s er ies o f basins with vertical s ides, to l ions attacking gazelles, a nd t he t riumphant s pread- or half-spread e agle w ith ancillary c reatures at i ts f eet or on i ts wings, o r both, mostly f elines or griffins ( fig.55)(D17d,e). There a re s uggestions h ere f or t he p iled a nimals o f t he Moissac trumeau ( D17g, c f. AHIII,figs 2 46-7) a nd a precedent f or t he l ong necks of Romanesque beasts i n P oitou and Angoümois. S everal b asins a re b ordered w ith a b and o f s mall birds and f ish, and these motifs, the birds more s pecifically ducks, a re u sed a s a main motif on t he other s eries o f basins with f laring s ides, d esigned to stand on pedestals ( D17b,c). The tails of a ll the l ions on these Cordoban b asins a re t ufted, a nd l eaf-shaped, a detail, l ike t he s tilts u nder the f eet, repeated on the l ions o f t he Christian f ont i n Leön d iscussed i n t he next paragraph ( 100). An abbreviated reference to t he animal a ttack t heme i s u sed on t wo o f t he s hallower t ype o f b asin where t he h eads of l ions and their p rey, antelope and other h orned h eads are f ramed a lternately i n a l ine o f V -shaped l eaf motifs ( AHIII, f ig.252). T he l ion h eads, l ike that on t he volute j ust described, h ave moustaches and a re w ithout a l ower j aw. This c omposition, most u sually with a l ion h ead f ramed i n t he V , and the l ion head or mask s pitting foliage, had widespread appeal i n R omanesque s culpture ( figs 5 35 4)(101). P art o f t he l eaf motif a dapted on this b asin t o the upper border i s repeated on c apitals at Z aragoza ( AHIII,fig.280) a nd c omes s trangely c lose to t he h orn volutes on certain early c apitals with r am heads a t L a T rinitg i n C aen ( 102). The

Stilt Motif

( figs

5 5,

5 6)

The A lhambra basin depicts both the predatory l ions a nd t heir prey with their f eet p erched on trangular " stilts". The o rigin of this c urious and very rare d evice i s p uzzling. The f act that t he l ions' f eet have added " heels" on the s udarium o f S te Colombe and S t Loup i n S ens c athedral suggests t hat the sculptor h ad misread a oriental textile d esign ( the " heels" i n t he t extile c an p erhaps b e i nterpreted as c laws), but some c ontact i s implied between Cordoba where t he d esign o riginated, a nd s imilar o ccurr ences i n Tuscania a nd L eön. At S a M aria Maggiore i n T uscan ia ( 103), over t he b locked 9 th c entury d oorway i n t he south aisle, above twin colonnettes ( F6) with c rude palmette a nd volute c apitals, i s c arved a man h olding h is a rms to about t he height of h is e ars, a nd possibly involved with a l ion n ow destroyed; h is toes a re s upported on d iscs. At L eön a f ont ( fig.56) with crudely r epresented Christian themes on two s ides i s equally c rudely c arved on the third with confronted l ions p erched on " stilts" s imilar to t hose of the A lhambra b asin l ions. I t c an hardly be that t his s ame device was t aken unthinkingly f rom a textile motif

3 4

i nto s culpture i n t hree s eparate p laces quite i ndepend ently. I n the S ilos B eatus manuscript ( 104) j ongleurs are r epresented with f antastical triangular heels, providing another example o f " lifts", but t his does not s uggest a s ol ution a s t o why animals b e portrayed with t hem; the t ransf erence o f this c urious motif t o animals by S panish s culpt ors remains obscure without f urther documentation. O n the S t Martin c apital i n t he tower-porch o f S aint-Benoit ( fig.57) the s aint's a ttendant angels stand on j awless l ion h eads(D17f). This suggests that the s aint, posed f rontally, i s i ntended to s tand on a f ootstool r ather than on s tilts? The corner f igures a lso a re c uriously r aised ( Val d e Loire r oman, f ig.23). A s tucco panel of a peacock f rom Ctesiphon ( 105) has c laws s o exaggerated a s t o become a lmost s tilts; t he connecting t hread i s e lusive. A s caley t ail coiled n ear the f eet o f the l ion's prey o n o ne o f t he f ragments o f a tall vertical-sided basin f ound in the A lhambra introduces the s nake ( D17k) a s another s ubject i n t he c aliphal r epertoire of animals ( 106) ( AHIII,fig.248 [ drawing], ( LTB1957, f ig. 5 62 [ photograph, not very c lear]; this corresponds with a l ively tradition i n R omanesque i conography, p articularly i n S pain. T he

1 1th C entury:

the

J ätiva B asin

( 107)

I n the decoration o f the basin preserved at J ätiva the c aliphal r epertoire i s e xtended to i nclude more themes w ith human f igures ( AHIII, f igs 3 20,330). B aer has f ound t hat a ll but three o f the s ubjects derive f rom earlier I slamic t reatments o f a ncient o riental motifs. O f these ' three exc eptions, two a re purely c lassical: the a tlantes and the woman l actans ( "from a H ellenistic G aea"), while t he b eardp ulling o ld men ( fig.58) are equated by h er with the mimus c alvus o f l ate c lassical t heatre, s et in an I slamic type o f wrestlers' pose s uch a s i s s een on t he a l-Mughira casket i n t he L ouvre ( 108). There i s no r eason t o dispute h er conclus ion, already arrived at b y G omez-Moreno, that t hese l ively c arvings e xpress t he mixed u rban s ociety o f 1 1th century S pain. The i nfluence o f Roman a nd e arly C hristian s arcophagi h as not b een c ommented on by these s cholars in r elation to the composition o f this p iece. The p lain f rames and ground o f t he s lightly h ollowed medallions a nd their spacing b etween f rieze-like s cenes derives more d irectly f rom s uch a s ource t han f rom t he e laborated f loral medallions o f the C ordoban i vory c askets quoted a s p arallels by B aer. T hough t he precise model f or t he J ätiva b asin i s not immediately apparent among s arcophagi i llustrated i n current publicat ions ( 109), analogies i n g esture a nd c omposition c an be s een at a cursory examination of s uch s arcophagi a s t hose p reserved at H uesca, Ager, G erona, C ovarrubias, Ampurias and Z aragoza, i llustrated i n Ars H ispaniae I I ( 110). The beard

p ullers,

t ilting knights,

3 5

atlantes

a nd pea-

c ocks with e ntwined n ecks, t he a nimal a ttack, t he e agles and the musicians o f the J ätiva b asin a re a ll motifs f ound i n R omanesque s culpture. The depiction of f iesta s cenes on the J ätiva basin i s paralleled i n t he Romanesque of n orth S pain by t he i ntroduction o f f airground or c ircus themes i n c apital and c orbel s culpture: monkeys, bear-tamers, a crobats, at S antiago, F römista, J aca a nd L eön. This s ame t opic o f entertainments took hold i n P oitou and M iddle L oire ( 111). Andalusia provides no examples o f s culpture w ith p erforming a nimals, though the t raditional animal a ttack possibly c arried a r eference to c ontemporary c ircuses, app earing as i t does among s cenes of c ourt p leasures o n the i vory caskets a nd t he J ätiva b asin. A t t he Muslim p alace o f Q usair ' Amra i n Syria a mural p ainting o f a bear p laying a musical i nstrument ( 112) i s a r are p arallel in e astern I sl am. The bald-headed beard-pulling wrestlers appear i n the margins o f t he S aint-Sever B eatus a nd on a number o f R omanesque capitals and r eliefs ( figs 5 9-61)(113). T he t ail o f the peacock o f the J ätiva b asin i s r eproduced exactly on t he c apital o f t he p ortico of t he l ittle 1 1th c entury Romanesque church o f S an E steban de G ormäz i n C astile, s ituated near t he Muslim-built c astle ( fig.62); nothing e lse in these rough c apitals s hows a ny c lose c onnexion with Andalus ian themes apart f rom one corbel w ith a beard-puller, and he i s reminiscent of a c apital on t he s erpentine b asin f rom t he c loister i n Conques ( figs 6 3,64). There a re no s urviving i lluminated Muslim manuscripts f rom A ndalusia w ith which to c ompare t he t reatment of d rape ry on the J ativa basin. I ts s tripes and spirals are not unlike s ome M ozarab d rawings ( fig.65) where t he turban i s a lso r elevant f or R omanesque p arallels; t he c losest r esemb lances in s culpture are with the l intel f igures of S aintAndre-de-Sorede ( Roussillon r oman f igs 2 0, 2 1) a nd c apitals o f L a S auve Majeure ( fig..67)(113), r ather than w ith c aliphal f igures, known o nly on i vories. The J ätiva Atlas

F igures and R elated C ompositions

The atlas f igures o f t he c orners approximate i n t heir relaxed s tance to many f igures o f t he c aliphal i vories, with s omething o f a dancer's gait. T hey wear t he s ame s hort t unic a s i s a lways f ound on b eard-pullers, wrestlers a nd o ther f igures of t his kind, the shared head and the l eg pos ition a lso c onnects them with a d istinct type o f Romanesque design a ssociated with t he b eard-pulling t heme ( figs 6 8-70). The powerful version on a c apital o f the P uerta d e l as Virgenes at S ilos ( fig 6 1) i s e choed at Chauvigny i n P oitou, where a veritable c ircus i s portrayed, a ll on a s imilar s ymmetrical p attern. T his c omposition had r epercussions in the S aintonge, f or example at the A bbaye d es D ames in S aintes f or a " Gilgamesh" with b irds, o r at

3 6

C olombiers ( Saintonge r omane, f igs 2 4, 1 31-136). A t Avy, t he f igures on t he d oorway, c opying C hauvigny but with t hin l egs c rossed, have t he s hort t unics a nd beards h arking b ack t o S ilos. A t Marignac, t he c apital s culptor t reats t he S aintes G ilgamesh s ubject in a s tyle c loser t o S ilos, a s a c orner f igure with thin l egs, gathered c uffs and " turban" h air ( 114). At B lesle t he c omposition follows t he version c opied on c apitals at S an J uan de l as Abadesas f rom the S ilos model, b ut t here a re no beard-pullers. F igures on t he p orch capitals o f S aint-Benoit s how an early s tylistic s tage in t his t ype o f c omposition: a djacent c apitals upstairs i n t he t ower-porch show a beard-puller who p rovides a model f or t hose i n t he S aintonge, a nd a r udimentary f igure composition of this s ymmetrical type, with s hort-belted t unics. F urthermore, t he l ion-rider r esembles the S ilos b eard-puller with thin l egs, g athered c lose-fitting cuffs, b raided h eadgear a nd wide s leeves. T urban Hair

Style

The headgear o f t he " stave dancers" and p easants ( 115) on t he J ätiva basin r aises t he t opic o f " turban" h air s tyle i n Romanesque f igures: the s hepherds o f c apital 6 1 i n Moissac c loister a nd t he f igures o f s everal o ther c apitals b elong i n a s eries that needs investigation f or i ts associa tions. A p rovisional l ist i ncludes t he S ilos b eard-puller c apital, examples on the S ilos r eliefs, t he R isen C hrist c apital at B ayeux, t he S aint-Benoit l ion-rider a nd t he M arignac G ilgamesh j ust mentioned; an acrobat on an e arly c apital from L a D aurade, T oulouse, t he S t P eter o n t he P orte Mi e .geville a t S aint-Sernin in Toulouse and the s imil ar f igures on t he L amb doorway at S an I sidoro, L eön; the C hrist healing the L eper in t he P anteön in Leön, a c apital a t Varen ( Lot), t he L avaur a ltar ( 116) a nd o ne o f t he wrestlers on the f açade o f N otre-Dame-la-Grande in P oitiers ( figs 1 24, 2 61, 9 3). C arved Marble

in T oledo

W ell-heads s et up by t he c ivic munificence of the Dhu-nN unid emirs, together w ith inscribed tombstones a nd s teles b oth J ewish a nd M uslim are preserved in the S anta C ruz Mus eum. T he well-head s et up i n T oledo i n 1 032 ( fig.71)(118) has an i diosyncracy in t he f orm o f writing o f t he i nscription which r elates i t c losely with the " Kufic" i nscribed on an i mpost i n Moissac c loister. T his will be d iscussed i n greater detail i n that c ontext ( Chapter I II). T he decoration, with p lait i nterlace a nd n otched b order mot ifs, has a ffinities with i vory carving. T he distinctive s plit form o f t he l etters i s f irst s een in c aliphal i vory c arving ( 119). The p lain r ectangular-section f illets s epar ating t he r egisters a nd t he s hallow r elief s tanding o ut i n o ne p lane a re c lose t o t he examples o f wood-carving s tyle a lready noted. This i s even more a pparent on an inscribed b rick tomb s lab i n T oledo not l isted by L dvi-Provençal ( AHIII,fig.274).

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I t will be s hown i n Chapter I II that t he type o f l ett ering o n i mpost 5 0 i n Moissac c loister must derive f rom T oledo. F or this r eason the scrolls carved on the marble f ragments f rom t he G aliana p alace i n T oledo museum merit s pecial s crutiny a s a l ikely s ource f or t he d istinctive type o f s croll associated with this i mpost. O n o ne such f ragment N AHIII, f ig.272a) a n axial s tem t ends t o p rolife rate at intervals or f orm a bud or k not. On f ig. 2 72b are c onfronted b irds. F ig. 2 72c i ntroduces a s ix-point s tar r osette and t he double s tem axis f inishes at the t op with c rossed l eaves. T he emphatically c ircular c oils o f g rooved s tem, with . palm-leaf f olioles extending beyond ( in 2 72a beh ind) this circle, t he c url of t he i nner f oliole c reating a c ircle i n 2 73c, are a ll f eatures o f the s croll at Moissac, even t hough t he f ronded p alm l eaf of t he T oledan models, which i s totally characteristic o f Andalusian i vories a nd architectural decoration e ver s ince Madinat a zZ ahra', i s rejected at Moissac; a s with t he horseshoe arch f orm t he Romanesque d esigner has avoided t he most d istinct ive and characteristic e lements o f h is I slamic m odel. I vory The earliest examples o f animate motifs i n Andalus ian a rt a re t he s eries o f i vory c arvings. T he workshop beg an a l ittle before 9 60: the earliest pieces are those ins cribed f or t he d aughter o f ' Abd a r-Rabmän I II, o ne b efore and one a fter his death i n 9 61 ( 121); the majority o f surv iving p ieces w ere produced in t he f ollowing decade. There i s no evidence of earlier i vory carving in the peninsula, b ut t he work b egins with no s ign o f h esitation in t he style o f i ts p lant s croll carving. I t i s a mature s tage of d evelopment f rom t he f usion o f d isparate e lements that began, a s f ar as can be deduced f rom the evidence, i n the decoration o f the s tate rooms o f " Abd ar-Rabmän I II at Madinat azZ ahra' f rom 1 035 onwards ( 122) a nd went on to t he e nd o f t he reign of a l-Hakam I I w ith a break while the same s culpt ors w ere s econded to t he M ezquita. T he p lant repertoire o f t his c arving in s tone, stucco and marble i s interpreted on t he ivories in h igher r elief, r elative to s cale, with more modelling and more s ensitivity o f movement as befits the precious material, a nd matched by p articular care a nd s ubt lety of detail. The i ncurled hollow l eaf D 4 comes i nto its own with deeper r elief. The attention t o r elief a nd mode lling a s well a s t he i ntroduction o f animate motifs makes t he i vory caskets p articularly r elevant to Romanesque s culpture ( fig 3 01 a - d ). L ike the carved d ecoration of t he Mezquita, the c arved i vory w as n ot l eft u ncoloured, but was g iven the s ame r ed ground and b lue r elief a s t he wall f acings, with the addi-

3 8

t ion o f g ilding o n occasion ( 123). M any of t he animate mot ifs on the ivories are those f amiliar f rom oriental c erami cs a nd textiles ( 124). J ust a s t he e ffect o f r ich h angings was that a imed at on t he c arved and painted wall f acings, t he s ilks which p rovided models f or t he designs a nd o ften l ining or wrapping f or the objects, were imitated with a ll t heir l ustre a nd c olour on t he i vories t hemselves. I nscriptions on the caskets f orm part o f the whole c omposition, a nd t he c alligraphy i s v aried s ubtly to match t he style o f the designs ( 125). T he a nimate themes in gene ral r elate to c ourtly p leasures of I ranian t radition; many o f the s ubjects a re f ound in R omanesque i conography a lso, among them e lephant, animals a nd b irds with c rossed or i nt ertwined necks t ails or bodies, wrestlers, c onfronted dancers or r iders, l ion vanquishers, h awkers ( D17o,a,h,s,t, u .v). The creation o f major patterns, not only with p lant s tems ( as on t he H ispanic S ociety c asket, AHIII,fig.356), but with s ymmetrical f igures ( as with t he d ancers on the Metropolitan Museum p laque AHIII f ig.359) and t he Z amora box, AHIII f ig.355)or, i f in f estooned medallions ( as o n a l-Mughira's casket i n the Louvre, [ AHIII f ig.361] and the c askets of a l-Hakam I I and i bn A flab in t he Victoria and A lbert Museum [ 126]) against a s inuous i nterplay o f f ol iage, i s however not an art acquired f rom t extiles o r other media but a n i nnovation c omparable to t he inhabited s crolls of Christian art ( 127). S ome familiarity with ivory f igure-carving i n Christ ian E urope, p articularly t he l ate M etz s chool ( 128) i s i mp lied in the treatment o f drapery and hair on t he a lMughira a nd ibn A flah c askets, but in t he Christian designs t he concept o f f rame or background i s static, and a ll energy and l ife i s c oncentrated in the f igures. Ottonian p laques and book c overs t end t o b e s urrounded with r epeated acanthus, or s tudded with c losed-form s crolls ( 129). These a re t he s ame Byzantine-inspired s crolls that d ecorate t he panels o f the mihrab i n the Great Mosque o f Q airawan though on t he Q airawan m ihrab t he motifs a re u sed not a s borders but in statically j uxtaposed groups. I t i s, nonetheless, t he same r epertoire t hat was d isseminated a ll r ound t he Mediterranean. I n Cordoban decoration these s ame abstract p lant f orms a re c ombined i nto f lowing p atterns. A symmetry and dynamic i nterlace are i ntroduced, a lbeit with the restraint b efitting t he most r efined a nd c ivilized c ourt i n E urope ( 130). T he naturalistic p lant f orms o f Roman c apitals a nd f riezes a re o ne f actor that might i nspire s uch organic development out o f t he universal s tatic medallion s croll; K ufic l ettering i s a nother that would t end to a c ultivation of a symmetry a nd movement. B ut u nderlying these c urrents t here i s a p ressure to f use t he a ssembled e lements i nto a new style where motif and border s hare the s ame energy. This p ressure i s b est e xplained by a ffinity w ith Celtic and Nordic art with t heir even greater drive to a ll-

3 9

over movement, t o i ntertwine t he e nergy of motif a nd b order ( 131). I t may b e deemed to b e t he c ontribution of the indigenous C eltic s ub-stratum of t he p opulation f rom which Romanesque art must a lso h ave derived s ome part of i ts character.

4 0

NOTES

CHAPTER

I I

1 . s ee G lossary: " Andalusia". The Great Mosque of Cordoba i s referred to consistently in Spanish as " La Mezquita" and will be referred to hereafter as " the Mezquita". The different parts will be named according to their building patrons, or as f irst mosque, and f irst, s econd and third extensions. In this chapter references to i llustrations in t he two s tandard works AHIII and LTB 1 957 ( see Chapter I , note 8 ) will be made in the text, to supplement those presented here. 2 . The decoration of the façade and the ribbing in the nine-domed bays of the small mosque at B ab a l-Mardum, now C risto de l a L uz, in Toledo, dated by inscription ( completed M uharram 3 90/December 9 99), s hows how s trongly t he Mezquita influenced Andalusian architecture, even the most modest. C . Ewert, ' Die Moschee am B ab a l-Mardum, eine " Kopie" der Moschee von Cordoba', Madr. Mitt.18.1977, pp2873 54, refers p .290 to R . Krautheimer, ' Introduction to an " Iconography" of Mediaeval Architecture', JWCI V , 1 942 ( n.11,p.2ff) and G . B andmann, Mittelalterliche Architektur a ls B edeutungsträger, B erlin 1 951; i d., ' Ikonologie f ür Architektur', Jhrb. f . Ästhetik u . a llg. Kunstwissensch. 1 951, and other s ubsequent writers f or discussion of the mediaeval concept of a copy. 3 . LTB 1 957, pp 4 23-463,( p . 4 39, n .88, for f urther b ibliography); R . Castejön, ' Nuevas Excavaciones en Madinat a l-Zahra'', a l-And x , 1 945, pp 1 47-154; M Ocana J imenez, ' Inscripciones arabes descubiertas en Madinat az-Zahra' en 1 944' a l-And x , 1 945; L . Golvin, ' Note s ur un decor de marbre trouve a MaZ', a l-And xxv, 1 960; B . P avon Maldonado, Memoria de l a Excavaciön de l a Mezquita de MaZ, Madrid 1 966; i d., ' Influjos occidentales en e l arte del Califato de Cordoba', a l-And xxiii, 1 968. T he workforce numbered 1 0,000 l abourers and s laves with 1 .500 skilled tradesmen; they employed 4 00 c amels belonging to the C aliph and 1 ,000 mules; 6 000 b locks were l aid daily apart from f loors, f oundations and bricks, and 1 .100 l oads of l ime were delivered every three days; 4 ,313 columns were used of which 1 .013 came f rom North Africa, some f rom Rome, 1 9 f rom the region of the " Francos". The " King of Rum" ( Emperor of Byzantium) s ent 1 40, others were turned f rom the marble o f Taragona, A lmeria and the veined onyx of Reyyo in Malaga. S ome green and p ink columns came f rom a church in Sfax. The number of door valves, l ined with iron or bronze, was 1 5,000. The mosque was built in 4 8 days with 3 00 masons, 2 00 carpenters and 5 00 l abourers ( LTB 1 957, p . 4 33-435). 4 . LTB 1 957 pp 3 64-5, quotes earlier horseshoe arches i n V isigothic Spain, I taly, Portugal, Syria, Cappadocia, Armenia, S asanian P ersia. S ee a lso M . Gomez-Moreno, ' Excurciön a t raves del arco de herradura', Cultura E spaf iola, 1 906.

4 1

5 . S tandardized at about 1 /3 o f t he d iameter below the s emi-circle. T he s eparation o f t he j ambs i s a lways a s w ide a s the d iameter o f t he a rch, with a s cotia curve f rom the i mpost. E . C amps C azorla, Modulo, P roporciön y C omposiciön e n l a Arquitectura C alifal C ordobesa, M adrid 1 953, analyses many e xamples; P . P onsich, ' L'Architecture pre-romane d e S aint-Michel d e C uxa et s a veritable s ignification', CSMC, 1 971. 6 . T hese a re b ased on the p lan drawn up by R .H. C arpenter, T he Mosque C athedrals o f Cordoba a nd S eville', T rans. R .I.B.A. XXXIII,1883, f rom a S panish G overnment p lan o f 1 859. Working under my s upervision M .-L. Arscott, i n The T ransverse Arcade i n a l-Hakam I I's E xtension to the Great Mosque o f C ordoba, F ifth Year G eneral S tudies T hesis, Architectural Association, London 1 976 ( unpub.thesis) pp 3 7-39 g ives a l ist o f p lans a nd p ublications o f t he Mezquita, r eproduced h ere a s a n Appendix to the B ibliography. I am much i ndebted t o h er f or h er c ooperation and f or p ermission to u se h er f indings. F ull documentary details o f t he s econd e xtension a re g iven i n t he notes o f E . L evi-Provençal ( henceforth ELP), L 'Espagne musulmane au X e s iècle, P aris 1 932. 7 A dome marks t he entrance to t he new n ave, and each a isle o f t he n ew e xtension was e ntered t hrough a t ransverse arch. A long the s ides were monumental doorways, the central o ne distinguished f rom t he r est by a r aised roof l ine. 8 . There a re d iscrepancies i n t he c hroniclers concerning t he chronology a nd s tages o f t he b uilding, even though they a ll derive more o r l ess d irectly f rom a s ingle source, but not a c ontemporary o ne: t he l ost annals of a l-Razi ( +955). A l-Maqqari, though t he l atest, i s t he most detailed and c onsidered by T orres B albäs t o be t he most f aithful to t he c ommon s ource. C reswell a lso f ollows a l-Maqqari ( EMA s hort, p . 2 14); h is account i s f ollowed here. ELP I II p .389 g ives a n i nterpretation o f various s tatements culled f rom c hroniclers o f t he 1 0th c entury onwards: a ccording to s ome, ' Abd a r-Rahman I I both widened and l engthened the building. 9 . S ome t exts, n otably those purporting t o quote a l-Razi ( tie most important are a l-Maqqari and i bn H ayyan ( cf ELP I n .1, p . 2 62), give two dates f or work on the f irst extension: 8 33 a nd 8 48. F rom t his L evi-Provençal deduced t hat an original mosque o f n ine a isles was widened by two a isles i n 8 33 a nd t he whole w idth e xtended s outhward by e ight bays i n 8 48. T his i n no way t allies with the f indings o f t he excavations c arried o ut by F . H ernandez ( cf. f or r eferences, LTB 1 957, p . 3 90). The f oundations o f the f irst mosque are l aid out f or e leven a isles, the qibla wall r uns without a break across t hem to j oin the norths outh walls. There i s no t race at a ll o f wall f oundations c orresponding t o a n ine-aisled building, only the f limsy s eparate c olumn f oundations. A l-Himyari a nd a l-Maqqari b oth s tate the number o f a isles o f the f irst mosque was e leven.

4 2

( EMA s hort, p . 2 14). L evi-Provengal"s i nterpretation would mean that the S an E steban doorway was not built until 8 33, a nd that twenty y ears l ater i t was a lready needing r epair, which i s unlikely. T here i s an anomaly i n the form o f the c orbels i n t he a rcades o f t he f irst t wo c ampaigns: i n t he t wo outermost a isles o f the f irst mosque and i n a ll the a rcades o f t he f irst e xtension t he c orbels s upporting t he p ilasters o f t he upper arches have a convex p rofile. The e ight inner a rcades of t he f irst mosque a nd a ll a rcades o f s ubsequent extensions a fter the f irst have corbels o f c oncave profile w ith a l obed o utline ( roll c orbels, C hapter V ). T he a ddition o f t wo a isles at t he t ime of t he f irst extension would e xplain this, but c annot be a llowed, a s has b een s hown. E . L ambert, ' Las t res p rimeras e tapas.." a lAnd. 1 935) proposed t hat t he upper rows of a rches w ere n ot a dded to heighten the r oof until ' Abd ar-Rahman I I"s e xtension o f 8 33. T his h owever i s no s olution t o t he a nomaly o f t he d ifferent types o f corbel and their l ocation. , A1-Sayyid S alim, ' Cronologla de l a mezquita mayor...", a l-And. 1 945, s uggested that ' Abd ar-Rahman I 's a rcades a ll had p lain convex c orbels l ike the outer a isles, a nd that Muhammad I h ad t he c onvex corbels of t he n ine i nner a isles c arved i nto concave roll f orm. T his h e j ustified by i nterpreting I bn ' Idhari's s tatement that Muhammad " perfected the t irar" a s " perfected the curls", a possible a lternative r eading t o t he more u sual " decoration" p referred by L ambert, L evi-Provençal, Torres B albäs and most o thers. T he a nomaly r emains of t he variant corbel f orm i n the outer a isles o f the f irst mosque and a ll the a isles o f the extension, s o l ittle i s gained. T he l east u nconvincing hypothesis ( Gomez-Moreno, Torres B albäs and C astejön) i s t hat t he outer a isles of t he f irst mosque were p artitioned off, probably f or women's prayer. I t i s now g enerally a ccepted that t he roll corbels o f t he f irst mosque are original, a nd s o i s t he west wall c ontaining the S an E steban d oor. F or a d esign i n t he a rrangement o f s poil and new c apitals in t he f irst extension: P . C ressier, ' Les chapiteaux de l a G rande Mosquee de Cordoue ( oratoires d "" Abd ar-Rahman I et d — Abd ar-Rahman I I) et l a s culpture de c hapiteaux ä l 'epoque emirale", Madr. M itt. 1 984/85. C . Ewert,' The A lmohad Mosque o f T inmal.." P roc.Br.Acad. LXXII, 1 986, Oxford 1 987, e laborates on how a " .. g round p lan. . is r ealized. . on two l evels". 1 0. The upper a rches are corbelled out by an impost bearing p ilasters which a re themselves t hickened j ust below t he springing o f the upper arches. The imposts are c ruciform b locks c omprising t he s pringer o f t he l ower a rches on the t wo other a rms. T he c olumns, with a d iameter o f about 2 0 c m, s tanding on small s eparate f oundations, c arry walls over a metre thick. These walls c arry wide s tone gutters which, r unning a long t he axis o f t he a rcades, t ake water f rom double-pitched roofs s panning the a isles. I nside w as a f lat ceiling o f p lanks on transverse b eams, c arved and painted, s ee note 7 3.

4 3

1 1. " Emplecton" o r F lemish bond. T he t hickness o f t he w all i s that o f the l ength o f t he b locks ( 1.07-1.15 m .) a nd i t i s t hus c omposed e ntirely o f m asonry, b onded w ith l ime-ands and mortar. The buttresses, o f course, bear no relation to a ny i nterior structure, s ince t he a rcades r un parallel t o t he north-south walls, and t here were n o t ransverse arcades except a long t he north f açade. T he excavations s howed n o t race of buttresses o n t he q ibla wall. E ach column has a s eparate f oundation o f no great s trength; t he walls a re s olidly b ased ( AHIII,p.30). 1 2. M erlons are the only completely e xotic f eature o f t he building. They a re c lose i mitations o f t hose c rowning t he walls of the Great Mosque o f D amascus, and that o f Medina, a nd o f t he Umayyad p alace o f K hirbat a l-Mafjar ( LTB 1 957, pp 3 67-8 a nd n .84). 1 3. A s eries of c apitals i s i llustrated in AHIII, f igs 5 16 5, most with l ittle drilling, but 5 7 and 6 0 have a ll-over drill work. T he u se o f t he d rill i s mainly c haracteristic o f t he l ater caliphal capital s culpture. I t became a lmost e xcessive i n t he l ater 1 0th c entury, e .g.AHIII, f igs 1 82, 1 83, 1 88, 2 11; L TB 1 957, f igs 4 84-502, who r efers p . 6 80 to " abuse o f the drill", but i t was k nown i n pre-Islamic S pain a s e arly a s t he 7 th c entury. T orres B albäs p .400 q uotes examples i n S an Fructuoso de Montelius i n P ortugal c .660 AD a nd others o f s imilar date r e-used in T oledo a nd C ordoba. 1 4. I bn ' Idhari, qu. LTB 1 957, p .394 n .62 ( Bayan I I,pp 2 53-254; t rans. pp 3 92-393). ' No known t race of ' Abd a rR ahman I I ' s m ihrab s urvives apart f rom these c olumns w ith t heir capitals. 1 5. ELP, I nscriptions a rabes d 'Espagne, L eyden/Paris 1 931, p assim. T he S an E steban door inscription i s No. 1 , pp 1 -2. A p assage by I bn Mufarrij ( pub.id., A rabica I , 1 954, p . 9 2) s tates t hat t he original mosque built by ' Abd a r-Rahman i bn Mu'awiya ( the Emigr , i .e. ' Abd a r-Rahman I who f led a fter t he defeat of t he Umayyads to I friqiya [ the Muslim p rovince o f North A frica] and t hence t o S pain in 7 50), which n ow f ormed t he r ear o f t he s anctuary, " was a geing i n s ome p arts a nd in need o f r epair because o f t he l ong t ime that h ad e lapsed s ince i ts c onstruction. Muhammad r epaired i t a nd d id everything possible to make i t p erfect, r estoring i t to i ts original c ondition". T he i nscription i s a ccepted a s s ignifying that the works here r eferred t o were complete when the door was f inished a nd i nscribed. Muhammad s ucceeded ' Abd ar-Rahman I I in 8 52 and proceeded to c omplete t he works undertaken by h is f ather. T he doorway h as been s tudied in detail by G omez-Moreno AHIII pp 4 1-43 a nd 5 8-59; LTB, a l-And X 1 947, pp 1 39-144 a nd 1 957 pp 3 563 58, 3 67 and 4 04-413; K . B risch, ' Zum Bäb a l-Wuzarä'', in E ssays i n hon. K . A.C. C reswell, 1 965. A ll a gree on t he originality o f t he doorway a s a monumental entrance a nd d iffer only on the dating o f s ome o f t he e lements: T orres B albäs a nd B risch conclude that i n e ssentials - d oor

4 4

opening, t ympanum, b lind a rcading, c resting, w indows a nd f lanking n iches - i t i s t o b e t aken a s a unit t hat has s urvived u naltered f rom t he 9 th c entury t o t he p resent. O bvious restorations i nclude t he s tonework b elow the impost l evel, n ow p lain a shlar. G omez-Moreno thought t he c orbel t able was added t o s upport t he wall c resting in the 1 0th century a nd t hat s ome o f t he s croll carving i s 1 2th c entury. H . T errasse, L 'Art h ispano-moresque, P aris 1 932 ( hereafter HT1932) p .67, n .2, considered the c arving o f the voussoirs of the discharging arch over t he door l intel t o be m odern a nd t he m arble grilles " discordantly p laced over t he o ld decoration" a lso. C astejön ( R. C astejön, ' La P ortada de Mohamed I en l a gran Mezquita de C ördoba', B ol.Rel Acad.de C iencias, B ellas L etras y Nobles Artes de Cordoba, XV, 1 944, qu. LTB 1 957, p . 4 07 n .80, an article I have been unable t o t race) attributed the voussoirs to the restorations c arried out by de L uque about 1 860. G omezMoreno and LTB, t hough they agree that the j ambs and l intel a re r estored, p erhaps i n t he 1 7th century ( LTB, a lAnd.1947, pp 1 33-4) c onsider t he v oussoirs o f t he a rch o riginal f rom 8 55. T he decoration o f t he t ympanum and a ll t he a spect of t he l ower parts below t he imposts o f t he arch and the n iches i s l ost, but i t i s now accepted that the s cheme a nd style o f t he whole i s original. This c onclusion i s verified by t he way i n which a ll entrances on s ubsequent extensions f ollow t he s ame s cheme, a nd by t he s imilarity o f this design to t hat of t he mihrab. 1 6. AHIII p .36-38; LTB 1 957 p .407 r eviews t he r ecord o f r estorations: i n 1 602 Martin O rdohez, the c athedral overseer o f w orks, replaced t he j amb masonry a nd t he splay o f the door. I t was not an extensive operation a nd was s cheduled to take o ne month a nd t o c ost o nly 5 00 r eäls ( E. Romero de T orres, ' Restoraciones d esconocidas en l a mezquita a ljama d e C ördoba, l a p uerta de l a primitiva mezquita, que f undö ' Abderraman I , f ue r estaurada a principios d el s iglo XVII', Actas y M emörias de l a S oc. E sp. de A ntropologia, Etnografia y P rehistoria, M adrid 1 948, pp 8 3-88). I n c 1860 t he municipal a rchitect R afael de Luque r estored the door ( R. C astejön, op.cit, p .496). I n 1 895, when R . V elazquez was d irecting architect o f the Mezquita, he engaged t he s culptor M ateo I nurria t o restore the j ambs o f the discharging arch, s ubstituting new worked stone f or o ld p atches o f b rick a nd p erished s tone, a nd a lso the " lower small horizontal parts o f the a lfiz and the parts next to i t a nd t o t he a rchivolt". O ld photographs taken between 1 875 and 1 880, published by T orres B albäs(art.cit. n ote 1 5, p . 4 96), s how that t he decoration h as not c hanged s ince t hen. T orres B albäs t herefore a grees with Gomez-Moreno t hat the decoration o f the a rch i s authentic a nd t hat t he d ifference i n p reservation i s due t o the better quality o f s tone used i n s ome p arts. " A d etailed examination o f t he arch, i nside a nd o ut, o f i ts a lfiz, archivolt and s pandrels, a nd o f i ts inscription, a ll worked in f inely j ointed a shlar, g ives not t he s lightest

4 5

i ndication t hat a nything c onstructed" ( pp 4 08-9).

h as

been

moved

s ince

i t

w as

1 7. B risch, op.cit. n .15 above, r egards t his doorway a s t he t ransposition o f a p alace entrance, q uoting p articularly t hose o f Q asr a l-Hayr a l-Sharqi. The absence o f a model in r eligious a rchitecture i s noted by h im, a nd t he originality o f t his door, b ut t he p ioneering s ignificance o f i ts monumentality i n this c ontext i s n ot b rought out. 1 8. The f act t hat there i s an upper register o f arches above t he d oor h ere c annot t herefore be t aken a s e vidence t hat there a lready existed an upper row o f arches i n t he i nterior a rcades ( Lambert s uggested t hat t he upper a rches were added i n 8 33, s ee n .9). However, i t i s most l ikely that t he arcade a rches w ere t here, a nd that t he door i s designed t o " copy" them. 1 9. This l i totif i s quoted by LTB a s t he o nly importation f rom S amarra, in t he 9 th c entury, a nd t hat n ot necessarily t ransmitted directly or t hrough a rchitectural examples. I t appears i n t he mosque o f I bn T ulun i n C airo at about t he s ame date ( LTB 1 957, p .409). 2 0. LTB 1 957, p .404 mistakenly describes t he a lfiz a s " prolonging the extrados" and M argais, Architecture musulmane d'Occident ( hereafter AMO), f ig. 1 02,p. 1 66, draws it thus. The vital p ieces a re r estored ( see n . 1 6) but probably f aithfully s o. T he n iche of uncertain date i n t he Dome o f the Rock h as t he a lfiz j oined t o the extrados ( Creswell, EMA I , f ig. 1 39, p . 1 00: " We h ave here t he o ldest mihrab i n I slam f rom the days before the concave mihrab w as i ntroduced.") This p assage i s omitted i n t he s econd edition. I f this n iche i s o f t he 7 th c entury, a s D r F eh rvari a rgues f rom i ts r eproduction o n 7 th century coins, i t provides the earliest example o f an a lfiz and spandrel b osses. 2 1. AHIII, f ig. 3 9. G omez-Moreno i mplies t hat these a re V isigothic and r egards them a s p roving t he early date o f t he niches, which h e p uts i n t he f irst c ampaign. L TB however suggests they may be c ontemporary w ith s Abd arRahman I I ( p. 3 58); possibly t hey formed part of h is mihrab which excavations h ave f ound d id n ot project beyond t he l ine o f the s outh wall ( AHIII, p .42). The p lant scrolls carved on n iches, a rcades and the c entral door a re o f t wo types: i t would be c onvenient to a scribe t hem to t he t wo building c ampaigns. THe f irst i s a f ull rounded, broadlydrawn s tyle s uch a s occurs on the a isle arcade c orbels o f the f irst mosque ( AHIII, f igs 3 9-41). T he s econd i s a drier a nd sharper chip c arving, with a g roove a long t he s tems a nd h ollowed l eaves. This s tyle Terrasse f inds difficulty i n a ccepting a s 9 th c entury. 2 2.

T he c orbel o n t he r ight o f t he s outhern n iche i s c loser i n s tyle

t o the d oor v oussoirs, w hich T errasse

( 1932)

4 6

p referred t o d ate

t o t he l Otn c entury. , ; omez-Moreno quotes a f illet r oll c orbel i n t his s tyle f rom T udela which h e attributes to t he mosque b uilt by Musa I I o f t he B eni Q asi i n t he 9 th c entury ( AHIII, f igs 7 2-74). S imilarities w ith work at Madinat a zZ ahra" l ead M aldonado ( Tudela, C iudad Medieval: Arte I slamic° y Mudgjar, Madrid 1 978; h ereafter Tudela) t o date t hese corbels a nd a llied f ragments t o t he 1 0th. LTB s ays t here are s imilar carvings in t he mosque at T unis, a lso 9 th c entury ( 1957, p .411). T he c apital i llustrated by G omezMoreno ( fig.62) " of t he t ime o f sA bd a r-Rahman I I" h as a t ree of l ife motif i n this voussoir t echnique; i t d iffers f rom most of t he o ther e xamples he i llustrates f or t his p eriod; they do not have hollowed l eaves. There i s t hus a s trong s uspicion that t his c apital, t he v oussoirs of t he S an E steban doorway a nd the Tudela corbel are a ll o f the 1 0th c entury, a nd equally t he l intel f ragment o f t he n iche. 2 3. The date o f the grilles t hemselves i s uncertain. LTB t hinks t hey may be r e-used R oman ones. A l-Hakam I I and A lmanzor both continued the practice o f s etting a grille on e ither s ide o f a d oor, a nd these were made t o t he s ame d imensions a s t hose o f the S an E steban doorway. C reswell a nd T errasse d escribed them a s i nserted. B risch c onsiders t hem part o f the original s cheme ( ' Die F enstergitter.. M adr.Forschungen I II, B erlin 1 966; i d., ' Zum B ab a lWuzara - .[op.cit. i n n .15], p . 3 8, n .2). 2 . At R aqqa, AMC, f ig.56; i t w as often i mitated i n wall p aintings in C atalunya and F rance: C . D emus, R omanesque Mural P ainting, London 1 970, p ls 1 07 ( St Chef), 1 54 ( Brinay), 1 60 ( Tavant), 1 92 ( Bold :), 1 93 ( Pedret), 2 07 ( Estahön, where i s a lso a mock-Kufic border), 2 06 ( Ta011), 2 11 ( Maderuelo); BM 1 925, p ,233 ( Corneilha de Conflent), Aragon r oman, p 1.22 ( Obarra). 2 5. AHIII, f ig. 6 4; F . H ernandez G imenez, E l A lminar de sA bd a l-Rahman I II en l a M ezquita Mayor de C ordoba, G ranada 1 975, i llustrates a s tepped merlon f ound buried c lose t o t he t ower ( fig.34) a nd g ives f ull d escriptions a nd d iscussion of the S an J uan minaret pp 1 34-153. H e dates i t t o t he v ery e nd o f t he 9 th or very e arly 1 0th c entury. 2 6.

LTB

1 957,

p .

3 43.

2 7. ELP I , pp 2 68ff, with r eferences. A pupil o f the court s inger o f H arun a l-Rashid, he was c alled before that c aliph a nd w as s o much p raised t hat he f eared t he j ealousy of h is master and f led t o t he W est. H e s tayed f or a t ime with Z iyadat A llah i n Q airawan a nd t hen was p ersuaded t o visit Andalusia. H ere h e was s o well r eceived that he s ettled for l ife a nd f ounded a c onservatoire. H e became t he a rbiter o f f ashion and r evolutionized the court l ife, d ictating new manners, music, c lothes, c ooking a nd t able manners, b eauty c ulture, f urniture and d iversions. H is introduction o f the u se o f l eather t able c overings, i nstead of e ating o ff p lain wood, gave an impetus t o the a lready f amous l eather

4 7

i ndustry o f

Cordoba.

2 8. i . Masonry o f F lemish bond i s u sed on t he Roman b ridge at C ordoba, a nd t he Roman c ity g ate, P uerta d e S evilla. i i. R ectangular buttresses a re f requently f ound on the i nterior o f m ilitary a nd engineering works i n S pain a nd N orth A frica ( LTB 1 957, p .362); the aqueduct a t Merida i s a lso provided w ith t hem, a nd t his g reat monument s upplies a s well a m odel f or i ii. t he s uperposed arches o f t he Mezquita, the l ower o nes b onded in e xactly t he s ame w ay i n b oth s tructures, a nd f or i v. t he a lternation o f brick and s tone, f ound f requently i n l ate R oman b uilding a nd a dopted w idely i n B yzantine and C arolingian architecture. LTB 1 957 p . 3 66 q uotes a Roman vaulted underground g allery i n Cordoba w ith t his a lternation o f material. v . T he horseshoe a rch was c ommon i n V isigothic S pain, e .g., r elief n iches, AHII, f igs 2 62,263,287; apse a rcades: Quintanilla de l as Vihas. 3 19, 3 20; B ah°, f ig.291; S an P edro de l a N ave, f ig. 1 12. I ts adoption i n Romanesque was minimal. P recursors f or vi. r oll c orbels i nclude V isigothic corbels w ith a l arge s ingle r oll. The design o f doorways, vii, i s complex and owes m uch t o R oman gateways. S an M iguel de L ir io a nd Valdedios in A sturias h ave 9 th century examples o f viii. twin windows. 2 9."Orientalism" i s even on o ccasion e xplained l ocation on the r oute t o Compostela i n the f ar west, Angoümois roman, p . 1 9.

b y a e .g.,

3 0. A . Grabar has i n many o f h is writings demonstrated the f requent i nterchange o f i deas and motifs b etween I slam a nd B yzantium, e .g., ' La decoration a rchitecturale de l 'eglise de l a V ierge ä S aint-Luc-en-Phocide et l es debuts d es i nfluences i slamiques", CRAcIBL, 1 971; a nd B yzantium, L ondon, 1 966. 3 1. M . G omez-Moreno, I glesias Mozarabes, Madrid, 1 919 ( henceforth I g. Moz.) g ives in Chapter I a f ull account o f t he effects o f the migration i nto L eön and Castile, w ith l ists o f Arabic n ames, words a nd customs t aken i nto c ommon u se: they r eflect a profound enrichment o f techniques, i nstitutions, trade a nd i ndustry, a nd t he c onveniences of everyday l ife. A . S anchez A lbornoz, E stampas de l a V ida de L eön durante e l s iglo X , 3 rd ed., Madrid, 1 934, shows the e ffect o f Andalusian culture on the l ife o f the c apital c ity o f L eön. 3 2.

I g. Moz.,

p .

XVII.

3 3. LTB 1 957, p . 4 13 f f, r eviews t he building works r eported f or these years. C ities were built and fortified a nd provided with mosques, i n s ome c ases renewing o ld f oundations, among t hem U beda, M adrid, T alamanca, C alatrava, C atalaydd, L erida, Daroca, B adajöz, P echina, B obastro. Mosques o f special importance and s plendour were those o f L erida, B adajöz a nd P echina. T he l atter p ort d eveloped enormously with the active t rade with N orth

4 8

A frica, and was much f requented by Mozarabs and Muladies. S ome o f i ts p rosperity was d ue t o t he s lave t rade a nd t he s upply of eunuchs t o t he E ast. B uilding and r epair o f mosques i s r ecorded a lso at Medina S idonia a nd E cija, t he m osques o f E lvira n ear Granada and o f Z aragoza were e nlarged. 3 4. The entire v olume I II of ELP, H istoire d e l 'Espagne m usulmane, P aris 1 967, i s devoted t o a d escription o f the p eriod o f the C ordoban c aliphate, the active economic l ife u nder a s trong c entral a dministration, extensive t rade, i ndustry, urban d evelopment and s ocial l ife, a s well a s a griculture, h orticulture, s tock-raising a nd t he e xploitation o f n atural r esources i n t he countryside. By t he e nd o f t he r eign o f ' Abd a r-Rahman I II t he c apital " begins to r ival B aghdad f or i ts i ndustries and l uxury t rade" ( p. 3 09). T he C hristian p rincipalities o f n orthern S pain a lready p rovided an important outlet f or these i ndustries a nd f or imports f rom t he east a cquired t hrough t he caliphal c apital. J .Gautier-Dalche, ' L'Histoire m onetaire de l 'Espagne s eptentrionale et c entre du I X au X II s iècle', An. E st. Med. 6 , 1 969; C . Verlinden, The R ise o f Spanish T rade i n the Middle Ages', EHR 1 940. 3 5. ELP o p.cit. a bove pp 1 11-117, p olitical reasons f or this decision. 3 6.

LTB

1 957,

p .

s tresses

t he i nternal

4 76.

3 7. F . H ernandez G imenez, E l A lminar.. ( as note 2 27-263; f igs 7 a nd 8 , the reconstructed f açades; 1 8, t he windows. 3 8. I bn K haldun, qu. LTB 1 957, p . 4 32 n .56. appear in i nscriptions on both monuments.

The

2 5)., pp f igs 1 6-

s ame names

3 9. E ach a isle a rcade was p rolonged by twelve c olumns s outhwards, the s outhernmost bay being h idden behind the q ibla wall: to t he west of t he n ew mihrab a p assage w ith a s eries of doors l ed t o a new bridge ( destroyed in the 1 7th c entury) over t he s treet t o t he p alace, a nd t he earlier b ridge was removed. T o the east o f the mihrab r an a s eries o f r ooms f or t he T reasury a nd f or c ult f urniture, entered by a s ingle door f rom the s anctuary. An upper storey o f i nterconnecting r ooms w as b uilt on both s ides w ith windows l ooking inside a nd out through p ierced marble grilles s imilar to those on t he f açades. The outermost r oom on t he e ast gave onto t he s treet by t he only door now s urviving o n a l-Hakam I I's e ast f açade, c alled t he " Chocolate D oor" i n modern t imes: AH I II, f igs 1 92, 1 93. 4 0. The b locks a re 1 .60m. l ong by 6 4 and 3 8 cm., w ith two o r t hree h eaders b etween e ach s tretcher, b onded w ith l ime mortar ( AHIII, p . 9 2). 4 1. Compare AHIII,

f igs

1 99

and

2 00

4 9

t o

s ee the extent o f

the

" restorations". 4 2. R oman vaults s ometimes were constructed on a skeleton o f b rick arches, but t hese d id n ot s how b elow t he f illing ( LTB 1 957, P. 5 18), and there i s no i ntermediate example in t ime. LTB describes t he r ibs a s " no more than an ingenious e xtension o f t he s ystem o f i ntersecting a rches, admirably a dapting the f lat vertical p lanes t o a three-dimensional s pace". 4 3. A master mosaicist, t ogether w ith 3 20 quintals of mosaic, w as s ent a s a g ift f rom t he Emperor o f C onstantinople, N icephoros Phocas, a nd a number o f s laves were s et t o work w ith h im a nd s oon equalled h im in s kill ( AMO, p .140). X . B arral i A ltet, ' Les c l buts de l a mosaique de pavement romane dans l e S ud d e l a F rance e t en C atalogne", C SMC 1 972, attributes t he s ource of a ll s outh F rench Romanesque examples t o I taly, which " was half a c entury ahead". S uch c onclusions a re l ikely t o be p remature: A . G rabar, C ah. Arch 1 954 p .171ff, on G ermigny's I slamic component, and s ee note 6 5. 4 4.

L TB

1 957,

p .

5 28;

E .

Lambert,

G BA,1925,

pp

1 41-161.

4 5. C . Ewert, ' Die Moschee am B ab a l-Mardum.." p . 3 52 n .198 and f ig. 1 3, has f ollowed the measurements g iven in a l-Maqqari's quotation f rom I bn B ashkuwwal f or t he d imensions o f t he maqsura a nd c oncludes t hat t he congregation was k ept further away f rom the focal area: the s creen was p laced a b ay f urther n orth t han t he dome t racts a nd one a isle f urther east and west. The e ffect of the i nterlaced a rches i n marking t he a rea would be even m ore f elt. 4 6. C . Ewert, ' Spanisch-Islamische S ysteme s ich kreuzender B bgen", Madr. Mitt.7,1966, p . 2 50, h as observed t races o f p lant scrolls painted i n gold on a lternately red and b lue grounds i n t he wide b ays o f t he m aqsura, on t he s tucco " voussoirs" o f t he intercrossing a rches o verlying t he t rue s tone arches. 4 7. D ouble columns were u sed i n North A frica i n 4 th-7th c entury buildings ( W. K ronig, 1 9th C ongr. H ist. Art, 1 958), no doubt, a s argued by L TB ( AEA, 1 946, p . 2 74) u nder Byzantine i nfluence. Their u se at S anta C ombe de B ande, N aranco, S a C ristina de L ei la, M elque ( AHII, f igs 3 61, 3 62, 3 86, 3 88) s hows them implanted i n the peninsula before ' Abd a r-Rahman I I endowed them with t he a dditional prestige o f f lanking the mihrab. They are used i n t he colonnades o f the A ljaferia, at t he e ntrance t o t he c hapel o f S an Millän de S uso at Cogolla ( AD 9 84), and i n t he s eries o f s mall churches i n U pper A ragon, where they a re u biquitous on walls and l arge arcades, ( fig 9 9) but n ot f or doorways. At N ant i n Rouergue, a s a t S aint-Pierre-de-Rhädes ( fig 1 6) and neighbouring c hurches, they a re u sed i n t he s ame way. T win c olumns f lank the e ntrance at J umiäges, and a re not

5 0

u ncommon i n F rench ( Moissac c loister, t ribunes). 4 8. This i s a l-Mansur i bn i n the West. 4 9.

ELP

1 957,

R omanesque Conques

c loisters t ribunes,

a nd t ribunes S aint-Sernin

the Spanish r endering o f t he t itle a ssumed by A bi ' Amir, a nd t he n ame by which he i s known

p .

3 94.

5 0. LTB 1 957, p . 5 73: t his i s reported a long with other l egends, b ut i s c onfirmed by the absence o f any s uch i nscriptions. 5 1. B efore this the names o f s upervisors, s culptors and marble workers appear in t he r elief i nscriptions o f a lH akam I I's mosque and Madinat a z-Zahra', on f riezes, bases a nd c apitals, b ut t here are no s ignatures. LTB 1 957, f or i nscribed c apitals o f 'Abd a r-Rahman I I: p . 3 97; f or M aZ i nscriptions: p . 4 57 f f and n .95 with further references. T hose n amed a re important p eople c onnected with t he b uilding; mihrab i nscription: p . 4 78; on s ide " mihrabs": p . 5 32, p . 5 34, p . 5 37 n . 8 3; e ngraved on c eiling p anels: p . 5 49. 5 2. The l ater h istory o f the Mezquita c an be briefly s ummarized f rom L TB, La Mezquita de Cordoba y l as r uinas d e Madinat a z-Zahra', Madrid 1 952, pp 1 00-106: a fter t he C hristian conquest of C ordoba i n 1 236, mudgjar masons were kept working r egularly on maintenance, a nd t he C apilla R eäl w as decorated i n mudgjar s tyle. ( The C apilla Reäl adjoins t he Villaviciosa chapel on t he east and i s n ow i ncluded i n t he Cathedral complex). I n the n ext century an austere hall c hurch w as i nserted i n t he t hree a isles west o f t he V illaviciosa chapel, vaulted across three bays. F inally i n 1 523 work b egan on t he c athedral. I t was f inished in 1 607. C hapels have been i nserted a ll r ound the walls o f the s anctuary at various t imes, a nd r estorations a re r ecorded a s c arried out o n the S an E steban doorway i n 1 602, 1 860 and 1 895. Other d oorways have been r estored in this c entury. The minaret, the description of which by I bn Bashkuwwal i n t he 1 2th c entury i s transmitted by a l-Maqqari, l ost i ts c rown of gold a nd s ilver f ruit and l ilies in a storm i n 1 589; it was r eplaced with a Renaissance t op designed by H ernan Ruiz between 1 593 and 1 618, and was encased in a new tower because i t was c rumbling, i n 1 664. I t h as b een excavated by F . H ernandez, E l A lminar..1975; c f. a lso K . C reswell EMA ( short), p . 2 16. 5 3. K . B risch, ' Die F enstergitter...", 1 966 ( Spanish t ranslation, ' Las c elosias de l as f achadas de l a g ran M ezquita de Cördoba", a l-And XXVI, 1 961 ( ii); i d., ' Una nota marginal a l a epigrafia arabe de l a M ezquita de Cördoba', a l-And, 1 959, pp 1 83-9.

5 1

5 4. M .-L. Arscott, T he Transverse Arcade.., op.cit.in n ote 6 , p . 2 8. T he doorway on t he e ast was f illed and smoothed during t he c hanges i nvolved i n A lmanzor's extension o f 9 87. The s upportive s olution f or the eastern a rm of the f inal a rch o f t he t ransverse arcade t akes t his i nto a ccount, a nd d iffers consequently f rom t hat f or t he western arm o f the f inal arch on t he west. T he c onclusion must be t hat t he e ast wall had been f illed and smoothed before the eastern arch w as c onstructed, a nd t herefore t he arch must be dated a fter 9 87. Arscott s uggests a date i n the 1 3th c entury by analogy with an a rch in S an Romän, T oledo, i llustrated i n B .P. M aldonado, Arte T oledano, Madrid 1 973, p l. XXIX. Concentric archivolts were again c urrent i n the 1 1th century however, a nd s o were pointed a rches, and this may have been t he t ime when the transverse arcade was carried to t he outer walls. T he i nscription running a long t he horizontal beam i s painted i n the s ame r ed paint a s t he o utline of t he k eystone that p rojects above t he extrados to t ouch the b eam; i t h as been renovated more than o nce ( Brisch, ' Una n ota..' a l-And. 1 959, p . 1 88) a nd B risch admits that the details o f t he epigraphy are not c onclusive f or t he 1 0th c entury. A rchaism i s a lways to be expected i n a r eligious c ontext o f this s ort, and other anomalies s uch a s t he rectangular f illets in angles o f t he imposts a nd above ( fig.33) which have no explanation i n the p resent a rrangement s uggest t here were a lterations t o the a rcade s ubsequent t o t he 1 0th c entury. 5 5. AHIII, f ig. 2 93; M . van Berchem, ' Sedrata. Un c hapitre nouveau de l 'histoire d e l 'art musulman. C ampagnes de 1 951 et 1 952', Ars I slamica I I, 1 957. A lso i n E gypt, MAE, p 1.44: m5, m7; p l. 6 4 e tc. 5 6. M . O caf ia J imenez, ' La i nscripciön f undacional d e l a mezquita de B ib a l-Mardum in T oledo', a l-And, 1 4, 1 949, pp 1 75-183. 5 7. G . K ing, The Mosque B ab Mardum, M . P hil. T hesis, L ondon 1 972; i d., ' The Mosque Bab Mardum in T oledo and the I nfluences A cting Upon I t', AARP 1 972, pp 2 9-40. C . E wert, ' Die Moschee..' ( see n ote 2 ). 5 8. The trilobes a ll h ave l arger ( Ewert, op.cit a bove, f igs 5 -9, p ls i ncrease an i llusion o f height.

s ide 5 6 a nd

t han top l obes 5 7), possibly to

5 9. A n ave a nd t ransept a re implied i n t he a rrangement o f d ecoration: a double r egister of n iches i nside and on the t wo f açades; an e ntrance on t he n orthern s ide f or t he public and on the west f or the patron; t his ( south)west f açade c an be r ead a s a s eries o f q uotations from t he Mezquita. Applied negatively the " copy" theory ( see n .2) might be u sed to h elp s olve t he paradox that t roubled Mäle: how could the great abbots o f C luny, the champions o f Christendom against I slam, borrow d ecoration f rom a mosque

5 2

to adorn their church? The answer would be that not " copying" in t he mediaeval s ense of t he term. 6 0.

LTB

1 957,

P .

they were

6 91.

6 1. Normandie r omane I I, 1 974, p . 2 2: Graville S aintHonorine, Broglie, S ainte-Marie-sur-Mer, P ont Audemer ( Saint-Ouen). I n E ngland, Castle Acre, Wenlock Abbey, Malmesbury Abbey, Canterbury etc. 6 2. K . grille.

B risch,

' Die

F enstergitter.."

i llustrates

6 3. J . Vallery-Radot, ' Saint-Maurice de 1 952, p . 3 55 f f; ' Saint-Pierre de Vienne",

every

V ienne", BM CA 1 6, 1 923.

CX,

6 4. H . S tern, ' Mosaiques de pavement prgromanes et romanes en France", CCM 1 962; ' Notes s ur quelques mosaiques de pavement romanes", Cah.Arch 1 966, dates the mosaics of S aint-Sever and S orde to the third quarter of the 1 1th century; i n t he l atter a rticle S tern i llustrates a mosaic in D ie ( Dröme), which has the Four Rivers represented as j awless horned monster faces with ear-caps; ' Une mosaique de pavement romane: Layrac ( Lot et Garonne)", C ah. Arch 1 960, ' before 1 085"; J . Lauffray, ' Les chevet-martyria de S aint-Sever s ur 1 "Adour et de S orde 1 "Abbaye ( Landes)" Cah. Arch 1 966, f ig. 2 6a s hows a dog and a very I slamic hare ( p. 1 08, n .8: a bibliography for S aint-Sever). The same Kufic-derived border motif as i s u sed r ound s ome S aintS ever Apocalypse i lluminations ( Bib.Nat.lat.8878) i s on one of t he interlocking l arge c ircles of t he mosaic; another i s edged with saw-tooth. H . Stern, ' La mosaique de 1 "gglise S aint-Genes de Thiers ( P.deD.), Cah.Arch 1 954-1955, comments on the Mozarab associations ( Ripoll, Berlanga, the Gerona tapestry) of the mosaics of Thiers, Cruas and Lescar. A . Grabar, ' Les mosaiques de Germigny-des-Pres", Cah.Arch 1 954-1955, pp. 1 71 f f gives the Andalusian connexion an earlier history . I n CCM 1 962 Stern refers to the use i n mosaic of the " vermiculg" motif. This M .-M. Gauthier ( CCM 1 961) h as described as I slamic, but dates much l ater on enamels than these mosaics. 6 5. Many Andalusian arches are s haped in the wall to well above the diameter of the soffit, and only voussoired over t he upper part. T he s imulated j ointing of the total arch may be r adial, centred on the impost, or follow a descending vertical below t he impost. 6 6. M . Durliat, ' Tables d"autel ä l obes de l a province ecclgsiastique de N arbonne, I X-XIe s iecles", Cah. Arch 1 6, 1 966, pp 3 1-75 g ives p lentiful i llustrations. Gerona a ltar: P alol and Hirmer, p . 5 4. 6 7. P . Dubourg-Noves, d"Angouleme, Angouleme

I conographie de 1 973, p is LV-LXV.

5 3

l a

Cathgdrale

6 8. F or example, La Couronne f ig. 3 9, G enouillg; a coarser version i s at S ainte-Marie in S aintes and, derived f rom there, at Marignac. 6 9. Tudela, p l. XXXVII. On corbel B -12, p l. XLIV, the rolls are each carved with the s ingle unit o f this motif. These c an be compared with the M aZ p ilaster of p l.XXVII, with the full motif above in a l ozenge frame and s ingle units below enclosing f lorets. The a ssociation of a ll these e lements can be appreciated by perusing the details o f Maldonado's drawings, f igs 1 7 and 1 8. T he f loret appears on an early capital in Saint-Sernin(fig.97) a ssociated with the " heart-and-dart" motif that o ften s uggests Kufic l ettering. 7 0. F . Garcia Romo, La E scultura del s iglo XI ( FranciaE spana) y s us precedentes hispänicos, Barcelona 1 973. This volume contains the articles written f rom 1 953 to 1 962; see especially ' Un t aller e scultorico de influjo h ispanomusulmän en e l Loire medio ( antes de 1 030-1050)" a l-And 1 960. 7 1. K .J. Conant, a ltar of 1 130.

C luny.

Les

Eglises....1968,

p l.

1 80:

7 2. F . H ernandez, ' Arte Musulman: La Techumbre de la Gran Mezquita de Cordoba", AEAyA, 1 928, pp 1 91-225; LTB 1 957, pp 5 38-551. 7 3. LTB 1 957, description. R . de l a t echumbre conservan en el de Antiguedades,

p . 5 44 and n . 1 00 quoting I drisi's Amador de l os Rios y Villalta, ' Fragmentos de la mezquita a ljama de Cördoba que s e Museo Arqueolgico Nacional" Museo E spanol VIII, 1 877, pp 8 9-114.

7 4. B . P avon Maldonado, Arte Toledano, Jalabert, La F lore s culptge, p l. 4 0c. 7 5. p ls

H . Terrasse, LV,LVI.

La Mosquge des

andalous

f ig.50,

ä F ez,

p .

1 51;

D .

P aris,n.d.

7 6. M . Defourneaux, Les Francais en Espagne, Paris 1 949, p .6; L .G. de Valdeavellano, H istoria de E spaf la 1 ,2, Madrid 1 973, pp 6 13-618; A . P rieto Vives, Los Reyes de Taif a s, E studio historico-numismätico de los Musulmanes espar ioles en e l s iglo V de l a H egira ( XI de J .C.), M adrid 1 926; f or an analysis of the " intima conviviencia" of Muslims and Christians during the t aifa period, R . Menendez P idal, E spaaa del Cid, pp 7 2-83. 7 7. H . Focillon, f irst formulated sculpture. 7 8. The motif three-foliole

L'Art des s culpteurs romans, this e ssential character of

Paris 1 931, Romanesque

can be seen developing from the c lassical border motif of the early niche panels

5 4

preserved in the M ezquita ( the f or examples on s pandrels on f ig.179, and at M aZ, f ig.209).

f irst mihrab? AHIII f ig.39), t he m ihrab arch ( AHIII

7 9. These carved beams can be c ompared with the imposts on t he capitals of t he ambulatory of S aint-Sernin in T oulouse ( Haut-Languedoc r oman f ig.11): the earliest campaign, c .1080. 8 0. F . B argebuhr, century", JWCI, 1 956, 1 968.

' The A lhambra Palace o f the 1 1th pp 1 92 f f.; id., The A lhambra, B erlin

8 1. F . H ernandez, ' Un aspecto..." AEAyA XVI/4, 2 1-49; compare AHIII, f igs 3 13-315, with f igs 4 26

1 930, pp and 4 27.

8 2. AHIII, f igs 2 75-278 show the persistence o f the caliphal woodworking s tyle and motifs into the 1 2th century. I t was in t he G aliana palace that A lfonso VI of Leön found refuge during the conflict with his brothers before h is reign was e stablished in 1 072. S uch a ssistance was expected under the paria system. A lfonso was helpless, but was an honoured guest. After h is coronation he r emained Yahya"s a lly and protector ( R. M. P idal, E spana del C id, pp 1 76 f f). J . M. L acarra, ' Aspectos econömicos de l a sumiciön de l os Reinos de T aifas ( 1010-1102), Homenaje a Jaime V icens V ives, B arcelona 1 965, discusses the r ise and f all and implications of the paria system, one of which l atter was c lose s ocial and c ultural e xchanges b etween Muslim and Christian courts. 8 3. Tudela ( see note 2 2); AHIII f ig.331 a lso f or l ater 1 1th century wood c arving, probably f rom A lmeria. Tudela, founded in t he l ate 8 th century, b ecame important under the B anu Qasi in the 9 th ( J. O liver Asin, 'Origines de Tudela", Hor n. D . Jose E staban U rranga, Madrid 1 971; LTB, C iudades H ispanomusulmanes I , Madrid 1 970, p . 7 8). I n 9 29 these rulers were superceded by the Banu Tuyubi, much in f avour with the n ew c aliph ' Abd ar-Rahman I II. Gomez-Moreno attributed the mosque, f rom which came the p ieces now reused in t he l ate 1 2th century cathedral of S anta Maria l a Mayor, to Musa I I of the Banu Qasi who also enlarged the White Mosque o f Z aragoza in 8 56 ( AHIII, pp 6 9 f f; i d., ' La Mezquita M ayor de T udela", P rincipe de Viana 1 945); LTB postulated a Mozarabic church of the 1 0th century. R ecent f inds at MaZ ( Maldonado Memoria..) accumulate support for a dating of the Tudelan material in the wake o f stylistic developments i nitiated t here in the later 1 0th c entury. The city was taken by A lfonso I o f Aragon in 1 119, and the Chief Mosque was consecrated as the church of S anta M aria l a Mayor probably in 1 121. Another building, possibly a Mozarabic church, was g iven to the B ishop o f Pamplona in recognition o f h is help at the s ieges of Z aragoza, T udela and Pamplona ( J. M. Lacarra, Documentos para e l estudio de l a Reconquista, 3 rd s eries, Doc. No 3 03, p . 5 30; id., ' La iglesia de Tudela entre Tarazona y P amplona" E .E. M.C. A.

5 5

V ,1952, p . 4 19). The a labaster c orbels and other c arved f ragments from Tudela i llustrate the kind o f decoration that will have been prevalent in s uch other important c ities of t he Marches a s Z aragoza, T oledo, Huesca, B arbastro, Lerida or B alaguer, at t he t ime they w ere occupied by the forces o f the Reconquista, i n the l ate 1 1th a nd early 1 2th c entury. 8 4. " TB" ( =LTB), ' Restos de una t echumbre de carpinteria musulmana en l a i glesia de S an M illän de S egovia", a l-And I II, 1 935, p . 4 26. 8 5.

A drawing published

in Tudela,

p .

5 1,

verifies

this.

8 6. LTB, as note 8 4, p . 4 31: this g ives a range of a lmost two centuries, i f we i nclude t he c arved s tone c orbels of the mosque at MaZ: Tudela, f igs 5 , 3 2 and pls X IX,XX, XXIXc. 8 7.C. Ewert, Balaguer, Madr. Forsch. 1 971; no full r eport o f the A ljaferia has yet appeared. AHIII pp 2 21-243 g ives the best account. 8 8.H. Franz, ' Das Medallion a ls Bauornament in der K unst der Omayyadenzeit", Z tschr. d . D eutschen P alastinavereins 7 2, 1 956, pp 8 3-98; ' Les f enetres circulaires de l a cathedrale de Cefalü et l e probleme de l 'origine de l a r ose au moyen a ge", Cah. Arch I X, 1 957, pp 2 53-270; ' Die F ensterrose, ihre Vorgeschichte i n der i slamischen B aukunst', Z tschr.f. Kunstwissenschaft X , 1 956, pp 1 -22; ' Das Medallion a ls architektonisches S chmuckmotif i n d er i talienischen Romanik, z ur problem des i slamischen E influsses auf der a bendländischen B aukunst' F orschungen u . F ortschritte XXXI, 1 957. H . Dow, ' The Rose Window', J WCI XX, 1 957 pp 2 48-297 a lso s tresses t he Spanish and I slamic e lement. 8 9. I have to thank Dr O liver Watson of the Victoria and A lbert Museum f or identifying the pot f ragments. A . Nicolai l e Vallauri, ' A propos des ceramiques ornementales sur l es edifices medievaux du s ud de l a F rance", Archeologie du M idi medieval, 1 986/4 p . 1 03 f f., l ists t he S aint-Antonin dishes a s "Malaga". H e reports bacini or traces o f them at P eilles ( Alpes Mar.), P ont St E sprit ( south S pain derivation), C laps near A ix en Provence, S ilvacane, St Veian d 'Utelle ( Alpes Mar.). The P isan examples he attributes to t he Mahgreb or S icily. 9 0. LTB 1 957, p . 6 17. I n B arcelona, a Jew was l icensed by Raymond Berenguer to build a public bath and keep one t hird of t he income. Y . B aer, A H istory o f the J ews in S pain, Philadelphia 1 961. 9 1. E arlier uses include a panel at Byzantium, 1 966, p l. 3 15, and at B awit, B awit relief between two columns, in

5 6

Ravenna, A . Grabar, ibid., p l. 3 03. The Berlin, has a c ross

w ith f laring a rms i n t he c entre. T he i nterlacing 3 -strand r ibbons prefigure the j umbled a rches o f t he A ljaferia s creens. T he device i s n ot c ommon i n B yzantine a rt b efore t he 1 0th century however, and l ess f lamboyant t han i n A ndalusia. 9 2.

C .

Ewert,

M adr.

M itt.

7 ,

1 966,

p is

7 6-79,

8 5.

9 3. The two e arliest datable basins known are a twelves ided one f rom t he e xcavations of ' Abd a r-Rahman I II ' s h all a t MaZ ( Maldonado, ' Influjos o ccidentales..' a l-And XXXIII, p 1.10) and an e ight-lobed one ( AHIII, f ig.251) i n Granada M useum with an i nscription on the border dating i t to 3 60H/970-1 ( ELP I nscriptions.. No 2 15) T he f ormer i s decorated i n a s tyle s imilar t o t he u ndersurface o f t he C orneilhan a ltar and t he S aint-Martin-de-Bize a ltar s upport ( M. Durliat, ' Tables d 'autel..', C ah.Arch 1 966, f igs 2 1, 2 3). A lso AHIII, f ig. 3 28: t hree 1 1th c entury f ragments, w ith a s eated f igure, a horseman and a ttendant, and a human h ead c onsole i n d eep r elief. E xcept f or K ufic r ound t he b order, the l atter two would p ass a s R omanesque. Apart f rom these there a re t wo s eries: o ne type i s l arge, o blong a nd d eep with vertical s ides; the other smaller, near s quare a nd s hallow, e ither w ith s loping s ides, or vertical a nd r ounded at the b ase. S even a re known i n the f irst s eries: i . N ational Museum, M adrid. I nscribed w ith t he name o f A lmanzor, who o rdered i t f or Madinat a z-Zahira i n 3 77H/AD987-988 ( ELP I nscr No 2 16). I t w as f ound i n S eville, i ncomplete. O n one s ide t hree a rcades on columns a nd p lant d ecoration, on t he o ther l ions a ttacking h orned p rey; a border o f ducks and f ish; on a s hort s ide e agles with f elines a nd griffons ( AHIII, f igs 2 46a; 2 47b,d; 2 49) 1 .05m. x 0 .78m.x 0 .68m. h igh. i i. Found in t he madrasah o f I bn Y usuf, M arrakesh, mutilated. I nscribed " made for a l-Malik, s on o f A lmanzor" ( reigned 1 002-1008) ELP I nscr No 2 17. T he o nly r emaining f igure s culpture i s a short s ide with h alf-spread e agles and griffons. A f ragment o f border with wave s tem enclosing s ix-petal f lorets a nd other p lant motifs ( AHIII, f ig.246b). 1 .55m. x 8 2cm x 7 0 cm h igh. i ii. A lhambra. I nscription added i n 1 4th c entury ( ELP I nscr N o 2 20). B oth s ides with l ions attacking gazelles. B order o f d ucks a nd f ish with t oad on one s ide ( AHIII, f ig. 2 47a). 1 .46m. x 8 9cm x 6 1cm h igh. i v. F ragments o f a nother basin i n G ranada Museum. attack a nd inscribed b order. S nake among prey's ( AHIII, f ig. 2 48 [ drawing]; LTB 1 957, f ig.562). arcade with bird, and shell. v . F ragment of short s ide o f s imilar Museum. L ions a ttacking horned p rey ( AHIII,

5 7

L ion l egs. A lso,

basin, Cordoba f ig.247c).

v i. f ig.

S eville Museum. A border with d ucks 2 45e) a nd rosettes; f rom Moroquil.

and

f ish

( AHIII,

vii. Cordoba Museum. Fragment o f a s imilar basin ( ?) found at Moroquil ( probably on the s ite o f A lmanzor's A lamiriya). Confronted s imurgh heads, s croll between, cording a nd inscription above ( AHIII, f ig. 2 45c). The

second

s eries has

eight examples:

i . S eville Archaeological Museum. Vertical sides, curved at b ase. Ducks and tortoise, f lanked by f ish. Foliage probably unfinished ( AHIII, f ig. 2 51c); The Arts of I slam, Arts Council Exhibition, 1 976, No 4 89. I nstituto de Valencia de D on J uan, Madrid. S loping s ides, inscribed border, foliage decoration ( AHIII, f ig. 2 51b), 5 9 x 5 2 cm. i ii. H ispanic Society o f America, New York. S loping s ides, inscribed border, r elief decoration below i t modern ( M. Gomez-Moreno, A H ispano-Moresque marble basin i n t he collection of the H ispanic S ociety of America, New York, 1 928: qu. LTB 1 957, p . 7 25, note 5 1; work not consulted). iv. Madrid, private collection. S loping s ides, decoration inside: ducks pecking f ish, crossed f ish b etween d ucks; outside, a dromedary, engraved ( AHIII, f ig. 2 50 and 2 55). v . C ordoba Museum. F ind-place unspecified, p robably Moroquil. S loping s ides; p lain acanthus a lternating with Vshaped l eaf pair f raming h orned heads; between them j awless l ion masks; upper border of s imilar curled l eaves l ike rams' horns; at t he corners, addorsed l ions looking b ack, tails meeting at corners ( AHIII, f ig. 2 52b). vi. Fragment, sheath ( AHIII,

Malaga, with f ig. 2 52c).

s imilar

l eaves

rising

f rom

vii. Cordoba, private collection. Vertical s ides, rounded at b ase; p lain acanthus l eaves a lternating with l ittle trefoil motif; j awless l ion mask over aperture for water spout. ( LTB 1 957, f ig. 5 64, drawing). 1 05cm x 6 7cm, 3 0 cm high. viii.Cordoba, ( ?)found in Moroquil. Vertical s ides, rounded at b ase; p lain acanthus, a lternating with curled V -shaped l eaf pair rising f rom sheath, f raming a lternate horned h ead and j awless l ion h ead. ( AHIII, f ig. 2 52a). 9 4. ELP I I, pp. 1 48-149, g ives the f ollowing extract f rom I bn Hayyan in the Analects of a l-Maqqari ( also i n F . Bargebuhr, E l P alacio de l a A lhambra en e l s iglo X I, Granada 1 966):

5 8

A s f or t he c arved and g ilt basin, admirably f ormed a nd o f g reat p rice, i t was procured f or t he c aliph by Ahmad a l-Yunani [ "the Greek"], who brought i t h im when he r eturned f rom C onstantinople i n c ompany w ith B ishop Rabi" who was r eturning f rom J erusalem. T he l ittle carved green b asin, w ith i ts b as-reliefs r epresenting human f igures, was brought by Ahmad f rom Syria, o r, i t i s s aid, f rom C onstantinople, when he came b ack with R abi" t he B ishop. I t i s s aid to h ave b een o f i ncomparable v alue, d ecorative r ichness and b eauty. This b asin was brought f rom p lace t o p lace to t he s ea. A l-Nasir p laced i t in t he b edroom o f t he e astern great hall ( majlis) c alled a l-munis. H e h ad twelve gold s tatues o f r ed g old i ncrusted w ith precious s tones s et over i t; these w ere made in t he r oyal workshops ( dar a l-sina'a) o f C ordoba. T here was a l ion f lanked by a gazelle a nd a c rocodile; opposite, a d ragon with an e agle and an e lephant; on t wo s ides, two g roups, r espectively a dove, a f alcon and a peacock, a hen, a cock and a vulture... A ll t hese w ere of gold encrusted with gems and water came f rom their mouths. Rabi" i bn Z aid, a lso known a s R ecemundo, w as a M ozarabic c leric. H e was promoted B ishop o f E lvira when s ent on a mission to O tto I i n 9 55 while O tto's envoy, J ohn o f G orze, r emained in Cordoba. At Frankfurt Recemundo met L iutprand a nd p ersuaded h im to w rite h is Antapodosis, which L iutprand dedicated to Recemundo. T he l atter r eturned t o C ordoba w ith D udo o f V erdun whose briefing under R ecemundo's advice s olved t he p rotocol d eadlock t hat h ad a risen previously and o ccasioned Recemundo % mission to O tto; a magnificent r eception t hen t ook p lace f or J ohn at M aZ. Statues s tood over t he gates of Cordoba and P echina ( ELP I I, p . 1 35-6); over t he e ntrance gate t o M aZ s tood a s tatue of Z ahra" h erself. The l ions o f t he A lhambra f ountain are thought to b e o f t he 1 1th c entury. A s ingle l ion s tood at t he e nd of t he a queduct i nto C ordoba, spitting water; i t h ad g ems for e yes. F . B argebuhr, T he A lhambra, A Cycle o f S tudies on t he E leventh C entury i n Moorish S pain, B erlin 1 968, a nd op.cit. a bove, attributes an 1 1th c entury palace within t he A lhambra p recinct t o S amuel and then Y ehoseph ibn Naghrall: t wo J ewish c hancellors; t he l atter was k illed i n 1 066 in an u prising a gainst h im. B argebuhr a lso discusses the l ion a s a J ewish s ymbol, taken o ver by t he Muslims ( as by t he C hristians, c f. J aca tympanum). The " statue o f the Caliph" a t K hirbat a l-Mafjar rests on two l ions, a nd t he l ion f igures widely i n Andalusian i conography. c f. a lso LTB 1 957, pp 4 24 and 4 36. 9 5. Maldonado, M em . Mez. The material d iscoveries i s s hown i n AHIII pp 1 85-190

5 9

known before these and f ig. 2 52.

9 6. Oriental examples: t he f amous rosettes on the f açades o f M schatta ( Berlin Museum); the s tucco medallion of Khirbat a l-Mafjar; t he f açade o f the c ourt of t he mosque of I bn Tulun in Cairo. 9 7. J . Vallery-Radot, ' Les l imites..' BM 1 936, p . 1 10; J . Evans, C luniac Art of the Romanesque Period, pis 6 4, 6 6. For the Thgzels l intel, now in Cahors Museum, D . Fossard, ' A p ropos d es l inteaux de Moissac et de S aint-Sernin de Thgzels', Synthronon, Recueil d 'Etudes.. A. Grabar, P aris 1 968, pp 2 09-224. 9 8. Excavated at what was thought t o be the site o f alA lamiriyya, Moroquil, near Cordoba, a l ittle to the west of MaZ; but a l-Maqqari ( Anal.I, p . 3 83) described t his residence as " close to the right bank of the Guadalquivir", not at t he f oot of t he s ierra, c f. ELP I I, p . 2 20. The second c apital, LTB's f ig. 5 02, i s mentioned on h is p . 6 76. 9 9.

ELP

I II,

p .

2 20.

1 00. This shape o f tuft i s of course not peculiar to t hese pieces, but it is a distinctive f eature they s hare. 1 01. The motif i s noted in F . H enry and G . Z arnecki, ' Romanesque arches decorated with human and animal h eads' i n G . Z arnecki, S tudies in Romanesque S culpture, L ondon 1 979, Chap. vi, p . 1 6 and f ig. 6 a s appearing i n P oitou, where it " may have some connexion w ith Moslem c arvings". The absence of a l ower j aw l inks this mask motif with the t ao tieh ( fig 7 2) and k irtimukha monster masks of E ast and S outh Asia, whose monstrous, horned a spect i s assumed more than once at Moissac, spitting t he border of t he doorway archivolt ( fig. 7 3) and in a vertical series on the marble panels at the porch entrance ( fig. 7 4). There a re no i ntermediary examples to be quoted i n Andalusia however, of monstrous aspect. F or S outh A sian examples: in t he B ritish Museum, 1 880.5, J ain Tvirthankara P arsvanantha, 1 0th century, mask a top the arch w ith foliage; 1 880.20, b ase of p illar, West I ndia Gujarat, 1 1th c entury: masks s pitting foliage; 1 887.15, t erra cotta p anel, Mathura 6 th-7th century, s ea monster; 1 880.14, stone panel with makara, E ast I ndia, 7 th-8th century; 1 880.7, monster on b ack o f panel with Buddha preaching, 5 th-6th century, Gupta; etc. The Roman motif of swags and bucrania coincides w ith one aspect o f t he oriental development, c f. K . Batsford, The Green Man; F .D.F. B osch, The Golden Germ, ' s G ravenhage 1 960; and S . Cammann, ' Tibetan Monster Masks', J rnl West C hina Border Research S ociety XII, 1 940, S ection A , pp 9 2 4. I t seems impossible t hat the parallel evolution s hould not have some cross-connexions. At Bari ( figs 5 3,54), the s loping backs of birds frame the head on one capital. On the other, t he l ions with heads s hared on two c orners a lternate with ram or gazelle heads on the others. On I slamic i nfluence i n Apulia: T . Garten, ' Islamic E lements

6 0

i n E arly R omanesque 1 00 f f. 1 02. 1 06,

M . B aylg, 1 07.

S culpture

L a T rinitg

i n Apulia',

de C aen,

AARP

P aris

1 973,

1 970,

i v,

f igs

p .

1 05,

1 03. I h ave t o t hank P rofessor Z arnecki f or this r eference: photographs i n t he C onway L ibrary, " Toscanella", L azio. T he s udarium i s i llustrated i n J . Ebersolt, O rient et O ccident I , P aris 1 928, p l.XI. 1 04. M . S chapiro, ' From Mozarabic t o Romanesque AB, XXI, 1 939 ( repr. R omanesque A rt, 1 977), f ig. 1 05. R . Ghirshman, B erlin M useum.

I ran,

L ondon

1 962,

p l.

i n S ilos', 9 .

2 40:

i n

t he

1 06. S eries 1 , i v ( see note 9 3). This s erpent i s notable i n connexion with t he f requency o f s nakes in t he i conography o f Spanish R omanesque capitals ( Santiago, L eön, J aca especially). F . I niguez, ' La E scatalogia Musulmana en l as C apiteles Romanicos', P rincipe de V iana 1 967, quotes punishment with s erpents f or the impious, f or misers, adulterers a nd b ad mothers r ehearsed by A lgaceb, a nd i n S amarkandi's descriptions o f the Muslim a fterlife, among a number o f o ther t orments d escribed i n M uslim e schatology t hat f ind i llustration, deliberate o r unwitting, i n Romanesque s culpture. The common ground o f I slamic and Christian i magery m ay b e s ufficient to e xplain t he " coincidences": this i s t he view h eld by M . D urliat, J . Williams a nd most r ecent writers on t he s ubject, b ut " coi ncidence" c reates a c limate c onducive t o c ross-influences. A b elt-clasp f rom a V isigothic burial at E stables ( Guadalajara) s hows a l ong ancestry f or t he motif ( Palol and H irmer, p 1.22). 1 07. E . B aer, ' The " Pila" o f J ätiva, a document o f s ecular u rban a rt in western I slam', K unst d es O rients, VII/2, pp 1 42-166. T he b asin i s dated to t he 1 1th century by B aer, a s by Gomez-Moreno ( AHIII). B aer d iscusses other dates p roposed previously. 1 08. EK E lf. No 2 7; J BCC, p l. 7 . C losely s imilar on the f açade o f Notre-Dame-La-Grande i n P oitiers. AHIII, p . 2 78. 1 09. S . Moralejo A lvarez, on t he o ther h and, d iscovered t he very work t hat s erved a s a model for the sculptor i n north S pain who c arved c apitals at Frömista a nd J aca: ' Sabre l a f ormaciön del e stilo e scultörico d e F römista y J aca', Actas XXIII Congreso I ntl. H ist. Arte, Granada,1976, I , pp 4 274 33. Roman remains were thus a c ontinuous influence, f rom t he 1 0th c entury o n t he s culptors o f c aliphal basins, t hrough the 1 1th century ( Jätiva) in Andalusia, i nto the Romanesque.

6 1

1 10. Medallion: e .g. AHII, f ig.111 ( Huesca); f ig. 1 10 ( Ager); f or the Good S hepherd who f igures in t he " procession of peasants" on t he Jätiva basin, AHII, f ig. 1 94 ( as Atlantes on t he Gerona s arcophagus); f ig. 2 08 ( Covarrübias) and a lso the medallion; for a n Atlas, F ig. 2 05. A l-Hakam I I's collection o f antique s arcophagi i s l ikely to have influenced the compositional layout of the caliphal basins a lso, e . g., t he a rcades on t he n onf igurative panels. H . P gres, La pogsie andalouse, P aris 1 966, quotes a poem referring to a nursing mother with a serpent threatening the i nfant at her f eet ; the l iterary e lements on the Jätiva basin have not been s tudied. 1 11. E . Vergnolle, ' Les chapiteaux de La B erthenoux', G BA 1 972 f or t he B erry; GG 1 938: Leön, P anteön, N os 2 5,26; S an I sidro, 1 6,28-30, 3 5; J aca, Nos 2 3,24; Frömista, Nos 1 2, 1 3, 1 8,(capitals) and 1 ( corbel); S antiago, Nos 2 0-22. I f s nake, l ion tamers and drama scenes be included, there are many more. 1 12. col.

A . Papadopoulo, p l. 1 8.

I slam et

l 'art musulman,

Paris

1 976,

1 13. For B eatus i llustration: E . Mäle, L'Art religieux au X IIe s iècle, p . 1 5, f ig.9. On the famous capital in P oitiers Museum the disputants are again bald. They wear short tunics. Their heads are shaved back to f ront, but the remaining hair i s not in a tuft as at Jätiva. The reliefs of La C elle B ruere ( Berry roman, f igs 8 2, 8 5) inscribed Frotoardus, show the d isputants i n one c ase seizing o ne the other's neck, the other his opponent's hair. This i s cut away f rom t he b row. A group probably originating at Anzyl e-Duc, including Saint-Pierre-le-Moutier, S aint-Sauveur in Nevers, Bois-Sainte-Marie, S aint-Rgvgrien, i s connected with the P oitiers composition. La Revue frangaise, s uppl. to no 1 52, May 1 963, entitled ' Sculptures romanes et modernes.. . Poitiers', has l arge-scale i llustrations of the Poitiers capital. The eye drilled in the wrong p lace suggests that t he c arving was originally painted a nd the drilled eye disguised. The drilling would not be original. 1 14. s ee a lso Roussillon r oman, f igs 1 9-20 ( Saint-Genis des Fontaines) and 2 6 ( Arles window: t he d ished rosettes); Guyenne romane, figs 8 9,90 ( La S auve). 1 15. S aintonge romane, f igs 2 4, 1 31, 1 36, 1 53. The hair style of many o f these f igures i s that of the f igures on t he Pamplona c asket, EK E lf. No 3 5; t he l ion mask o f f ig. 1 53 recalls the f ootstools of the angels on the St M artin capital at S aint-Benoit ( fig 5 7). 1 16.

B aer,

op.

c it.,

1 17.

H aut-Languedoc roman,

1 18.

AHIII,

f ig.

2 73;

f ig.

ELP

6 . f igs Insc.

6 2

1 32, No

1 38.

5 7.

1 19.

EX E lf.,

No

3 4;

J BCC,

p l.

2 6.

1 20. E . Kühnel, D ie I slamische E lfenbeinskulpturen, VIIIxiii Jahrhundert, Berlin 1 971 ( EK E lf) i s the s tandard, most comprehensive work, s uperceding J . F errandis, Marfiles Arabes de Occidente,I, Madrid 1 935. J . B eckwith, Caskets f rom Cordoba, L ondon 1 960,(JBCC) gives an account o f the s eries in English. 1 21.

EX E lf,

Nos

1 9,

2 0;

JBCC,

1 22. A comparison of d ifferent f igs 5 12-120. 1 23.

LTB

1 957,

1 24.

EX E lf,

p .

No

p .

6 ,

p l.

s tyles

i s

1 8-20,

2 2.

1 and p ls shown

2 -4.

in LTB

1 957,

7 34.

3 2,

JBCC,

f igs

1 25. H . F ocillon, Art des sculpteurs romans, p . 9 5, makes an i lluminating equation of I slamic calligraphy with Romanesque f igure composition. 1 26. EX E lf, 1 4-30.

Nos

2 2,

2 7,

3 1,

3 2,

3 5-37,

3 9;

JBCC,

p ls

5 -7,

1 27. J . M.C. Toynbee and J . Ward Perkins, s P eopled S crolls.." P apers of the B ritish S chool at Rome, XVIII ( n.s., vol. V), 1 950, pp. 1 -43. I t i s notable t hat in I slamic art there i s far less t endency to entwine the f igures with stems than i n Christian. 1 28. e .g., compare P . Lasko, Ars S acra, p ls 6 7-70 with the drapery of JBCC, p l. 1 6 or 2 0; T he Milan and Basilewski s itulae ( Lasko, p ls 8 3 and 8 6) are a decade l ater than the Cordoba caskets ( 968 and 9 69-970 AD as against 9 83); t he hair is different, but the drapery and stance are very s imilar. 1 29. e .g. the Tuotilo book cover, Lasko, p l. 6 4: Aribert % book cover, p l. 7 6, and e specially the enamels on the S ion cathedral book cover, p l. 7 7 and Echternach cover p l. 9 2 which are more nearly contemporary. Painted decoration at Qairawan i s l ooser than the carving, as s een on the dome ceiling ( AMO, f ig. 2 6), but it i s r elatively s imple and incoherent; it i s in Cordoba that the more mobile scroll style develops f urther. 1 30. P l.

JBCC,

l ower

spandrels

o f medallion,

and

tree branches,

1 7.

1 31. M . Rickert, Painting in B ritain; the Middle Ages, Harmondsworth 1 954, p . 1 9, describes an early page i lluminated at C anterbury, p l. 1 0b, as " an a lmost unique example of the well balanced blending o f the two antipodal styles, H iberno-Saxon and Mediterranean". The combination

6 3

o f f igures and p lant d ecoration o n t his page is among t he n earest i n Christian i lluminations t o t he C ordoban decorators' w ay of manipulating t hese motifs t ogether. T he s pecial f lavour of Andalusian caliphal i vory c arving may b e attributed to a s imilar b lending o f M editerranean and, i n t his c ase, C eltic styles.

6 4

CHAPTER ARABIC S CRIPT AND

I II I TS

I MITATIONS

Though the I slamic origin o f a r endering o f Arabic s cript on Romanesque monuments i s b eyond doubt, i t i s an of t he most i ndirect k ind, through i nfluence that may be i mitations o f t extiles or portable o bjects b earing i nscripave passed through many hands. This t ions; the models may h s eems particularly t he c ase with e namels, f or i nstance. The e xamples s urviving on a rchitecture however s hare a technic al s imilarity, a nd a s imilarity o f s tyle, with Andalusian models and between each other which argues f or a c ommon t radition a live i n s outhern F rance i n t he d ecades e ither s ide of the year 1 100. There are o nly f our explicit examples o f Arabic ( Kufic) writing ( 1) i n t he c arved d ecoration o f F rench R om anesque buildings; t wo a re on wood and two on s tone. The f ormer a re in t he Velay: t hey a re d oors, a nd belong t o a l arger l ocal group with a c lear workshop tradition. One o f t he two p airs o f R omanesque c arved wooden d oors i n t he c athedral of L e P uy i s i nscribed w ith a Kufic border, and t he s ingle valve o f a nother s uch d oor a t L avoüte-Chilhac i s d ecorated with a b and o f c onventional r epetitive mock-Kufic ( 2). There i s a s imilar c ontrast i n t he t wo s tone examples: t he decoration i s varied, a s t hough imitating a t ext, on t he impost o f c apital 5 0 on . the n orth g allery i n Moissac c loister ( 3), whereas the carved l intel at S aint-Pierre-deR hädes north o f B gziers i s c arved w ith t he c onventional r ep eat. There i s o ne f urther example i n S pain. T he small c hurch at t he f oot o f t he c astle o f A tienza in t he l ongd isputed f rontier z one between C astile and Andalusia has a n orth door, n ow b locked, o f which t he a rchivolt b ears a L atin inscription i ncised i n the l imestone, doubled by a K ufic ' inscription" i n f lat r elief which i s possibly a g arb led version o f a repeated a l-mulk l illah ( fig.75). Recent p ointing h as made the Latin i llegible but i t was r ead by S errano in 1 945 t o g ive the d ate 1 112 a nd t he n ame o f A lf onso I ( 4). Common to a ll these examples i s t he two-plane relief i n which t he i nscriptions are carved. As n oted i n Chapter I I this i s the s tandard technique o f Andalusian epigraphy on s tone, m arble a nd w ood a nd l ess exclusively on i vory. T he choice o f this r elief t echnique i s p articularly notable a t A tienza, where i n c ontrast t he a ssociated L atin i nscript ion i s i ncised, and the s croll decoration outside both i s r ounded a nd modelled. T he Wooden Doors o f the Velay ( figs L avoüte-Chilhac, C hamaliäres, B lesle.

7 6-80):

L e

P uy,

The w ooden doors o f Le P uy are d istinct f rom t he s imil ar doors at L avoüte, Chamaliäres and B lesle by v irtue both o f t he composition o f t he decoration a nd t heir s impler

6 5

s tructure. O n t he other hand t he d ecorative motifs, carving a nd t he c olouring t echnique a re t he s ame.

the

L e P uy T he i nscription f raming t he s cenes o f t he I nfancy of Christ on t he d oors o f S t G illes' c hapel was definitively i nterpreted by Margais ( 5) a s a r endering of t he phrase a lmulk l illah [ the k ingdom i s God's], s ufficiently c orrect to e stablish that t he sculptor had under h is eyes e ither the exact drawing o f t he model, or a n object of wood, perhaps a c hest, or a door valve, f rom an I slamic country. F or F ikry this means that " only i n an I slamic country c ould t he a rtist have f ound h is model and l earnt i ts s ecret" ( 6); he quotes a nalogies o f s tyle i n i nscriptions at Madinat a zZ ahra'. Margais g ives analogies o f detail with Fatimid i ns criptions a nd s croll d ecoration o f t he 1 1th century and r ejects F ikry's a ttribution i n f avour of a s ource f or the decoration . in Tunisia or S icily. I n p articular the t riangul ar f orm o f the l etter mim w ith a f leuron above i t s peaks f or a s ource i n I friqiya ( North A frica). L ike Margais, C ahn points o ut t races o f c ontact w ith I taly a nd t he R höne valley i n a number o f f eatures o f t he architecture o f Le P uy, b ut " given t he d iffuse but p ersistent c urrent o f I sl amic influence i n Velay our s culptors need not have d isp laced t hemselves a far" ( 7). The d ivision o f the ground into s cenes in panels i s that o f d oors on t he B yzantine model s urviving i n G ermany and above a ll i n I taly ( 8), and s peaks f or an i nfluence f rom b eyond t he R höne. This c onnexion h owever does n ot exc lude the possibility o f Andalusian e lements i n the decorat ion of t he doors a lso, t ransmitted e ither v ia I taly o r dir ect. N ot only t he K ufic but a number o f a ssociated f eatures a nd d ecorative motifs on t hese a nd t he o ther Romanesque doors i n the r egion o f L e P uy have s triking s imil arities o f detail with n ear-contemporary woodwork in S pain, notably the ceiling, t otally Andalusian i n t radit ion, o f S an Millän i n S egovia, which was examined i n t he f oregoing chapter ( fig. 4 6). T he I nscription on t he N ativity Doors The l etters o f the i nscription are f oliated, the s ize o f the half-palmette t erminals being varied, i t may be deliberately, s o t hat the impression o f r epetition a long t he b orders i s reduced. T he s pace-filling f leuron o ver t he m im i nside t he l ama liph part o f t he c haracter, ( or, i nterpreted by Margais a s " al-mulk", the l am -mim lam), appears i n the same c onjunct ion i n the i nscription panels at S egovia, on the S ilos i vory c asket ( AHIII, f igs 3 67-8), on t he mock i nscriptions o f the Oviedo Arca S anta ( fig. 8 1), round the page o f the S aint-Sever Beatus, o n the F ez mimbar panel ( fig.44), bordering t he apse-painting at S anta Maria i n Taüll ( fig.94) ( 9), a nd i ndeed i n t he Mezquita i tself, i n t he mosaic i nscriptions o f the mihrab a nd o n doorways ( AHIII, f igs 1 63-5, 1 93). I n many o f these c ases t he mim i s not

6 6

t riangular, b ut o ther angular f orms might e asily b e t ransferred, by a s culptor not wholly l iterate i n Arabic, to this position b etween s hafts, f or example i n t he f loriation o f s hafts s een on t he F ez panel, the T oledo i nscribed well h eads, t he P amplona c asket ( AHIII, f ig. 3 63), t he Arca S anta, or t he t ombstone of t he P rincess B adr f rom Cordoba, d ated 1 103 ( 10), where other l etters are written with j ust s uch t riangles. P lant Motifs W ithin the p anels various v ersions o f t refoil, palmette or half-palmette and c omposite r osette a re u sed to f ill s paces, e specially a long t he r egister i llustrating t he J ourney of the K ings: t he s tems f orm hearts or a rches o f i nterlacing half-circles, s tiff " fir t rees" or i rregular branches.(D10,F20,D12a). A ll o f these a re matched i n A ndalusian wood c arving ( fig. 8 2) ( 11). E ight-point s tar f lorets ( D3) s imulate d ecorative nails. They a re s et exactly a s on Andalusian examples, bet ween p lain rectangular-section f illets ( 12). Down the v ertical batten i s a L atin i nscription inc luding t he words GAUZFREDUS F ECIT ( 13). I t begins at t he t op with an interlaced palmette s croll, l ike examples on t he beams of t he Mezquita a nd S egovia a like. The motif i ts elf would s carcely call for comment, s o ubiquitous i s i t; i t i s c urrent f or e xample in pre-Romanesque m anuscript i ll umination, and i t might be r einvented at a ny t ime where t he undulating h alf-palmette s croll was employed ( 14). I t i s however one more motif s hared with much o f t he l ow relief wood s culpture i n Andalusia, a nd we h ave f ound t he t echnique of i ts execution perpetuated when it i s adopted ( rarely) i nto Romanesque s tone c arving ( figs 4 2,43). T he o blique s ide of t he b atten h as t he s ame t runcated border motif o f t refoil and arch a s a long the edges of s ome S egovia panels, o utside t he f illet border; i t i s i nherited f rom the beams o f t he Mezquita ( LTB 1 957, f ig.347)(15); i t r ecurs on the cornice of t he f açade o f L e Monastier ( CA 1 976, f ig. 5 ). Colour Traces o f colour ( two reds, brown, dark g reen, b lue and white) s how t hat these Le P uy doors were primed a nd painted in t he s ame ways a s t he c eilings o f t he M ezquita ( 16), a llowing a S panish s ource, t hough not o f c ourse n ecessitating i t. I nterlace O n the c orresponding s et o f doors, f or S t Martin's chapel i n the cathedral, with s cenes o f the P assion, a " bretzel" or f an-shaped i nterlace s croll t akes t he p lace o f t he K ufic o f the I nfancy doors. T he d isappearance o f this s croll i n s tone c arving s oon a fter 1 100 ( 17) g ives r eason f or dating the s eries s oon a fter 1 100 i f not b efore. While t he woodworking t radition h as s hown a c onsistency and conservatism t hat warns against making hasty analogies o f f ashion with the more r ecently e stablished c raft o f stone c arving, a detail of political

6 7

history o ffers j ustification f or this chronology i n a s uitable c ontext f or the F atimid i nfluence postulated by M argais. T his i s t he m arriage i n 1 086 o f t he y oung c ount o f Auvergne t o Emma, daughter o f the f uture K ing Roger I I o f S icily a nd s ister-in-law to R aymond de S aint-Gilles ( 18). T he Lavoüte-Chilhac

Door

T he I nscription At the c hurch o f S ainte-Croix at L avoüte-Chilhac only a s ingle door valve s urvives ( 19). T he f oliated l am a nd a liph o f the repetitive mock-inscription a re l inked by a small l etter ( mim, ' ain o r sad) o f t he u sual Spanish s emi-circular f orm, with a trefoil above i t l ike that a bove t he t riangular m im o f t he L e P uy door, a nd s imilarly i n t he i nscription on t he v ertical panels of t he c eiling of S an M illän i n S egovia. T he Cross A l arge c ross w ith f laring arms o ccupies t he upper s ection o f the door: a c lear reference t o t he dedication o f t he c hurch t o t he H oly Cross ( 20). I t i s e dged with c ording and has l arge r inged bosses a nd interlace knots on e ach a rm a nd a l arge boss at t he c entre. T he bosses and knots p lay a s imilar d ecorative role t o t he rosettes a nd geometric medallions on t he F ez mimbar p anel. P arallels approaching i n t ime are the bosses in r ings on c apitals a t S an P ere de R oda ( figs 8 3-89), s ometimes a ssociated w ith a c orded a stragal ( fig. 8 4), a nd t he w ell h ead at T oledo o f 1 032 ( fig. 7 1)(21), which f or half t he c ircumference f ills a n arrow band w ith n ail h ead d isc bosses. The other half h as o nly cording. The Latin I nscription B elow the g reat c ross i s an i nscription in l ow f lat r elief w ith L atin verses n aming O dilo a s f ounder o f t he church. T he r eference i s t o t he c elebrated abbot o f . C luny, a member of the l eading l ocal f amily, t he M ercoeur. T he church b elonged to a p riory f ounded by O dilo c lose to t he f amily c astle where h e was born. I t m ay not be f ortuitous that t he M ercoeur w ere c losely c oncerned not only with Lavoüte, but with L e P uy a nd Moissac a lso ( 22). T here i s no i nstitutional p arallel between the t hree monuments with t heir K ufic decoration, but this f amily c onnexion l inks them.

Cording C orded edging i s not f ound on s urviving Andalusian woodwork but i t i s f requent in marble and o ften a ssociated t here w ith corbels ( 23); i t b orders t he arch and a lfiz o f the mihrab i n t he A ljaferia. The i conographic model for t his treatment o f the c ross however may b e the k ind o f work r epresented by t he C arolingian i vory b ook c over at N arbonne, where the c ross i s edged i n the s ame way, a s a re i ndeed s ome o f the f lared V isigothic crosses s uch a s t he Angeles c ross i n Oviedo ( 24). Cording i n f act was much u sed i n V isigothic s tone c arving a lso. F an-knot I nterlace " bretzel" f an-knot

T he door i nterlace

i s bordered by the s ame scroll a s that on the P assion

6 8

doors of L e P uy. T his Coptic, t hen I rish, motif i s t raced by B ousquet t hrough 9 th and 1 0th c entury manuscripts and chancel p laques i nto e arly R omanesque s culpture ( 25), where i t i s most concentrated i n t he orbit of Aurillac, S an P ere de Roda a nd C onques, b efore t he e nd of t he 1 1th c entury. There are a lso examples on c apitals f urther north, i n the Auvergne, at B lesle ( where t here a re a wooden door l ike that at L avoüte a nd roll c orbels F l), S aint-Quentin-surS ioule, a nd G laine-Montaigut, a nd on an i mpost a t E breuil. G laine Montaigut has roll corbels a nd E breuil has an e arly example o f t he c lassic A uvergnat eaves with h ollow rosette ( D15) soffits b etween i ts roll corbels, l ike those o f S egovia. P ilasters on t he a pse o f S aint-Outrille-en-Gragay i n the B erry ( 26) are carved with this f an i nterlace, and an i mpost h as t he r unning palmette s croll ( D7) o f t he L e P uy door. No c orbels s urvive t here, a s the r oofing i s recent, b ut t he B erry a s a whole h as t he g reatest concentration o f roll corbels i n F rance, outside t he Auvergne ( Map 2 ). S crolls The band o f mock inscription ( F2) i s s et between two bands o f s croll work. T he upper has two rows o f split palmettes ( D6) a s on a c orbel at S egovia a nd t hose on corbel A -6 at T udela ( 27), c ontained i n i nterlaced r ings. B etween t he r ings i s a r ow o f i mitation n ail h eads ( D3), this t ime s ix-petalled f lorets r ather t han t he s tars o f the Le P uy d oor. The bottom p anel has t wo rows, the l ower b adly damaged, of oblique c rosses f ormed o f p airs of s plit p almettes radiating f rom a c entre ( D10); t hese are s urrounded by s tems f orming round s quares. A p almette in a h eart i s s et obliquely t o complete the s croll at t he undamaged end. Both t hese applications o f t he p almette a re c urrent i n caliphal d ecoration, and the roofing a ssociation i s underl ined by t he existence at L e P uy o f f ragments o f a s tone cornice carved w ith t he s ame f lower c ross f or a s offit rosette ( fig. 9 0)(28). Construction T he c onstruction o f t he L avoüte door differs f rom that o f the L e P uy doors; i t i s more c omplex and skilfully c omposed, w ith rebates a nd m itring. Much of t he decoration i s c arved on thin horizontal panels a nd nailed to t he backing p lanks ( the m ethod u sed on t he Mezquita c eiling), whereas at L e Puy the c arving i s d irect on t he vertical p lanks c omposing t he valves ( 30). T he door a t Lavoüte i s one o f a group o f three, with Chamaliäres and B lesle i n t he s ame area, a ll built i n t his way. T he l atter two, d ecorated a nd painted a ccording t o t he s ame s chema, a lbeit with l ess e xplicitly I slamic motifs t han at L avoüte, c an be a ttributed t o t he L avoüte workshop ( 31). The Chamaliäres

D oor

T he pair o f valves at C hamaliäres e ach h as a c ross l ike that on t he L avoüte d oor; t he a rms do not f lare a nd the cording edging them i s double. I nterlace knots ( D13)

6 9

f ill t he upper s paces o utside t he a rms, t he l ower s paces h ave f igures i n r elief, and more f igure motifs c onsisting o f c onfronted l ions [ ?] ( D17h) a nd c onfronted r iders w ith l ances f ill a panel above two r ows o f l attice woodwork ( 32). O n a l ower register i t i s j ust possible to make out on t he l eft valve a carved i nterlacing d iagonal l attice, f raming split palmettes arranged in f ours r adiating f rom a c entre ( D10). T he corresponding r egister on t he other v alve h as a p lainer version o f t he s plit palmette f lower c ross, a s on t he b ottom r egister o f t he L avoüte d oor. T he border i s c arved with an e laboration of t he i nterl aced p almette s croll o f t he v ertical b atten o f L e P uy ( D7); the p almette i s here t ransformed i nto a pair o f entwined s tems e nding i n s plit p almettes which meet a s imilar smaller motif that b egins the next p air of s tems. Thus e ach s tem r ing i s s eparate f rom t he n ext ( 33). T he B lesle D oors T he doors at B lesle r epeat t he l arge crosses of Chamaliäres with doubled cording. T he vertical batten i s c arved with the common r unning h alf-palmette s croll ( D7). T he border b rings a n ew motif to t he r ange o f t he atelier's r epertoire: the L abours o f t he Months a re f ramed i n the s paces o f a p air of bands t hat m eet i n i nterlace knots at i ntervals; t his h as an analogy i n t he A ljaferia and a gain i n E gypt i n a s ecular context ( 34). T he l ower p art o f t he door i s t oo weathered t o a llow any i dea of t he decoration. U nlike t he L e P uy d oors a ll t hese l atter three e xamp les c oncentrate the f ocus o f attention in the upper r egister, w ith t he cross, while t he l ower p art i s l ike a dado or h anging: t his approximates them to Andalusian compositions ( F5)(35). D iscussion o f the Workshop T he number o f motifs on t his s eries o f doors that are s imilar t o those used on Andalusian work in t he s ame l ow r elief t echnique i s too generalized and t oo integrated i nto the R omanesque repertoire to be explained a s t he r esult of t he i nfluence o f one individual's chance experience ( 36). T he Le Puy door h as a s impler c onstruction t han t he r est, i ts c omposition differs in being uniformly concentrated i n the manner of bronze d oors i n G ermany a nd I taly, a nd t he K ufic b order s ets i t apart. I ts main f ield with f igure s cenes i s s ubject to i nfluences o utside t hose h eld i n c ommon by t he g roup, but the manner of carving and the decorative e lements are t he s ame. I t i s a rguable that i t i s e arlier than t he r est, not that i t i s their model; the f our s ets of doors are better r egarded n ot a s t he u nique p roduct of a s ingle s timulus, but a s among t he f ew examples surviving f rom work i n an enduring t radition, which will h ave i ncluded n ot o nly many other variants o f door d ecoration with equally d ivergent t endencies c ontributed f rom d ifferent s ources,

7 0

but many o ther k inds of f urniture. T he c hoir s talls a t Y des ( Cantal) ( fig.104) i llustrate i ts persistence, p robably i nto post-mediaeval t imes. I t i s the most p lausible t o e nvisage the kind o f works hops proposed by C ahn ( 37): i ndependent o f t he b uilding s ites and manned by the versatile type o f craftsmen to whom T heophilus a ddressed h is t reatise ( 38); m en n ot y et s pec ialized i n a s ingle trade ( 39), but working i n a range o f t echniques a nd materials besides, a nd c omplementary t o, wood; for e xample, erecting c eilings, f orging the i ron for t he bars a nd nails n eeded f or doors a nd other s tructures, and a lso undertaking the f inishing i n i nlay, p lating or painting ( 40); r eady a lso to p roduce c ult objects i ncluding images, and furniture ( 41) and f ittings not necessarily ecc lesiastical ( 42). The group o f doors t aken a s a whole s uggests that the l ow-relief t echnique i nvolved i nitiation i nto an e stabl ished tradition o f basic designs that h ad continued l argely u nchanged f or c enturies a nd that this t radition, operating i n a wide a rea o f t he western Mediterranean, embraced s outhern F rance a nd Andalusia, t he i slands a nd A frican coast as well ( 43). P arallels

i n C atalunya

The e astern Pyrenees, described by Durliat a s the meeting p lace " of two milieux where a rtistic a ctivity h ad been particularly productive during the immediately pre-Romanesque p eriod", f orm a n odal p oint w ithin this a rea. B arcelona was t he f ocus o f t raffic both by l and and sea ( 44). The p olitical c oncerns of t he houses of B arcelona a nd T oulouse t o c ontrol the coastal c ities s how them working, on t he whole i n c oncert during t he h alf-century hinged on 1 100, to maintain a r egulated environment necessary f or commercial p rosperity. C atalunya i s a r egion r emarkable f or i ts abundance o f images, a ltar r etables and f rontals o f carved, g essoed a nd painted wood ( 45). L ike t he M assif C ent ral i t i s l argely a h ighland z one where both objects and traditions s urvive; moreover i t was h ere t hat t he s ame twop lane technique was u sed on t he e arliest o f a ll Romanesque f igure c arving on s tone, at S aint-Genis-des-Fontaines ( San G enis l es F onts) and S aint-Andre-de-Surede ( San Andres de S ureda), s oon a fter 1 020. At S an P ere d e Roda t he c apitals present a combination o f wood a nd m arble c arving t raditions. T here a re two d ist inct forms o f c apital: Corinthians f or t he vault a rches a nd smaller " plait c apitals" f or t he i ntermediary axial a rc ades. I t i s u sual t o r estrict r eferences t o Andalusian inf luence h ere s olely to t he f ormer. S an P ere i s m anifestly a point of contact o f two artistic traditions: i t i s the s outhernmost l ocation where t he n orthern " bretzel" f an s croll i s u sed i n interlace by s culptors, and one o f the northernmost where a M adinat a z-Zahra" s tyle of p lant d ecoration i s s till i n f ull sway, a nd where t he i diosyncracies

7 1

o f C ordoban c apital design a re u ndisguised. B ut t he meeting i s an i ntegration, and there i s n o b asis f or i solating the Andalusian e lements a nd l imiting t he i nfluence to o ne g roup o f c apitals, a s t hough they were extraneous to the general activity o f t he workshop. T here i s n o means o f d ifferentia ting an " Andalusian" h and f rom the r est: both types o f c apital, a nd a ll t he i mposts, s hare o ne s tyle and many d et ails o f decoration. T he c apitals o f R ipoll and Cornelha are unmistakably derived f rom C ordoban models. H ernandez ( 46) s hows t his i n t he form and motifs o f d ecoration; t his i s validated by s imilarities i n t he p rofiles of b ases. No o ne however h as observed that t he down-turned l eaf ( D16) u sed a s a v olute on t hese c apitals r eproduces exactly t he device worked out on corbels i n Andalusian decoration ( figs 2 0-26). T hen at S an P ere de Roda a f ew d ecades l ater t han the beginnings of t he R ipoll group o f c apitals ( 47) C ordoban acanthus a nd C arolingian interlace a re both subjected, o n the different c apitals, to i nnovations h eralding R omanesque t reatment of c apital design. The outcome o f t hese experiments i s m anif est q uite early at S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire ( fig.91), l ater at R odez, C onques ( fig.92), Moissac, a nd on t he a canthus c apitals o f L e P uy i tself ( 48). S cript-Scroll

Ambiguities

I n the s ame a rtistic milieu a s R oda, some o f the a ltar t ables f rom t he w orkshops o f N arbonne ( 49) are decorated b etween the hollowed l obes o f their b orders with a symmetric al s crolls ( D8); t heir r esemblance to units o f A rabic s cript may not be wholly f ortuitous. This i s not to a rgue an e xclusive d erivation o r p rime i nspiration f rom K ufic f or t hese motifs; e lements handed down over s everal centuries or copied f rom Merovingian s arcophagi a nd C arolingian manuscripts indeed may well h ave been the main source, but i n an area where Andalusia h ad b een p roviding t he chief i nt ellectual s timulus a s well a s the c hief c ommercial market f or a c entury a nd more i t i s o nly t o be e xpected t hat an awareness o f the peculiarities o f K ufic s cript s hould a ff ect t he choice o f j ust t hese f orms f rom among a ll t he s crolls available, and i nfluence t heir handling. T here i s an a nalogous r eflection o f t his device i n t he Mezquita, where voussoirs are c arved with a symmetrical b ranching s tems ( D10). These s crolls f oreshadow t he c onvol utions o f l ater f loriated K ufic, ( AHIII, f igs 1 24, 1 801 82)(50) which o ften in the 1 1th c entury d isguise the ins criptions to t he p oint where t hey a re a lmost beyond r ecogn ition a s writing ( AHIII, f igs 2 79d, 2 80, 2 86)(51). Y et another, perhaps often barely conscious ambiguity, i n a ddition t o more deliberate a nd p atent evocations o f Kufic or pseudo-Kufic l ettering o ccurs f or example i n C ordoba a long t he t op b order o f t he m ihrab p laques, a nd in both early and l ater Romanesque decoration, in the t reatment o f t he l ine o f l inked p almettes or " heart-and-dart"

7 2

motif ( D11) ( figs 1 9, 8 5, 9 4), s o t hat a l am-mim-aliph s eems to l urk b ehind i t. This i s a f requent motif on Romanesque i mposts i n n orth-west S pain a nd at T oulouse a nd Moissac; i ts o rigin was attributed by G aillard to an Andalusian a nd e specially a Mozarabic r eassemblage of acanthus and palmette s crolls, arising f rom d ividing the two halves of an a canthus l eaf a nd c ombining t hem anew ( 52).

St-Sever

Roda

F ez,MaZ

Cordoba

Mourens

MaZ

Cordoba

Rhedes

The imposts of S an P ere de Roda include examples o f a relatively neutral version o f this motif, b ut t he neutrality of the motif i s belied, f or other imposts, and even in s ome c ases other s tretches of one i mpost bearing this version, a re g iven over t o f reer s tem motifs executed in r efined chip c arving, a nd t he p lay with h ints o f K ufic i s g iven f ull r ange a s d ifferent possibilities are tested, combined a nd manipulated a lmost explicitly. That i t was not unknown f or the C hristian s culpture of the Mediterranean area in t he 1 0th c entury to d ecorate imposts w ith mockKufic is shown by t he c apitals at Hosios Loukos i n Phokis; there a lso masonry i s decorated w ith o ccasional c arved Kufic motifs ( 54). Explicit applications o f l am-aliph a s a border motif appear on s ome 1 2th century wall p aintings i n Catalunya ( fig.94). The

Röle o f Roofing The carpenters" workshop that l eft i ts t race i n S egovia at t he e nd of t he 1 1th c entury f ollowed a t radition rooted in the M ezquita and Madinat a z-Zahra", both in the construction a nd the decoration o f t he ceiling. T heir work i s especially valuable as s howing decoration l ess r ich and e laborate than what was r equired f or t he palaces of t he taifa kings, and so more t ypical o f t he general run o f workshops. Whereas the stone and p laster decoration o f o stentatious p alaces at M alaga, Z aragoza a nd B alaguer does not suggest a c lear s equence l eading f rom caliphal to Romanesque, t he s cattered remains o f r oof members i n wood a nd stone so far d iscussed ( wood f rom Granada, Malaga and Z aragoza a s well a s S egovia, a nd s tone corbels f rom T udela with their curls and f lat relief o f split palmettes, bosses and split s tems) bear witness to a s impler t radition i n both media; i t i s aspects o f this t radition that we f ind adopted i nto various aspects o f R omanesque decoration. The

7 3

c eiling at S egovia i s evidence t hat work o f b een g oing on a ll through t he 1 1th c entury.

this

k ind h ad

I n s o f ar a s t he Velay doors have a ffiliations t o t his t radition, much more i s i mplied than an o rigin f or t heir own decoration; t hey are evidence o f t he l ikely process of t ransmission f or many o f t he motifs a nd f eatures that h ave p resented the problem o f t he c hronological g ap between C ordoba a nd R omanesque. F or e xample a t imber workshop i nvolved i n c eiling and roofing work a s well a s, or perhaps e ven more t han, w ith d oors, s uggests i tself a s t he most l ikely agency r esponsible f or the transmission o f the roll c orbel f orm f rom 1 0th century A ndalusia i nto t he Auvergne a nd N ivernais, a t l atest e arly i n the 1 1th c entury. The c hain o f e vidence i s i ncomplete: t here a re n either wood n or s tone c orbels i n Catalunya, where t he f lat l ow-relief decoration generic t o woodwork i s e xemplified p articularly well in s tone and marble, but other e lements show how the i nterc hange o f motifs went o n. C orbels a re r are in t he V elay a lso. There are no c orbels o r c orbel tables on Le P uy c athedral ö r a ny o f t he buildings i n i ts v icinity which s hare many of i ts f eatures, but t his i s perhaps because they a ll n ow date, at l east a s f ar a s t heir r oofs a re c onc erned, to well t owards the mid-12th c entury or l ater. Le P uy Museum p reserves f or example ( fig.90) t he f ragments o f a s tone c orbel table: t here a re s offits c arved with s quare l eaf-crosses, l ike t hose e nclosed in m ixtilinear medallions on s offits at M adinat a z-Zahra" ( fig.20)(55) a nd on the Chamalieres door. T he c orbel i s c arved with a l ion h ead l ike those on Cordoban basins; i t s pits f oliage o f what at S an P ere d e R oda i s described a s t ype " phase 2 " ( 56). The c orbel t able must come f rom l ate-llth c entury roofing a t Le P uy, a nd f its well w ith t he wooden doors a s regards the s tyle of c arving o f the s offit a nd t he motif. At L e Monastier t oo B ousquet ( 57) h as s hown t here w ere c hanges o f design during t he l ate 1 1th - early 1 2th century building, a nd a gain d uring t he 1 2th c entury a nd l ater, which have r emoved t he o riginal roofing s cheme. The absence o f c orbels i n t he Velay r emains n onetheless r emarkable s ince in neighbouring Auvergne the c orbel t able remained s tandard w ell i nto t he 1 2th c entury. F lat Relief

and Chip C arving

The Andalusian work that h as b een mainly quoted above i n d iscussing t he Velay d oors a nd t heir associations: wooden c eilings and c orbels, t he s tone c orbels o f Madinat a z-Zahra" a nd t hose r eused f rom t he Mosque of T udela ( fig 4 5), s hows f lat r elief t echnique u sed on both wood and s tone in Andalusia. T he T udela p ieces compare c losely with s tone a nd marble work f rom M adinat a z-Zahra". No example o f wood has been f ound in t he p alace r uins, but the Mezquita c eiling f ragments d emonstrate t hat s implified versions o f t his s tone and marble c arving were applied to wood in c aliphal b uilding ( 58).

7 4

The c orbels at T udela are decorated, s ometimes on the s ame p iece ( B1, B 2) w ith b oth f lat r elief a nd t he f ine chip-carving so h ighly d eveloped at M adinat a z-Zahra"; the d ifference i s o ne o f d egree only. T he t wo methods a re f ound s ide by s ide again at S an P ere de Roda. S tone c arvers on t he whole f ound t heir g reatest s cope i n t he l atter s tyle, but two more Romanesque examples o f f lat r elief applied to an explicit K ufic motif s urvive i n F rance, o ne a t S aintP ierre-de-Rhedes a nd t he o ther at Moissac. The p seudo-Kufic inscriptions of t hese t wo monuments w ill n ow be examined a s f urther evidence o f t he Andalusian i nfluence a live in this s ame workshop t radition. S aint-Pierre-de-Rhedes The monolithic l intel o f the s outh door o f S aintP ierre ( figs 9 6,98)(59) near L amalou-les-Bains ( Herault) i s c arved with a r epeat l am-mim-aliph motif i n s hallow relief, s imilar t o.the mock inscription on t he L avoüte door, except that t he b ase o f t he m im i s r ectangular, n ot r ounded, and t he f leuron over i t r ises and f lares t o f orm an arch over t he s hafts, thus approximating t he motif t o a " heart-anddart" scroll. T he f oliation i s o f t he s ame t ype a s on the Lavo l ate door. T he " inscription" begins w ith t wo s hafts whereas t he motif on the Lavoüte door begins with one. D espite these m inor d ifferences t he t wo e xamples a re c losely related, a nd the s tyle o f carving i s t he s ame. In a ddition t o t his " inscription" t wo f urther f eatures, the encrusted decoration i n b lack basalt, and the twin c olumns o f t he i nterior ( F6), d eserve c onsideration. They are attributed by the a uthors o f L anguedoc r oman t o the example o f L e Puy. S aint-Pierre, they point out, i s s ituated o n a c ross r oads where t he r oute f rom A rles t o Toulouse meets t hat f rom Beziers t o C ahors v ia A lbi, or to Aurillac v ia R odez. T hese l ong-distance r outes f rom the coast i nland, a nd their s ignificance a s bearers o f " influence" i s r ightly s tressed h ere, but t he d irection f rom which these f eatures t ravelled may be debated. The b asalt i s f ound l ocally, a nd i s employed t o embell ish the arches o f doors and windows on a number o f Romanesque c hurches round B eziers ( 60). Twin columns are not unknown i n t he v icinity o f S aintP ierre, a nd a re f requent in t he R ouergue; t he double l ine o f voussoirs r ound the windows that r ecurs at Q uarante and other buildings i n t he a rea makes a l ink with t he g roup o f small churches i n the Aragon h ighlands ( 61), where openings mostly r ecessed i nside rectangular f rames a re s imilarly t reated, a nd where twin columns abound. At one s uch, S an J uan de B usa, t he door a rchivolt decoration even perhaps a lso makes a r eference t o Kufic ( fig.172).

7 5

Another Andalusian f eature at S aint-Pierre i s t he ecc entric archivolts o f t he o penings o n t he s outh f ront, i nc luding the doorway, again a characteristic o f the r egion, described a s " Lombard" ( 62) a nd at S aint-Pierre a ssociated with L ombard b ands. A ll t hese f eatures, and t he r ectangular-section r ibs o f t he apse, appearing on a m inor m onument l ike S aintP ierre, built s ome t ime during the f irst h alf of t he 1 2th c entury, b ear witness t o t he k ind o f " broadly s hared s ystem o f f ormal c onventions" i nvoked by C ahn; they s how Andalus ian e lements p laying an i ntegral p art, not o nly f or c rafts accessory t o architecture, but for t he detailing o f architecture i tself. Textiles and Woodwork The l onga nd medium-distance t rade r outes t hat crossed the L anguedoc f acilitated communication b etween c raftsmen a nd thus fostered t he continuity o f t raditions w ithin the w ide area they s panned, f rom Andalusia t o A uvergne, which manifestly existed a lready i n t he 1 0th century. T extiles, p laying a major r ole i n e stablishing a nd c onfirming what was a cceptable in decoration o f a ll k inds, bulked l arge i n this t rade, and t he markets a nd l ooms o f Andalusia ( 63) continued to s upply a considerable s hare o f i t. T he c hurch t reasures o f the Auvergne s till p reserve r ich examples o f t hese c loths, and they were c opied by image-makers ( 64) h ere, a s they were in C atalunya. T he l oin-cloth o f t he C hrist o n t he wooden C rucifix a t L avoüte, the s leeves o f t he V irgin o f Le P uy, t he c ushion o f t he r eliquary i mage o f t he V irgin at O rcival ( 65) a re e ach d ecorated with a border o f pseudo-Kufic. These a re e xplicitly c opies o f t extiles, n ot an " Islamic i nfluence" on t he s tyle o f t he s culptor o r painter, but they c onfirm a f amiliarity w ith Kufic motifs a s part o f the c raftsman's s tock-in-trade. The s hrine o f B ishop U lger i n t he C athedral T reasury at A ngers ( 66) a nd t he t hrone of t he Madonna f rom Ayl, in T rier Episcopal Museum, are r are s urvivals of Romanesque woodwork; t hey a re quoted by C ahn ( 67) t o a ssociate w ith " Gauzfredus' i diosyncratic s tyle". T wo f urther examples can be q uoted. T he c hurch b ench f rom Taüll in B arcelona M useum f igs 1 00-101 b ears s triking witness t o the r ole of woodworking in f using Andalusian a nd Christian e lements. That i t was no e xotic s ingleton i s v ouched f or by t he e xist ence o f f ragments o f s imilar work ( figs 1 02,103)(68) in the area. At Ydes in t he C antal the d ecoration of the c hoir s talls ( fig.104), o f unknown date b ut c ertainly R omanesque t radition, s hows this f usion was n ot j ust due t o the f rontier p osition o f C atalunya: t hese s talls t oo h ave s lender columns ( F8), angle columns, l obed arches ( F21), l attice work a nd rosettes ( D15), a nd even a h int at r oll c orbels ( F1). S lender c olumns, l obed arches and rosettes a re f ound, c arved i n s tone, a t Moissac a lso, but earlier t han the porch and doorway where whey appear i s the mockK ufic i nscription i n t he c loister.

7 6

T he Mock-Kufic

I nscription at Moissac

( 69)

C apital No 5 0 i n t he c loister i s a double c apital w ith a s ingle pyramidal z one f laring t o t he volutes, and i n the c entre t o a t hick o ut-turned a canthus l eaf t ip ( F3) ( figs 1 05-109). T he volutes e xtend f rom b ehind t his l eaf, w ith a s triated s upport o f the volute s tem characteristic o f a n umber of c apitals i n t he c loister, a nd a lmost e xclusive t o i t ( 70). T he whole bell i s decorated with an a ll-over l inked s croll motif ( "Moissac s croll type 1 "): a c urled f our-leafed half-palmette ( D5) enclosed in a n a lmost c ircul ar ring o f t he s tem. This s tem b ranches f rom a v ertical t runk, c reating w ider c ircles a s t he surface expands upwards. The t wo l onger f olioles of t he p almette l eaf e ntwine t he stem f rom behind to l ap over t he f ront o f the s croll. T he f olioles are r idged a nd grooved a long t he a xis, l ike t he stems, and i n a ddition are hatched obliquely. T he s ame f eathery f ronds a re c arved on t he walls o f t he t riangular c left between the twinned capitals. The s croll c ould b e des cribed a s a f usion o f t he p almette s crolls o f S aint-Benoit with the more i ntricate and dynamic s crollwork o f Andalus ia, s uch a s t he w ooden c orbel f ig. 1 10 i n T oledo Museum. T he

I mpost.

O n t he impost the s croll i s repeated on the oblique f aces as a n undulating s tem f rom c orner to corner, b ranchi ng to f ill each c ircular undulation with a half-palmette; at t he c entre it i s interlaced w ith a nother s tem that f orms two s crolls f lanking the i nterlace. These s eparate stems a re on t he l ong s ides o f t he i mpost, on t he s hort t he f inal s crolls of stems l eaving the c orners are bound t ogether a symmetrically where t wo a nd three s tems meet. Curled tend rils f ill s pandrels at the branchings, and above and below t he i nterlace on t he l ong s ides, t he b inding on t he s hort. T he t ips o f these tendrils a re f inely c urled, i n a s tyle r eminiscent of i vory carving a nd p articularly o f t he 1 063 L eön Cross of F erdinand and S ancha ( fig.111)(71), and o f s crolls on c apitals and specially imposts at S antiago ( 72), which provide a possible s tone p rototype. The arrangement o f t he c ircular s crolls on the short s ides of t he c apital 5 0 impost f oreshadows t he a symmetry o f t he great rosette s croll on the l intel o f Moissac doorway ( fig.112). T he a ffiliations o f t he i mpost s croll w ill b e t raced a fter a d iscussion o f the vertical f aces o f t he impost. T he Kufic

I nscription

I nscriptions i n Kufic l ettering, generally c onsidered meaningless, a re c arved on t he vertical f aces o f t he i mpost ( 73), in a relief s imilar t o the carving on the Velay doors; t he " wording" i s d ifferent on e ach f ace.

s ince

The s outh f ace ( fig.108), it f aces t he open c ourt,

7 7

naturally most weathered s eems even d iscounting t his

weathering t o be t he l east f inely t reated. T owards e ither e nd the monotony o f a l am-aliph repeat i s broken by a s lopi ng shaft ( kaf?), on t he r ight a fter one pair of s hafts, on t he l eft a fter two, corresponding t o the t hree s crolls o f t he l eft-hand s tem c ompared t o t he t wo on t he r ight on t he o blique f ace b elow. The west f ace i nscription ( figs 1 05-6) i s s imilar, but i n addition t he f illet below the l etters i s notched under e ach p air o f shafts. T here a re e ight pairs b etween t he s loping shafts a s c ompared with f ive on the shorter south f ace, a nd a gain two beyond t he " kaf" on t he l eft, t wo on t he r ight: there i s no c orrespondence w ith t he s crolls, which here are s ymmetrical. O n t he east ( fig.107) t he characters are l ess unif ormly arranged a nd l ook most l ike a genuine i nscription. T he notches b elow a re more i ntegrated i nto t he s haping o f t he l etters, the l ine of t he f illet c urves up to c orrespond t o t hem. O n the north f ace ( fig.109) i s a broader, more f ormali zed symmetrical a rrangement approximating t o a l eaf border motif, b ased on a l am-aliph enclosing a m im, ' ain or s ad ( 74) b etween a d ivergent l am-aliph. The r esult i s very c lose to t he " heart-and-dart" motif used i n t he M ezquita f or a border on the Chocolate Door ( AHIII f ig.194)(75), pointing the argument f or connecting debased K ufic with that motif ( AHIII, f ig. 1 93) i n l ess obvious contexts than o n this impost. T he Style of L ettering O n a ll f our f aces the style o f t he l etters i s consist ent. They have much i n c ommon with t he i nscription on the L e P uy doors and with Andalusian woodwork i nscriptions and c arving, b ut they a re not f ully f oliated: t he a dditional c urls at the base o f each l etter c an be i nterpreted a s the Moissac master's own i nterpretation o f f oliation. B ut this l ettering has a peculiarity: the wedge-shaped hollow a t the widened t op of t he s hafts, which i s h ighly u nusual. There a re analogies, r are and precisely confined. T here appear to be no e xamples f rom I ran, S yria, E gypt or N orth A frica ( 76), but there are s everal in Andalusia. Andalusian Examples o f Wedge-shaped H ollows The ivory casket EK E lf No 3 2 ( No 3 68-1880 in t he Victoria & A lbert Museum) h as a n inscription with s ome b ut not a ll o f t he shafts c left w ith a l ine, a nd occasional s hafts with a wedge-shaped hollow at the t op ( 77). The casket in t he B argello Museum i n F lorence EK E lf 3 4 ( AHIII, f ig. 3 66)(78) i s i nscribed i n r elief w ith l etters w ith a c onsistent c entral g roove, expanded at t he t op o f shafts to a wedge. T he f ormer c asket i s dated 9 69/970, t he l atter, undated, i s by analogy with others a f ew decades l ater. No monumental epigraphy i s known b earing this peculiarity bef ore the appearance of a group o f inscriptions in Toledo o f

7 8

t he s econd a re: 1 . 2 . 3 .

t hird o f t he

I lth c entury.

Examples

so f ar noted

A well-head dated 4 23H/AD 1 032 ( fig. 7 1)(79) A well-head dated 4 29H/AD 1 037/38 ( fig.113)(80) A brick t omb-slab c .AD 1 040 ( fig.71a; AHIII, f ig. 2 74) 4 . A marble funeral s tele 4 47H/AD 1 055 ( 81) 5 . A f uneral i nscription on brick 4 65H/AD 1 073 ( 82) T hese a ll in Toledo; a lso 6 . A p laster f rieze i n the S alon de l a Chimenea i n t he A ljaferia ( AHIII, f ig. 2 86) 7 . ? The d ado at T arifa drawn by G omez-Moreno ( AHIII f ig. 3 09). B oth well-heads were c ommissioned by t he s ame prince, t he f irst of t he B anu D u'n N un dynasty o f T oledo. T he t omb s lab inscription ( No 3 ) i s i nterlaced with a f oliage s tem a nd h as a r ow o f b eading a bove. The s hafts of t he l ettering o f the f uneral s tele are grooved rather t han l ooped i nto a w edge at t he t op. T he Z aragoza f rieze i nscription i s l ikew ise i nterlaced w ith coiling f oliage s tems; there are t ria ngular c avities at t he t op o f t he s hafts, b ut t he s tyle o f e pigraphy i s f iner and l ess l ike t he Moissac example than a re t he T oledo i nscriptions on s tone a nd b rick. S ome k nowle dge in Moissac o f T oledan monuments must be a ssumed. The e nrolment o f t he monk G erald f rom Moissac by B ernard Archb ishop o f Toledo i n 1 096 ( 83) i s the only occasion r ecorded o f a direct c ontact b etween Moissac a nd T oledo, but t he f eatures t hat make t he c loister c apitals ( with s ome f rom L a D aurade a nd a f ew at S aint-Gaudens) u nique i n R omanesque s culpture show t hat a rtistic relations with Spain were c lose. T he Capital

5 0

S croll

and variants.

That this " Kufic" impost i s i ntimately r elated to much o f t he s culpture i n t he c loister a nd c annot be a ttributed a s a s ingleton t o t he contribution of a passing v isitor i s manifest by t he f requency e lsewhere in t he c loister of t he a ssociated s croll, and t he chain o f interconnexions thereby c reated, particularly f rom t hree other f eatures o f the c api tal: the r ibbed volute-stem s upports, t he hollowed d ouble f lower under t he consoles, and the over-all f laring s hape; a ll o f t hese a re p revalent t hroughout t he c loister. The s croll i s used again on t he impost o f c apital 6 3 ( fig.115), an u ncompromising f igure c apital with no addit ional decoration: there are men b lowing horns at t he c orn ers, distinctive c aulicoles with t he s nailshell f orm f am iliar at F römista and L eön ( 84) but unusual at Moissac, a nd beneath them t he c rossbowmen who a lso f igure at Leön, S antiago and J aca, with t he bolts held in their t eeth. The t endrils b etween t he s croll c ircles are absent b ut t he t ria ngular bud between them r emains. On i mpost 1 6 over t he T ransfiguration a nd D escent f rom t he Mountain ( fig.116) t he s crolls a re paired, a nd t he a r-

7 9

rangement s ymmetrical, a nd b etween t he p airs h angs a l eaf f ormed o f half-palmettes ( D6) f rom e ither s ide. O n the v ert ical f aces a band o f s emi-circles i s c arved in a r elief s imilar to t he l obed a rch o f c apital 1 7 ( fig 1 94). A v ariant o f t his s croll ( "Moissac s croll type 2 "), where the folioles have become t he l ooped stem i tself, c ove rs c apital 5 5 in an a ll-over p attern i n the s ame s cheme a s c apital 5 0, c reated by t he s tem movements f rom a c entral t runk, but with l ess c larity o f t he l arger d esign ( fig.117). T he f orm o f the capital, o n a s ingle column, i s t he s ame i n profile but i s f acetted with a projecting a ngle down t he c entre of e ach f ace, whereas c apital 5 0 i s d ivided f or the t wo columns and f lat. T he volute and its stems and t he double f lower u nder t he console a re t he s ame. T he impost u ses t he s ame s tem t o enclose paired l eaves w ith deeply e xcavated centres, a r efinement of an i mpost m otif f amiliar i n S pain, particularly L eön, where i t u sually h as a s ingle l eaf ( 85). The t endril a nd s triated bud m otif between the s crolls i s i dentical w ith t hat o n capital 5 0.

C ordoba

T oledo

T udela

B alaguer ( after G . E wert) 8 0

T he version o f t he s croll executed on c apital 5 5 a lso decorates t he imposts o f c apitals 2 8 a nd 3 2 ( fig.118, 1 19); t he f ormer h as a m otif o f monsters c lutching a h uman h ead, c urrent s ince e arly i n t he 1 1th c entury i n t he c rypt o f S aint-Benigne i n D ijon a nd at B ernay, and well-known a t S aint-Sernin i n T oulouse f rom the workshop o f the master o f t he P orte d es C omtes ( 86). O n i mpost 2 8 t he s croll s tem i s c ontinuous across t he f ace, not i n two parts as o n capital 5 0, a nd b etween t he s crolls t he t endrils h ave d isappeared. O n impost 3 2 t he t endrils between the scrolls are i dentical w ith t hose on impost 5 0, b ut t he f eathery t riangle h as gone a nd the s crolls a re a rranged symmetrically, meeting a t the c entre. F urther Comparisons,

and A ffiliations o f

the

S croll

T he c urled l eaf unit ( D5) o f t he c apital 5 0 s croll m ight be t hought t oo e lementary a motif t o s ignify a ny d ir ection o f s tylistic d irection or influence, but i t has a r ecognizable i dentity a nd t he a ccumulation o f a ssociations s urounding i ts variants has a s trong b ias t owards S pain; t his makes i t u nlikely t hat a ll t he wealth o f d ecorative s croll work o f Andalusia with s imilar motifs s hould h ave p layed no p art i n i ts g enesis. This ancestry may be t raced back t o the marble p anels o f t he mihrab o f S idi Oqba"s mosque i n Q airawan which i nclude a s ection with analogous s crolls w ith double l eaves. A motif e ven c loser to t he Moissac s croll i s r ep eated at Q airawan four t imes round a medallion grille i n t he courtyard ( fig.66) ( 87) and on w indow g rilles. At Cordoba t he motif makes i ts i llustrious debut o n t he l ooped s tem c aulicoles o f one of t he p airs o f c apitals f lanking t he mihrab ( fig.4); and on t he mihrab p laques the p endant " shell" o f the s imulated roll c orbels i s presented a s a curled l eaf ( fig.19). This i s emulated at Madinat a zZ ahra" ( AHIII, f ig. 2 08). A f ew c apitals f rom C ordoba ( 88) a lso have volutes f illed with a s imilar l eaf ( fig.130). On t he corbels o f t he Mosque o f T udela t he c urled l eaf motif i s transferred f rom the f illing to t he rolls thems elves ( 89). I n Andalusian decoration o f t he 1 0th century, and o f t he 1 1th, no examples survive o f t his particular l eaf enc losed in the many variants o f r unning s crolls; digitated palm f ronds or r osettes are preferred ( e.g. AHIII, f igs 2 71b,c; 2 72; 2 73c,d; 2 86; 2 91; 2 91b,c), b ut i t i s a very s hort step to r ecombine t hese e lements ( half-palmette, split s tem, v olute, " shell" c urled l eaf) i nto t he v ersions o f Romanesque r unning s crolls: the l eaves contained i n Andalusian c orbel r olls or c apital volutes a re t ransposed b ack inside continuous s tems; the shell or down-turned l eaf o f C ordoban volutes i s s ometimes r estored to a half-palmette or more o pen l eaf, a s at Nogäl ( figs 4 2, 1 20) and

8 1

F römista ( figs 1 21, 1 22), L oarre ( fig.126), S aint-Benoit ( 127), or added b alls or f ruits. At B ayeux the volute s tem ( fig. 1 24).

C orbel MaZ

P anel T o

I mpost Moissac

( fig.123), t he Agenais C onques ( fig.92) w ith t he s crolls s prout f rom

I mpost Moissac

I mpost Conques

Mozarabic P arallels C hancel p laques i n Mozarabic churches s how several a sp ects o f t he s croll t radition that c ulminated i n t he Moissac c loister capital s crolls. A p laque at S anta C oloma i n N avarre ( 90) with p atently Andalusian l eaf f orms a nd a ll ied to the woodworking s tyle s ignifies a s tage i n the anc estry o f t he s crolls o f F römista a nd N ogäl; these i n t urn c an be s een a s the d irect t ypological precursors o f the Moissac s crolls. At S an M iguel de E scalada t he panel c arvi ngs o f c laustra have a nother v ersion o f the incurled l eaf s croll ( 91). T he l ikelihood of i mmediate l inks i s s trong i n t his i nstance s ince the s hape o f some E scalada capitals i s c lose to t he u nusual w ide-flaring f orm of Moissac, a nd f urthermore there are striations on volute s tems ( 92). T he t endrils o f t he animal f rieze i n t he c hoir ( 93) are o f t he s ame t ype a s t hose much employed at S antiago on imposts a nd a ssociated with the Moissac s crolls o f c apitals 1 6, 5 0, 5 5, a nd 6 3, ( but not 2 8). S panish Romanesque

S crolls

S imple a ll-over r unning s crolls containing s ingle curled l eaves d ecorate c apitals at both N ogäl a nd F römista(94). I n each c ase the l eaf i s veined and s lightly hollowed at t he c entre, more modelled t han Moissac type 1 , but certainly r elated t o i t. F römista. At S an Martin these s crolls o ccur o n imposts and once as the main motif on a capital ( here very s imilar to Moissac: t he f olioles do not o verlap b ut a re n ot wholly i ns ide the c ircles). The axial-grooved vertical volute s tems a re o f t he type s hared w ith E scalada, T ournus, I guäcel, J aca and Loarre ( 95). T he s crolls are u sed again a s a background f or confronted a nd f rontal e agles o n t he c apital with volutes decorated with c urls, a nd t here are a lso c ruder v ersions l ess r elevant to t he evolution o f t he Moissac examples ( 96). Nogäl. At Nogäl only t he two c apitals o f the t riumphal a rch s urvive, and both are decorated with the s croll. A s at F römista t he f olioles a re c ut o ff by t he s urrounding s tem, while the Moissac master will bring them r ound t o overlap i t in emulation o f t he S aint-Benoit porch s croll ( fig.127).

8 2

V eining a nd following i n b oth c ases s how t he beginnings e mancipation f rom the two-plane woodworking s tyle.

o f

T he " piton d angle", t he horn-shaped protuberance c haracteristic o f S antiago and J aca, p rojects under the vol utes ( 97). O n t he s outh c apital t he s croll i s t he main mot if, the i mpost h aving a r ow o f c ircles ( fig.120, and c f f igs 1 31 a nd 2 2) e nclosing s even-petalled rosettes ( cap .66 ) ( D15), much i n t he woodworking s tyle: t he c ircles are s quare i n s ection, a nd s eparated by f leurs-de-lis. T he cons ole i s f ramed by l ittle stems swelling i nto half-palmette l eaves i n r elief l ike o ne o f t he c onstitutive e lements o f f loriated K ufic ( AHIII,fig.145), a nd c onstant in Andalusian w oodwork ( 98) o r c hip carving. The north N ogäl c apital a lso h as t he " piton", and fol iage in r elief f raming t he c onsole on t he f ace; b elow t he c onsole and b etween the grooved volutes s tands a f rontal f igure. T he impost i s carved w ith an i nterlaced double p almette running s croll ( D7). The palmettes are veined l ike t he l eaves of t he s croll on t he c apital, a nd t he curl o f t he f irst f olioles against the s tem i s excavated with a r ound drill h ole, a s a re t he s crolls on t he c apital. This i s the s tandard p ractice i n Andalusia, f or example i n the c hip c arving of M adinat a z-Zahra" ( AHIII, f igs 1 13, 1 15, 1 24, 2 44c) a nd a t S an P ere de Roda ( 99). T hough t his palm ette scroll motif i s c ertainly not exclusive to Andalusia ( 100), i t was c urrent i n Andalusian woodwork and t he vers ion at Nogäl with i ts r ectangular s ection stem and twop lane r elief i s s trongly s uggestive o f wood-carving, a s a c omparison with t he motif on t he doors o f L e P uy and C hamaliäres c an s how ( 101). As an i mpost motif it i s n ot ably rare both i n Andalusia and F rance; examples in a s imi lar s tyle ( fig.43)(102) have a lready been mentioned i n C hapter I I(p .27) T he

Standing F rontal

F igure

D istinctive i n i ts s tance and robed i n l ooped f olds, g enerally b areheaded, t his f igure i s f requent in early R om anesque s culpture r epresenting Christ, or D aniel, angel, s aint or b ishop. The N ogäl b ishop i s v ery l ike t he f igure o n two capitals a t T oulouse: o ne i s in the south transept t riforium o n a d ouble c apital, a gainst a s imilar s croll p attern i n deeper r elief than at Nogäl. On this capital the v olute s tems a re l ike t hose of t he F römista s croll c apital f ig.121, and s nail-shell or corkscrew ( 103) protuberances p roject below t he volutes. The c apital i s described by L yman, Durliat a nd M oralejo-Alvarez a like ( 104) a s " Spanish". The s ame f igure i solated against an undecorated b ackground i s c arved on t he c apital of t he c entral p ier o f t he south transept at Toulouse ( 105). At Moissac the f igure i s u sed to r epresent B ishop F ructuosus on c apital 3 7 in t he c loister, in the M artyrdom o f the Three Spanish S aints.

8 3

A t Loarre t here are s everal versions, but not a ssociated w ith c ircular running s crolls ( 106), which a re r es tricted to one apse c apital c arved w ith overall Moissac type 2 ( fig.123). T he f igure i s made t o s erve, among o ther avatars too weathered t o d istinguish, a s a n angel, a nd i s f lanked by other f rontal f igures, by r iders or by l ions, and one s tands on a corner under devouring monsters. The Daniel b etween l ions ( fig.133) may b e s eated a nd h as l ost the distinctive l ooped garment; h e r emains s imilar t o the rest n onetheless. At S aint-Sever-des-Landes t he D aniel on a capital in the i ntermediary s outhern c hapel h as t he s tance of o ur motif but t he draped f olds h ave gone a nd a b ordered t riangular overgarment i s s ubstituted ( 107). At S aint Eu t rope i n S aintes t he t ransept c apital w ith a s eated D aniel b etween superposed l ions i s s imilar i n composition; i t has s crolls o f c ircular s tems c ontaining i ncurled l eaves D 4 at e ither s ide ( Saintonge Romane, f ig.14). I n the t ower-porch o f S aint-Benoit, S t Martin, l ike the S aint-Sever D aniel, wears a pointed dalmatic, h eld a t t he neck with a b rooch ( fig.57), r ather t han t he u ncut chasuble, but the stance i s f rontal and the f olds symmetric al, a nd t he running s croll behind h im on t he mandorla evokes a comparison with Nogäl, especially a s i t i s i n twop lane r elief. T he c apital with t he R isen C hrist f rom B ayeux cathedral ( fig 1 24) a ssociates the f rontal f igure, not symmetrically robed, with c urled l eaf s crolls branching f rom t he v olute s tems. T he t echnique w ith f lat r ectangulars ection bands once a gain evokes woodworking. An early e xample o f t he motif i s on c apitals a t S an M iguel de F luviä i n C atalunya ( figs.134+6)(109). T he imposts have running wave-palmette s crolls very s imilar t o p arts o f t he corbel t able cornice on the tower o f S aintH ilaire i n P oitiers, and in t his l ocation and at t his date s uch a s croll i s u nlikely to be i ndependent o f Andalusian models. The Museum in Z aragoza has r ecently acquired a p lain-leaf c apital f rom excavations i n t he S eo which i s carved on the s ide with t his s croll: i t has on the c onsole an i nterlace cross l ike those on t he B lesle doors. The l eaves o f t he s croll i n each o f t hese c ases i s excavated with t riangular a nd wedge-shaped h ollows in t he s ame w ay a s the l etters o f t he Moissac impost i nscription and l eaves on Roda i mposts. T he volutes at F luviä a re g rooved a nd r ise vertically a s at Nogäl, Frömista and L oarre; t he l arge l eaf sweeping i n a nd d own f rom t he volute i s a lso repeated a t Loarre ( D16)(110). The collarette o f a canthus behind which t he f igure s tands h as e lements of Mozarabic-style f oliage i n the grooved f leshy t ips ( F3), and the c entral v eins i nterpreted a s spiral c olumns a re a nother Andalusian a nd Mozarab f eature ( 111). L oarre At Loarre t he c apital 2 Moissac s croll combines

o f the apse a rcade with t he type i t with h alf-palmette u nenclosed

8 4

l eaves ( D4) a nd hollowed l eaf s crolls with c urled tendrils; t he f orm h as f laring f leshy acanthus ( F3) i n two z ones. The c hevron bindings a re a t rait c haracteristic of t he early p arts of S aint-Sernin; they a lso o ccur at J aca ( 112) and a re a lready s uggested on t he " lintel" o f S aint-Genis d es F ontaines. Andalusian decoration provides a s ource f or many o f t he motifs associated w ith t he s econd Moissac s croll t ype o n t he Loarre c apital: the c omposite rosette ( D10), the s crolls on t he v olute s tem ( scroll corbels) a nd t he h oll owed l eaf s croll ( D4) o f t he bottom register. The corbels f rom t he mosque o f T udela i n p articular provide a n umber o f p arallels which a re more immediately apparent f rom their f latter, l ess modelled t echnique ( closer t o woodworking) t han f undamentally s imilar examples f rom C ordoba, T oledo a nd Z aragoza ( AHIII, f igs 1 09, 1 10, 2 08, 2 09, 2 70c, 2 76; 2 79a,d). A model for the running s croll i tself can be extrapol ated f rom c orbels at T udela ( 113) ( B7, B 8, B 9): t he b ackt o-back half-palmettes ( D6) f rom B ll or A6; t he chevron sequence on B ll i s a f orerunner o f t he t riple chevron b inders whose Romanesque beginnings go back at l east to t he l intel o f S aint-Genis. B l h as a f lower-cross r osette ( D10) c omposed o f f leurs-de-lis. T he emphasis on a vertical axis o f t he stem a nd t he f leshy acanthus t ips of t he L oarre c apital both are f eatures o f c apitals i n t he A ljaferia ( AHIII, f ig. 2 80). I f Loarre was f inished not l ong a fter 1 080, which the h istorical r ecord i nsistently u rges ( 114), t his c apital i s a t l east c ontemporary w ith T oulouse and represents a part o f t he process o f a ssimilation o f Andalusian e lements i nto a developing Romanesque s tyle. L oarre had c lose r elations with T oulouse a s i ts c orbels s how; other c apitals at L oarre s how r elations w ith C onques ( the angel head motif on imposts), F römista, J aca a nd I guäcel; r elations with M uslim a nd Mozarabic H uesca, s ome 3 0 kms down the valley, might well b e e qually a ble to e xplain t he Andalusian e lements i n t he s culpture, were any o f H uesca's pre-reconquista monuments remaining ( 115). C onques I nvestigations into the f abric o f t he chevet and t ransepts o f S ainte-Foy at Conques made r ecently by C hristopher B ailey, not y et published, g ive s trong e vidence t hat both n orth a nd s outh t ransept doors ( figs 1 25, 1 32) belong to t he f irst c ampaign, b egun b etween 1 041 a nd 1 050 ( 116) and e nded n ot very l ong a fter the death of Abbot O dolric i n 1 065. I t h as a lways b een agreed t hat t he s ands tone capitals o f the north transept door b elong t o t hat c ampaign, b ut t he l imestone decoration o f t he s outh door h as until now b een dated l ater. The corbel table, l ike the a rch o f t he doorway, i s m asked by t he s outh a isle a nd must

8 5

t herefore, w ith t he c apitals, b e p art of a n e arlier c ampaign. I t i s unusual i n having a d ecorated cornice; the c losest parallel i s a t S aint-Hilaire i n P oitiers. T hough r estored, some parts remain t o vouch f or t he authenticity o f t he decoration; t he s croll o f t he metopes ( D5) i s t herefore to be i ncluded i n the a ncestry o f the Moissac running s crolls. The rosette c ircles o f the soffits resemble t he i mpost r osettes o f N ogäl; t he impost o f c apital 6 6 at Moissac h as s imilar rosettes. The metope s crolls have something o f s tiff Mozarabic l eaf s crolls, l ike t he E scalada p anel ( AHIII, f ig. 4 37), but t he s harp angles b etween t he l eaves a re a lso not unlike the Frömista s crolls a nd the t refoils at t he f orks a re t hose of N ogäl, Frömista a nd Tudela ( 117). The inner capitals on the doorway have i ncurled h alfpalmette l eaf s crolls ( D7), v ey l ike Moissac type 1 , drilled at t he i nmost curl, p laced h ere and there among the pendant g lobular f ruit under t he acanthus t ips, a nd on t he i mpost t he s ame s croll s upports the balls known at S aintS ernin i n T oulouse, i n G ascony a nd i n S pain. O n t he a dj oining impost, over a c apital with a f an-knot i nterlace, a nd l eaves f ramed i n a rches, t he b alls a re reduced to s wellings on a foliole. H ere a re s uggestions f or both types o f M oissac s croll. T he t ype 2 motif l ater c ame back to C onques again f rom Moissac: f rom C onques c loister the f antast ic headless bird motif owes a s much t o t he Moissac r efinement o f the scroll a s t o t he b ird motif i tself ( fig.135).

'a n t iago

° B raga O v iedo° °T ou r s

° Le c in a mo ra

0S a in tes

0 Noga l °F rö r n isa

B o rdeaux

° Bu rgos

°L imoges

A v i la ° 0S egov ia

° T o ledo

0P amp lona

° A t ienza

Z a ragoza

0B oy rges (0L a C ha r i te ° Neve rs

0 StSeve r

00 Io ron , ; . i s sac 0C aho r s T ou rnus 0J aca C onquoe s . 2 0 ° a rm _ °A uch L i v o ü t e -91c / -- C l uny l ie res H uesca " ;, -- "- - 0T ou louse B l es le° :Chama L e fyy Yon o T aü l l ° S t .P i e r re d eR hede

T ude la

0L e r ida V a lenc ia 0

0

° Po i t ier s

l ‘ la rbonne 00B ez ie r s ‚A r les A ° Mon tpe l l ie r 0R IP2 1

T a r ragona 0 , Ba rce lona

86

S .P e re d eR oda

CHAPTER

I II

NOTES

1 . K . E rdmann, ' Arabische S chriftszeichen a ls O rnament i n d er Abendländischen K unst des M ittelalters' Ak. Wiss. L it. G eistes u . S oz. W iss. K .9, 1 953 ( Mainz), f or the 1 1th c entury l ists o nly the p age o f t he S aint-Sever Apocalypse w ith a mock-Kufic border ( Paris B .N.lat. 8 878, f ol.1, i llustrated by J . E bersolt, O rient und O ccident, B erlin 1 928, p l. XXVI a nd C ahn, D oors, f ig. 1 0) . H e does not i nclude the l ines o f K ufic copied, i t would s eem f rom metalwork, by A dhemar d e C habannes i n h is n otebook ( University of L eyden L ibrary, Voss 8 o 1 5, i llustrated by D . G aborit-Chopin, L a d ecoration d es manuscrits ä S aintM artial de L imoges et en L imousin, P aris/Geneva, 1 969; i d., ' Les d essins d 'Adhemar de Chabannes' B ull.Arch. 1 967, pp. 2 13 f f). E rdmann's l ist f or t he 1 2th c entury i ncludes t he B ourges p laque i nscribed round t he border i n what i s now t hought to ' be A rmenian, a nd an impost b lock " in T oulouse M useum" which i s not t o be f ound anywhere i n T oulouse and i s c learly the i tem he l ists n ext b ut d oes not i llustrate: t he impost in Moissac c loister. T his erroneous attribution i s r epeated by S .D. Spittle, ' Cufic L ettering a nd Christian A rt', Arch.J. 1 954-55, and by W . C ahn i n h is admirable s tudy The Romanesque Wooden Doors o f Auvergne, N .Y. 1 974 ( hereafter, Doors), l eading the l atter author t o exaggerate t he extent o f explicit imitation of K ufic on architectural e lements ( he s peaks pp 1 7-18 o f " a t rue v ogue...in A quitaine and Languedoc"). 2 . Both doors a re exhaustively s tudied by W .Cahn, D oors, w ith f ull descriptions, i llustration and d iscussion which h as s timulated many i deas i n t his c hapter, a s will be e vident. 3 .The Moissac c loister c apitals are here numbered according t o current practice, anti-clockwise, s tarting a long t he s outh gallery at t he modern entrance; c f. M . S chapiro, " The R omanesque S culpture o f M oissac", AB I II, 1 931; M . V idal, Q uercy r oman. This n umbering d iffers f rom t hat o f E . R upin, L 'Abbaye et l es c loitres de Moissac, 1 897, r epr.Treignac, 1 981, which nonetheless r emains the standard monograph. 4 . I am much i ndebted to H umbert J acomet, o f t he C aisse N ationale des Monuments h istoriques et des S ites, who told m e of this d oorway a nd g ave me t he r eference to L . S errano, H istoria d e l a V illa d e Atienza, Madrid 1 945. 5 . G . Margais, " Sur l 'inscription arabe de l a C athedrale d u P uy", Melanges... Margais, 1 957: o nly f uneral s teles o f a bout 1 025 in Q airawan s how mim written i n this way, and t he f inal h a of t he Le P uy i nscription i s peculiar t o the p ainted ceiling o f the G reat Mosque o f Q airawan: . Margais d iscusses t he p revious i nterpretations, i ncluding that o f F ikry, and pronounces f or the rendering, by a c raftsman p robably i lliterate i n A rabic, o f a l-mulk l illah ( the

8 7

kingdom i s God's): " one of the most frequent in decoration of b uildings a nd portable objects", t he having b een s omewhat d eformed a nd i nverted. p . 2 07. 6 . 3 30.

A .

F ikry,

L 'Art roman

du

P uy,

1 934,

pp 1 63-266,

t he k af

f ig.

7 . The artistic influence of the R höne valley on L e P uy h as l ately b een emphasized. Where F ikry was prepared to s ee Le P uy as the model for Tournus, Lyon and Vienne, it i s now established that 1 ) t he s quinches o f S aint-Martin-d'Ainay i n Lyon, of about 1 102, preceded those of both Tournus and Le Puy, and 2 ) it was t he c apitals of t he crypt of T ournus, and 3 ) the incrustations o f the façade and belfry of S aintMartin that i nfluenced Le P uy, not t he r everse. A s imilar receptivity is s een in t he n eighbouring monastery of S aintChaffre at Le Monastier, which had 2 58 dependencies, n early a ll towards the Rhöne, and a s f ar as P iedmont ( CA, 1 976, p . 4 40 and n . 1 1). L e Puy was not only part of the Rhone valley s phere however. I t s tood on one o f the l and routes from t he f ar north, e ither via Lyon or C lermont, t o Toulouse, B arcelona and t hus, u ltimately, to Andalusia. C . Rocher, " Les rapports de l 'eglise du P uy avec G erone et B igorre", Tablettes historiques du Velay, 1 873, s ought to prove t hat a l egendary f raternity b etween Le P uy and G erona was b ased on fact. H e used s tatements of the 1 7th century Jesuit, U do de G issey, and documents o f t he l ate-15th century to support the tradition that the f raternity was established by C harlemagne, a nd t hat the f irst b ishop o f Gerona in t he 8 th century was a canon of Le P uy. Evidence for the 1 1th century i s confined to two details, small but telling: 1 ) a visit f rom O liba of Vich i n about 1 035, in connexion w ith t he acquisition of some r elics ( L. A lbaredo, L'Abat O liba, Montserrat 1 972, pp . 3 19 and 3 29), s tands out as one o f h is rare j ourneys abroad ( his only other d istant contact, a part f rom R ome, was F leury, but he is not r ecorded as h aving paid any visit there), and 2 ) i n 1 010 Ermengaud o f U rgel made a g ift to Le P uy ( Gall. X, pp 2 28-229). The connexions of Le P uy with more westerly regions of F rance a nd Spain were not confined t o the oft-cited v isits o f its bishops, Gotescalc to S antiago i n the mid-10th century, and P ierre de M ercoeur to L eön i n 1 063 at the f estivities surrounding the arrival of the relics o f St I sidore f rom S eville ( de P arga, in L . V. de Parga, J .-M. Lacarra and J . Uria, Las P eregrinaciones a S antiago de Compostela, Madrid 1 946-1949, p . 4 7 f f). This l atter v isit was possibly l inked with the presence at Le Puy of B ernard I o f B igorre in 1 062, through whose t erritory P ierre would probably travel to L eön. B ernard g ave a r ent i n Morlaas currency to one o f the altars o f Le P uy, a nd s ubjugated his county to Le Puy: " a patronage that was still effective in the 1 3th century, b eing mentioned i n writs o f H enry I II of England, though no material s urvives to show whether t here

8 8

w as a ny s uccession o f g ifts or whether L e P uy b uilt up a ny e states i n G ascony. I n 1 062 a lso B ernard Tumapaler, count o f A rmagnac, made a g ift t o L e P uy." ( I am most g rateful t o D r R owan W atson f or this c omment, a nd f or investigating the details a nd i mplications o f R ocher's c laims). 8 . The B asle a nd Milan a ltars, and s uch p ieces a s t he Oviedo Arca S anta, a re e xamples o f o ther t ypes of model f or t he composition, with which the wood workshop would b e f amiliar. A c omparison i s t o be made a lso with t he w ooden doors of S t Mary i n C apitol i n Cologne. They a re dated b efore 1 065 ( Ornamenta E cclesiae, C ologne 1 985, V ol.2, N o E 9 8). T he r elief o f t he f igured p anels i s much h igher a nd more rounded than on the Le P uy d oors and the border has a t orus p rofile. F lat i nterlace a nd s croll work, l arge d ecorative bosses and bobbin moulding r ecall the F ez mimbar however. T he a ll-over c omposition, b ased probably on a m anuscript page, i s s imilar t o L e P uy, and its a lternation o f f ull a nd h alf-width p anels c reates a s eries of c rosses t o c ompare with t he s ingle c rosses o f B lesle, Chamaliäres a nd Lavoüte-Chilhac. T he c onstruction, of walnut panels a nd s trips attached t o o ak vertical p lanks, differs. The t ituli a re i ncised. 9 . S egovia: a l-And 1 935, p 1.15; S ilos casket, AHIII, f ig. 3 68; P amplona c asket, E K E lf, No 3 5, JBCC, p l. 2 3. The b order motif under the t wo l ower medallions on t he F ez p anel i s f ormed o f t he s ame t ree s hapes, or s ymmetrical f leurons a s the m im o f the border o f the S aint-Sever Apocalypse p age and the Taüll apse-painting border a lso. 1 0. J . S ourdel-Thomine a nd B . S puler, D ie K unst d es B erlin 1 973, p l. 1 85. The stone i s n ow in Malaga.

I slam,

1 1. M argais f ig. 3 i llustrates a parallel f or the branch i n Q airawan; t he s croll on t he c eiling p anels i n S an M illan i n S egovia provides one i n S pain ( al-And 1 935, p . 4 29). G . Z arnecki, S tudies 1 979, VIII: Payerne capitals 6 , 7 and VII w ith a f ir tree motif which he refers t o V aldedios and D ijon ( there a re a lso h ints o f D 16 d ownturned l eaf, or D 2 p ine cone, on caps 6 ,7,111). This tree motif can be added t o t he l inks with Spain he postulates f or P ayerne v ia C luny: i t i s i dentical on corbels i n the M ezquita ( LTB 1 957, f ig. 3 63) and at P oitiers on t he t ower c orbel table ( fig 2 39). 1 2. B .P. Maldonado M emoria.. s hows octagon and s tar b orders f rom the Mosque o f Madinat a z-Zahra" dotted w ith s ix-petal f lorets; AHIII: p laster p anels o f t he A ljaferia, f igs 2 91, 2 92; Malaga corbels, f ig. 3 07; Granada, f ig. 3 16. L TB, a l-And 1 935, p . 4 32 quotes a corbel i n t he A rchaeological Museum i n Madrid o f t he 1 2th c entury and c ontinues " the [ florets] f requently met in t he s ame p eriod [ late 1 1th-early 1 2th c entury] i n the d ecorations o f A ndalusian a nd A frican monuments . .have s ix or more p etals". C ahn, D oors, f ig. 1 2 i llustrates the carved b eam

8 9

from S anta Yaria da T crifa, C adi .y :7 i t s e en-petallE :d f lorets s uirounded by ring l i_ze those down the vertical batten of t he Le P uy door. The wooden members f rom t he A lcazaba o f Malaga ( AHIII, f ig. 3 07) have e ight and s ix respectively. 1 3. Cahn, Doors, p . 1 5, gives various readings suggested by different scholars and " the correct and now generally accepted version": GAUZFREDUS ME F [E]CIT; P ETRUS EDI[ficavit]. The EDI i s convincing but f ar from c lear t o s ee. That P etrus was a b ishop i s a lso only a s urmise. Weighing the relative l ikelihood that the donor or builder was P ierre I I ( 1050-1073), P ierre I II ( 1145-1155) or P ierre IV ( 1159-1189), as i s done i n a ll discussions of the d ate of t he doors i s thus s peculation about a s peculation ( cf. Cahn, Doors, p . 6 3). The use of a batten of this kind o n a door i s common in later Persian and Turkish woodwork, not in E gyptian ( I am most grateful to Dr O liver Watson, V &A Museum, for this information). I t i s not shown on doors in Mozarabic i llustrations of buildings. S ome investigation into its appearance in other manuscript i lluminations would be worth pursuing. 1 4. e .g. Corbie P salter, Amiens, 9 th century, D . Jalabert, La f lore sculptee.., P aris 1 965, p ls 4 0 C ,D; a lso c f. P . Lasko, Ars Sacra, 1 972, pp. 1 02 and 1 03: drawings of a ltar crosses of Abbess Mathilde and Duke Otto, E ssen, 1 0th century. I slamic examples: Margais, AMO, f igs 1 07, 1 08, 1 09 ( Madinat a z-Zahra'); f ig. 1 24, T angiers; L TB 1 957, f igs 3 46, 3 48 ( Cordoba); a l-And 1 935, p . 4 30 ( Segovia). 1 5. The underside of the beam fragment ceiling h as a motif identical with this beam j ust quoted.

o f the Cordoban a nd t he S egovia

1 6. Cahn, Doors, pp 2 3-24 and p . 3 0, n .7; Chamalieres, p . 8 8 has red, b lue, white and " dark"; B lesle, p . 1 24: Thiollier reports r ed, b lue, g reen; Lavoüte, pp 1 34 and 1 36, has " polychromy" with white. Andalusia: LTB 1 957, p . 5 44 and colour p late s howing red and brown with blue, white and yellow; S egovia: a l-And 1 935, p . 4 28: yellow, r ed, b lue, brown. 1 7. J . Bousquet, " Les origines de l a s culpture romane, sont-elles l ointaines ou proches? U n exemple: l e motif de l 'entrelacs en eventail", CSMC 1 978, pp 5 1-72: the motif " 'en bretzel' l ike the A lsatian biscuit" was transmitted from I reland to C arolingian to Romanesque, a nd in s tone carving died out shortly after 1 100, sooner or l ater according to t he a rea ( or according to the a rchaeologist). 1 8. L . and J . H ill, Raymond IV de St-Gilles, Comte de Toulouse, Toulouse 1 959. Raymond i n 1 086 " came to S aintG illes, where he received his sister-in-law, Emma, whom K ing Philip of France, t iring of h is wife, h ad h oped to marry. Emma's f ather Roger of S icily, probably because he

9 0

s uspected Philip, s ent h is daughter t o s tay with h is s onin-law w hile t he negotiations w ere i n p rogress. T he N orman c aptain o f t he s hip c arrying Emma's dowry, l acking confidence i n t he l atter's b rother-in-law, l eft F rance w ithout l eaving the t reasure i n Raymond's hands. R aymond, having l ittle e steem f or t he k ing of F rance t hen married h is s ister-in-law t o t he young c ount o f Auvergne, s on o f h is o ld r ival a nd enemy Robert, c ount o f A uvergne.. . From h is father's s ide, Raymond s ustained c laims to part o f e astern V elay, a r egion nominally s hared b etween t he c ounts o f Auvergne a nd the b ishops o f L e P uy..Raymond was extending h is i nfluence over t he l ands a nd r ights belonging t o the patrimony o f the House o f Toulouse..[p. 1 7]. [ By] 1 095 he h ad a ssumed t he t itles o f thirteen c ounties: T oulouse, C ahors, A lbi, L odeve ( all f rom h is brother W illiam) a nd R ouergue, Agde, B gziers, N imes, U zes, t he G gvaudan, Viviers, Venaissin, which constituted h is earlier possessions. T he count o f D ie was h is v assal a nd t he count o f Foix r ecognized h im a s s overeign. H is i nfluence extended i nto t he V elay a nd t o P rovence.." [ pp 2 1 f f]; K . W erner, " Kingdom and P rincipality i n Twelfth-century F rance": Chapter 8 of T . R euter ( ed.), The Mediaeval Nobility, Amsterdam/New Y ork/Oxford 1 979 ( see Chapter V , n . 1 09) g ives the greatest i nsight i nto the p aramountcy and h ereditary l egitimacy of t he p rincely f amilies o f F rance, o f which T oulouse was one. O n the whole, Raymond maintained good r elations w ith h is half-brothers, c ounts o f B arcelona; t he need to c reate a s table a rea f or c ommercial traffic b etween t he R höne, T oulouse a nd B arcelona p robably weighed with both s ides. Raymond's t erritory coincides neatly with that o f p lait c apitals. T he marriage of h is s on B ertrand t o H elen of B urgundy, and his own marriage s hortly b eforehand to E lvira o f L eön a re s igns o f t he more w idespread a lliances which brought new a rtistic stimuli t o L anguedoc. T he l inks w ith n orthwestern Spain will h ave a dded to t he existing t ies with C atalunya t o c reate f urther opportunities f or t he arrival o f o ther Andalusian i nfluences. The queen a t t he c ourt o f L eön i n the l ast decade of t he c entury at l atest, was Z aida, daughter of t he emir o f S eville. 1 9. There i s doubt t hat t he c arved l ower parts of t he door a re original ( Doors, p . 1 39); they are o f d ifferent wood a nd some o f the p lanks appear t o have been c ut down i n s ize ( pis 7 7 a nd 7 9). T hey were c ertainly there b efore t he early 1 7th century and t he a lterations to t he valve were probably not made l ater t han i ts i nstallation in t he s outh portal o f the new G othic c hurch begun about 1 460 ( Doors, p . 1 32). T hat the c arving tradition was s till a live in the 1 3th c entury i s shown f or example by t he c arved window s urround i n B lesle i llustrated by C ahn, f ig. 8 4. The l ower panels at L avoüte-Chilhac a re most l ikely t aken f rom o ther R omanesque doors, however, rather than newly made. 2 0. C ahn, D oors, pp 1 36-7, r eviews examples o f f laring a rms on c rosses o f pre-Romanesque date; a l arge proportion

9 1

have Spanish a ffiliations. S everal, s uch as the t wo Visigothic crosses in t he C amara S anta, Oviedo, a re i llustrated in HE I I, f igs 4 17 and 4 21-422, a lso one carved in relief over the portal of S an J uan de Ba i ios ( fig. 2 72); t he c ross on t he Agates casket, f ig. 4 27, a nd t he arms o f Mozarabic ivory crosses with f laring arms ( Ex E lf, nos 4 8 and 4 9; AHIII, f igs 3 5, 4 77, both attributed to a workshop at S an Millän de l a Cogolla, l ate 1 0th century), s hould a lso be added to h is l ist. The R omanesque L eön c rucifix ( Lasko, Ars S acra, p l. 1 52, f igs 8 2-83) f lares s lightly o n the upper vertical arm towards the wider bar at the t op. Small f laring c rosses a re carved on t he Taüll bench f igs 1 00, 1 01. 2 1.

E .

L evi-Provençal,

2 2. The church was Etienne o f C lermont.

I nscriptions..

no

5 7.

dedicated in 1 024 or The i nscription r eads:

1 025

by B ishop

H IC TIBI REX REGUM HOC CONDIDIT ODILO TEMPLUM AGMINIBUS SUPERIS QUEM MISCUIT ARBITER ORBIS According to Bousquet ( CSMC 1 978 p . 6 5) the reference t o O dilo i s most l ikely composed by his successor as abbot o f C luny, S t H ugh, when the c ult of O dilo was at i ts height. I n 1 063 h is body was raised by Peter Damian, l egate o f Gregory VII, at a time when i t was a lready p erforming miracles. " It was h is tomb at S ouvigny that attracted t he greatest c rowds, but would not Lavoüte a lso have been eager to c elebrate him? we do not f eel compelled to accept a l ink with t he donation from one of h is " descendants"(!), another Odilo of Mercoeur, canon of Brioude around 1 137" [ as indicative of the date of the inscription]. " The c hurch w as c learly intended as a family mausoleum, O dilo a ssociated with i t h is four brothers, a lready deceased, a nd h is nephews, many of whom had been or were dignitaries o f t he church of Le P uy". P ierre, one of these nephews, was b ishop o f Le Puy f rom 1 050 to 1 072; he received the pallium i n 1 051 a nd was in Leön in 1 063. Cahn, p . 1 32, i s l ess convinced of the early date of the doors. O dilo was r esponsible f or the r eform and attachment t o C luny of Moissac, which he visited i n 1 049, l eaving i n charge h is young k insman D urannus who was l ater also b ishop o f Toulouse. Durannus i s commemorated in Moissac c loister with a relief, companion to t hose of t he apostles. Le P uy, Moissac and Lavoüte-Chilhac are thus a ll directly l inked to t he Mercoeur. 2 3. Madinat a z-Zahra': Maldonado, Tudela, p l. XXXVII, the cording edges the corbel member itself a long the straight oblique profile, outside t he c urls. Cording on vertical a nd oblique corbel face: LTB, AEAyA 1 936, p . 4 5, in the p atio of Abd ar-Rahman I II. The carved mihrab panels in the

9 2

Mezquita a re e dged with c ording, t he inside o f t he mihrab.

a nd s o a re

t he

c orbels o n

2 4. L . G oldschmidt, E lf.I ( 1914), no 3 1; J . H ubert, J . P orcher, W . Volbach, C arolingian Art, L ondon 1 970, p l. 2 09. T he border t reatment o f the Narbonne panel i s s imilar t o t he edgings on a l-Mughira's c asket, E K E lf., no 3 1; J BCC p ls 1 4-17. L asko, Ars S acra, p . 2 71, n . 3 6, s uggests a metalwork model f or t he b eading round t he c ross. The guilloche border of t he most e laborate N arbonne workshop a ltars, i ncluding t he T oulouse a ltar by G ilduinus, a nd t he Rodez a ltar, i s i dentical with that on the Narbonne ivory, s howing once a gain t he s hared s tock o f motifs i n this a rea. 2 5. J . B ousquet, " Les origines.." CSMC 1 978. There are n o Andalusian examples. B ousquet quotes ( pp 7 0-71) a n ivory c asket i n t he V &A Museum ( Goldschmidt, IV, 1 926 ( re-ed., 1 975, no 1 6, p l. VI 1 6 b a nd a ), a ttributed t o E ngland ( it i s a ssociated w ith a hint a t f oliated p seudo-Kufic, and i s i tself e laborated w ith veined l eaves) a nd t he o lifant i n t he British Musuem on which s nakes f orm the knot ( EK E lf no 6 5). The Codex Rotense written a t Näjera ( late 1 0th c entury) s hows i t on a c apital, and the L eön Antiphonary, i n a horseshoe a rch over t he M atthew s ymbol. T he d iploma o f 1 054 f or N äjera contains one i n an i nitial ( ARE 1 934, p . 1 6 and p l. V ). 2 6.

B erry roman,

p ls

1 0 a nd

1 1.

2 7. S egovia: TB, a l-And 1 935, p l. 1 6; T udela: Maldonado, T udela, p l. XXVII; C atalunya: G . G aillard, P remiers e ssais..1928, p l. 1 1,5; with down-turned l eaf, p l. I I: 6 ,7. H ernandez, " Un a specto..", 1 930. 2 8. A c omposite rosette o f t his t ype i s c arved o n c orbel B -1 at Tudela, M aldonado, Tudela p l. XXXVIIa and f ig. 1 9, with trefoils r ather than h alf-palmettes, and f ragments o f eaves or hood m oulding over d oors f rom t he mosque o f Madinat a z-Zahra" a re c arved with s uch rosettes. A l attice enclosing palmette c rosses , f rom S a Coloma near N äjera, r estored i n 9 23 by K ing O rdono o f L eön, i s i llustrated i n L "Art Mozarabe, f ig. 7 1, P . 2 52. T his i s a s tone chancel p laque. 3 0.

Doors,

p .

1 45.

3 1. Cahn, i bid, P . 1 44, comments on the f act that " the d istribution o f t he f our s ets o f doors cuts across a ll l ines o f i nstitutional a ffiliation". T he a bbess o f B lesle h eld the l ordship o f t he t own, and the l ords of Mercoeur were i nstalled i n t he burg ( p. 1 18). A M ercoeur p resence i s thus i nvolved i n t hree o f the f our p laces where these doors s urvive ( Le P uy, L avoüte-Chilhac a nd B lesle). P owerful f amilies may have b een the s trongest i nstitutions where patronage was c oncerned.

9 3

3 2. Doors, ) 1 8 4-116. "T. A 1 3 1 att 4 ced g rids c onstructed with., f our v ertical s ' :ips o f wood which c ome to g rip a s ingle h orizontal b oard o f equal w idth a t equidistant points by means o f i nterlocking j oints" ( p. 8 9). H e observes t hat t his type o f c onstruction i s e ncountered i n both I slamic art and i n the L atin W est, but in examples l ater than this one. I t c an b e added t hat t he s hape of t he vertical s trips r esembles t he arms o f the crosses i n m any " star a nd c ross" tile e nsembles of I slamic wall f acings. Confronted quadrupeds a nd t ilting horsemen a re s tandard I slamic motifs. 3 3. B -6 and

An analogous e laboration i s s een a t Tudela; on corbel t he h alf-palmette i n a c ircle s croll i s n ot c ontinuous the l eaf i s doubled, T udela p l. X L.

3 4. Cahn, D oors, p . 1 26, g ives L imousin i llumination a s a parallel a nd i llustrates ( fig. 7 ) t he s tone carving o ver t he doorway o f S an F ede at C avagnolo i n P iedmont, l ate 1 2th c entury, a s a rare architectural example o f this type o f i nterlace border with f igures; i t h as a c arved c ornice t o mark the horizontal above the a rch F 12, and s pandrel f igures F 19. AHIII, f ig. 2 95, s hows a p laster f rieze in t he A ljaferia with a pair o f bands that l ace at i ntervals w ith a c artouche c ontaining a ( non-figural) motif ( fig 5 1 ) . W ood panels w ith c arved f igure motifs w ithin a s imilarly l aced border f rom t he F atimids" Western P alace, now i n t he I slamic Museum i n Cairo ( G. W iet, A lbum du M usge A rabe, p l. 2 2; E . Kühnel, I slamic A rt a nd A rchitecture, L ondon 1 966, P l. 2 1) a re a g ood e xample o f t he u niversality o f Mediterranean s tyle in t he 1 2th century. 3 5. C f. t he the general upwards F 5.

marble d ado o f t he m ihrab of a l-Hakam I I, a nd I slamic t endency t o c oncentrate decoration

3 6. F ikry thought G auzfredus i ntroduced t he s tyle of carving o f t he doors to L e P uy f rom S pain, a nd that i t was c opied by l ocal craftsmen who made t he other doors; Margais postulated a model f rom A frica which i nspired Gauzfredus; B rghier proposed a Mozarab: in e ach c ase an i nnovator. 3 7. C ahn, D oors, C hap. V III. I n c onsidering i conography, p . 2 8, he contemplates " a broadly s hared s ystem o f f ormal conventions adapted t o particular materials and modes of workmanship r ather than i ntrinsically grounded i n the experience o f a p articular c raft". C f. a lso H ernandez, 1 930, p . 4 1: " ..what travelled was t he craftsman". 3 8. De d iversis a rtibus, e d. 1 961; T . L yman, C SMC 1 978, p .

C . R. 1 26.

3 9.

1 49.

C ahn,

D oors,

p p.

1 44

a nd

D odwell,

4 0. Cahn, Doors draws attention t o t he polychromy on the C ordoba ceiling beams

9 4

L ondon/New Y ork

s imilarity o f the a nd the L e Puy

doors. P yrenean c rucif.xes were painted i n t he s ame r ange o f colours, a lso with imitations o f hispano-moresque s ilks: M . D urliat, C hrists r omans, P erpignan 1 957, p . 2 4. I n CA 1 33, 1 976 D urliat q uotes t he s tatue of O ur L ady o f L e P uy, known f rom an e ngraving by V eyrenc i n B . F aujas de S aintF ond, Recherches s ur l es v olcans g teints du V elay et du V ivarais, Grenoble/Paris 1 778, f ig. 5 , opposite p . 1 4. T he e arliest r eference t o t he s tatue i s i n a donation by Raymond de S t G illes i n 1 096. I n t he e ngraving t he h em o f t he garment and i ts vertical b raid have a row of f our-petal f lorets e ach i n a r ing, a nd t he r obe o f t he I nfant i s s imilarly decorated. T he wide s leeves o f the V irgin a re bordered w ith mock-Kufic. 4 1. Cahn, Doors, c ites ( fig. 8 4) a c arved wooden window f rame of the 1 3th c entury at B lesle. H e a lso c omments, pp 6 1 a nd 1 54 ( notes 3 4 a nd 3 8) on t he f ame a nd quantity o f wooden s tatues i n t he Auvergne, p articularly images o f the V irgin i n Majesty a nd Christ on t he Cross. H is a ccount o f t he lost statue o f O ur L ady o f L e P uy ( p.61) d iffers i n detail f rom t hat g iven by Durliat ( op.cit. note 4 0) a nd follows I .H. F orsyth, T he Throne o f Wisdom. Wood S culptures o f t he M adonna i n Romanesque F rance, P rinceton 1 972, pp 1 03 f f. Cahn l ists t he f ollowing c rucifixes: L avaudieu, B lesle, L avoate-Chilhac, Arlet, Auzon, L avoüte-sur-Loire, Montsalvy, Valugjols, S aint-Flour a nd Chanteuges; a nd t he f ollowing bust-images o f s aints: S t Chaffre a t L e Monastier, St C esar at Maurs, S t B audime at S aint-Nectaire ( Les Tresors des gglises de F rance, Nos 4 17, 4 28, 4 47, p is 7 9-811), S t P eter at B redons. T he S t B audime bust i s dated i n Tresors to " late 1 2th c entury". T . Lyman CSMC 1 978, p . 1 25 gives strong r easons f or d ating i t c .1100. F orsyth, op. c it. l ists the Auvergnat Madonnas pp 1 35 f f. 4 2. A . and 0 . G rabar, " L essor des arts i nspires par l es cours princieres ä l a f in du p remier millgnaire; princes musulmans and princes chrgtiens", O ccidente e l 'Islam 1 967, pp 8 45-892, on the priority and i nfluence o f s ecular court a nd noble p atronage over r eligious art. A . Grabar h as f requently s tressed this i nfluence i n recent writing. 4 3. And even e xtended n orth a s f ar a s t o C ologne. T he n etwork o f l ong a nd medium-distance trade routes c arrying s laves a nd c loth a s their l eading commodities would s ustain the contacts o f s uch a c raft " freemasonry" by providing the f acilities f or p eople t o travel a nd i deas to s pread. T rade i n t imber a lso s ignifies here: c f M . Lombard, " Un probleme c artographig. L e bois d ans l a Mgditerrange musulmane V IIX Ie s iecles", Annales E .S. C. 1 959/1, f or the c umulative s carcity o f t imber a s Andalusian c ivilization expanded, t hough most o f r ecorded s upplies came f rom A frica and f urther e ast. C . Verlinden, L'Esclavage d ans l 'Europe mgdigvale, I , B ruges 1 955; i d., " The R ise of Spanish T rade i n the M iddle A ges", E HR, 1 940; W .G. E ast, An H istorical G eography of E urope, London 1 948 quotes t he description o f L angres by I drisi " remarkable f or i ts buildings, commerce,

9 5

" Remarques sur l e commerce maritime en Afrique au X Ie s iècle", Melanges.... Margais 1 957, pp 5 1-59, describes t he role of Jewish merchants in a network comprising Spain, S icily a nd N orth A frica, l inked with t he Rhöne; M . D urliat, H istoire du Roussillon, 1 962 quotes G . Duby on a r oute through Roussillon f rom the Rhöne to Andalusia . J .-M. Lacarra, Un a rancal de aduanas d el s iglo X I, Z aragoza 1 950 g ives details of t he passage o f t he P yrenees from B eam nt o J aca, a town that grew up considerably during the century. The customs d ocument s hows expansion o f trade w ith Andalusia into Gascony: many o f the trading terms and names f or c lothings and f ine l eatherwork a re Arabic. The l inks between Le P uy and B igorre were perhaps made worth while because of these developments; f or more on t he development o f Jaca, id., " Desarrollo urbano de J aca en a l Edad Media", E st. E d. Med. Corona de Aragon,; 1 9, pp 1 39-155. 4 4. M . Durliat, C SMC 1 976, p . 1 01. F or Roda, p . 1 03; L es Structures s ociales de l 'Aquitaine, du Languedoc et de l 'Espagne au premier age feodal, P aris 1 969 ( Colloquy h eld at T oulouse, 1 968), passim, especially P . Bonnassie " Conventions f dodales.." p . 2 03 on t he supremacy o f t he count of B arcelona, and p . 2 15, " Raimond Beranger..was probably t he richest man in E urope"; J . Bolet y S iso, L as Monedes Catalanes, B arcelona 1 908; L . N icolau de O lwer, La Catalogne ä l 'epoque romane, P aris 1 932; L . de Valdeavellano, H istoria de E spana, 5 th ed., Madrid 1 973, vol. I , part 2 , Chap. X , with b ibliography p . 2 19; J .M. Villas Vallicrosa, " Valoraciön de l a c ultura romanica en l a epoca de S anta Maria de R ipoll", E sts s obre H istoria de l a Ciencia espanola, B arcelona 1 949, pp 4 3-64; id., N uevas aportaciones para e l e studio de l a transmisiön de l a ciencia a E uropa a t raves de E spana, Barcelona 1 943. R . Beer, D ie H andschriften des K losters S anta Maria de Ripoll, Vienna 1 907-1908, 2 vols; J . P uig y Cadafalch, Le premier a rt roman, P aris 1 928; i d.,A. de F olguera, J . Goday i Casals, L 'Architectura romanica a Catalunya, 3 . vols, Barcelona 1 909-1918; C . H igounet, " La rivalite des maisons de T oulouse et de B arcelone pour l a preponderance meridionale", Melanges...Halphen, Paris 1 959. 4 5. W . W.S. Cook and J . G udiol R icart, AH VI, 1 950, i llustrate many examples. " The painting i s on a s ingle p lane which.. . makes no attempt at t he third d imension" ( p. 1 5). R icart, p . 3 27, commenting on the group of s culptures of E rill, i nsists on an oriental ( even Chinese ! ) e lement which he derives f rom H ispano-Arab culture. W . W.S. C ook, " Stucco A ltar F rontals of Catalonia", Art Studies, i i, 1 924, p . 4 1 f f; id., " Earliest painted p anels of Catalonia", AB, vi, 1 923; M . Durliat, Christs r omans P erpignan 1 957; i d., Vierges romanes, Perpignan n .d.; i d., La s culpture romane en Cerdagne, P erpignan 1 957 gives p . 8 2 a l ist of f ifteen crucifixes of wood and painted; M . Delcor, " Les vierges romanes en Cerdagne et en Conf l ent dans l 'histoire et dans l 'art", CSMC 1 970, p . 4 5 f f.

9 6

4 6. F . H ernandez, " t in a specto d e l a i nfluencia del a rte califal e n C ataluna ( basas y c apiteles d el s iglo X I)" AEAyA, x vi/4, 1 930, pp 2 1-49; G . G aillard, Premiers e ssais d e s culpture monumentale en C atalogne aux X e et X Ie s iecles, P aris 1 938; M . D urliat, " Les debuts d e l a s culpture romane dans l e Midi de l a F rance et e n E spagne", C SMC 1 978, pp 1 01-113. 4 7. Now generally a greed to h ave been c ompleted f or or s oon a fter t he d edication o f 1 022: D urliat, a rt. c it., pp 1 03-105; J . -Cl. F au, " Un d ecor o riginal..." C SMC 1 978, p . 1 31; J . B ousquet, " La d edicace ou c onsecration d es eglises e t l eur r apport avec l a construction", C SMC 1 972, p . 6 6 c ontests t his, arguing ( from the l etter written by Abbot P eter to P ope B enedict VIII in 1 023, complaining that when A bbot Peter s ummoned various bishops " they refused even t o c ome to t he c onsecration of t he n ew c hurch built i n t his p lace.." because o f h arrassment by t he l aity) that t he o ccasion w as n ot a s uccess, a nd t herefore t hat t he abbot d id not mean that the building was f inished!; that there a re no records o f n ew donations or i ndulgences a nd we s hould t herefore deduce that the abbey was as d estitute a s t he abbot makes o ut. I t may be c ountered t o this a rgument t hat when there i s s trife and c omplaint t he s takes a re worth t he c onflict a nd no o ne i s destitute. By this d ate t here had been s ome h ighly l ucrative expeditions i nto Andalusia ( ELP I I, pp 2 84 a nd 3 29) f oreshadowing t he paria s ystem t hat w as t o b ring s uch wealth t o t he c ounty o f C atalunya and i ts c onfederates. At a ll e vents, what Abbot P eter s ays i s t hat t he n ew c hurch has been built. 4 8. Details l inking the Roda c apitals w ith t hose o f the porch o f S aint-Benoit i nclude spiral columns a mong t he acanthus l eaves, the solar-like f lower o n the c onsole, multiple s trand s tems, r efined c hip c arving s crolls, a p rofile animal h ead h idden i n t he c orners. This l ast motif i s t aken up at M oissac in t he porch ( figs 8 9, 3 01); F ikry g ives drawings o f t he L e P uy acanthus c apitals. At Conques and Rodez, a s at L e P uy, i t i s t he i nterlace and a ssociated f oliage t reatment t hat provides t he l ink w ith R oda. R odez c apitals: J . Cl. F au, " t in decor.." pp 1 29 f f, f igs 4 and 6 ; M . S chapiro, " A R elief in Rodez" Romanesque A rt, L ondon 1 977, p . 2 86, f ig. 6 ( Studies i n W estern A rt: Acts of t he XXth I nt. C ongr. on t he H istory of A rt, I , P rinceton 1 963, pp 4 0-66). The c apitals at B essuejouls, o ften s imilar t o examples a t C onques, s hare motifs a lso with S aint-Benoit ( Val de L oire r oman, f igs 3 1 and 3 8, Rouergue roman, f igs 7 0. 7 6,77). E . V ergnolle p . 7 8 d istinguishes t he northern p almette c apitals devoid o f proper i nterlace f rom t he meridional, but b arriers w ere not i mpervious. 4 9. P . D eschamps, " Tables d 'autel de marbre exdcut es d ans l e Midi de l a F rance au X e e t a u X Ie s iècle", M élanges.. . Lot, P aris 1 925; M . D urliat, " Tables d 'autel ä l obes de l a province ecclesiastique de N arbonne ( IXe-XIe s iecles)", C ah. A rch. XVI, 1 966, pp 5 1-75. D . J alabert, L a f lore sculptee... i llustrates, p ls 1 4, 1 5, 1 6, s uch motifs

9 7

on t he a ltars o f R odez, Gerona, and, p is S ernin and C luny, w ith examples f rom S yria, denial of any I slamic i nfluence. 5 0.

A lso

G .

Mar ais

, AMO,

f ig.

1 7-20, S ainti n an emphatic

1 08.

5 1. C ahn, D oors r efers p . 1 8 t o the " ornate a nd extravagant l etter f orms encountered i n the Latin epigraphy o f Auvergne, Spain a nd t he s outh o f F rance in Romanesque t imes" a s " another and no l ess vital dimension of t he impact of K ufic writing " . c f a lso A . Grohman " The Origin a nd e arly D evelopment o f F loriated K ufic", Ars O rientalis 2 , 1 957, p . 1 94; G . Miles, " Classification of I slamic E lements in B yzantine A rchitectural O rnament i n G reece" Actes du X II Congr s intern. d 'Etudes byzantines I II, B elgrade 1 964, pp 2 81-290; i d., " Byzantium and the Arabs: R elations i n C rete and the Aegean Area", Dumbarton O aks P apers 1 8, 1 964, pp 3 3 2; R . Ettinghausen, " Kufesque in Byzantine Greece" i n T he L atin West and the Muslim World, A Colloquium in Memory o f G . C. M iles, New York 1 976, pp 2 8-47. 5 2.

GG

1 938,

p .

2 0,

i n

an analysis

of

c apital

decoration.

5 3. The scroll corresponds to F au"s phase 2 of capital carving at Roda, exemplified on t he capital b elow i t: " characterized by the presence o f palmettes or trilobed f leurons i nto which t he three strands of t he [ interlaced] r ibbon expand at the ends". J.-Cl. F au, CSMC 1 978, P. 1 30. c f AHIII f ig. 7 1, a capital f rom Tudela with an identical t reatment of the caulicoles, which h ave grooved s tranded s tems that e xpand at t he ends i nto f leurons. 5 4. A . Grabar, " La decoration architecturale de 1 "eglise de l a V ierge ä S aint-Luc en P hocide et l es debuts d es i nfluences i slamiques sur l 'art byzantin de l a G r ce" CRAcIBL, D ec. 1 971. 5 5.

M aldonado,

Tudela,

f igs

5 6. J . Cl. F au, CSMC 1 978, branching i nto l eaves". 5 7. CA 1 976, arches i n the

p . 4 59 original

1 7 pp

and

1 8.

1 30-131,

and passim. roof.

H e

" grooved

discovered

r ibbon

l obed

5 8. Maldonado, T udela i llustrates throughout the b ook examples f rom Madinat a z-Zahra" that f urnish models for the motifs o f c arving i n t he mosque of T udela. Theophilus, as Cahn argues, would take i t f or granted that his readers were able t o carry out t he techniques of woodwork ( pp 1 489 ). T . Lyman, " Arts somptuaires et art monumental: b ilan d es i nfluences a uliques pre-romanes s ur l a s culpture r omane dans l e sud-ouest de l a France et en E spagne" CSMC 1 978, p . 1 76, makes a strong case f or t he d ecline o f the sumptuary aits being t he motive for Theophilus writing the book; t his would explain why h e d oes not d evote attention to the

9 8

r ising a rt o f o vershadow t hem.

s tone

carving

e ither:

i t

t hreatens

t o

5 9. Languedoc r oman, 1 975 ( with b ibliography), pp 1 41-148; t he doorway, f ig. 3 7. " Though polychromy u sing l ocal b asalt m ay not be exceptional, i ts u se on t he t ympanum, c ombined w ith a s tudied r efinement i n t he encrusted designs, i s a dmittedly s urprising. When, f urthermore, t his d ecoration i s a ssociated w ith a r are example o f a motif o f I slamic i nspiration, i t i s c lear t hat S aint-Pierre-de-Rhädes u nderwent northern [ sic!] i nfluences easily explicable by t he priory's s ituation on the route a cross the C evennes f rom Le P uy. A bove a ll, i t i s t he twin columns t hat d emonstrate the extent o f S aint-Pierre's debt t o i ts p osition on t he o ld G allo-Roman r oute to t he n orth. W e h ave s een this type o f column u sed i n the Velay, Rouergue and G evaudan. T he f act that t hey a re a lso met w ith at L oupian o n the coastal p lain l eads u s t o t he c onclusion that S aintP ierre marks a s tage i n t he p ropagation o f a f eature". The r oute went north f rom further s outh than L oupian. 6 0. B asalt decoration i s l isted in CA 1 950, p . 2 66: a t V illeneuve-läs-Beziers, C assac, Q uarante, P uissalion. I t i s f ound a s a s urface rock a long a l ine running f rom l 'Escandorgue to A gde, L anguedoc r oman, p . 1 46. 6 1. R .S. V entura, " Un grupo de iglesias d el A lto Aragon" AEAyA 1 933, pp 2 15-235; R . Crozet, " Petites e glises..." CCM 1 969/3, p . 1 87 f f. 6 2.

L anguedoc

r oman p .

1 9.

6 3. S ee L . V aldeavellano, H istoria, 1 /2, p . 1 66, B ibliography to C hapter VIII; Ch. Verlinden, " The R ise o f S panish Trade in t he M iddle Ages" E HR 1 939; C .E. D ubler, O ber d as Wirtschaftsleben a uf d er I berischen H albinsel vom X I z um X III J ahrhundert ( Beitrag z u d en i slamischc hristlichen B eziehungen) Geneva 1 943. T he l ong-term t ranshumance o f s hepherds d escribed by L e R oy L adurie, M ontaillou, village occitan de 1 294 ä 1 324, P aris 1 982 i s l ikely to have existed c enturies before, i f on a smaller s cale. 6 4. Cahn, Doors p . 3 2, n . 2 5 l ists the following: S hroud o f S t Chaffre and griffon s ilk o f Le Monastier ( Tresors des E glises de F rance nos 4 26 and 4 27); f ragments f ound i nside t he a ltar of S aint-Michel d'Aiguilhe ( F. E naud, BM 1 964, pp 3 7-57); id., Mons h ist. F rance 1 961, pp 1 36-140); t he c hasuble o f S aint-Rambert-sur-Loire ( Mons h ist. F rance 1 966, pp 6 3-80). T here are s imilar examples i n C atalunya a lso, e .g. the B attlö c rucifix f rom O lot ( J. A inaud d e L asarte, M useo de Arte de C ataluna R omanico, 1 980, p . 1 19). 6 5. F . E naud, " Remise en e tat de l a s tatue de l a V ierge ä l 'enfant d 'Orcival" Mons. h ist. F rance 1 961, pp 7 9-89, i llustrates f ragments o f the c ushion p . 8 4. O n the s ide, b eaded medallions a lternately containing g riffons and

9 9

quadrupeds a re bordered by r epousse s ilver. The s tatue a nd s ilver g ilt. S ee n ote C hild, now l ost.

t he i nscribed bands, a ll in i s o f wood overlaid with s ilver 4 0 on t he Le P uy Virgin a nd

6 6. B ull. Arch. 1 896; BSNAF 1 925; C . Urseau, Monuments P iot 1 926. R . de Lasteyrie, Architecture religieuse ä l 'epoque romane, 1 929: i t was opened i n 1 923 and f ound to contain i .a. " important Spanish c loths with K ufic i nscription", a r ing w ith an " inscription which seemed l ike a E uropean transliteration of three Arab words", a nd a " covered b ox of turned wood l ike contemporary Spanish ones". The B ishop died i n 1 149. 6 7.

C ahn,

D oors,

f igs

8 5

and

8 2.

6 8. I n the gallery of the l ittle church o f Durro, i n the V al d 'Aran near Taüll, stands a s eat made up of v arious d isparate panels. Two o f these are c learly two halves of what was t he s ide of a p iece s imilar to t he Taüll bench. I t i s curious that i n Archivo Mas in B arcelona i s a s mall photograph of a s eat with two s uch h alf panels. A n ote on the back states that it i s in E rill l a Val, a church s ited directly b elow Taüll ( fig 1 02). O ne panel is a pparently t he s ame piece as that on the l eft in f ig. 1 03 at Durro, but the other i s different. Archivo Mas have no negative of this s napshot. S o f ar e fforts to f ind t he t hird h alf-panel or any more such p ieces have been unavailing. 6 9. I n t he absence of the abbey's archives, l ost d uring the Revolution in 1 793, only f ragments of the history of Moissac's relations with S panish a ffairs r emain: a ) Count Bernat I I of Besalü, o f the same f amily as H unald, abbot of. Moissac from 1 072 to 1 085, gave to S aint-Pierre in 1 078 the foundations of Camprodon, S antaM aria in Arles-sur-Tech a nd S an P au of Vallosa. The a ssociation was not a happy one, the Pyrenean monks r esented a nd disputed t he authority of Moissac ( J.A. de L asarte, " Moissac et l es monasteres catalans de l a f in du Xe au debut su X IIe s iècle" AduM 1 963. b ) I n 1 102 D iego Gelmirez, B ishop of Santiago de Compostela, stopped at Moissac on h is j ourney to R ome, where he was to receive the pallium ( Defourneaux, p . 1 20 n ). c ) Bernard of S edirac, monk of Moissac, born at L a S auvetat de S averes a f ew k ilometers f rom Moissac, and Archbishop of Toledo s ince the capture of the c ity by A lfonso VI o f L eön in 1 085, f ound h is e fforts to go on c rusade in the Holy Land thwarted by i nsurrections i n his episcopal city as s oon as h is back was t urned. H e was absolved o f h is vow by U rban I I i n 1 096 as he p assed through R ome, a nd r eturned to S pain, on t he way r ecruiting a number of monks f rom the monasteries of his n ative province, to staff h is a dministration with men more l oyal t han the Spaniards, whose independence of spirit had b alked h im o f h is projected enterprise. F rom Moissac he e nlisted Geraldus, whom he f irst appointed cantor of Toledo and then

1 00

archbishop o f B raga; G eraldus w as canonized a fter h is death. O thers o f t he r ecruitment were P ierre f rom 1 3 ziers, archdeacon o f T oledo, t hen b ishop o f O sma B ernard f rom Agen, cantor at T oledo, then b ishop o f S agonte, P ierre f rom Agen, b ishop o f S egovia, Another P ierre, b ishop o f P alencia ( Valdeavellano, I ,1, p . 5 37) R aymond, who followed P ierre a s bishop o f O sma a nd s ucceeded B ernard at T oledo i n 1 124; t here he developed the famous s chool o f t ranslators a nd was much concerned with u rban d evelopment a nd i rrigation. J rome o f P erigord s erved a lso in Toledo, b ecame bishop o f V alencia when t he C id c aptured t he c ity ( Defourneaux, pp 3 5-6) and t hereafter bishop o f S alamanca. M . S chapiro, " The R omanesque S culpture o f M oissac" AB 1 931 ( repr. i n i d., R omanesque A rt, L ondon 1 977, to which reference i s made h ereafter) d iscusses t he c apitals f rom the point o f view of t he f igure s tyle and i conography. H e enumerates t he s ubjects o f t he c loister c apitals on p . 1 35. M . Vidal, Q uercy roman, pp 1 31-1133 a lso g ives a l ist w ith the same numbering, which i s adopted here. F igure c apitals a re a ll i llustrated in S chapiro, a nd in t he s tandard work: E . Rupin, L 'Abbaye et l es c loitres de Moissac 1 897, r e-ed. 1 981, o ften a ll f our s ides, and a lso the d ecorative c apitals. 7 0. At S aint-Sernin in T oulouse there i s one c apital i n t he south t ransept t riforium d ecorated t otally in t he s tyle o f a Moissac c loister c apital; i t has thick a canthus l eaves, b ut i s much l ess f laring in s hape. T he d ecoration i s an a ll-over c oiling s tem and s unk-centre l eaves, and i t h as the s triated volute s tem s upport: T . Lyman, AB 1 965, f ig. 3 6. I f Lyman's account i s f ollowed, this s culptor l eft T oulouse i n about 1 083, when t he B enedictines r eturned t o Moissac a fter their attempted t akeover of S aint-Sernin, a nd s ubsequently worked t here, where h is s tyle o f decoration, i dentifiable i n o ther details ( op.cit. pp 3 3-34) a nd l inked with S antiago a nd Leön, was applied to t he f laring s hape characteristic o f the Moissac c loister c apitals. The origin o f the volute s tem motif i s puzzling. C apitals i n the c loister museum ( M. V idal, P ierres r omanes a u M usge d e Moissac 1 963, f igs 1 a nd 2 ) s how a possible s tage o f evolution towards i t, and an apse c apital a t L oarre a lso. V idal d ates t he Museum c apitals t o t he l ate-llth century, " pre-cloister", and attributes them to the Romanesque c hapter house. T hey h ave points o f r esemblance with Mozarabic c apitals, notably at S antiago de P enalba and S an Miguel de E scalada ( L'Art Mozarabe, f igs 3 2, 3 3, 3 8), especially that at P enalba w ith p almettes in hearts a nd r igid veining o f acanthus under the volutes. There i s a parallel e ffect i n t he A ljaferia, AHIII, f ig. 2 80, f rom t he f ronded s crolls, b ut t he Moissac d evice i s d istinctive.

1 01

7 1. E xamination o f t he motifs on t he i vory c ross o f F ernando and S ancha f ig 1 11 and AH I V, f ig.268, P alol & H irmer, f igs 6 8-70 and o f other work o f t he c raftsmen working for t he court o f L eön would y ield many details s howing that Moissac s culptors h ad c lose f amiliarity w ith their style and methods: t he type of monster masks, o ften d isguised ( figs 7 3,74,112,3 ) , a symmetry, d ancing g ait, f olds rendered with double l ines, f or example ( AH V I, f igs 2 69-275, 2 77-281; P alol & H irmer f igs 6 6, 6 7, 7 4-76, 7 88 1).Figs 3 0 1 a-d) s how c apitals with t reatment o f foliage c losely related to that o f t he c ross, and the tendrils o f S antiago a nd Moissac. H owever preponderant t he G erman e lement in the ivory carving ( Lasko, Ars S acra, p . 1 48-9), i ts distinctive character i s partly Andalusian, i n s pite o f t he quite d ifferent e nergy o f many o f i ts f igures. G rooved s tems, r ingand multiple-bindings, f leshy o r hollow c urled l eaves D 4 ( e.g. H ispanic S ociety c asket, E K E lf no 2 8, [ JBCC p l. 1 2], o nce t he o bsessive d rill h oles and cut-off. edges are d iscounted), b irds, back-to-back half-palmettes a nd s tiff p rofiled f lowers, a re a ll C ordoban motifs. F ikry c ited the " fleshy acanthus border" ( Lasko, op. cit. p . 1 50) on t he b ack o f t he L eön crucifix as debased K ufic ( Fikry, p . 2 60, f ig. 3 23), and this may be a v alid example of convergence between an Ottonian a canthus border, exemplified o n t he panel o f t he Two Magi i n t he B ritish Museum ( Lasko, op. c it.p. 1 01) and t he kind o f inscribed border s een r ound t he F ez mimbar panel f ig.44 , the f ormer b eing modified in t he d irection o f mock-Kufic. The regular notches hollowing t he s mall i ntermediary l eaves o f t he border on the cross are r epeated i n t he notches of t he Moissac impost inscription, g iving r eason n ot to dismiss F ikry's parallel o f the L eön border motif with Kufic, e ven t hough t aken i n i solation t he border motif o f t he c ross might pass muster a s a t raditional d ebased a canthus. T his approach i s d ifferent f rom t he mock-Kufic of t he Oviedo Arca S anta f ig.81 which emulates a t rue i nscription. I n L eön where these p ieces were made, " Christian" and " Arabic" would n ot be mutually exclusive t erms, c onsidering t he s izeable Mozarab population ( C. S anchez A lbornoz, E stampas de l a V ida en L eon, Madrid 1 926; M . G omez Moreno, I glesias Mozarabes 1 919. 7 2. Typical o f S antiago de Compostela: GG 1 938, LXXIX, f igs 1 5, 1 8, 2 0; a lso at F römista, J aca, T oulouse, S aintS ever-des-Landes ( Gascogne romane, f ig. 3 0) a nd La S auveMajeure ( Guyenne romane, f igs 7 9, 8 0, 8 2; 8 3) with chevron binders i nstead of t he Andalusian twisted s tem. 7 3. R . Argaud, " Sur l es chapiteaux pretendus h ispanomoresques et byzanto-arabes du c loitre de Moissac", B ull. Arch. M idi. . France iv, 1 940, p . 1 7, i nterpreted i t a s a repetition o f the name o f A llah f oward and reversed. H is argument h as n ot c onvinced o ther A rabists. ( f ig .229) . 7 4. G . Margais , " Sur du P uy" CRAcIBL 1 938, 1 957, p . 2 07, f ig. 2 .

l 'inscription a rabe d e l a cathedrale r epr. M elanges... Margais, A lgiers

1 02

7 5. The ambiguities of this motif, derived f rom t he meeting of two acanthus l eaves ( GG 1 938, P. xxi) and its r elation with half-palmettes and i n which the l am-aliph s chema often s eems implied, recur throughout Romanesque border decoration, f rom imposts at S an P ere de Roda o nwards. 7 6. Dr M . Bayani confirms in conversation she knows o f n one in a ny oriental manuscripts. I have found none in t he f ollowing: J . D. Weill, Catalogue generale du Musee Arabe: L es bois ä epigraphes j usqu'ä l 'epoque Mamlouke, Cairo 1 931. No 3 361, 9 th century, has a thin l ine up the centre o f a scenders but no wedge hollow; G . Wiet, ditto, S täles f uneraires; B . R oy a nd P . P oinssot, I nscriptions arabes de K airouan, P aris 1 950; a nd of course E .Levi-Provençal, I nscriptions arabes d'Espagne, Leyden and P aris 1 931, except for the four quoted below i n notes 7 9-82. 7 7.

EK E lf,

no

3 2,

JBCC p l.

7 8.

EK E lf,

no

3 4,

JBCC p 1.26,

7 9.

E . Levi-Provençal,

8 0.

I bid.,

5 8.

8 1.

I bid.,

6 5.

8 2.

I bid.,

6 8.

8 3. Vita S chapiro, R omanesque

1 9,

d ated 1 1th

I nscriptions

Beati Geraldi, qu. Romanesque Art, p . in S ilos" AB 1 939).

9 69-970.

c entury arabes

d 'Espagne,

5 7.

Defourneaux, p . 3 5; 5 0 ( "From Mozarabic

M . to

8 4. GG 1 938, F römista: LXX, 1 5-18, LXXI, 2 2; Leön: XVI, XXII, XXIII, 1 6, 2 0, a lso caulicoles: Leön, XXV, XXVII with a crossbowman, no b olts; J aca: XL,8, a lso with caulicoles, XLI, 1 3 1 4 LI; S antiago: LXXVIII, 2 1, LXXX, LXXXI, LXXXIV, 1 .2. etc. The c haracteristic t reatment o f c aulicoles a s n early vertical and touching corkscrew volutes i s found at S aint-Benoit in t he p orch c apitals and is marked on the Mozarabic capitals of S an Cebrian de Mazote ( Ig. Moz., f ig. 7 3) and E scalada; i t reappears at S aint-Sever-des-Landes ( Gascogne r omane, f ig. 3 2), a nd on this c apital t he h orizontal l eaf cylinder beneath the lowest of three pairs o f c aulicoles or volutes is a l ink with the B erry ( Berry roman, f igs 5 6, 9 3) where it i s typical; t he s imilar c aulicoles at S aint-Benoit will a lso s ignify the Mozarab connexion through G ascony, t he B erry being s trongly under t he influence o f S aint-Benoit in its f irst phase ( E. Vergnolle, " Les c hapiteaux de La B erthenoux..", GBA 1 972, a nd S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire.. 1 985). 8 5. XXV.

Leön: I t i s

i ,.a., GG 1 938, frequent a lso i n

XVI,7; XVII, 9 -10; XXI, Saint-Sernin in Toulouse:

1 03

7 ,8; south

t ransept imposts;

triforium, ( Lyman, 3 1, 3 6 on c apitals.

AB --

1 967,

f igs

2 5,

3 8

on

8 6. H aut-Languedoc roman, f ig. 1 3, door capital; GG 1 938, XVe, ( transept); L . Grodecki, " La s culpture du X Ie s iècle en F rance, Etat d es questions", I nf. d 'Hist. de l 'Art, 3 , 1 958, f ig. p . 1 07: S aint-Benigne i n D ijon, " before 1 017" ( the necks of the monsters g ive an idea f or the Moissac volute s tem s upport); i d., " Les debuts de l a s culpture romane en Normandie, Bernay" BM 1 950. 8 7.

G .

Margais

, AMO,

p .

6 1.

8 8. I n Fez: H . Terrasse, " Chapiteaux omeiyades d'Espagne ä l a mosquee d 'al-Qarawiyyin de F es", a l-Andalus XXVIII/1. p l. 4 ; Madinat a z-Zahra": Maldonado, Mem. Exc. Mezquita de Madinat a l-Zahra" 1 966, p l. XXII; S eville: a l-Andalus 1 966, p l. 8 , and f igs 1 7, 7 5, 5 4 ( drawings of decorative bands). 8 9. Tudela, corbels A4, f ig. 1 04; A8, B3, B4, B5, B6, B7, B 8, B9 ( here the hollowing o f the two straighter folioles i s c lose to the carving t echnique o f the Moissac inscription). Maldonado demonstrates their s imilarity to decoration at Madinat a z-Zahra". 9 0.

L'Art mozarabe,

f ig.

9 1.

I bid.,

2 8.

f igs

1 7,

7 1.

9 2. I bid., f igs 1 4, 1 6; e specially the portico, but inside, f ig. 1 6, the middle capital o f the left-hand row and a f ew others; f or volute stem, f igs 3 2, 3 3; o ther s imilar shaped capitals in S an M iguel de Terrasa, Barcelona ( Palol & H irmer, p l. 4 9). 9 3. L 'Art AHIII, f ig. 9 4. 9 5. 3 0,

GG

mozarabe, 2 70.

1 938,

An early 3 1[?].

p ls

f ig.

2 3.

LIV and LXIX,

f eature:

at

A lso

1 0;

E scalada,

1 1th century Toledo:

LXX,

1 4.

L 'Art mozarabe

f igs

1 9,

9 6. GG 1 938, LXX, 1 4, and LXVIII, 4 , 7 , 1 1. The b ird capital 1 4 has a p lain f illet " heart-and-dart" impost, as a lso 1 6, 1 7, 2 1, 1 1, very much " woodwork" t echnique. 4 , 7 . 1 1 have coiled stems, not l eaves, a ssociated with " snail shells" axial g rooved vertical volutes, " piton", a nd a pendant palmette under the console; the pendant palmette in a heart i s l ess p opular i n Andalusia than e rect, or pendant, l eaf bud or pine cone. I t perhaps came to C ordoba f rom Byzantium with t he dome mosaicist ( cf T udela, f ig. 9 ). Cordoban d esign h as a marked upward turn, i ts motifs r arely droop; the corbel s hell or down-turned l eaf i s the more remarkable. P endant p almettes a lternate with upright ones on a p linth of a pilaster at Madinat a z-Zahra" ( LTB 1 957, f ig. 5 16) and pendant pine cones i n a heart-shaped s tem

1 04

s croll a re quite u sual ( ibid., f igs 5 21, 5 22, 5 23). These i n t he same s cheme as t he T udela pendant p almette a re a d istinctive trait of the r epertoire of S an P ere de Roda and a Narbonne workshop active in t he Rouergue ( J. -Cl. Fau, " Un d ecor original.." p . 1 31 and f ig. 2 ; id., " Le bassin roman de s erpentine du c loitre de Conques" Actes C ongr. Etudes de R odez 1 975, f ig. 3 ). At S antiago, GG 1 938, LXXIX, 1 4. 9 7. A d istinctive Spanish Romanesque f eature, unexplained i conographically, appearing particularly at S antiago, F römista, Jaca ( West door master), t he nave and n orth door o f Leon / and on the " Spanish master capital" in S aintS ernin in T oulouse. I t must originate in heavy a canthus t ips, but assumes i ts own identity. Cabanot Les debuts.. b elieves i t may originate in Gascony; i t i s very marked at H agetmau. 9 8.

cf

the

f leur-de-lis

on the

church bench

from Taüll.

9 9. T udela, XVIIIe, conspicuous on ivories, e .g. EK E lf, n os 2 2, 2 3, 2 6, 2 7, 2 8, 3 5; ( JBCC, p ls 6 , 1 0,7, 1 2, 2 3. The e ffect is attenuated on most Romanesque ivory carving but t he capitals of the arches f raming the apostles on the S S J ohn and P elayo r eliquary o f 1 059 are so t reated ( Palol & H irmer, f igs 6 6, 6 7); S an P ere de Roda: ibid., f ig. 5 2. 1 00. e .g. B yzantium,

Antioch, 5 th century L ondon 1 966, f ig. 3 01.

f rieze,

A .

Grabar,

1 01. Cahn, Doors, p l. 7 f or Le P uy, the upper part of the v ertical batten carrying the Latin inscription; p ls 3 7, 3 9, 4 1, 4 2 f or Chamaliäres; Cahn's p arallel with t he F igeac H omiliary, p l. 4 4 ( Paris, B ib. Nat. l at. 3 783, fol. 5 2), c an hardly bring the quest f or a derivation to an end; the s tems ending i n a c left palmette, i .e., two half-palmettes b ack-to-back, abound in Andalusian decoration: AHIII, f igs 1 10, 1 13; Maldonado, Memoria.. p assim. 1 02. Maillezais, V endee romane, f ig. 2 , " first half o f 1 1th c entury"; F . Garcia-Romo, " Un Taller E scultorico de I nflujo H ispano-musulman en e l Loire Medio ( antes de 1 030-1050)" a l-Andalus, xxv, 1 , p l,. 7 ; S aint-Outrille-en-Gragay, B erry roman, p l. 1 6, " early 1 2th century"; Villesalem, D . J alabert, La f lore..., p l. 4 0d. 1 03. A tendency to bulbous volutes i s evident at S antiago, on t he chevet, on t he c apitals of the P laterias doorway and i n the transepts ( GG 1 938, p ls XCII, XCIII, LXXXII, LXXXIII a nd LXIV). In the transept the b alls on the ends o f acanthus l eaves s erve t he s ame p urpose. C apital 2 of p l. LXXXIV has two registers o f volutes, corresponding to the " snail s hell" of t he " Spanish c apital" at Toulouse s et b elow the volutes on the angle. The same tendency exists at J aca, but in S pain it i s p rimarily at Leön that t he feature i s developed. I t i s marked at La Sauve-Majeure, Agen, Nogaro, Cenac ( J. S ecret, " Les chapiteaux de C enac" AduM 1 963, P. 6 01 n .), and Cuxa. I t i s a lso s een at S aint-Sever-

1 05

des-Landes o n t he earliest p lain l eaf c apitals of t he n orth chapel, G ascogne r omane, f ig. 2 9, a nd o n the f igure c apitals o f the s outh chapels ( Cabanot's s econd phase of s culpture), f igs 3 0-55. I t i s e xaggerated i n t he L ean manner on s ome capitals at H agetmau a nd S aint-Sever-deRustan, i bid., f igs 3 8-44, 8 2, 8 5, a nd at L escar ( Pyrenees r omanes, f igs 9 4. 9 7, 9 8, 1 00, 1 01 [ with t he crossbowman motif u sed here t o do duty for the usual prisoners], 1 03). At L escar t he p eg-legged huntsman of t he mosaic donated by B ishop G ui ( 1115-1141) portrays a Moor, and S panish connexions a re c lear. D urliat does n ot a llow t he " snail s hell" volute to be Spanish but thinks it i s l ocal ( BM 1 971, p . 1 18), possibly developed i n t he Agenais or a t La S auve; i t i s, however d ifficult to l eave out o f account the c apitals o f S an C ebrian de Mazote, and s ome at E scalada. T he appearance o f t his f eature at S aint-Sever p robably ante-dates i t at L eön. I t i s curious that it appears at S antiago i n t he t hree f igured c apitals, t wo with v ersions o f t he h istory o f St F aith and one with a s imilar c omposition but u nidentified s ubject, i n t he chapel o f St F aith and i n the t ransept ( GG 1 938, LXXX and LXXXI: the numbering i s muddled, the central photographs nos 2 3 a nd 2 4 being reversed). These have f requently been c onnected w ith a capital at Conques depicting t he s tory o f S t F aith, s ince t he s ubject a nd t he c omposition with a r ow o f f igures are both s imilar, but S . M. A lvarez h as rejected the i dea o f anything more t han " una mediaciön gräfica" ( "Artistas, p atronos y p ublico en e l arte del C amino de S antiago", Compostellanum XXX 3 -4, 1 985, p . 4 04). T here a re no volutes on t he C onques c apital. 1 04. s ee S . M. A lvarez, " Une s culpture du s tyle de B ernard G ilduin a J aca" BM 1 973, p . 9 n .8; M . D urliat, " Les origines de l a s culpture romane ä T oulouse et ä Moissac" C CM 1 969, p . 3 55 ( "enigmatic", but e lsewhere agrees i t i s S panish); T . W. Lyman, " Notes on t he P orte Miegeville c apitals.." AB 1 967, p . 2 8. A lvarez c alls i t " Frömista-Jaca type". O n one f ace t he f igure i s holding out a folded c loth at both e nds. O n t he i conography o f this motif, L yman, art.cit pp. 2 6-27. 1 05.

AB

1 967,

f ig.

2 6;

H aut-Languedoc roman,

f ig.

3 5.

1 06. GG 1 938, LXIII, 2 3, 1 5. There a re more examples i n the h igher parts o f the building, many b adly worn. Aragon roman f ig. 6 7 s hows the D aniel c apital c learly. H e appears to hold b unched d rapery or a book i nstead of wearing t he f olds on h is chest. 1 07.

G ascogne romane

f ig.

4 1.

1 08. The l ongest foliole extends a lternately above and below t he s tem beyond i t, b ut d oes not curl r ound i t a s at Moissac. The treatment of hems o n t he c apital resembles that o f t he f ragment s et over t he d oorway at Loarre. The a ngels s tand on l ion h eads, the s aint on a p linth o r possibly on s tilts[?] ( p.34).

1 06

1 09. S an M iguel d e F luvia, church d edicated 1 066: W . M. C hapter IV, n . 4 1.

the s ite Whitehill

consecrated 1 045, 1 941, p . 8 3. s ee

1 10. D aniel capital: GG 1 938, LXIII, 1 3; c f. a lso LXII, 7 .9; LXV, 2 5, a motif t aken f rom the C ordoba l eaf r oll c orbel D 16; l aunched e arly at S antiago, GG 1 938, L XXIX, 1 7, 1 8 b ut not much developed i n S pain. Adopted at Moissac, f ig.22, i n B urgundy ( Vezelay, Autun, Anzy, Charlieu), C onques, L a Trinite i n C aen. 1 11. Spiral columns on c apitals: Madinat a z-Zahra", AHIII , f igs 1 14, 1 16-119; Cordoba, f ig. 1 1; Granada ( Loja), LTB 1 957, f ig. 4 75; R ipoll and Cornelha; A ljaferia; S aintB enoit-sur-Loire; discussed by G arcia-Romo, AE 1 954, p . 4 4, w ith i llustrations f or S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire, S aintH ilaire, M eobecq. 1 12. GG 1 938, XLI,9. These capitals at the s outh-west c orner o f the c rossing are usually c lassed with the c apitals o f t he c entral arcades a s o f a l ater c ampaign t han the rest; they d iffer in s tyle, but that i s not necessarily a c hronological d ifference.The t riple b indings a dduced a s a l ate f eature j oin s crolls on the cross o f F ernando and S ancha d ated 1 063 a nd in t he A ljaferia, AHIII , f igs 2 90b, C ; 2 92d, 2 93, 2 99. B inding o f s crolls at Moissac i s t riple, not chevron. 1 13. Tudela p is XL, 2 4; A6, f igs 1 0a, b .

XLI;

the extended

l eaf,

B 6,

B l,

f ig.

1 14. A . Duran Gudiol, E l C astillo de Loarre, Z aragoza 1 971, n ew ed. 1 987; K . Watson, " The c orbels i n the dome o f L oarre", JWCI 1 978, pp 2 97-298, where I a rgue t hat t he c orbels may be e arlier t han those o f T oulouse. 1 15. H uesca under Muslim r ule w as a l ively c ultural c entre and the Mozarab c ommunity was l arge. c f. Pat. L at., f ol. 1 57, col. 5 28 f f: " Dialogi c ontra j udeos" by the convert P edro A lfonso, b aptized i n 1 106. T he Mozarabic B ishop S ancho of Huesca was a person t o be reckoned with. A . D uran G udiol ( Arte A ltoaragones..., Z aragoza, 1 973, p . 4 9) s urmises t hat h is death or r esignation was awaited before i nstalling t he n ew bishopric, p lanned f irst perhaps at L oarre, then i n J aca. The e ldest s on o f K ing S ancho Ramirez o f A ragon, t he f uture P edro I , l ike o thers o f t he k ing's e ntourage, appears t o have received an Andalusian education: he s igned c onsistently i n Arabic, c f. A . D uran G udiol " La I glesia de Aragon" Anthologica Annua, 1 963, pp 1 63, 1 66, 1 69, 1 73, 1 74, 1 81, 1 93; R . Menendez P idal, L a E spana del Cid, p . 5 71. I am much i ndebted to D om Antonio f or his advice and help at L oarre. 1 16. The f irst c ampaign o f building goes well b eyond t he height o f the door, which i s encroached on on the north by t he a isle wall. I have c hecked t his observation on s ite

1 07

( March 1 982) a fter d iscussions w ith C hristopher whom I am much i ndebted. 1 17. T udela, corbel Mosque o f Tudela.

A 9,

f ig.

1 4,

1 08

a f ragment

B ailey,

f rom the

t o

G reat

CHAPTER ANDALUSIAN FEATURES I I.

THE

IV

I N ROMANESQUE

LOBED ARCH

DECORATION

( F21)(1)

P reviously unknown in western architecture though portrayed i n manuscript i llumination ( 2), and of very l imited and modest application i n the East ( 3), the lobed arch appears in a l-Hakam I I's extension to t he Mezquita ( 961-965) a s one of the most striking f eatures of both structure and d ecoration. H ere, at i ts f irst i ntroduction a s a major architectural e lement, it i s a lready treated by the Cordoban architects as a t heme capable o f many variations. I t i nspired a l ong and inventive tradition in Andalusia a nd t he Mahgreb. That some degree of debt i s owed by Romanesque designers to this Cordoban invention i s universally recognized, even t hough f ew c lose correspondences have been established. A summary review of t he types, f unction and geometry of Andalusian l obed a rches i s the necessary context for an examination o f F rench developments. THE Types

of

l obing i n

LOBED ARCH

IN ANDALUSIA

the Mezquita

Type 1 . Lobing may be applied to t he f ace of an arch as a s eries of segments of a small c ircle carved in relief. The earliest known example of this is the oft-quoted great a rch that spanned the gateway at Ctesiphon ( 4). The a rches b etween t he s quinches s upporting the dome over the m ihrab in the Great Mosque of Q airawan f ig.137 are decorated on the same principle; the decoration i s i ndependent o f the voussoir j ointing. With this t ype t he l obes a re no more than an embellishment of an a lready existing arch form. The type i s r are in Andalusia: i t i s s imulated in p laster on a f ew doorway interiors ( AHIII, f ig.138), and on the axial arcades of the mihrab tract the decorative p laster l obed round the back o f the voussoirs of the upper s emicircular arches, giving the uncarved voussoirs a marked f ish-tail extrados ( AHIII f ig.154), are p erhaps an adaptation of t he same principle. I t i s characteristic of one type of French arch, the e arliest known architectural example o f which i s the triforium arches at C luny ( fig.138). Type 2 . A lternatively t he s offit o f an arch may be l obed by suitably shaped the ends of each Noussoir. Again there are modest antecedents i n A sia ( 5). The ancestry of this open form on the l arger scale applied in the Mezquita i n t he 1 0th c entury h as b een explained as an adaptation of t he Roman shell niche, whereby the half-dome behind the face o f t he niche is e liminated to l eave t he s callops o f t he opening profiled on the void. The f luted squinch niches in t he mihrab dome a t Q airawan i llustrate this process. They make this monument once again the l ikely direct inspiration f or Cordoban invention. T he shell i s s till in evidence in

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t he M ezquita a s a immediately a ssociated 1 81).

decorative motif, with l obing ( AHIII

t hough n ever f igs 1 44, 1 57,

Type 3 . An i ntermediate type between t hese open and c losed l obed a rches a rises when t here a re multiple a rchivolts, and one or several of these i s constructed of voussoirs w ith ends a ppropriately s haped. T he l obe i s b lind, b ut t he r elief i s h igher than when t he voussoir f ace i s s imply c arved a s i n type 1 . T his t hird t ype i s f irst f ound at C ordoba, and the majority o f b lind l obes i n the Mezquita a re o f this k ind, w ith an i ndependent a rch f orm c reated by the lobed a rchivolt. An example i s t he second archivolt o f t he central entrance a rch t o a l-Häkam I I's e xtension ( AHIII f ig. 1 39), on t he north f ace o f t he V illaviciosa chapel, made more s triking by the f act t hat the centre i s raised i n r elation to t he centre of t he i nner a rchivolt ( F16). F rench architects a lso f requently l obed the o uter archivolts o f arches, keeping a p lain s offit fo t he opening profiles. Applications o f

Lobing t o Architecture

i n the Mezquita

L obed arches i n t he M ezquita are put t o both s tructural a nd purely decorative u ses. S tructural u ses c omprise: i . The great arches spanning t he three c entral naves at the entrance to t he e xtension of a l-Hakam I I. While t he s offit o f the arch i nto the c entral n ave i s p lain, and the outer archivolt l obed ( type 3 ), on t he s ide a isles t he p osition was reversed, with a l obed inner s offit ( type 2 ) and p lain outer archivolt ( AHIII f igs 1 37, 1 40). i i. The free-standing i nterlacing arches o f the Villviciosa chapel, a nd of t he m ihrab t ract s creens, i n combination w ith round-headed and horseshoe arches ( type 2 ). i ii. T he f ive-lobed s quinch arches of t he mihrab t ract dome ( type 2 ). These are s et under a decorative mitre arch, and both a gain a re under a horseshoe-shaped window; t he b ase o f t he f luted squinches o f t he l ateral d omes ( AHIII f igs 1 43, 1 61) a lso f orms a horizontal f ive-lobed arch. i v. Arches in t he t ransverse a rcade o f a l-Hakam's 1 1th bay, enclosing the maqsura, between columns C and D ( fig.29, p lan)(6), and G and H . V . A surviving f ragment o f one o f A lmanzor's a rches p iercing t he previous e ast wall to g ive a ccess to h is extension ( fi2 .27). I n these l ast t wo examples iv and v , t he l obes are convex. D ecorative u ses c omprise: v i. T he s imulated outer archivolt on t he i nside o f t he main west doorway ( AHIII f ig.138)(7)(type 1 ). v ii. B lind arcading, or a rcades: a . t rilobes a long the top o f t he mihrab a lfiz ( fig. 18). b . t rilobes within t he m ihrab a s s eparate arcades on e ach wall p anel ( fig.18). c . b lind n iches over the windows f lanking one of the west doors ( AHIII f ig.198). v iii. Trilobes i n p laster on the p anels between the s quinches i n t he m ihrab chapel dome ( fig.11).

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E xcept f or t he t rilobes of v iii. which have a ll-over p lant decoration, the l obes o f a ll t he above a rches are, or a re made t o a ppear t o b e, b uilt up f rom voussoirs ( 8). W ithout exception t he extrados i s apparent, a nd i t f ollows t he l ines of t he l obe in every c ase, t hough n ot c oncentric w ith the i ntrados. O n t he inner arches o f the arcade over t he mihrab ( viia) s pace o nly a llows t he back o f t he t op t o b e completed; t he b acks o f t he l ower l obes obscure each o ther, b ut t he e xtrados o f t he l ower l obes o f t he two o utermost arches a re l obed. Lobed round arches are rare i n the Mezquita, the f ew e xamples b eing s imulated i n p laster. T he i nside o f t he main door of a l-Hakam's west f açade ( AHIII f ig.138) h as a s imulated brick a nd s tone archivolt o f n ine l obes, on a c ircle with i ts c entre r aised above that of t he t ympanum, s o a s to f it, a ccording t o an e laborately c alculated mathematical module, a m itre a rch above i t w ithin t he a lfiz ( 9). The uniform arch l ine i s broken because the central l obe i s g iven p rominence w ith more a nd n arrower voussoirs a nd i s peaked, a nd i ts c entre raised. Another door i nterior o n this f açade h as s imulated voussoirs i n r ed a nd white p laster. The extrados has a raised centre and the head o f e ach voussoir i s p ainted in t he contrasting colour w ith t he p oint of a small s eries o f l obes ( 10), g iving the voussoirs a f ish-tail s hape. A door i nterior on A lmanzor's e ast f açade i s s imilarly painted with a band o f small r ed lobes meeting i n t he c entre o f e ach white voussoir, to s imilar e ffect. H ere the e ccentric extrados i s abandoned ( 11). T he m ajority o f C ordoban l obed arches a re open ( type 2 ), and a re based on a pointed arch f orm. The g eometry r equired s ome m anipulation t o a djust t he proportions b etweem the h eight o f the a rch and the radii o f the l obes, e specially a s a m athematical u nit was f requently s ought ( 12). The diagram s ketched under the p laster i n a passage a t M adinat a z-Zahra" ( LTB 1 957 f ig.281) i s evidence o f a p reoccupation with t his d iscrepancy a nd t he p rinciples o f i ts solution. F or varying numbers o f l obes, and e specially when i ntercrossing arches w ere i nvolved, t he d esign n eeded t o b e o f some s ophistication. T here i s great v irtuosity a lso i n t he d ifferent s ystems of voussoir a rrangement that w ere applied henceforth. C . Ewert has s hown i n a s eries o f publications t he growing mastery o f t he g eometry o f i ntersecting arches ( 13), f rom the irregularities r esorted t o i n t he Mezquita to more t heoretically s uccessful f ormulae, through the 1 1th c entury at Malaga and Z aragoza i nto the 1 2th a t A lmeria a nd S oria. None o f t his d evelopment was t aken advantage o f by Romanesque designers. T he t wo l ines o f t rilobe a rcades w ithin a nd above t he m ihrab c an be s een each t o u se a d ifferent design. Over the m ihrab t he central l obes of t he i ntrados a re n ot c ircular a t a ll; t he centres of t he extrados are a lmost at the top o f the s offits. T he two l ower l obes o f e ach arch a re l ess t han a s emicircle a nd their decoration does n ot s imulate voussoirs; they a re t hus s een more a s t he r esult o f the

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f ish-tail s hape of t he i mpost. This w aisted s hape i s g iven s ome prominence a s i t r ecurs t hroughout the mihrab t ract, at t he s pring o f j uxtaposed l obed a nd horseshoe a rches ( AHIII f igs 1 54, 1 56, 1 59, 1 83 etc.). I t possibly had s ome p art i n the waisted s hape of the voussoirs f orming t he points o f o ne t ype o f Romanesque l obed arches, i ncluding a rches at S antiago, C ahors a nd Meymac ( figs 1 41, 1 45, 1 85). I nside the mihrab t he s offits o f t he s eparate t rilobe arches have a t op l obe o f about three-quarters o f a c ircle, o r a s tilted s emicircle, while t he l ower l obes a re s emicircles or l ess; a ll t hree l obes a re o f t he s ame r adius. The c entre o f the extrados o f the top l obe i s raised well a bove t hat o f i ts s offit, l ike a ll t he unlobed a rches o f the extension. T he t rilobe openings between t he r ibs of t he dome of t he entrance c hapel ( Villaviciosa), a nd t he p lasterwork t rilobes contained i n pentagons round t he s pring o f t he r ibs of t he dome o ver t he mihrab t ract, a re s imilar in shape to these t rilobes i nside the mihrab, but t he c entre of t he extrados i s not r aised so h igh. F ikry's s tatement ( 14) that t rilobes based on c oncentric s emicircles " abound" i n t he Mezquita i s t hus i ncorrect. The t op three l obes o f i ntercrossing f ive- or e leven-lobed s tructural a rches on t he east wall o f t he V illaviciosa chapel ( AHIII f igs 1 48, 1 49) might be r ead a s concentric t rilobes, but this i s a ccidental. Apart f rom this ambiguity, t rilobes i n t he M ezquita a re a ll built on equilateral or taller t riangles, c onforming more or l ess c losely ( though r arely q uite r igorously) to t he Madinat a zZ ahra" diagram drawing. Andalusian L obed Arches other than t hose

i n t he Mezquita

T oledo: Cristo de l a L uz. M any of t he openings in the z one b etween the a rcades and the domes i n Cristo de l a L uz ( fig.35) a re t rilobed ( 15). T he " rigorous geometry" i nvoked by F ikry a s c haracteristic o f Andalusian work i s f ar t o s eek: t hey a re a ll b ased on t riangles t aller t han equilateral, but with no overriding ambition to r igour, evidently. Z aragoza: A ljaferia. T hree n ew variants of l obing appear i n t he A ljaferia. They appear i n the f ollowing l ist a s x iii, x iv a nd x v, a fter t he d ifferent s hapes evolved on n onarchitectural decoration. Andalusian decorative c arving p rovides wider variety of trilobe s hapes, a nd s ome f orms c loser to c oncentric t ypes.

examples o f a f ragments s how

i x. The a rcade f raming rosettes, carved on a marble p laque f ound i n t he A lcazaba o f M alaga ( AHIII f ig.243c), i s a v ery f lattened t rilobe built on a c hord s horter than t he d iameter; the t hree l obes f orm o nly three-quarters o f a s emicircle.

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x . The intrados of t he arch on a f ragment of s tucco wallf acing f rom the baths of the Cordoba A lcazar ( AHIII f ig. 2 37 " painted i n red, y ellow and b lack") i s c lose to the Madinat a z-Zahra" d iagram s cheme; the centre o f t he extrados i s set on the c ircumference of the top lobe. x i. A lmanzor's marble b asin in S eville ( AHIII f ig.249) t rilobes c onsiderably s teeper than t he equilateral. t rilobes on the f açade of S aint-Etienne in Nevers s imilar in s hape ( fig 1 55).

h as The are

x ii. I n the 1 1th century the trend towards s teeper arches i ncreased; t he P alencia c asket has t rilobes with v ertical s ides ( AHIII f ig.369). x iii. The polylobed portico in the A ljaferia ( fig.139) f oreshadows the narrow pointed arches o f A lmoravid a rchitecture in N orth A frica and S pain ( 16) and the l ong p oints, l ightened by notches in the depth o f the relief, f oreshadow t he d elicate l ambrequins of A lmohad l obes ( 17). x iv. The arcadjng round the gallery of the oratory in the A ljaferia ( fig. 5 1 ) i s an interlace with p lain horseshoes o f nine-lobed arches, with each lobe l ess than a halfc ircle ( the c usps a re e longated to d isguise this); in t he p rocess the interlace creates f ive-lobed arches on an e quilateral triangle. These a re echoed on some c apitals ( fig. 4 0 x v. On the l ower order the mixtilinear arches s uggest at t he notched a ngles t he r ather wide-angle d ouble points o f s ome Romanesque l obes ( Journe : . 4-W V ) ; the spring has a c onvex curve which in Cairo on t he Bab Z uweila ( 1087) f ig.140 was to b e even more pronounced, and above it a curl which anticipates the solutions arrived at i n some L imousin e xamples s uch as Meymac, Collonges, P alisse or Tulle ( figs 1 41-144). S ome capitals in t he A ljaferia are decorated with l obed arches with p eaked tops harking back to c aliphal f antasy ( f ig. 3 32 ) . They l ook f orward to A lmoravid c onceits in Marrakesh and Fez ( second third of the 1 2th c entury)( AHIII f igs 1 38, 2 49, 3 34-7). LOBED ARCHES

IN MOZARAB AND EARLY ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE IN NORTHERN SPAIN

Lobed arches are not known on any Mozarab buildings; o ccasionally they appear i n Mozarab i lluminations ( 18) but n ever with the consistency, with which horseshoe arches o ccur f or e xample, to s ignify a s pecial a ffinity. Nor do many l obed arches survive on early Romanesque buildings in S pain. The great-exception i s at S antiago de Compostela ( 19), where they must be among the earliest on any C hristian buildings. The t ransept a rches into t he c rossing o f San I sidoro in Leön are a lso l obed; their date i s unknown.

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At S antiago concentric f ive-lobed a rches in t he a xial c hapel o f S an S alvador, one of the e arliest parts o f t he buildings, a re known f rom an o ld print ( 20) . S imilar a rches s urvive over t he P laterias d oorways ( fig.145) a nd on the t ransept gables where a f ive-lobed concentric a rch a lternates with m itre a rches. R ound t he apse a re b lind t rilobe n iches on colonnettes; t hey appear t o b e concentric. Corbels p revent t he extrados s howing c learly, but i t appears f rom photographs t o b e l obed a lso ( 21). H ere a s w ith t he P laterias f ive-lobed a rches, t he j oints o f e ach l obe converge on the c entre o f t he l obe. This practice i s unknown i n Andalusia, t hough a s was n oted e arlier t he s ame f ish-tail shape which i s c aused f rom s uch j ointing i s insistent i n t he maqsura a rcades as an e ffect o f t he horseshoe arch f orms, on the many imposts o f the multiple arches. T he transept arches i n the crossing at S an I sidoro a re ( 22) o f s ix and t wo half-lobes; t he h alf-lobes r est o n a t all vertical impost, which corresponds t o the s tilted r ound-headed o rder o f t he nave arcades. T he l obes a re s emicircular and t angent, c onstructed with f inely c ut n arrow v oussoirs whose j oints c onverge on o ne c entre o nly. I n t he west wall a lso a s ix-lobed doorway with a concentric horseshoe extrados was p ierced to g ive a ccess to t he P anteön f rom t he new church dedicated i n 1 149 ( 23). T he Arca S anta i n O viedo ( fig 1 46) h as a f ive-lobed arch s cratched on o ne o f t he p anels under t he s ilver s heet, among other experimental l ines drawn w ith compasses ( 24). T he arch i s two-centred, t he t op l obe h as a considerably l arger d iameter t han the rest, and t he l obes are not e xactly tangent at t he p oints ( 25). I t i s on t his g reat r eliquary, donated t o t he cathedral by A lfonso VI and his s ister U rraca i n 1 075, that t he f ront a nd s ide panels w ith t heir embossed and g ilded s cenes are bordered w ith c ontinuous K ufic i nscriptions ( mostly meaningless, f ig. 8 1). T he " tomb of Mudarra" f rom S an P edro d e Arlanza ( 26), r emoved from t he c loister to t hat o f t he cathedral in B urgos, i s inscribed with the date 1 105 ( era 1 143). I t i s i n t he f orm o f a doorway b lock with a r ound e leven-lobed arch f raming twin l obed arches. T he l obes a re r ound horseshoes, each on a s eparate voussoir, a nd wide a part. T he cornice c rowning the s tructure i s s upported on r oll corbels o f t he d ouble roll t ype known f rom G ormaz a nd S ilos ( Chap.V), except f or one of t he two c entral ones which has a l ion h ead a nd no r olls. I n c onnection with this s tructure t wo l ater S panish examples c laim attention h ere: the w ooden church b ench f rom T aüll a nd a s tone w indow. Though the arches are not l obed b ut edged w ith Romanesque b illet moulding, t he 1 2th c entury wooden c hurch b ench f rom S ant C liment d e Taüll in B arcelona Museum ( figs 1 00,101) i s s ufficiently c lose i n d esign to the A rlanza

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stone s tructure, a nd t o t he s tone window o f R ebolledo de l a Torre f ig.147 ( probably o f l ater date than Mudarra's t omb) to s uggest once a gain that woodwork s hared l argely i n t ransmitting i deas of d esign a nd detailing t hroughout t he Romanesque period. The details o f this rare s urvival are common t o I slamic and R omanesque d ecoration. T he p iece h as horizontal l ines of l obing above and b elow t he t riple a rcade. A long t he c rest t he l obes a re n otched to g ive a n e ffect l ike t he a rches on the towers of L a-Charité-surL oire. T he l argest l obes, a long t he f oot, h ave a grooved border and are immediately r eminiscent o f t he l obes on a ltar t ables. T here a re t races o f p aint r emaining. P olychrome, s lender columns ( F8), trefoil motifs between t he arches, l attice work, h orseshoe a rches, o culus o r rosette ( D15), s tars ( D3) and s tepped motif a long t he base ( F18) a re a ll typical o f I slamic practice, b ut not exclusive t o i t: this i s not a mudgjar . but a C atalan Romanesque a rtifact, exhibiting t he extent o f a c ommon t radition with Andalusian work. THE P revious S tudies F rance ( 27)

LOBED ARCH IN F RANCE

and C lassifications

o f

the Lobed Arch

i n

F ikry d ivided Romanesque l obed a rches into two groups o n t he c riterion o f f idelity t o E uclidian p rinciples, i n t he l ast resort o n whether or not t he a rches and their l obes conform t o p erfect c ircles or s emicircles. A f irst g roup " following the r igid geometry o f the Arabs" he c entred on L e P uy, whose monuments, i ncluding their l obed a rches, he argued must have been designed by an architect f amiliar w ith I slamic p ractice. H is s econd g roup was one h e e xplained a s influenced by manuscript i lluminations or by d esigns on p ortable objects, a nd w ith no d irect r elation t o I slamic architecture. He demonstrated how s imilarity to t he f irst group waned a s proximity t o L e P uy g rew l ess, a nd d educed f rom this f act t hat L e P uy was the s *ource o f the f eature. T his c lassification produced a reasonable contrast i n d istribution: c oncentric l obed a rches t end t o c luster r ound the M assif C entral, the f reer f orms being mostly f ound further west. F ikry l ent g reat importance, a s proof o f I slamic o rigin, to s trict g eometry in t he d esign o f t he l obes on t he Le P uy monuments; however, in c omplete contrast to t he variety and, i n many c ases, s ophistication o f C ordoban t rilobes and f ive-lobed a rches, those f eatured at L e P uy a re constructed on t he s implest possible geometry: they r equire no mathematical preparation and are b ased on a d ivision o f concentric s emicircles i nto three, f our o r f ive s egments, s uch a s c an be achieved with any p air o f c ompasses a nd a s traight e dge. We f ind none o f t he s ubtleties i n p lacing the c entres o f pointed arches, or i n p lanning t he voussoir j ointing, t hat a re t he raison d 'être o f t he l obed arch d esigns in Cordoba or Z aragoza. As noted i n Chapter I I t he number o f round-headed a rches decorated

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with l obes on Andalusian buildings i s e xtremely small, a nd what examples there a re o ffer e laborations unheeded by t he L e P uy d esigners. H eliot amplified Mäle's two c ategories o f F rench l obed arches: those w ith l obed s offits a nd t hose with l obes c arved only on the f ace. H e i ntroduced a new category by n oting t he undulating f orm o f some l obes, c onsisting o f l ess t han a h alf c ircle, most f requent on doorways i n t he a rea r ound L imoges a nd a sociated with " Limousin" t orus moulding ( see n .98). I n geographical d istribution t his L imousin g roup l ies half w ay b etween F ikry's " geometric" L e P uy group in t he Massif C entral, and much of h is derived o r non-Islamic group in t he west. H eliot thus made a t hreef old c lassification: f irst, f ollowing F ikry, a " group s howing direct Muslim i nspiration emanating f rom L e P uy i n the l ate 1 1th century", mainly c onsisting o f b lind trilobes; s econd, t he " Limousin" group whose beginnings h e p laced s outh o f the L imousin, in Q uercy, with the s outh door o f C ahors i n t he s econd decade of t he 1 2th c entury; third, a p roliferation mainly i n west France, and l argely i n t he l ast q uarter o f t he 1 2th century, by which t ime h e considered l obed a rches e stablished a s n ative practice, not e ssentially dependent on Muslim examples n or t he i nfluence o f the p ilgrimage r oute t o S antiago, t hough with p eriodic approximations to S panish or N orth A frican f orms. T his chronology will need s ome revision. S ince v irtually a ll R omanesque l obed arches a re i ncluded i n an area west and south o f the R höne, S aöne a nd L oire, H eliot concluded that i t must b e f rom S pain t hat t he l obed arch f irst entered F rench architectural decoration i n t he l ate 1 1th c entury, a nd t hat i ts d iffusion was d ue t o the opportunities o ffered f or contact with Spain by t he p ilgrimage t o Compostela and t he C luniac i nvolvement i n t he Spanish church; t hat s tarting with t he g eometry t o be a chieved with r uler and compasses, f rench builders s oon e laborated t heir own, n on-Islamic r epertoire: t he s imple examples o f L e P uy and C luny were f ollowed by the f irst i ndependent d esign at C ahors, a nd t he e laboration o f l obe design i n the c entre of France, i nitiated a t Cahors, was independent o f a ny b ut l ocal i nspiration. E . Vergnolle i n her thesis of 1 966 m ade a detailed s tudy o f l obed a rches i n t he c entre a nd w est of F rance, s upplementing and c orrecting F ikry's l ists, and preceding h er s tudy by a r eview o f I slamic e xamples. S he f ollowed H eliot i n r egarding t he s outh door o f Cahors cathedral a s t he earliest i n F rance with a l obed i nner p rofile, a nd a s the prototype f or t he s eries o f L imousin l obed dooways. These i n their turn s he s aw a s t he decisive i nfluence on arches o f various u ses in t he Angoümois and S aintonge. The C ahors doorway t herefore a sssumes p articular importance in h er analysis, s ince i t " contains a ll t he e lements that w ere developed s eparately a fterwards"; t hese e lements w ere n ot Andalusian. She c oncluded that no more than the basic i dea o f t he l obed arch h ad b een t aken f rom Muslim models;

1 16

Romanesque s culptors c oncentrated their i nterest a nd experiments on t he decoration and form o f the point between t he l obes, while t he t endency o f Muslim a rch d esign was t owards an e laboration i n s eries by i nterlacing and other r epetitive l inear devices. C lassification The chronology o f F ikry, H dliot and V ergnolle i s brought i nto question by much work ( not l east t heir own) s ince 1 970 ( 28). B uilding on t heir analyses o f F rench l obed arches, their c lassifications c an be amplified i nto a s eries of r epresentative examples and areas whose l ocations s how a typological progression moving r oughly f rom e ast t o west across F rance. Lobed arches i n F rance will be examined h ere u nder t he f ollowing r ubrics: I . C luny: a rches decorated with multiple b lind l obes ( Ctesiphon or a ltar table type). I I. Rhone and Velay: concentric a rch geometry f or t rilobes and derivatives ( Santiago type). I II. Q uercy and L imousin: i . undulating L imousin moulding; i i. l obes with volute or e laborated points; p arallels with 1 1th a nd 1 2th c entury A ndalusia ( Cahors t ype). Volute points l ater s pread to t he west. I V. Convex l obes: a miscellany, E gyptian and North A frican p arallels. V . S aintonge, Angoümois, B erry: edged l obes, a r enewed r eference t o Andalusian models. V I. S ome l obed a rches d epicted i n s culpture. I .

C luny:

t he

t ransept a rcades

( fig.

1 38).

The arris o f the s hallow niches o f the t riforium i n t he t ransept o f C luny I II i s c arved in l ow r elief with a s eries of round horseshoe-shaped l obes. T hese a re not tangent, b ut s et m ore or l ess regularly at s hort i ntervals. The c losest parallel for this embellishment i s t o b e found on t he s emicircular a rches b etween t he s quinches s upporting t he mihrab dome at Qairawan ( fig.137)(29). S antiago might h istorically be l ooked t o a s l ikely to have p rovided t he d irect model f or C luny, b ut t he l obes o f the surviving examples there, on the t ransept gables and over t he P laterias d oorway, a nd t he t rilobes r ound t he apse exterior, are s emicircles, are i ndependently j ointed and have t angent l obes; Q airawan w ith o nly a pproximate c ircle s egments c arved i nto the a rch f ace, and t he l obes not tangent, i s i n t his r espect a c loser p arallel. I f t he C luny a rches were a d irect c opy o f s ome model, i t h as n ot survived. A ssociated

f eatures

i n t he C luny t ransept.

Other f eatures i n the t ransept are consistent with a western I slamic i nspiration f or t he l obed a rches ( 30). These arches are s eparated by f luted p ilasters c rowned by acanthus c apitals which, a lternating with c orbels, s upport

1 17

a cornice on which s tand t he r ectangular p linths of t he twin t apered columns ( F6) o f the c lerestory. i . T he corbels have a r ectangular v ertical f ace and b illet moulding o n t he s cotia c urve. The s hape i s more C ordoban than c lassical; t he b illet moulding on c orbels i s a f requent Romanesque development f rom t he roll motif ( 31). i i. A t Q airawan t apered c olonnettes, t heir bases resting a lso on p rojecting rectangular p linths, s upport the a rcade f raming t he s quinches a nd i ntermediary n iches o f the m ihrab dome. At Cordoba s imilar c olonnettes s upport the arcading over a . t he m ihrab ( AHIII f igs 1 68-169); b . t he trilobe arcades inside t he mihrab ( AHIII f ig.180); c . the arcade round the u ppper l evel o f the V illaviciosa chapel ( AHIII f ig. 1 48); and d . the s imilar arcades under and in t he maqsura domes ( 154). i ii. T he l arger acanthus c apitals on t he columns s upporting t he entrance arch i nto t he C luny t ransept a re genetically s imilar to capitals o f t he 9 th and early 1 0th century a t Cordoba ( AHIII f igs 5 1ff, 8 1; L TB 1 957 f igs 4 71-473), particularly t he l iking f or a t riangular h ollow under t he volute, and the p lain wedge treatment o f t he acanthus stems ( less marked, i n fact, in t he Mezquita than e lsewhere o n Andalusian c apitals)(32) and t he c rossed s tem motif ( D1). i v. T he c olonnettes u nder t he r ibs in t he c entral maqsura dome at Cordoba are paired ( F6), a s are the columns between t he windows o f t he c lerestory above t he l obed a rches of t he C luny triforium. v . F luted pilasters are, o f course, a c lassical feature; i t i s o ne much u sed i n a l-Hakam I I's e xtension o f t he Mezquita. A ltar

Table

I nfluence

O n t he other hand, neither Q airawan nor Cordoba h as l obes continuing below t he s pring o f an a rch, n or h as S antiago. The s eries o f S yrian and P yrenean a ltar tables bordered w ith l obes ( 33), s ome i n t he s hape of a s tilted arch, and w ith horseshoe-shaped l obes, provides a possible i nspiration f or this a spect o f t he C luny t ransept a rches: a p articularly attractive hypothesis s ince a l obed a ltar t able w as at C luny by 1 095 ( 34). This v ery a ltar c annot b e the exclusive i nspiration however b ecause the C luny a ltar l obes a re e xactly s emi-circular, not h orseshoe-shaped, a nd they do not end at t he edge of a p lane; the similarity o f t he triforium a rches to t he C luny a ltar i s t herefore l ess s triking t han t o other l obed a ltars o r mensae ( figs 1 48, 1 49)(35). T he t riforium l obes have no i ncised outline, unlike most a ltar t able l obes; i t may well be however that t hey were originally painted with an outline. Andalusian arches were p ainted ( 36), a nd the T aüll b ench a lso has traces o f paint. I t i s carved with both p lain and outlined l obes, and i s a r eminder o f t he possibility of i nspiration f rom w ooden models. A ltar tables a lso may have b een painted. The l obing o f t he t ransept a rches may b e p rimarily an adoption f rom wooden f urniture or t he bases o f s tatues. The f ragment o f

1 18

t he tomb o f S t H ugh i n t he M usge O chier s hows h is e ffigy s tanding o n a p linth w ith s hallow l obes c arved a long the b ase, as on t he T aüll bench and t he l id of t he s hrine o f B ishop U lger ( 37). C luny Doorway

( fig .

1 58)

The i nner a rchivolt o f t he g reat doorway o f C luny I II r epeats t he l obe motif o f t he t riforium a rches with a ngels e nclosed i n horseshoe l obes ( 38), s uggesting a conscious connexion b etween doorway a nd i nterior ( 39). This f eature o n the portal h ints even more s trongly t han the triforium a rches at l inks with t he marble atelier r esponsible f or t he s eries of 1 0th and 1 1th century l obed a ltar t ables, not o nly b ecause o f t he l obes, but t hrough c orrespondences o f t he C luny a rchivolt decoration both with the f igures i n m edallions on t he T oulouse a ltar ( 40), one o f t he m asterpieces o f t he atelier, and with the h eads i n s crolls o f t he S an .P ere de R oda doorstep ( fig.151). This doorstep, a nd even more emphatically t he l intel a nd threshold f ragments by the s ame workshop f rom P erpignan ( 41) with g uilloche border, l ion heads c arved i nside l obes ( fig.150) a nd l arge r osettes at the corners ( these a lso b eloved o f B urgundian s culptors) a re other examples of t he application o f the " altar t able" s tyle o f decoration t o doorways, i n t hese cases by t he m akers o f the a ltar t ables themselves. Reference t o t he s anctuary made on the doorway was not n ew at C luny, or even at P erpignan; i t i s n ot a c lassical n or an oriental practice however, but C ordoban. What c an be r egarded a s t he I slamic equivalent o f t he apse w ith i ts a ltar, the mihrab, i s deliberately imitated on the doorways o f t he Mezquita; t he P uerta S an E steban i s t he earliest o f monumental doorways on a r eligious building west o f the E uphrates; i ts r eference to a m ihrab i s p atent. I n v iew o f t he f amiliarity o f the marble s culptors o f t he e ast P yrenean s eaboard r egion w ith Cordoban t raditions o f d esign ( 42) i t may be p ostulated that their a ssociations with C luny contributed t o an Andalusian e lement at C luny, and, i ncluded i n this, t o the d ecision to make the doorway an a nnouncement of t he s anctuary. T he d ecision, h owever it was i nspired, was a momentous one for mediaeval architecture. T he dominance o f c lassical i nfluence on b oth t he west door d esign at C luny ( triumphal a rches) and t he t riforium ( tapered c olonnettes, f luted p ilasters a nd a canthus c apitals) i s undeniable, but that does not exclude a c ontribution f rom an Andalusia e qually i ndebted to the c lassical tradition. T he doorway l obes, l ike the s hape o f t he triforium corbels, a re a p ersuasive i ndication that t he C ordoban t reatment o f c lassical themes p layed a part i n the h andling o f c lassical themes at C luny. E ven i f s ubordinate, a n Andalusian i nfluence must be admitted t o exist h ere ( 43). T o S ummarize

1 19

T he f eatures d istinguishing t he t riforium l obes ( 44) are f ive: i . T heir l ow r elief, c arved i nto a n a lready-built a rch f ace. Precedents are the great a rch at C tesiphon, d ome arches at Q airawan, a ltar t ables. L ow r elief i s n ot c onfined t o the C luny group of l obed arches: i t i s a lso characteristic o f many a rches o f " Le P uy type" to b e t reated in the next s ection. The l obed decoration at C luny m ay well have p romoted t he adoption o f t he l obe motif d own t he Rhöne a nd i n t he Velay, but t he prevalence i n t hose areas o f t he t rilobe, a nd adherence i n design to an a rch constructed on concentric s emi-circles w ithin which t angent l obes a re i nscribed, j ustifies t heir c lassification a s a s eparate g roup o f which the earliest e xamples s urviving a re at S antiago, n ot C luny. i i. T he horseshoe or s tilted s hape o f the l obes. P recedents a re again Q airawan and certain a ltar t ables, t hough n ot t he s urviving a ltar at C luny i tself. The windows o f Asturian churches, S an Miguel d e L if io i n particular, are p ierced with h alf or complete r osettes, s ome o f which h ave horseshoe-shaped " petals" ( fig.152). i ii. T he absence o f any c arved outline, extrados or embellishment. The precedent i s again to be f ound at Q airawan a nd on s ome a ltar t ables. i v. T he arrangement a long the e dge t hey d ecorate: t he l obes are n ot tangent and are thus s eparated by b lunt points, detracting f rom the impression o f geometric r igour. B lunt points, o f c ourse, f ollow , n ecessarily f rom h orseshoes haped l obes. P recedents are a ltar t ables where l obes, whether half-circle or horseshoe, a re s paced; Q airawan, where the w idth o f t he point i s not d ictated by the s hape o f t he l obes; C tesiphon, where a lso t he l obes a re n ot t angent; t he P erpignan t hreshold and l intel. v . L obes r unning down t he j ambs. E arlier examples o f l obed j ambs a re unknown. P recedents: s ome mensae r ounded at o ne e nd a nd r ectangular at t he o ther ( 45), l obing o f w ooden objects, i lluminated page borders, exterior o f the dome o f S ousse Great M osque. N one o f these f ive f eatures i s l ike the Andalusian t reatment o f l obes; t he i nfluence o f C luny, r ather t han S pain, must have disseminated them i n F rance. A rches decorated with b lind l obes c arved o n t he arch f ace a re f ound f rom t he Rhöne t o the Atlantic; with o ur knowledge o f t he u se of l obed a rches at C luny l imited to t he s urviving t riforium and t he r econstruction o f the w est door, her i nfluence c an only be c onfirmed where a . t he l obe t ype i s s imilar, i n one or more of t he f ive ways l isted a bove, to the triforium or t o the doorway l obes, or a s on an a ltar t able; b . t he application i s s imilar, which i s to s ay e ither when i nterior a rcades o r a rches are l obed, or ( which was C luny's most i nspired a nd f ertile c ontribution to l obed decoration) when l obes a re applied t o doorway arches. A s election o f examples whose main the traditions e stablished at C luny will

1 20

d ependence i s on n ow be proposed,

t aking t hem f irst by l obe type in descending o rder of their c loseness to the C luny model and then by s imilarity o f application. As t hey a ppear on e ach example t he f eatures i v summarized above w ill be n oted i n brackets. E xamples of

t he

I nfluence o f

C luny.

a .

S imilar

L obe

T ypes

( Saint-Lazare, A utun [ i -v]; T ournus [ i,ii,iv]; L es A ix d 'Angillon [ i,ii,iv]; Nevers, S aint Etienne a nd S aint-Cyr ( cathedral) [ iiv]; V ire [ iiv]; D ore l 'Eglise [ i,iii,iv]; P arassy [ i,iii,v]; L a Charité-sur-Loire [ iii,iv]; C atus [ i,ii,iii,v]; M ontbron [ i,ii,iv]; T rizay; P lassac; Agudelle; Vandre [ i,ii,iv]; L adignac [ ii-iv]; S oye-enS eptaine [ i,iv]; L e V illars [ i,iii,iv]. The t riforium arches i n the apse o f S aint-Lazare at A utun a re e xact c opies of those at C luny ( 46). E lsewhere t he distinctive f eatures noted above a re f ound i solated, adapted i n various ways or a ffected by other t ypes. O ften l obes are s emicircular; many do not end at a n arris; i n s ome c ases t he points r eceive special a ttention a nd a re embellished; i n o thers the r elief i s heightened or the l obes form a s eparate archivolt a s at S antiago. The h igh a rches on the c rossing tower at T ournus f ollow next a fter A utun a s n ear-relations o f t he C luny t riforium l obed arches ( Bourgogne romane, f igs 2 4,25). E ach arch h as n ine s paced round horseshoe l obes c ut i nto t he surface of t he a rch f ace, d isregarding t he j ointing. T hey are s eparated by f luted p ilasters. Modifications o f t he C luny example a re t hat there i s a c lear l ine a long t he ( unlobed) extrados and the l obing i s restricted t o the archivolt: i t r ests on c olonnettes s upporting c apitals. O n t he courses below these arches the h orizontal l ine o f m iniature l obing i dentical with t hat on t he t ower at C luny appropriately recalls a F irst Romanesque corbel t able a s a l ink with t he l ower p art o f t he t ower and other earlier p arts of the building ( cf a lso t he T aüll bench). The c arved band of r osettes a nd c ircles f ramed i n a rcades, a gain imitating the C luny t ower, evokes the b acini i ncrustations which were a characteristic I talian response t o I slamic d ecoration. D ramatically e nhanced i nterpretations o f this t heme, with masks a s well a s p lant r oundels o r r osettes f ramed i n t rilobe a rches a re f ound r eused from t he R omanesque church at S aint-Maurice i n V ienne ( 47). I f G aillard's chronology b e c orrect, t he l atter stand at o r n ear the head o f the F rench t rilobe s eries to be discussed in t he n ext s ection. T he t heme, r osette in trilobe, i s f amiliar f rom Andalusia ( AHIII f ig.243)(48). O n a group o f doorways i n t he B rionnais i ncluding B elleville, S alles, S emur, L a B enisson-Dieu, t he r osette has been attached a s a splayed palmette t o the p oints themselves, i n s hallow decorative t rilobes, w idely s paced to g ive f ull s cope t o the e laborated points so that t hey o ccupy t he whole s pace o f t ympanum ( fig.153)(49).

1 21

T he mid-12th century c hurch o f S oye-en-Septaine ( Cher) h as a n i ntermediary a rchivolt o f 1 5 h orseshoe l obes in t he doorway arch, s et under a horizontal corbel table. T he t ympanum o f t he d oorway o f L e V illars ( S&L) i s b ordered w ith l ittle b lunt-point l obes. T he l ow r elief lobe o f C luny t riforium i s r eproduced e xactly o n impost b locks a nd a rchivolts i n the s mall decorative arcades r ound t he e xterior o f t he a pse o f L es A ix d 'Angillon ( Cher) f ig.154. S imilar small t ympana decorated with twin l obes, a nd i n o ne c ase with a r osette ( fig.184) a re e ncrusted i nto the n orth wall o f t he c athedral o f N evers, c learly r eused, and o ver t he l obed doorway o f S aint-Hilaire ( Cher) f ig.156. A c lose i mitation o f t he C luny t riforium type i s t he archivolt o f t he b locked north door at Virg, a f ew k ilometres e ast o f C luny, where t he a rch i s even f lanked by f luted p ilasters a s a t C luny. At D ore l 'Eglise ( PdeD) s imilar but s emicircular l obes d ecorate t he o uter archivolt o f the doorway. O n both these arches the l obes appear to h ave b een c arved a fter t he a rch was b uilt, or at l east l aid o ut, w ith no correspondence between l obe a nd voussoir. At P arassy ( Cher, c lose by L es A ix d 'Angillon) t he l obes o nly d iffer f rom those of C luny i n being s emi-circles ( fig.157): t hey a re s hallow, c arved i n the f ace of t he a rch, not o utlined, not tangent, a nd t hey r un a ll down t he j ambs. T he s offits o f the arcading i n a nd outside La Charites ur-Loire ( fig.37) a re c arved with small l obes built of i ndependent voussoirs with s haped ends. They resemble C luny in b eing spaced, not c ontiguous c ircles. T he l ine j oining the points o f the l obes f orms a semicircle while the b eaded extrados i s round on t he i nterior arcading of t he apse, but two-centred on the exterior arcades; i t runs c lose t o the b acks o f t he l obes, a voiding a ny s imilarity to the Andalusian raised extrados ( 50). T he enriched rectangular c olonnettes s upporting them h owever a re r eminiscent o f a lH akam I I's c entral arcade. T hey a re f ound again at P laimpied i n t he B erry ( figs 292 , 3 8). L adignac g ives another r are e xample of a s offit c ut with C luny-type l obes. O n the windows o f t he c hapter house at C atus ( Lot, f ig.159) l obes a re carved on t he f ace of t he a rches. T hey h ave an i ncised outline ( 51) but t he r elief a nd b asic arrangement i s modelled on C luny; a n engraved b order and c onvex rosettes s tress the debt t o the marble atelier t radition, b ut more i mmediate i s l ikely to be t he example o f the convex r osettes which b edizen the north door of S aint-Etienne, C ahors. T he l obed arch i s not a n early f eature in the s outhwest a nd west o f F rance ( 52), and by t he time i t was adopted there many models were a vailable and o riginal s ources l ess i n evidence, combined o r r evised. T he C luny p recedent i s still apparent however at Montbron i n the S aintonge ( fig.160), on t he outer a nd t he s econd a rchivolt. The l obes are stilted or horseshoe-shaped and carved i n low r elief i nto t he arch f ace. U nlike t he C luny model t he l obes

1 22

a re t hemselves e nriched, i mitating m etal o r i vory work r ather than t he p roducts o f the marble atelier, which a s f ar as i s k nown never r eached f uther west than L imoges ( 53). The type o f l obing at L a C harité appears t o h ave b een a dominant i nfluence on a n umber o f b uildings in t he west; f or examples, o n arcades at T rizay and P lassac ( fig.161) a nd a window at Agudelle, where there i s added e nrichment o f t he intrados ( 154). O n t he f açade a t V andrd. ( CM) t he l ower voussoirs a re s haped into small s paced l obes; above, t he spaces a re f illed with t riple points of evolved " Cahors t ype", perhaps an i llustration o f the w ay t he e laborated p oint evolved.

C ombination with C hevron: Overlappings P oints ( Parassy, L es A ix d 'Angillon, Nogent, P ezou, Arlempdes, B ains, L andos, L e P uy porche du F or, P errecy l es F orges, N ogaro). The chevron o rnament on t he o uter order o f the P arassy doorway s uggests that a c ombination o f C luny l obing w ith t his northern motif ( 54) l ies at the origin o f a popular 1 2th c entury e laboration o f l obed decoration on outer a rchivolts: this consists o f deepening the hollow at the b ack o f t he l obes to s uggest a s cotia moulding behind, and a torus i n f ront, with the points o f t he l obes l apping a cross t he hollow to r est on t he torus. R estoration at t he h ead o f P arassy doorway has produced t his developed form by e mphasizing what was originally no more than a s light d ifference of r elief; this c an b e s een at t he unrestored f oot of t he j amb. At Les A ix d 'Angillon ( fig.162) the developed f orm i s u sed on a lternate arches o f the triforium. T he nave arcades a re two-centre a rches, reminiscent of t he n ave a rcades o f C luny and A utun. T he small r aised r osettes ( F4) i n the s pandrels o f t he a rches below, i mitated f rom C luny, a re e vocative o f s imilar medallions i n the s ide tracts o f the maqsura o f Mezquita: a f requent motif i n I slamic a rchitecture f ig.11 ( 55). At Nogent-le-Bernard ( Sarthe) the c hevron and l obes a re associated. N ot f ar away, at P ezou ( fig.163), u p-river f rom Vendöme, t he c hevron a rchivolt f rames c onvex-lobed c ushion voussoirs more f amiliar f urther s outh, at P oitiers a nd beyond ( fig 2 09)(56). I n the Velay, a t Arlempdes, B ains ( fig.164) and L andos t he doorways each h ave l obes with overlapping points; i n t he P orche du F or on the east d oor i nto t he s outh t ransept o f the cathedral a t L e P uy, r elief l obes overlap a f acetted i ntrados ( fig.165)(57). As earlier at P errecy-les-Forges t he points wrap r ight round the torus, implying a row o f c ircular holes in a c asing, i llustrated complete in an a rch o f the canon tables of T heodulf's B ible a t L e P uy, and c arved on t he o uter a rchivolt of t he doorway o f C luny I II. T his threading o f the torus i s done a gain at Nagar°, ( we

1 23

r emember t he a ffiliation o f B igorre to L e P uy i n 1 062) on the a rches o f t he chapter house and i t i s r epeated vertically on the p ilasters ( fig.166). There s eems to b e a r eturn to C luny h ere, t his t ime to t he doorway l obes and medallions. I n this f orm with overlapping p oints the C luny type of l obe h as h ad a w ide d issemination ( 58). I ts most imaginative exploitation was i n the west o f France, w here i t p layed a part in t he development o f b eak-head o rnament on the one hand, a nd t he s ingular Aquitanian human- and horse-head v oussoired d oorways on t he other, in a f ertile c ombination with t he a nimal h ead t radition, w elle stablished i n t he l ocal c orbel s culpture. T here a s eries o f occasional d etails s ignifies a f resh current o f Andalusian i nfluence s ome decades l ater than C luny ( 59). S calloped P rofile ( Moissac, B eaulieu, S ouillac, L a S outerraine with L e D orat, C elles-sur-Belle and Thouars). A s well a s t he doorways a lready noted i n connexion with C luny-type l obes ( Viré and D ore l 'Eglise with an archivolt l obed l ike t he t riforium a rches, P arassy w ith j ambs thus l obed a s well and associated with chevrons, and t he V elay g roup where t he chevron i s combined with the C luny l obe), another g roup o f doorways drew on the C luny example, f or t he p ractice of l obing r ight down t he j ambs. L eaving a side t he d irect c opy at Autun, i n the two c ases where this practice h as been so f ar mentioned, at P arassy and on the interior arcades at L es A ix d 'Angillon, t here i s an a ssociation or a combination with c hevron. T his predilection f or s harp points occurs again among a L imousin group o f l obed a rches i n whose b eginnings t he Moissac p orch master was i nvolved. T he type of l obing i n this g roup i s very d ifferent f rom C luny, w ith open, l arge-scale s hallow s callops executed i n L imousin moulding. A rches are not n ecessarily i ncluded i n t he l obing, it i s carried at Moissac down the l ength o f the j ambs and t rumeau, at B eaulieu a nd S ouillac down t he t rumeaux, c ombined w ith s culpture. At L a S outerraine ( Creuse) the doorway h as no s culpture, a nd both a rchivolts a nd j ambs a re thus l obed ( fig.169). Three f urther doorways w ith s imilarly t reated archivolts at L e D orat, C elles-sur-Belle and T houars ( fig.170) a re to be i ncluded in t he g roup ( 60). T he

I nfluence of C luny.

b .

S imilarity of Application.

1 . L obed I nterior Arcades. ( Autun , L a Charité. L es Aix d 'Angillon, C lermont, I ssoire, Champagne, L 'Höpital S aint B laise). L obing of i nterior arcades, o f the t ransept a s at C luny, o r t he s anctuary a nd apse ( which may well have b een the case at C luny s ince identical a rches are f ound at A utun) w as adopted at L a C harite a nd L es A ix d 'Angillon. At Autun and L es A ix we have s een the C luny example c losely f ollowed, with t he l obing c arried t o t he bottom o f the

1 24

j amb. There are three f urther cases where l obing was c arried out not on s olely decorative t riforium a rcades l ike t hese but on s tructural tribune arches. These are at NotreD ame-du-Port i n C lermont F errand, at I ssoire a nd a t C hampagne ( fig.171). I n each case the openings are t rilobes, equilateral t riangles or t aller at t he two f ormer, a nd concentric at Champagne i n c onformity w ith o ther examples o f l obed arches i n t he Rhöne valley ( 61). T his application of l obing i s an extension o f t he C luny d ecorative innovation in t he triforium, La Charite with its a rcades s uggestive of a s tructural f eature providing an i ntermediary s tage. The s cale of the t ribune l obes at C hampagne, c ombined w ith their r elation to p eople, who s tand framed in them to l ook down i nto the church, i s u nprecedented i n surviving I slamic examples, which a re a ll h igh above any f loor. The form o f these arches, and s imilar a rches in l 'Höpital S aint -Blaise ( Landes), i n each c ase d erives f rom an i nspiration other than C luny. 2 .

L obed

D oorways

I t i s consistent with the importance o f C luny i n c hurch politics t hat t he Third Church doorways s hould h ave a wide i nfluence on doorway design. I t s eems l ikely that t he west doorway o f C luny was t he e arliest with a l obed a rchivolt and i f this i s s o i ts impact was extensive, and f ound many forms of response as i t was r eceived i nto d ifferent contexts and building practices. I t c annot b e known whether i n t his i nstance at C luny t he lobed archivolt was a case o f 1 . i ncidental convergence w ith Andalusian building philosophy a nd p ractice ( the i ntention being s olely to r efer to an a ltar table or to the triforium i n t he s anctuary) 2 . d irect emulation o f s ome Andalusian doorway treatment, easily s een i n T oledo o r another n ewly-occupied Andalusian town, or 3 . b ased on a model transcribed a lready into Christian terms s omewhere i n t he f rontier region ( as s uggested by t he doorway of S an J uan de B uso with its engraved l obes f illed with at l east a r eference to mock-Kufic ( fig. 1 72) i n a sort o f r elief ( 62), or the Perpignan f ragments ( fig. 1 50), but however i nspired, many of the ideas i t generated will b e seen to h ave accepted t he Andalusian a ssociations by a dopting f urther Andalusian f eatures. I I. The V elay and Rhöne Valley: P olylobes and Other Trilobes

Concentric

T rilobes

and

A distinctive type o f l obed arch, constructed on the most e lementary g eometry, i s c haracteristic o f t he Rhöne valley and the Velay. L e P uy has been a ssumed to b e the c entre of i ts d issemination. T he d esign c onsists o f t he c entres o f the l obe c ircles being s et round the c ircumference o f a semicircle, or o f t he half-hexagon, dekagon etc., i nscribed within i t, a nd the lobes inscribed w ithin an outer s emicircle concentric with t he f irst ( figs 1 64, 1 65, 1 75, 1 76). I n t he c ase o f a t rilobe t he d iameter

1 25

o f each l obe i s equal t o the r adius o f t he i nner semicircle. Whatever t he number of l obes, they are tangent and the points between t hem p lain and sharp ( fig. 1 73) . T rilobes are t he most common t ype of c oncentric l obed arches i n the region, other than on doorways. At Le P uy the chapel o f S aint-Clair h as o ne f ive-lobed window a rch, c aarved in the C luny f ashion on the f ace o f the voussoirs without t aking account o f t he j oints b etween t heir a lternating colours. O n the c athedral in the Porche du F or i s t he e ight-lobed doorway w ith overlapping points; a ll other l obed arches on the monuments o f Le P uy are t rilobes ( 68). Apart f rom t he g reat decorated doorway o f S aintMichel d 'Aiguilhe a ll these trilobes a re small arcades o ver windows or n iches, andy many a re c arved i nto t he f ace o f an archivolt, t hus ending at an arris. T hough there i s a c oncentration o f c oncentric l obed arches in the Velay i t i s no l onger possible, in the l ight o f t he chronologies e stablished at the Congräs Archeologique of 1 975 ( 69), to continue asserting that the monuments o f L e P uy were t he c entre f rom which l obed a rches were disseminated throughout France. At t his c ongress S antiago w as more than o nce cited a s t he p recedent f or l obed arches. E . Vergnolle explained those on the S aintC lair chapel ( 70) i n this w ay; s ince s he dates t he c hapel to 1 180 it hardly s eems necessary to t urn to S antiago f or a model, but Le Monastier ( fig 1 77) offers p erhaps one o f the earliest F rench examples o f a trilobed arch on colonnettes, a nd J . Bousquet ( 71) r efers to S antiago as t he inspiration f or this. T he church o f Le Monastier was begun about 1 076, s tarting w ith t he west end, and was c ompleted b efore 1 136. n iches with f inely j ointed voussoirs f orming S hallow un i n a triple a rcade a long t he exterior s outh t rilobes r wall o f what corresponds to the west bay of the n ave interior, thus belonging to an early part o f the b uilding campaign. This arcade i s now h idden by the roof. The a rches rest on s hort h alf-columns, a ll originally on attic b ases, with capitals o f p lain smooth leaves with thick ends ( F3) turned o ut a nd down i n two registers, a nd heavy v olute s tems above them. They are l ess exuberant but s imilar in type to t he c apitals on t he apse exterior at S antiago or the earliest capitals at S aint-Sever-des-Landes. The moulding o f t he i mpost b locks i s more delicately c ut t han at S antiago ( 72). This arcade may be presumed to have b een in p lace before t he lower s toreys o f the bell tower a t Le P uy ( figs 1 76, 1 77). I t would be satisfactory t o e stablish an influence f rom C luny i n t he adoption o f t he l obed a rches at Le Monastier, for the abbots of C luny were c losely involved in t he building of t he c hurch there a nd Abbot G uillaume w as a c lose f riend o f St H ugh ( 73); but C luny o ffers no s uviving model f or these t rilobes.

1 26

L e P uy The b ell t ower o f L e P uy h as on i ts third f loor the o nly e xamples i n t he c ity o f l obed a rches that c an be dated i n the f irst half of the 1 2th century. T hese a re a s eparate a rchivolt o f b lind t rilobes with a round arch extrados, s urmounting round arches, on c olonnettes over twin openings ( F6,11); in t he c entre t he c olonnettes a re d ouble. The gable and the structural organization o f the bell t ower, s ays D urliat, a re imitated f rom L imoges, where b oth t he tower o f S aint-Martial and t hat o f L imoges cathedral f ollowed t he same d esign ( 74). I t i s not known whether t he t owers of L imoges h ad l obed arches t o provide a model for t hese at L e P uy a lso; voussoired t rilobes s imilar in s hape t o those on the L e P uy bell tower and f açade o ccur i n e xterior a rcades a t S olignac in t he L imousin, but there a re n one on t he s urviving members o f the group o f L imousin b elfries * (Saint-Leonard, S aint-Junien, C ollonges, B rantöme); the doorway o f Collonges has concentric trilobes b ut i n a d ifferent t radition with e laborated points ( fig.142). The t ower o f S aint-Apollinaire at Valence h owever which has t he s ame s tructure a s those of Le P uy a nd L imoges, i s s hown i n a l ithograph before t he 1 9th c entury restorations with b lind t rilobes exactly l ike L e P uy, a lso on t he t hird f loor, a nd w ith a 9 -lobed a rch on t he 5 th f loor. B ousquet notes the s imilarity o f the t rilobes on t he s outh f açade o f S aint-Apollinaire to those o f Le Monastier ( 75). S aint-Apollinaire was consecrated i n 1 095 by U rban I I, a nd i t may be assumed that b uilding was a t l east contemplated at t his date. O n t he f ifth s torey of t he L e P uy b ell tower, d ated by D urliat to about 1 180, are p lain t rilobe openings without c olonnettes or m ultiple a rchivolts. S imilar a rches at C hamaliäres ( HL, not the earlier church at C lermont F errand) a nd C hanteuges, o ver windows or n iches, a re l ikely t o b e copies of t hese openings on t he b ell tower. They a ll have j ambs c loser t ogether than t he w idth of t he arch ( not t he Andalusian s tyle ( 76)).The trilobes on colonnettes, at S aint-Vidal, S aint-Etienne L ardayrol a nd Roffiac a ll date, l ike the two previous examples, to about 1 180 ( 77). T he l obed doorways o f L andos, S aint-Vincent, B ains ( fig.164) and Arlempdes ( 78) are again b ased on the c oncentric geometry characteristic of t he Velay, while the overlapping points c onnect t hem a lso with t he C luny group. Rhone Valley The bell t ower at S aint-Apollinaire, Valence, which originally h ad a 9 -lobed a rch on t he f ifth s torey a nd b lind t rilobed a rches o n the t hird a lso h as b lind c oncentric t rilobe a rcades o n c olonnettes on t he nave exterior, a lternating with r ound-headed windows under round-headed s ingle b illet m oulding. Twin c oncentric t rilobe arcades open f rom t he t ribunes onto the nave at Champagne, and

1 27

small s imilar a rches but w ith wide r ounded points p ierce the diaphragm a rches between the domes. T hey a ll rest on a s hort c olonnette b etween each pair, l ike t he Andalusian a jimez ( F11)(79). The s ame a rrangement o f s upport i s u sed f or the l ittle twin bay in the f açade o f S aint-Jean-deMuzols n earby ( fig.1 ) . An oculus ( D15) on t he west f açade at C ruas i s f ramed in a concentric 6 -lobed arch on c olumns under a r ound-headed moulding, p robably s imilar t o the original a spect o f the 5 -lobes over t he P laterias d oorway, before t he eccentric achivolts on c olumns w ere added and the wall t hickened t here. There i s an example down-river at S aignon i n t he Vaucluse with a r un o f f our s ets of p aired t rilobes s haring a colonnette ( F11), s eparated by pilasters a nd f lanked by a p air of r ound-headed a rches at each e nd. At S aint-Pierre i n V ienne the bell tower has t rilobes without c olonnettes f raming a r ound-headed opening s upported on colonnettes; i n the porch extension c apitals s upport a trilobe a rcade with n o e xtrados ( fig.179), s imilar t o t he i nterior arcade i n S aint-Pierre i n Lyon, where b lind s hallow t rilobes are held on f luted p ilasters. Not a ll t rilobes a re so modest h owever. I n Lyon cathedral i tself there a lso s urvives a Romanesque doorway i n the n ave, with an a rchivolt of n ine l obes c ontaining g rotesque f igures ( 80). I n the s ame vein are f ragments o f a rcaded cornice remaining in S aint-Maurice i n V ienne ( 47). B lind r ound-headed s hallow n iches are i nscribed with t rilobes framing l arge medallions c arved with r elief masks, r osettes or p lant i nterlace, described by V allery-Radot ( 81) as " like Muslim c eramics". T he great r osettes ( D15) a re i n keeping with the penchant f or s uch decoration at C luny and i ts i mitators ( 82), t he l intel at Moissac an e arly manifestation of this t aste. The motif was a lso i n vogue across t he P yrenees • t he R omanesque a s it h ad been i n t he caliphal period ( AHIII f ig.243c); i n B arcelona i s an i llustration o f t he model emulated: on the 1 1th c entury tower built over t he R oman wall ( 83) a re r eused p ieces o f a l ate Roman f rieze with mask and f loral garland, and g orgon head corbels. M edallions, oculi a nd p ierced c ircular windows a re characteristic o f Spanish decoration f rom Ramiran buildings o nwards. " More a nd more eyes a re t urned t o S icily and t he s outh I talian p orts" i n l ooking for precedents f or L e P uy, d eclares D urliat. T he medallion rosettes in trilobes of the Rhöne v alley churches make thoughts r un a lso to t he S panish p orts ( 84). T he domes of L e P uy a re modelled on those of S aintM artin d "Ainay i n L yon ( 85); t here a lso a re f ound the human heads with animal ears and p rancing c at dancers of Le P uy c loister, a nd o f t he i mpost b lock o f t he l obed arch c apital 1 7 in Moissac c loister ( fig.. 180)(86). The early c apitals i n t he church of L e P uy belong to the group which i ncludes T ournus, F igeac, S aint-Pierre-Toirac a nd S an Pere de R oda ( 87). L yon, V alence, Montdlimar, V ienne, T ournus a ll have polychrome decoration: a t Valence and V ienne coloured c ement or t erra c otta i s i ncrusted i n t he s tone, a method employed at M adinat a z-Zahra". I t i s thus l ogical to

1 28

s ee t he t rilobes o f L e P uy a s members of a group f ormed i n the great thoroughfare f rom the M editerranean northward provided by t he Rhöne valley. Trilobes

i n the

L imousin and

F urther West

The s imple c oncentric form o f trilobe occurs only sporadically west of t he M assif Central. T he t rilobes on the north n ave exterior of S olignac ( HV) are associated with a r eminiscence o f F irst Romanesque arcading on a l ower r egister. Roll corbels ( F1) s upport t he cornice above. Connexions of t he L imousin w ith t he Auvergne ( Aurillac a nd L a Chaise-Dieu) a re mentioned by Maury ( 88) and they might account f or t he l obes and corbels o f S olignac; t he l atter have a nearer possible source at F leury i f restorations o f t he exterior of t he church a re f aithful, b ut t he only extant l obes in S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire are on t he north door t ympanum f raming t he s eated Christ a nd evidently derived from a manuscript; ther are no trilobes or roll corbels at Aurillac. O n t he towers of S aint-Yrieix and L e Dorat runs an arcading o f trilobes with split points and f ish-tail voussoirs, r esting a lternately on s lender columns ( F8) and, a t Le D orat, on the angle p ilasters o f the octogon, at S aint-Yrieix on these or on more r obust engaged half-columns: an a lternation of s upports ( F7) with perhaps an a ttenuated r eference to t he ajimez s cheme o f twin windows ( F11). Trilobes u nder a half-round moulding a lso decorate the tower o f Saint-Estephe ( Char.). A small w indow in t he a pse under a miniature a rcade i n B erry f ashion at N ourray ( fig.181), not f ar f rom S aintB enoit-sur-Loire, h as an outer archivolt resting on colonnettes under a r ound-headed moulding which h as f our l obes; the points a t the s ides occur at j oints of the voussoirs; t he point at t he t op is c ut i n t he central voussoir and i s s harp. The cornice below the w indow i s carved with s callops above and below: a device f amiliar i n the S aintonge. The arcade rests on twin colonnettes ( F6). Trilobes

in t he

Rouergue:

S aint-Pierre-Toirac,

B essuejouls

N iches i n t he north a nd s outh walls of t he c hoir a t S aint-Pierre-Toirac ( Lot)(fig.15) are c rowned w ith concentric t rilobe arches s upported on colonnettes w ith interlace c apitals a nd b acked by a t orus moulding. T he f orm of trilobe approximates to the Velay/Rhöne type more t han to i ts neighbour, t he C ahors s outh door, t he o nly other trilobe associated with such moulding. S ome of the capitals at S aint-Pierre are recognizable a s of the s ame type a s the p lait c apitals o f Tournus or F igeac ( fig.182). Those supporting the t rilobe arcades under t he rectangular s ection ribs of t he vault ( F22), for example, belong t o this g roup, a nd s uggest a date f or t he n iches at t he t urn o f the century at l atest ( 89). The trilobes are by that token earlier than any at L e P uy, o r than t he south door at Cahors, and t hey may even be earlier than those o f L e Monastier. T he question o f t he torus moulding will be

1 29

discussed i n c onnexion w ith L imousin s ection.

l obes

i n t he

f ollowing

B essugjouls h as a b ell t ower approximately contemporary with T oirac, or a l ittle earlier ( fig.183)(90). H ere a s ingle t rilobe i s the central arch o f a r un o f f ive. I t i s t aller t han c oncentric, a nd h igher than t he r ound a rches f lanking i t; t he j oints coincide with t he points, a nd f ind a c ommon centre within the arch. The extrados i s s lightly l obed ( F15). T his t rilobe e choes, o r i s echoed by, t he central panel o f the s plendid c arved Romanesque a ltar ( D1, D2,D6) n ow i n t he chapel w ithin t he t ower ( Rouergue roman f ig.74); t he p anel i s s urmounted by a t rilobe with a lmost vertical s ides. Grooved moulding i s c arved t o r epresent a l obed extrados. T he t rilobe panel s hares c apitals and p ilasters, o riginally f urnished w ith half-columns, with f lanking r ound-headed p anels. C arved i n t he style o f the marble a telier o f N arbonne, this a ltar i s dated by F äu to d irectly a fter 1 065, f ollowing t he c losure o f the f irst Conques workshop ( 91). The t rilobe motif i s f ound again f lanked by r ound a rches on a p iscina f rom L assouts, contained within a horseshoe under a mitre-shaped g able ( ibid.fig.116), n earer t he c oncentric f orm than t he B essugjouls examples. N ivernais and Auvergne T he half-quatrefoil s hape o f t rilobe o f the B essugjouls tower a nd a ltar appears f urther north on t he t riple arcade f raming t he h igh windows in t he gable on the west f açade of S aint-Etienne i n N evers ( fig.155). These t rilobes compete with B essugjouls f or the c laim to be t he e arliest l obed a rches on a F rench f açade ( 92). They s urmount t he s ingle b illet moulding over p lain r ound-headed w indows, a s a round-headed archivolt, with an extrados o f s ingle b illet moulding a nd a l obed i ntrados. T he j ointing c onverges on a s ingle c entre within the a rch. T he s ingle b illet moulding, making t he a rcade r emotely r eminiscent o f t he arcade over t he mihrab w ith i ts s emicircular extrados ( F17) i s, a s Gomez-Moreno observed, a c lose l ink with S antiago: a l ink strengthened by t he a ssociation o f round a nd mitre arches on t he t ransept f açades, a nd t he existence o f roll corbels ( albeit o f e laborated f orm) in quantity r ound t he e aves ( 93). There are I slamic analogies f or the b illet moulding a nd mitre as well as t he l obed arches. The l ate 1 0th-early 1 1th century mosque o f S idi ' Ali ' Amman at S ousse ( 94) has a lternate mitre a nd r ound-headed n iches on t he f açade ( and vertical l obing o f the angles o f the exterior ( F21) o f the dome d rum, which i s i nsistently e vocative o f t he j amb l obing o f Moissac); the minaret o f t he Great Mosque of S fax o f t he s ame p eriod u ses a s triking g iant version o f b illet moulding t o f rame round-headed bays, some o f which enclose l obed n iches ( 95). The b lind arcades on t he upper r egister o f the minaret of the 1 1th century Q ala'a o f t he B eni H ammad ( 96) f rame s hell n iches f aced with a f estoon o f

1 30

decorative i ntercrossing f rom Andalusia.

mitre

a nd

r ound a rches,

adopted

The trilobes o f B essuejouls and Nevers are v ery d ifferent i n shape from t he concentric f orms of S antiago, and even more r emote f rom Andalusian architectural forms than t he l obed a rches o f S antiago. They a re nearer t he s hape of the arches on t he P alencia c asket ( AHIII f ig.369, mid-llth century) a nd t he l obed arch f lanked by round ones on the l id of t he s hrine o f S anto D omingo de S ilos c .1170. T he single t rilobe i n the north gable at I ssoire ( 97) i s i n t he same vein as S aint-Etienne but both i ts s hape, a nd i ts position between t wo round-headed arches, make it r esemble that at B essuejouls more c losely. The e xtrados i s s lightly l obed. The points are f ormed on f ish-tail voussoirs however, a nd t he l obes a re thus i ndependently j ointed. The tribune arcades at I ssoire and in Notre-Dame-duP ort, C lermont F errand have a lready b een noted as s temming f rom C luny as to t heir application. They are t rilobes built on t aller t riangles than t he f açade a rches o f S antiago, B essuejouls or I ssoire, c loser to Cordoban f orms. Whether t he design came to Notre-Dame f rom t he e arlier c athedral o f C lermont cannot be confirmed, but i t i s l ikely s ince NotreDame w as so c losely modelled on that b uilding ( 98). These t ribune arches, together with the concentric t rilobes o f Champagne, a re t he n earest Romanesque approximation to Cordoban s tructural use of l obed arches. P ainted decoration at I ssoire now s tresses t he s imilarity with Cordoban a rches by providing them with an extrados; this may have been the original i ntention with many s uch a rches that n ow a re bare stone and have no extrados. I II.

Quercy and Central

F rance.

Cahors

S outh

D oor

The s outh door o f t he cathedral of S aint-Etienne, Cahors ( fig.185) originally l ed into the c loister. I t has two trilobed archivolts of very different types, neither o f which c an be c lassed with t he g roups previously d escribed. The peculiarity o f the soffit archivolt i s the e laboration o f the trilobe points; t hat of the second archivolt the f inishing o f t he voussoirs with a L imousin moulding ( 99). The shape o f the C ahors trilobe i s a lso quite unlike any other t rilobes, Andalusian or Romanesque, t hough i t resembles Andalusian a rchitectural examples i n being contained within a l arger segment than a s emicircle ( figs 1 86,187). Unlike Andalusian a rches however t he j ambs a re s et within the width o f the arch diameter. The dominating f eature of t he s offit i s t he t reatment of the points b etween the l obes; they split into volutes. To a ccomodate this e laboration t he c entre o f t he t op l obe i s depressed by the width of the moulding f raming i t, and t he radius i ncreased by that measurement, r esulting in a reduction of the w idth o f the voussoirs carrying the point, which threatened to l ook v ery c lumsy i f t he r adius of the

1 31

t op l obe c onformed to t he b asic equilateral t riangle s cheme; this change would a lso g ive more l ight ( fig. 1 78). E laborated p oints, split, voluted or c arved w ith l ittle motifs, are characteristic o f a r elatively l arge group of l obed a rches i n c entral a nd w estern F rance, b ut no other attempt at this s hape of t rilobe exists among them, a nd most e xamples have more than t hree l obes. The p oint may be c arved on a s ingle voussoir, o ften s haped in the s ame manner a s t he C ahors s offit, or t he p oint may occur at t he j unction o f two voussoirs. This difference i s primarily a f unction of t he s tone employed r ather t han of design. The l obing o f L imousin moulding i s a l ess f requent f eature than t he e laboration of t he p oints, a nd i s c onfined to c entral F rance. The combination o f the two features i s r are; i t o ccurs o nly at V igeois, L a S outerraine, S aintP aixent and T ulle, beside C ahors. Most arches with a l obed s offit of t he Cahors type ( i.e. with e laborated points) a re f ramed with several orders o f unlobed L imousin moulding. T he t wo f eatures e xhibited at C ahors n eed s eparate examination, s ince i t i s no l onger possible to a ssume the s outh door o f Cahors s tands at t he h ead of b oth s eries: t he c onsecration o f two a ltars i n 1 119 by C alixtus I I ( 100) h as until recently been a ccepted a s d ating t he completion o f t he whole c athedral apart f rom the s culpture of the north doorway, a nd 1 119 w as therefoxe t aken as a terminus ante que r n f or t he s outh door. T he detailed s tudy o f S aintE tienne b y E . B ratke ( 28) a rgues a new a nd l ater chronology, rejecting t he c onsecration o f two a ltars a s s ignifying the completion o f t he whole monument. Comparisons o f t he s culpture of t he n orth door with t he Moissac doorway and S aint-Pierre i n Angouleme f ix the north door a fter both t hese, a nd t he s outh door i s s hown t o coincide with the north in t ime. T hough h er dating o f c ompletion o f t he tower porch of Moissac at 1 131 and o f Angouleme c athedral i n 1 136 i s not f ully s ubstantiated a nd perhaps too l ate by a decade, possibly more, there i s no doubt that s he i s correct i n a sserting that t he porch a nd doorway at Moissac antedate the east end o f Cahors ( where c apitals c opy t hose in Moissac p orch), a nd that t he west end o f C ahors, which i ncludes the l obed s outh door, i s l ater than t he e ast end. I na. Arches with L obes Waisted Voussoirs.

with Volute or E laborated

P oints.

T he Volute T he c url motif which adorns the points of the C ahors s outh door s offit trilobe i s much i n e vidence i n Andalusian decoration, f rom the beginning a s applied to the l obes o f roll c orbels. I t was not a pplied to t he points of l obes. An example that may antedate Romanesque ones i s a basin s et i n t he f loor o f t he c ourt o f t he Mosque of S idi " Oqba ( the Great Mosque) i n Q airawan. I t i s c arved i n white marble

1 32

with t hree descending l evels of l obed b orders, a nd t he points of t he l obes are divided i nto volutes ( 102). O n g round l evel t he b asin i s s urrounded by s trips of b lack and white marble. T he

J ointing

T he j ointing o f the l obes o f t he C ahors s outh door a rch i s d ictated b y t wo waisted voussoirs. They s eparate the l obes whose j oints r adiate f rom t he c entre o f e ach l obe. The a rrangement i s unknown i n Andalusian architecture; the j ointing of Cordoban arches never takes account o f t he l obes a nd a lways c onverges e ither towards t he impost, or onto a descending vertical beneath i t. B ut l obed arches at S antiago, both t he t rilobes o f t he apse exterior and the f ive-lobed arches on the transept over the P laterias doorway a re j ointed i ndependently f or e ach l obe; the voussoir f orming the point t apers at e ither end. This s eems to b e t he c ase a lso at S aint-Pierre-Toirac, but not at L e Monastier, B essugjouls or Nevers, where the whole arch i s j ointed a s one: perhaps this c loser a dherence to Andalusian practice indicates a position at the head o f the F rench s eries of l obed a rches. L obes a re j ointed as s eparated arches a t a number o f other F rench s ites, i ncluding Meymac, S aint-Amand-de-Coly, V igeois, L ubersac, L es Rosiers d 'Egleton and S aint-Yrieix. At M eymac ( fig.141) t he j ointing of t he t ympanum a bove t he voussoirs i s r ough and uneven, but t he voussoirs nonetheless adhere to t he s cheme on a ll f ive l obes, a s they do at S aint-Amand, Vigeois and L ubersac; and on the b lind 7 -lobed arch on t he apse exterior at L es Rosiers ( fig.189). F lattened trilobes on the tower o f S aint-Yrieix are the most w esterly e xample of this t ype o f j ointing. At P alisse ( fig.143) t he waist Of t he point voussoir, s o marked on a ll t hese l atter doorway and window a rches, i s hardly r etained a nd t he e ffect o f j ointed l obes a lmost l ost. A t T ulle ( fig.144), i n t he Creuse group l ike B gngvent l 'Abbaye ( fig.190) w ith j oints at the points, and in the west o f France, the j oints converge on the centre o f t he whole arch, not on t he l obe c entre. Three Restorations Reconsidered Three examples o f trilobes, g enerally d ismissed a s 1 9th c entury f antasies, n eed to be c onsidered: at M oissac, S aint-Antonin and C ollonges. At Moissac the entrance i nto t he church from t he p orch i s n ow made t hrough two t rilobed doorways, a s r estored between 1 910 a nd 1 914 ( fig.191)(103). They were an original f eature. J udging by analogies they a re more a ccurate r estorations than i s usually a llowed: there are two c ases o f s imilar trilobed a rches, both restored, i t i s t rue: at S aint-Antonin in t he twin windows o f the tower restored by V iollet l e Duc ( fig.49)(104) and at Collonges under t he tympanum ( fig.142), r estored in 1 923 ( 105). The l atter i ncludes p ieces o f the original s offit a nd at S aint-Antonin a f ragment o f t he original c entral

1 33

impost w as r ecently discovered ( fig.192) while o ther p ieces of v oussoir a re i ncluded in t he r estoration. At S aintAntonin the f açade was originally i ncrusted with Fatimid bowls, f ragments o f which s urvive ( fig.48). H ere t he l obes were c ertainly not i ndependently j ointed, a s t he re-used f ragments show; At Collonges t he s mall f ragment o f l obe voussoir s uggests t he v oussoirs s hould be waisted. T he s hape of the r estored point i s not a uthenticated; the j oint m ay well have b een s loped more towards t he point as a t C ahors t o avoid the thickness r esulting now i n the central s callop. At Moissac t here i s yet another example o f l obed arches: t he r eliefs on t he s ide w alls o f t he p orch a re f ramed i n trilobes. These are not t o b e dismissed as merely rendering a d evice o f manuscript i llumination f or f raming f igures: f ar f rom following the l ine o f a f igure's head and s houlders or a h ierarchical c omposition of t hree f igures t o s urround t hem with an arch t hat t hereby becomes t hreel obed, a s i s patently t he w ay manuscript t rilobes a rise, t hese arches ( and their imitations on the tympanum a t Cahors) disconcertingly b ring t he p oints o f t he l obes exactly above the heads of t he f igures ( fig.193)(106). They must be i ntended to r epresent r eal a rchitecture. C olour perhaps added a d esired i llusion o f d epth t o s uggest t hat t he f igures were acting i n or outside r eal buildings, r ather t han s tanding i n c ramped poses u nder a rcades. Thus, t hough Moissac has no authentic surviving examples o f a t rue l obed arch i t h as f our s eparate references to l obed arches: t he r epresentation on c apital 1 7 i n t he c loister ( fig.194), the porch relief, the l obed j ambs of the portal and the restored i nner dooway inside the narthex. A further e lement confirming Moissac's connexions with the " Cahors" group of l obed arches i s that L imousin moulding i s used i n three o rders on t he g reat M oissac doorway. The r epresentation o f a " Limousin" belfry with g abled angles on t he east r elief o f t he porch i s a nother point of c ontact. The

Spanish E lements at Moissac

( see C hapter

I II,

note

6 9)

U nlike Conques, S aint-Pons-de-Thomiäres or L a S auveMajeure, a ll o f which w ere f avoured by t he k ings o f Aragon ( 107), Moissac i s not r ecorded a s benefitting f rom g ifts i n t he recaptured Muslim c ities s uch a s would b ring i ts artists into c ontact with Andalusian monuments and works o f art. T he t roublesome connexion w ith C amprodon, b arely beyond the Pyrenees, i s one of t he monastery's f ew material l inks with t he peninsula. Y et t he S panish contacts a re pervasive: Abbot Hunaldus ( 1072-1085) who s ucceeded the A uvergnat Durandus de M ercoeur w as half-brother to t he c ount of B ea m, a r egion where trade f rom Z aragoza through J aca i nto s outh-west F rance was vital to t he e conomy ( 108). The c lose p ersonal t ies r epresented by t he f act t hat B ernard Archbishop o f T oledo c ame o f a noble f amily of t he Agenais, bordering the Moissac area, and that he recruited G iraldus f rom Moissac, who b ecame c antor i n Toledo a nd a rchbishop o f B raga, a re manifest i n t he Toledan imprint on

1 34

t he c loister c apitals discussed i n C hapter I II. T he Catalan connexion must be r esponsible f or the unusual t reatment of a corner animal h ead on a n arthex c apital, t he f oliage convention o f which i s imitated at Cahors and Collonges: t he rare c orner h ead among Roda c apitals i s at i ts source, perhaps transmitted t hrough S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire ( figs 3 01 , 8 9; s ee Chap.III, n .48). The i nfluence of Mozarabic i lluminations on the i conography o f t he t ympanum postulated by Mäle i s now d iscounted ( 109) i n f avour of northern i nfluences f rom Carolingian apse paintings, but there h as been no consideration g iven to the origin o f the declamatory f unction o f t he d oorway, a nd t he i dea of t ransferring thither the f eatures of the sanctuary. The conception i s Andalusian, t ransmitted through C luny. Another Spanish e lement at Moissac i s the unusual theme of the Martyrdom o f t he Three S panish S aints, i llustrated on c apital 3 7 of the c loister ( St Fructuosus, bishop of Tarragona in the 3 rd c entury and h is d eacons Augurus and E ulogius) whose r elics the abbey must p resumably have possessed. I t i s universally r ecognized that Moissac i s the s ource for the s culpture o f Cahors: capitals in the east end of Cahors are imitations o f the capitals i n the narthex of Moissac a nd t he north doorway of C ahors d erives i ts conception and many details f rom the great Moissac doorway, as do t he d oorWays of B eaulieu, S ouillac, Collonges and u ltimately i n s ome measure Vezelay ( 110). I t i s therefore r easonable to s eek t he i nspiration f or t he s outh door o f C ahors at Moissac a lso, where both volute cusps and L imousin moulding were to be f ound. No f irm dates can be a ssigned to any l obed doorway at present; t hose o f M eymac a nd V igeois c annot be l ater than the end o f the t hird decade of t he 1 2th century, which i s c ertainly contemporary i f not earlier than C ahors. The f açade of Meymac i s p laced by H eliot ( 111) at the end of t he 1 1th c entury, t hough he ignored t he i mplication f or the dating of l obed arches: that i t i s earlier than Cahors, which he p laced i n 1 119 at t he b eginning of t he s eries. V igeois he thought " largely completed" by 1 124 ( 112). By t his t ime there w ere l obed a rches to be s een at C luny, S antiago, Nevers, B essuejouls, Le Monastier, Vienne and S aint-Pierre-Toirac. Thus j ointing to t he l obed c entre ( Santiago and M eymac), L imousin moulding ( Meymac, Vigeois a nd Moissac), a nd t rilobe ( Saint-Pierre-Toirac, L e Monastier, B essuejouls and Moissac) were a lready to h and by t he end of t he t hird decade of t he 1 2th c entury, a nd the originality of Cahors s outh door l ies i n its f elicitous combination o f t he results of p revious experiments a nd not i n a new i nvention f rom Andalusian precedents. Meymac, Cahors and Vigeois represent three experiments with t he f orm of lobed arches and their points. Meymac

1 35

At Meymac t he l ine o f t he s offit i s b ased on a r ound a rch, and t he impost i s i ts d iameter: the l obing i s f ormed within c oncentric c ircumferences. T he voussures f raming i t a re pointed a rches, with t heir c entres at the two bottom cusp points o f t he s offit. T he whole space b etween t he round l obed s offit and t he pointed a rchivolts i s too h igh t o be s panned by s ingle v oussoirs ( F16)(fig.141). An analogy f or t he way t he M eymac s offit s prings f rom t he c apitals, with t he point extending b eyond the impost, i s to be f ound i n t he oratory o f t he A ljaferia ( AHIII f igs 2 842 85), where t he mixtilinear a rches e nd i n a c ircular l obe, and the i nner profile o f t he b ase o f t his l obe i s divided i nto a n u pcurled s offit a nd a r ound l ower part that i s s haped a s a convex l obe resting o n the impost ( 113); the width b etween t he j ambs i s t hus g reater than t he w idth o f t he soffit. This curl occurs on a n umber o f l ater l obed L imousin a rches, f or example at T ulle ( fig.144). V igeois

( fig.

1 88)

At V igeois the arch d esign i s u nusual ( 114). The outer o rders a re pointed, a nd c entred on t he cusp points at t he spring o f t he s offit, a s a t M eymac ( 115), but the s offit a nd the f raming archivolt a re c onstructed on a c ircle whose d iameter i s well above the impost; i t i s thus a deliberate horseshoe arch; Andalusian models would s eem l ikely, t hough t he impost i s l ess than the standard Andalusian one-third o f t he r adius b elow t he c entre ( 116). T he nearest a rch s hape, apart f rom D eols c loister d oor ( fig.195) i s o n buildings in the Near E ast and N orth A frica: arcades o n the minaret at A leppo, f inished i n 1 090, a re o f s imilar profile; t hey e nclose l obed r osette medallions. An arch i n a n iche on t he f açade o f t he m inaret o f t he G reat Mosque o f S fax i s s imilar. I t b ecame p opular i n Spanish Romanesque l ater ( 117). T he consoles or p seudo-capitals u nder t he impost ( the r ight-hand one, with P eter and P aul i n mandorlas, i s in t he Moissac s tyle) c arry t he p rofile o f t he opening back to j ambs a s wide apart a s the w idest opening o f t he arch, which again g ives t he entrance a more Andalusian a spect t han most F rench l obed openings, but the Andalusian points c arved w ith a nimals, r emote f rom a s totally practice, prevent t he doorway being c lassed a nd M eymac under Andalusian i nfluence i n design. Cahors both have j ambs s et within t he width of t he arch, unlike Andalusian. T he Volute Cusp T he origin o f the voluted point i s uncertain. T here a re no examples i n e arlier c hurch o r I slamic a rchitecture apart f rom the basin at Q airawan a lready quoted; i t must b e s ought i n t he d ecorative u se o f a c url motif in other c ontexts. Lombard c arvings, Christian manuscripts wallp aintings a nd i vories ( 118), s croll p atterns in Andalusian a rchitecture a s well a s corbel ( 119) and arch decoration a ll p rovide c onvergent models. F rench c orbels, l ike Andalusian, have curls carved on t he s ides; Toulouse and

1 36

Conques both c an o ffer numerous examples; but paradoxically r oll corbels are markedly rare i n t he a rea of d istribution o f t his doorway t ype w ith volute-point l obes ( Maps 1 11,1V). The l obe p oints o f M eymac doorway are c arved i n granite a nd t he t win volutes a re l ittle more than a d ouble point. At V igeois in contrast, t he volutes o f the two upper c usps are c arved with a nimals a nd t he l ower two cusps a lso h ave a motif c arved on them. These p lace the a rch s tylistically i n a more evolved c ategory than Cahors, t hough the relative dates remain uncertain, and Vigeois i s probably e arlier. L ubersac, l ike V igeois, h as f igure motifs and there a re f urther examples at S aint-Hilaire in the B erry, Montmoreau ( Char. f ig.196) a nd P etit Palais ( Gir. f ig.197), a ll o f the s econd half o f the 1 2th c entury. L es Rosiers, S aint-Amand-de-Coly and P alisse have volutes l ike C ahors. The d ivision o f the point at t he j unction between two voussoirs i s rather a matter o f t he material employed than a distinction i n intent. I t i s not s urprising t hat greater e laborations occur with l imestone than with g ranite: V igeois and L ubersac, t hough the building i s of granite, h ave l imestone voussoirs. Most o f t he churches i n t he C reuse with l obed arches are o f granite and the point i s d ivided b etween t wo voussoirs, often w ithout much attempt t o develop a volute: L a S outerraine and B endvent-l'Abbaye f or example both h ave split r ather than volute p oints. O ften i n t he west o f F rance ( for example at P uisseguin ( Gir), C hätres ( Saintonge r omane f igs 1 96-7), A ubeterre ( Char), E chebrune ( op.cit.fig.175) t he two h alves o f t he p oint, or t he two volutes, a re s et a s at Collonges o n e ither s ide o f a central r ib to make a triple point. T his d evelopment c ulminates in t he convex points o f T ayac a nd N euillac ( fig.199). The j ambs a nd a rches f raming w indows in the w estern area, a s at R ioux and V andre ( op.cit.figs 1 85,207), s how another popular variant in l ate Romanesque decoration, where the volutes occupy a s much s pace as t he l obe openings, or more. This type of point a lso became widespread in l ater 1 2th century decoration i n S pain ( 120). T he f orm of t he points at J ournet ( Vienne) i s n o more t han a s implified version o f t his type. A lternatively, i t may be c lassed, l ike L e Waast ( fig.200), a s u nder a d irect i nfluence f rom E gypt or as a d erivation f rom the angled p rofile o f the mixtilinear a rches o f Z aragoza; i t m ay b e t he result o f a convergence o f s uch s timuli.

J ournet J unction with t he

l obes.

J ambs

At what part o f t he l obe circumference the spring o f t he arch s hould b egin was evidently a problem with which designers o f l obed arches were a lways experimenting. At

1 37

C ordoba the s pring b egins at different p laces on t he c ircumference o f t he bottom l obe, b ut n ever at more t han the half-circle, whereas i n F rance i t even s ometimes begins at t he p oint. At Cahors the l ine of t he j unction resembles many i n t he M ezquita, f or example t he dome d ecorative t rilobes, a nd entrance arcades t o t he maqsura, but s ince the j amb i s vertical, without the Andalusian scotia impost dictated by t he horseshoe arch, i t a voids t he characteristic Andalusian profile with the j ambs w ider apart t han the spring ( 121). Approximately t he s ame l ine i s f ollowed at S aint-Amand-deC oly, Montbron and Les Rosiers. At Meymac, C ollonges, Tulle and P alisse l obed round arches s pring f rom t he p oint i tself, a nd a t V igeois t he impost b lock i s used as t he l ower half of t he f inal point; t he bottom voussoir j oint i s horizontal, not convergent on the centre -of the l obe c ircle, making the j ointing l ess s ubtle than at Cahors. A s ingle u p-turned curl i s u sual with multilobe a rches with fvolute points: t he arcading on t he tower of S aint-Yrieix even manages to a chieve i t w ith trilobes. Many arches f urther west u se t his solution, a s Montmoreau ( fig.196), C hätres, C ondgon ( fig.202) a nd Aubeterre i n t he Charente, E chebrune, Genouillg, N euillac ( CM), Puisseguin and P etit Palais ( Gir). L ess than half a l obe t akes t he s pring to the c rown o f a lobe at Lubersac ( fig 2 01), S aint-Ybars ( Ariege), S aintAntoine ( Gers) and a coherent l ittle g roup o f l ate doorways i n t he B erry i ncluding Colombiers f ig 2 04, Malicorne ( with a f ive-lobed oculus a bove), S aint-Hilaire. An e conomical method o f construction, with each voussoir f orming h alf a l obe a nd point, at La S auniere, S aint-Maurice a nd S aintS ulpice in the Creuse, g ives a half point at the spring. This i s a l ate r eturn to t he p rimitive j ointing o f L e Monastier. I IIb.

Torus

( Limousin)

Moulding with L obes

C ahors, V igeois, T ulle, D eals a nd S aint-Bonnet a ll have examples of o ne l obed a rchivolt o f L imousin moulding. I n the f irst three cases i t f rames a l obed soffit w ith volute or e laborated points, and i s i tself e nclosed i n an unlobed archivolt o f L imousin moulding ( three at T ulle). At L a S outerraine t he l obed s offit i s f ramed by three achivolts of l obed L imousin moulding and this i s c arried down t he j ambs a s well. The l obed j ambs o f La S outerraine make p lain the c lose r elation o f t he a bove s eries o f arches to t he l obed j ambs o f the Moissac doorway, thus adding three more s ites t o this " Limousin moulding" group: M oissac, S ouillac and B eaulieu, a ll by the s ame atelier i f not the same s culptor ( Quercy roman f igs 1 20, 1 46).

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The c loister door at D eols ( fig.195), now ruined and b locked, p resumably originally had l obes open on the void, l ike t he Moissac j ambs, a nd i f this was s o i t i s t he only example o f an open a rchivolt o f L imousin moulding ( 122). T he l obes a ppear to b e b racket-shaped, a s harp j oint a lternating with a rounded. The arch i s a horseshoe and the columns a re in l ine with t he wider p art of t he arch, and a re relatively s hort, g iving the arch an Andalusian " topheavy" a spect. The j ambs o f Moissac doorway h ave a l obed torus against t he v oid, a nd t he moulding imitates t he f orm o f a l obed column e ngaged i n a l obed j amb. The f ace o f this j amb i s b evelled at t he edge a nd enriched w ith t he s ame r ibbon motif that surrounds the t ympanum. This s imulated engaged column appears a gain, l obed but without t he c orresponding r ibbon enrichment of t he f lanking wall, on the trumeau down t he centre of t he s ides; it h as a downturned-leaf c apital ( D16) and _ emerges b elow the f igures o f J eremiah on the east, S aint P aul on t he west ( 123). A comparison of the f ace of t hese j ambs with t he triple moulding o f j ambs, l intel c onsoles a nd l intels o f t he P laterias doorways at S antiago s uggests, i f not direct connexion, a common i nspiration. A lthough t he l obes o f t he moulding at S antiago behind the consoles are not against the void a nd t he r elief i s s hallower than that of t he Moissac moulding t he s ame c ontrast o f p lanes i s created. The parallel i s more precise i n t he s imilarity o f t he S antiago moulding to t he t rumeau o f Beaulieu where t he t orus comes at the a ngles. The p laster mouldings in t he A ljaferia, s parse remnants of t he k ind of work that was everywhere to be s een in the c ities o f Andalusia during t he 1 1th c entury, s uggest a s ource o f i nspiration for t his kind of t reatment of the edges o f architectural members. The f ive-lobed a rch with a p laster extrados in the tower o f S an Lorenzo in T oledo ( AHIII f ig.266) i s an example o f Spanish 1 1th century p laster work, a nd of the k ind of model available f or such L imousin doorways w ith f ive l obes a s M eymac a nd V igeois. At t he l atter t he a rchivolts f raming t he f ive-lobed soffit keep comparatively c losely to t he l ines of t he s offit, but Meymac h as t he s ame wide space between the top l obe and the crown of the next archivolt a s there i s at S an L orenzo; t his may be explained a s an influence f rom t he c aliphal practice o f raising the c entre of t he extrados, p erpetuated at S an L orenzo ( F16). The t rilobe n iches o f S aint-Pierre-Toirac can b e connected with t his group o f a rches with L imousin moulding, by reason o f their moulding. I n this case i t i s a hood f raming t he arch, not a r oll moulding i n an angle. T he only c omparable hood t reatment o f a l obed p rofile i s a lso on a member of t he L imousin g roup: i t i s u sed a t S ouillac over t he very f lat t rilobe o f the Theophilus r elief ( Quercy r oman fig.115). T he l ittle volutes between t hese l obes connect the p anel with t he f orm o f volute point s een at C ahors. L ittle u pturned volutes at t he c rest o f one of t he

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incrusted S amson r eliefs a t S aint-Pierre-Toirac provide a l ink between S ouillac and S aint-Pierre, a lready s uggested by t he u se of l obed h ood moulding i n both, a nd confirm t he a ssociation of both churches w ith t he " Cahors" group o f l obed a rches that c ombine volute p oints a nd L imousin moulding ( 124). While S aint-Pierre-Toirac has a c laim t o head t he L imousin s eries by r eason o f a d ate b efore t he end of t he 1 1th c entury ( 125), L e Dorat ( Limousin r oman f ig.3), Thouars ( fig 1 70) and C elles-sur-Belle, which a ll r epeat the multiple l obed archivolts of L a S outerraine, stand a t t he e nd of t he s eries. They h ave c apitals at t he i mpost l ine, unlike La S outerraine, and the corresponding columns b elow a re n ot l obed, n or a re t he j ambs. Thouars i ntroduces a l ess austere P oitevin note to t he c omposition, w ith a round-headed f loral h ood moulding over t he door and c arved capitals and imposts. Le D orat, i n the t radition o f Meymac, h as a wide s pace ( F16) b etween t he twin door a rches a nd t he next archivolt. A console i n the c entral spandrel ( F19) s hows that a f igure w as i ntended to o ccupy i t. The way t he moulding turns at the bottom o f t he f inal l obes into a vertical, b efore reaching t he impost, points t he a ffinity o f this group with the t rumeaux o f B eaulieu and S ouillac. Whereas at L a S outerraine t he t op c entral l obe i s widened and f lattened on the outer a rchivolts to make a lmost a round arch, in these t hree l ater e xamples i t i s heightened and narrowed, c reating a more Andalusian aspect, enhanced by t he s trongly s tressed r adial j ointing ( F14) o f t he voussoirs. The a ffinities o f Gothic taste w ith Andalusian b egin to make t hemselves f elt. I n s pite of t heir i rregular l obes and the strong r ecession o f o rders, both of which f eatures a re q uite u n-Andalusian, t his group of arches has a c loser parallel than a ny other French l obed arch with o ne Andalusian example : t he a rch on t he s outh wall o f the V illaviciosa chapel which a lso has s everal orders, l ike L a S outerraine, a nd m ultiple l obes ( AHIII f ig. 1 46). The l obed a rcades on the upper s torey o f the façade of P etit Palais in t he G ironde ( fig 1 97) perhaps owe something to C elles-sur-Belle f or their multiple d eeply undercut moulded archivolts and e laborated points. The arch s hape i s however d ifferent a nd t he moulding i s not f itted i n an a ngle in the L imousin manner. Petit Palais, l ate in the 1 2th c entury, c an p oint to v ery f ew p recedents f or t his original combination o f existing e lements. The f açade design a s a whole i nherits t he Andalusian s cheme a lready i ntegrated i nto F rench design. The i nterior arcades of B lanzac i n t he Angoümois o ffer a l ate example o f a l obed t orus decoration ( fig.205). T he edging o f the voussoir of the outer order with horseshoe, o r rounded rectangular l obes i n shallow relief r eflects t he example o f Montbron ( fig.160); i t i s r eminiscent a lso o f the rounded rectangular s croll s tems on the wooden door at L avoüteChilhac ( fig.77).

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IV.

Arches w ith Convex

L obes

The monuments a ssembled under this rubric do not f orm a c oherent geographical g roup, a nd d ifferent i nfluences i ncluding the I slamic c an be s een a s inspiring them. The t wo best k nown F rench doorways with c onvex l obes a re at Le Waast far n orth o f the u sual d istribution of l obed arches ( fig 2 00) in t he P as de C alais, a nd Ganagobie ( BA)(fig 2 06), again o utside t he n ormal l obed a rch a rea. T he l obing o f the doorway o f L e Waast i s compared by Enlart and H eliot ( 126) to t he decoration on t he l ate 1 1th century C airene g ateways, B ab e l N asr and B ab e l F utuh ( 127), and the s imilarity i s c lose. E nlart regarded it as t he result o f G odefroy de B ouillon's participation i n the F irst Crusade ( 128). Le Waast i s one of t he f ew c ases where a d irect contact with the eastern Mediterranean best explains a f orm. H eliot quoted a correspondence ( 129) with Spain carried on by I de de L orraine, c ountess o f B oulogne, mother o f Godefroy o f B ouillon and patroness o f the church, as a n argument f or looking f or a Spanish s ource f or the Le Waast arch, but no c lose parallels c an be f ound for the form i n Spain, and o riental parallels are many. Arches with c onvex l obes are not uncommon on buildings i n E gypt o f t he l ate 1 1th and e arly 1 2th century. C reswell i llustrates examples at Aswan, on three Cairene gateways, on t he Mosque o f a l-Aqmar ( 1125) a nd at Q asr a l-Hallabat ( 130). A lmanzor's arch into h is extension of the Mezquita i s a c entury e arlier than a ny o f t hese ( fig 2 7), a nd a rches l ike magnified r oll corbels, even c arrying t he reference to a central b and of decoration imitating the f illet between rolls, were built i n t he A ljaferia a nd i n G ranada ( 131). The development o f cushion voussoirs ( from which s uch rolls a re carved) in N orth A frica a nd E gypt, where they o ften occur, may have b een i nspired f rom Andalusia in the f irst p lace. The Spanish source s uggested by Heliot for the l ate 1 2th c entury doorway at Ganagobie i s more p lausible than one for L e Waast: Z amora and S alamanca ( 132) have doorways with enlarged volute-type p oints, but even so c loser parallels for t he s hape of G anagobie's voussoirs exist i n Cairo ( 133). The confident u se i n l ater Spanish Romanesque decoration o f c onvex l obes a nd c ushion voussoirs a nd t he p lay with the motif a s a reminiscence of the acanthus l eaf t ips of Mozarabic t radition a s at P uente la Reina ( 134) suggest that i n S pain it was a native d evelopment s temming f rom the Andalusian tradition, and France received it f rom Spain. The ribbed c onvex l obes at L es Eyzies-de-Tayac a nd at Neuillac ( fig 1 99) are s imilar i f l ess exuberant developments o f volute points. These two doorways f it i n other r espects i nto t heir l ocal c ontext ( Limousin moulding

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at T ayac; a t ypical S aintonge f açade at N euillac), not suggest any exotic i nspiration.

a nd do

A s eries o f arches w ith c ushion voussoirs s haped i nto multiple cylinders can be traced f rom S aint-Hilaire i n P oitiers ( fig 2 07). T he t all a rcade over t he d oorway on t he north f ace of the tower has an inner archivolt o f t riple cylinders. T he doorway a t P ezou ( L&Ch)(fig 1 63) h as o ne o f double c ylinders a nd o utside i t t he a rchivolt of chevrons. The small church of S aint-Amans ( fig 2 08) n ear Agen h as an outer archivolt w ith voussoirs c arved a s c ylinders at the p oint, f raming a n a rch w ith chevrons overlapping a t orus, r epeating the association of motifs n oted at P ezou. Nearby, at S aint-Robert ( fig 2 09) an outer a rchivolt o f t riple c ylinder voussoirs i s h ighly decorated. The inner and outer rows of " cylinder e nds" a re c arved w ith c rosses, c ircles, s pirals or palmettes i n c ircles, g iving the e ffect o f impressed p laster, a nd these motifs a re r epeated on a hood moulding, on the imposts o f the capitals, and on two o f the corbels holding t he c ornice immediately above t he arch. S imilar discs are carved on the voussoirs o f the doorway o f P orqueras ( Gerona)(AHV f ig 6 6) and i n t he S aintonge the rosette disc ( D15) was a lso popular. At S aint-Robert the arch, r ecessed i n t he wall, i s enclosed i n a f rame f ormed by a corbel t able and s imulated colonnettes carved up the wall from t he i mposts to t he o utermost corbel. This r esembles an a lfiz and t hus gives an e ffect more S panish ( like Porqueras or Cubells) than l ocal, or than the B erry arches with rosettes i n s pandrels to be t reated below. Examples

i n the

S aintonge

There i s s omething s imilar t o the above voussoir treatment i n t he u se of d iscs on t he doorway o f S aintQuantin-de-Rangannes i n the S aintonge ( 135). S ome o f the rosettes a re not c ircular but e llipses, a nd they do not f orm the s offit but a re only on an outer archivolt. A l ine o f horsehead corbels, a bove t he a rch a nd i ts f lanking c arvings, connects the doorway with t he group with cushion voussoirs. The s eries of churches in t he S aintonge with horsehead arches h as taken t he c onvex voussoirs of t he windows o f S aint-Eutrope in S aintes a stage f urther. The axial window o f t he c hevet o f M atha-Marestay ( 136) h as two archivolts o f cylindrical voussoirs. E ach consequent circular " point" of the soffit i s carved w ith a r osette i n r elief, and above this with a h uman h ead i n t he majority of c ases, with some b irds, monsters or animals. The outer archivolt i s carved with u niform s crolls curling r ound t he n ail head of the cylinder end. T he s ame e ffect i s o btained by the cylindrical voussoirs of t he a rches f lanking t he horsehead doorway at S aint-Fort ( 137). The voussoirs of the f lanking n iche a re l ike u nfinished horseheads, and i llustrate t he tendency prevalent i n the S aintonge t hough not confined to that r egion ( cf B ellegarde du L oiret, or P ezou f ig 1 63) t o treat voussoirs i n t he Andalusian manner as r adiating units

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c learly marked o ff o ne f rom a nother. This f eature i s a lready s een on t he c hevet at S aint-Eutrope in the 1 1th century a nd on many l ater arches, o ften d oorways with an adumbration of an a lfiz ( 138). O ther notable examples o f t his tendency a re i n the c loister o f S aint-Aubin i n Angers ( fig 3 30) a nd on a w indow a rch in t he apse o f S aint-Pierre, Chauvigny ( 139). C ylindrical masonry i s used round t he apse o f J arnac-Champagne ( 140) a nd at S aint-Estäphe ( Char) a b and of i t s eparates s toreys on the t ower ( 141). A precedent f or t his i s i n t he s eries o f c hurches i n t he H igh A ragon east o f B iescas, where t he exteriors o f the apses a re decorated w ith l ines of vertical c ylindrical b locks ( 142). T hese Aragonese churches a lso h ave openings f ramed i n rectangular r ecesses ( F12) a nd twin c olumns ( F6). A sturian p recedents f or r ectangular f rames round openings l ead s ome s cholars n ow t o question a ny I slamic e lement in t hese buildings ( 143) but at S an J uan de B uso the door archivolt h ints u nmistakeably at a K ufic-inspired s croll ( fig 1 72)(F2). On t he l obed outer archivolt o f a window at Agudelle ( CM) and on t he upper arcade at P lassac ( fig 1 61) t he j oint o f t he voussoirs comes at t he point of t he l obes, which i s t herefore t hickened to make a lmost a convex l obe. This i s r emote f rom t he treatment o f c onvex points l ike roll corbels in the A ndalusian manner ( 144). At R ioux the " Cahors" v olute p oint i s so much developed as to b ecome f lat i f not convex, and this f orm i s c ommon in l ater 1 2th century d ecoration i n t he S aintonge. At P uisseguin i t i s a ssociated with down-turned l eaf c apitals ( D16). An u nemphatic r eference to convex l obes i s perhaps intended i n t he f requent s callop border o f S aintonge decoration, e xemplified at R ioux i nside t he apse, a nd at B lanzay ( fig 2 12) where i t f orms an a rchivolt o utside a s plit l ozenges haped l eaf, which may well imply a l am-aliph. V .

L obed A rches with E dged L obes

A characteristic of a ll Andalusian decoration, f rom a s early a s t he S an E steban door ( 145) to t he A lhambra ( fig 2 10), whether i n carved s tone or moulded p laster, i s t he i nsistence on outlining and d ifferentiating basic e lements o f structure. N ot only are openings f ramed, but voussoirs, archivolts, cornices or panels a re p icked out with m oulding or f illets. The curve of t he l obes o f arches i s stressed by bordering a r eal or s imulated extrados with a l ine o f d ecoration or moulding, often both. At Z aragoza in the 1 1th century amid a ll t he complexities o f combined c urves a nd s traight l ines t hat f orm the a rches o f the great s creens a nd the a rcades o f t he oratory t he p rinciple i s retained, and two c enturies l ater at Granada c are was taken even to mark the s tructure of t he c ells o f t he mugarnas ( stalactite c eiling) w ith f illets, carving or p aint ( 146), a nd an a rch with a s mooth s offit may be given a p laster moulding s imulating l ong v oussoirs with a l obed e xtrados ( fig 2 10).

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O utside S pain I slamic examples a re l ess consistent. T he arch o f t he B ab Z uweila i n Cairo ( fig 1 40) f or example h as grooves m arking t he i ntrados l ine a nd an independent extrados that ignores the s eries o f l obes i n t he upper p art o f t he a rch. T he A lmoravid mosque o f T lemcen o f c .1135 l eaves t he l obes o f s ome o f i ts arcades without an extrados ( AHIII f ig 3 38)(147). I n F rance where most l obed a rches have a recession o f orders t he o uter a rchivolts are not g enerally l obed, so the l ine o f t he s offit i s only a negative s hape. I n t he C ahors group which c onstitutes t he majority o f open arches t he design concentrates on the s offit, p rimarily on the point d ividing i t f rom t he next l obe ( 148). T here a re s ome c ases i n F rance however where s ome concern to emphasize the extrados a nd embellish i t i n a more Andalusian manner i s apparent. Multiple-lobed orders o f course automatically c reate t he e ffect of a l obed extrados. T he l obe, f ramed by t he s ucceeding a rchivolts, a cquires some breadth and becomes a band o f positive s hape, t hough t he outermost l obed may be unbacked ( 149). To consider the e arly examples o f l obed a rches a lready d iscussed: t he extrados o f t he t rilobes on t he g able at Nevers ( fig 1 55) a re backed by a r ound a rch o f b illet moulding ( F15); this corresponds t o t he f ive i nner a rches o f t he arcade over t he m ihrab in t he Mezquita, but at Cordoba the e xtrados o f the two outer arches, where there i s r oom, a re l obed. At N evers t he l obe is n ot r epeated on the extrados. A t B essu jouls both the gable and a ltar arches h ave a l obed e xtrados ( F15). O n t he a ltar t he t rilobe i s emphasized by a projecting grooved a rchivolt; on the f açade t he ends of t he voussoirs a re merely s haped i nto a l obe but the extrados i s not s tressed by any decoration or moulding. T he case i s t he s ame w ith t he f açade t rilobe at I ssoire whereas t he p ainting on the t ribune openings o f the i nterior makes them l ook more Andalusian t han any other l obed a rches i n F rance, with b road b ands o f d ecoration marking a s imulated ( but not l obed) extrados. A n umber of F rench a rches have t he i nner edge o f t he t heir l obes emphasized by a bevel or i ncised l ine ( SaintAntonin, Montmoreau, Malicorne) t hat g ives a modicum o f breadth beyond the negative s hape o f the l obe. The arch o n capital 1 7 i n Moissac c loister ( fig 1 80) i s t he ealiest example o f this f eature on a ny s urviving i n F rance. The f ive l obes o f the r elief on t he t ympanum o f the north door o f S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire a re g iven a p lain f illet edge within the c loud border. The majority of examples of edged l obes i s to b e found among t he g roup o f l ater l obed a rches i n t he west o f F rance: f or example, a ll w ith split or volute points, C ond on ( fig 2 02), P uisseguin, A ubeterre, E chebrune, Chätres, E snandes, Agudelle, P lassac ( fig 1 61). The b lind

1 44

l obes at C atus ( fig 1 59) a nd a l ittle group with e xamples o f the l ate r etention o f the Romanesque l obed a rch on Gothic b uildings i n t he B erry, s uch a s S aint-Amand, I voyl e-Pre ( with oculus) or S aint-Hippolyte a lso s how t his f inish on t he inner edge. A more l ively g roup i n t he B erry c ombines this e dging with a s pandrel r osette, which l inks t hem with t he r osettes a ssociated with a rches i n t he S aintonge a lready d iscussed, a nd with a rches i n L erida a nd B alaguer. T o t his group belong Colombier and Malicorne ( fig 2 04) and the s plendid oculus over t he d oor at V illefranche d 'Allier. Malicorne h as a more modest oculus over t he d oor. S aint-Hilaire nearby has no r osettes but i nstead v irtually c ircular l ittle f aces on t he points t hemselves. I n western F rance e laborations on the bevel of t he l obe a nd on i ncised b orders g ive a more Andalusian l ook to the l obes t han i s possessed by l obes e lsewhere in F rance except t he I ssoire t ribunes. At Montbron ( fig 1 60) t he unlobed archivolts ( third a nd f ourth) o f L imousin moulding f rame a l obed s offit w ith split points; t he s econd and f ifth archivolts a re c arved on t he f ace with h ollowed l obes outlined w ith i ncised motifs; on t he outer archivolt the l obes a re embellished w ith d rilling a nd l ittle s callops. S imilar decoration i s u sed on the a rch over t he f unerral monument o f R obert o f Montbron ( +1209). T he l obed i ntrados o f the main portal at C ond on ( fig 2 02) has a wider s imple moulding t ooled w ith f oliage, a nd t here i s s imilar decoration b ut d ouble moulding at S aint-Hippolyte-de-Biard on the miniature l obes o f i ts outer voussure. The interlace or d rilled edging o f t he medallions on t he 1 1th c entury ivory casket f rom P amplona, o ffers an example among others of a k ind c apable o f i nspiring s uch decoration ( AHIII f igs 3 63-4. The f ine l ong points o f t he l obed archivolt o n the west f ront at A unay, f ancifully c reated o ut o f a p lant motif, come c lose t o the profile o f Z aragoza arcades but t he l obes a re n ot backed, whereas at Z aragoza there was originally c ertainly s ome p lain or c arved l obed moulding i n p laster a long a s imulated extrados. The i nner a rchivolt a t Montmoreau ( fig 1 96) i s unusually d elicately c arved: the two volutes on the points are held t ogether w ith a b inding, t he l obes a re b ordered with a f illet s eparating them f rom t he t hree-petalled undercut f lorets i n t he s pandrels a nd t he g round o f c ross and lozenge between them. The Gothic doorway o f S aintM artin in B rive i s f lanked by l ions f ramed i n s mall t hreel obed niches. T he l obes have b eaded edges and an i ncised extrados. The Outlined Extrados I n s ummary, t he extrados s o f irmly s tressed i n Andalusian l obes i s g iven s ome s cant r ecognition i n s ome o f

1 45

t he earliest s urviving F rench examples o f l obed a rches ( Moissac c apital 1 7, S aint-Pierre-Toirac, Nevers, B essugjouls) but mainly r estricted t o t he s haping o f the voussoirs themselves. A torus moulding b acks the trilobe at T oirac, but i n t he c ase o f l obed " Limousin" a rches with multiple a rchivolts, a s at C ahors o r L e D orat, the t orus i s a ssociated with t he l ine of t he a rchivolt outside it, and t he outermost voussure therefore has no l obed extrados; i t f ollows that no s pecial attempt w as made to observe t he Andalusian principle. I n this " Limousin" g roup i n cases where volute a nd e laborated points o ccupy t he a ttention, the e xtrados l ost importance ( for e xample at L a S outerraine), but i n other c ases t he moulding s tresses t he l ine o f t he l obe ( Thouars, C elles-sur-Belle). With trilobes o f L e P uy type t he extrados i s a lways o f minimal importance, t hus belying a s trong directly Andalusian e lement. ' I n western F rance t owards t he middle o f the 1 2th century a nd l ater an extrados or an i nner b order to make a positive s hape a ssumed greater importance i n the design o f t he l obes. This i s e xpessed e ither i n a p lain f illet o r grooving, or i n t ooling or beading s imilar t o borders executed i n i vory carving or m etal work ( for example C ondgon, S aint-Hippolyte-de-Biard, Montbron). At Aunay the l obes a re entirely s ubservient t o t he f loral c arving. F rench l obed arches thus s eem t o r eflect the influence o f Andalusia more d irectly t owards t he e nd o f t he Romanesque developments, j udging by t he c omposition a t Thouars, C elles, Condgon; t he edged arcades in S aintonge l ike P lassac, Agudelle and Trizay ( fig 2 11); the doors and oculi o f the B erry ( Malicorne, C olombiers, S aint-Amand, V illefranche). T he group o f doorways and a rcades o f t he Angoamois and S aintonge with their s imple l obed r ound a rches detached f rom the s urrounding decorated a rchivolts constitute a n i nterpretation o f t he Cordoban l obed a rch which takes l ittle account o f i ts l ater developments a s they appear i n Z aragoza or B alaguer i n t he 1 1th c entury ( 150). I n t he decoration o f these 1 1th c entury A ndalusian palaces the p laster work d isguising t he brick a rcading is e laborately c arved and moulded to create ambiguous s tructural effects s o that s offit a nd e xtrados a lmost l ose their meaning, though each l obe i s a lways f irmly outlined ( eg AHIII f ig.297). I n two respects however s ome parallels c an be drawn b etween these emiral p alaces a nd t he n ear-contemporary Romanesque buildings at the beginning o f t he s eries. F irst, t he s trong c omposite mouldings ( AHIII f igs 2 94-297)(151) o f t he Andalusian p laster work p rovide antecedents f or t he l obed mouldings on the l intel corbels at S antiago, on the l obed j ambs at Moissac, on t he t rilobe s urround at S aint-

1 46

P ierre-Toirac. I t c an b e s een a s a f ormative i nfluence on t he whole d evelopment o f L imousin moulding. S econd, we c an t ake f rom B alaguer two f rom many examples o f d ecorative motifs u sed e qually on b uildings, ivory a nd m etal which were transmitted to R omanesque ( 152): a painted border has a version of t he n aturalistic s croll D 9 f used with t he c ircular p almette s croll D 5 i n t he s ame way a s on Mozarabic metalwork ( AHIII f ig 4 80). A gain t he l obes o f a c ircular window ( hitherto unpublished) i n the r emaining wall o f a r uined R omanesque c hapel on t he c astle s ite ( fig 4 7) a re e dged ( D12) l ike medallions on a c aliphal i vory; t he composite moulding and spandrel rosettes ( D15; AHIII f igs 3 85, 3 98a) r ecur on Romanesque windows i n t he B erry ( Colombiers f ig 2 04, V illefranche, G assicourt, F leuriel). The example o f applying i vory, metal and textile motifs t o architectural s culpture was f ollowed at l east a s e arly a s the l ast decade o f the 1 1th century at S aintes ( the choir dedicated 1 096.Saintonge romane f igs 5 12-517) a nd made their own . by s culptors who a f ew decades l ater decorated f irst Angouleme ( copied exactly at L a C ouronne f ig 3 9 and Genouillg ( Saintonge romane f ig 2 06) t hen A unay, C ormeE cluse, Marignac ( Saintonge romane f igs 2 06, 1 67, 1 55-160, p .172) and many o ther c hurches i n t he S aintonge ( 153). The unusually u ncompromising decoration a nd l obes o f Genouille doorway s how how the Andalusian s tyle became u ltimately dessicated in t ransmission. VI Lobes

P ortrayed

i n

S culpture

A f ew capital and relief s culptures g ive evidence that l obed arches h ad an i nterest f or b uilders quite early i n the Romanesque period. An apse c apital at S aint-Reverien ( Niävre) i llustrating t he I sraelites i n t he F iery F urnace s hows them u nder a r ound-headed a rch with a s offit i ndented with ten horseshoe-shaped l obes. These a re s paced a s o n the l obed arches o f L a C harite a nd L adignac ( fig 2 13). O ne o f t he columns s upporting t he a rch h as s piral decoration l ike columns at S antiago; the other i s r ectangular, l ike t he La Charité a rcading. A bove t he c entral a rch t he c entral tower and one o f those f lanking i t are portrayed with t heir conical roofs supported on a c orbel t able. At Gargilesse ( Indre, f ig 2 14)(63) r ibbon i ssuing f rom a corner mask a long the t op o f a c apital with a f igure s cene, f orms a c anopy or c loud which runs as l obes w ith an axial grooving. A t C ahors s imilar horizontal l ines o f l obing e nd i n t he corner volutes over acanthus o n t he exterior window c apitals ( fig 2 15). O n the f açade at S ouvigny ( 64) a l obed c anopy s urmounts a f igure s cene. T he t ympanum over t he n orth d oor o f S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire i s carved with a s eated Christ a nd t he f our Evangelists, each c ontained in t he l obe o f a f ive-lobed arch. M anuscript i llumination i s t he obvious inspiration but t he carving o f t he l obes a ims at g iving t he arch an a rchitectural quality. O n t he f açade at F oussais ( Vendee) a n iche r elief s hows a t riple h orizontal arch h eld

1 47

on s piral c olumns w ith a deep s offit, t he e dge of which i s n otched t o match the c hevron-over-scotia a rchivolt o f the n iche c ontaining t he s culpture ( fig 2 15). C apital 1 7 portraying t he imprisonmnent o f S t P eter i n t he c loister at Moissac s hows the s oldiers s leeping under a n a rch c arved i n r elief with l obes a long t he a rris of t he a rchivolt. The a rch i s s urmounted b y a h ipped pointed g able, r eminiscent o f t he i nterior o f t he c entral door i n t he west f açade o f t he Mezquita o r the squinch arches o f t he dome, p articularly a s t he t op l obe i s l arger than t he o thers ( F16), with a l onger r adius o f the c entral l obe. The f inal l obe at t he s pring r ises vertically: t he a rch r ests on a t ower with keyhole shaped b lind windows and a ( ?) pointed door with a s quare f raming c ornice a bove. T his s hape o f l obe i s n ot met i n Cordoban architecture, though t he arcades on t he P alencia c asket ( AHIII f ig. 3 69)(65) h ave t rilobes on a v ertical spring. T he c onsoles on t his c apital are o f the s ame f orm a s t he c orbels over the l obed t riforium arcade at C luny ( 66). There i s an ambiguity about t he l obes on the c apital 1 7 arch. The s culptor has apparently a imed at c utting away t he s pandrels, except a t t he top, t o make t he l obes s tand proud a s a s eries o f arches. This treatment r esembles t hat o f t he l obes on t he C abestany and S an Marti de Empurias a ltars ( 67). T hey might even be r ead a s t he n iches o f a F irst R omanesque g able r ather t han a l obed arch, except t hat t he " tower" a t the s ide h as no i ndication of t he p ilaster s trips indispensable t o t hat architecture. N one of these capitals betrays any s pecial debt for t he l obe motif t o m anuscript i llumination, t he i nspiration b eing d irectly a rchitectural. S ummary Andalusian l obed a rches h ave b een reviewed and p revious c lassifications revised t o g roup F rench l obed a rches i nto f ive broad types; t hese, t hough mutually i nteracting, f all i n their o rigins i nto a s eries o f geographical a reas c entred respectively e ast t o west, on C luny, t he R höne v alley with t he Velay, Q uercy and L imousin, Angoümois and S aintonge. I . C luny I II generated s everal d ifferent d evelopments b ased e ither on t he c haracteristics o f the l obes ( shallow r elief c ut f rom the arch f ace, h orseshoe s hape) or t he a pplications of l obing a . to t riforium or t ribune a rcades b . t o doorways. The l obing o f C luny West D oor r epresents an A ndalusian c omponent a t t he i nception o f t he e volution o f the Romanesque f açade a nd t his s trengthens t he thesis that t he Romanesque monumental doorway owes i ts u ltimate inspiration t o t he P uerta S an E steban, t he e arliest e xample west o f I ndia o f the entrance t o a r eligious building that " copies" t he s anctuary w ithin. T he combination o f l obed a rches a nd the rosette motif popular i n Andalusia a s a ll round the Mediterranean h as n ovel i nterpretation on doorways in t he B rionnais. I I. I n the Rhöne valley and Velay, t rilobes and

1 48

a f ew polylobed a rches c onstructed on c oncentric s emicircles demonstrate s ome influence f rom S antiago where arches were l obed i n t his w ay b efore t he e nd o f t he 1 1th c entury, but not a s trong enough i nfluence t o promote the i ndependent voussoiring o f l obes. At Champagne, a nd in t he Auvergne at C lermont and I ssoire, f unctional t ribune arches a re built a s t rilobes. I II. Westward again, t he t rilobed s outh door at C ahors exhibits t he c ombination o f two departures f rom t he t wo f ormer types a . a n o pen-lobed s offit with l obes s eparately voussoired and volute points a nd b . multiple-lobed o rders with L imousin moulding; Moissac i s proposed a s s tanding near t he i nception o f these; S aint-Pierre-Toirac with moulding, a nd M eymac with t he " Santiago" i ndependent l obes, may be earlier. The waisted-point voussoir may owe i ts s hape to s hapes n oted i n t he Mezquita. T he origin of t he volute point i s uncertain. T he moulding h as antecedents in t he s lender c olumns and mouldings of Andalusian p alace a rchitecture, adopted at S antiago. IV. C onvex l obes i n most c ases r esult f rom e laborating the voluted points o f the " Cahors" s offit; they o ccur mostly in t he c entral a nd western a reas. Le Waast and G anagobie are s pecial c ases outside t he u sual d istribution a rea o f l obed a rches, a nd h ave parallels i n E gypt. V . An emphasis o n the extrados, a lways present i n Andalusia, w hich was n ot s ought a fter i n t he p revious g roups o f R omanesque l obed arches, coincides w ith the dissemination o f s culpture in w estern F rance t hat draws on Andalusian t hemes and ivory carving s tyle and betokens a r enewal o f c onscious r eference t o A ndalusia. T he artistic l inks o bserved i n the e arliest R omanesque capital s culpture i n t he B erry with t he S aintonge, G ascony a nd N orth S pain a re s een persisting w ith a g roup o f mid- or l ate-12th century d oorway arches with a nalogous e dged or backed l obes. V I. S ome r epresentations of l obed a rches i n s culpture are e xamined a nd t he p reoccupation of Moissac with t his f eature i s noticed.

1 49

CHAPTER

I V

NOTES

1 . The t erms " lobed", " polylobed", " trilobed" have b ecome e stablished to describe what s hould more properly be termed " cusped" or even better " scalloped" a rches ( OED: l obe " a roundish p rojecting part, u sually o ne or two or m ore s eparated by a f issure"; cusp " a point, pointed end, peak. E ach of the projecting points between the small arcs i n G othic tracery, arches etc."; s calloped " having t he border, edge or o utline cut i nto a s eries o f segments o f c ircles.."), s ince it i s space that i s in most cases the " roundish projecting part", not the solid part of t he a rch. I follow nevertheless the practice originating in F rench writing and now generalized i n u sing l obe f or the concave shaping of the profile a nd point f or t he cusp b etween these. The bibliography i s more extensive than f or a ny other I slamic f eature thought to have influenced Romanesque a rt. S ee n .27. 2 . L obed arches portrayed in Christian manuscript i llumination f or canon tables, f or framing f igures and occasionally portraying architecture have no doubt affected Romanesque arch design. Realization of these in s tone however begins in the West in Andalusia. This i s one of many examples of how C ordoban a rt is one of t he f ullest expessions o f Carolingian ideas: c f J . Hubert, J . P orcher and W . Volbach, C arolingian Art, London 1 970, p l. 7 3: B .N.lat. 8 850 ( Gospel Book of S aint-Medard of S oissons: beginning of St L uke): the s even-lobed arch i s l ike a maquette f or a C ordoban, with moulding, a nd voussoirs a lternating both in colour and i n carved decoration with p lain. The concave l obing o f the extrados i s s imilar t o the s haping of the exterior angles o f the dome drum of the Great Mosque of S ousse, and to the shallow l obes o f the Romanesque series o f arches, and sometimes j ambs, with L imousin moulding ( section I IIb o f t his chapter). 3 . The s eries of pre-Andalusian I slamic examples o f all types of l obed a rch i s l isted in many of the works c ited in Chapter I I n .1 ( Qusair a l-Hallabat, Raqqa, Ukhaidir, S amarra, a l-Aqsa Mosque i n J erusalem, Egypt, Qairawan) and e specially LTB a l-And 1 956; LTB 1 957 pp 4 90-495; H eliot, BM 1 946. 4 .

EMA

I p .

5 . 1 957

AMO p . p .492,

2 82,

f ig.

4 5-46; in see a lso p .

3 26. stone, 4 91.

only

Qusair al-Hallabat,LTB

6 . The authenticity o f this arch f or the o riginal building i s questioned by M .-L. Arscott ( Chapter I I, n .6), but Brisch and Ewert maintain it i s genuine. Among other remains, a p laster fragment from G ranada ( AHIII f ig. 3 17) shows the same a rch decoration in u se in Andalusia, but not until the 1 1th century.

1 50

7 .

The masonry

i s p lastered over

and painted.

8 . Many arches in t he Mezquita a re bonded i nto t he wall for about half their height and are only voussoired across the top ( eg AHIII p . 5 6, f ig. 6 7). 9 . E . Camps Cazorla, Mödulo, Proporciones y en l a Arquitectura Califal Cordobesa, pp 9 9ff, 6 7. This work i s l iable to criticism insufficiently b ased on s urvey measurements and photographs. The principles deduced are consistent a nd c onvincing. 1 0.

Ibid.,

f igs

4 3

and

4 4,

p .

8 4.

1 1.

I bid.,

f igs

4 5 and

4 6,

p .

8 5.

1 2.

Ibid.; passim.

Composiciön f igs 6 6 and f or being too much on nonetheless

1 3. C . Ewert, " Spanisch-islamische Systeme s ich kreuzender Bogen" I ( Cordoba), M .F. 2 . 1 968; I I ( Malaga), M . M. 7 , 1 966;111 ( Zaragoza) M .F. 1 2, 1 978; IV ( Soria), M . M. 8 , 1 967; " Islamische F unde in B alaguer.." M .F. 7 , 1 971; " Der Mihrab d er H auptmoschee von A lmeria" M . M.13, 1 972; " Die Moschee von Mertola ( Portugal)" M . M. 1 4, 1 973; " Die Moschee am Bab a l-Mardum in Toledo.." M . M. 1 8, 1 977. The centres of the lobes of both intrados and extrados are s et on the l ine of pointed arches. They are r egular and c oncentric at Malaga and Z aragoza. At Cordoba they are neither concentric n or do the r adii maintain uniformity. 1 4. A . F ikry, L 'Art roman du P uy et l es i nfluences i slamiques, P aris 1 934, pp 1 90-196 etc. F ikry's documentation only consists o f about one hundred examples, and these i nclude a rches of very different architectural importance, consisting not only of major e lements such as doorways, s eries of tribune a rches and exterior decorative arcades, but minor i solated windows, niches, niche outlines within sculptural c ompositions and decorative motifs on capitals or impost b locks. H is distribution maps can i n fact p rove no more than that, even assuming L e P uy h ad the earliest l obed arches, Le Puy was an important f ocus of inspiration in i ts own vicinity, and not the direct s ource of the use of l obe decoration e lsewhere. 1 5. eine f igs

C . Ewert, " Die Moschee am Bab a l-Mardum in Toledo" " Kopie" der Moschee von Cördoba", Madr. Mitt.18, 1 977, 5 -9.

1 6. eg T lemcen AHIII f igs 3 43, 3 47 and A ljaferia portico 2 94; 1 2th century, Ewert, " Der Mihrab der H auptmoschee von A lmeria" f igs 1 2 and 1 3; AHIV f ig. 1 3, p . 1 8. The t endency increased in A lmohad and l ater building. 1 7.

AMO,

pp

2 39,

2 47.

1 51

1 8. A l obed arch i n t he Tabara painting of the Church of S ardis, possibly only the upper half o f Arch. Hist. Nac.Cod.

1 097B.

1 9. K . Conant, The Compostela, f ig 2 1. 2 0.

AHV,

2 1.

GG

2 2.

AHV,

p .

B eatus ( AD 9 70): t he though the lobed arch i s a wheel window. Madrid,

E arly

H istory

o f

S antiago

de

2 12.

1 938, f ig

f ig.

LXXXVII.

3 14,

p .

1 88.

2 3. ARE, f ig LXXXIII; J . Williams, Art Bull. 1 973, p . 1 84 g ives the reasons f or regarding with s cepticism this date as s ignifying that of the completion of the " new" basilica. There i s at present no means of e stablishing the date when the f irst opening, b etween the P anteön a nd F ernando's church was walled up and this doorway inserted one bay to t he s outh. I t must be within " late 1 1th to m id-12th century". 2 4. ARE, pp 2 8-30; Camps Cazorla, op.cit. f igs 6 2-65, pp 9 6-98; Lasko, Ars S acra, f igs 1 52,153, p . 1 57; de Palol & H irmer p ls 7 4-76; and M . Gomez-Moreno, " El Arca S anta de Oviedo Documentada", AEA XVII, 1 945, P l. I II) 2 5. Ewert, " Malaga",( MM7, 1 967), quotes the sketch on the Arca S anta core ( fig. 1 . 46 to argue that by the 1 1th century geometric s chemata were worked out ahead of building, r ather than resorting to mathematical modules. 2 6.

ARE p .

9 6,

p l.

CXVIII.

2 7. G . G aborit, " Les arcs polylobes dans l a S aintonge et l 'Angoümois", B ull.Soc. Archeol.de S aintonge et Aunis V , 1 928; R . Crozet, L 'Art roman du B erry 1 932 l ists " Islamic" l obed arches in the province; A . F ikry, Le P uy 1 934 Chapter I X p . 1 85 f f, " Les arcs polylobgs"; R . Crozet, " Les a rcs polylobes en B erry" and F . Laborderie, " Les a rcs polylobes..Limousin" Bull.Fed.Soc.Say. Centre de l a F rance 1 936; C h. Daras, " L'orientalisme d ans l 'art roman en Angoümois" Bull.et Mem.Soc.archeol.et h ist. de la Charente 1 936: l obed arches are suggested a s a means of p lotting a n etwork o f p ilgrimage routes a cross t he Ango l lmois; J . Colle and G . F oucaud, " Les arcs polylobes dans l es eglises d' Angoümois-Saintonge" Le Pays d 'Ouest 1 946, with better photographs than h eretofore; P . H gliot, " Les portails polylobes de l 'Aquitaine et des regions l imitrophes" BM 1 946; P . H gliot and M . Menores, " Sur quelques arcs polylobes..."GBA 1 950; J . C olle, " Essai s ur l es i nfluences mozarabes dans l 'art roman du S ud-Ouest" Rev.de l a S aintonge et d 'Aunis 1 956 ( Lobed arches, quatrefoil columns, concentration of decoration around openings, octagonal towers); E . Vergnolle, Les i nfluences i slamiques, l 'arc polylobg. These 3 e c ycle, P aris 1 966 ( unpub.); i d.,

1 52

" Les arcs polylobgs d ans l e Centre-Ouest de l a F rance" I nf.d'Hist.de l 'Art V 1 969. H eliot ( 1946), D aras ( 1936) and Vergnolle ( 1966) a ll give a summary of Boissonnade's data concerning the p resence o f the F rench in Spain in t he l ater 1 1th century. L . Torres Balbäs, " Nichos y arcos l obulados" a l-And XXI, 1 956 p p. 1 47-172; 1 957 pp. 4 88-495. 2 8. i .a. E . Bratke, Das Nordportal d er K athedral S aintEtienne in C ahors 1 977; E . Vergnolle, " Les c hapiteaux de La B erthenoux" GBA 1 972; CA 1 976 ( Velay), passim. 2 9. Qairawan: dated 8 36-875. AMO p . 9 . By the end o f the 9 th century the mosque was i n essentials more or l ess as i t was described by a l-Bakri two c enturies l ater, and as we s ee it now. A . F ikry, L a Grande Mosquee de K airouan, Paris 1 934. 3 0. Conant,CRA p . 1 18, speaks of the p ilasters and paired columns in the transept e levation at C luny " inching the wall outward..". The wall is s imilarly " inched out" in the arcades of the Mezquita by means of the pilasters bearing t he upper o rder o f arches; in t he maqsura t ract, by colonnettes, c f AHIII f igs 1 29, 1 35, 1 54, 1 56,etc. 3 1. Early examples H ilaire in P oitiers.

at Nevers,

Conques

south door,

S aint-

3 2. H . Terrasse, " Chapiteaux omeiyades d 'Espagne Mosquge d'al-Qarawiyyin de F s", a l-And.28, 1 963; Conant, CRA p l 6 7b on wall r eturn; s ee D l.

ä l a C luny:

3 3. Lobed a ltars: P . Deschamps, " Tables d'autel de marbre executges dans l e M idi de l a F rance au X e et au X Ie s iècle" Melanges F . Lot 1 925, pp 1 37-138; M . Durliat, " Tables d 'autel ä l obes d e l a province ecclgsiastique de Narbonne ( IXe-XIe s s)" C ah. Arch. XVI 1 966, pp 5 1-75; A . A. B arb, "Mensa S acra: The Round Table and the Holy Grail" JWCI x ix, 1 956. 3 4. I n 1 095 Pope Urban I I Durliat, art. cit. p . 1 63, n .l. 3 5. etc.

Durliat,

l oc.cit.,

n .33:

dedicated

S ureda,

the

main

Gerona,

a ltar:

Cornella,

3 6. Ewert, Malaga, p . 2 50 gives evidence that the lobed arches of the maqsura chapel that have no carved decoration were painted, and the tradition was maintained in the 1 1th century at Malaga a nd Z aragoza. I d., Cordoba 1 978 p . 7 6: a ll stucco facings with red, b lue, gold, b lack outlines; c apitals gold. 3 7. St Hugh: photograph " Reserves in the attic" O chier in C luny, i n Courtauld I nstitute C onway U lger: Cahn, Doors, f ig. 8 5.

1 53

of Musee L ibrary;

3 8. R econstruction o f t he w est door, K . C onant, C luny, L es E glises e t l a M aison du C hef d 'Ordre, M acon 1 968, f ig 1 85. F . H enry a nd G . Z arnecki, " Romanesque a rches d ecorated w ith human and a nimal heads" JBAA 1 958, ( repr. G . Z arnecki, S tudies i n Romanesque S culpture London 1 979) point t he c onnexion with the C atalan area: t he doorstep of S an P ere d e Roda a nd t he P erpignan doorway f ragments, f igs 1 50,151. 3 9. D urliat, C SMC 1 977 p . 2 0 q uotes A . G rabar on t he n eed t o investigate how p ainted apse c ycles were u sed a s " models" t o " transpose" o nto monumental doorways, a nd t his c orrespondence i s accepted or a ssumed by most writers on t he development o f t he mediaeval C hristian d oorway, i .a. Y . C hriste, L es grands portails romans, G eneva 1 969; G . B andmann, " Zur B edeutung der romanischen Apsis" Wallraf R ichartz J hb 1 5, 1 953; T . W. Lyman " L'Integration du portail d ans l a f açade meridionale", C SMC 1 977 who concentrates s pecially on the development o f t he meaning o f arcading in apses a nd on f açades; R . H amann M cLean, " Les o rigines d es portails e t f açades s culptgs gothiques" G esta XV 1 976; D .J. G ardelles, " Façades ä gtages d 'arcatures des g glises medigvales", BM 1 978. D urliat p laces t he R oussillon " lintels" at t he h ead o f Romanesque s culptured doorways. I t i s not wholly c ertain that t hey a re i n t heir o riginal position and were not c arved a s a ltar f rontals or antependia, c f. L yman, a rt.cit. p . 6 0 quoting P . P onsich, but this uncertainty does n ot a ffect t he apse/doorway c orrespondence theory which i s supported by other works by t hose s ame s culptors: Arles-sur-Tech f açade, P erpignan d oor e tc. The existence o f l obing exactly l ike that o f the C luny t ransept on a rcading in t he apse of A utun c onfirms C onant's c onclusion that the l obes were r epeated i n part o f the s anctuary at C luny too ( cf C RA p l. 6 6; h e a lso g ives t he n ave a rcades a torus with overlapping-point l obes). I t may b e t aken t hat the l obes o f t he doorway i n f act refer t o t he s anctuary. 4 0.

L anguedoc roman

f igs

2 0-25.

4 1. P . P onsich, " Saint-Jean-le-Vieux de P erpignan" CA 1 12, 1 954; i d., Etudes romanes I II, 1 953; M . Durliat, La s culpture romane en R oussillon I II, p . 5 9. P . P onsich C SMC 1 1, 1 980 f or convincing r eassertion o f dating to 1 025. 4 2. T he connexions o f t he s culptors o f Narbonne a nd R oussillon with Andalusian s culpture have most r ecently b een pointed by D urliat, C SMC 1 978, p . 1 02; 1 979, p . 1 61; f or Ripoll and other a ssociated c apitals, F . H ernandez, " Un A specto..." AEAA 1 930, a nd G . Gaillard, P remiers e ssais..., C hapter 1 . 4 3. Andalusian ideas are l ikely t o h ave impinged on C luny not o nly f rom S pain but f rom Montecassino whence c ame a powerful i nspiration f or C luny I II. North Africa i s as l ikely a s Spain to h ave exerted i nfluence there CRA p . 2 23.

1 54

4 4. T he o nly c ertainty a bout t he doorway l obes that c an b e d educed f rom s urviving drawings and r econstructions appears t o be t hat they were s hallow, h orseshoe-shaped a nd f ramed c arvings o f angels; their spacing i s n ot c lear. 4 5. eg Corvey, K unst u nd K ultur am W eserraum 8 00-1600 p ls 1 60, 1 66; A . B arb, JWCI 1 956, p l 6 . a . Mensa f rom E phesos, c . Mensa f rom Mettlach. Pharaoh's dining t able ( fig 1 49) i n a miniature i n t he V ienna G enesis has volute points. 4 6. Autun l obes: A . Grivot a nd G . Z arnecki, S culptor o f Autun 1 961, A 8 and p . 6 3.

G islebertus,

4 7. The a rcade i s i llustrated, CA 1 923, p l 1 17: " balustrade re-used on the exterior" and BM 1 952, p . 2 97: " high arcade under cornice on north", apparently i ndoors. S aint-Maurice i n V ienne was b egun by Archbishop L eger ( 1030-1070) and l eft unfinished a t h is death. O n s tylistic g rounds i t h ad b een a ssumed s ince M . D eshouliäres ( CA 1 923) t hat t here was a n undocumented " complete r ebuilding" o f L eger's unfinished church i n the mid-12th c entury ( cf J . V allery-Radot, BM 1 936 a nd 1 952), until G aillard d isputed t his i n 1 950 and s ubsequently ( "La date des travees romanes de l 'ancienne c athedrale d e S aint-Maurice de V ienne", B ull.Soc.Hist. Art Fr., 1 950, r epr. i n Etudes d 'Art Roman, P aris 1 972; a lso " Essai de c lassement des s culptures d elphino-rhodaniennes au debut de l 'epoque romane" a nd " Le t ympan de S aint-Alban-du-Rhöne" i n t he s ame volume). H e a rgues t he improbability t hat G uy d e B ourgogne, l ater C alixtus I I, s hould a llow the cathedral church o f h is s ee ( which he o ccupied f rom 1 088 t o 1 119) t o r emain u nfinished t hroughout h is t enancy. T here i s no evidence that i t was n ot r eady f or t he c onsecration o f t he h igh a ltar a nd c emetery i n 1 107 by P ope P ascal I I; G uy was s olemnly i nducted t here a s P ope i n 1 119. To meet t he n ow o bligatory p roviso that a p apal c onsecration be n ot t aken a s the basis f or d ating t he c ompletion of a building, G aillard p roposes c ompletion " shortly a fter 1 107". F . S alet, " Valence" CA 1 974, totally r ejects this a rgument and holds t o a mid-12th c entury r ebuilding, w ithout p roducing a ny n ew evidence. 4 8. Two arcades w ith a horseshoe arch o f s even l obes which f rames a n iche c ontaining a l arge s ix-lobed r osette on the minaret o f t he G reat M osque o f A leppo, f inished i n 1 090: C reswell, MAE, p . 2 15, f ig. 1 17. 4 9. BM 1 936, pp 2 88-291; J . Evans, R omanesque P eriod, C ambridge 1 950, p l.

C luniac Art 6 6a.

o f

the

5 0. I n contrast t o M eymac ( fig.141) and Vigeois ( fig.188) where the n ext a rchivolt, l ike the s hallow porch at D ore l 'Eglise, g ives a d efinite e ffect o f a r aised c entre, i n t he Andalusian manner ( F17). 5 1. The g rooving r ecalls the l obes on the Moissac c loister c apital 1 7 ( fig. 1 94) t o b e d iscussed i n s ection V I.

1 55

5 2. Much o f t he S aintonge was virtually unpopulated u ntil s ome years i nto t he 1 2th c entury. C . H igounet, " Les hommes, l a v igne e t l es gglises r omanes du B ordelais e t du B azadais", Rev. h ist. B ordeaux, 1 952 1 /2: The Benedictines' n eed f or wine f or the host l ed t o l arge s chemes o f l and r eclamation beginning i n t he 1 1th c entury a nd c ontinuing u ntil the e nd o f t he 1 3th. R . C. Watson, The Early H istory o f the Counts o f Angouleme, doct.thesis, U niv. o f E ast Anglia 1 978 ( unpub.) a lso s tresses the s carcity o f population, e specially i n t he S aintonge a nd even in p arts o f the Angoümois until t he 1 2th century. 5 3. I n t he t ime o f Abbot O dolric ( 1025-1040) a white marble a ltar was brought to L imoges f rom Narbonne f or the abbey o f S aint-Martial. A wall had t o be breached at C apdenac t o get i t through, reported by Geoffrey of V igeois, ( qu. M . D urliat, Cah.Arch. 1 966). 5 4. XXX,

A . B org, 1 967, pp.

" The D evelopment 1 22-140.

5 5. A lso AMO, f igs o f the B eni Hammad).

2 2

5 6.See a lso S ection I V: a ssociated w ith chevron.

o f C hevron

( Qairawan),

at

3 9

O rnament"

( Sousse),

S aint-Robert

t hey

5 5

are

J BAA

( Qala'a

a gain

5 7. P orche du F or, d ated l ate 1 2th c entury by Durliat, 1 976. This arch i s built over an e arlier opening. 5 8. I t w as exterior at i n K ent.

CA

p articularly popular i n E ngland, e q. t he c hoir Canterbury, a nd t hence t o a number o f c hurches

5 9. F . H enry a nd G . Z arnecki, a rt.cit.: t he authors note t he animal head f ramed in a V-shaped l eaf motif t ransposed f rom C ordoban b asins. Andalusian a lso a re t he emphasized e xtrados o f l obed a rches and t he o utlined voussoirs very marked a t Angers and Aunay ( fig 3 30 ); the human head with animal e ars r eferred by t hese authors t o Roman models a lso o ccurs on Cordoban marble basins a nd o n I slamic and Mozarabic ivories. H eads are a lready a ssociated with l obes on t he o uter a rchivolt of C luny doorway. 6 0. The j ambs o f S ouillac have n ot survived; a nother example o f t his type o f doorway i s v ouched f or by f ragments i n t he museum at B rive. 6 1. Rhöne valley, s ee below. Champagne h as s uperposed columns ( F9) s upporting t he r ibs of t he nave vaults. 6 2. R . C rozet, " Petites gglises de l a vallge du G allego ( Espagne)", CCM 1 969/3. The s eries o f c hurches a ll h as twin c olumns on the interior .* walls t o s upport the v ault r ibs ( F6).

1 56

6 3. A . H eimann, " The S culptor o f the F irst 1 979.

M aster H alf o f

6 4. J . Evans, C luniac a bacus i s l obed, 3 b.

Art..pl.

6 5. P alencia c asket: f ig.369; EK E lf, N o 4 3.

J .

o f G argilesse, a F rench t he Twelfth C entury", JWCI

1 29b;

B eckwith,

at

CC

S ouvigny

p l.

3 2;

t he

AHIII

6 6. The impost b lock now s urmounting c apital 1 7 i s c arved with masked bacchanalean f igures o f R oman ( ultimately o riental, c f. O .M. D alton, T he T reasure o f the Oxus,London 1 964, No 1 8, f ig. 4 3, P. 8 ) i nspiration. They raise the possibility o f c loser c onnexions b etween Moissac a nd L e P uy t han previously e stablished, ( cf. the c loister f rieze at L e P uy, a nd f ragments o f c ornice carvings in t he museum t here) which need f urther i nvestigation. These prancing f igures a re at Anzy-le-Duc a nd a lso at Lyon i n S aint-Martin d 'Ainay, s trengthening the evidence f or contacts b etween Moissac a nd t he R höne/Velay - on t he route to C luny o f c ourse. Moissac's l ink through D urannus with the Auvergne h as a lready been s tressed i n C hapter I II. 6 7.

Durliat,

C ah.Arch.

1 966.

6 8. P ossibly f ive l obes at t he a rches o f the west f açade. A lthough V iollet-le-Duc d eclared that Mallay h ad r eserved the " grandiose a nd original a spect" o f the west f açade, there i s s ome d oubt a bout t he upper part w ith small f ivel obed arches. 6 9. CA 1 976. T he bell t ower: t he f irst t wo or t hree s toreys [ ?]1130 o r l ater; the r est not f inished until 1 180 or l ater. I t was r ebuilt t o t he o ld d esign i n 1 887; S aintMichel d 'Aiguilhe: f açade, 1 180; S aint-Clair c hapel, c . 1 180; west end and f açade of c athedral, 1 180. 7 0.

i bid.,

P .

3 24.

7 1. i bid., p . 4 53. I am much i ndebted to P rof. f or photographs o f the t rilobes ( fig 1 77) and helpful comments.

B ousquet f or h is

7 2. B ut t he j ointing o f the arches i s more p rimitive; i bid., p . 4 55, f ig. 1 0; GG 1 938, p ls L XXXII-LXXXIII. 7 3.

J .

B ousquet,

" Le Monastier",

CA 1 976,

p p.

4 44-445.

7 4. i bid., p . 1 53; J . Vallery-Radot, " De L imoges ä Brantôme, au P uy e t ä Valence" GBA 1 929, pp. 2 65-284, countered the a ccepted view t hat Brantöme was t he e arliest o f t he " Limousin" b elfries a nd regarded i t a s a s implified imitation o f the t owers of S ainte-Marie and the cathedral at L imoges, which a lso r adiated their i nfluence t o L e P uy and Valence. T he type o f belfry was possibly i n t he Q uercy by t he early 1 2th c entury s ince i t i s portrayed on t he

1 57

porch r elief o f t he F light i nto E gypt at Moissac. T he c rossing t ower at C ollonges, another o f the same t ype, i s variously dated t o early 1 2th c entury ( J. M aury, L imousin roman) a nd 1 140 o r after ( M.-M. Macary, Collonges 1 972). At both Moissac a nd Collonges t here w ere trilobe arches, but n ot o f L e P uy design ( Section I IIa). 7 5. CA 1 976, b e monolithic.

p .

4 80.

T he

s outh f açade

t rilobe appears

t o

7 6. P . P onsich, " Architecture p reromane de S aint-Michel de C uxa e t s a veritable s ignification", C SMC 1 971, p p. 1 7-27: Andalusian h orseshoe a rches h ave j ambs a s wide apart as t he w idest part o f t he a rch above; P ersian, Roman and V isigothic a rches have j ambs a s c lose a s t he i mposts. 7 7.

CA 1 976,

p .

5 93.

7 8. i bid., S aint-Vidal, p . 6 47, s econd half o f 1 2th c entury; L ai-dayrol, p . 5 93, s ame d ate; B ains, p . 6 33: g iven to C onques by P ons de P olignac i n 1 105, but t he door i s a gain a fter 1 150. Chamaliäres, p . 4 71, t he s ame, etc. 7 9. T he s offits o f t he t ribune a rches are grooved to make a l ongitudinal decoration l ike arches i n the M ezquita ( AHIII f ig. 2 14) a nd t he A ljaferia ( ibid., f ig.293). The l atter a re o f p laster a nd a re p ointed a rches w ith many l obes. 8 0. i llustrated i n BM 1 936, p . 3 06; t he door, CA 1 935, p . 1 44. S aint-Pierre i n Vienne, not f inished at the death o f Abbot G oulard i n 1 107. T he p orch a nd t ower a re d ated 1 161 by D eshouliäres. 8 1. BM 1 936, p . 5 46.

p .

2 97;

i llustrated BM 1 952,

p .

3 56;

CA 1 974,

8 2. F or example the a ltar f rontal o f white marble c arved with r ows o f d ifferent s ized a nd s haped r osettes, K .J. Conant, C luny 1 968, f ig. 1 84; rosettes on the towers o f C luny, i bid., f ig. 1 88 and T ournus. A cornice soffit f rom I le B arbe ( BM 1 936, p . 3 02) s hows A ndalusian scrolls round a rosette more e laborate t han the standard Auvergnat s offit type. 8 3. A . D uran i S anpere, " La T orre P oligonal ( num. 6 ) de l a Muralla Romana", C uadernos de Arqueol. y H ist.de l a C iudad, B arcelona 1 969, no 1 3, p . 5 1, f igs 7 , 1 1-13. 8 4. M . D urliat, CA 1 976, pp. 1 9 f f., refers to the trade r oute north to the Champagne, the many c ontacts o f L e P uy a nd L e M onastier w ith t he Empire and w ith P iedmont, a nd t he route l inking Lyon and Toulouse v ia L e P uy, with an emphasis more on t rade t han on p ilgrimages. 8 5. The squinch domes o f S aint-Martin-d'Ainay in Lyon can be d ated 1 107 a nd r esemble those o f T ournus a lso. Vallery-

1 58

Radot, " La l imite m eridionale.." BM 1 936 a ccepted that L e P uy received i ts dome f orm f rom t he Rhöne b ut b elieved t he t rilobes o f the a rea derive f rom Le P uy. T o do s o now i s t o i nsist on an u nreasonably l ate dating o f building a ctivity i n the Rhöne valley, s ince L e P uy i s p ut s o l ate. 8 6. CA 1 935, p . 1 08. O n p . 1 11 a re m asks s imilar to those o f the vertical marble p laque of Moissac doorway ( fig. 7 4). 8 7. D urliat, CA 1 976, d iscusses in h is I ntroduction t he g roup of capitals at L e P uy o f the s econd half of t he 1 1th c entury i n t he R oda t radition w ith f leurons a nd i nterlace, " The most l ively type until the f igured and h istoriated s culpture o f S aint-Sernin a nd Moissac". H e q uotes Aurillac, C onques, N ant, S aint-Guillaume-le-desert, various Languedoc c hurches. T he t ype goes a s f ar n orth a s I ssoudun. H e does n ot include t he B erry or C luny, where f igured s culpture i s l ikely t o be e arlier than that o f S aint-Sernin a nd M oisssac; Vergnolle, GBA 1 972. 8 8. L imousin roman, pp. 1 00-101. A consecration i n 1 143 a ccepted by him a s a l ikely date ante quem f or S olignac. 8 9.

c f.

J . -Cl.

F au,

" Un d ecor o riginal.."

C SMC

i s

1 978.

9 0. T he c hurch i s reported i n R ouergue roman a s g iven to S aint-Victor, Marseilles, probably at the s ame t ime a s B ozouls nearby i n 1 082. B ousquet, Chapiteaux.. p . 1 83 a greed with G aillard i n dating S aint-Pierre s hortly a fter t his donation, b ut in " Le Monastier" CA 1 976 he c orrects t his account and states that i t was a-- priory g iven to P ebrac en V elay i n 1 085. " Its s tylistic l inks with t hat r egion should be u nderlined". 9 1. The p ine c one motif on the panels f lanking the a ltar t rilobe i s a l ink with t he Andalusian s ources o f t he l atter workshop, through S an P ere de Roda: J .Cl. F au, op.cit., p . 1 31 and i d., " L'apparition de l a f igure humaine dans l a s culpture d u R ouergue a u X Ie s iècle", Actes XXVIIe C ongr.Soc.Say., Montauban 1 972. S imilarity with a j amb f ragment o f the g reat west door, Conant, C luny 1 968, which h as pine cone a nd crossed s tem in s omething o f the s ame s tyle a s t he B essuejouls a ltar, might s uggest this d ating o f the a ltar i s t oo e arly. The i nterlace medallions however a re in i ts f avour. 9 2. S aint-Etienne i n N evers, begun about 1 083 under the s timulus o f l arge g ifts, and i t i s r eported a s complete w ith i ts t owers at the t ime o f i ts dedication ( 15th D ecember, 1 097): C RE p . 1 15. 9 3. ARE pp. 1 20-124; AHV p . 1 23. The idea would thus b e b andied to and f ro. F rom Nevers p erhaps to S antiago, where i t w as re-shaped by Andalusian models. From S antiago b ack t o the Auvergne. Meanwhile the roll corbel t ravels i n the opposite d irection, having b een l ong in t he A uvergne in t he f orm i n which i t r eached S antiago ? .

1 59

9 4.

AMO p .

7 6,

f ig.

9 5.

i bid.,

p late,

p .

3 9. 9 5.

9 6. i bid., f ig. 5 0. Margais, p . 1 27, dwells on the commercial importance o f the c oastal c ities o f I friqiya a fter t he H ilalian i nvasion o f t he mid-llth century devastated the c ities o f the i nterior. They needed vast s upplies o f wood ( M. Lombard, " Un p robläme c artographique; l e bois dans l a Mgditerrange musulmane, VIIe-XIe s iècle", Annales E .S.C., 1 959/1) a nd travelled f ar t o f ind i t. The Rhöne might well b ring down t imber a s well a s s laves, f urs, etc. 9 7.

D ated by Conant CRE c .1130.

9 8. M . Vieillard-Trouerikoff, " L'ancienne C lermont..", C ah. Arch. 1 960, pp. 1 99-247.

c athgdrale

d e

9 9. " Limousin moulding" i s a narrow t orus s et i n the angle b etween s uccessive a rchivolts, u sually c arved on t he i nside edge o f a voussoir; i t i s o ften but n ot a lways continued down t he corresponding j amb a s a thin nook s haft or c olonnette o f the s ame diameter, with or without a small c apital at t he impost l ine. I n t he L imousin t he c apital i s f requently undecorated. This moulding i s f ound mainly on doors a nd windows i n t he L imousin ( Hte V ienne, Corräze) but w ith outliers in Q uercy and P oitou, P erigord and Angoümois, throughout t he 1 2th c entury. 1 00. R . R ey, L a cathgdrale Vaissette, H ist. de Languedoc,

de C ahors I I, p . 3 85.

1 937;

D evic

&

1 01. T he dating o f Moissac porch s culpture i s s till f luid, based on extrapolations f rom t he o nly written a uthority, t he Chronicle o f the abbey written by Aymery de P eyrac, abbot f rom 1 377 t o 1 406. Abbot A nsquitil ( +1115) i s c redited with the " portale pulcherrimum..". H is successor R oger's s tatue c rowns i t. F or Angouleme, P . M. T onnelier, " La date de consecration de l a c athedrale d 'Angouleme" i n Mgl. C rozet, p . 5 07; P . D ubourg-Noves, I conographie de l a Cathgdrale d 'Angouleme.., 1 973. 1 02. H . S aladin, 1 899, p l. X IV. contemporary, a t de T lemcen P aris

La mosquge de S idi O kba ä K airouan, P aris P oints decorated w ith f lowers, p erhaps T lemcen: W . M argais, L es monuments a rabes 1 899, p . 1 47, f ig. 1 5.

1 03. M . V idal, Q uercy roman, p . 9 6. I n conversation s he confirmed that there are s urviving f ragments that j ustify t he t rilobed twin doorways " in p rinciple". 1 04.

M .

Meras,

1 05.

M .-M.

S aint-Antonin-Noble-Val,

Macary,

Collonges,

1 972,

1 60

p .

Rodez 1

1 969,

p .

2 7.

1 06

Quercy roman,

f igs

2 2-25.

1 07. Conques, Defourneaux, p .14 ( possessions in Navarre), p . 1 51 ( mosque in Barbastro); Saint-Pons: i bid., p . 1 50 ( mosque in Huesca); La S auve: ibid., p . 1 54 ( rights i n E jga). 1 08. M . S chapiro, Romanesque Art p . 5 0; J .-M. Lacarra, Un arancäl de aduanas del s iglo X I, Z aragoza 1 950; A . Meillon, Les possessions de l 'Abbaye de S aint-Savin de Lavedan ä S aragosse au XIIe s iècle, Tarbes 1 923. 1 09. E . Mäle, L 'Art reliqieux du X IIe s iècle, 1 923; L . Grodecki, " Le probleme des sources iconographiques du tympan de Moissac", Moissac et l 'Occident au X Ie s iècle, Toulouse 1 964; N . Mezoughi, " Le tympan de Moissac, e tudes d 'iconographie" C SMC 9 , 1 978, pp. 1 71-200. 1 10. Many typically L imousin features are found early at Moissac: L imousin moulding; the l obed profile adopted at La S outerraine and Le Dorat; the gabled belfry pictured on the relief of t he F light i nto Egypt ( Quercy r oman, f ig. 2 3, a lso p ictured at B eaulieu, f ig. 1 44); Macary, Collonges 1 972 quotes MM. a nd S . G authier, Visages du L imousin et de l a Marche 1 950 a s suggesting that t he tower of S aintMartial in Limoges initiated the gabled belfry. Vidal opines that the r elief i llustrates a l ocal monument " in the area by about 1 110". 1 11. P . H gliot, " Observations sur les f açades ä arcades aveugles..dans l es gglises romanes", B ull.Soc. Ant.Ouest 4 , 1 958, pp. 3 64-458: Meymac was given in 1 085 to U zerche, and building b egan then. 1 12. Vigeois: Limousin roman, p . 2 4. The church between 1 082 and 1 124. A . de Laborderie, Bull. Correze iv, 1 932.

was built S oc. Arch.

1 13. This i s an e arly version o f the " serpentiform impost" f rom which A lmohad a rt " drew a more e legant and r icher form" ( AMO, p . 2 33). Margais traces its beginning from stelae in Q airawan of the early 1 1th century, through a basin in t he Qala'a of t he B eni H ammad a nd the A ljaferia ( mid-llth century) to T lemcen and Rabat in the 1 2th. " It might be c onsidered as a memory of Vitruvius" " prothyrid console" but the H ispano-maghrebi decorators endow it with p lant apparel f ormed of l ong palm l eaves which accommodate it to the general spirit of the style". The up-turned curl at Z aragoza i s p eculiar to this s ite. 1 14. No measured drawings are available. The f ollowing observations apart f rom r eferences to Cahors s outh door are deductions f rom photographs, as are a ll the calculations o f Cazorla in Modulo... I am very grateful to George M ichell f or his measured drawings at Cahors, Le Puy and Bains.

1 61

1 15. P ointed a rches a re c ommon in t he L imousin f rom a n e arly date. c f. L imousin roman, p . 4 9: " le trace brisg, i ndiscutablement p rgferg en L imousin d es l a f in d u l le s iècle" ( indisputably t he p referred f orm i n t he L imousin f rom the l ate 1 1th c entury). 1 16. The s ame f orm of intrados i s u sed on the f açade o f P etit Palais, G ironde, f or t he a rcades f lanking t he s emicircular l obed doorway; the arches above a re r ound horseshoes ( fig 1 97). 1 17. A leppo: MAE S pain: Maldonado,

f ig. 1 17, p . Toledo, f ig.

2 15; 8 .

S fax,

AMO,

pp.

9 5,

1 02;

1 18. Anglo-Saxon pen c ase i n B ritish Museum, J . B eckwith, I vory Carvings i n E arly M ediaeval E ngland", L ondon 1 972, N o 4 6. 1 19. Corbel f rom Cordoban c orbels.

Reading,

V ictoria

&

A lbert

Museum;

1 20. c f. AHV, Z amora C athedral, f ig. 4 11; L a M agdalena, Z amora, f ig. 4 30; O seiro, f ig. 5 04; O rense, f ig. 5 12; C irauqui, f ig. 3 02; P uente l a Reina, f ig. 3 03; E stella, n ot i llustrated. 1 21

S ee n .

7 6

1 22 The l obed doorway of f oliage carving while t he e dging. Most L imousin undecorated.

D gols has hood moulding w ith Moissac j ambs h ave a r ibbon l obed a rches a re s trictly

1 23.

3 0.

Quercy roman,

d ifa

2 9,

1 24. The niche a rches o f S aint-Pierre-Toirac are on c olonnettes and c apitals, a nd t he t rilobe i s concentric. Nonetheless, the moulding o f i ts i ntrados, i ts proximity to C ahors a nd i ts early d ate a ll a rgue f or i ts i nclusion at t he beginning o f the L imousin s eries, b efore t he n orms became e stablished. I t may p rovide a l ink b etween t he t rilobe arches o f L e Monastier, a lso o f this s hape and on columns a nd c apitals, a nd t he C ahors s eries. 1 25. The p lait c apitals a re o f a t ype s imilar to t hose o f Aurillac a nd F igeac, J .Cl. F au, C SMC 1 978; they have t he " galons perles" of t he e nd o f the s eries; J . B ousquet, L es Chapiteaux de C onques 1 956. The rectangular t hick r ibs on t he crossing F 22 a re an early f eature. 1 26. C . E nlart, 1 927. P . H eliot, 1 27.

c f.

K .

" L"gglise du CA 1 936.

Creswell,

Waast

en

B oulonnais",

GBA

MAE.

1 28. This does not preclude the possibility o f an i nfluence f rom E gypt two d ecades l ater, which would be m ore

1 62

a ppropriate f or t his d oorway. Recorded i ndividuals c an only be r egarded a s r epresenting many more u nrecorded c onnexions.

j ourneys o f i ndications

1 29. A l etter f rom O smond, b ishop o f Astorga, t o I de c oncerning relics; i t i s c ountersigned by A lfonso V I ( Chalandon, H istoire de l a p remiere c roisade, P aris 1 925, p p. 1 96, 2 64); H gliot, BM 1 946. 1 30.

K .

Creswell,

MAE.

1 31. AHIII f ig. 2 93, and c f. a " large roll-corbel w ith l eaves carved o n the s offit...of s tucco" f rom a house i n E lvira, i bid., p . 1 73 a nd f ig. 2 31. 1 32. AHV, Z amora c athedral f ig. T oro, f igs 4 23, 4 24; S alamanca J uan d el M ercado, f ig. 4 34. 1 33. A s imilar d iaphragm wall

4 11; S a Maria l a Mayor de S an Martin, f ig. 4 33; S an

k ind o f point i s on the a jimez at C hampagne.

t rilobes o f

the

1 34. AHV, f ig. 2 83; Mozarabic c apitals: I g. Moz., f igs 4 35, 4 52 for e xample. L ater I slamic a rches, on the c ontrary, t end to b reak up t he l ine of l obes i nto f iner a nd f iner p oints, c f. AHIV, f igs 2 ,3,13, i n an evolution t owards the c reation o f s talactite c eilings. 1 35.

S aintonge

r omane,

f ig.

1 47.

1 36. i bid., f igs 1 , 9 8; Avy, c ylinders on a f luted cornice.

f ig.

1 66,

1 37. F . H enry a nd G . Z arnecki, " Arches p l. VII,4; S aintonge romane, f ig. 1 39.

has

vertical

decorated..",

1 38. S aintonge r omane: S aint-Eutrope, S aintes, f ig.1; Corme R oyale, f ig. 7 1; S aint-Quentin de Ranganne, f ig. 1 47; V andrd, f ig. 2 07; N uaillg, f ig. 2 08; Abbaye a ux D ames, S aintes, f ig. 2 2, the l ower window. 1 39. J . Evans, 1 6, " c.1100". 1 40.

A rt i n

S aintonge r omane

M ediaeval

, f ig.

F rance,

Oxford 1 948,

p l.

1 92.

1 41. S aintonge romane , f ig. 1 85. B ellegarde ( Loiret) and P ezou ( LetCher) f ig 1 63, are examples o f i ts use away f rom t his area where i t i s commonest. 1 42. R . S anchez V entura, A ragon", AEAA 1 933, pp. pp. 1 23-4. 1 43. S ee Aragon r oman p . c omments i n the f aculty at

" Un g rupo de i glesias d el A lto 2 15-235; Aragon roman, p l. 1 6 and

1 23, and Z aragoza.

1 63

I h ave

h eard

s imilar

1 44. H owever, the niches on B ab f eature ( fig 1 40).

Z uweila

in C airo

s hare t his

1 45.A f ragment now used i n the s etting o f the g rille f lanking t he door t o t he s outh, c arved with f oliage, h as a c urved border s uggesting t hat a l obed arch was represented i n t he carved p lant decoration a c entury or more b efore s tructural l obed arches were built i n t he M ezquita. I t may on t he other hand only b e p art o f a curved s croll s tem ( AHIII f ig. 3 8). 1 46.

AHIV,

f igs

1 00-103.

1 47.

H .

Terrasse,

1 48.

A s

s tressed by E .

Art h ispano-mauresque, Vergnolle

f ig.

i n h er thesis

LXV. 1 966.

1 49. M ultiple l obed a rches a ll b elong to t he group w ith L imousin moulding: C ahors, Vigeois, L a S outerraine e tc. P etit Palais w ith i ts s eries undercut in d epth only h as moulding on some l obes, and i s perhaps to be regarded a s t he exception. 1 50.

C .

Ewert,

1 51.

i bid.,

p ls

B alaguer 1 2,

1 3,

1 971, 3 4,

p ls

1 2-15,

4 4.

3 5.

1 52. i bid., p ls 1 3, 3 1 and 3 4b s how motifs apopropriate t o ivory or t extiles. The t own was important f or trade a s w ell a s d efence. The c astle c hanged h ands o ften i n t he l ast y ears of the century, or was held under tribute, a nd f inally taken by U rgel i n 1 105. 1 53. Andalusian and Mozarabic ivory carvings, a s a ll authorities a gree, a re an important e lement i n t he s tyle o f t he c apitals at S aintes ( Saintonge r omane , f igs 1 3, 1 4), and these i n their turn are a patent s ource f or l ater s culpture i n t he S aintonge. 1 54. L . Anfrey, L 'Architecture r eligieuse en N ivernais au moyen-äge, P aris 1 951, r efers t o many t owers w ith polylobed arches influenced by L a C harité, eg. Rouy, G arduzy, S aintE usebe i n A uxerre, S aint-Laurent l 'Abbaye, S emelay, V arzy. T ournus probably r epresents what was i mitated by L a C harité f rom C luny.

1 64

CHAPTER V ANDALUSIAN FEATURES I II.

I N ROMANESQUE DECORATION

THE ROLL CORBEL

S tone c orbels carved with l obes down t he profile, and w ith this motif c arried across t he f ront to s imulate a s eries of horizontal rods, constitute a distinctive group a mong the many f orms o f Romanesque c orbel. They will be d iscussed i n this chapter under the term " roll c orbel" ( 1). S ince t he p ublication i n 1 923 o f t he s econd o f Mile's a rticles on I slamic e lements i n Romanesque architecture ( 2) t he u ltimate Andalusian o rigin of t he f eature h as b een u niversally accepted. I n 1 936 Torres-Balbäs reviewed the whole history o f t he f orm f rom i ts o rigins i n Roman c orbels, but F rench examples have r eceived l ittle s ystematic s tudy ( 3). The d ivision by Torres-Balbäs o f R omanesque roll c orbels i nto three broad c lasses i s a u seful descriptive c lassification: i . P lain " rod corbels" ( modillones c on baquetones) i i. "Wood-shaving corbels" ( modillons ä copeaux, h enceforth " fillet roll corbels"): t he r ods are i nterrupted, or t ied, a cross t he f ace by a v ertical f illet of varying width which g enerally projects beyond the r ods and i s e ither p lain, or c arved with i ncised decoration i ii. Roll corbels on which the c entral f illet i s r eplaced b y a p lant, mask o r f igure motif in h igh r elief. Animal and h uman heads form a l arge proportion o f t his c lass. A ll t hese t ypes h ave antecedents i n Andalusian c orbels, and before discussing t heir a ssociations in F rance i t i s helpful t o l ook at t he context a nd d evelopment o f d ifferent types i n Andalusia and i n Christian Spain ( 4). T he method o f roofing whereby e aves a re c arried on a s tone corbel t able i s one o f the most f requent and d istinctive c haracteristics o f R omanesque a rchitecture t hroughout F rance. The only example of i ts u se before the R omanesque p eriod h owever i s not i n F rance but i n S pain, f irst in Andalusia, and f rom the 1 0th c entury on Mozarabic b uildings i n t he n orth a s well. I n b oth cases t he corbels a re exclusively o f roll f orm. I n the Mezquita r oll corbels a ppear i n t he s econd t hird o f t he 9 th i f not in t he 8 th c entury. W ith one exception they a re the only f orm used. T he multiplicity o f l evels at which t he i nfluence o f a s ingle e lement o f one culture can operate on another i s v ividly i llustrated by t he h istory o f this f eature, i n w hich the a doption into Romanesque o f the Cordoban r oll f orm w ith many adaptations ( including e limination o f t he r oll) accompanies t he wholesale acceptance o f both the c orbel table i tself a s a s tructural d evice a nd t he d ecorative u se o f c orbels in general.

1 65

Roll

corbels

i n Andalusia:

s hape

The most e lementary form o f roll c orbel, and probably t he earliest ( 5) i s s een on t he i nterior a rcades o f t he f irst mosque ( fig.2). These examples a re not independent members o f a c orbel table, b ut p arts of t he cruciform s tone imposts supporting pilasters that r ise to c arry the upper wider rows o f a rches, while t he other two arms a re t he springers of the horseshoe arches o f the arcades. T hese arms a re c arved in a concave profile, c orresponding t o t he spring o f the horseshoe arches, and the face i s carved to s imulate t hree or more rods l aid h orizontally o ne above t he other between a f lat vertical f ace above and a f illet below. Variations in t he h eight o f t he columns, a ll of which were reused, could be adjusted by the height o f t his impost, a nd t he n umber of rods thus v aries b etween t hree and four-and-a half. This basic f orm i s subsequently found on e lements other than ' corbels in Andalusian building i nto t he 1 1th century and l ater, particularly door p ivots, gargoyles and arches ( fig.29), and t he p rofile o f machicoulis in mediaeval f ortifications both Muslim a nd C hristian c an be s een to derive f rom it. Mozarabic corbels a lso m ostly consist o f an extension o f this f orm. Rod

corbels

in the Mezquita:

decoration

S ome corbels on the arcades of the earliest part of t he Mezquita are carved on t he sides o f t he l obes w ith c ircles in low relief, to imitate t he ends o f the r ods. Many more a re c arved w ith foliage i n very l ow r elief a ll over the s ide; o ften in this case curling tendrils correspond to t he rod e nds; a lternatively heavy c urls spring f rom among the l eaves. This l atter decoration, distinguishing t he a rchitectural a nd p lant motifs, i s f oreshadowed in an unusual merlon f rom P almyra, of t he 1 st or 2 nd c entury AD, d ecorated w ith a s eries of volutes among acanthus ( 6). The rare s urviving traces o f c olour observed b y F . H ernandez J imenez ( 7) in the shallow hollows on t he c arved s ides of corbels in the Mezquita s uggest that originally a ll the c orbels of t he arcades were p ainted with p lant s crolls even when they were not c arved. F illet Roll Cornice

C orbels:

t he

Corbels

o f

the

S an

E steban D oor

The nine uniform corbels supporting t he cornice over t he S an E steban door are each c arved with s ix rolls ( AHIII f ig.68)(8). The f ace i s d ivided by a c entral narrow f illet which runs vertically f rom the vertical f ace at the t op to t he l evel of t he underside o f the f irst roll; this r oll i s s et back f rom the p lane o f the f ace. The f illet then t urns sharply to follow t he concave curve of t he p rofile and s till projects beyond the p lane o f the lobes at each s ide.

1 66

T hese corbels a re too inaccessible and too weathered t o s how much original d ecoration, b ut i t c an be s een that s ome h ad curls c arved on the s ides, and others had c ircles marking t he roll e nds, w ith a hollowed dot at t he c entre. F illet Roll M ezquita

Corbels:

t he C orbels o f

the North Façade o f

the

F illet corbels s imilar t o those over the S an E steban door w ere u sed i n 9 58 on t he Mezquita to support t he e aves o f Abd ar-Rahman I II's r einforcement o f the north f açade o f t he s anctuary g iving onto t he p atio. H ere the e dges of t he s ides are decorated with interlaced l ines to r epresent the r od ends, or c urls, a nd t he f ront vertical f ace a nd s hallow c entral f illet, w ider than t he f illets over the S an E steban d oor, a re c arved w ith s imple c hip-carved geometric or s tylized p lant motifs s uch a s l inked palmette scrolls. T hey a ll have s even rolls ( AHIII f ig. 9 6; LTB 1 957, f igs 2 692 73). The eaves overhang the wall to a considerable extent, a nd t he c orbels t herefore a re e longated horizontally more t han those previously described. O n Mozarab buildings o f t his c entury the eaves t end to be even wider a nd c orbels c orrespondingly more horizontal i n s hape relative t o the v ertical. F illet Roll E xtension

C orbels:

I nterior

Arcades

o f

the

S econd

a l-Hakam I I's extension ( 961-965) being provided with n ewly-made c olumns, t he i mposts were a ll of a height; t he c orbels nearly a ll have a uniform f ive-and-a half r olls. T heir surface d ecoration u ses a great variety o f motifs h owever, though t hese are a lways very restrained; t hey i nclude i nscriptions, g rooves, cording, s trapwork i nterlace, or s imple geometric patterns ( LTB 1 957 f igs 2 78 a nd 3 63-365). Another innovative variation was to e liminate t he vertical f ace at t he t op and g ive t he p rofile a smooth S -curve; t he central f illet b arely projects, o r i s s ometimes even cut away a nd l eft a s a hollow; i t s till f ollows the s ame profile a s the rod ends. S ome corbels o f t his t ype i n t he c entral a isle are d ouble, with two f illets o r grooves. The s ides may be l eft a s p lain l obes [ for p ainting?] o r c arved with c ircles, c urls etc. U sually i n F rance the vertical f ace i s pronounced, but on the P orte M iägeville c orbels o f S aint-Sernin ( fig 2 20) a nd o n s ome o thers in s outh-west F rance i t i s much r educed in height. F illet Roll

Corbels:

A lmanzor's

Extension

The third e xtension o f 9 87 contains many f illet c orbels, b oth on t he i nterior arcades a nd on t he patio f açade ( LTB 1 957 f igs 3 79-381). S ome are carved on the s ides with curls, and there r emain occasional traces o f the r ed paint t hat emphasized t he hollows. O ften t he c urls o n o ne s ide, o r j ust a bottom curl, or a ll but t he top one,

1 67

a re turned upward i nstead o f down. This detail, e specially applied to t he bottom curl, r ecurs on roll corbels a t S antiago, and i n an early context i n France, at T ournus, a nd at Conques over t he north t ransept door; this i s t he c lassic " Auvergnat" corbel with many examples i n t he v icinity o f C lermont which c losely r esemble t hose o f t his t ype in A lmanzor's extension, a s many authorities h ave observed ( fig 2 22). T hough A lmanzor's columns are uniform i n h eight t he number o f rolls, a nd h ence t heir s ize, i s much l ess uniform i n this building campaign than i n t he previous one. T he rolls vary in n umber f rom f ive t o s even; c orbels w ith t he g reater number o f smaller rolls are on t he easternmost arcades, a nd on t he s ides o f these t he l obes a re l eft w ithout emphasis or carving. Twin windows ( F11) u nder arches f lank A lmanzor's s eries o f d oorways on t he east f açade exterior. T hey a re s upported in the centre by a colonnette on a console. T his console i s a f illet r oll c orbel, with t he f illet s o extended a s to produce a r ectangular profile ( AHIII f ig 2 19) ( 9).

D ecorative F illet Roll

Corbels

The roll corbel was evidently de r igueur i n 1 0th c entury Andalusia; s ome c raftsmen more concerned w ith decoration t han f orm, while making no a ttempt to s hape t heir corbels i nto l obes, s till made the f orm implicit in t he decoration. This c reated a nother variant o f t he f illet corbel consisting i n a smooth unlobed profile that might be concave o r square, with t he d ifferent p lanes of rolls a nd f illet e liminated a ltogether, but with the c oncave profile, or imitation concave profile on t he square, carved w ith a border o f c ircles or curls. I n the most numerous c ases these were expressed as t he t endrils o f a p lant s croll covering the whole s ide, with a s tem sprouting curling tendrils or l eaves to trace t he concave profile l ine. This motif appears a s a s imulated corbel carved a t the t op outer corners o f t he m arble wall-facings of t he mihrab, on a r ectangular projection t hat i s made to l ook a s t hough i t s upports t he a rch a nd a lfiz. T he c oncave p rofile o utlined by t he c urled t endrils i s f ollowed by t he s tem of a l eaf, and the l eaf i tself curls round to f ill the rest of t he rectangle: t he " down-turned l eaf" motif ( fig.19)(D16). From t he m id-10th c entury t his s croll-carved corbel, with a c oncave, oblique or r ectangular profile, was u sed

1 68

f requently i n Andalusian buildings, f or example o n the d oorways of a l-Hakam I I"s halls i n Madinat a z-Zahra" ( fig. 2 30, AHIII f ig.209), and the doorways o f his and then o f A lmanzor"s extensions to t he Mezquita ( AHIII f igs 1 92,193). S tone a nd p laster corbels with s imilar d ecoration are p reserved in the museums o f Malaga, Granada, A lmeria and T oledo ( AHIII f igs 3 22, 2 64, 2 31). At T udela t he f illet r oll corbels of t he mosque, probably of the l ate 1 0th c entury ( fig 4 5) a re o f t wo t ypes, both b ased on models at M adinat az-Zahra". O ne has a c lassic concave profile, the o ther a s traight oblique profile ( 10); in both cases there i s p lant d ecoration on the s ides and the c urls are i nterpeted a s half-palmettes of different types. The marble b asin from S eville in the National Museum in Madrid, made f or A lmanzor"s palace of a l-Zahira, i s c arved on one l ong s ide with a relief of trilobe arcades resting on s uch c orbels ( AHIII f ig.249). P laster

Corbels

The decorated or e laborated f illet, l ike the motifs in h igher r elief of t he c orbels on t he arcades o f the s econd a nd third extensions to the Mezquita and on A l manzor"s n orth f açade are added i n p laster ( 11). S plendid p laster c orbels with decorated f illet and scroll carving on the s ides have b een found in excavations at t he Great Mosque o f A lmeria, dating probably f rom the f irst half of the 1 2th c entury ( 12). Much u se was a lso made o f p laster i n the A ljaferia, i ncluding the supports of the r ibbed v ault, r emains of which a re now s hared b etween t he museums o f Z aragoza and Madrid. The s triking f eature o f these members i s an advanced development of t he down-turned l eaf motif; i t introduces a distinct type of Andalusian corbel, p recursor o f t he most characteristic and i nventive t ypes of R omanesque corbel ( fig. 5 2). T he

Down-turned L eaf

Motif.

This motif which we have a leady met on the simulated c orbels o f t he mihrab panels of t he Mezquita was employed t wo decades earlier at Madinat a z-Zahra", on corbels a long t he eaves on t he t errace o f t he S alon R ico ( AD 9 46)(13). T hey are c arved w ith rolls on e ither s ide o f a strongly dominant c entral c onvex l eaf ( fig.20): one i s reminded o f t he convex s hape o f t he arcade corbels o f A bd ar-Rahman I I"s extension ( AHIII f ig.48). Torres-Balbäs describes the f orm, to be perpetuated for some c enturies i n wood i n Spain a nd t he M aghreb, as " prow-shaped". Rougher l imestone v ersions among the f ragments recovered in excavations ( 14) s how that doorway arches i n M adinat a z-Zahra" were s upported on consoles of s imilar design. The motif i s i nterpreted too a s a s imple shell, done in p laster, on some i mpost c orbels in t he arcades of t he l ast two extensions o f t he Mezquita, i ncluding s ome i n the c entral nave o f a lH akam I I ( 15).

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I n t he 1 1th c entury t he l eaf or " prow" motif developed i ndependently. I t was e specially popular f or wooden b eam e nds; examples survive f rom t he A ljaferia, Malaga, Granada ( AHIII f igs 2 90, 3 17, 3 16). T he culmination i s in S egovia, where it a lternates with roll corbels in t he supports for t he wooden roof o f t he nave of t he c hurch of S an M illän ( 16) a lready described i n Chapter I I ( fig.46). On t he complex c arved p laster s upport of t he dome o f the oratory in the A ljaferia ( fig.52, AHIII f ig.287) a t all vertical l eaf bracket with bracts overlapping its p oint ( "prow") i s r ecessed by c ube-shaped corbels p rojecting above and b elow i t. These l atter a re basically of s quare profile, w ith t he outer corner f inished as a thin dowel. Analogies for this s hape are f ound in North A frica ( 17) and ( fig.223) i n Le Mans, where they may be equally early ( 18). The A ljaferia corbels are a ll decorated with c arved s crolls, a nd on some o f these t he s crolls f orm a concave l ine of c ircles or curls, as on the mihrab p anel corbels of t he Mezquitä, b ut this l ine i s no l onger t reated a s an e ssential part of the design: on many the " rod end" c urls have been abandoned a nd t he s urface decoration pays s cant r egard to architectural function, conforming to the general disregard of s tructure i n t he decoration o f this building. The vertical l eaf o f the brackets i s a direct copy o f the c aliphal d own-turned l eaf. T he small corbels a bove and below them, h aving softened i nto a f lattened S -curve t heir rectangular profile which originally h ad contained the l eaf motif, show how relief motifs other than a l eaf or s hell, s uch a s were exploited in Romanesque corbel art, m ight evolve. This down-turned l eaf or shell i s entirely at variance with t he c lassical norms of upward growth; it origin i s c ertainly Andalusian and not Roman. I t i s only an occasional motif on R omanesque corbels, where i ts p lace i s occupied by animate motifs in f ull relief, or a more c lassical " tongue" l eaf with an u pward l ift ( 19); but what h as previously been overlooked entirely i s i ts adoption in Romanesque decoration to an important f unction i n the design o f certain types of c apital, a s a replacement o f the volute. The l eaf volutes on t he capitals of the l ate 1 0th and early 1 1th century at R ipoll ( fig.21), Cornelha, V ich and B ages i n Catalunya, whose Anda' usian i nspiration has been analysed by H ernandez and G aillard ( 20), have a d irect s equel at S antiago, Loarre, Conques and Moissac ( figs 2 12 5) and after them t hroughout France i n the 1 2th century; a rustic example i s Mourens i n the Agenais ( fig.26). They may well have contributed a lso t o the " leaf canopy" concept at S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire which h ad a s equel i n the B erry with renewed reference to roll corbels ( Berry roman f igs 5 6, 9 3). Mozarabic Roll

Corbels

The roll form of Andalusian a rchitectural

corbel f eatures

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i s one brought

o f t he s everal to northern S pain

i n t he 1 0th c entury by Mozarab emigres ( 22). O ne of their e arliest s urviving buildings, S an Miguel de E scalada, f ounded in AD 9 13, h as examples r ound t he apse o f s hapes t hat are c lose t o the Cordoban model ( 23). I n general h owever Mozarabic c orbels h ave three distinctive c haracteristics which put them outside the s equence f rom Andalusian to Romanesque. a ) The topmost roll i s l arger i n diameter than the rest, t hus r everting c loser to t he u sual V isigothic s hape, with a s ingle heavy cylinder-shaped roll, that l ong survived i n t he Asturias ( 24). b ) They support f or the most p art very wide eaves, and a re thus e longated horizontally ( sometimes vertically a s well, to balance) i n comparison with the Cordoban, while k eeping about t he s ame t hickness. Exceptions to this g eneralization are the many roof corbels at S an Millän de S uso ( Cogolla) ( fig.227)(25), which originally r etained the s quare profile of the Cordoban r ectangular type, and the c lassical Cordoban c onsoles s upporting t he horseshoe a rches o f the p seudo-dome of S an M iguel de Celanova ( AHIII f ig.449). I n contrast outside, under the eaves, run typical e longated Mozarab corbels.(26). c ) The concave profile i s u sually abandoned in f avour of a s traight o blique l ine, as a lready assumed by some corbels a t Madinat a z-Zahra" ( fig.230). An exception i s Hornija, where the r oof corbels retain a s trong concave profile ( 27). Mozarabic eaves corbels are decorated on the s ides w ith t he t raditional sub-Roman a nd V isigothic chip-carved r osettes and helices appropriate to wood carving. The p ierced f lange o f s ome c orbels at S an Millän de S uso a lso s uggests a woodworking rather than a stone-carving t radition. W hile there i s c learly a debt to c orbels l ike t hose on A l manzor"s east f açade doorways, the handling o f t he decoration s hows s trong i nfluence f rom carpentry p ractices. Wooden

C orbels

Wooden corbels s urvive i n Christian architecture i n S pain ( none i s r eported f rom F rance) f rom t he A sturian c hurch of Valdedios ( AD 8 93), the Mozarabic church o f S an M iguel de E scalada ( AD 9 13) a nd t he ceiling of the c hurch o f S an Millän i n S egovia ( 28). Two wooden corbels survive f rom t he s eries that r an a long t he whole l ength of t he nave r oof at E scalada. T hey are i dentical i n form with the stone c orbels that support t he gables at e ither end of the eaves ( 29). I n trying t o t race f rom s urviving examples how the c orbel form was transmitted to R omanesque architecture, the r are presence among them of c orb r -ls o f p laster and wood i s a r eminder that t he perishable n ature of these materials makes it impossible f or u s to be acquainted with more t han t he vestiges of a b uilding p ractice that i ncluded at l east a s much activity on the part of p lasterer and carpenter a s

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o f t he worker in s tone. T he h istory of t he i ntroduction o f the roll corbel, or indeed of any k ind of corbel, t o Romanesque a rchitecture w ill thus a lways be f ragmentary, and furthermore t he r ole o f s ecular building practices i n this h istory i s e ntirely w ithout Romanesque i llustration. F i ,g.309 i s an i llustration o f a modern secular reference t o t his ancient tradition. Where wood and p laster corbels survive i n Andalusia a nd C hristian S pain however they a re exactly l ike their stone counterparts, and this fact m ust compensate in some measure f or t he f act that t he major, perishable part o f the evidence needed to complete t he history has not survived ( 30). Ceramic

Corbels

A f ew pre-Romanesque ceramic c orbels survive i n F rance, at P ommiers ( Loire), G ermigny-des-Pres a nd S aintB enoit-sur-Loire ( 31). They are a ll very thin and only m ade to hold a shallow decorative c ornice. They do not therefore enter into consideration of the origins of the Romanesque corbel, which was primarily a structural member. I t must be emphasized that apart examples no c orbels o f a ny k ind architecture that might be considered a s Romanesque c orbel. Corbels

in North

f rom these c eramic e xist in F rench antecedents o f t he

Spain

The presence o f roll corbels on R omanesque buildings i n S pain i s no c ause f or s urprise. They f ollow l ogically a s the next group to be discussed, though the e arliest Romanesque c orbels t o survive are probably in F rance, at L a Trinite in Vendöme, P oitiers, J umiäges and C onques. P lain rod corbels o f stone have r ecently b een uncovered in p lace in the A ljaferia, i ntended as housings f or t he p ivots of doors ( 32). S uch p ieces a re prototypes of t he most common type i n 1 2th century Spanish Romanesque: carved i nto p lain h orizontal rods on a concave c urve, u sually with no i ndication of c urls o r other decoration on t he s ide. These were t he s tandard s upport f or eaves and weather roofs over doorways r ight through the 1 2th century on n umerous rural churches ( fig.231). Double

a nd Composite

R olls

Undecorated roll corbels with a double s eries o f r ods, created by l obing a wide c entral f illet, now c rown a r ubble wall, probably o f the 1 4th c entury, near the gateway o f the castle of Gormaz. T he c astle was built by t he s emiindependent rulers o f Z aragoza, the Beni H ud, in the l ate 1 0th c entury. T he corbels a re t hought to have b een originally s et over t he gateway when the c astle was b uilt ( 33). The castle changed h ands s everal t imes i n t he f ighting between Navarre and Z aragoza during the 1 1th c entury. T hese corbels at G ormaz are t he earliest examples

1 72

o f a type t hat g ained s ome popularity among R omanesque c orbel s culptors: s imilar c orbels with double a nd e ven t reble rows of rolls or c urls h ave been f ound n ot f ar f rom G ormaz, during excavations o f the 1 1th c entury chuch at S ilos. They a re n ow i n t he c loister museum ( fig.232). T hey c ame t o l ight amid t he d ebris f illing t he s tairs b etween t he c loister and t he t ransept of the earlier church, and p erhaps were part o f t he P uerta de l as V irgenes ( 34). Smaller c orbels of the s ame form a re u sed t o h old the c ornice o f t he " tomb of Mudarra", i nscribed e ra 1 143 ( AD 1 105); this monument was f ormerly i n S an P edro de Arlanza a nd i s now preserved i n Burgos c athedal. S ome o f the reu sed c orbels on t he gable o f S anta S usanna i n C ompostela a re of this type a lso ( 35). I t i s found in F rance among the v ast v ariety of f orms o f r oll c orbel at S aint-Etienne i n N evers and at Anzy-le-Duc, at B lesle a lso ( figs 2 33-236) a nd i t i s quite c ommon i n the B erry ( eg Chäteaumeillant, V ic l 'Exemplet, Avord, S t J eanvrin). P roblems of the T ransmission A ndalusia to Romanesque: The i n S pain.

o f the Roll C orbel F orm f rom F illet Corbel and i ts Rarity

The square f illet profile o f the c onsoles o n the m ihrab p anel a nd i n A lmanzor's d oorways i s found f urther e laborated i n north S pain, exemplified a lready both on the 1 0th c entury Mozarabic c orbels at S an Millän de S uso a nd on 1 1th century corbels in the A ljaferia, but t he c lassic f illet c orbel f rom which i t derived i s rare i n S panish R omanesque, whereas i t i s common i n France, particularly in t he Auvergne. T he o nly c ases of i ts o ccurrence in S pain a re in Leön ( one f ragment, s ee below) and at S antiago de C ompostela. H ere f illet r oll c orbels are n ot u ncommon, on t he chevet o f the c athedral, in t he patio o f the church o f S an C lemente, on S anta M aria d el S ar and ( re-used) on t he g able of the church o f S anta S usanna. F or this r eason the h ypothesis h as b een widely entertained ( 36) that a long with o ther f eatures thought t o originate i n F rance, this type o f " Auvergnat" c orbel was i ntroduced to C ompostela f rom F rance, where they had been adopted direct f rom Andalusia a t s ome e arlier d ate. G omez-Moreno s uggested S aint-Etienne i n N evers ( 1068-1097) a s t he f ocus o f French i nfluence on S antiago and t he s ource o f t he t ransmission o f t he f illet c orbel thither ( 37) but most other s cholars have l ooked to t he Auvergne. The e xuberance of t he N evers c orbels i s not r epeated at S antiago. The double r oll f orm of the G ormaz c orbels described a bove n eeds t aking i nto account i n t his c ontext. As i t i s o nly an e laborated version of the f illet c orbel, Gormaz c an be i ncluded in t he l ist of pre- or early R omanesque f illet c orbels i n north Spain, r epresenting a m odel f or t hose i n t he museum at S ilos, t hose o n t he M udarra tomb f rom Arlanza and those at S antiago. M ozarabic Corbels a s

t ransmittors

1 73

A Mozarabic origin i s o ften postulated for French r oll corbels, a Christian s ource being s een as t he most l ikely means o f transmission f rom Andalusian architecture. I t i s t rue t hat t he p rinciple o f e aves b rought o ut over a s tone c orbel t able i s a c haracteristic o f Mozarabic buildings a century a nd more before i ts w idespread adoption in F rance, yet the R omanesque corbels of F rance and Spain ( 38) r arely adopt Mozarabic s hape or d ecoration. Where t he roll f orm i s u sed on Romanesque buildings it i s much c loser t o Cordoban f orms than to Mozarabic, a nd i ts d evelopments rarely a ppear t o b e dependent on Mozarabic examples. A f ew exceptions, particularly i n s imilarities o f d ecoration, might be u sed t o a rgue that t he Mozarabic type p layed some l imited p art i n t he t ransmission; there a re c orbels with Mozarabic f eatures at S aint-Hilaire i n P oitiers ( fig.237, no 9 ) a nd S aint-Etienne in Nevers i n the 1 1th century, and f rom S aint-Sauveur in Nevers ( fig.240) in t he 1 2th. I n t he a rea o f Mozarabic building i tself i n north-west S pain, Romanesque c orbels s how l ittle s ign o f Mozarabic i nfluence. E arly Corbels

in L e6n

T here are however two examples o f roll c orbels f irmly dated to t he e arly 1 1th c entury that p rovide evidence f or a t ransitional s tage beetween Mozarabic and Romanesque t ypes o f c orbel w ithin Spain. G omez-Moreno ( 39) i llustrates a s tone corbel t hat was found i n t he f illing o f the city w all o f Leön, demolished by A lmanzor in AD 9 88 ( 40) . a nd r ebuilt by A lfonso V ( 999-1028). T he corbel h as the characteristic e longated shape, a nd c hip-carved r osettes on t he s ides, b ut the top r oll i s the same s ize as t he r est, thus deviating f rom normal Mozarabic practice. The concave curve i s f illed by a g rotesque carving, a nude f igure with open mouth a nd h ands held between its l egs, that would l ook quite at h ome i n 1 2th century F rance, i n t he B erry or the S outh-West. A ssociated with t his corbel i n s o f ar a s i t was i n the s ame f illing was a f ragment o f a nother r oll corbel, p lain w ith a c entral f illet, again o f t he e longated horizontal Mozarabic s hape b ut w ithout t he l arge top roll. This f ind i s o f importance in any attempts t o a ssess the " French" origin o f t he f illet r oll corbel a t S antiago, f or t hese archaeologically attested p ieces bear witness to e arly developments i n n orth S pain beyond t he t ypical M ozarabic, and t ending towards Romanesque t ypes. T hey a re s cant evidence f rom which to a rgue that t he Romanesque c orbel o riginated entirely i n S pain, but they demonstrate t hat both t he f illet a nd t he h igh r elief f orms o f the l ater 1 1th c entury at S antiago, F römista and e lsewhere need not b e due exclusively to an i nfluence f rom F rance. An awareness o f the f orm, even in the absence o f any s igns o f t he s tructural u se o f c orbels, i s r eflected occasionally i n details o f capital carving: one example of this i s i n C atalunya at S an M iguel d e F luviä ( fig.241).

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S an M iguel

d e

F luviä

T he exterior o f this church ( begun c 1045, consecrated 1 066)(41) i s in F irst Romanesque s tyle and it h as no c orbel t able round the e aves, but the c haracteristic l ittle a rches. These a re c arved at their c onsoles w ith l ittle b earded heads i n a t radition t hat continued unchanged i n S pain into t he 1 2th c entury ( for example a t J avierrelattre n ear J aca), a s well a s d eveloping into t he h ighly popular R omanesque h ead c orbel. T he consoles a re c arved at F luviä b y the s ame h and a s t he c apitals of t he i nterior and among t hem o ne c apital h as c orners s trongly s uggesting a r oll c orbel. This detail brings S an Miguel i nto the discussion, a nd a s hort examination o f other Andalusian e lements in t he b uilding i s appropriate s ince i t s hares a number of motifs w ith S aint-Hilaire i n P oitiers a nd S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire, w hich as will b e s een were i n their d ifferent ways key monuments i n t he d evelopments a nd d issemination o f t he r oll c orbel in F rance. The connexions o f t he s culpture i n the t ower-porch -o f S aint-Benoit with S an P ere de Roda have b een n oted in Chapter I II, and S an M iguel a lso c an be s een to h ave d erived much i nspiration f rom t he l atter. An example o f F luviä's connexions with P oitiers and b eyond i s a w ave-scroll with t he shortest f oliole at the c entre and a l ong one parallel to each s ide o f its z ig-zag s tem. I t i s u sed on an i nterior cornice a nd on i mposts at S an M iguel; i t a lso decorates soffits 8 -9 and 9 -10 on the c ornice of the tower o f S aint-Hilaire ( fig.237) and i s t aken up at S aint-Outrille i n t he B erry ( Berry r oman,fig.12). O ne such impost c rowns one of the c apitals a t F luviä which h as the " Coptic" f rontal f igure, emerging h ere f rom a z one o f heavy a canthus l eaves ( F3) with s piral s tems. The volutes are encased in a downward sweeping l eaf ( D16) ( fig.134). The use of t he f rontal f igure ( 42) on a c apital i n t his way a nd t he p artiality f or h uman h eads at F luviä a ppear as i nnovations in t his region ( Roda had animal heads a lmost h idden at c orners o f c apitals); much of t he r est o f t he repertoire i s explicable as derived, though i n a very c rude rendering, f rom e arlier work i n t he n eighbourhood, ( Ripoll and Roda), and contemporary work at Z aragoza and B alaguer: i nterlace, b eaded a nd corded a stragals ( figs 2 423 ), f lat p lane p lant c arving a ll characterize t he Roda s tyle; there too t he Cordoban pendant p ines ( D2), the v ertical t riangular hollow under t he v olute a nd t wisted c olumns were a lready to be f ound. At Z aragoza, i n about the s ame decade, twisted columns a re combined with heavy a canthus t ips ( F3) a s they are at F luviä ( AHIII f ig.280b). T he heart-shaped l eaf with drill holes of f igs 2 41 and 2 43 i s a motif f rom f urther west: i t i s characteristic o f the g roup o f western Mozarabic marble c apitals f rom H ornija, S ahagün and E scalada that marks the h eight of Mozarabic c apital carving ( AHIII f ig.435-436). T hese i llustrate early s tages in the process of d ividing the a canthus i nto the

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j uncture o f c onverging f olioles to c reate typical of Romanesque f oliage capitals ( 43).

t he

f leuron

D ownturned l eaves sweeping f rom b elow v olutes, a s on t he f rontal-figure capitals l ike f ig.134 are a lso n earer the s hape o f western Mozarabic c apital foliage ( see AHIII f ig.452 where the rising acanthus i s p erversely represented a s a f alling p alm) than t he s hape o f t he c orner l eaves t hat a t R ipoll r eplace, and at Z aragoza d ecorate, the volutes. B ut t he i nfluence o f t he downturned l eaf of R ipoll t oo i s operative at F luviä ( fig.242), a s i t i s at E lne ( 44). I t i s the capital of the north crossing arch ( fig.241) where the r oll corbel theme i s quoted. I t i s given corners composed o f a l eaf c anopy with a t riangular hollow b eneath. I n this t here i s a convergence of a patent r eference t o a roll c orbel on t he o ne h and, and a l eaf volute o n t he other. Vergnolle f ollows the expression of this c onceit, with a s tronger emphasis on t he downturned l eaf motif, f rom t he S aint-Benoit l eaf canopy to the group of B erry c apitals with r ollcorbel-like volute s tems e nclosing a c orner h ead. F ig.136 s hows one of the many e longated heads at F luviä, here an animal, that l inks with e longated f aces at S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire ( 45). The impost a nd t he c apital's middle z one a re t reated in the s ame hollowed refined c hip c arving a s t he s croll r esembling that at P oitiers. The l eaves c all to mind the triangular h ollows o f the T oledan K ufic inscriptions; a t echnique s cantily u sed at S aintH ilaire and w ith l imited application i n t he S aint-Benoit porch, b ut conspicuous i n t he i nscription o f capital 5 0 at Moissac. Corbels

at F römista,

J aca and Santiago

Among t he f ully Romanesque buildings i n S pain t he corbels which a re most r elevant to t he s tudy o f r oll corbels in F rance are t hose o f S an Martin i n Frömista, S an P edro in J aca a nd S antiago in Compostela, together with the f ew that s urvive at Loarre ( 46). T he f irst three f orm a group with carving s tyles and motifs i n c ommon, t hough the variety of types at t he two f ormer i s more r estricted t han at S antiago, a nd only S antiago has f illet c orbels. Typical o f the g roup are a nimal heads w ith l ong necks, and crouching f igures of b easts or human beings. Both roll and o ther motifs are o ften s et against a p lain l abel marked off f rom t he b lock by grooves or a c hange o f p lane. F römista There are many p lain rod corbels at F römista. Curls or l obing o f t he s ides a ccompany s ome o f t he f igure c orbels, and s ome f igures are s et against rods. There i s a predilection f or p lacing l ittle c rouching f igures l ow d own w ithin the concave profile, against the p lain l abel. S ome c apitals h ave v olute s tems s prouting c urls on one f ace ( fig.122) and one has curls on one volute and l eaves o n the other ( 47).

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J aca J aca has m any p lain rod corbels, w ith e ither three t hick rods or many s mall o nes. There a re a lso many l ike t hose on the upper parts o f the chevet at S antiago with a p lain tongue-like l eaf, i ts t ip s ometimes c urling over a l arge knob; this motif corresponds t o the typically Spanish a nd s outh-west F rench ball c apitals, a s on t he s outh door a t Conques. There are some c orbels with a l obed profile edging t he l abel which i s s et behind h igh r elief f igures o f a nimals; t hese g enerally f ill the whole concave space and t he vertical f ace i s much r educed ( fig.244). T he l ink with S aint-Sernin i n T oulouse i s manifest i n t he c orbel by G ilduinus reused on the G othic apse ( 48). The side i s edged with t hree l ayers o f l obes o r w aves, r esembling more t he moulding behind t he c onsoles o f the P laterias or P amplona c athedral doorways ( figs , 2 45-248)(49) than a ny t reatment o f c orbels seen e lsewhere. The metopes o f the south apsidiole a t J aca have l ow r elief animal carvings ( probably by t he master o f the west tympanum) and one r osette ( slightly d ished). T he s offits have a variety o f l arge r osettes; they r esemble those on the chevet at Moirax ( fig.249). S antiago:

t he chevet

The roll corbel i s much in evidence on the c athedral, b ut nowhere in uniform s eries. Much o f t he c hevet i s masked, but Gaillard i llustrates the corbels and describes t hose o f t he d ifferent p arts ( 50). These i nclude f illet c orbels of " Auvergnat" ( better " Almanzor") s tyle on S t P eter's chapel a nd on h igher l evels. T hough c urls a re g iven g reat prominence on the s ides they have no horizontal stems a ttached; t he s cotia c urve of t he profile i s p aramount, and e ven where curls are duplicated or reduced to s hallow l obing t he curve i s c learly marked. The f igures o n t he c orbels of the S t F aith chapel are s o s imilar to t hose over t he P laterias doorway a nd to t he f ull r elief f igures on the r oofs of the St J ohn and S t F aith chapels that t hey must b e b y t he s ame h and. I n s ome c ases t hese corbels a re edged w ith l ittle lobes, a s a t F romista and often at J aca, i n one o r more rows. This k ind o f s hallow e dging became p opular i n t he 1 2th c entury i n the S aintonge ( 51). I n other c ases r olls a re d eeply c arved i nto c urls at t he s ides a nd r un a s r ods across the f ace behind the f igures. None of the corbel t ables o f t he e aves s hows a ny s ign of rosettes on s offits o r metopes, which a re undecorated. O n o ne exterior f acet o f t he c lerestory o f t he p olygonal apse, t he Cordoban type of f illet c orbel, w ith r oll s tems s tarting on a c oncave l ine, i s associated w ith t he series of trilobed b lind a rcades r esting on c apitals which must o riginally h ave s tood on colonnettes.The c ornice h as a corded moulding. C orbels with motifs other t han r olls, s uch a s l arge t ongue-like l eaves, h eads or c rouching f igures, r etain l obing down the profile edge.

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G aillard follows T orres-Balbäs ( 52) i n r egarding t his f illet roll corbel as r e-imported t o S pain f rom t he Auvergne, s ince i t i s widespread r ound C lermont a nd s carcely met in north S pain outside S antiago. Gaillard a dds two i tems to the a rgument: f irst t he " Auvergnat s tyle o f t he c apitals near t he entrance t o t he S aviour's chapel, s howing the k ing and b ishop with angels holding inscribed banderoles, a nd a c apital with l inked s irens; s econd, t he f ive-sided l intel over the l ittle door between t he chapels"(53). These i n f act a re f ound at C onques a nd B essu jouls a lso, at l east a s e arly a s i n the Auvergne, and chronological priorities remain d ebatable. T he p entagonal l intel has antecedents in the Mezquita ( AHIII f igs 1 38, 1 86,189,190). The P laterias

Doorway;

Rosettes and Corbels

Over the P laterias doorway ( fig.250), where only s ome o f the corbels have rolls, much i s made o f the rosettes ( D15) b etween t hem, both on s offits and metopes. The r osette itself i s r ichly varied, i n c onsiderable relief, a nd s urrounded by a b road d ecorated b order. O n t he metopes a l ittle boss i s carved i n each corner ( F19). The general e ffect i s of medallions ( F4), i n t he s tyle o f t he 8 th c entury f açades o f the Mosque of I bn Tulun i n Cairo, or more contemporary S edräta: an o riental t aste a lready i ndulged i n 9 th century Ramiran architecture at Naranco and L illo ( 54). The corbels over t he P laterias doorway are mostly animate, with c rouching h umans, a nimals and monsters, f ull f igures or protomes i n l ively postures, some with rolls or l obes at t he s ides. T he c omposition o f t hese c orbels s uggests that the t ongue f orm o f l eaf that appears f requently, o ften c ombined with rolls, on t he upper p arts o f the chevet ( 55) was a l abour-saving adaptation o f the c rouching beast t hat i s s o f requent among t he c orbels over the doorways. The l ion-head consoles ( figs 2 45-8) s upporting the l intels are part of the original s cheme f or the doorway, a nd not part o f the restorations a fter t he f ire o f 1 117, a nd they must be earlier than 1 100 f or they are imitated at S an E steban de Corullön where an i nscription g ives the years o f i ts construction a s 1 093-1100 ( 56). F urthermore t he f eroces l eones ( 57) over t he t rumeau a nd u nder the chrism are, a s G aillard pointed out, by the s ame h and as t he monsters on t he roofs o f t he S t J ohn and S t F aith chapels ( 60) which were dedicated i n 1 105, and the doorway c onsoles b elong w ith these works. T hey must thus a ntedate the s imilar c onsoles of the l intels o f the S aint-Sernin P orte M iägeville ( fig.251) and t he s outh t ransept portal of S an I sidoro i n Leön by a d ecade or m ore. C arved on these l intel consoles at S antiago are enormous h eads w ith holes p ierced f or ears ( or horns?) that have vanished. They f ill the c urve o f h ighly e laborated

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r oll c orbels with a s imulated t rilobed e xtrados ( F21). E ach i s different, but the l obed moulding of the extrados keeps t he s ame s inuous l ine on a ll f our c orners, r ising v ertically above the console to make a s tepped l intel p rofile: an outline r eminiscent of t he P uerta S an E stebän n iches and the s imulated consoles on the m arble r elief p laques f lanking a l-Hakam I I's m ihrab; a nd here i n the animal heads f urthermore i s the downturned l eaf ( D16) o f t hese mihrab p anels ( 61) pursuing i ts Romanesque d evelopment as a f ull relief sculpture. I n s outh-west F rance it w il c ulminate on t he consoles of doorway l intels i n full-figure s cenes, as at Nogaro, Tasque, on the P orte M iegeville i n T oulouse and at S aint-Sardos n ear Agen ( fig. 2 52) The westernmost console of the P laterias doorways r etains t he horizontal bars o f a r oll corbel r ight a cross t he face behind t he outward-twisted l ion head, with two l arge curls b ending down f rom t he t op. This twisted h ead r ecurs at *Leon without rolls, on the s outh transept door; a t T oulouse it i s s till b acked by vestigial r olls. Even at S antiago the ends o f the rolls on this c onsole are not c arved into c urls, whereas t he other three consoles have a symmetrical curls carved on the s ides i n quite h igh r elief. The multiple moulding of the consoles runs a ll round t he doorway openings; i t r ecalls t he p laster mouldings f raming the decoration i n the A ljaferia, and s uggests i tself as an i nspiration f or t he moulding on t he l obed s outh doorways o f Moissac and Cahors. Against t he hypothesis of an Auvergnat p rovenance f or t he f illet corbel at S antiago i s the f act that t his form i s c losely i ntegrated w ith t he f igure s culpture of corbels and doorways at S antiago ( 62), and t his sculpture i s not i n the s tyle o f t he A uvergne, or even of C onques, b ut i n the h ighly characteristic " fleshy" style shared with Toulouse, F römista and J aca, but at i ts most extreme at S antiago, at t he Spanish end o f the spectrum, a s f or example the Woman w ith a S kull on the eastern tympanum. I t i s a lso a ssociated with t rilobed arches; these have no wide d istribution i n M ozarab or Romanesque buildings in north S pain, and S antiago comes nearer to French than l ocal p ractice i n l obing semi-circular arches. Conversely t he example of S antiago was certainly the i nspiration f or many c orbels a nd l obed arches in F rance. C orbels

at

I guäcel

The corbel t able on the west f ront o f this l ittle church h as not p reviously a ttracted much comment. The c hurch l ies in a P yrenean valley north of J aca and i s m ainly noted because o f the early date of t he inscription ( AD 1 072) over t he doorway ( 62).

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The themes o f the capitals and c orbels ( figs 2 53-260) are c losely a llied to themes i n the great churches o f the S antiago p ilgrimage road, i n J aca, Frömista, S antiago, a nd i n Loarre; the scrollwork r esembles t hat i n the Panteön. T he i nscription s tating t hat t he c hurch of S t Mary was completed in 1 072 ( Era 1 110) i s s et in a series of s labs o n t he west f ront a nd i s p rotected by a horizontal weather roof o f s tone s labs s upported on corbels ( 63). The soffits are carved with rosettes ( D15) and edged with b illet moulding. B etween t he i nner a rchivolt of the west door a nd the archivolt with a double torus ( fig.253) i s a l ine of narrower voussoirs s et l ongitudinally in F irst Romanesque f ashion ( see St Juan de B uso f ig.172 a nd t he early c hapel at L oarre, Aragon r oman f ig.70). They are carved w ith i nterlacing heart palmettes l ike the majority of imposts of t he apse a nd windows ( D11). L ike t he volute s tems of capitals and corbels, the l ooping f rame o f these palmettes h as an a xial d ouble grooving. At the e ast end t he eaves o f t he small apse rest on s labs s imilar to those o f t he w est door, edged with b illet moulding and carved on the underside with rosettes. T hey a re held on c orbels carved with i nterlace, r osettes or knobs on a s traight oblique profile ( fig.255). None o f the corbels on this church includes any o f overtly roll f orm, but some on t he west f ront, and p erhaps some on t he apse a lso ( they are too badly weathered t o s ee c learly) b ear h ints o f t he r oll motif. The corbels over the doorway are much more e laboate than t hose round t he apse, a nd though they a re c learly carved by t he s ame hand a s the capitals of the windows and interior apse a rcade t he r esult i s much more f inished in e ffect: the artist i s presumably the " master" who s igns his name a long with t he epigrapher on t he i nscription: " Magister harum p icturarum nomine C alindo G arces". We must take it that he c onsideed h is carving merely as support f or h is more important work a s a painter ( 64). The corbels are decorated o n t he s ides to s imulate i n t he upper w ider portion a h alf capital, with a volute which in some c ases enfolds a d own-turned l eaf ( D16). The f aces of t he c orbels are carved, s ome with heads of men or animals, some w ith whole f igures or even s cenes, a nd s ome merely w ith palmettes or interlace in relief or engraved. Two o f the e leven c orbels have an a rchaic barrel-shaped bottom, the r est a s traight oblique profile. I n general the style of capitals at I guäcel i s a c rude version o f s culpture at J aca, S anta Cruz de los Seros, L oarre or F römista, ( 65), but both t he design and c omposition o f t he i guäcel doorway corbels are quite individual ( 66). T he v olute a nd vertical bar that o ccupy t he upper s ection of the s ides o f each corbel c reate a s ystem peculiar to t his s eries. I t e choes t he volute o n the c apitals, and a lso a curious vertical bar t hat often r ises b etween these volutes t o r eplace t he console. At J aca in the nave ( 67), at S antiago ( 68) and in t he P anteön this

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s ame s ystem is applied, but with g reater refinement, t o c apitals. The treatment of t he s tems o f the capital volutes t hemselves at I guäcel i s d istinctive. I t occurs on 1 1th c entury capitals, at Tournus and at F römista, and l ess f requently at S antiago and L eön ( 69). The volute stem i s w ide and r ectangular in s ection, with p arallel axial g rooving, and r ises vertically before f laring f rom about h alf way up t he c apital. Two c apitals in t he museum o f J aca c athedral, s aid t o come f rom rural churches nearby, have v olutes s imilar t o t hose on t he I guäcel c apitals and c orbels. North to south the eleven corbels s how a great variety o f motifs. The f ace o f No 1 h as a f ir-tree motif l ike c orbels in the patio of t he Mezquita. Nos 2 and 3 have the b arrel-shaped bottom of V isigothic t radition: on this l ower s ection of the s ides, a palmette f ramed i n a heart. The " barrel" i s surmounted on No 3 by a human head w ith turbanl ike hair, even more c ap-like thanthatofSt P eter over the P orte Miägeville doorway ( fig.261), or t he S t I sidore over t he P uerta d el Cordero i n Leön, and s imilar to the p rojecting heads on c apitals i n the B erry ( Berry r oman, f ig.56), whose ancestry i s at S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire ( 70). T he l ower s trand o f this h air i s crossed by t he s trand a bove at the side, and a s lender-bodied bird's neck has s lipped through t he gap. Two d iscs b elow t he volute h ere g ive a suggestion of roll ends at the s ides. No 4 i s more e laborate: a b earded h uman head ( in l ower r elief than the h ead o f No 3 ) emerges above a now damaged ox h ead, while t he f igure's l eft hand g rasps e ither a horn o r a raised knife. The hair i s even t aller and more c apl ike than on No 3 , w ith r ows of curls i n t he J aca s tyle noted by A lvarez ( 71). Another grinning head pokes out b elow the v olute at t he s ide ( 72). L ike volute s tems on c apitals at J aca, S antiago and Frömista, the vertical bars o n t he s ides of c orbels 2 and 3 a re c arved with s cales. No 5 again h as vestigial rolls in the form of discs at the s ides. A h uman l eg i s a ll that remains o f what must have b een a projecting f igure, perhaps an angel, s ince the l ower s ection o f the s ide i s g rooved and may portray wing f eathers. No 6 i s a b old ox head; i t has deteriorated badly i n t he l ast t en y ears. E ither a n ow d amaged h uman h ead s urmounted i t, or the mane above the f rontal r idge i s t reated as a s eries o f p laits. The vertical b ar o f t he s ides is again scaled. No 7 s hows t races of a human f igure with r aised arms a nd a s cabbard or horn hanging d iagonally f rom the waist. T he volute ends in a downturned l eaf p almette a nd springs f rom s ome obscure motif i nvolved i n t he main design. N o 8 has s imple three-strand interlace. No 9 h as another human head w ith cap-like p laited hair o f J aca s tyle l ike No 4 , projecting above grotesque l egs, perhaps originally an a nimal dompter w ith t he animal's h ead, l ike t he man's arms, broken o ff.

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N o 1 0 i s a man with e longated h ead under a devouring monster. This i s a theme f amiliar f rom t he earliest F rench Romanesque s culpture, i n the c rypt o f S aint-Benigne i n D ijon, at B ernay a nd at S aint-Benoit where t he e longated head i s s pecially marked. T he motif i s repeated s everal t imes on t he e arliest c apitals of S aint-Sernin in T oulouse, o n the P orte des C omtes and in t he i nterior transept. The h ead o n t he I guäcel c orbel i s r eminiscent of t he L azarus c apital in the P anteön, but i t i s even c loser, because o f t he hair-line, to t he S t M artin c apital a nd other p orch capitals at S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire ( Val-de-Loire r oman f igs 2 0-25). No 1 1 at the c orner i s a s imple undulating s croll enclosing d eeply hollowed f ive- a nd s ix-petalled rosettes, with a heart palmette and volute on t he sides ( 73). T his i s an e arly Romanesque example o f a c orbel t able p laced over a doorway and the i nspiration i s Andalusian. T he s ame i nfluence i s marked i n t he b ases o f the c olonnettes f raming the windows and those in the i nterior ( fig.253). They a re c lose i n s hape t o t he C ordoban bases a nalysed by H ernandez ( 74) i n connexion with an Andalusian i nfluence on R ipoll. T he b ases f avour t he argument f or a ccepting that the early date given i n t he i nscription applies to t he s culpture of t he church. On the s outh f ront a narrow f illet a s tepped a lfiz ( F12,18)(75) Corbels

t races

the

l ine o f

at L oarre

T he roll corbels i n t he dome o f Loarre and t he four n ow s et with t he " frieze" over t he s outh doorway ( figs 2 632 68)(76) s tand apart f rom t he group f ormed by F römista, J aca and S antiago. There are r esemblances with corbels at T oulouse. H ead 1 i s s i milar to h eads c arved by G ilduinus or h is f ollower ( fig 2 69 ) and the composition, at l east, o f the dome c orbels . i s of the s ame type a s that o f the r e-used cornice f ragment i n t he f ourth b ay o f t he northern nave gallery at Toulouse ( 77) and t he corbels over the P orte des C omtes ( fig.270). The c orbel o f H ead 1 i s t he most T oulousan, with a p lain r ectangular vertical f ront; b eneath i t i s a s trongly moulded t orus which curves i nto a l abel behind the head, while t he c url which ends the torus i s set b ack, i n l ine w ith t he r est of t he curls. This c orbel i s s et into the wall beyond the s culptor's i ntention: two c urls a re a ll b ut l ost a nd there i s a t race of d rapery round the neck d isappearing i nto the wall. H ead 2 ( fig.265) must a lso h ave b een i ntended t o p roject further; the profile curve only b egins at t he wall about half w ay up t he corbel, a nd t he beard touches the wall without any s ign o f a neck. T he torus here i s s imply articulated by two grooves and t here i s no l abel b etween head and curls. The top curl i s c onsiderably l arger than t he f ollowing ones which d iminish i n s ize, Mozarabic f ashion. The curl stems on t his corbel do not swell t owards

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the profile a s t hey do on those over t he d oorway.

the other

dome c orbels and on

Both these heads are s et s o that t hey l ook down a lmost v ertically, a nd this i s even more marked with H ead 3 ( fig.266), behind which t he s eries o f c urls s prouts f rom t he horizontal. T he relative s ize and shape of the rolls i s t he same a s with H ead 2 , a nd there i s a gain no l abel. T his p lacing of the heads i s not t he most usual on corbels, and c urls r arely s pring f rom t he h orizontal, t hough crouching f igures sometimes l ook down vertically, a s f or example at P oitiers ( corbels N os 3 , 8 , 1 1, f igs 2 37-8), S aint S ever or A ubiac ( fig.271). T he f ourth dome c orbel i s u nreadable, i t was probably a q uadruped with head turned backwards. The u pper p arts o f t he doorway corbels a lso a re worn away. Three are ox heads, one i s the body o f a quadruped f acing t he wall, o f a type with h ead turned back 1 80 d egrees, f amiliar at J aca including a console in the dome a nd a c orbel on t he s outh c hapel ( fig.244) a nd at S antiago over the P laterias d oorway. There i s no l abel b etween c urls a nd head and the h orns r ise over a hollow and c ontinue a cross t he vertical f ront. The curl s tems swell l ike t hose o f Heads 1 and 3 , but without the graceful curve o f H ead 1 . An ox head c orbel of very s imilar c haracter to those a t Loarre, a ssociated with a p almette s croll, i s among t hose s urmounting t he B ab a l-Futuh in C airo, dated 1 087 ( 78). There i s a k inship among examples o f ox heads on R omanesque r oll c orbels, at Conques ( North d oor), T oulouse, L escure ( fig.273) and Anzy-le-Duc. At Conques and Anzy the r elief i s f lat. C apitals at Varen ( Aveyron) have ox and ram h eads in l ow r elief s pitting c hip-carved h alf-palmette s crolls and i nterlace; the eyes and nostrils are carved i n s imilar f ashion t o t he L oarre c orbels ( Languedoc r oman f ig.131). I n addition to t he Andalusian roll f orm F l, t he downturned l eaf D 16, pendant p ine D 2, splayed eagle D 17 and h arpies a re other Andalusian motifs t hat recur on c apitals a t Loarre. The historical arguments p ropounded by D uran Gudiol f or dating t he main building of L oarre and i ts d ecoration b efore the disgrace early i n the 1 080s o f G arcia, bishop o f J aca a nd brother o f S ancho R amirez ( 79) c annot b e s et a side, and s imilarities o f s culpture at I guäcel w ith c apitals at L oarre m ight v alidate t his d ating. O n t he other h and the variety o f styles of carving and o f themes at L oarre g ives an i mpression o f e clecticism a nd a rgues a gainst regarding i t a s a centre f rom which i nfluences r adiated. A f ull c lassification a nd s tudy o f t he many c apitals i n the building i s needed. Motifs f ully i ntegrated i nto t he c orpus o f s culpture at J aca p redominate, but there a re a lso analogies, c lear even without prolonged s tudy, with Frömista, L eön, S antiago, Conques, T oulouse a nd Moissac at the l east; the s croll work i s of many types, on imposts a nd c apitals a like, a nd t he treatment o f d rapery i s a lso diverse. The f rontal f igure o f Nogäl and F luviä

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appears s everal t imes; the Moissac s croll version 2 only once ( 80). T here a re a n umber of versions of t he s uperposed animal composition of J aca, i n a c learer r endering than at I guäcel: l ions a re r idden by men o r monsters s o that the heads appear one above the other a t the angle under the volute; they a re attacked by b irds whose wings or tails are held i n a l ion or monster maw a t t he console. S axon and L imousin i lluminations are among t he s ources of this t heme, but the superposition of animals on c aliphal basins and the registers o f a nimal a ttack or a nimals i n scrolls on i vories, for example the S ilos c asket ( AHIII f igs 3 67-8) h ave s hared i n its f ormulation; the griffins of the S ilos casket a re r eproduced on a h igh window at L oarre ( 81). U nlike the capitals, the corbels at L oarre have l ittle to do with t he p ilgrimage churches of more western S pain, but belong with the P ortes des C omtes s eries of roll corbels a nd a re a ssociated in s tyle with t he Gilduinus atelier. They perhaps come f rom a cornice over the original doorway: t he positioning of t he dome c orbels is higher than any other such, and raises doubts a s to their original position. Angel and o ther f igures in domes i n other c ases, as at F römista, Jaca, Conques or P arthenay le Vieux, are a ll much more v isible. T he c orbels over t he west door at Lescure are s imilar i n s tructure ( fig.273); they c learly derive f rom T oulouse, but t he curls a t Lescure are smaller a nd l ighter. T he model h ad l ittle repercussion e lsewhere. Despite the s imilarity with T oulousan corbels, the s hape o f t he curl stems o f H ead 1 a nd t he ox-head c orbels i s distinctive; the nearest comparison i s with a l ess graceful c urve in t he s tem of t he s ame c onception, in the decoration of the vertical band o f the impost over c apital 1 7 with t he i mprisonment of St P eter, in Moissac c loister ( fig.272)(83). The unusual refinement and p eculiar style o f the L oarre c orbels dissociates them f rom t he capitals o f the church; the resemblance of H ead 1 t o h eads by Gilduinus, on h is a ltar a nd in t he f igure o f t he e vangelist Matthew ( fig. 2 69) on t he marble p laque o f t he Majesty now i n the ambulatory in S aint-Sernin, a llows the hypothesis t hat the L oarre c orbels a re an early work o f G ilduinus. The p lace o f L oarre i n the Spanish connexions o f Conques, as well as o f T oulouse, remains to be i nvestigated. The two badly worn corbels: t he quadruped body over t he doorway a nd t he s outh dome c orbel which is p ossibly the s ame motif, are evidence that other motifs than heads were used on c orbels at L oarre. Many more c orbels must l ie buried. THE ROLL CORBEL

IN FRANCE AND COMPOSTELA

T he extensive use of corbels, and the wide variety o f roll c orbel types displayed at S antiago mark it as a c entre o f development of Romanesque corbel types. The geographical

1 84

p osition o f G alicia, bordering Andalusian t erritory, a nd t he c athedral's o utstanding attraction a s a f ocus o f p ilgrimage make i t a n atural s ource of i nfluence in t he w ide diffusion o f t he f eature t hroughout France and S pain; y et while i ts i nfluence i n t he l ater 1 1th a nd 1 2th c enturies i s patent, a s w ill become c lear i n the following r eview o f t he F rench material, i t c annot be i nvoked as t he s ource o f a ll F rench developments o f the motif, s ince roll c orbels w ere u sed i n F rance well b efore t he present c athedral of S antiago was begun. The s eries o f French roll c orbels begins a s e arly a s t he f ourth decade o f t he 1 1th c entury at Vendöme w ith the f illet type, and there are enough examples f or which a probability o f a date in t he next f ew decades i s very h igh ( Poitiers, Lyon, Tournus, J umi ges, Conques, M gobecq, E nnezat f or example), to s how t hat even i f t he date of o ne or other o f these monuments i s disputed, the feature was established i n t he repertoire o f b uilders i n a n umber o f areas by the third quarter o f t he c entury at l atest. Apart f rom P oitiers, a ll t he a bove a re f illet c orbels, a nd at P oitiers they too are in a majority among other f orms based on t hem. I t can no l onger be maintained t hat the c orbels o f Chamaliäres a nd o f S aint-Bgnigne i n D ijon a re e arlier t han the 1 2th c entury ( 85), but with Vendöme the f illet form i s s till t he e arliest among s urviving R omanesque c orbels i n F rance. B ecause i t had l ittle d issemination i n the rest o f northern S pain t he hypothesis r emains a ttractive that this Andalusian f eature arrived i n S antiago with the indubitably F rench s tructural f eatures ( the " pilgrimage f ormula") a s t he contribution o f the builder Rotbertus. H e i s named i n t he C odex C alixtinus b eside t he m irabilis m agister B ernardus a s r esponsible f or the b uilding s tarted by B ishop D iego P elaez ( 86). The names are more F rench than S panish. That a F rench builder s hould f ind a r eceptive, a nd c reative, interest at C ompostela i n such a motif i s the more p robable s ince t he roll c orbel will • not have b een unfamiliar i n G alicia, even i f i ts c lassic Cordoban f orm w as not then in t he current l ocal r epertoire of s tone-work. F rench roll corbels will now b e d iscussed i n geographical groups, t aking f irst Vendöme and i ts neighbourhood Maine and t he Loire area, t hen P oitou i n which S aint-Hilaire ( before 1 049) p rovides t he e arliest example; Normandy ( Jumieges, 1 040-1067); t he Rhöne-Saöne valley a nd B rionnais ( Tournus[?]); A uvergne ( Ennezat b egun before 1 078); N ivernais ( Saint-Etienne begun by 1 083), and B erry-Bourbonnais, where t he p lain f illet corbel h as at once l ost i ts predominance; Conques ( corbels p robably by c . 1 070; T oulouse ( Saint-Sernin begun b efore 1 080); t he S outhWest.

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L a

Trinite,

Vendöme

The earliest datable examples o f French roll corbels a re at La T rinite ( 87). O n t he exterior, t he e aves of t he very h igh s outh transept rest on corbels, most o f t hem badly weathered a nd very d ifficult to s ee. We r ely on t he r eports of Abbe P lat: during r estorations he was able to ascertain that several f illet c orbels w ere among t hem, and he implies that this was the f orm they a ll t ake ( 88). There i s no r ecord o f a ny metope or s offit decoration. O nly one example i s i llustrated, i n a drawing by E . Chauliat published by P lat, who s tates: " billet moulded cordons a nd wood-shaving corbels of the c lassic type were u sed in 1 032 on t he t ransept o f L a-Trinite-de-Vendöme and a l ittle l ater at R iviere..". The corbel i llustrated has f our rolls and a projecting c entral f illet in two p lanes. The i nterlace on the vertical f ace and the scroll down the concave face o f t he f illet a re entirely i n t he s tyle of t he corbels o f ' Abd ar-Rahman I II's f açade in the Mezquita. The profile appears to be mord curved than that of t he f illet c orbels on t he tower of the church with which La Trinite was c losely associated: S aint-Hilaire i n P oitiers. Roll

Corbels

in

the

Neighbourhood of Vendöme

Roll corbels are known f rom Angers, R iviere, S ainteRade unde, P reuilly, Montoire, L angeais and L e Mans. S aintB enoit-sur-Loire c an be i ncluded i n this group: though F leury i s n ot very near Vendöme t he r iver f orms a connecting l ink, and i t has no n earer neighbours. A s ingle c orbel, w ith curls engraved on t he s ides and an eagle carved i n h igh relief, i s i llustrated f rom L e Ronceray d 'Angers ( 89). At S aint-Julien in T ours ( 90) Ch. L elong f ound a p lain f illet corbel i n the Gothic chevet which he concluded i s reused f rom t he a bbey c hurch begun about 1 084 by Abbot G erbert. I t can therefore be associated with other vestiges of that building. These i nclude c apitals with a l inked s croll motif ( D5) " with no analogues i n T ouraine" a nd downturned l eaf volutes ( D16). Other corbels are c arved with l ions devouring men, crouching f igures and other motifs which l ike t he c apitals do not belie the s uggestion that S aint-Julien was in contact with t he s culptors o f north S pain and s outh-west F rance. Roll

Corbels

at

S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire

The roll corbels o f the chevet and transept f açade of S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire were r estored i n t he 1 9th c entury, but o ld prints s how them l ikely to b e f aithful copies ( 91). I n type t hey are c lose to the e xamples at T ours and Montoire, with s ubdued variations on f illet and p lain roll f orms ( fig.276). The choir and transepts were not begun until about 1 067. The l ittle sub-arcades in the tympana o f t he t ransept c ornice a re a lso i n N evers a nd t he B erry ( figs 1 54, 1 55).

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L e Mans The surviving Romanesque chapels o f Notre-Dame-du-Pre a nd La C outure in L e Mans present an extraordinary s election of corbels. They are a ll uncompromisingly a rectangular b lock, but t he c oncave p rofile l ine i s marked i n some way down the s ides, and s everal, without s eeking t he e legance of t he c lassic f illet f orm, p ay full t ribute t o t he Andalusian model; at La Couture with curls o r c ircles on that l ine ( figs 2 23,224). P oitiers,

S aint-Hilaire

The earliest roll corbels at S aint-Hilaire are more decorative than s tructural; they s upport only a n arrow cornice, marking the second s torey of t he bell tower, part o f t he building mentioned i n the C hronicle of S aint-Maixent a s dedicated in 1 049 ( figs 2 37-239). The cornice was masked by the transept in the a lterations that involved enveloping t he tower w ithin t he church, c arried out before the end o f the 1 1th century ( 92). I t i s the non-figural corbels which of c ourse a re most r eminiscent of Andalusian precedents, and c lose parallels i n 1 0th c entury Andalusia can be found f or the s crolls, r osettes a nd geometric patterns on the vertical f aces of the majority ( corbels 1 , 3 -7, 9 )(93). Carving on t he vertical f ace i s a t rait f ound on some o f t he North door and chevet corbels at Conques ( figs 1 25,128,277). The key fret or c astellation down the f illet of corbel 9 calls to mind t he edging on s ome c orbels at S an M illän de S uso, and i s among the rare parallels occurring between Romanesque a nd Mozarabic c orbels. Apart f rom corbel 1 0, the only one o f the e leven without rolls, and which has a rounded vertical f ace unlike t he r est, a ll t he c orbels have curls with the stems running back to the wall and t hus f illing t he whole s ide. On most o f them t he s tem i s horizontal, but on corbel 3 the s tem of the bottom roll o f t he three r ises a lmost v ertically. T he s ame i s true o f corbel 7 , but there i s a fourth roll c urled upward at the bottom, as there i s on c orbel 9 where t he s tems a re thin and deeply cut l ike one on the north door of Conques, and l ike many in t he Auvergne. O n c orbels 3 and 7 t he s tems widen at the base l ike the two with f igures over the south door at Conques ( figs 2 78-9). The horizontal s tems a re not i nfrequent in t he B erry and B ourbonnais, p robably i nfluenced f rom P oitiers, and they occur sporadically i n t he Auvergne ( fig.226, S aignes). I t i s not Andalusian practice to f ill the s ide with these s tems, and stems are never horizontal on Andalusia c orbels. Curls u sed i n other c ontexts, for example in H ibernian i llumination or AngloS axon ivory c arving ( 94) will have p layed t heir part i n this deviation f rom the Cordoban norm.

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Cornice

S labs,

S aint-Hilaire.

The c lassical i nspiration i s evident, but the r oll corbels a nd t heir decoration do more than h int that it i s mediated through Andalusia. The f ace o f each s lab meets the next with a s imulated t riglyph. Above runs d ouble cording D 12); cording i s a f requent border i n the decoration o f the Mezquita ( AHIII f ig.178, round each corbel)(95). I t i s a lso characteristic o f Spanish R amiran carved s tone decoration and a typical Mozarabic manner of decorating an a stragal ( AHIII f igs 4 15, 4 35-6, 4 52, 4 54). S offits 1 -2, 2 -3 and the oblique edge of 9 -10 h ave c lose analogies with Cordoban decoration . 1-2 i s a " heart and dart" D ll with horizontal l ink, ( fig.19, mihrab panel and LTB 1 957 f ig.262, a painted dado a t Madinat a zZ ahra"). This i s the only example on t he S aint-Hilaire cornice with a ny r eference to t he c lassical rosette s offit. 2 -3 i s an angular meander D 7 ( cf LTB 1 957 f igs 5 13-4, f ine chip carved motifs on bases at Madinat a z-Zahra"). The edging on 9 -10 i s a derived Roman o vulo m oulding ( cf LTB 1 957 f ig.526). The wave scrolls o f s offits 8 -9 a nd 9 -10 however resemble s crolls at S an Miguel de F luviä ( fig 1 34); they reappear at S aint-Outrille. S ome metopes are carved with animals, as f rom a bestiary, i n shallow two-plane r elief: a dromedary a nd a s aggitarius were thought by Crozet t o be reused, the l atter being cut down to f it b etween t he c orbels. There i s a relief with confronted l ions on soffit 7 -8 in the s ame naive s tyle, which a s part o f the c ornice s lab i s u nlikely to be a reused p iece. I t reinforces the arguments against t he once prevalent notion that a ll such " primitive" carvings are survivals o f an e arlier period ( 96). F illet

Roll

Corbels

i n

Poitou

P lain or e laborated f illet corbels account f or nearly half of t he e leven c orbels a ccessible f or s tudy on t he e ast wall of the tower of S aint-Hilaire ( nos 1 ,2,5,6 and 9 ). E lsewhere i n P oitou t hey are s carce. There a re a f ew among the different t ypes at P arthenay-le-Vieux and a small number again at Montierneuf and in museums i n P oitiers ( 97); i n the great m ajority o f c ases i f c orbels have t he roll f orm at a ll they are combined with an animal or human h ead in h igh r elief. Less infrequent are corbels w ith rolls o n a c onvex profile ( 98). T hese have a t ypological a ffinity with t he " prow" corbels evolved f rom t he downturned l eaf i n Andalusia. I t is found in Romanesque Spain at Compostela ( Santa S usanna), and on the tomb o f Mudarra from Arlanza. I t i s a f orm exploited i n t he B erry, on p arts o f S aintEtienne in Nevers and at Anzy-le-Duc.

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P olitical

Affiliations

S ince roll corbels are comparatively rare round P oitiers, t he p olitical a ffiliations of t he p atrons of t he buildings may explain their distribution. Three buildings with early examples of r oll corbels are directly a ssociated w ith the name of t he countess Agnes: La Trinite i n Vendöme, S aint-Hilaire i n P oitiers a nd a lso T ournus, where s he and G eoffroi o f Anjou were generous patrons of S aint-Philibert ( 99). I n 1 049 at t he t ime of t he dedication, h er s on Gui G eoffroi, l ater D uke William VIII of Aquitaine, was l ay abbot of S aint-Hilaire; again i n t he c lose comital e ntourage the T reasurer was Josselin, s econd son of the l ord of P arthenay. B oth S aint-Jean-de-Montierneuf i n P oitiers, begun by the D uke about 1 069 ( 100) and P arthenayl e-Vieux have roll c orbels. T hose o f Montierneuf were probably i n p lace by 1 074-1075. The associations are not overwhelming however. S aintN icolas in P oitiers ( c.1050) and t he Abbaye-aux-Dames in S aintes ( dedicated in 1 047) were both founded by Agnes and there i s no s ign o f r oll corbels in e ither. I n t he c ase o f P arthenay the eaves are unlikely to date earlier than a fter 1 092 when i t became a priory of L a Chaise-Dieu ( 101). A uvergnat i nfluence i s evident i n the quarter-barrel vaults o f t he aisles, a nd t he f ew f illet c orbels may well reflect t he growth of popularity o f the form i n the Auvergne. M aillard ( 102) a ttributed t he a lternation o f p iers ( F7) at S aint-Hilaire to the Norman o rigin o f Emma's architect W alter Coorland. T he a lternation of s upports at J umieges was a novelty i n Normandy however, and an origin h as been s ought f or them in B urgundy at S aint-Benigne i n D ijon. The f illet r oll corbels at J umieges were a lso a n ovelty, u nless t he primitive-looking corbels of La C outure i n Le Mans can b e attributed to t he early 1 1th century b uildings o f Abbot G auzbert, c ousin o f Emma ( 103). S omething of their cubic shape is characteristic of Norman c orbels, at Jumieges and B oscherville, but the l atter are much more " classical C ordoban" ( figs 2 25, 2 81). R elations

o f

P oitou with

S pain

Apart f rom t he opportunities for Andalusian features t o come to P oitou f rom N ormandy a nd Burgundy, there i s no l ack of evidence that Spain i tself p layed an important r8le i n t he political t hinking o f t he c ounts, a s i t d id with t he r ulers of Normandy and Burgundy. The pilgrimages of William t he Great to S antiago, a nd h is f requent exchanges of g ifts w ith the k ings of Navarre and L eön are a measure o f the importance he a ttached to h is r elations with S pain ( 104). W illiam's son Gui G eoffroi ( Duke William VIII) i s the most l ikely l eader to have been designated by I bn H ayyan a s " commander o f the c avalry o f the Roumi" who took B arbastro i n 1 063 a nd h eld it f or a year. At a ll events, Gui Geoffroi b rought many ornaments and s laves back f rom the campaign, a nd renewed h is f ather's f riendships with t he Spanish

1 89

monarchs w hich h ad s ubsided during t he t roubled y ears o f h is mother's regency and r emarriage ( 105). T he c oncern to a ssure control o f G ascony, culminating i n Gui G eoffroi's assumption o f that d ucal t itle ( by f orced s ale) i n 1 052, i s attributed by M artindale ( 106) in l arge measure t o the importance f or Aquitaine o f the r oute t o Spain. D ynastic marriages b ear t his o ut. William t he G reat had married a daughter o f the Duke o f G ascony; t he f irst w ife o f A lfonso VI o f L eön/Castile w as Agnes o f P oitiers ( 107) a daughter ( or s ister?) of Gui G eoffroi; another ( or, a ?) daughter o f t he l atter a lso n amed A gnes w as married a s a child to the s on o f S ancho Ramirez o f A ragon, P edro ( later P edro I I), i n 1 086 i n J aca. T he l atter's h alfbrother Ramiro, a cceding t o the throne o f Aragon in 1 134 married G ui G eoffroi's g randdaughter, again n amed Agnes. I n t his way f irm l inks were e stablished w ith the m ost i nfluential monarchs i n Spain. The c lose association o f the D uke's vassals, t he c ounts o f B igorre a nd t he v iscounts o f B ea m, with t he court of Aragon i n t he early decades o f the 1 2th c entury r eflects t he continuing i mportance o f Spanish a ffairs i n the power s truggles o f the great f eudal houses ( 108). A ll these activities c reated opportunities f or craftsmen a nd i deas t o t ravel. Other types of roll

corbel

i n P oitou

L ater building c ampaigns at S aint-Hilaire, but s till i n t he 1 1th c entury, c ontinued t o u se t he roll f orm, but not the f illet type. There i s one p lain rod corbel o n the north t ransept i nterior, a nd u nder t he e aves o f t he northern radiating chapels metopes carved with p aired heraldic beasts are s et between roll corbels with a nimal heads ( 109). O n t he north f açade of t he t ransept there i s a cornice s imilar to that on the t ower but s impler, w ith a p lainer moulding. T he metopes a re u ndecorated, a nd the s offits are c arved in very s hallow r elief with animals i n " primitive" s tyle. T hey rest on corbels, t he great m ajority o f them with rolls; three have a bull head, the m uzzle pointing down vertically and t he n eck d iffering l ittle f rom the profile o f a f illet, but l ess c arved away f rom the c ubic b lock. The difference in s tyle o f t hese c orbels f rom those on the t ower makes p lain t he d ifference in date. S everal r oll c orbels w ith h eads or a p lant motif s urvive on Monthierneuf and in museums i n P oitiers. Other examples o f r oll corbels with h eads a re at Chauvigny ( both S aint-Pierre and Notre-Dame), S aint-Savin, B onneuil-Matours a nd L a C hapelle-Morthemer; i t i s n otable that a ll these l ie to t he east towards the B erry where the r oll f orm i s v irtually s tandard. A p lain concave r od c orbel is a mong a very f ew other roll-derived f orms on the apse o f S aintJ ouin de M arnes.

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T he p opularity of the r oll motif c learly declined i n P oitou in c omparison with r egions f urther east, i n B erryB ourbonnais, N ivernais or Auvergne. I t w as discarded i n f avour of h ead corbels. T he roll f orm i s sparsely u sed at N otre-Dame-la-Grande, a nd on t he t urrets a f ew animal h eads s till have manes d escribed by l ittle curls. T he w idespread adoption o f heads on c orbels i n P oitou, f irst as an addition to or e laboration of the f illet on r olls corbels, l ater by t hemselves, a s on t he chevet o f S aint-Pierre at C hauvigny or at N otre-Dame-la-Grande, goes i n p arallel with t he d ense d istribution i n P oitou o f a rches d ecorated with h eads ( 110). Though the r oll form was superceded, the practice o f s upporting c ornices a nd e aves on decorative c orbels b ecame f irmly established. T here i s hardly a R omanesque church, e arly or l ate, throughout a ll t he dominions o f Aquitaine, without a c orbel table under the eaves. The characteristic f açades o f P oitou, a nd t he b ordering t ributary p rovinces o f V endee, Limousin, P erigord, Angoümois, S aintonge, G uyenne a nd Gascony a ll make c onstant u se o f c ornices on c orbels, most o f these carved with heads. That the u ltimate Roman origin of the corbel table, a s s een on t he architraves o f R oman t riumphal a rches or g ateways s till s tanding, for example at S aintes, was still p resent i n t he minds of t he Romanesque d esigners i s evident i n the c lassical a spect o f many d etails, but the fact t hat t he earliest corbels t o survive are roll c orbels s hows t hat t he Andalusian mode o f t reating t he c lassical t radition had b een operative i n d isseminating i ts adoption. T he c ornice on t he tower o f S aint-Hilaire i s t he e arliest surviving example of a corbel table in the Duchy. T he fact that c orbel t ables were widely adapted to the f unction o f eave s upports, at Vendöme and subsequently at S aint-Hilaire, a nd not only u sed i n t he R oman manner on c ornices, again s hows that Andalusian influence prevails. W hile animal-head corbels a lready support a cornice above a d oorway in D iocletian's palace i n Split ( 111) and suggest a R oman ancestry f or t he h ighly p opular h ead c orbel, t he u se o f the roll motif a s t he support for the animal h eads at S aint-Hilaire, f irst on t he cornice o f t he t ower then under e aves, must be due to the i nfluence o f the Andalusian t radition a lready manifest at Vendöme s upporting t he e aves, i n the surviving c orbels on the south transept. Roll

C orbels

a nd o ther Andalusian f eatures

in Normandy

J umi ges The p lain f illet corbel made an early appearance i n N ormandy at J umiäges ( begun 1 040, c onsecrated 1 067)(fig 2 25). A ll t he r oll c orbels s urviving on this b uilding a re o f this type. They c an be s een in s itu: on the western

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f açade s upporting a c ornice with t riple b illet m oulding among others with s ingle r olls or s imilar variations, uniform under t he e aves o f t he n orth t ower, a nd u nder t he eaves of the crossing t ower. On the s outh t ower t he f illet i s u sed w ithout t he f lanking r olls, a nd a c ornice on t he e ast f ace o f the l antern t ower h as c oncave corbels w ith a s quare s tud, among o thers with r olls. T he roll c orbels t end t o a s tocky cubic s hape characteristic o f a ll Norman r oll corbels. T he central f illet projects s trongly. There a re s igns of grooving on t he underside a nd down the f illet, a nd on t he s ides t he ends o f r olls a re d efined a s circles a long t he concave profile. No other decoration i s t o be seen. Twin columns ( F6) f lank t he o therwise very p lain entrance to the abbey c hurch, in the s ame a lignment a s t he columns s upporting t he m ihrab a rch in t he M ezquita, f or t he doorway i s not s played. That this f eature, a lso s een on the west t owers, i s a s much Andalusian h ere a s I talian ( 112) i s made more l ikely by the presence of r oll corbels which are unknown i n I taly. A window i n t he w est wall of t he s outh t ransept has an extrados with horizontal s labs, a s i n H igh Aragon, a nd t here w ere twin windows ( F11) i n t he c rossing t ower. The i nsertion of columns on t he outer angles of towers a nd t ransept p iers i s a Muslim f eature which d oes not survive in Andalusia ( 113). The a lternation of s upports ( F7) in t he nave is not found over-frequently i n Romanesque architecture, and roll c orbels o ften occur on the buildings with this f eature ( 114). The p lain f illet-type corbel o f Jumi ges i s the only roll f orm to b e met i n Normandy, a nd it w as n ot w idely adopted. The tower o f S aint-Pierre i n A izier has t hem ( 115). T he 1 2th c entury churches o f La T rinitg i n F ecamp ( on the r adiating chapels), S aint-Nicolas in C aen and S aint-Georges i n S aint-Martin-de-Boscherville a re among t he f ew with a f ull s eries o f corbels s imilar to those at J umieges. L a Trinitg

in Caen

There are no roll corbels a t L a T rinitg, but a deliberate r eference i s m ade t o them on c ertain c apitals with two registers o f p lain l eaves, t he upper l eaves f orming volutes ( fig.282). T hese c apitals, p laced at tribune l evel under t he c ross r ibs o f the s econd and t hird double bay, a nd on t he west f ront where t he console c omes against the j amb return, have c onsoles shaped a s p lain rod corbels, with no f illet; i n t he t ribune examples the " rod" i s rather angular t han r ounded, but still recognizably a roll c orbel with a s cotia p rofile. T his t ransposition o f a corbel to a c apital d iffers f rom t he reference evolved in t he B erry f rom a l eaf c anopy, but i t i s curious t hat i t was done at L a Trinitg where s everal t hemes on capitals ( catmasks, monsters, f oliage types i ncluding a s uggestion o f the inverted B errichon l eaf z one, corner heads under a l eaf c anopy) a re often r eminiscent o f t hemes p revalent i n the

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B erry where they d erive L oire.

f rom t he porch of

S aint-Benoit-sur-

A much l arger n umber o f Norman churches h as p lain, not r oll, c orbels r ound the e aves, many with h eads. La Trinite i n C aen, D omfront, T haon, L essay, S ' äqueville and Abbetot a re among e arly e xamples. Corbels a re not much u sed under cornices on f açades. Imitations o f Mozarabic capitals have been n oted ( 116), b ut t he s culptors o f N ormandy a lso u sed I slamic models. The eared mask o f the capital s igned B ritus a t B ernay a nd s imilar motifs in C aen ( fig.325) bear a c lose r esemblance to t he mask on an o liphant i n t he H ermitage museum in L eningrad. This motif may have b een transmitted by a Mozarabic i ntermediary, s uch as t he masks on t he i vory c rosses ( 117). Reference was made i n Chapter I I to the c apitals of L a T rinite with r am heads that r ender t he rams' horns with the s ame f ronds that f rame the r am and l ion heads on C ordoban b asins. Twin c olumns ( F6) a lso are not uncommon i n Normandy: at M aneglise, Q uilleboeuf, Montivilliers, Fecamp f or example. Q uilleboeuf has indented i f not l obed s offits on the tower, and voussoirs a lternating ( F13) i n p lane on the outer archivolt o f t he w est door. At Montivilliers the s outh transept a rch ( fig 3 30 ) (118) has voussoirs a lternating in a manner s trongly s uggestive o f C ordoban i nspiration. Voussoirs c arved on a horseshoe a rch at E vrecy i n the 9 th century may well a lready betoken an Andalusian s timulus ( 119) r enewed at Montivilliers i n t he 1 2th. Corbels on the t ower o f the l atter church are concave with an i ntermediate r idge: a not s o d istant r eference to t he roll f orm. The intercrossing arches ( F20) o f the transept f açades at Graville S aint-Honorine have a moulding running r ound both j amb a nd intrados s o that the j ambs appear to have s lender corner c olumns ( F8). T he j ointing o f the arcading with t he f illing o f l ozenges g ives prominence to t he r adiation of t he voussoirs ( F14). T he r oof is h eld on head corbels. A ll these parallels are evidence that those r esponsible f or d esigning details of decoration f or N orman buildings were c onversant with the Andalusian decorative repertoire. R elations o f Normandy with S pain The Normans f rom early t imes were no s trangers to e ither Andalusia o r C hristian Spain ( 120). I n t he 1 1th c entury, apart f rom the f requent participation in military activities t hroughout t he c entury ( 121) c onnected with t he names of de Toeni, Montreuil, de Roucy or Burdet ( 122) and t he growing control o f S outh I taly a nd S icily which brought their ships to a nd f ro i nto the Mediterranean, there are Norman n ames among t he merchants a nd traders who s ettled t he new t owns a long the route to S antiago ( 123). I n the 1 2th c entury R otrou du P erche, r elated to t he de R oucy, and t he cousin and a c lose a ssociate o f A lfonso I of Aragon, n ot only l iberated c ities but was g iven t he l ordship o f a part of Z aragoza a nd probably o f Tudela a lso.

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I n G alicia the bishop o f S antiago f irst concerned with t he n ew c athedral, D iego P elaez, was accused by A lfonso V I o f involvement i n the p lot o f t he d isgraced R odrigo O vequiz, e xiled to Z aragoza, to h and over Galicia t o William the C onqueror ( 124). Whether j ustified or no, the accusation a ssumes quite i ntense c ommunications b etween Normandy and Spain. Roll Corbels i n the Rhöne/Saöne Valley, and S aint-Martin d 'Ainay

Tournus,

I le Barbe

T ournus and Lyon mark t he easternmost l imit o f the area containing roll corbels. There a re p lain f illet c orbels on the radiating chapels of S aint-Philibert. I t i s unlikely that they a re F irst R omanesque work, f rom which e lsewhere they are consistently absent. The masonry o f the chapels must require an earlier date than t he abbacy o f P ierre ( +1105), and G aillard ( 125) s hows the c apitals belong with those o f t he c loister. T he s ainted Abbot A rdain was buried in 1 056 i n " his" c loister. There i s no reason to dispute s uch a dating f or t he corbels, t hough the c hapels may have been r e-roofed with corbel eaves during t he work culminating i n t he consecration by C alixtus I I i n 1 120; i f s o, it i s s trange they had no s equel n earby, a nd a mid-llth c entury date i s more l ikely. T he d omes o f T ournus and S aint-Martin d 'Ainay in Lyon a re s imilar; t hat of S aintMartin w as part o f t he b uilding begun i n 1 102, b ut roll corbels are not on t he main church; t hey a re on t he Ste B landine c hapel which was a lready s tanding. That t he c hapel antedates the n ew building i s to b e deduced f rom t he f act that there a re no roll c orbels on t he l atter. On the chapel the s offits are c arved with h ollow rosettes o f A uvergnat t ype, but a s offit s lab f rom I le B arbe nearby ( 126) i s decorated with s crolls o f a type t hat abounds i n t he decoration o f " Abd a r-Rahman I II's S alön i n Madinat a z-Zahra", in particular i n the f ragments o f the terrace e aves w ith t heir bracket-shaped medallions ( fig.20). The I le Barbe s offit has a hollow four-celled rosette more l ike the wooden s offits at S an Millän i n S egovia ( fig.46). This s lab contributes to t he evidence f or the primary role of the Rhöne valley i n disseminating Andalusian i nfluence i n F rance, a lready c onjectured i n discussing l obed arches i n t he p revious chapter. The s imple hollow rosette o f Auvergnat s offits m ay well have evolved f rom such intermediaries i n wood and s tone a s this f ragment f rom a c ornice at I le Barbe. Auvergne Ennezat, f ounded between 1 061 a nd 1 078 ( 127) i s i n a ll l ikelihood t he earliest s urviving r epresentative o f the Auvergnat church type established by t he vanished cathedral o f C lermont ( 128). Round t he e aves i s a c orbel t able on f illet roll corbels, a ll i dentical; the s offits h ave a hollowed f our-petal rosette i n t he c entre, e xactly l ike the

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drawings o f V iollet-le-Duc f rom N otre-Dame-du-Port and E breuil. T he f illet r oll f orm thus begins t he s eries o f c orbels i n t he A uvergne; i t was d estined to predominate r ight through t he Romanesque period i n a wide r adius round C lermont. T he c hurches o f A uvergne a re " impressed with a p owerful uniformity o f s tyle" ( 129) i n which its c orbel t ables f orm o ne e lement. T he c athedral o f C lermont, n ow s uperceded byi t he present one, and t he vanished abbey c hurch of L a Chaise-Dieu ( 130) f ounded i n 1 043 must a lso h ave p layed a d ominant r öle i n e stablishing the eaves s ystem t ypical of t he C lermont r egion. The most immediately s triking decorative f eature o n t he l arger churches i s t he exterior wall p atterning o f coloured s tone mosaic ( fig.287); an equally characteristic f eature on both l arge and small buildings i s the treatment o f e aves, which a re s upported on f illet r oll corbels c lose t o the Cordoban t ype o f A lmanzor's extension, even to the device o f turning t he b ottom curl up t o meet i ts n eighbour. T he soffits are f requently c arved with miniature hollow r osettes. R ound t he apses o f t he major churches: S aintN ectaire, S aint-Saturnin, Notre-Dame-du-Port, I ssoire, B rioude, s tone mosaic f orms l arge rosettes c orresponding to t he more Roman-like c arved metopes o f the S antiago o r T oulouse d oorways. O n t he g able o f t he s outh f açade o f S aint-Genes at Thiers the s tone Mosaic rosettes s ubstitute f or encrusted b acini, a nd s imilarly over a window at L e Monastier ( fig.36). The s carcity o f easily worked s tone f or s culpture i n t he volcanic P uy-de-Döme c an e xplain why f ew s culptors were employed f or architectural d etail compared with areas where s oft s tone i s p lentiful ( 131). C oloured s tone mosaic patterns and uniform corbels and s offits f or exterior decoration could be carried o ut by l ess s killed or i nventive masons and l eave t he s culptor f ree to concentrate on capitals. O n t he exteriors a n a lmost mechanical perfection o f e xecution s eems t he a im, r ather than originality o f i nvention. S ubtle embellishments distinguish s ome f iner work, a s on the earlier c athedral of C lermont ( 132). P ont-du-Château i s a minor church and the corbels are rather more p eremptory, f or i nstance t he c urls a re o nly excavated to a very shallow depth and the design has become quite rigid ( fig.285). T he c oncave p rofile of t he f illet i s reduced to a small b ite out of the rectangle, l eaving an angular " tete de b elier". The curls s pring f rom a c urve but the profile o f the l obed p lane i s a lmost straight. There a re no c arved s offits. The complete A uvergnat s ystem i s found further north i n t he Bourbonnais not f ar f rom C lermont, o n t he 1 1th c entury parts ( nave, transept and north a isle) of S aint Läger at E breuil. W hether t he roofing i s a s e arly as t he walls i s not certain ( fig.284). To the north and west o f Ebreuil in the B ourbonnais and Berry begins t he area where

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hollowed r osettes c ease a nd t he f illet c orbel i s only one among a very l arge r epertoire, though the roll f orm is much in evidence. A more mixed treatment of c orbels b ecomes more common as the distance f rom C lermont i n a ny d irection i ncreases. F or example C raplet ( 133) i llustrates two corbels f rom G laine-Montaigut, one w ith a crouching f igure, the other a r oll corbel w ith foliage i n c omparatively d eep relief down the f ace: an unusual treatmnt o f a corbel, its c losest parallel c orbel 1 o f S aint-Hilaire i n P oitiers. The vertical f ace i s narrow, the curl stems f ill t he s ide and the bottom curl turns up to j oin t he one above i n a heart framing a f leur-de-lis. On the s outhern border of the Auvergnat corbel area, at B lesle, a small apse, which Walter Cahn ( 134) dates to the early years o f t he 1 2th c entury, has a corbel table under t he e aves which i ncludes t wo corbels with r olls on a concave profile. B oth have animal heads, one designed on t he same s cheme as corbel 7 of S aint-Hilaire; next to this i s one with a motif s imilar to t he b at o f corbel 9 at S aint-Hilaire, b ut without rolls. A nother chapel h as an example of a double roll on a convex profile ( fig.235) and one, without rolls, h as a grimacing mask i n t he B erry style, l ike t he r ecut corbels at L es A ix d 'Angillon ( fig.286). The cornice has a row o f discs a long the vertical f ace, but no carved s offits. A l ater campaign at B lesle was responsible f or t he c hoir, a nd h ere a re e aves with uniform Auvergnat corbels, with deep-cut curls and horizontal s tems ( 135). I nside t he c hurch at t he c rossing the l intel of the squinch i s s upported on a corbel c arved with an e laborated form o f r olls, r esulting in a k ind o f g igantic b illet moulding. On the l ate Romanesque east end of S aint-Julien i n B rioude ( fig.287)(136) t he chapels present a great variety o f corbels, human and animal heads, complete f igures, heavy p lain rolls, q uadruple a nd d ouble rolls a nd t he metopes a re c arved with varied rosettes D 15; the apse, transept and nave e aves on t he other hand have uniform f illet c orbels; on the apse t he rosettes are mosaic on t he metopes and hollow on t he s offits. These two churches mark the southernmost l imit o f the Auvergnat type of corbel t able. S outhward f rom h ere Conques s tands a lone, midway between the Auvergne and Toulouse, where a d istinct f orm, i ntimately c onnected with n orthern Spain, i s centred on S aint-Sernin. On the east, north and west borders o f t he Auvergne t he c lassic f orm i s modified in other ways. Roll Corbels Charlieu

i n the Brionnais:

Anzy-le-Duc,

S aint-Laurent,

The chevet before restoration at Anzy-le-Duc i s reported to have h ad roll c orbels with hollow rosette s offits. S everal corbels on the north wall of the nave and on t he south t ransept are variants on d ouble and f illet

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roll f orms ( fig.236), b ut there i s no a ttempt a t any c onsistency of s tyle. T he corbels with double rows o f rolls a re n ot e xcavated deeply i nto c urls ( unlike t hose o f C lermont, which i n t his resemble t hose o f S ilos and G ormaz) but a re s imilar t o t he variants a ppearing on S aint-Etienne i n Nevers. O n t he s outh transept are two c orbels w ith animal heads c arved i n l ow r elief on the v ertical f ace, very l ike t he ox-head corbel over t he n orth door at Conques ( fig.221). S ome c apitals at Anzy-le-Duc s hare themes with c apitals i n t he B erry a nd a re in t he s ame r igid s tyle; i ts monster masks evoke a lso more d istant c ontact, with L a T rinite in Caen. T he c orbels have more of t he vitality o f i nvention s een i n t hose at Nevers, and a number of s hapes a nd ornaments are s hared w ith S aint-Etienne. The eaves B rionnais a lso Roll

Corbels

c orbels of Charlieu and S aint-Laurent-eni nclude s ome o f r oll or d erived roll f orm.

in t he N ivernais

S aint-Etienne i n Nevers was g iven to C luny in 1 067-68. T he church, b egun b efore 1 083 a nd f inished by 1 097, h as numerous corbels, and a lmost a ll o f them a re e laborated and d iversified versions o f t he roll corbel treated w ith c onsiderable virtuosity a nd exuberance ( figs 2 33,234). The c urved profile i s emphasized, often multiplied i nto s everal p lanes so that t he f illet i s s lender. T he f illet i s r arely s haped to t he profile but i s • given a v ariety of s trange f orms. This t endency to k eep t he rectangular b lock a s a base, and t he many geometric and curving patterns on the s ides, b ring this s eries c lose to t he t ype of c orbel o f S an M illän de S uso. T he s ame s tyle persisted i n the c ity i nto t he 1 2th c entury w ith t he c orbels of S aint-Sauveur, o ne o f which, now i n the Museum, has three Mozarabic f eatures: s tems carved to s uggest roll ends a long t he curved p rofile, castellation a long the top border, and a whorl carved i n t he s ide ( fig.240). The n earest parallel i s with t he r iotous shapes o f the c orbels on the e ast and north t ransept c hapels o f Notre-Dame-du-Pre i n Le Mans. The f ew head corbels at S aint-Etienne are without rolls. More c lassic f illet c orbels have very n arrow f illets projecting s trongly s o that the profile o f the f illet i s n early r ectangular, w ith a v ery curved indentation. The c urve of t he l ine on the p lane o f the rolls starts i n a ll cases vey n ear t he top, a d etail which these c orbels s hare w ith those o f S antiago, Frömista a nd J aca, and with some on t he eastern p arts o f S aint-Sernin ( i.e. t he f ace i s n early e liminated, l ike s ome i n a l-Hakam I rs extension, LTB 1 957 f ig.363). T he c orbels o f S aint-Etienne provide a model for s ome o f t he l ess u nadventurous e ssays i n c orbel sculpture i n the Berry.

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Roll

C orbels

in

t he

B erry-Bourbonnais

I n this area, l ying between P oitou, the Nivernais and t he Auvergne, t he c orbels s how characteristics acquired f rom each o f i ts neighbours. The r oll motif i s v ery f requent on b oth e arly a nd l ate b uildings, and t he traditions of the s trongly characterized surrounding areas previously d escribed c an be s een t o mingle, but w ith differences: on the one hand, it i s p atent that corbels were often not g iven to an e xpert s culptor, but were l eft t o a j ourneyman or mason not specialized i n carving, who made much of s imple variations on t he roll t heme, c utting rolls into billets, enlarging one roll, c arving rolls i n t he f illet as at Gormäz, A rlanza, Nevers or Anzy-le-Duc, or f ollowing a f ew well-established models: h eads with a minimum o f relief c arving, o ther s imple motifs, o r t he c lassic f illet type. O n the other h and, uniform series o f f illet roll c orbels i n the A uvergnat manner, or o f any other type of corbel, are infrequent ( 138). At a t ime when V iollet-le-Duc's theory still h eld sway, namely that the origin o f t he roll corbel l ay i n a carpenter's c aprice, a nd e ntirely within the F ench architectural tradition, Enlart ( 139) suggested the B erry region a s t he c radle of t he motif. S ince 1 923 when Mile e stablished the o rigin of the f orm i n Andalusia these corbels have r eceived l ittle attention; t he view h as prevailed that sculpture in general i n the Berry was a passive r eceiver o f i nfluences f rom i ts artistically s tronger neighbours: the Middle Loire, Poitou, N ivernais, Burgundy, L imousin a nd Auvergne ( 140). Meobecq, i f the original chevet can b e accepted a s belonging to t he church dedicated in 1 048, a s appears most l ikely ( 141), i s much the earliest s ite i n the province with roll c orbels, a nd among t he e arliest in F rance. The corbels on the eaves are part o f the 1 9th century restorations o f t he e ast e nd, but s ome o riginal p ieces which they replace remain s tored i n a ( very dark) corner inside t he church. They c onsist of r oll c orbels, s ome with a p lain or billet f illet and others with animal heads of s imilar type to the S aint-Hilaire c orbels; they differ i n that the stems of the curls spring f rom t he curve o f the p rofile a nd do n ot r un back h orizontally. G iven the disappearance of a ll t he great buildings of t he early Romanesque period i n t he province, such as i n D eols, I ssoudun or B ourges where a bout a dozen c hurches s tood i n the 1 2th century ( 142), S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire appears to exercise the s trongest i nfluence on early capital s culpture. V ergnolle s hows i n d etail t he c lose l inks between capitals in both the t ower porch and choir of S aint-Benoit a nd the earliest capitals i n the B erry at M eobecq, S aint-Genou ( 1066-1070), N euvy-Saint-Sepulcre ( in c ult by 1 077), La B erthenoux, P laimpied ( 1080-1092) a nd L a Celle-Bruere. S aint-Benoit has no c orbels on t he t ower porch however, a nd those on t he e ast end ( fig. 276) a re not

1 98

sculpturally i nspired; owe more to a d ifferent Corbel

corbels in the B erry may therefore source f rom t hat of t he c apitals.

Types

The p lain f illet roll corbel occurs everywhere in the B erry among other t ypes, in versions s imilar to t hose at Poitiers ( corbels 4 ,5,6 and 9 on t he tower: Chäteaumeillant, V ic l 'Exemplet, Avord: f igs 2 91,292). Often, as at D eols or L a Champenoise, B engy ( fig.290) or Neuilly-en-Dun, t he curl s tems a re h orizontal as at P oitiers. Many o thers keep to the profile l ine on the s ides, a nd d escribe t he roll e nds as c ircles or spirals, a s at Nevers. P laimpied has both kinds ( fig.288). Variants with knobs, billets, barrels or bars, the stock-in-trade of masons, recur f requently. Heads are c omparatively rare, particularly combined with rolls. A t S aint-Genes in Chäteaumeillant a nd at P laimpied they l ook out horizontally, as at Nevers; the downward f acing o f 3 ,7,8,10 a nd 1 1 on the S aint-Hilaire cornice, a s at S plit and marked a lso at Loarre, was not t aken up i n t he B erry. O ften heads a re treated i n peremptory rather than c lassical f ashion ( Saint-Jeanvrin f ig. 2 89, B engy, M alicorne). F igures a re even r arer than heads ( atlantes a t Chäteaumeillant, where the corbels are among the most f inished a nd varied in t he region). The t endency t owards rigidity o f style, exemplified on t he capital c arving in the t reatment a nd exaggeration o f themes initiated a t S aint-Benoit: f eline masks, t he " col berrichon" ( turned-down s tylized l eaf f rieze r ound t he l owest register o f the bell) or t he vertical cylinder o f horizontal l eaf f ronds, i s expressed on t he c orbels by a preference f or impersonal geometric devices and mouldings as against animate motifs. On t he whole there i s l ittle i n these corbels e ither of the animation o f P oitiers with its animals or t he opulence of Nevers with experiments i n shape. Only in rare i nstances, and on none of the churches thought to be e arlier than t he 1 2th c entury, a re there uniform series o f roll corbels. S uch series occur at D ols on one l evel of t he tower ( 144), on t he apse at S elles-surCher, and a t Neuvy Pailloux; even at La Champenoise though they l ook a like t here a re s light variations. There i s no s ign of the decoration o f soffits or metopes with rosettes, so t he i nfluence f rom t he Auvergne is not overwhelming even where there are r egular series o f f illet corbels. L a Berthenoux, Avord a nd D ols share a variant o f a r od c orbel with a rosette in r elief i n the centre. At Chäteaumeillant a nd at S aint-Jeanvrin ( 145) adoption of the c onvex profile c reates a motif very near t he Cordoban l eaf-shell ( figs 2 89, 2 92), and there a re some with double rolls. At Avord f loret and half-palmette motifs are reminders of c onnexions with woodwork. Among t he s eries

1 99

o f crude human and a nimal heads at S aint-Jeanvrin i s a horse-head c orbel l ike those at S aint-Sever ( Landes); t he f raming curls a re not s o deep or f inely c ut ( fig.289, next t o the convex corbel). A common P oitevin s ource i s possible, y et a n umber of s urprising details o f c apital s culpture s uggests t hat t he artistic l inks o f the B erry with t he S outh-west a nd Spain were a lso very c lose ( 146): t hey s hare f or example an a ffection f or f airground s cenes; f or a mask r eplacing t he c entral c onsoles; eyes drilled f or i nlay. The characteristic B erry horizontal l eaf cylinder i s f ound equally i n Gascony a nd t he B erry ( 147), and relates t o the Andalusian i ncurled l eaf motif D 4. V olute

S tems w ith Curls

Another s hared detail i s the reference to r oll corbels on volute s tems. The r oll corbel was s o p revalent in the B erry that i t a ffected the design o f c apitals. At a number o f c hurches, among them Neuvy S aint-Sgpulcre, L a C elleB ruere and P laimpied ( 148), a projecting corner human head under a veil i s f ramed by s tems s prouting c urls which meet above i t to p rovide a d iminished volute. Vergnolle traces t he motif b ack to a l eaf c anopy on c apitals at S aintB enoit: one i n the p orch with a f igure bending at the corner under an oppressive volute ( 149) f or e xample, and i n the choir a c orner head projecting l ikewise under a l eaf canopy. A t P laimpied a nd Neuilly-en-Dun t he h ead f ramed by rolls in this manner i s transferred back to a corbel ( fig.288)(154); whether t he c onversion f rom l eaf c anopy to a volute s tem with c urls took p lace a t S aint-Benoit on c orbels n ow l ost, or t he l eaf o nly b ecame a curl in the hands of the B erry s culptor with h is u rge to f ormalize, and whether Spanish examples contributed t o t he development, r emains to be decided: a parallel p rocess t ook p lace on capital volute s tems i n Spain. Volute S tems with Curls:

S pain

The bent f igure on the corner o f the capital in the porch o f S aint-Benoit, d esignated a s t he source o f the B erry motif, i s s imilar to f igures on c apitals in the P anteön i n Leön ( 151) a nd under a s imilar heavy canopy. B oth on these c apitals and at S aint-Benoit the eyes are i nlaid w ith l ead ( as they a re on L eön ivories a s well). C apital 2 2 in the nave at J aca and c apital 1 5 at Loarre ( 152) f ollow t he s ame s cheme, t he bent f igure at J aca under a double l eaf, p lain on top and f oliated below, at Loarre under t he t raditional d evouring monster, a s on the P orte des Comtes at S aint-Sernin, which descends f rom the work o f t he master o f t he c rypt c apitals a t S aint-Bgnigne in D ijon ( 153). At L oarre t he c urve o f the f igure i s l ess marked and t he volute h as n o c urls or s prouts, b ut the c apitals warrant inclusion because the head o f the attendant, l ike t he rider's h ead on a c apital of s imilar c omposition ( 154) i s veiled and very l ike the Berry heads under discussion.

2 00

At S antiago the chevet c apitals 1 3 and 1 6 ( 155), on which again t he e yes a re p ierced f or i nlay, both have f igures whose heads occupy the angles, and the stem o f the volutes i s carved with a l ine of l ittle c urls. At J aca t he f oliage capital N o 1 0 in t he nave, with a s trong Mozarabtype l eaf, h as c urls on t he s tem, a nd t he volute s weeps i nto a downturned l eaf ( D16). The west door c apital 4 with m en a nd s nakes ( D17)(156) h as t he v olute s tems and one c aulicole stem carved with curls. At F römista there are c urls on t he volute s tem o f t he b ird c apital i n t he nave ( Gaillard's no 1 4), and on one volute s tem each o f the Adoration capital n o 1 2 a nd t he s uperb d ompter c apital no 1 ( 157); the other volute in each c ase i s c arved with s caley l eaves c onnecting t he n otions o f c url a nd t endril ( the s caley l eaves t hat decorate the vertical b ars on the c orbels at I guäcel). Many c apitals in t he P anteön have volute stems branching into s crolls or bearing f lowers. No 1 9 i s c lose to a c apital at S aint-Sever de Rustan where an a lignment of curl s crolls makes the volute s tem ( 158). A c omparative s tudy o f other details o f motifs i n t he two areas should l ead to more precise correlations than c an be advanced at present. The a ssociations o f these volute stems a t F römista reflect Andalusia i nfluence in addition to t heir own r eference to Andalusian corbel a nd arch f orms. The b ird capital h as Moissac's l inked s croll motif ( D5), generally r ecognized a s deriving f rom Andalusian decorative carving ( 159). S ome of i ts many variants at Frömista ( 160) have c lose parallels a t S aint-Benoit, f or example t he s croll l ining t he mandorla b ehind S aint M artin ( 161). T he console on the f ace o f t he b ird c apital takes t he f orm of a pine c one ( D2). T he c onsole of c apital no 1 i s a lmost e liminated, and a l ion mask ( D17f-see introductory notes to Appendix I part 2 ) o ccupies t he c entre of t he c apital f ace. Though l ions have widespread a ssociations and can hardly b e u sed a s a d iagnostic o f Andalusia i nfluence, t he many u ses t o which the motif was put i n Andalusian decoration: s pitting f oliage, f ramed i n a V o f f oliage, approximating t o a human f ace i n an eared c ap ( cf B erry roman f ig.83) c annot be l eft out o f account i n c onsidering the a ffiliations i mplied by i ts appearance h ere. Roll

Corbels

i n S ainte-Foy i n Conques

Roll corbels a re i n the majority among the many c orbels at Conques ( figs 2 93-295)(162). They a re a ll o f l imestone. Those o f t he north and south transept doorways may date f rom t he l ast s tages o f t he f ist b uilding c ampaign, ending a f ew years a fter the death of Odolric i n 1 065 ( 163). A s ystematic c lassification o f t he many f orms i n relation to their p lacing would a llow more f ar-reaching conclusions t han c an b e attempted h ere, and would c ontribute usefully to deciding the chronology o f the building. This i s s till not agreed upon by t he s cholars most concerned, but earlier datings are gaining ground.

2 01

M . Aubert distinguished f ive b uilding c ampaigns up to 1 119 and dated the west portal to 1 130. For G . Gaillard ( 164) t he present church, begun under Abbot O dolric ( +1065) between 1 041 and 1 050 was f inished s oon after the accession o f B egon I II in 1 087. H e observed that t he s tructure i s a ll of a piece and that references to B egon's work are confined to h is building o f t he c loister. More recently J . -Cl. F au ( 165) had dated the corbels o f the transept doors to a fter 1 080 a nd probably early 1 2th c entury, a nd most o f t he capital sculpture, after the s andstone p lait capitals o f O dolric's campaign, b efore 1 110; i n agreement with t he orthodox French view he p laces the tympanum some quarter century l ater ( 166). I n h is view t he l ast years o f t he f irst building campaign s aw the beginnings of historiated capitals a nd t he abandonment of t he i nterlace t radition. J . Bousquet ( 167) however p uts t he c limax o f s culptural activity, i ncluding t he g reat t ympanum of t he Last J udgment on the west doorway to " a period o f exceptional' creative a ctivity" a round 1 100, a nd L . Grodecki adopted the " new thesis" of Z . Swieckowsky ( 168) f or the anteriority of Conques over a ny Auvergnat s culpture, which he suggested begins at Mozac c .1095. The c ase i s strong f or t he e arlier datings o f the s culpture, including the tympanum, s ince the c apitals at Conques which a re c opied at S antiago are c lose in s tyle to the Conques tympanum sculpture, and the copies at S antiago date b efore 1 105 when t he c hapel o f St F aith was dedicated by the b ishop o f P amplona ( 169). The fact that the north a nd south doorways at Conques l eading i nto t he t ransept arms are overlaid by the nave walls which impinge on both t he arches a nd t he c ornices above them c an only mean they belong to an early stage in the building ( fig.278)(170). This being so, the " ball" capitals of the south door and t he incurled l eaf ( D5) s croll a re an e stablished type s ome time before their introduction at Moissac and Toulouse, and Spanish-type c orbels w ith c rouching f igures ( fig.279) begin their career h ere or at Frömista. The progress o f work at Conques i s generally agreed: t he building was begun r ound t he whole p eriphery entirely i n red s andstone ( 172) and continued and f inished in yellow l imestone, supplemented w ith s chist. S andstone i s u sed f or t he whole s eries of p laitwork capitals that appear i n and outside the c hevet a nd on t he north t ransept door. The cornices o f both doors and all corbels on the building are of l imestone, a nd s o a re t he capitals of t he south door. The use o f both materials together i n the t ransept masonry precludes any s uggestion that there was an i nterruption i n the work to c oincide with a difference in materials. The correctness o f this i s b orne out by t he decoration of the corbels on the chapels, which reflects the decoration o f t he p laitwork c apitals beside them ( fig.128), so there was no i mmediate c hange of workshop. The s outh door i llustrates the moment of rejection o f the o ld p laitwok tradition and

2 02

t he introduction o f variation n ew type o f c apital.

i n corbel

f orms

a long with a

C orbels at C onques f all i nto t hree s tylistic groups. T he f irst g roup i s f illet r oll corbels, c orresponding t o b oth the e arliest part o f the building ( chevet and north t ransept) a nd r ound t he eaves o f t he c hapels, a nd t he l atest: uniform f illet c orbels s upport t he e aves o f nave, a isles a nd t owers. The s econd g roup c onsists o f modifications o f this c lassic c orbel. T he c urls a re smaller, s ometimes o nly r emaining a s l obes on the s ides, o ften multiplied t o make a f ine edging f or t he i ncreased number o f p lanes down the p rofile or a long the f illet; i n s ome c ases t he roll has e ntirely d isappeared. A lternatively, t he f illet i s b roadened t o a p anel containing s ome geometric or abstract r elief d ecoration ( knobs, b ars, grooving or r ods). T his t ype i s on the ambulatory and apse. T he t hird t ype i s f ull r elief c arving o f f igures or h eads. Only a f ew o f t hese are combined with rolls, and t here are many w ithout. These a re on t he ambulatory and apse and t hey predominate on t he t ransepts. Both s econd and t hird groups a re r epresented on t he s outh t ransept d oor. T ype

1

These a re f ar f rom s tereotyped on t he east end. O n the r adiating chapels many c orbels have motifs on t he v ertical f ace, l inking t hem c losely with t he c apitals between which t hey a re p laced. T here a re s ix s imilar corbels over the n orth door; the d eeply excavated curls vary i n number f rom f our to s even. T he s tems a re v ery thin a nd f ill t he s ide, s pringing f rom t he t op i nner c orner and branching l ower down. The f illets a re g rooved a nd t he vertical f aces h ave various s imple g roove p atterns, no 3 f rom the l eft with an ox h ead i n s hallow r elief ( 172). O n t his c orbel t he f our l ower " wood-shavings" curl towards each other i n pairs. The Annunciation p anel n ow i n t he north t ransept i s f ramed in a rches w ith a cornice above. The s hape o f the c orbels holding t his cornice i s l ike this t ype o f c orbel b ut only a t op curl i s i ndicated ( Rouergue roman, f ig. 2 0). T he cornice o f the n orth doorway i s a p lain torus moulding; t here are no c arved metopes or s offits. T ype

2 .South T ransept Door

O n this door t he s ix corbels are l ess uniform t han over t he n orth door. Corbel 1 , on t he n orth i s h alf-hidden i n t he nave wall. T he s ix rolls are c arved with z ig zags on t he s ides, c reating a l ink with t he P laterias c onsoles and t he J aca " Gilduinus" corbel which has a s hallower chevron p attern on t he s ides. C orbel 2 i s d amaged; i t w as p robably s imilar to corbel 3 , which i s carved with a c rouching f igure. They have c url s tems w ith t hickening s ides, no 3

2 03

with c urls upturned. These corbels a re evidently r ecut o r imitations; i f t hey p resent t he original d esign and n ot a s hallower imitation o f t he s ides o f t he north door corbels, they a re o f t he s ame t ype a s t he c orbels o f L oarre and T oulouse but, a s on t he P oitiers cornice, t he concave l ine i s a bandoned. N o 4 h as a l arge f acetted k nob on a p lain c oncave panel a nd c url s tems again r unning t o the b ack, no 5 h as i nstead t hree smaller k nobs w ith s tar or s piral grooving. No 6 i s a grooved f illet r oll corbel. The s hallow s tems that f ill t he s ides o f t he c orbels, a nd much more s trongly t he edging o f t he c ornice i tself, r ecall the t ower cornice o f S aint-Hilaire: i n f act t he only c omparison f or t he soffits i s at S aint-Hilaire and their r epetitions a t Melle ( Saint S avinien) a nd A irvault, a part f rom t he s ingle s lab f rom I le Barbe w ith a s croll c ontaining a hollowed rosette that probably c omes f rom a s imilar c ornice. The only original s offits on this south door cornice a re 1 -2 a nd 2 -3. 1 -2 h as t hree s lightly hollowed r osettes i n l inked c ircles formed o f s plit s tems, s eparated by a s heaf o f three narrow l eaves. T he edge o f t he c ornice i s a s ingleb illet moulding p ierced with a f oliage motif. The s offit 1 2 a nd c ornice e dge at S aint H ilaire a re c losely s imilar. T his i s the only approximation at C onques to the s offit rosette which i s s o marked, at S antiago a nd T oulouse i n l arge and c lassical guise, and s parse and hollow i n Auvergne, but i t i s markedly d ifferent f rom e ither t he hollow s offit c oupolettes or mosaic metope rosettes o f Auvergnat cornices. 2 -3 h as a more e laborate s croll b ased on half-palmettes and l inked c ircles, very l ike the c arving on t he B essugjouls a ltar p anels ( Rouergue r oman f ig.74); i n both c ases Andalusian analogies are c lose. Type

3 .

Ambulatory,

Apse and T ransepts

H ere the abstract variants o f c lassic r oll corbels are numerous. There a re o ccasional p lain r od corbels. Mostly the f ace o f the f illet i s n arrowed, not widened a s o n the s outh d oor, a nd t he n umber o f p lanes on t he s ides i ncreased, e ach edged by s ome k ind o f small or l arge c url or s callop, a nd p rovided w ith knobs or b illets. There a re f igure and head c orbels among t hem, b ut t hen mostly d evoid o f a ny s uggestion of r olls. T he corbels on the south door w ith f igures represent a s tage b efore t he abandonment o f t he r oll motif by t he f igure s culptor. There i s a c ornice o n t he i nterior o f the s outh t ransept f açade ( fig.295) a nd, a s h ere a nd t here o n the ambulatory a lso, the quadruple billet cornice i s punctuated w ith l ittle f igures: c onfronted animals o r, t he majority, angel busts ( 173). An a tlas angel i s i n a pose f requent on S panish c orbels; t he f rontal eagle i s f amiliar a t L oarre and I guäcel on c apitals, and on capitals and a c orbel at S antiago ( 174).

2 04

The

Spread o f

I nfluence

f rom Conques

for roll c orbels at Conques i s doubtless responsible B essuejouls on the L unac and A ubrac nearby. C orbels at apitals, ae c losely tower's north and s outh f açades, l ike c a llied to t hose a t C onques. There i s one angel atlas, and a lso connect with an eagle, a r ider and a sphinx, which imilarly at P erse rolls S antiago, but t here a re no rolls. S were rejected. Apart f rom t his l ocal influence we Conques t he pioneer roll c orbels in s tone wholesale programme of S aint-Sernin. F urther Andalusian E lements

at

may well s ee in that i nspired the

Conques

There a re s uperposed c olumns F 9 as buttresses on the exterior of the r adiating chapels, and twin columns F ll in t he tribune arcades and in the two upper orders of arcades i n the apse. The supports o f the nave vault a lternate F 7 engaged half-columns a nd p ilasters to tribune l evel.

with

A s light impression of horseshoe arches i s created throughout s ince a rches are s tilted and the voussoirs s horter than the b locks of the j ambs, the edges thus created being cut away. The s erpentine basin in the c loister ( 175) has capitals with down-turned l eaf volutes D 16 a nd a frieze o f animal heads and busts. There were a lso f amous basins in t he c loisters at Moissac and at S antiago: ablution b asins were from early on an e ssential part of the f itting out of a mosque. T he b asins of Andalusian palaces with a nimal heads were described i n Chapter I I. S everal c apitals h ave a downturned l eaf D 16 at t he corners, some from the tribune and c loister and s ome in s erpentine that may be f rom B egon's t omb structure ( figs 2 4, 2 97). P ine cones D 2 are f requent in Conques sculpture and the basin has a capital with pendant pine. The Conques a telier p layed an important developing the vermicule technique on metalwork which owes much to M uslim design ( 176).

part i n ( fig.298)

The portable a ltar in t he T reasury, g iven by B ishop P ons of B arbastro ( previously a monk at Conques) to B egon, h as oculi i n t he spandrels ( F19) b etween t he arcades f raming the s aints ( 177): a reflection of Andalusian spandrel rosettes. S ome o f t he s aints' h aloes a re l obed. The c lose association between the interlace capitals o f t he chevet and t he roll corbels b etween them makes i t l ikely that an Andalusian i nfluence contributed the f acetted c olonettes of t he Rodez a ltar which h as s imilar

2 05

capitals. F acetted columns are rare i n French Romanesque. F au notes t hem twice more i n s outh-west F rance, each t ime with interlace capitals: at S aint-Andre-de-Sorede and S aint-Pierre-Toirac ( F21). The f acetted colonettes in a lH akam I I's nave provide a model which i s associated both with r oll corbels and with l obed a rches ( 178). The Relations

of

Conques

with

Spain,

a nd Wider Affiliations

A lready in the 9 th century the r elics o f St Vincent o f Z aragoza were c oveted by monks o f C onques and two monks despatched to f ind them ( 179). I n t he 1 0th century the Miracula r eports t he d eath of Raymond count of Rouergue, on the way to Compostela. I n the 1 1th c entury i s the story o f quidam Arnaldus, contained i n B ook I II o f t he Miracula, which assumes w ithout c omment t he b ackground of trading relations with Muslim S pain ( 180). R oger de Toeni in 1 020 called at Conques on h is r eturn f rom a c ampaign against Andalusians, and went b ack to Normandy to f ound Conches a s a priory in h onour o f St F aith ( 181). The outstanding role of P ierre d'Andouque in Aragon has a ready been mentioned, a nd t he many possessions in Navarre and Aragon that he s ecured for Conques in the l ast decades of the 1 1th c entury. I n the l ast third o f the century the title to the county of Rouergue was a ssumed by R aymond de S t G illes, whose ascendency in Toulouse i ncreased a s the activity o f h is brother W illiam declined. W illiam IV l eft f or t he H oly Land early in the l ast decade of t he c entury. Raymond's third wife was E lvira, daughter of A lfonso VI of Leön. H is niece Philippa, daughter of William IV, who l ater married William IX of P oitiers was t he w ife of S ancho Ramirez o f Aragon ( 182). Conques j oined i n the upsurge o f prosperity of the 1 1th c entury. T he a dministrative a nd commerical c onnexions o f the monastery werre widespread ( 183) and corresponded to t he economic p erspectives of t he c ounts of Rouergue, who aimed at making their province a z one o f passage between t he Massif C entral a nd t he Mediterranean. This s ituation i s reflected in the dissemination o f t he style of the Narbonne marble s culptors round Rodez and C onques, bringing their interlace-and-palmette capitals t o the north door and chevet; but this was o nly part of a n etwork s tretching f rom Andalusia to Champagne. The expansion of c ities l ike B arcelona and T oulouse stimulated a f low of movement and exchange of ideas ( 184). There a re enough details o f iconography and s tyle at C onques to show contact with S aint-Benoit, the Velay, Aragon and Moissac, apart f rom the most obvious l inks w ith S antiago, T oulouse and t he Auvergne ( 185). Roll

corbels

at

S aint-Sernin

The corbels supplemented in

o f t he

i n Toulouse

S aint-Sernin 1 9th century

2 06

have been r estorations

much ( 186).

L ithographs done before t he restorations of du Mege and V iollet-le-Duc s how there were corbels on the chapels and over t he P orte d es C omtes, but not under ambulatory, apse or transept eaves. Those that can be taken as original on t he building are a ll r oll corbels, but the c orbels on a f ragment o f cornice fom Saint-Sernin preserved in a private collection in P aris ( 187) are without rolls. Corbels on t he building can be divided into three distinct g roups: a bstract variants of roll f orms; human a nd animal heads; and more dramatic f igures or busts. The f irst two types a re f ound on t he chevet, t he s econd over t he P orte des Comtes, the third over the P orte Miegeville. The f irst two r esemble Conques corbels i n h aving d eeply excavated curls, but the concave profile l ine i s more strictly a dhered t o. The

E aves

Corbels

The l ine of the profile i s strongly marked and the s tems of deeply e xcavated curls expand towards it. There are no c lassic f illet corbels; the variants of it are more emancipated from t he r igid c entral l ine than t he variants at Conques, with a broad-lobed c entral panel, a double, notched f illet, double rows of c urls and a tongue-like l eaf resembling the opulent e laborations at S antiago. A f ew animal h eads were a lso part o f t he original s cheme ( 188) and as at Conques there are occasional rod corbels, s imilar to those at J aca. The Porte des Tribune ( 189)

Comtes

and

the

F ragment now in the North Nave

There are two types o f human head, one bearded and one unbearded, a nd ox, bear ( or f eline) and c anine ( baring i ts t eeth)(fig.300). The top roll runs across the whole width below a vertical f ace, cut, or overlaid ( on the f ragment) by horns where an ox head i s involved, but generally moulded as on a c lassical Roman corbel, as at Loarre. The heads are s et l ow and detached from the p lain p anel that generally divides them from the curls. These, deeply excavated at t he s ides, have n arrow s tems s prouting f rom the curved l ine p arallel to the profile. They l ook out a lmost horizontally ( Haut Languedoc roman, f ig.16). The

P orte Miegeville

The rolls are reduced on the s ides to l obes ( fig.220). There are contorted beasts, and a l ion dompter, i n the style of t he Magus and r ider panels on t he d oorway, paralleled at S antiago. The vertical f ace i s very short and t he concentration of t he d esign i s much h igher D 5 than on the Porte des Comtes corbels. Two busts and a p lant motif are unconvincing r estorations.

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While t he soffit r osettes on t he P orte d es Comtes are square, the s offits and metopes here have round rosettes l ike t hose of t he tribune a nd P aris c ornice f ragments. The two l intel c onsoles o f the door ( fig.251) are s trongly reminiscent o f the P laterias doorway consoles, but with d ifferences implying a l ater d ate: they are more ambitious and l ess robust: the l eft one a lone has vestigial rolls in t he f orm of a l obed p rofile. The

Paris

Cornice

Fragment

E agle and G ilduinus-type head c onsoles s uggest a date near t he P orte des C omtes corbels, but they appear t o be devoid of rolls. The metope and soffit rosettes are contained i n c ircles, l ike t he tribune fragment. A l ine o f f loret D 3 nail heads, and a l ine o f l ittle crosses a long t he borders r ecall t he woodworking a ssociations of c orbel t ables. F urther Andalusian E lements

at

S aint-Sernin

The earliest type of f loral decoration in S aint S ernin, on a capital i n t he ambulatory ( Haut-Languedoc roman f ig.11), h as on t he impost a version of t he h eartand-dart motif D ll c ombined with a f loret D 3 ( compare AHIII f ig.113). I mpost decorations on the P orte des C omtes c apitals ( ibid.figs 1 2, 1 4) are a lso c lose to C ordoban border motifs. L inked s crolls D 7, balls and p ine cones D 2 are f requent i n c apital decoration. The c hapels a re buttressed with superposed columns F 9 ( fig.13). The f igures in the spandrels F 19 over the P orte des Comtes were f ramed i n arches on which were c arved i nscriptions in r elief F 2 ( fig.7). The only parallel for such relief inscriptions i s over f igures at Marcilhac ( fig.6). The central f igure of S aint-Saturninus ( now destroyed) i s f lanked by l ions D 17h. The p lacing of the three n iches with f igures i s an e laboration o f the Andalusian practice of d ecorating a rch spandrels with a motif F 19, usually a rosette. O n the P orte Miägeville, as at Leön, this principle produces f igures s imilarly p laced s tanding out i n deep relief. Roll

Corbels

i n

the

Lower Garonne Valley and Gascony

Two distinct types o f roll c orbel are found i n the area c omprising t he B ordelais, the A genais and Gascony. One i s a heavy p lain rod corbel without f illet ( Saint-Macaire, E ngayrac, S erignac), t he other a d istinctive version o f head or f igure corbel. A Spanish i nfluence i s discernible ( 190) not o nly in t he f igure motifs and t reatment of the roll, which are c losely a llied to Frömisba, J aca and S antiago, but in t he p resence of t he p lain rod f orm s o rarely encountered e lsewhere in F rance. The two types do

2 08

not occur the f igure

t ogether. At corbels have

A ubiac where no rolls.

there

a re

p lain

r ods

A c haracteristic o f t he f igure corbels of this a rea i s the diminution i n r elief, s ize and importance, and the multiplication in number, o f t he r olls, compared with other regions ( 191). A c omparable development c an be seen on the l eft-hand consoles o f t he P laterias doorways at S antiago ( figs 2 45-8). The concave profile l ine i s s trictly adhered t o. S aint-Sever-des-Landes and La S auve Majeure were the most dominant a rtistic c entres ( 192). Both of these have examples o f the f igure type of roll c orbel; those of La S auve are p reserved in t he C loisters Museum, New Y ork. At S aint-Sever they s upport the eaves o f the only north chapel to s urvive intact, and of t he north and east walls of t he s traight parts behind i t. These correspond to the earliest parts of t he building ( 193). The F irst Majeure, Lagrange, L a

Type of Roll Corbel in the S outh-West: La S auve S aint-Sever, S aint-Pierrre-du-Mont, Roquefort, Cadillac ( L&G), S aint-Sardos, Moirax

S auve-Majeure

The group of twelve corbels i n the C loisters ( 194) i ncludes three roll c orbels and one on which t he s croll, held in the mouth of a l ion, forms with the curling tendrils a s imilar l ine o f c urls ( fig.219). The treatment o f t he l ion's mane, t he l ittle s croll on i ts f orehead a nd the hair and beard of a man on other corbels show that the s ame s culptor c arved both roll a nd non-roll c orbels. H e c arved capitals and imposts besides. On one corbel the rods a re carried b ehind t he two men s eated in an embrace. The composition i s paralleled at S aint-Sardos ( L&G) on the doorway consoles ( fig.252). On those corbels f rom La S auve that have curls they continue to sprout horizontally across t he f ront f ace at t he top, t reating t he curls l ike a b order motif rather than r od ends ( 195). O n one corbel, one curl from e ach s ide i s b rought to meet at t he c entre. S aint-Sever-des-Landes At S aint-Sever ( figs 3 02, 3 03) the chapels next to the apse on either s ide have corbels supporting the eaves, and there are a lso corbel tables a long t he east and north walls o f t he straight p arts behind t hem. On t he north these a re roll corbels with a nimal heads or busts, seated quadrupeds or monkey f igures. T he p oses r esemble corbels of Jaca and S antiago, but the r olls are treated i n a distinctive way a nd t he animal heads have a c haracteristic l iveliness. The heads are set on thick s olid necks, unlike t he l ong s lender necks of many S panish corbels, but t heir p lacing i n relation to the corbel b lock i s the same, with the a im of projecting t he c reature beyond t he l imits of t he b lock.

2 09

The f ull-figure c orbels on t he north of t he chevet a re topped by a c url projecting i nwards f rom e ither s ide, corresponding t o t he r ow of c urls a cross t he t op o f L a S auve corbels. This s uggests a different hand f rom that o f t he animal b usts, which p laces t he h eads under a horizontal rod or curled s having. Though uniformity o f the curls i s apparently t he aim, t he s tems on t he h ead c orbels a re a ll thick, and swell t owards the profile w ith a c ounter-curve, l ike t he curl s tems of t he L oarre c orbels, while t he c urls o f the animal f igures have no s uch s ubtlety. Neither type at S aint-Sever c an be a ttributd to t he s ame h and as t he L a S auve corbels though t hey are a ll c losely akin. The n orth chapels o f S aint-Sever were built earlier than the s outh, and there are no animate t hemes on the i nterior c apitals. The c apitals of t he s outhern chapels were decorated by a workshop, active i n many parts o f the region, whose work i s t he earliest w ith animate themes at S aint-Sever ( 196); to t hem must be a ttributed the corbels on t he e xterior o f t he n orthern chapels ( 197). The l ion theme i s among the most popular in the S outh West; it i s s hared by Andalusian and R omanesque iconography and has many possible sources; on i ts own it could not testify to an Andalusian c onnexion, but it c an c ontribute to confirming l inks where others are s uggested. Cabanot has perhaps too l ightly d ismissed t he C ordoban i nspiration f or the cruciform impost and smooth acanthus l eaves o f some o f t he earliest c apitals i n S aint-Sever ( 198). Without denying the i nventiveness o f the S aint-Sever s culptor, the Andalusian p recedent exists ( AHIII f ig.215, 1 42, 1 43). The base c arved w ith l ions a nd atlantes under one o f these presents more I slamic parallels: e xcavations at the 1 1th century F anal c astle i n t he Q ala'a o f the Beni H ammad i n A lgeria revealed that doorway arches were supported on b lack /marble l ions ( 199); atlantes f igure on t he c orbels o f the J ativa basin. Two Doorways with Consoles.

C adillac a nd S aint-Sardos

I n the descendence of L a S auve and S aint-Sever corbels a re t he c onsoles on d oorways at S aint-Sardos ( fiq.252) a nd Cadillac ( near Miramont) ( fig.304) i n the Agenais. L intel consoles i n this S antiago or T oulousan t radition are not uncommon i n t he S outh West, but g enerally t he rolls a re dispensed with. A s tepped arch profile F 18 arises f rom consoles. O n the south door o f the l ittle church o f S t Martin at Cadillac two consoles with c urls q uite deeply c ut in t he s ides but s eparated f rom t he edge by a f illet are c arved with a j awless l ion h ead on the w est a nd an e agle on t he east. A bull head on the corner o f the west capital impost might l ead u s to e xpect that t he d oor capitals complete t he s eries o f evangelist symbols, but i n f act t he east capital a lso h as a bull head. There i s no l intel, t he tympanum with the Lamb in a thick torus frame f lanked by c rouched

2 10

reverted b irds c reates i s exceedingly n arrow.

a s tepped opening which in this c ase The capitals have s nail volutes.

At S aint-Sardos t he s culpture is l ess r ustic than at C adillac; a l intel i s supported on consoles, and c arved with t he f ine c urls o f La S auve c orbels. The f igures a re p aired, l ike corbel 1 15 f rom La S auve. On the east are two hunched, s eated human f igures, h ands on knees; on t he west, two l ions with thir backs facing outwards; a ll the heads a re l ost. Across t he f ront t he curls are separated, l ike b illet moulding, to a llow the s ides o f the c urls to be c arved. The l intel h as an unusual motif, imitating drawn t hread work, but interlaced a nd confused with branching p lant stems that at one p lace have an animal head at the node. The c entral vertical panel of the f ive f orming t he tympanum has a heavier version of the S aint-Sever l inked tendril scroll. These two doorways belong to the same type as those o f N ogaro, Tasque and S vignac in G ascony. A l ost prototype at S aint-Sever is to be postulated as the intermediary f rom t he P laterias d oorways at S antiago. Only Tasque of these t hree Gascon doorways preserves any reminiscence of the roll motif ( 200), in a beading that edges the concave profile. Roll

Corbels

at Moirax

The church o f Sainte-Marie was much restored in the 1 9th c entury, but t he r eports s how that t he decoration was reproduced with great f idelity ( 201).The chevet has many types of roll c orbel ( fig.249). Masks, l obed f illets and f anciful abstract shapes are a ll f lanked by curls springing f rom a concave profile. These are s ometimes d eveloped to r eproduce the " snail shell" volute popular on capitals in t he S outh West and in north Spain. The metopes a ll have l arge c ircular medallions of geometric interlace ( D13), in relief without a ny hollowing. Nevertheless the c losest analogy i s with the d ished c ircular rosettes on t he soffits at J aca. No metopes s urvive from Romanesque buildings in Bordeaux, f rom L a S auve or from S aint-Caprais in Agen ( 202); Moirax thus appears more i solated in this respect than i t probably was. I t r epresents the l ink in a s equence f rom J aca and S aintS ever to the densely-decorated metopes and f riezes o f the following d ecades in t he M& Toc ( 203), Angoamois and S aintonge. The l inks of the S outh West with the B erry are emphasized once again at Moirax. The c orbel of f ig.249 with a l ion head f ramed i n c urls i s the same composition as t he volute-framed heads of the B erry; hence the s imilarity of the i nterlace knots o f t he Moirax metopes and the medallions at S aint-Outrille and Chäteaumeillant ( Berry

2 11

r oman f igs 1 0, 6 1, 6 2) a re u nlikely t o be f ortuitous. T he twin c olumn o f t he l atter's f açade and t he interlace medallion on t he i mpost s uggests t hat s ome e lements o f t his s hared decorative t radition may b e Andalusian: t he t ransmission by a wood-carving t radition i s patent. T he S econd Type o f R oll C orbel and P lain F illet: S aint-Macaire, P eujard

i n t he S outh West, P lain, Aubiac, L ayrac, Engayrac,

The p lain type o f c orbel i s f ound i n the vicinity o f t he G aronne. O nly at S aint-Macaire i s i t u sed exclusively ( Guyenne r omane f ig.67). At L ayrac t here a re a number o f d iscreet variations derived f rom t he r oll corbel ( fig.305). Aubiac The e aves cornice i s restored ( fig.306), but t he corbels are only c leaned f or t he most part. There a re c rouching f igures, animal h eads with r inged necks, t heir c urve strongly marking the concave profile, whereas o n t he roll c orbels t he l ine i s a lmost s traight. O n s ome t here i s a central f illet f lush with the r olls, and the rolls are t reated o n t he s ides s imply a s r od ends. T he c losest a nalogies are with the B erry o r B ourbonnais ( cf f ig.288); neither S aint-Sever nor S aint-Sernin o ffer any c lose parallels. O ther Examples

i n the Agenais

There i s a s ingle r od-corbel on the west f açade o f S grignac, a f ew k ilometres west o f A gen, on t he north e nd o f the cornice holding the weather r oof over the doorway. The whole d oorway massif a ppears t o be a dded to t he e arly 1 1th century nave about a c entury l ater. Unfortunately the chevet h as l ost i ts c orbels. E ngayrac i s a small church north o f Moissac, o f which i t w as a priory. There i s a s ingle r od-corbel ( fig.308) on t he axis o f t he s cale-roofed apse; t he r est of t he c orbels are p lain c oncave. The metopes are p erforated, as t hey are on a group o f small churches in t he Agenais and B ordelais mostly dateable j ust b efore 1 100 ( 204): the capitals o f the interior i nclude o ne with f elines l ike t hose o f S aintS ever, Moirax and S aint-Mont, which once more would d ate t he church in t he f irst decade o f t he 1 2th c entury. G ascony.

S aint-Macaire

T his church has a t refoil p lan chevet l ike Aubiac. R ound t he eaves o f t he c hapels i s a uniform s eries o f heavy r od corbels. These are part of a h eightening o f the roofs undertaken d uring t he 1 2th c entury. The c orbel t able i s s upported on twin colonnettes ( F6) s et on bases at t he top o f t all p ilaster b uttresses with e ngaged h alf-columns. T his corbel t able i s unique i n France; t he c orbels r esemble t hose o f r ural Spanish c hurches l ike V illarmün n ear Leön

2 12

( fig.231), a nd r epresent a l ate phase in t he R omanesque adoption o f Andalusian themes, corresponding to Andalusian references in t he churches o f S aint Blaise and O loron nearer the Spanish border. L 'Höpital-Saint-Blaise The church i s in many respects a patent imitation o f Andalusian architecture, as t he vaulting F 22 makes c lear ( fig.12). I t a lso has l obed arches F 21, pierced window grilles and summary roll corbels F l ( Pyrenees romanes f igs 1 36-142). S ainte-Marie,

O loron

The vault r esembles c losely that o f S aint -Blaise, but with s hell squinches and f our-lobed oculi. T he doorway i s s urmounted by arcades F 17, has spandrel f igures F 19, encrusted reliefs which may be the vestiges of a kind o f a lfiz F12 and c learly s eparated voussoir motifs F 14. The outer archivolt h as a crossed stem running s croll D 1 i n f lat two-plane r elief. The trumeau i s s upported on symmetrically-composed pair of atlantes with turban caps. No corbels survive f rom this campaign ( 205). P eujard North of S aint-Macaire at P eujard a typically S aintongeais f açade of the second half of the 1 2th century ( fig.307) has an arcade of chevron-decorated arches F 17 on double colonnettes F 6 over the wide doorway; above it i s a corbel table with v arious moulded corbels i ncluding one o f p lain horizontal rods and others with series of knobs, or knobs f lanking a f illet. Other Areas.The

L imousin

Roll corbels a re rare throughout the L imousin. At S olignac there are f illet c orbels on t he north wall of the nave ( on which the arcading i s trilobed) and a few on the chevet. The a bbey c hurch was consecrated in 1 143. I t h ad r ich possessions not only in L imousin but in the diocese o f P erigueux, a nd fraternity of prayer both with S aint-Benoit and La Chaise-Dieu: these contacts may explain the presence o f the corbel f orm. The chapels are buttressed by s uperposed columns F 9, found a lso at S aint-Leonard. C lose to t he Auvergne border, B eaulieu in the s outh of the province has a f ew roll corbels, among a variety of types with heads a nd mason's motifs, mostly s traight or convex profiled, and Chambon on the northern border with t he Bourbonnais h as them or h ead corbels on t he chapels o f the chevet ( 206).

2 13

Dordogne The occurrence of f illet roll c orbels at S aint-Jeande-Cöle and La Chancelade i s l ikely to be a r eflexion o f the influence of P erigueux where their p resence i s probably due to c onnexions with t he A uvergne ( see 1 05). T his influence did not apparently extend much f urther. R oll corbels are u ncommon in t he Angoümois a nd only present i n the S aintonge in r emotely derived forms. S ummary The corbel table characteristic o f Romanesque building h as no antecedents outside S pain. The roll f orm o f t he earliest French corbels i s a distinctive and novel feature of the Mezquita, where it appears on t he interior arcade supports, under eaves and as l intel c onsoles. I t developed in s tone and wood in Andalusia i n two basic ways: f irst, t o the " classic" corbel with a s lightly-projecting unlobed central f illet that f ollows t he concave l ine of t he l obed profile; and s econd, to the " prow-shaped" corbel on which the f illet is enlarged i nto a wide c onvex motif f illing t he concave space. The earliest example of corbels in F rance i s at Vendöme; it i s o f t he c lassic type and has typical Andalusian surface decoration. Without such decoration the type i s f ound a lso at Jumieges, T ournus and Meobecq b efore 1 070, soon after at Conques and s ubsequently in the Auvergne, where it b ecame widespread, a nd with many variations and s implifications in the Loire valley, B erry and Bourbonnais, where it a lso c ombined w ith h eads a nd f igures. I t a lso appeared early ( before 1 050) at Poitiers, with Andalusian-type decoration, and t ogether with examples where a head or f igure replaces the prow o f the s econd Andalusian t ype. H eads or f igures were s oon preferred without rolls i n the west o f France. I n the S outh West and in n orth Spain, i ncluding Toulouse, t he roll was c ombined with heads and f igures with varying consistency. I n Romanesque S pain the primitive r od t ype w ithout a f illet had some currency and there are examples of these i n Gascony a nd the Agenais. Mozarabic versions had l ittle influence, but the exaggerated f illet at S an M illän de S uso suggests a tradition, perhaps mainly expressed in woodwork, that may explain the exuberant contorted s hapes at N evers and L e Mans. There i s good reason to s uppose that the f requent communications with S pain resulting f rom r eligious, political and commercial intercourse produced a s hared building r epertoire. The extent to which t he roll corbel, l et a lone the general principle of a corbel table, retained an Andalusian a ssociation in t he craftsmens' minds apparently varied i n different regions. The i nfluence of t he richly-carved Andalusian corbel tables in s tone, wood and plaster i s manifest in the s etting o f some of the earliest roll c orbels at P oitiers a nd Conques, a nd in the

2 14

s offits with s ingle hollow rosettes of the Auvergne. An i ntermediary s tage towards these, r epresented at I le Barbe n ear Lyon, underlines t he r ole of the Rhöne a s a t ransmitter of Andalusian i deas, t hough a fter t he early examples o f Tournus and Lyon the roll corbel i s absent in t he great valley. The d istribution o f roll corbels, which virtually excludes t he Velay, L imousin, Angoümois a nd S aintonge, a nd P oitou after about 1 080, s hows a quite independent pattern f rom t he d istribution o f l obed a rches.

2 15

CHAPTER V .

NOTES

1 . I n F rench they a re c alled " modillons ä c opeaux" ( "wood-shaving corbels"), f ollowing Viollet l e D uc ( Dictionnaire raisonng de l 'architecture f rangaise du X Ie au XVIe s iècle, 1 875, vol. I V, pp 3 07-318 ( "corbeaux") a nd p . 3 19 ( "corniche"). H is contention t hat they derived f rom u nfinished woodworking i s n ot n ow a ccepted. T he chisel i s not easily u sed i n s uch a manner a s t o produce the e ffect h e i llustrates. I n 1 911 E . Mäle, " La Mosquge de Cordoue...", Revue de l 'art ancien et moderne, repr. i n Art et Artistes du Moyen Age 1 968 ( cf p . 3 3) pointed out t hat the explanation, though p lausible f or eaves corbels which s imulated wooden beam e nds, i s i nvalid when a pplied to t he earliest known examples o f t he f orm, which are in the Mezquita, carved in s tone, a nd which s upport a pilaster i n an arcade. I n Spanish the term i s " modillon de l obulos". K . Conant t ranslates t he F rench l iterally ( CRA) as " chiselcurl e aves-brackets" ( p. 1 75 i .a.). A s this description r eally only applies t o t he variant with a c entral f illet t he term " roll corbel" h as been adopted h ere a s more appropriate to a ll types. 2 . E . Mäle, " L'Espagne arabe et l 'art r oman" Revue des D eux Mondes, 1 5th Nov., 1 923, repr. Art et Artistes ( see n .1), Ch. I II, p . 4 0. 3 . L . Torres-Balbäs, " Los Modillones de Lobulos" I , AEAA 1 936, J an.-Apr., pp 1 -62; I I, ibid., M ay-Aug., pp 1 13/641 49/90 ( henceforth LTB 1 936) i s the only monograph on the f eature. I t i s concerned primarily with proving the contention o f G . Margais ( "Sur t rois f ormes d gcoratives de l a Mosquge de Cordoue", Actes du X IXe C ongres international des orientalistes, A lgiers 1 905, P art I I, S ection 7 , P aris 1 907, pp 3 -4) that the C ordoban f orm was derived f rom a Byzantine adaptation o f t he common R oman S -shaped c orbel with a curved acanthus l eaf motif, s ubsequently d isfigured i n t he s culpture o f t he p eriod o f " artistic b arbarism" a fter the fall o f the Empire. Torres-Balbäs's study follows t he post-Cordoban d evelopment o f t his type o f c orbel i n I taly and S pain, down to a re-instatement of the original c lassical acanthus c orbel i n t he R enaissance. H e g ives a brief summary o f what published material he could f ind i n 1 936 on t he f eature i n F rance, a nd makes a t entative c onclusion ( pp 9 7-95): that the three c lasses o f c orbel type that d eveloped i n Andalusia appeared in France m ainly i n the reverse order in which they originally evolved ( which was f rom p lain rod, t o f illet, t o f igures), and that i nfluences emanating f rom Andalusia therefore came to F rance f rom d ifferent p laces a nd monuments at different t imes; that the sources were l ikely t o be not only C ordoban or Mozarab, a nd t hat c arpentry s hould be r emembered a s a possible mode of t ransmission. F rench roll D eshouliäres, " Les

c orbels were a lso considered by c orniches romanes",BM 1 920, pp 5 5ff;

2 16

F . R .

Crozet, L'Art roman en Berry, P aris 1 932, pp 2 23-227; i d., " La corniche du c locher de S aint-Hilaire de Poitiers" BM 1 934, pp 3 41-345. F . Garcia-Romo, " Influencias hispanomusulmanes...", Arte E spanol 2 0, 1 954, pp 3 9-40, c omments on the coincidence of roll corbels and the type o f Corinthian c apital he a rgues i s Mozarabic, c arved in t he mid-llth century a t La Trinite i n Vendöme, Meobecq, S aintJ ean-de-Montierneuf i n P oitiers, L e Ronceray d 'Angers, a nd P arthenay-le-Vieux. H . S aladin La Mosqu e de S idi Okba ä K airouan, P aris 1 899, before Mäle in 1 911 and even before Margais in 1 905 and 1 907, had noted the s imilarity of F rench roll corbels to western I slamic examples, but i t was not until after Mäle's articles that V iollet-le-Duc's overingenious t heory of their i ndigenous d erivation f rom p laning or chiselling the ends o f roof beams, was rejected. 4 . The f ollowing a ccount s ummarizes briefly t he published work in Spanish, in books and articles by Gomez-Moreno, Torres-Balbäs, P avon Maldonado etc. 5 . By the mid-9th century at l atest this roll corbel f orm was part o f the C ordoban r epertoire; it was by t hen certainly in the Mezquita on the interior arcades and in t he decoration of t he b lind n iches f lanking t he S an E steban door. In f act it was probably a lready in use in the f irst campaign of 7 86; there i s a p aradox a ffecting the d ating however ( LTB 1 957, p . 3 54 n .37; f ull references on p . 3 89. S ee my Chapter I I n .9). 6 . c f Chapter I I. M . Lyttleton, C lasssical Antiquity, p l. 1 05.

Baroque Architecture

7 . p .

f ig.

4 5

Quoted in LTB and n . 7 1.

1 957,

p .

3 55

and

1 57,

8 . According t o Gomez-Moreno ( AHIII), reparations carried out by Muhammad I i n 8 55. 9 . f ig.

A drawing 2 94d.

i n

I g. Moz.,

f ig.

1 77,

and

LTB

part

reproduced

in

of

i n

1 936,

the

T udela,

1 0. B . P avon Maldonado, Tudela, Madrid 1 978, p ls XXIV-XXVI and p l. XLII. There i s a full description and i llustration of t he c orbels. 1 1.

LTB

1 936,

p .

5 1.

1 2. ibid, p l. XVIII. belong to the 1 1th or

S ome doubt r emains 1 2th century.

as

to whether

they

1 3. B . P avon M aldonado, " Quicialeras c alifales..."alAnd.44, 1 967, C ron. Arq., p . 4 2. They s upport soffits carved with e laborate medallions prefiguring the Auvergnat association of r oll c orbels with ( simpler) rosettes. T he metopes have an entwined stem motif, inherited f rom the capitals f lanking t he mihrab of Abd a r-Rahman I I ( fic i.4) o f 8 30, which was t ransmitted to the " Cordoban" s eries o f

2 17

c apitals at a specto...", 1 4.

a l-And

1 5.

LTB

R ipoll a nd i nto C atalunya. F . AEAAyA, XVI-4, 1 930, pp 2 1-49. 1 935,

1 936,

p .

Cron.Arq.III, 4 8

p .

H ernandez,

" Un

4 19/29.

( illustration)

and p .

4 9.

1 6. LTB " Restos d e un T echumbre de Carpinteria Musulmana..." a l-And.1935, Cron.Arq.III, p . 4 26/36 a nd p l. 1 5. H e quotes examples o f the " prow" motif, " in its origin s imply a curled l eaf" i n Malaga, i n the N ational Archaeological Museum i n Madrid ( 12th and 1 3th centuries), p laster ones i n A lmeria, T lemcen e tc., and even in C airo. I t was still current in the 1 4th c entury when it i s found i n t he A lhambra a nd e lsewhere i n Granada. 1 7.

AMO,

f ig.

6 2,

a corbel

at B ougie r epr.

LTB

1 936,

p .43.

1 8. CA 1 19, 1 961. At Notre-Dame-du P re on the east chapel are some corbels akin to the 1 1th c entury corbels o f Q airawan a nd B ougie; on t he north transept c hapel ( fig.223) they have c urls f raming the motif, an Andalusian e lement absent f rom I friqiya. Rougher versions at L a Couture ( fig. 2 24) stress the roll. The drawing by Viollet-le-Duc ( Dict. " corniches") brings out the resemblance to the more e legant Z aragoza model. G reatest p rosperity at L a Couture was during the abbacy o f Asselin ( d. 1 072): contemporary with or s hortly after t he building of t he A ljaferia. The arches o f a lternating brick and s tone i n L e Mans ( F. Lesueur, " Saint-Martin d 'Angers, La C outure du M ans, S aint-Philibert de Grandlieu et autres gglises ä e lements de briques dans l a r egion de l a L oire", BM 1 961) may s how another s timulus f rom Andalusia. S ome initiative i s implied in f louting the l ong t radition that r equires e ither a c oncave profile on a c orbel or i f the hollow i s f illed, only a narrow f illet. Even where this t radition may have a llowed broad h eads, f or example in P oitiers on the transept at S aint-Hilaire and at Montierneuf, t he profile i s observed in t he curved necks. J umieges ( fig. 2 25, r ight hand c orbel) and Ebreuil in part, and l ater rustic work i n the Berry and Auvergne ( fig. 2 26) adopted the l abour-saving retention o f the rectangular b lock, b ut t he t raditional f orm was t he s tronger. 1 9. This LXXXVII. 2 0.

F .

tongue

H ernandez,

shape i s

op.cit.;

common at S antiago,

G .

Gaillard,

GG 1 938

Premiers

p l.

E ssais...

2 1. The " inverted volute" and " Berrichon l eaf" ( Berry roman, p is 2 2, 4 6. 4 7. 5 1) l aunched at S aint-Benoit ( Vergnolle, GBA 1 972) may be r amifications o f this motif, made possible once the principle o f upward thrust i s abandoned. T he B errichon l eaf a lso a ppears a lready at La Trinitg in Vendöme. 2 2. Examples in otherwise n oted

the following: r efer to M .

2 18

i llustrations Gomez-Moreno,

where not I glesias

Mozarabes 1 919: S an M iguel de E scalada, AD 9 13 ( figs 6 26 3); S an C ebriän de Mazote, ( AD 9 16 ( LTB 1 936 P. 1 25/75 and p l. XXIV); S antiago de P enalba, AD 9 31-937 ( fig. 1 15); S a Maria de Lebena, AD 9 30 ( figs 1 40-147); S an M iguel de C elanova, AD 9 40 ( pl. XCIII); S a Maria de Vilanova ( p. 2 51 a nd f ig. 1 24); S an Roman de Moroso ( figs 1 61-162); S an P edro de B erlangas ( Burgos), qu. LTB 1 936 n . 1 04; S an M illän de l a Cogolla, AD 9 84 ( fig.225); S an Romän de H ornija ( p. 1 88, f ig. 8 2, a more c lassic Cordoban shape); etc. I n C atalunya t he P uerta F errada of S an F iliä de G uixols ( late 1 0th century) ( LTB 1 936, p l. XXVI) has small derived roll corbels l ike b illet moulding. They support an arcading of F irst R omanesque t ype. The gateway a lso has c apitals with a c url profile, similar to a roll corbel, that might have s ome part in t he ancestry of t he s hape o f s offits with lobes l ike those on the south door at Cahors, with c urls on t he points ( fig 1 85). 2 3.

I g. Moz.

f ig.

6 2.

2 4. Torres-Balbäs f inds no example of the roll form before Cordoba, but he quotes as antecedents the horizontal c orbel at the entrance o f S an P ablo del Camps in Barcelona ( 6th century)( LTB 1 936, p . 3 8) and " perhaps" would include t he heavy stone Visigothic beam supports with one l arge roll or horizontal c ylinder c arved at t he upper or t he l ower angle o f a rectangular b lock ( pp 3 6-37). This has its ancestry i n t he " crude s implification of c lassical acanthus c orbels i n 6 th century North Africa". The Visigothic corbel persisted i n Asturias in I slamic t imes, eq., S an P edro de L ouroso ( P. 1 23/73), Valdedios, Oviedo, Priesca. 2 5. The S uso ( Cogolla) A lmanzor's extension, see 2 6. t he 2 7.

shape i s I g. Moz. p .

c lose 3 07.

Though more c lassically Cordoban, characteristic l arger top roll. I g. Moz.

p .

1 88,

f ig.

the

to

corbels

corbels

o f

retain

8 2.

2 8. There are many more from l ater in the the 1 2th century onwards, c ontinuing t he s ame tradition of design, in both Nasrid and Christian buildings. 2 9.

I g. Moz.

f ig.

6 4.

3 0. F . H enry and G . Z arnecki, " Decorated Romanesque Arches..." S tudies i n Romanesque S culpture, p . 3 1, n .2; A . B org, Architectural S culpture in Romanesque P rovence 1 972, pp 1 17-118, q uotes f ragmentary s urvival, notably o f c apitals, in s tucco, at Germigny, Cividale, Malles, S aintLaurent in Grenoble, S aint-Remy in Rheims, adding " the s um t otal remains extremely small, and it i s impossible to build up any coherent picture o f the nature o f s tucco developments". T he l oss o f nearly a ll painting, on stone, wood and p laster, on s culpture or walls, p robably constitutes an equally l arge gap.

2 19

3 1. CA 1 931, p . 5 64; B ull. Arch.Com.Travx.Hist. 1 19. G . P lat, Art de b ätir..., P aris 1 939, pp. 1 65-166, adds Auxerre a nd S onesmes.

1 934, p . 1 51, 1 62,

3 2. The door pivots cannot be i llustrated. Photography was not a llowed; P rofessor I niguez h ad n ot yet published h is own photographs or drawings of them, a nd his promised print of h is photograph never arrived. 3 3.

LTB

1 936,

p .

5 6

and p l.

XVII.

3 4. ARE, P. 1 00. Gomez-Moreno dates t he c loister well i nto the 1 2th century, and l ater than t he door. Whitehill, 1 941, pp. 1 55-193, Chapter I II, " Santo Domingo de S ilos", revised his previous early dating ( "The Destroyed Church o f S anto Domingo de S ilos", AB 1 932), t hough putting t he door l ater than the lower c loister. There i s still no certainty over whether the epitaph on an impost r eferring to S t Domingo's death i n 1 073 can be dated before 1 076 when his relics were moved i nto t he n ew church. T orres-Balbäs LTB 1 936, caption to p l. XXVIIa, concluded that the corbels were over the Virgenes door and dated them 1 100. J ohn Williams ( 22nd I nt. Congr. f or Med. S tudies, Kalamazoo, May 1 987) rejects such early dates. 3 5.

LTB

1 936,

p ls

3 6.

F or example,

XXVII LTB

and

1 936,

XXVIII. 1 35/85;

GG 1 938,

P .

1 83.

3 7. ARE pp 1 23-124 c ites other parallels between S aintEtienne and S antiago: types of vaulting and masonry, the s ingle b illet moulding, exterior a rcades, l obed a nd mitre arches. 3 8. LTB 1 936 reviews the Spanish Romanesque examples ( pp 1 33-137): Leön ( San I sidoro, S a M aria del Mercado and fragments i n the c ity wall); S ilos; Arlanza; S antiago de Compostela ( Cathedral, S anta Susanna [ modern with re-used corbels on the west gable], S an C lemente, S a Maria d el S ar); Corullön ( 1093-1100); Frömista; Valdetuejar; J aca; S epülveda ( c.1100); S a Cruz de l a S erös; Sa Maria l a Nueva, Z amora; S ant Andres, Avila; S a Marta de Tera; S an Millän, S egovia; I i rida c athedral; Torres d el R io; Lorca; S an Martin, Segovia and many l ater churches in Aragon and S öria. L oarre should be added to this l ist ( K. Watson, JWCI 1 978). 3 9.

I g. Moz.

4 0.

E .

f ig.

1 26,

Levi-Provençal

p . I I,

2 57. P .

2 40.

4 1. Gaillard, Premiers e ssais... pp 8 5-93. H e describes the capitals of S an Miguel as " preparatory experiments for Romanesque decoration" b ased on a C ordoban s cheme o f c apital structure. The extent of the Cordoban e lement i n h is observations was restricted to t he e longated form and

2 20

C orinthian z oning; he t raced t he s culptor's departure f rom h is models in his r eduction o f volutes, caulicoles and the i ndented a bacus, h is i ntroduction of an a stragal, h ead and f igure motifs and h is manipulation o f p lant forms; W . M. Whitehill, 1 941 p . 8 3-84. p l. 2 6; P uig y C adafalch, L 'Arquitectura Romanica a C atalunya, i i, pp 2 09-212. At f irst Cadafalch s uggested that a F irst Romanesque church h ad been r efurbished in t he 1 2th c entury, with t he addition t hen o f the sculpture, but l ater revised h is view. One of t he pilaster strips on t he exterior of the c hevet stops below a window, and this has been thought to i ndicate a revision. The ground f or t he c hurch was dedicated by O liba, B ishop of Vic, and h is nephew Guifre, Archbishop o f Narbonne, i n 1 045. This was O liba's l ast recorded public c eremony before h is death at Cuxa in 1 046. The count of F enollares d isputed the t itle to t he l and, and there i s no r ecord of a consecration until twenty years l ater. Whitehill j udging f rom t he s imilarity of ground p lan to those of S a Maria de Roses and S an Quirce de Culera, believes in a c hange of p lan before 1 066, with engaged columns with sculptured capitals being substituted for the p ilasters originally i ntended, and s hafted windows i nserted i n the apse. " Corbels sculptured with t iny bearded heads were i nserted" to s upport t he l ittle arches, built of s labs s et with the wide f ace down in the 1 1th century manner, and these are by the s ame hand as t he many h eads on t he c apitals inside. This preoccupation with heads i s a further l ink with P oitou where the h ead corbel was w idely u sed in the second half of t he 1 1th and in the 1 2th century. 4 2. C f Chapter I II f or t his f igure in Romanesque contexts connected with the circular half-palmette running scroll associated at Moissac with t he K ufic i nscription. I n so f ar as i t is not a s elf-evident motif or inspired by various manuscript p aintings i ts p rototype s eems to be C optic, eg.„ British Museum, 1 533, Apa P achom p laque, 6 th-7th century, a nd 1 523, Apa Dorothius p laque, 7 th-8th century. The f ormer has the looped drapery, the l atter the triangular. 4 3. GG 1 938 p . xx, traces t he f leuron development f rom Andalusia. G omez-Moreno I g. Moz. p . 2 05 defines the " classical" Mozarabic marble capital group. M .L. Schmitt, " Traveling C arvers in the Romanesque", AB 1 981,1, p . 7 , l ists the t riangular hollow under volutes with " a f lat wedge to render t he center of t he [ acanthus] l eaves" and " palmettes, often s trongly pronounced, framed by the outer edges o f t he colleret l eaves with which they a lternate" a s three characteristics constituting carving habits of a defined atelier working at the porch of S aint-Benoit-surLoire, at S elles-sur-Cher and e lsewhere in the Berry. She dates it in t he l ast decade of t he 1 1th c entury and after. Without discussing this chronology, i nvalidated by Vergnolle, or h er a rgument which relies on t he combination of these three e lements, it can be noted that it i s possible to t race f rom Andalusia a t ypological s eries f or these f eatures culminating at Saint-Benoit. The expanding hollow u nder t he volutes i s a s triking e lement on the

2 21

capitals on t he Carpio tower in C ordoba, i ncluded by Torres-Balbäs among the sculpture of ' Abd ar-Rahman I I ( LTB 1 957, f igs 1 93-194), of a capital i n the Instituto d e Valencia de Don Juan in Madrid, and o f another with wedgeshaped a canthus s tems in C ordoba M useum ( ibid. f igs 1 911 92). I t i s a f eature of s everal c apitals in S an P ere d e Roda ( capital no 1 2, f ig.88). A Madinat a z-Zahra' c apital ( LTB 1 957 f ig.501) offers a model f or the Mozarabic marble s eries ( Ig. Moz. p l. l xxv; AHIII, f igs 4 35-436 ( Escalada), of which those f rom Mazote and E scalada i llustrate the wedge stems a nd i ncipient f leurons very c learly. I c i. Moz. f igs 8 6 and 8 3 s how t he t riangular hollow at Hornija and furthermore the s tart o f the exaggeration of the c orner l eaf that r eaches t hreatening proportions in t he " leaf canopy" of S aint-Benoit, i n the Panteön and at J aca ( GG 1 938 p ls. XIII and XLIII). Vergnolle regards the S aintB enoit c anopy as the ancestor o f the roll c orbel frame for heads on t he numerous capitals in the B erry ( Vergnolle, " Les chapiteaux de La Berthenoux" GBA 1 972, f igs 1 3, 1 5). 4 4.

G aillard,

P remiers

4 5. P oitou roman t he chevet.

p l.

e ssais..., 1 2

h as

f igs

4 5,

4 8,

a s imilar head on

5 3. a corbel

o f

4 6. Gaillard ( GG 1 938), writing before the dating o f S an P edro in J aca to 1 063 had b een invalidated, and d ismissing the documentation of Frömista f or 1 066, regarded t he corbels of J aca as providing models f or S antiago, and then Frömista. Now that S . Moralejo A lvarez ( "Sobre l a f ormaciön del estilo escultorico de F römista y J aca" Actas del XXIII Congr. I nt. de H ist. del Arte, G ranada 1 973: I , G ranada 1 976, pp 4 27-433) has demonstrated that it was a s culptor at Frömista who l aunched t he " ephebos" motif on c apitals throughout northern Spain and thence to Toulouse, it can be argued that Frömista i s the earliest of t he group. H owever, chronological priorities b etween t he s tone corbels o f these three monuments are not vital here. S ome Frömista c orbels are i llustrated in GG 1 938, p ls LXIII-LXV. 4 7.

GG

1 938,

p l.

LXVII;

de

Palol

4 8. S . Bernard

Moralejo A lvarez, " Une G ilduin ä Jaca", BM 1 973.

4 9.

1 938

GG

p l.

& H irmer, s culpture

pl. du

9 8. s tyle

de

CXXV.

5 0. GG 1 938 pp 1 82ff, p ls LXXXV-LXXXVIII. H e d escribes them a s follows: " The corbels of S t John's chapel, one of the earliest, a re decorated with s trongly undercut l ittle f igurines in high relief but with s light modelling and rather i nexpressive: a c at, an owl, another bird, a human f igure. More e laborate motifs appear on the S aviour's chapel: contorted monsters, a maw with two thin l egs dangling f rom i t ( a motif which will be found exactly s imilar under the cornice o f the P orte Miegeville at S aintS ernin, Toulouse).. . and above a ll there are roll c orbels:

2 22

o ne has d ouble rolls o f the t ype o f S anto D omingo de S ilos and Burgos; one c orbel with a tongue-like l eaf has l ittle s callops on t he s ides which a re vestiges of t he roll motif. " On S t P eter's chapel there are s everal roll corbels next to t he c apital o f t he column buttress ( which i s decorated in bizarre f ashion with l arge very undercut l eaves). O ne of t hem i s especially notable f or i ts s hape, which comprises a central projecting f illet; on each s ide t he curls a re d eeply carved, the bottom one turning up and c losing on the one above to create a sort of heart". There i s a s imilar c orbel in the c athedral museum, r ecently on display for the Portico de l a G loria Symposium, 1 988. The d escription f its e xactly t he corbels of G laine Montaigut in the Auvergne, f or example, c f. Auvergne r omane, p . 2 4. Gaillard continues: " The cornice of the chapel of St F aith, which dates from the second building period, seems more carefully executed than that of the three earlier chapels. T he curls on t he corbels persist in t he form of l ittle lobes, which, sometimes in two rows, border the f igurines. These f igures are c arved in h igh relief and s ensuously modelled: we s ee a monster, a charming f emale h ead, a whole f igure o f a w ild-haired woman, crouching and exhibiting her obscene nudity..". [ The crouching f emale, apparently b eing d evoured by a monster t hough Gaillard does not note this, i s the same as the corbel at the east end of t he s outh f açade at B essuejouls near C onques]. " ..Roll corbels are found at every l evel of the chevet...every variety is r epresented at Compostela, but t he most f requent type i s one with a projecting central fillet..". 5 1. f ig.

eq. C adenac, 1 81.

5 2.

GG

5 3. GG S antiago 1 109.

1 938,

p .

S aintonge

2 32;

LTB

r omane

1 936,

p .

f ig.

8 5;

argue f or dating and Gelmirez, after

5 4. M . van B erchem, " Sedrata...", Ars N aranco and Lillo: AHII, f igs 3 63, 3 79. GG

1 938,

p l.

LXXXVITa,

5 6. n .7.

Gomez-Moreno, ARE, P . Gaillard disputes this

5 7. 1 938

J . Vielliard, p l. CXV.

Le

G uide

i bid.,

1 34/84.

1 938, p l. LXXXVI. But some chevet capitals to A lfonso VII

5 5.

G eay,

O rientalis

I I;

b . 1 33; Whitehill dating, p . 2 34. du

P elerin,

5 8. Whitehill 1 941, p . 2 82 n .: the P uerta de l as P laterias must a lmost from the beginning...".

2 23

1 941,

1 960,

" one of the have been

p .

P .

2 82,

1 02;

GG

s culptors o f at S antiago

5 9.

Torres-Balbäs,

1 935,

pp.

60.

GG

1 938,

6 1.

GG

1938,

p . 1 86, of volumes". 6 2.

A . K.

" Intercambios

artisticos..."

a l-And.

4 16-424. pl.

LXXXVI.

pl.

" the

XXVII, strongly

Porter,

nave

capital

Spanish

" Iguacel...",

3 1.

Gaillard

accent

of

Burlington

speaks,

these

full

Magazine

L IT,

1 928, p . 1 11-127; id., Spanish Romanesque Sculpture 1 928, p . 63, and pp. 128-131; Gomez-Moreno, ARE, p . 77; GG 1 938, pp. 1 28=131; Whitehill, 1 941, p . 2 42; Aragon roman, pp. 1 85-189; J . Caro Baroga, " Sa Maria de Iguäcel, su construcciön y la inscripciön commemorativa de esta", P deV, 3 3, 1 972,2, pp. 1 28-129; E . Z udaire, " La inscripciön de Maria de Iguäcel", ibid.35, 1974, p . 1 36-7, 405-407; Moralejo Alvarez, " Sobre las recentes revisiones de inscripciön de 1 42-3, 1 29-130.

Sa

Maria

de

Iguäcel",

ibid.37,

1 976,

Sa S . la pp.

6 3. Many specialists who have made the arduous visit to the church remark on s igns of disturbance in the masonry, particularly on the south front, and use this as evidence of an intervention which could invalidate the dating of the monument as it stands by the inscription over the west door. This reads: HEC EST PORTA DOMINI UNDE INGREDIUNTUR FIDELES IN DOMUM DOMINI QUE EST EGLESIA IN HONORE SANCTE MARIE FUNDATHA IUSSU SANZIONI COMITIS EST FABRICATA UNA CUM SUA CONIUGE NOMINE URRACA IN ERA T CENTESIMA XA EST EXPLICITA REGNANTE REGE SANCIO RADIMIRIZ IN ARAGONE QUI POSUIT PRO SUA ANIMA IN HONORE SANCTE MARIE VILLARROSSA N ME ? ? U T D ET? D NS R EQETE???UM A MEN ( very u nclear, r eadings v ary) On the return to the south: S CRITOR HARUM LITTERARUM NOMINE AZENAR MAGISTER HARUM PICTURARUM NOMINE CALINDO GARCES. Era 1 110 is AD 1 072. The crude capitals of the west door archivolts are adduced as what belongs to that date rather than the Frömista/Jaca theme capitals of the windows and interior. A . San Vicente ( Aragon roman p . 1 87) ( see n .75) attributes the greater part of the south front to an earlier Mozarabic church restored and improved with sculptures in 1 072, and applies the inscription to the door, rather than the formed by the cornice

whole on the

church. The s outh f açade

stepped a lfiz runs on to j oin

the imposts of the windows. These have a different moulding, decorated with palmettes which are not taken into account at the joins. The corbels on the apse are in a different certainly 6 4.

A .

style belong

San

Vicente

painted outlines there are remains of

the

Jaca

from those of the doorway; with the capital sculpture. suggests

that

the

these

" pictures"

l atter

refer

to

and embellishments of the inscription; of polychromy on the engraved inscription

tympanum too,

but who

2 24

can

say

of what

date?

6 5. A . D uran G udiöl, E l C astillo de believes G alindo G arcez c ame t o work L oarre a fter f inishing I guäcel. 6 6 There a re coincidences w ith i nvestigated a lso. XL,7;

motifs at

6 8.

ibid,

6 9. LXX, X IX,

ibid, Frömista: LXV, 1 .2; LXVIII, 3 ,5,8; LXIX, 1 0, 1 1; 1 4; LXXIII; LXXXI, 2 1, 3 2; S antiago: LXXIX, 1 5; L eön: 1 9.

1 6;

7 0. C f. a lso F römista, porch, upper s torey, Val r ider.

XLIV,

S antiago to b e

GG 1 938,

1 5,

XLII,20;

1 971 P. 3 1, c apitals o f

6 7.

LXXIX,

X LI,12;

L oarre, on t he

2 4 bis;

XLV,

2 5.

1 7 and 1 8 without volutes.

i bid, LXXV,3, o r S aint-Benoit de Loire roman, f ig. 3 0, on the

7 1. BM 1 973, p . 1 2, a s distinct f rom the rendering of hair at T oulouse. I t occurs on the Carizo ivory ( fig. 2 62) as S . Moralejo A lvarez observes. He has not noted it here at I guäcel. 7 2. C f. S aint-Benoit tower porch, Val de Loire roman, f igs 2 4, 2 5, 3 1, t he devil's hair-cap; or T oulouse, H aut Languedoc roman, f igs 2 6, 2 9, the angels' hair. This c orbel i s possibly a S acrifice o f I saac, with the ram enlarged at t he expense of I saac. The l ittle h ead at t he s ide on t he other hand, s imilar t o the head over the door among the " balls" at S a C ruz de l a S erös ( Aragon roman f ig. 7 4) i s perhaps an early r ecension of a motif o f h eads which i s s een for example on the Virgin's throne on a l ater capital f rom St P ons de Thomiäres in t he M usge d es Augustins a t T oulouse ( P. Mesplg, S culptures romanes, Toulouse 1 961, No 2 64, I nv. 8 46A), but the i conographic s equence i s not c lear. 7 3. C orbels at Notre-Dame-du-Pre i n Le Mans have a comparable motif; s ee n . 2 0. The c ombination o f these f eatures on this a nd t he preceding c orbel calls to mind the treatment o f c orbel s ides on t he N orth A frican s tone c orbel o f t he 1 1th century in the museum at Bougie, LTB 1 936, p . 4 3. 7 4. F . H ernandez, " Basas y capiteles del X IV/4, 1 930, pp. 3 1-35.

s iglo XI",

AEAA ,

7 5. Aragon roman, C ol.pl. f acing p . 1 84. The dating o f the I guäcel sculpture r emains a problem i nvolving c losely that of J aca a nd L oarre. S an V icente quotes ( unspecified) documents as confirming that the church was reconstructed, a nd describes i t a s a 1 0th century Mozarabic c hurch to which the c ount and countess added apse, portal, columns a nd c apitals, a nd a b arrel vault that l ater c ollapsed. The masonry i s rougher on the s outh e levation and the rectangular s tepped f rame f ormed by a cordon, a g lorified

2 25

a lfiz, i s broken by t he i mposts o f t he w indows and continued by a l ine o f cornice carved w ith palmettes. " The renovation of 1 072 respected the g reater part o f this o ld Mozarabic façade, adding Romanesque details round its two windows...". Whitehill ( 1941, p . 2 42) on t he other h and, refers to S alarrullana y de D ios, Documentos correspondientes a l reinado de S ancio Ramirez ( 1063-94), i , pp. 7 -8, to s tate that S ancho Ramirez granted the s ite to S ancho Galindez i n F ebruary 1 068, and to a quotation by A .K. P orter f rom R . Leaute y G arcia t o t he e ffect that S ancho Galindez i n turn gave i t, together with the c hurch he had built ( my italics) to S an J uan de l a P ena in 1 082; Whitehill regards the whole church a s 1 1th century, with a lterations to t he f açade made soon after 1 082. J . Cabanot has proposed tentatively ( in conversation) that, t aking into a ccount t he s igns of disturbance in t he masonry, the s culpture and windows were added s ome t ime after the inscription. The crude ( ?unfinished) c apitals of t he west door would on this reading be contemporary with the inscription -and a ntedate t he r est of t he c apitals a nd the west front corbels. A . Canella Lopez ( Aragon roman, p . 1 65) g ives yet another version: i n the estates of S ancho Galindez, tutor to S ancho Ramirez, stood " an ancient s anctuary dedicated to t he V irgin Mary, s ituated at I uozar, now transformed to I guäcel"; this was a centre of pilgrimage f or the f aithful of t he r egion o f Garcipollera, and the count decided to restore it i n cooperation with his wife, t he w idow o f Galindo Atones. O n completion, in 1 072, it was endowed by various devotees, among them the king, who donated t he p roperty of Larrossa n earby. ( San V icente interprets the inscription a s reading that t he king erected a town called Rosa f or t he s alvation o f h is soul and i n honour of the B lessed Mary). 7 6. K . Watson, " The Corbels 1 978, pp. 2 97-301. 7 7.

T .

Lyman,

AB March

1 967,

in the

f ig.

Dome at Loarre",

JWCI

2 0.

7 8. This gateway has arches at the s ides with cushion or cylindrical voussoirs ( MAE, p l. 6 4 [ the g ate], p l. 6 6.6 [ the corbel] analogous to the cylindrical apse decoration o f t he group of 1 1th c entury c urches in H igh Aragon ( fig. 2 75). At Diyarbakr ( MAE, f ig. 1 00 a nd P. 2 19) the r iwaq o f the Great Mosque h as s imilar ox heads on i mpost b locks, two on the west and four on the east, probably reused in 1 124 a nd 1 163, as C reswell t hinks t he Cairene version t he earlier. 7 9. A . Duran Gudiol, " La I glesia de Aragon", Anthologica Annua, ix, 1 961; id., E l Castillo de L oarre, S aragossa 1 971, pp. 7 -19; 2 nd ed. 1 987, pp. 7 -27; i d., Arte A ltoaragon s de l os s iglos X y XI, S abinanego 1 973. 8 0. I t combines the s crolls o f Moissac capitals 5 5 and the more Toulousan 4 1 a nd 6 8; at S aint-Gaudens they a re s eparate, the f ormer l ess delicate on an impost of a

2 26

t ribune c apital, t he l atter on a c hoir c apital S aint Gaudens Z odiaque 1 979, f igs 1 9, 1 2.

( G.

R iviäre,

8 1. GG 1 938, X LIV, 2 3. T his composition with b irds' wingt ips touching a l ion's o r monster's j aw i s a lso met i n a variety o f m anuscript i llumination v ersions f rom p reRomanesque t imes on: there i s s cope f or a f ull comparative s tudy. T he 1 0th-century F irst B ible o f L imoges ( Limousin roman col.pl. p .12) h as c olumns of t he p iled animal a ttack motif. 8 2.

K .

Watson,

" The C orbels..",

f ig.

4 0d.

8 3. The m asked d emons w ith their s trange r ites depicted on this impost have a r emote ancestry: t hey border a bowl i n t he Oxus t reasure: B ritish Museum, 0 .T.123919 ( Cat. No. 1 8). They s urround a l obed r osette on t he c eiling o f the S ama 4iplavitana T rinetregvara t emple i n T han ( J . M. Nanavati a nd M .A. D haky, " The Ceilings o f t he T emples o f G ujarat", B ull. o f B aroda Museum, XVI-XVII, 1 963, f ig. 3 0). 8 4. GG 1 938 XCV, t op r ight. l a S erös and at Anzy l e Duc.

I t appears

again at S a

Cruz de

8 5. That the r oll corbel was i ntroduced into F rance early i n the 1 1th c entury was f ormerly d educed f rom the occurrence of f illet roll corbels at Notre-Dame i n Chamaliäres on t he outskirts of C lermont, a nd at S aintB gnigne in D ijon. I f the narthex o f Chamaliäres was o f the 1 0th c entury, a nd t he c orbel t able on t he r otunda o f S aintB gnigne of the e arly 1 1th, then t he Cordoban form i n s tone with c entral f illet a nd deep c urls carved on t he s ides c ould be s een a s e stablished in France a s part o f a contemporary t radition: A lmanzor's extension o f the Mezquita only began in 9 87 ( the doors brought f rom the s ack o f S antiago by A lmanzor i n 9 97 were, a ccording to I bn K haldun, u sed i n the construction of the ceilings of t his extension ( ELP I I, p . 2 50). These d ates c an no l onger be accepted: there i s l ittle doubt that the roof o f the C hamaliäres narthex was r ebuilt in t he 1 2th c entury, u sing the c lassic Romanesque Auvergnat s ystem o f f illet roll corbels s upporting s offits w ith hollow r osettes ( M. V ieillard-Troiekouroff, " La cathgdrale de C lermont du Ve au X IIIe s iècle", C ah.Arch 1 960, p . 2 19). W . S chlink, S aintB gnigne in D ijon, B erlin 1 978, p . 5 3, s hows t he s ame i s t rue f or the vanished rotunda o f S aint-Bgnigne, which a lso h ad both f illet c orbels a nd hollow r osettes ( as s een in h is P l. 2 5, f igs 4 9-51, i n t he drawings o f Dom P lancher o f 1 739 a nd P . V. A ntoine o f 1 790. [ The drawings o f Antoine ae r eproduced i n J . Moreau, D ijon ä l a f in du XVIIIe s iècle d 'apres l es g ouaches de P . V. Antoine, D ijon 1 893, accessible i n t he B ibliothäque D oucet, 3 r ue M ichelet, P aris ye]). S chlink s hows t hat the wall was r aised and the corbel t able a nd d warf g allery c ombination a dded l ater t han t he original part d edicated in 1 018. H e l ists a s eries o f " isolated examples" o f r oll c orbel t ables o utside t he Auvergne: E breuil, Anzy-le-Duc, S aint-Pierre-de-Montmartre

2 27

( Paris), S aint-Hilaire in P oitiers, " all i n t he 1 2th c entury". He therefore proposes a date for the S aintB enigne corbels after t he great f ire o f 1 137. This may be correct for S aint-Benigne but i s not acceptable for the initiation of roll c orbels in France. 8 6. " Didascali l apicide qui prius beati I acobi basilicam edificaverunt nominabantur domnus B ernardus s enex, mirabilis magister, et Rotbertus, cum ceteris l apicidibus c irciter quinquaginta qui i bi s edule operabantur...", Cod.Cal. iv, 9 , f ol. 1 82r, qu. Whitehill 1 941, p . 2 71. The name Robert, i f not purely descriptive, i s l ess usual for a Spaniard than a F renchman. The n ame was current i n Normandy, the I le de France and Burgundy, and vey much i n the Auvergne, which had four counts R obert by the end o f t he 1 2th c entury ( R. R igodon, H istoire de l 'Auvergne, P aris 1 963, pp. 4 1-43); f urthermore, R obert of Turlande founded La Chaise-Dieu in 1 046, no doubt adding to t he popularity o f the name in f ollowing decades; a R otbartus s igned a capital in Notre-Dame-du-Port, C lermont. 8 7. T he s outh transept with i ts s outh crossing p iers i s the only part taken unaltered into the present Gothic building f rom t he c hurch dedicated i n 1 040. T he church was built by Agnes of B urgundy, widow o f William V the Great ( Duke o f Aquitaine and c ount o f P oitou). I n 1 032 s he married Geoffroi Martel, count of Anjou ( R. Crozet, " Eglises ä deambulatoire entre L oire et G aronne", BM 1 942. As Agnes a lso patronized t he completion of S aint-Hilaire i n P oitiers, begun by Emma of Normandy, c ousin of William V , it i s notable t hat on t he c rossing p iers o f L a Trinite are capitals described as " brothers" of the acanthus capitals i n the nave o f S aint-Hilaie ( Poitou r oman, p . 5 4). This strengthens the c ase f or d ating t he S aint-Hilaire c orbel t able in the mid-llth century. s ee a lso n . 9 2. " Berrichon l eaf" here makes early appearance. 8 8. Abbe P lat, " La Trinite de Vendöme", BM 1 906, p . 1 9; " L'eglise primitive de Vendöme", B ull.arch.Com. Tray.hist. 1 922, p . 3 1. The drawing i s published in BM 1 913, p . 3 71. I t i s reproduced by F . D eshoulieres, in his important article " Les corniches romanes..", BM 1 920, p . 5 4, and again by LTB 1 936, pp. 1 41-191. The s ides a re not shown. 8 9.

LTB

1 936,

pp.

9 0-140.

9 0. Ch. Lelong, " Le c locher-porche de S aint-Julien de Tours...", CCM 1 974,4. T .J. J ackson, Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture, Cambridge 1 920 reports r oll corbels at S ainte-Radegonde on the outskirts of Tours and at " the ancient baptistery of S aint-Leonard near L imoges". 9 1. E . Vergnolle, S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire.., P aris 1 985; Val de Loire roman p . 7 2 and f ig. 1 ; G . Chenesseau, L 'abbaye de F leury ä S aint-Benoit, Paris 1 931; Etudes l igeriennes 1 976; M . Aubert, Cah. Arch. 1 930. P . Verdier, in Etudes l igeriennes, p . 3 33, quotes t he description i n the

2 28

V ita G auzlini, Chapter 3 1, of g ifts to t he a bbot by t he c ount o f G ascony, i ncluding Arab bronze s cales, a S panish bronze l ectern with l ion c ubs r ound i ts b ase, s ilks a nd c arpets. H e observes that t he F our Horsemen on the capital o f t he tower p orch u se A rab s tirrups. G auzlin h ad c lose relations with O liba o f V ich, and with the c ount o f Cerdagne. I t i s n ot p ermitted t o examine t he exterior o f t he abbey church at c lose quarters, f ig. 2 76 i s taken f rom t he village r oad s ome d istance a way. T he transept f açade a lso has a cornice a long t he base o f t he gable r esting on roll corbels. G auzlin, s on o f Hugues C apet, was a lso b ishop o f B ourges; t he c hoir a nd t ransept, b egun about 1 067, apparently s o i nfluential on B erry s culpture ( Vergnolle, G BA 1 972) must r epresent what went on i n B ourges a s well i n the 1 1th c entury. 9 2. The roofing was entirely changed l ater i n the 1 1th century when vaults w ere i nserted i n t he n ave. R . Crozet, " La corniche r omane du c locher de S aint-Hilaire de P oitiers", BM 1 934; M . A ubert, CA 1 09, 1 951; L efevreP ontalis, CA 1 951; M .T. Camus, " La r econstruction de S aintH ilaire-le-Grand d e P oitiers ä l 'epoque romane. La marche d es travaux", C CM 1 982. The Chronicle o f S aint-Maixent ( qu. Y . L abandeM ailfert, P oitou roman, p . 5 8) s tates " Istud monasterium magna ex parte c onstruxerat regina Anglorum p er manus G auterii C oorlandi, Agnes comitissa, q ue e um j ussit d edicare, p lurimam partem c onstruxit", t hus giving equal due to Emma a nd Agnes. Emma l eft P oitou i n 1 044. T he dedication i n 1 049 was attended by t hirteen archbishops and b ishops, A gnes a nd h er s on W illiam A igret. This o riginal c hurch had a wooden-roofed n ave a nd t ransept, w ith a lternating p iers in t he n ave, a nd t he bell tower s tood s eparate i n the n orth-west angle o f t he c rossing. At , a l ater date i n t he 1 1th c entury vaults were raised a nd a isles i ntroduced and the tower was enclosed i n the church. Y . L abande-Mailfert p ostulates t hree or f our c ampaigns a fter 1 049, while C rozet expessed uncertainty a s t o when t he tower was f inished a nd was " inclined to put t he c ornice a decade or s o l ater" than 1 049. Aubert and L efevreP ontalis d ate it b efore 1 049, which s eems r easonable o n purely l ogical g rounds, s ince t he c ornice would b e unnecessary i f t he tower w as t o be o bscured by t he vaults and connected to t he transept, a s i t now i s. Crozet s tates that t he upper part o f t he tower was p ulled down in t he 1 6th c entury and, a ssuming the c ornice r an a ll round, the exposed parts w ere then removed. E vidently t he e ast wall s ection was a lso d isturbed. T he cornice s labs a re i nconsistent a nd a n e xtra piece o f c ornice i s u sed in t he rough f illing above c orbels 7 and 8 . T he cording varies i n width a nd on 1 -2, 8 -9 a nd 1 0-11 r uns i n t he o pposite d irection f rom the r est. S labs 1 -4, 7 -8 and 1 0-11 a ll h ave an i dentical quarter-round edge with p almettes in relief; on 6 -7 the whole s offit i s oblique, the remaining s labs have an oblique edge, not uniformly decorated.

2 29

The s imilarity of capitals in t he t ower a nd nave, i n the tower porch at S aint-Benoit and l a Trinite in Vendöme argues f or a ccepting 1 049 f or saint-Hilaire. 9 3. LTB 1 957, f igs 2 71,272, 3 63. Corbel 9 has an exact model in his f ig. 3 63 ( al-Hakam I I), c orbel 5 in f ig. 2 71 ( the patio); corbels 4 and 3 , l ike the corbel at Vendöme, could certainly be matched in t he patio were i llustration available. Corbel 4 i s matched by a c apital in a twin window of t he Mosque of Tudela ( AHIII , f igs 7 8-79) and a parallel f or c orbel 3 i s to be f ound in many b order motifs. 9 4. This detail ( eg. at S aignes, Ygrande, Deals, Neuillyen-Dun, S aint-Jeanvrin, Vic-l'Exemplet, Chäteaumeillant [ Saint Genest], and a lso at B lesle on the choir) converges with a device used f or depicting a mane or hair, f ormalizing conventional curls, in i nsular manuscipt i llumination ( eq. B ook o f K ells), or i n i vory c arving ( the Anglo-Saxon " pen-case" of walrus ivory i n the British Museum ( J. Beckwith, I vory C arvings in E arly Mediaeval E ngland, L ondon 1 972, no 4 6), and i n s tone ( a corbel f rom Reading Abbey, f ormerly in the Victoria & A lbert Museum, P . Williamson, Catalogue o f R omanesque S culpture, 1 983, no 4 0, n ow in Reading) a s t he h air of a g aping mask. That t his convergence i s not fortuitous but results f rom contact b etween England a nd Spain i s s uggested by t he s imilarity o f the bird behind t he head of the monster on the pen case with b irds on Andalusian i vories: V&A 2 17-1865; V &A 3 681 880 ( JBCC p l. 7 and p l. 2 1-22) o r Mozarabic ( the arm o f the cross i n MAN Madrid [ J. Fontaine, L 'Art Mozarabe, f ig. 1 38]). Affinities between insular and Spanish ivory carvings a re such t hat t he V&A Adoration p laque ( 142-1866, J . Beckwith, I vory C arvings. . no 6 3) c an still be c laimed a s English in spite of the twin windows, guardian eagle and incurled l eaves of Andalusia. F oliage is even more c losely s imilar to the Andalusian manner i n the frame of the AngloS axon Deposition p laque ( op.cit. no 8 8, dated c .1150). The composition, l arge hands a nd f eet a nd f acial f eatures, angular angels, rigid draperies, a ll have s imilarities with Spanish Romanesque ivories. C urls a lso appear in wall and manuscript painting to portray l and or water. f ig. 2 80 shows an example at Vicq i n the Berry. 9 5. M ihrab panels ( LTB 1 957, f ig. 3 28), mihrab cornice corbels AHIII , f ig. 1 78) marble f ragments from A lamiriya ( AHIII , f ig. 2 36); decoration at Madinat az-Zahra" ( LTB 1 957, f igs 2 55, 2 36, 5 12-513, 5 10); for edging arches or medallions ( op.cit, f ig. 5 31); a p anel f rom Toledo ( LTB 1 957, f ig. 5 56); on ivories ( JBCC, p ls 2 , 6 , 8 , 1 0, 1 3, 2 3, 2 5, 2 8, 1 9d) or metalwork ( LTB 1 957, f igs 6 12, 6 24). 9 6. Crozet says of the s offit carving: " they are f oxes or wolves, not dogs as Lefèvre-Pontalis s aid" and comparable to the l ions of the capitals o f the ground f loor. Opinion i s g rowing that this t ype of c arved s lab, often a metope, i s Romanesque. C f. M . S chmitt, " Random Reliefs and ' Primitive' F riezes...", s ummarized in id., " Traveling

2 30

C arvers..." AB the West F ront

LXIII, 1 981, and E . Vergnolle and others S ymposium i n L incoln, 1 988).

at

9 7. I n the Musee des Antiquaires de l 'Ouest, and in the F aculte d es L ettres. R . Crozet, Art roman du P oitou 1 948, p . 2 32, describes t he form a s " oriental". 9 8. Crozet, op.cit., quotes them at S aint-Pierre i n Chauvigny, Pouille, Morthemer, La Chapelle-Morthemer, C ivaux, L ussac-les-Chäteaux, V illesalem, P amproux, F enioux, Argenton-Château, Prahecq, F ontaines and Aunay; this l ist must span most of the 1 2th c entury. 9 9. R . Crozet, " Eglises ä deambulatoires...", BM 1 942, i nvestigates the relationships and activities of the comital f amily. Agnes was a lso r esponsible f or the vanished abbey of S aint-Jean d'Angely ( choir consecrated 1 050). 1 00. M .-T. C amus, " Un c hevet ä d eambulatoire et chapelles r ayonnantes ä P oitiers vers 1 075: S aint-Jean-deMontierneuf", CCM 1 978,4, pp. 3 57 f f., f ig. 1 . Montierneuf was dedicated i n 1 096. Among the corbels, either animal h eads, or a s ingle sphere below the vertical f ace, l argely p redominate, and a s f ar as possible the motif i s as wide as t he b lock. 1 01. P .-R. Gaussin, L'Abbaye de La Chaise-Dieu, Paris 1 962. The Romanesque church was founded in 1 043; i t has not s urvived. I n 1 092 i t r eceived t he g ift of a church a nd s ufficient l and t o form a priory at P arthenay f rom the j oint l ords Gueldin and E lbon. H ere at P arthenay-le-Vieux quarter-circle vaults and squinches in the crossing dome ( supported on a nimal-head c orbels) a re Auvergnat f eatures unusual in P oitou, suggesting the church was built, or completed, after this donation r ather than b efore. The c orbels are mostly of various shapes approximating to rolls on a convex profile, knobs, etc., and heads without rolls on the west f açade. The few f illet corbels l ook suspiciously new, r ecut or possibly even an i nvention of t he very evident restorations. The rest of the repertoire i s c onsistent w ith t he observed development i n Poitou by the end of the century ( see Montierneuf, n . 1 04 above). The i nfluence o f t he A uvergne as a f actor in the i ntroduction o f roll c orbels would explain another anomaly o f distribution: they a re a r arity in P erigord but appear at S aint-Front in P erigueux, and doubtless in i ts wake at L a Chancelade a nd S aint-Jean-de-C81e: in 1 077 t he goldsmith and enameller Guinamundus went to Perigueux from La ChaiseD ieu to make a s hrine f or the t omb of S aint-Front ( P. L abbe, Nov. B ibl. MSS I I, " Frag. de P etragoriensibus P raesulum"). 1 02. E . Maillard, " Le probleme de l a S aint-Hilaire-le-Grand au X Ie s iècle", 1 934.

2 31

reconstruction de Bull.Soc. Ant. Ouest

1 03.However, F . Lesueur, " La Couture", CA 1 19, 1 961, considers the abbacy of Asselin, who d ied in 1 072, a s t he most l ikely t ime o f building. Gauzbert, abbot of S aintJ ulien in Tours, was i nvolved in f ounding or r estoring many other abbeys i ncluding S aint-Pierre in B ourgueil and S aintP ierre i n Maillezais ( with c ountess Emma and c ount William) in t he early years o f t he 1 1th century. There a re v estiges o f early 1 1th century work at Notre-Dame-du-Prg in L e Mans: small masonry a nd polychrome vo s soirs ( F14), a nd t he corbels are o f the s ame type as L a Couture but more e laborately decorated. 1 04. Adhgmar de Chabannes, Chronique ( ed. Chavanon, 1 897), p . 2 63; Defourneaux, p . 1 29, comments on the Duke's purely pacific relations, whereas the involvement of B urgundy i ncluded m ilitary i nterventions f rom q uite e arly i n t he c entury. G labar's H istoria, which f inishes before 1 036 ( Pat.Lat. 6 40-641, 6 42) mentions C luny's connexions w ith campaigns in Spain. Constance of Burgundy married A lfonso VI in 1 080 after t he death o f ( the f irst) Agnes o f P oitou. I n 1 087 s he s ent g ifts to Tournus through her nephew D uke E udes, who visited h er in L eön after an abortive m ilitary adventure ( Esp.del C id, p . 3 41, n .2; J . S aroihandy, p . 2 61; D efourneaux, p . 2 2). Two o f A lfonso's daughters married B urgundians, who made their c areers i n Spain. 1 05. A . Dozy, Recherches I I, pp. 3 57-399, g ives the whole text o f I bn H ayyan; R .H.G.F. XII, p . 1 62: " His temporibus, Dux Aquitaniae Guillelmus et quidam a lii optimates Gauliarum... copiosum in H ispaniam c onduxerunt exerc itum...multamque et variam s uperlectilem s ecum a fferunt multaque mancipia a dducerunt". T he p attern i s o ften repeated: on assuming a t itle, e ach member of one o f the great houses h as f irst to a ssert h is authority at home; once this i s secure he must accrue wealth to r eward and maintain t he l oyalty o f h is following. F or t he S panish k ings, this was done by extorting greater paria payments f rom c lient t aifa rulers; f or the F rench princes Spain had the same attraction, but they had t o make accommodations with the Spanish k ings. K .F. W erner, " Königtum und F ürstentum des französischen 1 2. J ahrhunderts" in P robleme des 1 2 J ahrhunderts ( Vorträge u . F orschungen, K onstanzer Arbeitskreis f . mittelalterliche G eschichte, V , bd. 1 2), S igmaringen, 1 968. Translation in T . Reuter, The Mediaeval Nobility, Amsterdam, N .Y., Oxford, 1 979. 1 06. J . Martindale, The O rigins o f t he D uchy of Aquitaine and the Government of the Counts o f P oitou ( 902-1127), Oxford, D .Phil.Thesis 1 964. The importance o f revenues f rom the paria system of c lientship i s c larified i n J .M . Lacarra, " Aspectos E conomicos de l a s umisiön de l os Reinos de T aifas", Ho r n. J . V icens Vives I , B arcelona 1 965. The route f rom Gascony: i d., Un arancal de aduanas d el s iglo X I, S aragossa 1 950 ( a customs document f rom J aca). 1 07. J . Verdon, " Une s ource de l a R econqu te en E spagne: Chronique de S aint-Maixent", Mélanges. . R. Crozet 1 963.

2 32

l e H e

a ssumes Gui-Geoffroi had two daughters Agnes, a s does Defourneaux. A s ister of G ui-Geoffroi would be more of an age for A lfonso, and she disappears before A lfonso married Constance in 1 079-1080. The s ources a re not c lear and a s every ruling count was called William, so every l ady seems to be n amed Agnes. L ater h istorians f orgivably c onfound these problems by confusing the l ines o f Leön, Navarre and Aragon, a ll i ssue of S ancho I II t he Great o f N avarre ( 10001 035) and hence a ll bearing the same selection o f names: Ramiro, S ancho, G arcia, A lfonso, F ernando f or s ons; E lvira, Teresa, Urraca, S ancha for daughters. Thus the wife of Raymond de S t G illes i s variously described as from L eön or Aragon. She was the daughter o f A lfonso VI of Leön. 1 08. F or example, W illiam IX of Aquitaine, s on of GuiGeoffroi, married Philippa, daughter o f Count William IV o f Toulouse a nd h is Norman w ife Emma of Mortain, and d isputed the county of T oulouse against A lphonse-Jourdain, the son of Raymond de S t-Gilles and E lvira o f Leön. In t he f irst decades of the 1 2th century, s upport for A lfonso I o f Aragon ( El B atallador) or h is r ival A lfonso V II of Leön, s on of Raymond o f Burgundy, in their contest f or the control of Leön/Castile f luctuated a ccording to t he wider rivalries of P oitou, Toulouse, Burgundy and B arcelona, Defourneaux pp. 1 60-172; P . Tucou-Chala, La vicomte de Beam net l e probleme de sa souverainete d es origines ä 1 620, Bordeaux 1 961. J . Martindale notes h ow t he agreement between Centulle de B igorre and A lfonso I reserves the fealty that C entulle owes to Gui-Geoffroi and h is s on f rom h is obligations t o A lfonso. Nonetheless, Centulle, l ike his brother Gaston o f B eam , held great honours f rom Aragon, while the Duke's suspicion of Aragon's designs on G ascony drove h im to support A lfonso V II against Aragon. I ndeed A lfonso of Aragon i n 1 131 for a t ime seized B ayonne with t he support of t he a rchbishop o f Auch and other G ascons. A lphonse J ourdain, now count of Toulouse, l ike the Duke of Aquitaine rallied a gainst t he pretensions of Aragon ( C. H igounet, " La r ivalite des maisons de Toulouse et de B arcelone pour l a preponderance meridionale" Melanges..Halphen, pp. 3 13-318). A lliances shifted at the death of A lfonso o f Aragon in 1 134; his brother Raymondo e l Monje found a w ife in Agnes, s ister o f t he next Duke William of Aquitaine. For the wide ramifications of the f amily of de R oucy, s ee B . Guenee, " La memoire c apetienne", Annales E .S. C.33, 1 978, p . 4 50: F elicia de Roucy was wife of S ancho Ramirez of Aragon, her s ister Beatrice married Geoffroi I I du P erche, and t heir s on R otrou made h is c areer i n the entourage o f the Aragonese court. The descendants of H ilduin de Roucy, ( father of Ebles who went to S pain i n 1 077 to make himself a k ingdom with a l etter of support from Gregory VII; t he n ew P ope had not y et t aken account o f the importance o f the existing Spanish monarchs as he was rapidly forced t o do [ Defourneaux, p . 1 38]) were l eading potentates i n H ainauld, Vermandois, L orraine, Champagne, Burgundy, Luxembourg, F landers, P icardy, I le de F rance, Jerusalem a nd P erche, which i s v irtually in Normandy. There was a lso a connexion with the royal f amily of England, and

2 33

though Ebles was foiled in his S panish ambitions, h is county of Roucy gave h im g reat r iches, p ower a nd s tatus; h e was married to Sybilla, daughter o f R obert G uiscard o f S icily. 1 09.

P oitou roman,

f ig.

1 2.

1 10. s ee n . 3 0: H enry and Z arnecki, " Romanesque A rches.." Acquaintance w ith Andalusian motifs, s uch a s t hose in their f ig. 6 , would r ather i llustrate t he p ervasive awareness o f Andalusian a rt i n this a rea than a s trongly c oncentrated current of specific influence. 1 11. LTB 1 936, p . 1 7. L ion-head corbels a t S plit a re s urprisingly l ike the two west j amb l ion-heads on the P laterias consoles at S antiago. The d ifference i s in t he addition o f rolls at S antiago. 1 12. L . Grodecki ( BM 1 950) s uggests twin columns C luny I I to Bernay and thence to J umiäges. 1 13. Angle c olumns a re f requent i n E gypt: ( short), f igs 6 9, 7 1 ( Mosque of I bn T ulun).

c f

c ame

f rom

C reswell

1 14. E . Lambert, " L'ancienne gglise du prieurg de L ayS aint Christophe et l 'alternance ' d es s upports dans l es g glises de p lan basilical", BM 1 942, pp 2 25 f f.: The i dea i s Byzantine in origin; it i s f ound at H ildesheim; i n I taly; in S pain at J aca, Leön, S an P edro de Duenas, S ahagun, S antiago, Ripoll. I n France at S aint-Nazaire i n C arcassonne ( like J aca), Bozouls, C arennac, Conques in L anguedoc; C lermont, I ssoire, Orcival, Saint-Saturnin ( all r ectangular with three and f our engaged c olumns) in the Auvergne; S aint-Menoux in B erry; R uffec i n B ourbonnais; Jumiäges, S aint-Etienne i n Caen, G raville S aint-Honorine, B ernieres. O uistreham i n Normandy; P oitiers ( SaintH ilaire), Vertheuil, L e Mans ( Notre-Dame-du-Pre), Avesniäres ( round and composite). The buildings italicized have roll corbels. 1 15.

Normandie romane

I I,

p .

2 3;

l ast quarter of the

1 1th

c entury: " a l ow pyramid of s tone whose c ornice i s held on l arge corbels of excellent workmanship [ several display chisel curls]". 1 16. G . Z arnecki,"1066 P roc.Brit.Acad. 1 966, p l.

and Architectural X II and p . 9 5.

S culpture"

1 17. EK E lf, nos 4 8 ( Louvre cross), 4 9 ( Madrid c ross) and 6 4 ( Hermitage o liphant). The turban hair-cap of the mahout ( appropriate in this c ontext) r esembles the Spanish/Toulousan hair-style. 1 18.

G .

Z arnecki,

op.cit.

p l.

VIII.

1 19. Art de B asse Normandie 3 , 1 956; de Caen, P aris 1 979, f igs 1 37-139.

2 34

M .

B ayle,

L a Trinitg

1 20. E . L evi-Provengal I , c entury a group s tayed converted to I slam and they supplied t he c ity their cheeses spread f ar 1 21.

Defourneaux,

pp.

1 22.

Defourneaux,

p .

pp. 2 18-225, 3 10--312: in t he 9 th behind f rom a raid on S eville, was s ettled on i slands in t he r iver; with dairy produce and the f ame o f a nd wide.

1 29-133,

1 57,

etc.

4 0.

1 23. J .-M. Lacarra, " Para e l estudio del Mucicipio Navarro medieval", P rin.de V iana I II, 1 941; id., D ocumentos para e l E studio de l a Reconquista y Repoblaciön d el Valle del Ebro, S aragossa 1 946. 1 24. For Rotrou, Defourneaux, pp. f or Diego Pelaez, E sp.del C id, pp

1 58-159, 3 46-347.

with references;

1 25. G . Gaillard, " Sur l a chronologie de Tournus", Rev.archeo1.1957. J . V irey, S aint-Philibert de T ournus, P aris 1 932 c ategorically s tates the c orbels are 1 2th century. J . Vallery-Radot, S aint-Philibert de T ournus, P aris 1 955 declares " crypt, transept, ambulatory and chapels f orm a whole, built by, A bbot P ierre who died in 1 105 and was buried in the t ransept arm". 1 26. I llustrated BM 1 936, p . 3 02. F or S aint-Martin, CA 1 935, pp 1 22 f f; A . C hagny, La basilique S aint-Martin d 'Ainay, Lyon 1 935, p . 2 15. S aint-Martin was c onsecrated by P ascal I I in 1 107, having been begun in 1 102 by J aucerand. The S ainte Blandine c hapel c learly antedates t he whole church by some d ecades. 1 27. Lefevre-Pontalis, BM 1 921, p . 7 7. Conant ( CRA, p . 1 76) l ists the following chronological sequence; the f inishing of r oofs cannot be attached to these dates with any certainty, but there i s no reason to f ind them impossible: Ennezat, f ounded b etween 1 061 and 1 078 ( thought by L efevrePontalis to be the o ldest church in the Auvergne); S aintNectaire, 1 080; S aint-Saturnin; O rcival, 1 100 ( rebuilt 1 180s); Notre-Dame-du-Port, f irst half of 1 2th century, reconstruction work 1 185; I ssoire, 1 130-1150; R iom, Mozac ( or Mozat), f inally Brioude. Mozac however, attached to C luny under duress in 1 095, was t hought by L . Brehier to have been built at once following this, while Z . Swieckowsky considers i ts s culpture t he e arliest of any in the Auvergne, with influences f rom Conques and the south arriving up the Rhöne. F or A . Gybal, L 'Auvergne, b erceau de l 'art r oman, C lermont-Ferrand 1 957, not a ll s outhern influences stem from Conques but include s ome coming directly f rom C ordoba; among these he c ites t he s tone marquetry, from t he minaret, and from the Mezquita i tself t he corbels, and s offit r osettes, trilobes applied to tribunes, and exterior arcades. H e quotes the mihrab o f Qairawan a nd t he minarets of F ez to add to t he description of the Cordoban m inaret. H e adds that Auvergnat music ( the

2 35

bourree) i s Moorish a nd notes that T oledan at Thiers " tempered i n the miraculous Curolle".

b lades were made waters o f the

1 28. M . Vieillard-Trouerikoff, C lermont...." Cah. Arch. 1 960.

cathedrale

" La

1 29. L . B rehier, " Les origines de l 'architecture Auvergne", R ev. Mabillon, J an. 1 923.

de

romane en

1 30. P .-R. Gaussin, L'Abbaye de La Chaise-Dieu, Paris 1 972. I t was a f avorite abbey of Raymond de St G illes, who was married f irst to the daughter of Roger of S icily, then to E lvira, daughter of A lfonso VI o f Leön, the l atter's wife Constance o f Burgundy, a n iece of S t Hugh o f C luny, s ent f or St Adelelme ( Aleaume) f rom L a Chaise-Dieu at the t ime o f t he t roubles over t he c hange of r ite from t he Mozarab t o L atin, shortly after her arrival i n Spain. A leaume was g iven a chapel and a hospital at the g ates o f Burgos, and at his death in 1 097 Abbot P ons o f L a Chaise-Dieu sent the former t roubadour Raoul P assereau t o Burgos to compose A leaume's Vita. A leaume i s a lso said t o have arrived at the t aking o f Toledo in 1 085 and l ed toops over t he Tagus i nto t he c ity ( DHGE I I, c ol. 7 7). Gaussin suspects r ivalries with C luny. 1 31. Z . Swieckowsky, L a s culpture romane en Auvergne, p . 1 2, l ists the local sources of coloured volcanic stone. The r icher c hurches i mported l imestone f or their capitals f rom considerable distances. 1 32. The s ides are decorated with gracefully curved l ozenges. The c urls on this example h ave no s tems but a re outlined, l ike the patio corbels o f the M ezquita, ns rhw bottom curl turns u p. The f illet projects s trongly r ight through to the bottom o f the corbel a nd its upper verticäl f ace c ontinues well below t he l evel o f the f irst r oll. T his i s the tendency of many Auvergnat c orbels. The corbels o f Chamalieres s how how f aithfully s uch p recedents w ere followed into the 1 2th c entury. 1 33.

Auvergne romane,

1 34.

W .

Cahn,

p .

2 4.

Romanesque Wooden Doors..

p .

1 19.

1 35. Horizontal stems are characteristic of the corbels o f t he t ower cornice of S aint-Hilaire in P oitiers; s ome corbels on the south door of Conques h ave them and a number in the B erry, i ncluding P laimpied, Neuilly-en-Dun, Avord, Ygrande, D eals. F urther i nvestigation might produce s ome correlations connected with this d etail. Rural Auvergnat churches, l ike S aignes ( fig. 2 26) a nd T auves a dopt the f eature. 1 36. M . Thibout, Construction began

Auvergne early in

et the

2 36

v ennes, 1 961, 1 2th century

p . with

5 5. the

narthex a nd worked eastward. T he e ast e nd was before the beginning of the 1 3th c entury. 1 37.

F .

S alet,

CA 1 27,

1 38.

R .

Crozet,

A rt roman en B erry,

1 39.

C .

Enlart,

M anuel

1 40.

B erry r oman,

pp

1 967,

de

pp.

1 62

completed

f f. p .

2 41.

l 'architecture

frangaise.

1 1-12.

1 41. S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire..p. 1 65 and f ig. 1 60. The abbey church was dedicated in 1 048. J . F aviere ( Berry r oman) thinks the chevet no earlier than the l ast y ears o f the 1 1th century, b ut Vergnolle h as no d ifficulty i n a ssociating them with the capitals derived f rom Unbertus, a s part of t he f irst c ampaign c onnected with t he 1 048 dedication. F . G arcia-Romo ( AE 1 954, p . 3 9 and 5 3) i ncludes the capitals of t he choir i n the group he attributes to an Andalusian-influenced workshop active i n t he m id-llth century, and quotes the existence of rolls corbels as supportive evidence, a long with vaults with s quare r ibs, f or a Spanish i nfluence at many of the other s ites he discusses a s well: these a re S aint-Sever; S aint-Hilaire and Montierneuf in Poitiers; L a Trinite in Vendöme; L e Ronceray d 'Angers; P arthenay-le-Vieux and S aint-Savin ( no roll c orbels at these l ast two). S ainte-Radegonde in P oitiers, Maillezais, Cormery a lso have t he vaults and c apitals only. S aint-Benoit should a lso be added to his l ist o f r oll corbels. H e d iscusses t he s ame g roup in " Un t aller..." P rin.de Viana 1 962. 1 42. Berry roman p . 1 2. Deols i s mostly ruinous, apart the tower. A few f ragments o f s culpture survive i n museum at I ssoudun. 1 43. E . Vergnolle, G BA 1 972, pp 2 59 f f

f rom the

" Les chapiteaux de La B erthenoux...", a nd S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire.. Chapter 8 .

1 44. The c lassic r oll c orbels at D eols on t he t ower h ave s ome points o f resemblance with those o f Jumieges, particularly in t he b locky c ubic s hape of t he corbel. The c hevron window archivolts are a lso a northen feature ( A. B org, " The Development of Chevron O rnament", J .Brit. Arch. A ss. 1 967), and the stepped double niches under the f ragment of s culpture ( Berry roman, f ig. 1 03) a lso have a N orman f lavour. C rozet speculated on the extent of Norman i nfluence on f açade design in t he B erry, quoting the presence of Eudes o f D eols, who i nspired the new church at N euvy-Saint-Sepulcre, at t he dedication of La T rinite i n Vendöme in 1 040. The analogy o f the corbels with those o f J umieges i s not c omplete: t he s ides of the Deols corbels h ave horizontal s tems l ike the P oitiers tower corbels, unlike t hose of J umieges. The t ower of Deols was not built until after 1 107 ( Berry roman: the choir was consecrated i n 1 107 and towers, nave, transept and narthex were built s oon

2 37

a fter that). f orms.

By then t he r oll

corbel

w as widespread in many

1 45. S aint-Jeanvrin i s f irst mentioned i n 1 115, b eing c onfirmed by P ascal I I a s a possession o f Deols. I ts c apitals r esemble t hose o f S t G enes, Chäteaumeillant ( CA 1 931). T hemes on the c apitals include b irds with entwined n ecks a nd a ffronted l ions ( D17a,h). T he c orbels a re s o varied t hat E . L ambert g ave the church p articular attention a s t he probable p ioneer o f r oll c orbels i n F rance. T his c annot s tand. 1 46. I t was Crozet's c ontention that t he B erry received the roll c orbel f rom P oitou, a nd h e i nsisted on t he i mportance o f other i nfluences f rom f urther s outh-west. D eols had many possessions i n P oitiers, S aintes a nd Agen; D ävres h ad a c hurch i n Agen and t wo v illas i n t he S aintonge, while s everal churches i n t he B erry h ave r elics o f Agen's S aint C aprais. C rozet ARB l ists the f ollowing a s examples o f r oll c orbels to * compare with t hose i n the B erry: S aint-Jean-deC ole a nd L a C hancelade ( Dordogne), a nd C ourpiac, C lairac ( L&G) and L a S auve ( Gironde), where a nimal heads and other motifs a re combined w ith r olls. T he d ecoration o f c hevet exteriors with arcading i s, a s he observes, s imilar i n the B erry a nd i n t he s outh-west a nd S aintonge; at Nevers a nd La Charité the resemblances a re equally c onvincing. 1 47.

G ascogne romane,

f ig.

3 2;

B erry r oman,

f ig.

9 3.

1 48. V olute s tem rolls, S aint-Sever de Rustan ( Gascogne romane, f ig. 8 6), Frömista, B ayeux ( fig.124). T he c orner h ead motif a lso at P reuilly-sur-Claise, S aint-Genou, Ardentes, etc. 1 49.

Vergnolle,

GBA 1 972,

pp 2 49

f f.

1 50. These d iffer f rom ordinary roll c orbels with heads, i n that t he r olls c ontinue to t he t op o f t he c orbel i nstead o f l eaving a p lain impost until t he c oncave profile begins. T he head i s f ramed i n t he r olls. The position of t he h ead, too, echoes the capital motif. 1 51. GG 1 938, p l. X III, 2 9-30 ( the g arments a re d rawn with c url volutes!). The following r eferences i n the text a re t o G aillard's c apital n umbers at each s ite. 1 52.

i bid.,

J aca,

p l.

XLIII;

L oarre,

p l.

1 53. L . Grodecki, " La s culpture du X Ie Etat d es q uestions", L 'Inf.Hist. Art 1 958, 1 54.

GG 1 938,

p l.

LXIII,15.

1 55.

i bid.,

p is

1 56.

i bid.,

P ls XLI,10;

LXXVIII,13;

LXXIX,16.

XLVIII,4.

2 38

LXIII. s iäcle en F rance. f ig. P. 1 07.

1 57.

i bid.,

r ,s

LXX,14

1 58.

Gascogne romane,

a nd

2 27

f ig.

8 6.

LXV11,10

1 59. Quercy roman, pp. 1 32 f f. Capitals 2 1, 4 1, 5 0, 5 5, 6 3, 6 8. The derivation i s from the c ircular s croll, D 5 o f my l ist of motifs in Appendix I . 1 60.

GG

1 61.

Val

1 938, de

P is

L XIX,9,

Loire roman,

1 0; p l.

LXVII,7. 2 3

1 62. The documentation i s summarized in M . Aubert, L 'eglise de Conques, P aris 1 954, p . 6 9; Cartulaire de l 'abbaye de Conques, ed. G . D esjardins, 1 879; Chronicon monasterii Conchensis in M artene and Durand, Thesaurus novus anecdotorum I II, 1 717, col. 1 390. The new church was begun by Abbot O dolric i n the t ime o f K ing H enri I II ( 1030-1060), a nd near enough c ompletion to transfer t he relics of S t F aith into it b efore Odolric's death in 1 065. I n 1 040-1052 i ndulgences were accorded by b ishops of the surrounding d ioceses t o those contributing to the works and i llumination of t he church. After 1 058, a nd perhaps c .10801 090, were written Books I II and IV of Liber Miraculorum s ancte F idis, ed. A. Bouillet, 1 898. I n Book IV the monk S allust is reminded by the need to repair parts of arcades a nd vaults that a miracle had taken p lace when c apitals and bases were needed for the construction, long ago, but still within h is l ifetime. I n 1 099 a series of p rivileges was obtained f rom U rban I I: there i s no mention of building works. Begon I II ( 1087-1107, but deposed during 1 095-1097) built the c loister. Boniface ( 1107-1119) made a reliquary o f l eather and enamel discs f or t he r elics of St F aith. Extensive restorations took p lace i n the mid-19th century. T he 1 1th a nd 1 2th century enamels a nd metalwork preserved i n the Treasury show c lose l inks with Spain ( M . M. Gauthier, Rouergue roman and in many l ater writings). 1 63. The extensive r estorations initiated by Prosper Merimee, c arried out from 1 837 to 1 879, were s trictly c ontrolled, and t he different types of design appear to h ave been r espected: M . Aubert, op.cit., p . 1 2. J . -Cl. F au ( personal c ommunication) would u se t he criterion o f d iversity to confirm authenticity: Merimee " supervised the r estoration work v ery c losely" and is never suspected of an excessive use of misplaced imagination l ike Abadie, or even V iollet-le-Duc. 1 64.

G .

Gaillard,

in Rouergue

roman,p.

4 1.

1 65. J . Cl. Fau: Les Chapiteaux de Conques, 1 956; " L'apparition de l a f igure humaine dans l a sculpture du R ouergue et du H aut-Quercy au X Ie s iècle" Actes XXVIIe C ongres des s oc.say. Montauban, 1 972; " Un d ecor original: l 'entrelacs epanoui en palmette s ur l es chapiteaux r omans d e l 'ancienne Septimanie..", CSMC 9 , 1 978.

2 39

1 66. E . E rlande-Brandeburg, AduM 1 972, r eviewing J . B ousquet, L a s culpture ä C onques..(see f ollowing n ote) c onsiders the f irst decade o f the 12th century " too e arly a nd not n ecessary f or any o f t he s culpture a t C onques". H e quotes M . M. Deyres, " La construction d e l 'abbatiale S ainteF oy de C onques", BM 1 965, who s ays t he c apitals of t he e ast end and transept a re not i n their original p ositions. 1 67. J . B ousquet, L a s culpture ä C onques aux X Ie-XIIe s iecles, E ssai de c hronologie c omparee, L ille 1 973; i d., " La s culpture de Conques d ans s es r apports avec l 'art meridional", CSMC 1 971. 1 68. Z . Swieckowsky, La S culpture r omane de l 'Auvergne, P aris 1 978; i ntroduction by L . G rodecki: o n p . 1 0 he s upports Swieckowsky's " new thesis", a nd a lso t he anteriority o f t he choir and nave capitals of M ozac " c.1095" over t he r est o f t he Auvergne. T his theory i s s trongly opposed by Erlande-Brandeburg i n a review o f an earlier work by S wieckowsky, S culpture romane d 'Auvergne, C lermont-Ferrand 1 973, i n BM 1 976, pp 1 56-7. An i nfluence on Auvergne s culpture f rom Conques a nd f rom Arles, c oming up t he Rhone, was proposed much earlier by L . B rehier, " Les origines de l a s culpture r omane en Auvergne...", Rev. Mabillon 1 923. 1 69. P ierre d 'Andouque, o ften s tyled P ierre or P edro " de Roda" ( more recently a nd p roperly i nterpreted a s " de Rodez"), B ishop o f P amplona 1 082-1114. H is f avour and appointment followed t he disgrace o f G arcia, brother o f K ing S ancho R amirez and B ishop o f J aca. P eter had b een educated at C onques a nd S aint-Pons-de-Thomieres a nd h is devotion to Conques was s hared by t he Aragonese c ourt, where he s tood i n h igh r egard. H e w as n ot o nly active in the k ingdom o f Aragon, but o f s ufficient distinction t o be chosen t o d edicate t he a ltar of S t F aith at S antiago in 1 105 and the a ltar o f S t G abriel a t C luny in 1 100. H e was f requently i n T oulouse. J . S aroihandy ( "La l egende de Roncevaux", Mel. Menendez P idäl 1 928, pp 2 59-284) s uggested that he i nvented and p romoted t he l egend o f Roland at Roncevaux to encourage p ilgrims t o u se that route to Compostela and bring r evenue t o C onques, to which f oundation a church, mill and hospital with its oven, a ll at R oncevaux, h ad b een p resented b y C ount S ancho o f E rro ( G. D esjardins, C artulaire..Conques, p . 3 47). O ther possessions i n N avarre a cquired b y P eter f or Conques i ncluded C aparroso, Murillo and G arituain. P eter was present i n 1 091 at t he f oundation o f S an P edro de C astellar, built a s a threat to Z aragoza, at the s iege of H uesca i n 1 094 a nd at i ts o ccupation i n 1 096. T he k ings o f Aragon f avoured c ombining a military and religious f oundation on t he model of t he I slamic r ibat, as at L oarre and Montearagon; P eter f illed well t he r ole o f warrior priest. I n 1 101 at t he f all o f B arbastro t he l argest mosque, after the one destined to become t he c athedral, was g iven by K ing P edro I to C onques, a nd t he whole kingdom put under the p rotection of S t F aith. A monk P ons f rom Conques

2 40

was appointed f irst r econquest i n 1 101.

b ishop

o f

B arbastro

a fter

t his

1 70. I am i ndebted t o Christopher B ailey f or his observations on t he t ransept doors, which I h ave been able t o c onfirm. The masonry o f t he j ambs o f the north door i s mixed r ed s andstone a nd y ellow l imestone to t he l evel o f t he capitals which are s andstone. Above, the masonry i s y ellow but t he h ood moulding which c ontinues t he r ed b illet imposts i s r ed. The outer bases a re l imestone. On the s outh door t he masonry i s s andstone t o o ne c ourse b elow t he c apitals. The i nner c olumns a re s andstone. The footings to t he i nner c olumns a re r ed, t he j ambs a re y ellow a t hird f rom the ground, t hen red until two courses below the l intel when they a re y ellow a gain. T here ae s ome r ed s andstone voussoirs i n the inner archivolt. B oth north and s outh t he n ave wall b locks o ff part o f t he arch a nd c ornice, on the s outh a witness hole has been made to f ree t he e nd corbel. 1 71. Q uarried two l eagues away at N auviale, and l imestone f rom L unel, a l eague f urther d istant, which w as used when t he quarry a t N auviale was exhausted ( Rouergue roman, p . 4 1). S andstone has continued t o b e used extensively i n the region f rom mediaeval t o modern t imes, and t he c hange c annot be explained by i t being impossible t o f ind. A s G aillard c omments, t here i s no i ndication o f a b reak i n t he work between the two materials. 1 72. T he ox-head c orbel i s s imilar to one at Anzy-le-Duc. At Varen ( Haut-Languedoc roman, f igs 1 28-131; J . Cl. F au, L es chapiteaux de Varen 1 972, f igs 6 and 1 15) i t i s a ssociated with pine c ones and s pits beaded and chip-carved i nterlaced p almettes. A c ornice f ragment at S aint-Sernin i n t he north n ave t ribune ( T. L yman, AB 1 967, f ig. 2 Q) c ontains one bucranium corbel w ith the horns r ising t o the t op o f t he f irst r oll a nd i nterrupting it. At L oarre t he corbels set over the doorway are the s ame. An a lmost contemporary I slamic c orbel i s i llustrated by C reswell ( MAE p 1.66.6): on t he B ab a l-Futuh i n C airo, dated 1 087 ( 480H) the s econd c orbel f rom t he r ight over the arcades f igures an ox h ead w ith a l eaf s croll hanging f rom i t. ( See n . 7 8). 1 73. The square-topped wings are p robably an i nfluence f rom c arvings at M ontecassino ( Henry a nd Z arnecki, " Romanesque a rches.." p . 5 ). I t i s perhaps this a ssociation with I taly that e xplains why t he majority o f f igure corbels a re not roll c orbels, s ince the roll c orbel never found f avour i n I taly. T here a re s quare-topped w ings i n Moissac c loister, and Moissac h as no corbels, but t he angels o f the a pse reliefs at T oulouse h ave square-topped wings, a nd t he r oll corbel there i s dominant. O n the Conques tympanum t he tops o f t he a ngels' wings a re a r ounded p oint. S panish wings a re a ll round-topped. 1 74.

GG

1 938,

p ls LXV,21;

LXXVII,8;

2 41

LXXXVI,

top r ight.

1 75. J . -Cl. F au, " Le b assin r oman de s erpentine du c loitre de Conques", Actes du Congres d 'etudes de Rodez 1 975, pp. 3 19 f f. T he imps belong w ith the masked f igures on capital 1 7 o f Moissac c loister, t he f rieze a t Le P uy, a nd p ilaster c apitals and tympanum at S aint-Martin d 'Ainay in Lyon. This a ffiliation traces t he r oute postulated by B rehier o f i nfluence f rom C onques up the Rhöne. 1 76. M .-M. G authier, R ouergue r oman, pp 1 11,119, 1 43-145. T he p ervasive i nfluence o f Muslim metalwork a nd t extile designs on the C onques a telier i s referred t o f requently i n h er authoritative writings on enamels, e g. Emaux du Moyen Age, F ribourg 1 972; " Les d ecors vermicules.. " , CCM 1 958, pp 3 49-369. 1 77. Rouergue roman, p l. 5 9. c ommon on l ater enamel work.

I mitation K ufic

i s

o f course

1 78. J . Cl. F au, " Un decor o riginal.." C SMC 1 978, p . 1 33. F au invokes - the i conostasis o f S t L uke i n P hokis w ith interlace c apitals a nd f acetted colonnettes. St L uke a lso h as strong I slamic a ssociations ( Grabar, CRAcIBL 1 971, a rt. c it.). 1 79. Rouergue roman, p .38. ( Aimoin, " Historia translationis s ancti V incentii" Acta S anctorun i ordinis s ancti B enedicti, S aeculum I V, pas I , 1 977. 1 80. I n the Chartres manuscript of B ook I II of the M iracula ( see n .162) p . 2 42: " a S arracenis c apto, quem c um s ociis s uis s ancta F ides l iberavit" i s t he story o f A rnaldus: he c ame f rom C ardona, and went t rading to B alaguer while waiting f or t he w eather to improve, j oining up w ith other merchants. The party was c aptured by pagans a fter having t ransacted i ts b usiness, a nd d uly r eleased by S t F aith. C f. J . Duplessy, " La c irculation des monnaies arabes en E urope occidentale.." R ev. n umismatique 1 956, p p. 1 19-120, " the great period o f Muslim gold began i n the 1 1th c entury a nd goes on to the mid-13th, and this gold i s S panish and A frican i n origin". T he great t ranshumances r ecorded by L eroy-Ladurie f or t he l ate 1 3th c entury i n Montaillou, 1 982, f rom F rance d eep into S pain, were b ased on centuries o f s maller s cale movement during which a lso " ..les i dees, l es hommes, l es t roupeaux, l a monnaie y c irculent.." ( p. 2 8); t here was no s egregation by r eligion ( eg. pp 1 56-158, 4 50). 1 81.

D efourneaux,

P .

1 30,

n .3.

1 82. D evic a nd V aissäte, H ist. du L anguedoc XLV, P. 4 66. L . a nd J . H ill, Raymond I V de S t G illes, T oulouse 1 959, P. 1 6 accept this f act ( without comment, t hough no S panish h istorian mentions i t) and deduce that the succession to T oulouse h ad a leady b een d ecided by W illiam to be due t o Raymond's house, s ince William had no male heirs. Philippa l ater disputed t his.

2 42

1 83. T he C artulary ( n. 1 70) s hows donations f lowing i n f rom a n ever wider area. Restricted to the immediate vicinity i n t he 9 th a nd 1 0th c enturies, in t he 1 1th they c ome f rom t he north of Auvergne, Agde, C arcassonne, N arbonne, N imes, Avignon, O range, T ulle, P grigueux, R oussillon, T oulouse a nd i ts environs, V ivarais, L imousin, A lbigeois, U zes, Comminges, G gvaudun, B rie, Agen, B ordelais, B azadais, D ax, Auch. P riories were f ounded i n Normandy, B urgundy, Champagne, B rie, A lsace, L ondon, I taly, S pain and L iege ( Rouergue roman, p . 6 8). C oncerning L iege, connexions with t he south are a lready shown i n t he D eath R oll of Guifred o f Cerdagne, which a ssembled 5 0 s ignatures i n 1 050 f rom ecclesiastical e stablishments in t he L iggeois ( J. S tiennon, " Histoire e t a rchgologie:.." C SMC 1 971, p . 6 8). The collection o f i ndulgences c onceded by n eighbouring b ishops f or the c onstruction of t he abbey o f S ainte-Foy was s igned by G graud of Rodez, E tienne o f L e P uy, G uillaume o f A lbi, G graud o f P grigueux, Adalbert o f V iviers. 1 84. D urliat h as r eferred, i n this connexion, to the importance o f gold f rom S pain i n s everal a rticles. I n H istoire du R oussillon 1 962 he quotes G . D uby o n t he continuity o f a t rade route f rom t he Rhöne i nto Andalusia through Roussillon a nd t he L anguedoc. Northward a p assage by Conques and C lermont would be as p ractical a s up the Rhöne, f or t ravel by b oat upstream was n ot f easible. 1 85. F or examples: S aint-Benoit: t he U lysses theme, s irens, c entaurs. L e P uy: angel h eads: f ragments f rom t he c loister i n Le P uy museum. The Monopoli doorway suggests the c ommon inspiration was i n I taly. L e Monastier: mermaids. L oarre: angel impost, downturned l eaf. Moissac: a ngel i mpost; the s croll o f the s outh doorway capitals a t Conques anticipates the l inked s croll c apitals i n Moissac c loister, r eturning to C onques c loister a s the headless b ird s croll ( fig. 135); the c at-headed imp o f the Conques basin belongs with the masked f igures on c apital 1 7 impost i n Moissac c loister, a lso t he c loister f rieze at L e P uy, and p ilaster c apitals and t ympanum f igures at S aint-Martin d 'Ainay i n L yon, ( CA 1 935, p . 1 08 a nd p l. Opp. P. 1 10). P oitiers: cornice s labs. 1 86. P . Monjoin, " L'oeuvre t oulousaine de V iollet-le-Duc", Mons h ist..France, NS X I, 1 -2, 1 965; a nd under t he s ame t itle, Mem.soc.arch. M idi. . France 1 957; T . W. Lyman, " SaintS ernin de T oulouse: ' Que f aire du X IXe s iècle ", BM 1 39/2, 1 981; id., " The s culptural P rogramme o f the P orte des C omtes Master at S aint-Sernin in T oulouse", JWCI 1 971. 1 87. R . R ey, " Pierres r omanes toulousaines d 'une c ollection parisienne", B ull.soc.arch. M idi. . France, NS IV, 1 940, pp 1 0ff. ( Collection o f M . B rime d e Laroussilhe).

2 43

1 88. Lyman, JWCI 1 971, p . 2 4, says the c orbels over t he P orte des Comtes may be a 1 9th c entury rearrangement, b ut t he repertoire o f heads i s t he s ame a long t he entire l ength o f the apsidal cornices: " two human and two animal types: a beardless youthful, a bearded aged man, goats, bears". 1 89. T . W . Lyman, " Notes on the P orte Miägeville Capitals a nd t he Construction of S aint-Sernin i n Toulouse", AB M arch 1 967, f ig. 2 0. 1 90. Artistic s tyles r eflect the position of G ascony b etween F rance and Spain at a t ime when a ll the r outes across F rance converged on the western passages over t he Pyrenees, a nd c ontacts w ith S pain were growing i n i ntensity. The t ransient i nfluences are u sually welldefined, s ince there w as no previous l ocal b uilding t radition. The region s outh of the Garonne valley h ad remained outside t he Carolingian e mpire a nd untouched by t he Carolingian cultural r enaissance. Church administration appears to have c ollapsed: C abanot n otes that virtually every document of the 9 th and 1 0th centuries mentioning monasteries i s a f ake. T he f act t hat t he episcopal l ists are blank until the end of the 1 0th century appears t o r epresent a r eal h iatus. At t he e nd o f t he 1 0th century there i s at l ast mention o f a " bishop o f the Gascons": a member o f the d ucal f amily a nd r esponsible f or f ive d ioceses ( Les debuts de l a s culpture romane.. Paris 1 987, pp. 2 2-28). Menendez P idal ( Esp.Cid, p . 1 06) quotes evidence t hat Count S ancho-William f ollowed the court of S ancho the Great o f N avarre ( 1000-1035); after this t he main pressure c ame f rom Aquitaine. By the mid-1060s Gascony was a nnexed by the counts o f P oitiers i nto t he D uchy o f Aquitaine. T he Chronicle bf S aint-Maixent describes how Gui-Geoffroi went in 1 044 to s ubdue t he c ounty, a nd s ucceeded armis et i ndustria. Archibald, abbot of S aint-Martial i n L imoges, was appointed archbishop o f B ordeaux shortly a fterwards. When B ernard Tumapaler c laimed a nd f ought f or t he s uccession to t he county he was f inally paid 1 5,000 s olidi for potestatem t otius G asconie by G ui-Geoffroi; t hus both c ivil a nd ecclesiastical power was assured. By the t ime the l atter, n ow Duke William VIII o f Aquitaine, l ed h is army to t he s iege of Barbastro i n 1 063 h e was the acknowledged ruler o f t he province ( J. M artindale, op.cit.) C luny a lso at this t ime was " developing h er monastic empire by the absorption o f religious houses". A number h ad been f ounded during t he 1 1th century by l ocal nobles: S aint-Sever by the Duke in 9 93; S aint-Jean-Baptiste by Raymond o f S aint-Mont in t he f irst decade o f t he 1 1th c entury; Nogaro by Austinde, b ishop of Auch. From Moissac C luny expanded to L ayrac, Moirax, M ezin, Auch, S aint-Mont: " all s tages on the routes f ollowed by the b lack monks f rom Moissac to Spain.. . not to mention t he i ntermediary s tops

2 44

provided by smaller houses, such as the dependencies of S aint-Orens of Auch: S aint-Michel de Montaut-les-Creneaux, S aint-Martin in T ouget, S aint-Mamet in P eyrusse-Grande, S aint-Luper in E auze, S aint-Orens in Lavedan" ( Durliat, CA 1 970, P. 1 2). Gregory of Montaner, of the house of B igorre, was a monk at C luny before being appointed abbot ( 10281 072) of S aint-Sever by Duke S ancho-William. His l inks with Spain are evident in the i lluminations to the copy o f the " Beatus" manuscript which he h ad made at S aint-Sever ( BN l at. 8 878). There i s a lso, naturally, an influence from northern Aquitaine and the c ourt of Poitou after 1 052: Dubourg-Noves ( Guyenne romane) notes e lements from Anjou at S erignac and from Angouleme on certain Gascon façades. 1 91. This i s a lso noticeable at Lescure on the doorway corbels ( fig.273), and the animals resemble those of S aintS ever. 1 92. Bordeaux will have been another. Very l ittle Romanesque sculpture survives. A f ew c apitals are i llustrated in G uyenne romane; the " second phase" i s contemporary with S aint-Sever and La S auve corbels, to j udge from the s crolls. 1 93. J . Cabanot: CA 1 970; Gascogne romane; a series of articles on the c apitals of Saint-Sever, Bull.Soc Borda, 1 963, 1 966-1969; most recently Les debuts.. 1 987 brings all this together with f ull bibliography. The abbey was founded i n 9 93, f lourished under the rule of the C luniac Gregory of Montaner. A building was begun after a f ire i n the early 1 061s and had p rogressed f ar enough f or Gregory to consecrate the h igh a ltar before his death. This church i s thought by Cabanot to have been s uperceded by an unrecorded new building of the l ate 1 1th century. Cabanot shows that t he north apses a nd transept were decorated before the south. The series of capitals begins with a l ocal sculptor's l arge smooth acanthus, then in the south chapels comes a workshop " with connexions in the Agenais and Bordelais" to be f ollowed there by " a group trained by the master of the Porte des Comtes at S aint-Sernin in Toulouse, but a lso i nfluenced by B ernard G ilduin". Durliat g ives more emphasis to e lements from Santiago ( "The P ilgrimage Roads Revisited? BM 1 971, p . 1 13). 1 94. J . Gardelles, Sculpture medievale Bordelais, Bordeaux 1 976, S ection I I, i s copied.

de Bordeaux et du from which f ig. 2 19

1 95. Their delicacy recalls ivory carving, eg. the border of t he 8 -lobed medallions on the c asket EK E lf, no 3 1; JBCC p l 1 6, but d rilled in the case of the ivory. 1 96.

Gascogne

romane,

pp.

2 0-22.

1 97. I t i s l ogical that the roofing of the earlier chapels should be completed while work was a lready in progress f or the next parts.

2 45

1 98. o p.cit., p . 1 16. G arcia s trong C ordoban i nfluence.

R omo,

AE

1 954,

a rgues

f or a

1 99. G . Margais " Sur un l ion d e marbre trouve ä l a Q al'a d es B eni H ammad", Rev. a fricaine, 1 939. M argais quotes this i n AMO p . 1 17, a nd mentions more l ions. 2 00. N ogaro, G ascogne r omane, f ig. 9 5. S evignac, ibid., P s 3 03; Tasque, i bid., f ig. 1 11; there i s a beading l eft a the l ast vestige o f rolls. 2 01. 2 95.

P .

D ubourg-Noves,

" Moirax",

CA 1 969;

b ibliography,

2 02.

Abadie did h is worst on t he exterior of

p .

S aint-Caprais.

2 03. G uyenne romane, f ig. 1 00 ( Saint Vivien); Angoümois r oman, f ig. 5 1 ( Plassac); S aintonge romane, f igs 6 0, 6 7 ( Fenioux, C orme R oyale). The decoration and s tyles o f decorated s offits a nd metopes n eeds more s tudy f or c larification. N either the early example o f S aint-Hilaire i n P oitiers n or that o f C onques provoked immediate imitators. I n P oitiers at S aint-Hilaire a fter t he tower cornice t he c orbel t ables h ave s ingle a nimal r eliefs. O nly l ater, i n t he 1 2th century does Notre-Dame-la-Grande ( Poitou r oman, f igs 1 6-18) a dopt t he l uxuriant p lant s crolls found a lso in the 1 2th century i n S aintonge and Angoümois ( Angoümois r oman, f ig. 5 1, P lassac). I n t he Rhöne valley a cornice on corbels on the west t ower o f S aintP ierre i n V ienne h as s quare f lowers a nd s crolls l ike t he cornice f ragments o f L e P uy. The s offit f ragment w ith a s croll f rom I le B arbe ( BM 1 936, p . 3 02) i s a nother example o f a t radition o f decorated corbel l obes i n the Rhöne valley. 2 04. D ubourg-Noves, G uyenne romane, p . 2 6 d ates this upper p art o f the apse not e arlier t han the mid-12th century, but p erforated metopes otherwise b elong t o c 1100 ( pp.253-4), and there s eems no r eason t o make an e xception here. 2 05. i bid., f igs 1 07-115. T he c onnexion w ith L imousin manuscripts i s c lear. There are v ery s imilar " Arabs" holding c olumns i n t he S econd B ible o f S aint-Martial ( Limousin roman, " Manuscrits", p l. 3 , BN l at.8, VolI, f ol. 4 v). 2 06. L imousin roman, B eaulieu, f ig. 5 ; Chambon, f ig 1 5; S olignac, f ig. 3 3; S aint-Leonard, f ig. 1 . S aint-Leonard i s s aid by J ackson, R omanesque Architecture, CUP 1 920, p . 1 32, to have roll c orbels.

2 46

CHAPTER VI THE CONTRIBUTION OF ANDALUSIA TO ROMANESQUE DESIGN

The f oregoing i nvestigation o f Andalusian i nfluence i n R omanesque h as c entred on three f eatures: K ufic or mockK ufic l ettering, l obed arches and roll corbels. I n each c ase t heir a ssimilation h as proved to i mply a wider c ontext i n which t hey are incidental: 1 . I n chapter I II the f lat two-plane t echnique o f c arving in which a ll t he e xamples o f K ufic l ettering w ere executed w as f ound t o be c haracteristic o f a d istinct c raft t radition that was valid f or c enturies i n an a rea i ncluding b oth I beria a nd F rance. T he t echnique w as a pplied t o d iverse materials and objects or building parts both r eligious a nd s ecular, a nd i t i s e verywhere a ssociated w ith a d istinct body o f decorative conventions among which Kufic motifs h ad m a p lace. I n A ndalusia i ts practitioners w orked i n marble, p laster, wood and s tone. I t i s nowhere more i n evidence than in t he workshops c oncerned with roof a nd c eiling work, and hence with t he c orbel system d iscussed in C hapter V . Kufic a nd corbels are not n ow f ound together on a ny building in F rance. N evertheless i t i s workshops with t his s ame d ecorative t radition and t he s ame l inks w ith A ndalusia that must be responsible f or b ringing both f eatures t o F rance. 2 . The l obed arch ( Chapter IV) entered F rance p rimarily a s part o f f ar-reaching innovations i n the d ecorative, structural and s ymbolic f unction o f doorways, a nd therefore as p art o f a system o f f açade design. The e arliest example o f t his n ew f unction a nd s etting f or a d oorway i s t he P uerta S an E steban, the west entrance t o the l ate 8 th c entury p art o f t he G reat Mosque of C ordoba, t he M ezquita, on which a ll s ubsequent doorways i n Andalusia w ere modelled. Romanesque f açades too bear w itness t o t he i nfluence o f Andalusian doorway design upon them. 3 . The r oll c orbel, a f orm i nvented f or t he f irst G reat Mosque o f C ordoba i n t he l ate 8 th century, b ecame s ubsequently a c omponent o f a m ethod o f r oofing which o riginated i n Andalusia and i s unknown i n France before the R omanesque: that o f c arrying overhanging eaves on w ide h orizontal s labs o r p anels s upported o n c orbels. F urthermore t he earliest r oll corbels at Vendöme, P oitiers, T ournus and Conques are a ll a ssociated with decoration i n t he f lat two-plane t echnique of c arving a lways a ssociated w ith " Kufic" i nscriptions. Thus the unmistakably I slamic decorative f eature, be i t K ufic, or t he l obing o f an a rch or corbel, f ar f rom b eing an extraneous ornament culled f rom chance encounters with a f oreign c ulture, i s r ather t he detail t hat r eveals the Andalusian l inks or r oots of a craft o r building

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practice t hat h as b ecome e ssential, a nd in t he absence o f t he detail would appear to be " purely" R omanesque. FEATURES AND MOTIFS Appendix I l ists a s election of a rchitectural f eatures a nd decorative motifs t hat a re c ommon t o A ndalusia a nd Romanesque F rance. Many more could b e added. Not a f ew o f t he motifs belong t o a t raditional r epertoire s hared w ith E ast Mediterranean or e arlier western decorative arts, s o that a derivation f or t he F rench example i ndependent o f Andalusia i s possible i n s ome, perhaps even i n many c ases; this t he proponents o f t he v iew t hat F rench R omanesque s tyles a re untainted by I slamic i nfluence are ever r eady to point o ut. Nonetheless t he p resence o f a ll these motifs i n Andalusian d ecoration i s p articularly r elevant to Romanesque a rchitectural decoration, f or in A ndalusia t hey were executed by s culptors, and f or the d ecoration o f buildings, c onsiderably e arlier t han e lsewhere in W estern E urope. Their presence demands acceptance of Andalusia a s an i ntegral p art o f t he whole d evelopment o f architectural decoration i n the West. T he meticulous copy o f a K ufic i nscription, e vidently f rom a p iece o f metalwork, in t he notebook o f Adh4mar o f Chabannes(4) i s c lear evidence t hat motifs c ould be s hared and n otions o f design disseminated a cross the political and r eligious f rontiers. P atently I slamic e lements were evidently s tudied a nd current at L imoges i n the mid-llth c entury; their acceptance i s b orn out by t he f requency o f a llusions t o K ufic i n t he decoration o f L imousin enamels f or s everal centuries to c ome. T he e lements a dopted i nto a rchitecture however r equire f urther the existence o f workshops which had experience o f Andalusian p ractices a nd decorative m otifs s uch t hat the f rontiers had l ittle relevance t o t heir activities. The r eferences throughout t he p revious chapters t o the l ist o f Appendix I r epresent f or most i tems o nly a f raction o f possible examples; even s o the persistence and diffusion o f t he examples o f d ecoration quoted s hould be e nough to demonstrate that the potential Andalusian contribution was not l imited to e xotics in t he r epertoire, but i ncluded motifs f rom Andalusia, both dynamic and s tatic, that appealed widely to Romanesque designers. We c an t ake t reatments o f foliage a s a n example o f s uch dynamic motifs, a nd rosettes f or t he s tatic. F oliage Motifs T he f luency o f Andalusian p lant p attern p layed a l arge p art i n l iberating C arolingian i nterlace f rom i ts r igidity: t he e ssential process i s enacted dramatically i n the decoration of t he c apitals of S an P ere de R oda ( figs 8 3-89, 1 51), i n an e nvironment dominated b y t he f lat two-plane t echnique; l ater i n the 1 1th c entury running s crolls o n the c apitals o f C onques, S aint-Sernin i n T oulouse a nd Moissac

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c loister s how t hem heirs on t he o ne hand t o t he i nterlace o f p lait c apitals, descendants o f a l ong l ocal tradition, o n t he other to t he Andalusian t reatment o f t he c ircular l eaf s croll D 5 ( AHIII f igs 2 70c, 2 73b-d)(figs 9 2, 1 05)(1). S uch an a ncestry i s c onfirmed by t he i lluminated manuscripts o f t he region, which d epict f oliage t hat h as c lose analogies i n Andalusia(2); t hey h ave l ong been u nderstood a s imitations o f t he l ocal s culpture(3). R osettes The rosette, c losed and s tatic, i s a counterweight to t he s inuous moving p lant a rabesque. I t made a d ramatic d ebut in I slamic art on t he 7 th c entury f açade at M schatta ( 5), where i ts v ast s cale makes i t d ominate t he f açade, a nd i t r emained popular t hroughout the C hristian and I slamic N ear E ast f or s ome t wo more centuries. A fter t his i t t ended t here to be overtaken by rectilinear medallion f orms, whereas i n western I slam i t r etained s upremacy over g eometric interlace medallions well i nto the 1 2th c entury. A l eading model w as that s anctified in t he domes o f t he M ezquita ( fig 1 1) and doubtless modestly emulated i n the n ow vanished pierced domes o f countless bath houses i n every c ity o f t he p eninsula ( LTB 1 957 pp 6 17-618). I t i s e choed in m iniature i n s offits at M adinat a z-Zahra" a nd S egovia ( figs 2 0, 4 6) and between roll c orbels on the eaves o f Auvergnat c hurches ( figs 2 22, 2 84). P oitiers ( figs 2 372 39), Lyon and Conques ( figs 2 78-279) a dopted f loriated c ornices l ike Madinat a z-Zahra" ( fig.20), with l ess s tatic s crolls in the soffits; at S aint-Sernin i n Toulouse t he more s ober a ncestral R oman model h olds s way, n onetheless i t i s a ssociated with roll c orbels and the eaves s ystem o f Andalusian i nspiration. E nriched c ornices c ame i nto f ashion o nce more i n l ater f açade decoration i n western F rance, f ollowing t he e xample o f t he Abbaye-aux-Dames i n S aintes, A ngou r eme c athedral ' or Notre-Dame-la-Grande i n P oitiers, w ith many v ersions of t he rosette among more o rganic f orms. More f lamboyant versions o f the r osette, without any c onnotation o f c lassical s offits a nd metopes, f ound f avour i n other r egions. I n t he Rhöne valley they are f ramed i n a rches, e xactly a s i n Andalusia ( AHIII f ig.242); i n B urgundian R omanesque t hey a re u sed i n numerous c ontexts c ontinuously f rom a n early date ( 6); i n N ormandy they are a pplied to c apitals, a s at Jumiäges ( 7). Another characteristic Andalusian application i n a ddition to dome a nd s offit decoration i s a s a s pandrel motif; i t i s i nterpreted o n a l-Hakam mihrab a s a great p alm f lower on a s tem, at Z aragoza a s a vertical i nset c oupolette o r bacino. I t i s u surped by f igures at C luny I II ( 8): this modification was a lready e ffected on the P laterias doorway at S antiago a nd t he P orte-des-Comtes i n T oulouse. I t may b e s urmised too t hat t he constant practice o f p lacing a small rosette boss i n the spandrels of a rches over f igures, a s a t S antiago, T oulouse or Moissac, i s not

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only t he s keuomorph o f a j eweller's nails but at t he s ame t ime an observance of the Andalusian s pandrel convention. R osettes c ontinued t o p lay a s triking r ole on doorways e ven a fter they were abandoned at C luny I II, f or example i n B urgundy ( fig.153), o r i n Q uercy on t he l arge-scale rosette l intels of Moissac and Th zels. These have a parallel i f n ot a p recursor i n t he d oorway o f S aint-Jean-le-Vieux at P erpignan ( fig.150), now, r econstituted f rom f ragments, in t he P alais des Rois de Majorque Museum. I t h ad l arge r osettes c arved at e ither end of i ts horizontal members ( 9). Another u se o f the motif i s exemplified at J aca, where t he chrism o f t he west door t ympanum i s s tudded w ith smaller rosettes ( Aragon r oman f ig.36). DOORWAY DESIGN AND LOBED ARCHES T he West Door of C luny

I II

Q uite apart f rom i ts rosettes t he P erpignan doorway f ragments c an i ndicate t he d irection f rom which c ame s ome f eatures o f the C luny I II f açade ( the c omplete doorway might have f urnished more). The principle o f u sing t he entrance to a religious building i n a declamatory manner to proclaim d istinguishing f eatures of t he inner s anctuary was f irst expressed i n western architecture i n the design of t he P uerta S an E steban. I t w as ' a lready b eing a dopted i nto Christian architecture i n the early 1 1th century: the l intels o f S aint-Genis-des-Fontaines ( inscribed 1 020) and S aint-Andre-de-Sorede ( Roussillon r oman, f igs 1 9-23) and the P erpignan f ragments o f disputed d ate, a ll reproduce an a ltar or a ltar f urniture. At P erpignan t he torus s urrounds even have the guilloche moulding o f the a ltar t ables of Gerona, Rodez a nd T oulouse; i n i ts t urn this moulding r ecalls the border o f the Carolingian Narbonne i vory Crucifixion panel ( 10). At C luny I II t he declamatory principle i s extended f rom t he doorway to embrace a whole f açade. The doorway is c onceived on a monumental s cale t o r eproduce a n apse i nterior w ith i ts a rcading and wall p aintings ( 11). O ne of the archivolts on t he C luny door has l obes containing f igures, a dopting a d evice s een on t he a ltar-like doorway at P erpignan and on t he R oda doorstep ( figs 1 50,151): that o f containing c arvings within l obes; the c onvergence with Andalusian l obes i s u nlikely t o be f ortuitous, f or the designers o f the C luny doorway r eturned to Andalusia for y et more e lements o f t heir g reat f açade. The P uerta S an E steban h ad e stablished the model: projecting massif, r ecessed o pening, l intel below t he d iameter l ine o f the a rch, a lfiz, arched r ecesses on e ither s ide of the m assif with windows above. Other Romanesque D oorways The Andalusian e lement a t C luny i s f urther confirmed by t he r ecognizable Andalusian i nspiration a pparent i n many

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c hurch doorway d esigns t hat imitate C luny in w idely varying ways. Treatment o f the a lfiz i s a t elling example; the motif has many i nterpretations ( figs 3 , 3 07). P aray-leMonial and S alles-en-Beaujolais may s tress i ts r emote o rigin in R oman a rchitecture ( figs 3 11,312) but at L oupiac, C häteau-Larcher, C orme-Ecluse ( figs 3 13, 3 17, 3 15) or R ioux ( Saintonge r omane f ig. 1 82) t he Andalusian connexion i s u ndisguised. O n m ore modest f açades only a p rojecting massif a nd a c orbelled w eather r oof or c ornice m ay b e r etained, yet o ften buttresses provide vertical s ides t o emphasize t he l ine o f a r ectangular f rame ( figs 3 18- 2 0). I nnumerable f açades i n P oitou, t he Angoümois, S aintonge a nd B ordelais: Angouleme cathedral or Notre-Dame-la-Grande i n P oitiers f or example, s tart out f rom t he b asic C ordoban composition of C luny I II: t hey multiply the cornices and arcades horizontally, s ometimes vertically a s well, s howing a s much i ndifference t o t he ordering o f the building within, i ts arcades, a isles, t ribunes or openings as i s n otoriously manifest i n t he Mezquita: there one may enter through an * ostentatious d oorway o nly t o be c onfronted by a c olumn a lmost b locking t he way. This type o f western F rench f açade coincides with t he p roliferation i n t his r egion o f t he distinct type o f s culpture t hat s tarted about the third decade o f t he 1 2th c entury ( 12), exemplified by t he c apitals o f the c rossing i n S aint-Eutrope i n S aintes which s how t heir own s election o f Andalusian t hemes a nd are n oticeably Andalusian i n character ( Saintonge romane, f igs 1 2-14). At Corme-Ecluse t he a lfiz c an b e read a s i ncluding the a rcading i n its f rame; at R ioux and R iqueuil, E snandes o r G enouille ( op.cit. f igs 1 99, 2 06), a nd i n t he B erry a lso ( Lurgis-Levis, f ig.314), twin o r s uperposed c olumns are f urther Andalusian details; at S aint-Hilaire i n Melle ( fig.324) t he i nner a rchivolt i s c arved w ith l eaves i n r elief that recall the l obes o f C luny's triforium. These m ay b e a r esponse to t he s ame c urrent o f i nfluence f rom C luny that a ffected Montbron with i ts s eries o f l obed a rchivolts ( fig.160). C hurch doorways depicted i n t he B ayeux T apestry make no c laim t o monumentality ( fig.124), b ut at J umiäges we s ee t he n ew i deas b eginning to t ake e ffect i n Normandy: t he t win columns F 6 a t t he e ntrance are a sober expression o f t he solemnity of t he e ntrance. T he t wo t ransept d oors a t C onques ( ?before 1 070)(figs 1 25,132 ) and t he west door a t I guäcel ( ?1072)(Aragon roman, f igs 5 1,53) a lready display t he basic R omanesque composition. Their immediate model i s l ost. The c ompositions o f t he P orte d es C omtes at T oulouse ( Haut-Languedoc r oman, f ig.16) and t he s outh door at Marcilhac ( fig 6 ) a re experimental attempts t o i ncrease the monumental a spect o f a doorway, evolved b efore C luny I II e stablished t he dominant model. This we s ee f ully developed a t S aint-Sernin i n the P orte M iägeville ( op.cit. f ig.36). T he earlier P orte d es Comtes h as f igures i n the spandrels ( F19) with r elief i nscriptions ( F2) a nd a roll c orbel t able

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above, b ut i t g ives no i nsistent evocation o f Andalusian design; the weather r oof on corbels a nd t he roll f orm o f t he l atter may have c ome at s econd h and f rom Conques. A t Marcilhac the reliefs o f f igures a re a rranged i n s teps, a nd r emind us of t he s tepped n iches o f t he S an E steban door; the sun a nd moon s ymbols f lanking t he small Christ f igure under an arcade at t he t op c orrespond to s pandrel b osses ( 13). T he c omposition i s more c losely r elated to spandrels with f igures i n N orth S pain t han to a ny F rench design. T he r elief i nscriptions on the arcades h owever connect b oth T oulouse a nd Marcilhac with Andalusia; t hey b ear o ut o nce again the c ontention that Andalusian methods and motifs were p ervasive i n many g uises i n R omanesque c raft a nd design ( 14). T he doorway o f S aint-Michel-d'Aiguilhe in L e P uy ( fig.175) i s u nique. T he t rilobe, s aw-tooth motif, a rcading and polychromy c an a ll be r eferred t o Andalusia but t hey were a ll well e stablished i n R omanesque decoration by t he t ime t he chapel was built. Reference to t he a lfiz i s not s tressed unequivocally and the design i s unlike any i n Andalusian a rchitecture; y et there i s no doubt that t he composition a lludes f orcefully t o C ordoban doorways: i t u ses what by t he l ater 1 2th c entury were p urely l ocal e lements t o produce the most exotic c omposition i n Romanesque d ecoration. The Lobed Arch Apart f rom this l ate t our-de-force a t Le P uy t he modest t rilobes o f the V elay h ave o nly a f aint connexion with Andalusia. A s originally d esigned t he a rcading a t L e Monastier a long the n ave walls ( fig.177) would certainly have s truck a more emphatic note t han the u sual s mall t rilobes o f t he a rea, but not s ufficient to suggest t he Velay as the pioneer i n e stablishing the motif i n F rance ( 15). C luny I II i s more l ikely t o have been one of the p rime movers i n t he d issemination o f t he l obed a rch in F rance, and this s upposition i s warranted by historical events. Long b efore t he s tart o f C luny I II A ndalusian methods a nd motifs were r eaching France, and were doubtless c urrent at C luny, i t might b e t hrough t he w ood a nd marble workshops o f the east Pyrenean r egion, or f rom Montecassino, or d irect f rom Andalusia. B ut l obed arches w ere not among t hem. I t i s l egitimate t o s ee t heir adoption f or the new abbey c hurch a round 1 088 a s i ndicating a n ew phase i n a rtistic relations with Andalusia. The appropriate moment would be the occupation o f T oledo in 1 085 by A lfonso V I, with t he l obed a rches marking a celebration o f that victory, s ince it brought such enormous b enefits i n wealth a nd i nfluence to C luny. M aterially the Muslim gold l avished on C luny by A lfonso a llowed t he n ew building t o p roceed a pace ( 16); administratively C luny gained c ontrol o f the metropolitan s ee o f T oledo through B ernard o f S gdirac, at t he e xpense of

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t he i ndependence o f t he l arge Mozarab c ommunity i n t he c ity, confirming C luny's a lready forceful authority i n the e cclesiastical a nd p olitical a ffairs o f North S pain. With B ernard f rom t he Agenais s upreme i n Toledo, it i s n ot s urprising t o f ind T oledan e lements i ntroduced a t M oissac a lso, a nd t he agency o f Moissac may be postulated f or disseminating more s tructural a nd monumental i nterpretations o f the l obed arch than are now f ound at C luny: t hose of t he " Cahors" g roup w ith voussoirs c arved t o c reate an imaginatively s haped intrados, a nd j ambs, with m ouldings t hat emulate t he p lasterwork o f A ndalusian p alaces, s haped i nto l obes ( remarkably s imilar t o the e xterior o f t he 9 th c entury dome o f t he Great Mosque o f S ousse i n N orth A frica). At S antiago t he s ame mouldings are w orked on t he l obed c onsoles a nd t he l intels o f t he P laterfas doorway, and a further l ink b etween S antiago and t he " Cahors" group of l obed a rches i s s uggested by t he p ractice o f s eparately j ointing t he t rilobed and polylobed a rch s offits, at S antiago, a p ractice s een t o g reatest p erfection a t C ahors. R OLL CORBELS AND G ENERAL P ROBLEMS O F D ISTRIBUTION O ne o f t he main problems outstanding i n c onnexion with a ll t he v aried Andalusian f eatures f ound i n R omanesque d ecoration i s t hat o f c orrelating t he p atterns o f d istribution t hroughout F rance. No overriding l ogic h as s o f ar emerged; however, the appearance o f s tone r oll corbels a t Vendöme, P oitiers, T ournus, J umiäges a nd C onques b efore o r very s oon a fter the middle o f t he 1 1th century j ustify t he b elief that o ther Andalusian f eatures or motifs must h ave been current i n F rance during the e arlier 1 1th c entury. T wo E arly Types

o f R oll

Corbel

Even t he presence o f the roll corbel does not i ndicate a s ingle s imple current o f i nfluence. F rom the s tart i n F rance two d istinct s tyles c an be observed, a nd their c onnexions a re i ntricate. O ne i s r epresented at J umiäges(fig.225): t he corbels are s haped w ith heavy p lain f illets and t he c ornice they s upport i s p lain. A lso a t J umiäges a re s ome c apitals o f a t ype a ssociated w ith t he N arbonne marble a telier, descending f rom Roda, with i nterlace a nd p almettes ( 17), a s well a s other t ypes, i ncluding a " Toledan" ( see n . 7 ). T he s ame t ype o f corbel a nd o f c apital i s c haracteristic of t he north t ransept door a t C onques, o f about the s ame period, while Tournus has the c orbels with a p lain c ornice, a nd there a re analogous c apitals there a s well. The s econd style o f r oll corbel i s that o f the cornice a nd corbels on t he t ower of S aint-Hilaire i n P oitiers ( figs 2 37-239). T he s ingle known " Cordoban type" c orbel at V endöme can be c lassed with them. The corbels a re varied

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and carved w ith delicacy - s culptor's a s opposed to mason's work. The decoration o f the soffit s labs i s s imilar to t hat of t he s outh door at C onques, which a lso h as c orbels of this type. S imilarities between c arving at S aint-Hilaire a nd at S an Miguel de F luviä w ere noted i n C hapter V . The capitals on the s outh door at Conques i nvite comparisons with examples in north-west Spain, a t Frömista a nd N ogal f or instance, where F luviä evidently a lso had artistic relations. T heir s croll work i s o f t he t ype which was l ater much i n evidence in Moissac c loister and associated w ith t he Toledan-style K ufic i nscription o n c apital 5 0 ( 18). The corbels o f the s outh transept door at Conques ( less Cordoban than t he n on-figural c orbels at P oitiers a nd l ess ambitious than the f igured) have h orizontal curl s tems as at P oitiers, a nd t heir d esign i s a gain d elicate rather t han robust. The type has developed f ar f rom its precursors at Madinat a z-Zahra', and nothing s urvives that f ills t he gap i n the development. No F rench corbel h as any c lose a ffinity with Andalusian wood c orbels, a nd there a re no s tone corbels from 1 1th century Andalusia. AGENTS

OF TRANSMISSION

O ur comparison o f details of t he Velay doors with the F ez panel, and even more t ellingly w ith Andalusian w ooden corbels and c eiling members, has e stablished that the decoration o f t he doors s hares i ts t echniques a nd many characteristic motifs with Andalusian woodwork. The doors a nd t he Andalusian examples are a ll p atently products o f a s ingle craft tradition. The constant association o f t his k ind o f decoration with c eilings i n A ndalusia g ives s trong r eason f or attributing the introduction i nto France o f the Andalusian s ystem of corbel t ables t o c raftsmen l ike the makers o f the Velay doors, who were evidently a cquainted with Andalusian techniques and decoration. A lthough they are unlike Andalusian wood c orbels, t he early stone c orbels in France are a ssociated with cornices and c apitals which are decorated with Andalusian-like motifs, s ome i n t he f lat wood technique. A t race of t he Andalusian wood tradition remains too i n t he down-turned l eaf motif ( D16) o f n umerous Romanesque capitals. A s tage o f direct t ransfer o f this motif f rom c orbel to c apital i s met i n s tone b efore t he end o f the 1 0th c entury, at R ipoll; i t i s f ound l ater at S antiago, Conques and Moissac, with t he c ulmination o f its development in F rance in t he grandiose sweeping f lourish of movement of the foliage on c apitals a t Charlieu, Vezelay or S aulieu ( 19). These however are products o f specialized capital s culptors. The c orbel table h ad come to F rance when workshops undertook more widely varied tasks ( 20). The s pread of t he l obed a rch h as a quite d ifferent h istory. Whether traced f rom C luny ( group I ) or S antiago ( group 2 ) it was a phenomenon t hat took p lace mostly after 1 100, primarily in areas l eft relatively untouched by the roll c orbel: in t he Rhöne v alley, Burgundy, Velay, at Moissac, Cahors and i n the Limousin. Toulouse and Conques,

2 54

which have r oll c orbels, d id n ot a dopt i t, a nd l obed a rches a re far f rom s tandard i n the Auvergne which has the g reatest c oncentration o f r oll c orbels in F rance ( 21). I t was in G othic d ecoration that t he potentialities o f l obing t he arch w ere most f ully e xploited. I n the Romanesque context the o riginal decision to d ecorate an a rch w ith l obing i s t o be i nterpreted a s a d eliberate choice made in the l ight o f s erious s ymbolic a ssociations, at t he h ighest i ntellectual e cclesiastical l evel. Canon t ables and other i llustrious manuscript r enderings, a ltars, l iterary r eferences to a rches, a nd t o d oorways t oo, w ill a ll have c ontributed t o the suitability o f l obing, but o nly i n Andalusia was i t part o f b uilding p ractice. T he choice was made at centres o f authority l ike C luny a nd S antiago ( 22); a role i s p roposed h ere f or M oissac a lso, a s C luny's greatest s cion on the r oad to S pain, where t he m odels were to be s een. The roll c orbel on the other hand came a s part o f a t echnical s ystem which h appened to b ring with it i ts e stablished decorative traditions; the choice or rejection o f t he precise d etails o f i ts f orm i s unlikely to have b een a matter o f h igh p olicy and probably r ested with the master b uilder rather t han t he patron, o r even t he artisans on t he w ork s ite. Wooden r oll corbels a re l ikely to have b een i ntroduced i nto F rance e arly in t he 1 1th c entury. These e lements a re but two o f the many d iverse d imensions i n which R omanesque F rance c an be s een to h ave d rawn on the earlier c ultural achievement o f Andalusia ( 23). A l arge measure o f mobility i s i mplied, o f craftsmen a nd o f p ractices a s much a s o f the s ecular and e cclesiastical p atrons whose a ctivities a nd opportunities f or a cquaintance w ith Andalusian c ulture are a lone r ecorded. T he variety, i n both s cale a nd t ype, o f f eatures, motifs and concepts current i n Andalusia and adopted i nto R omanesque, from t he s ymbolism o f a g reat f açade to the s hape and g rowth p attern o f a s ingle l eaf, i s matched by a s imilar variety i n t he p atterns o f distribution a nd m utual a ssociation in which e ach i s f ound. The conclusion must b e t hat Andalusian e lements are among t he i ntegral c omponents o f Romanesque architectural decoration.

C HAPTER VI.

NOTES

1 . S aint-Benoit, a s s o o ften, i s i nvolved i n the d evelopment. T he mandorla of S t Martin on t he tower-porch c apital f ig. 5 7 i s covered with the scroll i n f lat twop lane relief. There a re early versions a lso a t Nogäl and F römista.

2 . f ol.

Q uercy roman, f ig. 6 3: New Testament, 1 0, f rom the Agen-Moissac r egion.

2 55

B . N.lat.

2 54,

3 . Q uercy r oman, p . 1 40: " the drawing and t he i llumination here are c opying s culpture". I n this case i t m ay be ivory s culpture, but P orcher's a rgument i s t hat painting a nd s tone s culpture were moving in c lose concert; i n J . P orcher, Byzance e t l a F rance m edievale, P aris 1 958, t he s ame s cholar l ays s tress on t he i nfluence o f Andalusia, a s well a s o f I taly. 4 .

U L Leyden,

Voss

8 o

1 5.

S ee Chapter

I II,

n .l.

5 . C reswell, EMA I ; E . K ühnel, I slamic A rt a nd Architecture, L ondon 1 966, p ls 6 a nd 7 . The popularity o f t he motif i n early I slamic art i nfected Byzantium a lso. 6 . T he u se o f rosettes on a c apital a t P ayerne i n c onjunction with the " fir tree" motif r eflects t heir importance at C luny a nd i n B urgundy: G . Z arnecki, " La s culpture ä P ayerne", S tudies.. . 1979, VIII, p l. 8 and 1 1; p . 1 61: P ayerne a s a r eflection o f the s tage r eached at C luny before t he Third Church. B oth motifs c an be a dded to the S panish c onnexions o f e arly C luny referred to throughout this a rticle. J . Evans, C luniac Art g ives a number o f examples o f B urgundian r osettes among t he i llustrations. 7 . C apital with f lower cross and b irds i n circular l eaf s croll, i n t he t echnique of D 9: G . Z arnecki, " 1066.." S tudies..., I , p l. VIIa; c ompare w ith T oledo: AHIII f igs 2 71c, 2 72 a-c, 2 73 c -d. 8 .

K .J.

Conant,

C luny...1968,

f igs

1 80,

1 84.

9 . M . D urliat, " Une porte romane d e P erpignan", M el. C rozet I , 1 966; i d., L a s culpture romane en Roussillon I II, 1 950, pp. 4 0-42; op.cit. I V, 1 954, pp. 9 3-94; P . P onsich, " Saint-Jean-le-Vieux de P erpignan", E tudes R oussillonnaises 1 953, pp. 1 29-131; id., CA 1 12, 1 954, pp. 1 14-115 and b ibliography p . 1 18. T he Thgzels l intel: D . Fossard, " Sur l a postgrite des s arcophages d 'Aquitaine" B SNAF 1 962, pp. 1 34-136, w ith a b ibliography o f d iscussion on t he d ating. D urliat in 1 966 revokes h is previous s upport f or the g enerally a ccepted early dating o f t he P erpignan door and p roposes t he reform o f S aint-Jean-le-Vieux a s a collegiate church i n 1 102 a s t he d ate f or t he door f ragments; t his i s b ecause of the c lassical genius on t he side o f the l intel, holding a s hell mandorla f or t he L amb, which D urliat s ees a s part o f the c lassical r evival r epresented by the work o f G ilduinus at T oulouse, but " more b ackward l ooking". P . P onsich, " Les p lus anciennes s culptures medigvales du R oussillon ( Ve-XIe s iäcles)", C SMC 1 1, 1 980 gives c losely argued s tylistic a nd h istorical r easons f or retaining t he 1 025 dedication o f t he c hurch a s t he d ate of the doorway.

2 56

1 0. G oldschmidt I ( 1914), no 3 1; P . L asko, A rs S acra, p . 2 71; J . H ubert et a l., C arolingian A rt, f ig. 2 09. Compare t he outer border w ith t he L ouvre c asket, J BCC, p ls 1 4-17. 1 1. K .J. Conant, " The Theophany in t he H istory o f C hurch P ortal Design", G esta 1 976, p . 1 27 f f. In " The Third Abbey C hurch at C luny", E ssays . .A. K ingsley P orter I , Conant r efers to t he c onsiderable u se o f red and b lue b ackground a nd o f gold on t he doorway. This i s l ike t he s culpture i n a l-Hakam I I's mosque. The origin o f the mediaeval doorway h as a g rowing b ibliography, but t he P uerta S an E steban i s r arely mentioned: R . Hamann Maclean, " Les origines des p ortails et f açades s culptgs gothiques", C CM 1 969, pp. 1 57-175; Y . C hriste, L es g rands portails r omans, G eneva 1 969 ( examines t he a pse/tympanum connexion); P . H gliot " Observations sur l es f açades dgcorges d 'arcades aveugles d ans l es g glises r omanes", B ull.Soc. Ant.de l 'Ouest 4 , 1 958, p . 3 67-458 c ites M eymac a nd Le Monastier a s two o f t he e arliest examples o f u sing the e ntrance i tself a s an e lement o f decoration; M . Durliat, " L'apparition du grand p ortail roman h istorie dans l e Midi de l a F rance", CSMC 8 , 1 977, pp. 7 -14; U . Monneret de Villard, " Per l a S toria del P ortale Romanico", E ssays. . A. K ingsley P orter I , r efers t o t he influence o f t he mihrab on doorway design, but i s m ainly concerned with oriental examples; T . W. L yman, " L'intggration du p ortail dans l a f açade mgridionale", CSMC 8 , 1 977, g ives f urther b ibliography. 1 2. C aliphal i vories are o ften c ited a s t he models f or the s culpture; this i s valid for t he f igures ( cf. the hair o f t he f igures on c apitals a t S aint-Eutrope i n S aintes ( Saintonge romane, f ig. 1 5) and the necks of l ions, ( fig. 1 4), but t he f oliage i s equally c lose to c aliphal a rchitectural c arving, a nd t he treatment o f c olumns, o utlined extrados, and motifs l ike the H ead i n a V ( D17) n oticed by H enry a nd Z arnecki, ( "Arches decorated..." in G Z S tudies. . VI, f ig. 6 ), triangular d rilling ( Saintonge r omane, f ig. 1 41), f loriated cornices ( ibid., f ig. 1 17), n aturalistic l eaf s croll ( D9), show f amiliarity with Andalusian a rchitectural decoration, a nd a lready i n t he c rypt of S aint-Eutrope ( consecrated 1 096) t he capitals have s uch motifs as down-turned l eaf, c rossed s tems a nd r ows o f r osettes ( ibid., f igs 1 -10). There i s c ertainly a lso an a dmixture o f the e lements present in L imousin manuscripts ( these n ot n ecessarily remote f rom Andalusian connexions) a nd a lso in such work a s the ivory cross of F ernando and S ancha of L eön ( fig.111). A s trong c ase f or t he l ink with c aliphal ivories c an be made f or such f oliage carving a s t hat i n t he p orch at Moissac, at C ollonges a nd C ahors ( fig.301). 1 3. The stepped c omposition i s explained by M . V idal, Q uercy roman, a s a n a rchaicizing re-use o f earlier s culpture. Other Romanesque doorways a ffect the s ame c omposition however; there i s even a h int of it i n the Moissac tympanum; t he stepped pattern i s emphasized further

2 57

on t he t ympanum o f C ahors, a nd at S aint O urs i n L oches ( figs 3 26,327). The l atter doorway has radiating voussoirs ( F14) a s well; s eparate vertical f igures r eminiscent o f the P laterias doorway at S antiago are combined w ith f illets. 1 4. Another i llustration o f this i s t he s poradic occurrence o f twin columns which Lyman a ssociates with t he " sacred portal" ( "The f unction o f a n ancient architectural ornament a nd i ts s urvival i n Mediaeval S pain and F rance", Actas...Granada 1 978), referring t o t heir non-structural u se at the threshold o f G ermigny ( "related to Spanish architecture"); Grodecki ( "Les chapiteaux d e B ernay", BM 1 950) thinks with C onant of t he b lind a rcading with t win columns in t he apse of C luny I I; at S an Millan de S uso t win columns c ertainly a llude to t he m ihrab o f t he Mezquita. At J umieges and at C onques they coincide with a lternating supports ( F7) a nd roll corbels ( F1); at T oulouse and S olignac with roll corbels, at S olignac a lso with l obed arch decoration ( F22); at both these and at Conques w ith s uperposed columns ( F9). T abulation o f the m otifs coinciding w ith one s uch f eature might p roduce t elling patterns. 1 5. T o depose L e P uy f rom i ts p re-eminent p ioneering status f or the l obed a rch i s n ot t o dismiss t he cathedral a s devoid o f inmportance as a Monument where Andalusian f eatures a re f ound. T he wooden doors make i ts o ther f eatures s pecially relevant. The e arly capitals b elong among t he g roup w ith C atalan c onnexions; there a re twin columns in the east end ( F6) and polychrome masonry and voussoirs ( F14) i n t he 1 1th c entury parts. L e P uy's relations with I taly and S icily brought i t i nto c lose t ouch with t he R höne valley, and f ragments i n t he museum s how that i t a lso had r elations w ith Conques and Moissac. 1 6.

D efourneaux,

p .

2 1.

1 7. E . Vergnolle, " Chronologie e t methode d 'analyse: doctrines s ur l es debuts de l a s culpture r omane en F rance", C SMC 9 , 1 978, f ig. 5 . S ome progress i s being made in c larifying t he development and d istribution o f " plait" capitals, e specially in t he s outh ( J.Bousquet, Les chapiteaux de C onques,1973; J .Cl. F au, " un d ecor original.." CSMC 9 , 1 978, with bibliography). The J umieges example c an be c ompared with t he i llustrations t o the article by F au: the pendant pine o f h is f ig. 2 ( Roda) r ecurs b etween c rossed s tems ( D1,2) a t A utun ( Grivot and Z arnecki, G islebertus.., capital 6 0; f ig. ' B 8), at MoütierS aint-Jean with downturned l eaf volutes ( ibid, f ig B 7). 1 8. S ome o f t he a labaster c apitals f rom t he G aliana p alace i n Toledo ( AHIII , f ig. 2 70a, and e specially 2 70d) h ave an i ncipient horizontal l eaf motif which may have s ome p art i n t he evolution o f t he B erry c ylindrical version ( Berry roman f igs 5 6. 9 3; f ound e arlier i n G ascony: G ascogne r omane, f ig.32 ( Saint-Sever). A c apital f rom S aint-Nazaire ( Aude),

2 58

( Fau, op.cit.1978, f ig. 3 ) i s a p erfect i ntermediary b etween the " Berry" motif a nd t he c aliphal inturned hollow l eaf ( D4), a s f ound on t he c onsole o f t he c aliphal c apital o f the S alon Rico, AHIII , f ig. 1 10 and on the console o f t he c apital f rom S egovia LTB 1 957 f ig. 4 80, which i s r eproduced exactly on t he hollowed corners at S aintN azaire. Another v ersion i s on t he volutes o f a c apital f rom the A ljaferia, AHIII, f ig.279c. 1 9.

J .

Evans,

Art i n Mediaeval

France,

1 948,

p l.

2 9b.

2 0. Cahn ( Doors, p .148) s peculates on t he makers o f the Velay doors a s f ollows: " If T heophilus i s to be believed, t he a rts of j oinery a nd wood c arving had not y et emerged a t t he beginning o f t he t welfth c entury i nto a d istinct p rofessional calling. T he a rtisan e nvisioned by t his writer, though primarily a goldsmith, was a t the s ame t ime a p ractitioner of woodwork, able to a ssemble d oors, various t ypes of f urniture a s well a s the case f or a n o rgan, c asting f or t hese a nd o ther p urposes h is own n ails".... " there were men o f Theophilus's broad c apacities within t he c ircle o f t he c athedral builders...In L e P uy i tself, the association of c arpentry with building remained i n f orce t o t he e nd o f t he M iddle Ages.." a nd again " The i llustration o f t he carpenters'characteristic activities f urnished b y t he t exts r anges f rom s hipbuilding to the c onstruction o f t imber f rames and r oofs o f houses." I i nclusion among these c raftsmen o f d ecorators propose t he and roof builders whose t echniques s temmed f rom a cquaintance with Andalusian p ractices, a cquired w ithin reemasonry, s imilar to t he ages ome kind o f international f l ong " freemasonry" i mplied by t he l ives o f t he s hepherds o f Montaillou ( E. L e R oy L adurie, Montaillou, village occitan d e 1 294 ä 1 324, P aris 1 982). 2 1. I f S antiago was a determinant influence for the l obed a rches of t he Velay t he roll c orbel might be e xpected there t oo; but no corbel t ables o f a ny k ind found f avour i n the V elay. There must h ave been o ther models f or l obed arches, now vanished, available i n the r econquered c ities. The examples i n t he R höne valley w ill have p layed a mediating part i n some c ases. 2 2. At S antiago i t i s not the doorways but windows t hat receive t he l obing. Lyman o p.cit. 1 978 s tresses t he s ymbolism o f w indows a s purveying ( divine) l ight, a nd their p lacing high on f açades, which would accord with the l obes on t he axial chapel w indow a nd on the t ransept gables. The doorway at Moissac r epresents further evolution towards the animation o f the e ntrance s ought i n G othic architecture. The original design has been t ransformed, but continuity f rom the P uerta S an E steban i s unbroken. 2 3. There i s a p arallel to be drawn with the topic o f Andalusian e lements in t roubadour poetry, which cannot be embarked on here.

2 59

APPENDIX A NUMBERED ( Only

OF SOME ANDALUSIAN F EATURES AND MOTIFS SHARED WITH ROMANESQUE a f ew examples of e ach feature or motif are c ited)

FEATURES F l. F 2. F 3.

F 4.

F 5.

F 6.

F 7.

F 8.

F 9.

F 10.

F ll.

I

L IST

1 -11,

various

Roll corbel. See Chapter V . I nscriptions i n f lat two-plane r elief. S ee Chapter I II; f igs 5 -7. Thick acanthus l eaf t ip on capitals. Mezquita, Mozarabic, Z aragoza; S antiago, Moissac; f igs 4 , 4 0, 1 05. Stud medallions in relief f igs 1 1, 162. Mezquita, Asturian, Mozarab ( AHIII f ig. 4 41); Les Aix d'Angillon. Upwards concentration of decoration. Mezquita, Z aragoza; Moissac, Le P uy; f igs 1 8, 1 14, 1 95. ( cf. T . W. Lyman, CSMC 1 977: high arcades and high windows a s the point of departure f or façade design in C arolingian a nd early s outhern F rench Romanesque; t he high parts as " lieux privilegies" before doorways were g iven any dominant röle). P aired or twinned columns. Mezquita ( fig. 4 ); Germigny des Pres; Arlanza, Jaca, Jumiäges, early Le P uy c athedral, Conques, Nant, S aint-Pierre-de Rhädes f ig.16, Larrede ( specially frequent in H igh Aragon and Rouergue), Aunay, Melle. Lyman ( Granada, XXIII Congr. Hist. Art vol. 3 ) refers to the " sacred portal" with a threshold f lanked by pairs of columns. A lternating s upports. Green a nd red columns, w ith Corinthian and composite capitals, in the Mezquita; S aint-Nazaire in Carcassonne, J aca, R ipoll, Bozouls, Carennac; the following have roll corbels, F l, as well: Jumiäges, S aint-Hilaire i n Poitiers, N .-D. du P ort in C lermont ' , I ssoire, Orcival, S aint-Saturnin ( E. L ambert, " L'Ancienne eglise du P rieure de Lay-Saint Christophe et l 'alternance des supports dans l es eglises de plan basilical", BM 1 942). S lender columns and colonnettes. Mezquita, Malaga ( AHIII f ig.303); S ilos reliquary, Arca S anta, Moissac doorway. figs 2 99, 8 1, 1 8. S uperposed columns. A l-Hakam I I's extension; Roda i nterior arcades, C luny I II n ave, exterior of chevet at Toulouse and Conques, f ig. 1 2. Window or niche on colonnettes. Mezquita domes, f lanking a l-Hakam I I's doorways; I guäcel; Le Monastier, Saint-Pierre Toirac ( fig. 1 5) with early t rilobes as at Santiago. Twin window or niche with central colonnette ( ajimez). Torre S an Juan ( late 9 th-early 1 0th century), Mezquita doorways; Muzols ( fig. 1 4), Champagne ( fig. 1 71), S aint-Antonin ( fig. 4 9).

2 60

FEATURES F 12.

F 13.

F 14.

F 15.

F 16.

F 17.

F 18.

F 19.

F 20.

1 2-22,

arches

A lfiz: r ectangular f rame s urrounding arch. Andalusian f rom P uerta S an E steban onwards. O ften i nterpreted i n Romanesque doorway design w ith c olumn b uttresses a nd a weather r oof o r cornice above: P eujard, Loupiac, L e P uch, f igs 3 07, 3 13, 3 19. C luny I II a nd c ertain B urgundian churches adopted i t more explicitly. S ome i nspiration i s s uggested f rom e arly A sturian openings i n rectangular r ecesses, p articularly f or versions on t he c hurches o f H igh Aragon ( Crozet, C CM 1 969, pp 2 87-289), b ut t he Andalusian d evelopment a lso p lays a part. A lternating voussoirs, F igs 2 , 3 , 1 8, 1 75, 1 76: contrasts o f c olour, p lane, and o f decorated with p lain s urfaces. U sed t hroughout Andalusian architecture. T He most i nsistent Romanesque example i s at Montivilliers f ig. 3 29; t he parallel w ith Andalusia was f irst noticed by Z arnecki, ( "1066 and Architectural S culpture", P BA 1 966 [ pls X IIIa and b ]). The c aption t o p l.XIIIb s hould r ead mid-Xth century). The detail o f the c arved voussoirs resembles I talian i nterpretations o f this Andalusian method o f decorating arches. Le P uy, V zelay. O utlining a nd s eparation o f v oussoirs. This i s more u sual i n F rance than F 13. At S aint-Aubin i n Angers, f ig. 3 30, e ach voussoir i s carved, but s eparated by an outline. Adopted e arly at S aintes, and f requent i n S aintonge. Combined w ith t he s tepped arch, F 18, at S aint-Ours, L oches, f ig. 3 27. Emphasis on extrados by outline, moulding, decoration e tc. This i s c onstant i n Andalusia; on l obes o f a rches i n France i t i ndicates a new awareness o f Andalusian examples, n ot p resent i n t he f irst examples of l obed arches i n Romanesque. F igs 2 10; 2 02. One a spect o f F 5: r aised c entre to the extrados. C haracteristic o f 1 0th century Andalusian a rches, l ess f requent i n 1 1th a s the pointed f orm gains i n p opularity. I nfrequent in Romanesque, b ut c lear a t V igeois and M eymac. H eavy tympana on l intels, as a t Moissac or C ollonges achieve s omething t he s ame e ffect. F igs 1 42, 1 88. Arcading over entrance, or other main arch. S tandard in Andalusian doorway d esign a nd f requent i n Romanesque. C luny, Corme-Ecluse, f igs 3 10, 3 15. S tepped p rofile to a rch. P uerta S an E steban n iches; Marcilhac, Loches, composition o f s ome h istoriated t ympana ( Cahors); f igs 3 26, 3 27. Motif i n spandrel. O ne o f t he e arliest examples i s the b osses i n t he P uerta S an E steban n iches, m ihrabs; C luny, S aint-Sernin in T oulouse, S an I sidro in Leön, C häteau-Larcher f ig. 3 17. I ntersecting a rches. M ezquita, T oledo, Z aragoza; mainly Norman, s ome in S aintonge.

2 61

F 21. F 22.

L obed a rch: s ee Chapter IV. Mezquita; S antiago, C luny, Le Puy, Cahors. Rectangular s ection ribs in domes. Perhaps contribute to s imilarly r ibbed vaults a lso. Mezquita, Cristo de l a Luz in Toledo; direct copies at Höpital-SaintB laise and O loron S ainte-Marie; s impler at Loches, Moissac, J aca, Aubiac etc. f igs 1 1,14-17. DECORATIVE MOTIFS

D l.

Crossed

s tem scroll.

Mezquita, Madinat az-Zahra", Z aragoza; Ripoll, Roda, e arliest imposts and c apitals a t S antiago with l inked half-palmettes, S aint-Sever, L a S auve, Conques, Bordeaux on the earliest capitals at S aint-Seurin, with D 16. a .

Mezquita mihrab c apitals

b .

Madinat az-Zahra" West Palace.

d .

S alon R ico,

e .

C luny transept capital

c .

P uerta S an Esteban

Madinat a z-Zahra"

a

•

D 2.

a ,

P ine cone. D erived from c lassical vine scroll, branching f rom s tems or framed in a heart-shaped double stem. Mezquita dome arcades; Roda, Conques. b .

Mezquita dome

arcades

2 62

D 3. M iniature f lorets in r elief, with f our or more petals. F lat, a s nail heads o r i n r ings. Mezquita: a band under the shell dome o f t he mihrab ( fig.5), M adinat a z-Zahra" a s a border f or i nterlocking s tars, f or m etope a nd s offit panels, as f illing f or s crolls o r volutes, A ljaferia a s border of p laster c eiling p anels, F ez d oor. O n a ll s urviving 1 1th century Andalusian wooden c orbels; Velay doors, T oulouse, w ith D ll on i mpost i n ambulatory o f S aintS ernin.

2 3 i : 3E 3

D 4. I ncurled hollow l eaf, s ingle or double. Throughout maqsura carving i n Mezquita, characteristic o f C ordoban ivory carving. T he i llustration' h ere i s c omposite, t o s uggest how the Andalusian motif i s ancestral t o the " Berry" horizontal l eaf c ylinder ( Berry r oman, f igs 5 6, 9 3 a nd S aintonge romane f ig. 3 2). A lso on H ildesheim doors ( H. Swarzenski, Monuments, p l. 1 07), on a c apital at S aintNazaire ( CSMC 1 978, f ig.3 a fter p .140), capital at J umi ges a s t he half-palmette i nto which the interlace opens op.cit, f ig.5 after p . 1 62, Matha-Marestay doorway ( Saintonge romane, f ig.100), Moissac, Collonges ( figs 3 01).

2 63

D 5. C ircular h alf-palmette s croll, a v ersion o f t he u niversal r unning h alf-palmette s croll D 7. T hree o r more f olioles. T he l eaf i s f lat , u nlike D 4. T he f oliole e nd, a s i n b ., o r s tem r unning b eyond t he f raming c ircle i s a dopted a t N ogäl, M oissac a nd C onques ( figs 4 3, 1 05, 9 2). A v ersion a t S aint-Benoit i n t he t ower p orch ( CSMC 1 978, f ig . 1 5 a fter p . 1 62). a . C ordoba, f illing a c apital v olute b . T oledo.

I n l arger c ompositions f oreshadowing a rabesque

c . T udela , r oll c orbel e nd, s howing A ndalusian t endency t o e nclose a d ouble m otif, a pproaching D 14,b .

D 6. Split palmettes: two half-palmettes back to back. Mezquita, Madinat az-Zahra", Tudela, S egovia, Fez panel ( fig.44); Mozarab ( Art Mozarabe, f ig. 3 0); Velay doors, Angoümois and S aintonge ( Saintonge r omane f ig. 1 29). The S antiago, or Gascon t endril scroll, not a lways entwined, arises f rom it. a ,

b .

Madinat

c .

Aunay,

a z-Zahra"

crossing

capital

2 64

D 7. Meander or w ave s tem s prouting half-palmette. T hroughout Andalusian decoration, s ingle and double w ith every e laboration. Not much i n Mozarab but occurs i n early Romanesque. An a labaster c apital f rom the palace of T oledo ( AHIII f ig.270c), a bout c ontemporary with t he T oledo wellh ead f ig.71, shows a model f or the "Moissac" s croll o f c loister capital 5 0, t hough not encircled. a .

M ezquita,

P uerta d e

l a Chocolata

b .

Mezquita,

c eiling

c .

M adinat a z-Zahra" voussoir

a

__ 1 . . . 4 . .. .S.+1 .. . . 1 .a derfal . ..C .V ,

•

f r t. ,

-4.1 .

,-1 . 0

C

D 8. Asymmetrical p lant scrolls approximating to Kufic l ettering. Mezquita, Madinat a z-Zahra"; implication o f K ufic strong oon early a ltar t ables: Q uarante, Gerona, R odez, S or de, and Roda imposts. a .

Mezquita voussoir

b .

Madinat a z-Zahra" voussoir a

D 9. " Naturalistic" f ree f lowing s tem with curling i ndented l eaves. M ezquita mihrab s urround. F requent i n P oitou, Angadmois, S aintonge: L a C ouronne, c ornice f ig.39.

2 65

D 10. F lower o r t refoil c ross. Mezquita, o ften a s r elief medallion F 4, Madinat a z-Zahra", s ometimes r efined t here t o units o f split p almettes r adiating f rom a c entral f loret, Tudela; Le P uy cornice, f ig.90, L avo i ate-Chilhac door. a .

M ezquita mihrab p anel

b ,c.

Madinat a z-Zahra"

D ll. " Heart and D art" s croll. The palmette in a heart o ffers an ambiguity o f open and c losed f orm that was r eadily exploited. Throughout an decoration. F ez p anel a nd M alaga wood battens s how t ransition to l am-aliph. Imposts at R oda, f igs 8 3-89, S antiago a nd T oulouse. C f. D ebuts, pp 2 0-21 on t he b reak-up o f acanthus l eaf i nto " fleuron i n an i nverted heart, s eparated by a l ance" and then to a f leuron under an a rcade. AHIII f ig.110 s hows t he process well under way at Madinat a z-Zahra". C arolingian MS border, Corvey P l. 1 60. a .

Mezquita,

mihrab panels

b .

S aint-Sernin,

c .

Fez mimbar panel

T oulouse,

ambulatory impost

2 66

D 12.

Border motifs. As i s to be expected, many s imple t raditional border motifs are common to Andalusia and Romanesque: c ording, hatching, r eel and dart, billet, p lain f illet, ovulo, alternating trefoil, interlace of two or more s trands. On the faces of corbel f illets are grooving, chequers, l attice, palmette-in-heart, and notably a straight stem with branching curls, transposed from metalwork l ike the filigree decoration on Asturian c rosses ( AHII f igs 4 18-420). This is the " fir-tree" motif a . which on capitals at Payerne probably r eflects i ts presence on now destroyed capitals at C luny I I ( Zarnecki, Studies, VIII, capitals nos 6 ,7,I, VII). On a capital at Valdedios, l ate 9 th century, at Dijon early 1 0th. I n m id-llth century on a corbel at Poitiers ( no 9 , f ig.237) and on capitals at Consac ( Saintonge romane, f igs 5 0-58), l ater in Burgundy ( Anzy-le-Duc, CSMC1978, f ig.13 after p .162) and N i zelay. Saw-tooth: over upper arcading in Mezquita, Mozarabic MSS; S aint-Michel d 'Aiguilhe door, i n mosaic on Le P uy f açade. On Andalusian capitals a canthus stems are interlaced and s ometimes twisted i nto spirals ( LTB 1 957 f igs 4 75,487,499,503), and there are the same spiral stems on Mozarabic capitals and on capitals at S aint-Benoit ( fig.91) and Roda. These were c ited by Garcia-Romo to trace a " Mozarab" i nfluence on early capitals in the Loire region.

a .

Mezquita,

f illet of

b .

saw tooth

c .

Madinat a z-Zahra',

c orbel

in' Abd

pilaster

ar-Rahman's

base.

c x, , : ; e c ca r tm eg z e r ez : • z e iv .

2 67

e iA

patio

D 13.

G eometric medallions. They e cho p atterns o f the Mezquita dome ribs. Mezquita i n maqsura, on p anels f rom palaces of Toledo and Z aragoza; in Cordoba o ften with central rosette, a f orm f ound again on l ate Romanesque s offits at Ldrida. S ome o f t he A ljaferia p anels combine them with i nscriptions. Only s econdary to p lant motifs until A lmohad and l ater; Moirax, Marignac, Lescure metopes, doorway o f St Genes i n C hätaumeillant ( Berry r oman, f igs 6 1,62).

D 14.

S -divided c ircle or c ircular s tem s croll. I slamic a rtists h ad a p reference f or containing a d ouble motif within the s tem c ircle, two l eaves or fruit and l eaves. Q airawan, M adinat a z-Zahra", S eville b asin, A ljaferia panel ( AHIII, f igs 2 09,249,291,316), T udela corbels ( here i llustrated), F ez panel. The mosaic f loor ( CSMC 1 972, f ig.7 after p . 1 30) a nd c loister c apital no 7 2 at Moissac. •

2 68

D 15. R osette. M ezquita d ome, A ljaferia m ihrab s pandrels, M adinat a z-Zahra - a nd S egovia s offits ( figs 2 0,46), P amplona c asket m edallions; A uvergne a nd T oulouse s offits, R höne v alley a nd B urgundy : a ll s izes a nd u ses, P erpignan d oor, M oissac l intel. R ose w indows: B alaguer ( fig . 4 7); b acini ( figs 4 8,49); l inked, o n P oitiers a nd C onques c ornices ( figs 1 31-2, 2 37-9, 2 789 ), N ogäl a nd M oissac i mposts ( figs 1 20, 2 2). a ,b. M ezquita d omes c . T udela c ornice .

D 16.

Down-turned l eaf. M ezquita, mihrab panel consoles, A ljaferia dome s upports, many Andalusian wooden c orbels. R omanesque c apitals: R ipoll, Moissac c loister, S aintes crypt, C onques, many others ( figs 2 1,22,24,26).

a .

Mezquita mihrab

b .

A ljaferla dome

p anel supports

2 69

D 17.

a . b . c . d . e . f . g . h . i . j . k . 1 . m . n . o . p . q . r . s . t . U . v .

Animate motifs. S ecular s ubjects which were at t imes g iven symbolic meaning. Most themes a re taken from p ortable objects a nd t extiles, b ut t he l ion i s d ifferent. Lyman ( T. W. Lyman, " The S culptural P rogramme o f t he P orte des C omtes M aster a t S aintS ernin i n Toulouse", JWCI 1 971) notes there i s no major architectural application of t he recumbant l ion motif i n F rance b efore t he l ate 1 1th century. L ions s upport the columns of a prince's throne at S edrata ( AMO, p .117, a nd s everal others). I n C ordoba t he l ion mask spitting foliage on a c apital volute ( AHIII, f ig.245) connects two themes not a lways combined in Romanesque: i . t he u sually j awless mask spitting f oliage ( or sometimes j ewels, r ibbons, columns e tc), as on t he f açade o f Notre-Dame-la-Grande in P oitiers, and i i. the ambiguous l ion or h uman f ace with a l ine a cross t he brow i mplying a c ap w ith ears. Carolingian and l ater manuscripts have many examples of the ( originally c lassical) l ion mask a ssociated w ith f oliag , birds' wings etc ( Chapter I I, n . 1 03); the Cordoban volute and a knocker ( AHIII, f ig.395), b ronze mortar ( ibid., f ig. 3 94) together with many references to l ion images i n l iterature, n eed to b e included in t he documentation. The mosaic f loor at D ie h as t he Four Rivers i ssuing f rom s uch masks ( X. B arral i A ltet, " Les i c i buts de l a mosaique de pavement r omane dans l e S ud de l a France et en C atalogne", CSMC 1 972, ( with full references to publications o f mosaics) f ig. 9 a fter p . 1 30. T his i s a nother craft which s hares technical and decorative traditions with Andalusia, as B arral observes). Mosaic motifs i nclude an e lephant

w itn nowcia, ani mal combats a nd at L ascar a peg-legged Moor with o liphant. Animate motifs have been numbered as follows: birds, confronted, addorsed, crossed, i n profile. small b ird f rieze ( AHIII, f ig. 2 45). f ish. Spread eagle. a nimal attack. l ion mask i . spitting f oliage; i i. f ace i n eared cap. s uperposed animals. l ions or other f elines, pacing, c onfronted, addorsed, c rossed. Gazelles; othr horned or antlered quadrupeds. a nimal head in V f rame, or a lone. s nake. h arpy. griffon. p eacock. e lephant. b eard-pullers. t ilting knights. atlas f igure. wrestlers. confronted dancers. animal dompter, l ion vanquisher, " Gilgamesh". f alconer. 2 70

APPENDIX " CAHORS TYPE" a .

I I

LOBED ARCHES

I ntrados with Volute, S plit o r E laborated P oints. A ll these doors have outer archivolts with L imousin moulding. L imousin

A llassac. Door, 5 l obes, s eparately voussoired. L imestone points. S pring f rom up-curled point. B gngvent l 'Abbaye. Door, 1 1 l obes, s eparately voussoired. S plit points. f ig. 1 90. C hamberet. Door, 3 and two half-lobes, s eparately voussoired. C ollonges. Door, two trilobes, s eparately voussoired. T riple points. Spring f rom upper volute, f ig. 1 42. C ondat. Door, 5 l obes s eparately voussoired. Top l obe l arger. L adignac. Arcade of f ive t rilobes round apse. S imilar to Le D orat t ower. L agrauliäre. O culus. L a S outerraine. D oor, 9 l obes, split points, voussoirs radial, f ig. 1 69. L e Dorat. Arcade of t rilobes ' round tower. L es Rosiers d'Egleton. B lind arch on apse exterior, 7 l obes, s eparately voussoired, f ig. 1 89. M eymac. D oor, 5 l obes, s eparately voussoired. Spring f rom point, f ig. 1 41. P alisse. Door, 5 l obes, l imestone. Spring f rom up-curled point, f ig. 1 43. S aint-Bonnet-präs-Bort. Door, 5 l obes. Spring f rom upcurled point. S aint-Robert. O culus S aint-Symphorien. D oor, 4 and 2 half-lobes. Motifs on points. Radial voussoirs. S aint-Yrieix. A rcading on columns round t ower, t rilobes s eparately voussoired. Spring f rom up-curled point, f ig. 2 03. Tulle. D oor, 7 l obes, t op l obe narrow. Spring f rom upcurled point. Radial voussoirs, f ig. 1 44. V igeois. Door, 5 l obes s eparately voussoired. Motifs on points. H orseshoe archivolt. O uter a rchivolts p rogressively more pointed, f ig. 1 88.

L ot,

Q uercy T arn et G aronne

C ahors. Door, 3 l obes, s eparately voussoired, f igs 1 851 87 Moissac. Door, t wo trilobes, s eparately voussoired, f ig. 1 91. S aint-Antonin. W indow, twin t rilobes, s eparately voussoired, f ig. 4 9.

2 71

D ordogne and the West C harente, Charente Maritime, G ironde Aubeterre. D oor, 6 l obes w ith t riple p oints, r adial. B assac. Door, 7 l obes, t riple points, radial. B lanzac. Door, 7 l obes, volute p oints l ike P alisse, f ig. 2 05. Chätres. Door, 7 l obes, t riple points, damaged. S pring was originally f rom upper volute. f ig. 1 98. Chalais. Door, 7 l obes. E chebrune. Window, 4 l obes. L es Eyzies de Tayac. Door, 5 and 2 h alf-lobes; c onvex p rincipal points. Montbron. Door, 6 l obes, f ig. 1 60. Montmoreau. D oor, 6 l obes, s pring f rom up-curled p oint, f ig. 1 96. N euillac. Door, 6 l obes, c onvex points, f ig. 1 99. P etit Palais. D oor, 5 l obes; two 5 -lobe a rcades; a n iche with two trilobed archivolts; a rcade with three 5 l obed a rchivolts over a window. The two f lanking arcades beside the door are h orseshoe-shaped, f ig. 1 97. P uisseguin. Door, 5 l obes, triple p oints. R ioux. Apse windows, double row o f multiple l obes, t riple points. Vandrg. Arcade beside door, multiple l obes, t riple points, f ig. 1 68. V illemartin. Door, 7 l obes, s pring f rom up-curled points ( Ill. BM 1 974).

b .

Archivolts W ith L obed L imousin Moulding. s ee Map I I

B lanzac. I nterior a pse windows; f ig. 2 05 Celles-sur-Belle. Door, f ive-lobed a rchivolts, t he i nner f our with moulding. By widening t he r adius o f t he c entral l obe p rogressively t owards t he exterior, t he outer archivolt i s more pointed t han t he i ntroados, which i s l ittle r aised above t he s emi-circle. D gols. Door, r ecessed, f ramed by enriched h ood moulding and two c ourses o f s labs l aid l ongitudinally a nd s haped to t he c urve. [ ?]8 l obes, t he two l owest wider than the r est, perhaps t wo restored a s o ne. D istinct horseshoe a rchivolt. L intel a nd nambs l ook new, and probably the original profile had j ambs l evel with t he widest part o f t he a rch; f ig. 1 95. La S outerraine. Door. Three o rders o f L imousin moulding, l obed, f rame the l obed intrados a lready c ontained i n ap u nlobed L imousin moulding a rchivolt on c apitals and s lender columns; t hese t hree outer orders a re l obed to t he ground. There i s d isturbance r ight across at the impost l evel, where perhaps small c apitals have been r emoved. A d ouble h ood m oulding over the whole, ending on corbels at the impost l ine, d etracts f rom t he e ffect o f t he pointed arch in t he

2 72

c omposition: t he a rchivolts are p rogressively rounder towards the exterior. THe two inner l obed archivolts have an outer l ine of unlobed L imousin moulding. W ith the double hood there are f ifteen different p lanes; t he voussoiring i s consistent t hroughout; f ig. 1 69. L e D orat. D oor. F our archivolts o f l obed L imousin moulding f rame a p lain double entrance. The moulding t urns to t he vertical, l ike t he c olumns of t he Moissac a nd S ouillac t rumeaux, to meet s imple capitals over s lender n ook s hafts o f t he s ame d iameter a s t he moulding. A hood moulding l ike t hat of La Souterraine s urrounds t he a rch. ( Limousin r oman f ig. 3 , p . 2 15.). S aint-Bonnet-de-Cray. W indow. An outer a rchivolt w ith 9 l obes. T houars. Door. Three 7 -lobed archivolts over a p lain two-centre intrados, s imilar to the two arches of Le D orat. The l obes are uneven; t he c entral l obe, a lready narrower than he r est at L e Dorat, i s here taller and n arrower still. A hood moulding with p lant carving i ntroduces a P oitevin e lement; f ig. 1 70. T ulle. Door. T he innermost o f f ive two-centred archivolts o f L imousin moulding has 7 l obes; f ig. 1 44. V igeois. Door. O ne archivolt o f 5 l obes follows the lobed i ntrados f rom the s ame c entre above the impost. There i s an u nlobed a rchivolt o utside i t, two-centred on t he bottom points of the intrados. A hood moulding turns h orizontal to r un to t he wall r eturn. The whole doorway i s recessed i nto the wall; f ig. 1 88. S aint-Pierre-Toirac. I nterior b lind arcades, t rilobes with torus moulding on the extrados; fig. 1 5. B eaulieu, Moissac and S ouillac have lobed torus moulding down the trumeau to the ground. B rive a lso had it. Moissac and L a S outerraine have torus ( Limousin) moulding down the jambs to the ground.

2 73

APPENDIX DOCUMENTED

1 056

1 063

1 066

1 067

1 069 1 072 1 073

1 074 1 075

1 076

1 080 1 082 1 086 1 087

1 088 1 093

I II

DATES FOR EARLY ROMANESQUE SPANISH ( see WMW f or references)

BUILDINGS

S a Maria l a Reäl de Najera, endow. ed by Garcia, K ing of Navarre, 1 052, consecrated by the Archbishop o f Narbonne. Destroyed. ( Fita, " Santa Maria l a Real de Näjera" BRAH xxvi ( 1895) pp 1 57-171). San Salvador de Nogal de l as Huertas: i nscriptions at doorway and i nside: " Elvira S ansez f ecit", and " ...era millesima centessima prima.." ( WMW pp 2 13-214). S an Martin de Frömista, mentioned in the will of Mayor, mother of K ing F ernando of Leön, " ...in hoc monasterio s ancti Martini quem..edificare cepi in F romesta". The will i s dated 1 066. Consecration of cathedral of Roda de I sabena ( First -Romanesque s tyle). Completion of S an Millan de Yuso. Destroyed. Consecration of cathedral of Astorga. Destroyed. Na Sa de I guäcel: inscription on west front. Dedication of cathedral o f Leön to San Pelayo by B ishop P elayo, who restored t he c hurch " in quo oratorio altare cum sua abside erexi a fundamentis", built baptistry, r efectory, c loister, houses f or the canons, bought books, had made a s ilver cross, p rocured vestments and o rnaments and s ummoned A lfonso VI, his s isters Urraca and E lvira and a ll the bishops of the province f or the c eremony ( ES XXXVI, pp l viil xiii; XXXV, pp 1 10-116). D estroyed. San Salvador de Ona ( Chronicon de Cardena I ). D estroyed. A lfonso VI gave h is palace in Burgos for the new c athedral, f inished before 1 096 when he refers to it as finished. ( ES XXVI, pp 1 97, 4 58-463). Destroyed. San Pelayo de Perazancas. I nscription in north wall of nave: " Pelagio Abas f ecit in era MCXIIII". F irst Romanesque corbel table but engaged columns not p ilaster s trips between the arched tables, and s awtooth and billet moulding above. S an P edro de Arlanza begun. Inscription in wall of south apse: " ..era MCXVIII". S an P edro de S iresa given the t itle of Capilla Reäl by Sancho Ramirez. San Caprasio de S anta Cruz de l a Serös given to S an Juan de la P ena. San Miguel de Neila. I nscription in s outh wall. . "Abbas Nunnuest..fecit". A small church, " built o f well-cut stone and completely Romanesque in style". Montearagon; the castle f inished in 1 088 and the canons moved from Loarre in 1 089. Destroyed. S an Salvador de S epülveda. I nscription in the apse foundation. Town repopulated b y the fuero of 1 076.

2 74

1 094

S an Juan de l a P ena. Consecrated by the Archbishop of B ordeaux and the bishops of Jaca and Maguelonne. 1 095 S a Maria, Loarre. Mortuary inscription in the door j amb. Documents s igned f rom the castle in 1 082. S a Maria l a Antigua, Valladolid, consecrated by B ernard, Archbishop of Toledo and the bishops of P alencia, Leön, Burgos, Astorga, Oviedo and Lugo. 1 098 Consecration of S an S alvador de Leire 1 099 Consecration of Sa Maria, A lquezar, a royal chapel within t he c astle. Destroyed. S an Benito, Sahagün consecrated. Destroyed. 1 100 S an E steban de Corullön completed. I nscription in north wall of tower. S an Frutos, consecrated by Bernard Archbishop of T oledo: i nscription at f oot of a buttress of t he south wall. I n the l ast years of the 1 1th century: S anta Cruz de la S erös;.San M iguel and E l Rivero in S an E steban de Gormaz; the tower adjoining the Camera Santa in Oviedo; S ant Andres ( destroyed), S anto Tome, S an Cebrian, San C laudio de O livares, Santiago el Viejo, Sa Maria la N ueva, a ll in Z amora. Sant Andres begun in 1 093, the rest about contemporary.

2 75

APPENDIX

IV

A CHRONOLOGICAL

LIST OF MILITARY ENCOUNTERS IN SPAIN WITH PARTICIPANTS FROM FRANCE ( compiled from M-P C id and Defourneaux)

1 064

1 073

1 076

1 080

1 086

1 087

1 094 1 096

Occupation of B arbastro f or one year. Thibaut de S emur, Hugues de Chälons, G uillaume VIII, R obert Crespin, Guillaume de Montreuil. An expedition f rom Champagne l ed by Ebles de Roucy ( son-in-law of Robert Guiscard and brother-inl aw of S ancho Ramirez ( king of Aragon 1 063-1094). He i s recommended by Pope Gregory VII to hold l ands in Spain under the P apacy ( Defourneaux p . 1 38 n .4). He " raised a mighty a rmy" ( RHGF X II, 1 40) but it n ever a rrived in Spain. and 1 080. Expeditions of B urgundians under D uke H igh ( RHGF X III, p . 1 ). Two c ampaigns that yielded booty and captives, not otherwise recorded. An expedition of Aquitanians under Duke William VIII arrived at the frontier of ARagon " et gloriosus r ex S ancius fecit i llum reverti in patria sua" ( A. Duran Gudiol, I glesia p . 1 16, with references). The troops of A lfonso VI and some Aragonese s et o ff to meet the A lmoravid a rmy newly l anded; with t hem were " Christiani a partibus A lpes, multique Francorum" ( Chon. Lusitano, ES X IV, 1 786, p . 4 18). A lfonso VI, after the defeat of S agrajas, threatens to l et Muslim armies i nto France if no h elp i s sent. A great army assembled under Duke Eudes of Burgundy ( RHGF XII, p . 2 ), j oined by Aquitanians under Hugh of Lusignan ( Chr. St. Maixentm qu. RMP p . 3 40, " many knights f rom Normandy, L imousin and Poitou"). Normans under Guillaume l e Charpentier ( P. Boissonnade, " Les premieres croisades d'Espagne", B ull. H isp. 1 934, pp 3 3-34). Boissonnade and E . P etit, ( "Les croisades bourguignonnes contre l es S arrasins d'Espagne", Rev. Hist. XXX, 1 886) add P rovengals a nd L anguedocians under Raymond de S aint-Gilles. There i s no document to prove it ( Hill 1 959), but J . H. and L .L. H ill are " inclined to approve it" even though in April Raymond was a lready probably i n Le Puy with B ishop Adhemar, witnessing a g ift by the l atter of the church o f Usson to the abbey o f La Chaise-Dieu ( p. 1 7). The A lmoravids had a lready c rossed back to Africa a nd A lfonso invited the F rench contingents to return home. They secured some r eward by p illaged and j oined S ancho Ramirez who was besieging Tudela, but without success. They then broke up with dissensions. The three Burgundian lords went to Leön to visit their relative, Queen Constance. Raymond of Burgundy defeated at L isbon by A lmoravids. Battle of A lcoraz, outside Huesca. Gascons under the exiled Fortuna f ought f or P edro I of Aragon. This

2 76

was

t he

turning point

in

the

f all

of

Huesca,

defended

by a l-Mostain of Z aragoza with help from Castile. As well a s the ( french) bishop of P amplona, t he bishops o f Bordeaux, O loron and Lascar were present at the s iege, and c onsecrated the Mosque. The chapel royal was given t o Frotaire, abbot of S aint-Pons-deThomieres. 1 100-1101 F all of Barbastro. The l argest mosque was g iven to S ainte-Foy de Conques to f ound a monastery, the church of S ainte-Eulalie and lands given to S aintG illes-de-Provence. How the Mozarabs reacted to these g ifts i s not recorded. Pons, from Thomieres, was appointed b ishop, and was f ollowed at h is death in 1 104 by Raymond, previously prior of Saint-Sernin in T oulouse ( ES XLVI, pp 4 8 f f). 1 106 F all of E jea to A lfonso I of Aragon, with Gascons u nder Centulle de B igorre, the viscount of Lavardan and Gaston d 'Aspe. Gifts to La S auve Majeure ( Defourneaux p . 1 54 n .). 1 108 B attle of Ucles: death of A lfonso VI's heir, d efeat of A lfonso by A lmoravids. These, now in Z aragoza, threaten Barcelona. ( The Chronicle of SaintP ierre-le -Vif reports an appeal to Louis VI the Fat, not recorded e lsewhere, and considered dubious ( Defourneaux, p . 1 52n.). Muslims retreat after marauding. 1 109 H enry of Burgundy, now " of Portugal", recruits F rench support f or h is own ambitions, but Burgundians are l ess in evidence in Leön from now on. 1 110 H enry o f Chälons is r eported present at the victory at Valtierra near Tudela, wher a l-Mostain of Z aragoza i s k illed. 1 110-1115[?] Expeditions of P isans to the Balearics, j oined by Ramon B erenguer of B arcelona, s upported by h is c lients f rom Languedoc and Provence ( he had j ust married Douce of P rovence), including Guillaume o f Montpelier, A imery of Narbonne, Raymond des Baux, the towns o f Arles, N imes and Beziers ( Defourneaux p . 1 55). They f ail to rout Muslim pirates, but return with " glory a nd booty". 1 117 S iege of Z aragoza by A lfonso I of Aragon. The c ity n ow t he s tronghold of the A lmoravid Holy War. Normans present under Rotrou du Perche include Robert B urdet ( later " Prince of Tarragona") and many Gascons; Gaston of Beam nand Rotrou are well rewarded in the c ity at i ts f all. This was f ollowed by the f all of Tarrazona, Borja, Magallon, Catalayüd. Rotrou possibly at t he taking of Tudela s oon after ( Defourneaux p . 1 58 quotes Lacarra, P .de V . XXII). William of Aquitaine arrives with Talleyrand of P erigord, Raymond of T urenne, Geoffroy of Rochefort and more Gascons. 1 124 D efeat o f A lmoravids at Cutanda. 1 131 A lfonso I besieges Bayonne with the Gascons. 1 134 D efeat o f A lfonso I at Fraga: death of Centulle de Beam , A imery de Narbonne, Augier de Miramont and Bertrand de Laon " ...et fortes multi auxiliares

2 77

1 135

F ranciae et multi a lienigenae" ( Chron. of Alfonso VII, ES XXI, 3 39). B ishop of Lescar t aken prisoner. R obert B urdet from Normandy also present. A lfonso VII of Leön/Castile, s on of R aymond of B urgundy and Uracca, daughter o f A lfonso VI, crowned emperor. For c eases.

some

decades

French

military

intervention

g an t iago

( z 5

°B r aga

O v iedo° ° Leön 0a mo ra

°T ou r s

0 Noga l °F rö rn is tä

B o rdeaux

° Bu rgos A v i la ° 0S egov ia

0T o ledo

0P amp lona

° A t ienza

0 Tude la

Z a ragoza

\ M o issac

00 1o ron

0J aca 0 0L oa rr e H uesca

° A uch /

V a lenc ia 0

0C aho r s C onquoe , _ ,

0 I aü l l 0L e r ida

° L imoges

'\ 0 5t .S eve r

r‘ Na rbonne

0 Bo trges (0 L a C har i té ° Neve rs

Tu rnus 0 L avoü te -9c 7/ ° C l uny B le: le° 0 Chama l ie reS

_ L e ,P uy ° S t .P i e r re d e R f i de ez ie r s / A r les 00B ° Mon tpe l l ie r

eR ip2 1 1 T a r ragona 0 °B a rce lona S .P e re d eR o

2 78

0

° Po i t iem

0S a in tes

)

I 1y on

B IBLIOGRAPHY T he principal abreviations the f ollowing:

used

in text and

footnotes

are

P eriodicals AARP Art & Archaeology Research P apers, London. A B Art Bulletin of America A duM Annales du Midi A E Arte E spar iol A EA Archivo E spar iol de Arte A EAA Archivo E spanol de Arte y Arqueologia a l-And a l-Andalus A n E st Med Anuario de E studios Medievales, Barcelona A nth An Anthologico Anua, Rome B M BRAH B SNAF

B ulletin Monumental B oletin de l a Reäl Academia de la H istoria Bulletin de l a Socigtg Nationale des Antiquaires de F rance B SAOuest B ulletin de l a S ocigtg des Antiquaires de l 'Ouest B ull Arch. B ulletin Archgologique B ull. hisp. B ulletin hispanique CA C CM C ah Arch CRAcIBL C SMC E EMCAragon E HR E S or

EX

G BA G X

Congr s Archgologiques .( Soc.Fr. Arch) Cahiers de C ivilisation Mgdigvale Cahiers Archgologiques Comptes-rendus de l 'Académie des I nscriptions et Belles-Lettres Cahiers de S aint-Michel de Cuxa E studios de l a Edad Media de l a Corona de Aragon, Z aragoza Economic H istory Review E sp a ia Sagrada: T eatro Geografico-historico de I glesia de E spär ia, 5 2 vols, Madrid, 1 747-1879 Gazette des Beaux Arts G allia Christiana

la

I nf H ist Art I nformations d'Histoire de l 'Art J BAA Journal of the British Archaeolgical Association JWCI Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld I nstitutes M F,

M GH M ons

MM

Madrider Forschungen, Madrider Mitteilungen, Deutsches Archäologisches I nstitut, Madrid, published i n Berlin Monumenta Germaniae H istorica H ist Les Monuments historiques de la France

P at l at P BA P deV

P atrologia L atina P roceedings of the British Academy P rincipe de Viana, Pamplona

2 79

Rev. RHGF

h ist.

Revue h istorique Recueil des H istoriens

des

G aules

et de

l a

F rance

B . N. MAN Volumes

B ibliotheque Nationale, Paris Museo Arqueolögico Nacional of the Z odiaque series La Nuit des Temps published at La P ierre-qui-Vire ( Yonne) are referred t o by t itle only: Angoümois roman: C . Daras, 1 961 Aragon roman: A . Canello Lopez, A . San Vicente, 1 971 B erry roman: J . Faviere, 1 970 Bourgogne romane: R . Oursel, 1 979 Castille romane: L . M. Lojendio, A . Rodriguez, I ,II, 1 966. Catalogne romane: A . Junyent, I , 1 968; I I, 1 970 Forez-Velay roman: 0 . Beigbeder, 1 962 Gascogne romane: J . Cabanot, 1 978 Guyenne romane: P . Dubourg-Noves, 1 969 Languedoc roman: R . de S aint-Jean, 1 975 Haut-Languedoc roman: M . Durliat, 1 978 Limousin roman: J . Maury, M .-M. Gauthier, J . Porcher, 1 940 Navarre romane: L . M. Lojendio, 1 967 Normandie romane: I I, L . Musset, 1 974 P oitou roman: R . Crozet, Y . Labande-Maillefert, 1 962 Pyrenees romanes: M . Durliat, V . A llegre. 1 969 Quercy roman: M . Vidal, 1 969 Rouergue roman: G . Gaillard, M .-M. Gauthier, L . Balsan, 1 963 Roussillon roman: M . Durliat, 1 964 S aintonge romane: F . Eygun, J . Dupont, 1 970 Val de Loire roman: A . Surchamp et a l., 1 965 L'Art Mozarabe: J . Fontaine, 1 977 Other works AH

AMO ARE

Ars H ispaniae, H istoria Universal de Arte H ispanico, Madrid: I I. B . Taracena, Arte Romano. P . B. Huguet, Arte P aleocristiano. H . Schlunk, Arte Visigodo, 1 947 I II. M . Gomez Moreno, E l Arte Arabe Espanol hasta los A l mohades. Arte Mozarabe. 1 951 IV. L . Torres B albas, Arte A lmohade, Arte N azari, Arte Mudejar, 1 949 V . J . Gudiol Ricart, J . A. Gaya Nun°, Arquitectura y E scultura Romanicas, 1 948 VI. J . Gudiol Ricart, W . W.S. Cook, P intura e I magineria Romanicas, 1 950 G . Mar ais, L'Architecture musulmane d 'Occident, Paris 1 954 M . Gomez-Moreno, Arte Romanico E spanol, E squema de un L ibro, Madrid 1 9 34

Cahn, Doors W . Cahn, The Romanesque Wooden D oors of Auvergne, New York 1 974 Camps, Modulo E . Camps Cazorla, Modulo, Proporciones y Composiciön en l a Arquitectura Califal Cordobesa, Madrid 1 953

2 80

Conant,

C luny maisons

K .J. Conant, C luny, l es e glises et l es du chef d 'ordre, Macon 1 968 Corvey B . K orzus, K unst und K ultur im Weserraum 8 00-1600, E xhibition at Corvey, Munster 1 966 CRA K .J. Conant, Carolingian and Romanesque Architecture, Harmondsworth 1 966 C rozet, ARB; ARP; ARS: Art roman en Berry, P aris 1 932; Art roman en P oitou, P aris 1 948; Art roman en S aintonge, P aris 1 971 D ebuts s ee GG 1 938 D efourneaux M . D efourneaux, Les f rangais en E spagne aux XIe et XIIe s iäcles, Paris 1 949 D emus 0 . D emus, Romanesque Mural P ainting, London 1 970 Duran Gudiol, Iglesia A . Duran Gudiol, " La I glesia de Aragon durante l os r einados de S ancho Ramirez y P edro I ( 1062? - 1 104 Anthologia Anua 9 , 1 961. Doors s ee Cahn EK E lf E . Kühnel, D ie I slamische E lfenbeinskulpturen VIII - XIII J ahrhundert, B erlin 1 971 ELP E . Levi-Provençal, H istoire d'Espagne musulmane, I , I I, P aris 1 950; I II, Paris 1 967 ELPInscr i d., Inscriptions arabes d 'Espagne, Leyden 1 931 EMA K .A.C. Creswell, Early Muslim Architecture, I parts 1 and 2 , 2 nd ed., Oxford 1 969; I I, Oxford 1 940 EMA short i d., A S hort Account o f E arly Muslim Architecture, H armondsworth 1 958 EV 1 972 E . Vergnolle, " Les chapiteaux de La B erthenoux et l e chantier de S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire au XIe siècle", GBA 1 972 EV S aint-Benoit id., S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire et l a s culpture au XIe s iècle, Paris 1 985 Ewert, Cordoba, Malaga, etc. C . Ewert, Spanisch-islamische Systeme s ich kreuzender Bögen I . D ie s enkrechten ebenen Systeme s ich kreuzender B ögen a ls Stutzkonstruktionen der vier Rippenkuppeln i n der ehemaligen H auptmoschee von Cordoba, MF2, Berlin 1 968 I I. D ie Arkaturen eines offenen P avillons auf der A lcazaba von Malaga, MM7, B erlin 1 966 I II. D ie A ljaferia in Z aragoza, MF12, Berlin Ewert, Bal. id., I slamische Funde in B alaguer und die A ljaferia in Z aragoza, MF7, Berlin 1 971 F ikry, Le Puy A . F ikry, L'Art roman du Puy et les influences i slamiques, Paris 1 934 GG 1 938, or Dgbuts G . Gaillard, Les debuts de l a s culpture romane espagnole, Leon-Jaca-Compostelle, P aris 1 938 GG P remiers E ssais id., Premiers essais de sculpture en Catalogne aux Xe et XIe s iäcles. Paris 1 938 GG Etudes id., Etudes d 'art roman, Paris 1 972 Goldschmidt A . G oldschmidt, D ie E lfenbeinskulpturen in der Z eit der karolingischen...Kaiser, VIII-XI Jahrhundert, I and I I, 1 914, 1 918

2 81

Granada G Z

Actas del XXIII Congreso I nternacional de H istoria de Arte 1 973, Granada 1 976 P ayerne G . Z arnecki, " La S culpture ä P ayerne", L 'Abbatiale de Payerne, Lausanne 1 966 . Repr.in

G Z

Studies id., Studies in Romanesque Sculpture, London 1 979 G Z 1 066 id., " 1066 and Architectural Sculpture", PBA 1 966. Repr. in GZ Studies H ernandez 1 930 F . Hernandez, " Un aspecto de l a i nfluencia del arte califal en Catalur ia ( Basas y capiteles del s iglo X I)" AEAyA XVI/4, 1 930 H ill 1 959 L . and J . Hill, Raymond IV de Saint-Gilles, Comte de Toulouse, Toulouse 1 959 I g. Moz. M . Gomez-Moreno, I glesias Mozarabes, Madrid 1 919 JBCC J . Beckwith, Caskets f rom Cordoba, London 1 960 LTB 1 935 L . Torres-Balbas ( "TB"), " Restos de una t echumbre de c arpinteria musulmana en l a i glesia de S an Millän de Segovia", a l-Andalus I II, 1 935 LTB 1 936 id., " Los Modillones de Lobulos" I , I I, AEAA, J an. -April, May-August 1 936 LTB 1 957 id., Arte H ispanomusulmän hasta la Caida del Califato de Cördoba in Historia de E spar ia ed. R . Menendez Pidal, Vol. V , Madrid 1 957 MAE K . A.C. Creswell, The Muslim Architecture of Egypt, Oxford 1 952 Maldonado Memoria B . Pavön Maldonado, Memoria de l as excavaciones en la Mezquita Mayor de Madinat a lZ ahra', Madrid 1 966 Maldonado Toledo i d., Arte Toledano I slämico y Mudejar, Madrid 1 973 Mäle Art et Artistes E . Mäle, Art et artistes du moyen age, 3 rd ed., P aris 1 968 Mel. Margais Melanges d'histoire et d'archeologie de l 'Occident musulman...Georges Margais, A lgiers 1 957 M-P C id R . Menendez P idal, La E spar ia del C id, 7th ed., Madrid 1 969 Mesple 1 961 Toulouse, Musee des Augustins, Les S culptures Romanes, Paris 1 961 Palol & Hirmer P . de P alol and M . H irmer, E arly Mediaeval Art in Spain, London 1 967 Tudela B . Pavon Maldonado, Tudela, Ciudad Medieval, Arte I slamico y Mudejar, Madrid 1 978 WMW 1 1th C . W . M. Whitehill, Spanish Romanesque Architecture of the E leventh C entury, Oxford 1 941.

2 82

French Romanesque and Islam Andalusian elements in French archit ect ural decorat ion c. 1030-1180

Katherine Watson

Part ii Illustrations

BAR Int ernat ional Series 488(ii) 1989

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S488 (II), 1989: 'French Romanesque and Islam' Part II © Katherine W atson, 1989 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407390215 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407390222 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860546252 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407347769 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546252 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

L IST OF 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0. 1 1. 1 2. 1 3. 1 4. 1 5. 1 6. 1 7. 1 8. 1 9. 2 0. 2 1. 2 2. 2 3. 2 4. 2 5. 2 6. 2 6b. 2 7. 2 8. 2 9. 3 0. 3 0b. 3 1. 3 2. 3 3. 3 4a,

I LLUSTRATIONS

R econstruction P lan o f successive stages o f G reat Mosque o f C ordoba. F rom AHIII G reat M osque o f C ordoba I , a rcades with r oll corbels Great Mosque o f C ordoba I , P uerta S an E steban C ordoba. Mezquita, c apitals o f mihrab Cordoba. Mezquita, detail o f i nterior o f mihrab M arcilhac s outh d oor, r elief i nscription over f igure T oulouse, S aint-Sernin. P orte des Comtes, r elief i nscription P apanatha T emple, P atadbal, Mysore. D etail of s outh e levation. P robably 8 th c entury. P hoto: G . M ichell. M ezquita. N iche on s outh s ide o f P uerta S an E steban. A ljaferia, Z aragoza. M ihrab, with spandrel rosettes, " fish-tail" b acked voussoirs, r aised extrados c entre Mezquita. D ome. I ntercrossing square s ection r ibs H öpital S aint Blaise ( Landes). D ome. I ntercrossing square s ection r ibs T oulouse. S aint-Sernin, s uperposed columns o f apse S aint-Jean-de-Muzols, a jimez i n west f açade S aint-Pierre-Toirac ( Lot). T rilobed arch at spring of vault. Square s ection vault r ibs S aint-Pierre de Rh&des. I nterior, d ouble columns and ribbed apse vault S aint-Pierre, Moissac. Vault o f upper s torey of t ower Mezquita. M ihrab Mezquita. C arved marble f acing o f mihrab, with downt urned l eaf motif on imitation corbel Madinat a z-Zahra". Cornice of Mosque ( Maldonado, Memo n a) R ipoll, and C ornelha ( Barcelona). Capitals, l ate 1 0th c entury, w ith d own-turned l eaf r eplacing volute Moissac, c loister. Capital no 6 5, with down-turned l eaf L oarre. Capital in apse, with down-turned l eaf C onques. C loister c apital, with d own-turned l eaf L oarre. Capital with i nterlace, down-turned l eaf and l ion h ead i n V Mourens ( L&G), S ainte-Colombe-en-Bruilhois. C apital w ith down-turned l eaf For c omparison: Z aragoza, A ljaferia, dome s upports Mezquita. F ragment o f arch p ierced i nto A lmanzor's extension Mezquita. P lan o f a l-Hakam I I's s outh end with 1 1th b ay a rcade Mezquita. Arch CD 1 1 ( see p lan f ig. 2 8) Mezquita. Arch WA 1 1, spring s et in tympanum of door S ketch e levation s howing e ffect o f s tepping up the south arm o f the main arcade l ower arches ( Arscott) Mezquita. A rch f lanking main e ntrance i nto s econd extension M ezquita. S pring o f arch CD 1 1, f rom south-east Mezquita. S pring o f a rch CD 1 1, f rom north -west b , c . M ezquita. S ketch p lans o f imposts C ,E and D 1 1; C ll s howing d isplaced c entre, unexplained

2 83

3 5. 3 6.

3 7. 3 8. 3 9. 4 0. 4 1. 4 2. 4 3. 4 4. 4 5. 4 6. 4 7.

4 8. 4 9. 5 0.

5 1.

5 2. 5 3. 5 4. 5 5.

5 6. 5 7.

5 8.

f illets and discrepancy of a rch b ase and p latform ( Courtesy M .-L. A rscott. T oledo, C risto de l a Luz. Trilobe arch s hapes ( after C . Ewert) L e Monastier ( Hte Loire). F açade o f S aint-Chaffre, w ith polychrome decoration t o s imulate a p rojecting g able, and including rosettes L a Charité-sur-Loire. S ainte=Croix. E xterior arcading, with some p ilasters f acetted P laimpied ( Cher). Exterior o f c hevet, a rcade w ith f acetted colonnette. L a Couronne ( Charentes). " Naturalistic" l eaf scroll D 9 on f açade. A ljaferia, Z aragoza. C apitals w ith thick acanthus t ips F 3, s piral columns a nd " ram-horn" c aulicoles Mezquita. C arved beams o f c eiling N ogäl de H uertos, ( Palencia). S an S alvador, s outh capital o f chancel arch M aillezais ( Vendee). Capital a nd i mpost F ez. Andalusians" Mosque. Wooden mimbar p anel T udela. C orbels f rom t he 1 0th c entury mosque S egovia, S an M illän. Wooden c eiling, l ate 1 1th century B alaguer ( Lerida). Rose w indow i n west e nd o f Romanesque church on s ite o f e arlier Muslim castle. 1 1th century S aint-Antonin ( Lot). B acino f rom f açade o f Romanesque t own hall S aint-Antonin. P art of f açade o f Romanesque town h all ( restored by V iollet-le-buc) Mezquita. Domed t ract in f ront o f mihrab: l obed a rches, a lternating a nd b acked voussoirs, overhanging s quinch arch and c olonnette supports A ljaferia. O ratory: mixtilinear a nd i ntercrossing arches, i nterlaced bands f orming c artouches, a s on B lesle door ( fig. 7 9) A ljaferia. Corbels s upporting d ome. B ari, Apulia. S an N icola. Capital with animal head i n V ( D17j) B ari, Apulia. S an N icola. Capital with animal head i n V ( D17j) A lhambra, G ranada. Marble basin. Animal attack, with l ong-necked l ions a nd g azelle on " stilts". I nscribed i n 1 305, s tating i t to be a c opy o rdered by B adis ( mid-llth c entury) of o ne m ade f or A lmanzor. The other s ide has a border o f b irds ( AHIII , f ig.247), not unlike an impost in t he t ower o f S aint-Benoits ur-Loire, ( EV S aint-Benoit,fig. 4 5, c apital n o 2 4) L eön, S an I sidoro. B asin or f ont. C onfronted l ions, one on " stilts" S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire. Tower, g round l evel, c apital w ith S aint M artin, s tanding on a p linth. Angels on j awless l ion-heads; running h alf-palmette scroll D 5 on mandorla J ätiva. D etail o f carved marble basin, beard-pullers, in medallion e dged by f illet in f lat two-plane r elief

2 84

5 9. 6 0. 6 1. 6 2. 6 3. 6 4. 6 5. 6 6.

6 7.

6 8. 6 9. 7 0. 7 1.

7 1a. 7 2. 7 3. 7 4. 7 5. 7 6.

7 7.

7 8.

7 9.

8 0. 8 1. 8 2.

Poitiers Museum. Capital f rom S aint-Hilaire, w ith beard-pullers Anzy-le-Duc ( S&L). Capital with beard-pullers S anto Domingo de S ilos ( Burgos). Capital of Puerta de las Virgenes, with beard-puller S an E steban de Gormaz. Capital of portico with peacock S an E steban d e Gormaz. Corbel with beard-puller Conques-en-Rouergue ( Aveyron). D etail of s erpentine basin with beard-puller B iblia H ispalense, Cordoba, 1 0th century. The Prophet Micah Qairawan Mosque. Marble grating, 1 0th century, with c ircular l eaf scrolls, and a section of t he mihrab panel La Sauve-Majeure ( Gironde). Capital with Sacrifice of I saac. Crossed s tem motif D l and c ircular l eaf scroll D5 on impost. After 1 079 Noailles ( Correze). Console with beard puller Chauvigny ( Vienne). S aint-Pierre. Capital with symmetrical c ircus scene B lesle ( Cantal). Saint-Pierre, capital with symmetrical c omposition Toledo, Museo S anta Cruz. Well head, dated by inscription 4 23H/AD 1 032. Shafts with wedge-shaped hollow Toledo, Santa Cruz Museum. Brick tomb s lab c 1040 AD. Shafts with w edge-shaped hollow B ronze knocker with taotie mask. Yi X ian, Hebei China, 5th century BC Moissac doorway. Monster mask spitting bands to f rame the tympanum Moissac doorway. Marble panel f lanking porch entrance, with horned monster masks spitting foliage Atienza ( Guadalajara). I nscriptions on north door Qf church of S anta Maria del Rey Le Puy ( HL). Wooden doors with scenes of the Infancy of Christ, a nd Kufic border; detail of inscribed vertical batten, and of an identical border motif from the ceiling of the Mezquita Lavoüte-Chilhac ( HL). Wooden door valve with band o f mock-Kufic decoration ( after Cahn, Doors) S egovia, S an M illän. Detail of ceiling decoration Chamalieres-sur-Loire ( HL). Wooden door valve ( after Cahn, Doors) S egovia, San M illän. Detail of ceiling decoration B lesle ( HL). Wooden doors ( after Cahn, Doors) Cairo, I slamic Museum. Wood panels from F atimid Western Palace. l lth-12th century ( after G . Wiet, A lbum du M us e Arabe), with s imilar i nterlace forming cartouches L e Puy. " Infancy doors", detail, with p lant scrolls l ike those o f the S egovia c eiling Oviedo. Arca S anta. Cathedral Treasury. 1 075, with a mock-Kufic border in repoussee Motifs carved i n wood: Le Puy and Andalusia compared

2 85

8 3.

S an P ere de Roda ( Gerona). Lateral arch capital w ith bosses on astragal 8 4. S an Pere de Roda. Capital with corded astragal, impost w ith heart-and-dart with wedge-shaped hollows 8 5. S an Pere de Roda. Main nave capital, bossed astragal, s un-like f lower on console 8 6. S an Pere de Roda. Lateral arch capital, impost with both kinds of motif: p lant scrolls and heart & dart 8 7. S an Pere de Roda. Main nave c apital with s un-like console. Impost with Kufic-like p lant s crolls 8 8. S an Pere de Roda. Lateral arch capital with " fan" interlace, crossed stems. " Kufic" s crolls on impost 8 9. S an Pere de Roda. Lateral arch capitals with animal heads 9 0. Fragment of cornice in Le P uy museum, l ion head spitting foliage and l eaf cross 9 1. S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire. Porch c apital with " sun" console l ike Roda capitals 9 2. S ainte-Foy-de-Conques. North c apitals of s outh t ransept door 9 3. Wrestlers on façade of Notre-Dame-la-Grande, Poitiers 9 4. S anta Maria de Taüll. Wall-painting with Kufic border 9 5. Border motifs on Cordoban woodwork ( after LTB 1 957) 9 6. S aint-Pierre-de-Rhedes ( Herault). S outh door, with eccentric archivolt, polychrome decoration, mockKufic l intel. For comparison: inscription on P uerta de la Chocolata, in a l-Hakam I I's east wall 9 7. T oulouse, S aint-Sernin. Capital in ambulatory 9 8. S aint-Pierre-de-Rhedes. Detail o f south door l intel,to compare with Andalusian heart and dart/Kufic decorative motifs: Mezquita, marble mihrab p laque; S eville, plinth of stone base; Toledo, stone base; Toledo, stamped brick 9 9. S an Juan de Busa ( Aragon). Double columns of interior, and s outh f açade with original door 1 00. Museo de Arte de Catalunya, B arcelona. Wooden church s eat from Sant C liment de Taüll ( ded. 1 123). Carved, p ierced and with traces of polychromy 1 01. D etail of s ide of Taüll s eat 1 02. E arly photograph in Archivo Mas, Barcelona, showing two bench panels, one as at Durro, one d ifferent. The snapshop i s inscribed " mobil romanico [ 1305-C] Erilavall Banc de Tall Mus d 'Art & Arq". The r ight panel of the snapshot i s identical with the l eft in my photograph fig. 1 03, but t he l eft is different from my right hand panel 1 03. Two h alves of panel reused in b ench. Durro ( Lerida). 1 04. Ydes ( Cantal). Choir stalls with Romanesque motifs: s lender columns, lobing, rosettes in arches 1 05. Moissac, c 0, west face loister. Capital 5 1 06. Moissac, c 0, west f ace loister. Detail of capital 5 1 07. Moissac, c 0, east f ace loister. Impost of capital 5 1 08. Moissac, cloister. Impost of capital 5 0, south f ace 1 09. Moissac, c 0, north f ace loister. Impost of capital 5 1 10. Toledo, Museo S anta Cruz. Wooden corbel

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1 11. 1 12. 1 13. 1 14. 1 15. 1 16. 1 17. 1 18. 1 19. 1 20.

1 21. 1 22.

1 23.

1 24. 1 25. 1 26. 1 27. 1 28. 1 29. 1 30.

1 31.

1 32. 1 33. 1 34. 1 35. 1 36. 1 37. 1 38. 1 39. 1 40.

I vory C rucifix, g iven i n 1 063 to S an I sidoro i n L eön by Fernando I and S ancha. Mus. Arq.Nacional, Madrid Moissac d oorway. L intel, detail Well-head.Dated by inscription to 4 29H/AD 1 037/8. M useo S anta C ruz, T oledo Moissac doorway, c entre s ection with tympanum, trumeau a nd l obed j ambs Moissac c loister. C apital 6 3, D emon with crossbow. I mpost w ith s croll type 1 Moissac c loister. C apital 1 6 with Transfiguration. I mpost w ith l obes and Moissac s croll type 1 Moissac c loister. C apital 5 5, S croll type 2 Moissac c loister. C apital 2 8, g riffons. S croll t ype 2 Moissac c loister. C apital 3 2, Massacre o f the I nnocents. S croll t ype 2 on i mpost Nogäl de H uertos ( Burgos). North capital o f chancel a rch. C ircular l eaf s croll. I mpost w ith rosettes i n f lat f illet r ing F römista, S an Martin. C apital with c ircular l eaf s croll, a nd f lat f illet-like s tems Frömista. C apital with b irds, c ircular l eaf s croll, c urls on v olutes a nd s tems, i mpost w ith heart a nd dart Loarre. Apse c apital with thick acanthus t ips and Moissac s croll 2 , split ' p almettes a nd l eaf c ross console. B ayeux, Normandy. C apital with R isen Christ. Volute s tems s prout l eaves Conques. North t ransept door p lait capitals and roll c orbel table S aint-Sardos ( L&G). I nterlace capital i n grounds o f church, l eaf volute and A ndalusian-like f oliage S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire. P orch capital with gazelles a nd c rossed s tem s crolls Conques.Typical c apital and c orbel on chapel A ljaferia. Examples o f mixtilinear arcading, d ouble columns, various arch f orms C urled l eaf volute on C ordoban c apitals: Mezquita, fragment o f capital with c ircular l eaf scroll, and C ordoban c apital n ow i n F ez Conques. Cornice o f s outh t ransept doorway s howing e ncroachment o f n ave wall, varied s offit s crolls a nd roll corbels C onques. S outh t ransept doorway Loarre. Apse c apital with D aniel f igure between l ions S an M iguel d e F luviä. C apital with f rontal s tanding f igure and s piral c olumns. Impost s croll c f f ig 2 37 Conques. C loister c apital with headless b ird scroll S an M iguel d e F luviä. C apital with animal h ead and scrolls with wedge-shaped h ollows Q airawan, G reat Mosque. Lobed a rch b etween s quinches C luny. T ransept, l obed a rches o f t riforium A ljaferia. L obed arches of portico Cairo. B ab Z uweila, detail o f l obed arch, and rosette s tud medallions ( Photo G . M ichell

2 87

1 41.

M eymac ( Corräze). West doorway. " Cahors" t ype i ntrados on round a rch, other archivolts with L imousin moulding are pointed 1 42. Collonges ( Corräze). Doorway with r estored trilobes 1 43. P alisse ( Corräze). D oorway, " Cahors" type intrados, L imousin moulding ( unlobed) 1 44. T ulle ( Corräze). M ain doorway with L imousin moulding, 7 -lobed i ntrados ( "Cahors" type) and l obed f irst a rchivolt 1 45. S antiago de C ompostela. P uerta de l as P laterias. L obing framing l ights above d oorway 1 46. Oviedo C athedral T reasury. Drawing o f l obed arch s cratched on c ore o f l id o f Arca S anta 1 47. R ebolledo de l a Torre ( Burgos). I nterior o f a jimez ( twin window) with a lfiz i n west wall o f galleried church. I nscription by I OANES MAGISTER CAPIAS - s ub e ra MCCCXXIII ( 1186) 1 48. S ant Andrgs de S ureda ( PO). L obed a ltar t able; a symmetrical spandrel s crolls 1 49. Vienna G enesis. Representation o f Pharaoh's d ining t able with volute l obes ( after A . B arb, JWCI 1 956) 1 50. P erpignan. Fragments o f l intel a nd t hreshold f rom S aint-Jean-le-Vieux, with heads i n l obes a nd l arge r osette. P alais des Rois de Majorque 1 51. S an P ere de R oda. D oorstep. H eads i n c ircular l eaf s crolls s eparated by trefoil palmette 1 52. S an M iguel de L ino ( Asturias). Window w ith l obing 1 53. S emur en B rionnais. Doorway. L obing i n relief o n t ympanum 1 54. Les Aix d 'Angillon ( Cher). Exterior arcading. Multifarious l obing, a nd c orner t refoils 1 55. N evers, S aint-Etienne. Lobed arches on f açade 1 56. S aint-Hilaire ( Allier). D oorway w ith l obed s offit 1 57. P arassy ( Cher). D oorway with c hevrons and l obing ( detail) 1 58. C luny. Model o f West door a s reconstructed f rom excavations by K .J. C onant 1 59.Catus ( Lot). Chapter house door j amb with l obing ( detail) 1 60. Montbron ( Charente). D oorway with various l obed a rchivolts 1 61. P lassac ( CM). L obed a rcading on f açade 1 62. L es Aix d 'Angillon ( Cher). I nterior, l obed triforium a rches, r osette medallions i n s pandrels 1 63. P ezou, ( L&Cher). D oorway with chevrons and c onvex l obes. A lf i z-like c orbel table above 1 64. B ains ( HL). Doorway. D etail w ith l obing over t orus. B uilt i n t he v olcanic rock o f t he Velay, l ike L e P uy. The l obes h ere are applied t o the a rchivolt, n ot c ut o ut a s a t L e P uy or C ahors. T he points c ross a hollow and rest on a t orus moulding. 1 2th c entury. ( scale drawing, f ig. 3 31) 1 65. L e P uy, cathedral. P orche du F or, detail o f l obing over f acetted s offit torus 1 66.Nogaro ( Gers). R emains o f c loister a rcading; l obing over torus

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1 70. 1 71. 1 72. 1 73.

1 74.

1 75. 1 76. 1 77. 1 78. 1 79. 1 80. 1 81. 1 82. 1 83. 1 84. 1 85. 1 86. 1 87. 1 88.

1 89. 1 90. 1 91. 1 92.

S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire, n orth door. Tympanum w ith f igures i n l obes Vandre ( Ch.-M). D etail o f west f açade, l obes with t riple points La S outerraine ( Creuse). Lobed doorway: " Cahors" i ntrados a nd t hree L imousin-moulding l obed a rchivolts w ith l obing unbroken to t he ground T houars ( 2-S). D etail o f doorway with t hree l obed L imousin-moulding archivolts C hampagne ( Ardäche). L obed t riforium a rches S an J uan de B uso ( Aragon). O riginal s outh doorway w ith l obed d ecoration, possibly an a llusion to K ufic S ketch t o s how the d ifferent trilobe shapes obtained with r uler a nd c ompasses, c entring e ither o n t he h exagon, the c ircumference, or a combination M easured d rawing o f S aint-Michel d 'Aiguilhe ( a), a nd an analysis ( b), which s hows how s imple i s i ts g eometry. ( I am much i ndebted to G eorge Michell f or t he drawing and analysis, c arried out under r igorous c limatic c onditions. I a lso wish to t hank Arun Weys a nd B enedick Watson f or h elping G eorge M ichell t o measure t his a nd t he s everal other d oorways h e k indly did for me) Le P uy. D oorway of S aint-Michel-d'Aiguilhe Le P uy. B ell t ower Le Monastier ( HL). T rilobed n ave arcading ( Photo: J . B ousquet) The trilobes o f Madinat a z-Zahra' and Cahors compared a nd s uperposed Vienne ( Isäre). S aint-Pierre, t ower Moissac. C loister, c apital 1 7, s oldiers g uarding t he prison o f S t P eter, under l obed arch Nourray ( L&Cher). L obed w indow, twin c olumn a rcading S aint-Pierre T oirac ( Lot). N ave c apital with crossed l eaves, i nterlace, b eading. Woodwork-like c arving B essuejouls ( Av). D etail o f f açade with t rilobe N evers. C athedral. Reused f ragments in north wall w ith r osette a nd l obing C ahors ( Lot). S aint-Etienne. T rilobed north door i nto c loister. L imousin moulding, o ne a rchivolt l obed Measured d rawing a nd preliminary analysis o f Cahors n orth d oor, by G . M ichell ( see a lso f ig. 1 78) A dditional analysis o f C ahors north d oor by C . Ewert V igeois ( Corr.) North ( main) doorway. L obing o f i ntrados a nd o ne o f t he t wo L imousin-moulding a rchivolts. L es Rosiers d 'Egletons ( Corr.). 7 -lobed arcade on main apse B enevent l 'Abbaye ( Creuse). D etail o f s outh doorway, l obes s plit at points Moissac. Doorway f rom porch l eading into c hurch. R estored S aint-Antonin ( Lot). F ragment f rom original l obing o f w indow o f t own h all

2 89

1 93.

1 94. 1 95. 1 96. 1 97. 1 98. 1 99. 2 00. 2 01. 2 02. 2 03. 2 04.

2 05.

2 06. 2 07. 2 08. 2 09. 2 10. 2 11. 2 12. 2 13. 2 14. 2 15. 2 16. 2 17. 2 18.

2 19. 2 20. 2 21.

Moissac. E ast panels o f p orch. Annunciation a nd V isitation: f igures under t rilobes. H eads and points c oincide Moissac. D etail o f c apital 1 7 w ith l obed arch D gols ( Indre). O riginal d oorway i nto c loister w ith multilobed L imousin moulding Montmoreau ( Char.). West d oorway. 6 -lobed s offit, split points, decoration in s pandrels o f l obes P etit Palais ( Gir.). West f açade. L obed door a nd arcades, twin columns. S pandrel f igures Notre-Dame de C hätres ( CM). D oorway in three-storied west f açade with 7 -lobed soffit ( detail) N euillac ( CM). D etail o f t riple points o f l obed doorway L e Waast ( PdeC). Doorway s offit o f mixtilinear c onvex l obes. Archivolts e ccentric t o s offit Lubersac ( Corr.). 7 -lobed doorway soffit with animals c arved on p oints, v ery s imilar to V igeois Condgor i ( Char.). 5 -lobed doorway soffit, with b acked l obes S aint-Yrieix ( HV). Trilobed a rcading on t ower C olombiers ( Allier). Doorway, s offit with backed l obes and rosettes i n their s pandrels. I ntrados on pointed a rch B lanzac ( Char.). I nterior l obed arcading of L imousin moulding, a nd l obes c arved on f ace o f outer a rchivolt G anagobie ( BA). D oorway with convex l obing P oitiers, S aint-Hilaire. C onvex l obes, n orth f ace o f tower S aint-Amans ( L&G). D oorway w ith convex l obes and c hevrons S aint-Robert ( L&G). Doorway w ith convex l obes, e ach l obe carved w ith rosettes A lhambra ( Granada). Arch with multiple-lobed extrados, b acked voussoirs T rizay ( CM). Lobed arcading B lanzay ( Char.) D oorway with c onvex-lobed outer archivolt S aint-Rgvgrien ( Indre). Capital with representation o f b uilding with l obed doorway G argilesse ( Nievre). C apital with l obed c anopy over f igures F oussais ( Vendge). Relief with l obed canopy C ahors ( Lot). N ave window c apital w ith l obed canopy B ayeux T apestry. Westminster Abbey: a p lain doorway. T he " lobes" a bove are gable or r oof l ines P amplona. C athedral Treasury. I vory c asket made i n 1 004-5 f or A bd a l-Malik, s on o f A lmanzor. Detail o f b ack. L obed medallion containing f igures; the heads a nd p oints coincide ( cf f igs. 1 93, 3 01)) L a S auve-Majeure. Corbels ( now i n C loisters Museum, N ew York). Toulouse, S aint S ernin. P orte Miägeville. Spandrel f igures, roll c orbel table Conques. Corbel o f north transept door with ox head

2 90

2 22. 2 23. 2 24. 2 25. 2 26. 2 27. 2 28. 2 29. 2 30. 2 31. 2 32. 2 33. 2 34. 2 35. 2 36. 2 37. 2 38. 2 39. 2 40. 2 41. 2 42. 2 43. 2 44. 2 45.

2 46. 2 47. 2 48. 2 49. 2 50. 2 51. 2 52. 2 53. 2 54. 2 55. 2 56. 2 57. 2 58.

C lermont-Ferrand. N otre-Dame-du-Port. E aves c orbels Le M ans. N otre-Dame-du P re. Apse corbel ( Photo: S arah P earson) L e M ans, L a Couture. Apse corbels ( Photo: S arah P earson) J umiäges ( SM). N ave c orbels S aignes ( Cantal). E aves c orbels S an M illän de S uso ( Cogolla, C astile). Mozarabic c orbels S ketch o f development o f t he r oll corbel i n Spain and F rance Moissac, c loister. Argaud's p roposed decipherment o f t he " Kufic" on t he impost o f c apital 5 0 Madinat a z-Zahra". Marble c orbel V illarmün ( Leon). E aves c orbels S ilos, S anto D omingo ( Castile). Abbey museum. C orbels N evers, S aint-Etienne. Apse c orbels Nevers, S aint-Etienne. Choir corbels B lesle ( HL). Apse c orbels Anzy-le-Duc ( S&L). E aves corbels Poitiers, S aint-Hilaire. E ast f ace o f t ower. C orbels 9 - 1 1 P oitiers, S aint-Hilaire. Tower corbels 4 - 1 1 P oitiers, S aint-Hilaire. T ower corbels 1 - 3 and 3 - 5 Nevers. Museum. C orbels f rom S aint-Sauveur S an M iguel d e F luviä ( Gerona). C apital with " roll corbel" volutes S an M iguel d e F luviä. C apital with r ing bosses on a stragal S an M iguel de F luviä. C apital with thick acanthus t ips J aca ( Aragön). S an P edro. Corbels on s outhern apse c hapel. R osette s offits, c arved metopes S antiago d e Compostela. P uerta de l as P laterias. West door, west c onsole. ( cf t he e laborated " Limousin moulding" S antiago d e Compostela. P uerta de l as P laterias. West door, e ast console S antiago de Compostela. P uerta de l as P laterias. E ast d oor, west console S antiago d e Compostela. Puerta de l as P laterias. E ast door, e ast console Moirax ( L&G). Apse corbels. Geometric medallion D 13 on metopes S antiago d e Compostela. P uerta de l as P laterias. C orbel t able over d oorway Toulouse. S aint-Sernin. P orte M iägeville. West console S aint-Sardos ( L&G). D etail o f north d oorway. C url corbels, c rossed s tem s crolls on tympanum I guäcel, S anta Maria ( Aragon). D etail of west d oorway. b . P rofile o f b ase o f a window colonnette I guäcel, S anta Maria. I nterior c apital I guäcel, S anta Maria. Apse eaves corbels I guäcel, S anta Maria. C orbel t able over d oorway, corbels 1 - 3 I guäcel, S anta Maria. D oorway corbels 4 - 5 I guäcel, S anta M aria. D oorway c orbels 6 - 7

2 91

2 59. 2 60. 2 61. 2 62.

I guäcel, S anta Maria. Doorway corbels 8 - 9 I guäcel, Santa Maria. Doorway corbels 1 0 - 1 1 T oulouse, S aint-Sernin. Porte Miegeville, St Peter Carizo, Leön. Ivory Corpus from a Crucifix. T urban hair style 2 63. Loarre ( Aragön). Church of S an Pedro within the castle. C orbel in s outh-east corner of dome tract "Head 1 " 2 64. Loarre. " Head 1 " 2 65. Loarre. " Head 2 " in north-east corner of dome tract 2 66. Loarre. " Head 3 " in north-west corner of dome tract 2 67. Loarre. S outh doorway. Ox head corbels p laced on east s ide 2 68. Loarre. South doorway. Corbels p laced on west s ide: an ox head and a quadruped 2 69. Toulouse. Saint-Sernin. Head of S t Matthew, detail of ambulatory relief. 2 70. Toulouse. Saint-Sernin. Porte des Comtes, corbel table with roll c orbels, spandrel f igures 2 71. Aubiac ( L&G). South apse chapel corbels 2 72. Moissac. C loister capital 1 7. D etail of impost, with curls and " Oxus Treasure" demons 2 73. Lescure ( Tarn). West doorway corbel table. Detail. Rosette soffits, sun-face metopes, roll corbels 2 74. Conques. Evangelist c apital f rom c loister. Down-turned l eaf volute 2 75. Lärrede ( Aragön). Apse exterior 2 76. S aint-Benoit-sur-Loire, chevet corbels 2 77. Conques. Capital and corbel of chapel 2 78. Conques. South transept door corbel table, detail with upturned rolls on corbel 2 79. Conques. South transept door corbel table, detail 2 80. Nohant-Vicq ( Indre). The B etrayal. Detail of p ainting on north wall o f choir. Ground represented by curls 2 81. J umiäges ( SM). Corbels of west tower 2 82. Caen. La Trinit ( Abbaye aux Dames). Capital with roll c orbel console 2 83. Caen. La Trinite. Capital with roll corbel console 2 84. Ebreuil ( Allier). North e levation. Roll corbels and hollowed rosette in soffit 2 85. Pont-du-Chäteau ( PdeD). North wall corbels 2 86. B lesle ( HL). Apse corbel with double rolls 2 87. B rioude ( HL). Chevet. Roll corbels and polychrome decoration with rosettes on apse 2 88. P laimpied ( Cher). Corbels on apse chapel 2 89. S aint-Jeanvrin ( Cher). Corbels on apse chapel 2 90. B engy ( Cher). Chevet corbels 2 91. Avord ( Cher). Nave corbels 2 92. Chäteaumeillant ( Cher). Chevet, eaves on roll corbels and arcading 2 93. Conques. Chevet f rom s outh-east 2 94. Conques. Corbels of ambulatory 2 95. Conques. Corbels of interior south gallery 2 96. Conques. S erpentine basin. Capitals and corbel. P endant p ine. 2 97. Conques. Capital with down-turned l eaf motif

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3 00. 3 01.

3 02. 3 03. 3 04.

3 05. 3 06. 3 07. 3 08. 3 09. 3 10.

3 11. 3 12. 3 13. 3 14. 3 15. 3 16. 3 17. 3 18. 3 19. 3 20. 3 21. 3 22. 3 23. 3 24. 3 25. 3 26.

G imel ( Corr.). Reliquary. Enamel and vermicule decoration Examples o f mock-Kufic different from the Toledo/Moissac type: a . S olsona Diocesan Museum. A ltarpiece f rom Sagars. Entry into Jerusalem, with mock-Kufic border. b . S anto Domingo de S ilos. S hrine l id. S lender columns and mock-Kufic border T oulouse, S aint-Sernin. P orte des Comtes, corbels. Square rosette soffits Examples of " Cordoban ivory s tyle" l eaf carving c f. f igs. 1 11, 2 18: a . Moissac, capital i nside porch b . Moissac, capital in Chapter House museum c . Collonges doorway d . Pamplona Museum, capital f rom cathedral e . Conques, capital of serpentine b asin ( down-turned l eaf and c rossed s tems) S aint-Sever ( Landes). Corbels o f north chapel S aint-Sever ( Landes). Corbels of choir Cadillac, Roumagne ( L&G). S aint-Martin. North doorway, with curls on consoles, capitals with snail-shell volutes ( cf Measured drawing, f ig. 3 31) Layrac ( L&G). Corbels of chevet, variants of roll Aubiac ( L&G). Corbels of chevet, some with rolls Peujard ( Gir.). West façade, arcading with twin columns, corbel table with roll corbels Engayrac ( L&G). Single roll corbel over apse east window, the rest p lain Marcillac-Vallon ( Av.). Wood corbelling of dwelling house, showing persistence of roll corbel tradition Reconstruction by K .J. Conant of the west façade of C luny I II. Triple composition both horizontal and vertical, a lfiz, upper arcading, l obed archivolt, s pandrel f igures. P aray-le-Monial ( S&L). Doorway, marked reference to a lfiz S alles-en-Beaujölais ( S&L). Doorway, marked reference to a lfiz Loupiac ( Gir.). West fa9ade. A lfiz over upper arcades; twin columns L urgy-Levis ( Allier). Doorway. S uperposed columns, r eference to a lfiz Corme-Ecluse ( CM). West façade R iqueuil ( 2S). West doorway, twin columns Chäteau-Larcher ( Vienne). West doorway, spandrel f igures, a lfiz reference Mourens ( Gir.). West doorway roll-derived corbels Le P uch ( Gir.). West f açade E sclottes ( L&G). South doorway D uras ( L&G). S ainte-Colombe. S outh doorway S aint-Sardos ( L&G). North doorway Ars -en-Re ( CM ). West doorway with s uperposed columns Melle ( 2S) S aint-Hilaire. West doorway with " Constantine" equestrian f igure Caen, La Trinite. Capital with eared mask, confronted b irds and e lephant with howdah Cahors ( Lot). Tympanum of north doorway. " Stepped l intel" e ffect

2 93

3 27. 3 28.

3 29. 3 30. 3 31. 3 32.

L oches ( I&L). D oorway. O utlined voussoirs and " stepped l intel" e ffect The Oxus Treasure. E nlarged s ketch o f r epouss e bowl w ith prancing l ions ( British Museum C atalogue, no 1 8: Museum number 1 23919) Montivilliers ( SM). north t ransept a rch w ith o utlined voussoirs a lternating c oloured and carved, and p lain Angers ( Saint-Aubin). Doorway a rch i n c loisters. O utlined voussoirs Measured drawings o f S aint-Martin, Cadillac ( L&G) ( cf. f ig. 3 04) a nd B ains ( HL) ( cf. f ig. 1 64) ( G. M ichell) Z aragoza, A ljaferia. C apital w ith 3 -, 5 -, a nd 7 -lobe arches, s ome with peaked t ops ( cf. AHIII f ig. 1 38, 1 90). D rawing by G udrun Ewert

U nnumbered

I llustrations

in t he t ext

Mezquita. S imulated corbel with down-turned l eaf on t he m arble p anels at t he entrance to t he mihrab of a l-Hakam I I Tudela. Two f ragments o f a decorative band, 1 0th p . vii. c entury ( After T udela) 8. T oledo. I nscribed b rick t omb s lab ( After AHIII ) p . 3 0. D ecorative motifs, a ,b,c,d, C ordoba, e , T oledo, f , p . 4 Tudela 3. L inked palmettes or l am-mim-aliph ? B orders: Stp . 7 S ever Beatus, F ez, Mezquita, Madinat a z-Zahra", I mposts: S an P ere de Roda, M ourens, S aint-Pierrede-Rhädes 0. Variants o f the half-palmette running s croll, P - 8 C ordoba, Toledo, Tudela, B alaguer 2. " Moissac s croll" and i ts history: Madinat a z-Zahra", p . 8 T oledo, Moissac, Conques 8 6. Map with l ocation o f K ufic and mock-Kufic P i nscriptions on C hristian monuments u nderlined 68. Andalusian corbel types: a ,b, Mosque of a l-Hakam p . 1 I I, c , A lmanzor, d , A ljaferia. 78. Map s howing p laces f requently r eferred to i n the P - 2 t ext p .

v .

2 94

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Great Mosque o f

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Great Mosque of Cordoba

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3 02

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3 03

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1 0.

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3 06

1 1.

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1 2.

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3 07

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Saint-Blaise

Dome

1 3.

S aint-Sernin,

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1 4.

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3 08

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1 5.

1 6.

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S aint-Pierre-de-Rhedes i nterior

1 7.

S aint-Pierre,

Vault

o f upper

Moissac.

s torey of

tower

3 09

1 8.

1 9.

Mezquita.

Mezquita. Carved marble f acing o f mihrab, t urned l eaf motif on imitation corbel

3 10

M ihrab

with down-

A r c _Kio r k 9 , : ge .e i%f \ ;N i ti te r< e i ' ,

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2 0. M adinat a z-Zahra: C ornice o f M osque

2 1. a . R ipoll b . Cornelha . C apitals, l ate 1 0th c entury, w ith d ownt urned l eaf r eplacing v olute

3 11 .

D OWN-TURNED L EAF M OTIF

2 2. M oissac, C loister C apital 6 5

2 3. L oarre, a pse a rcade

3 12

2 4. C onques. C apital f rom c loister w ith d own-turned l eaf a nd p endnat p ine m otif

2 5. S an P edro d e L oarre. C apital w ith d own-turned l eaf, l ion h ead i n V , i nterlace a nd a ngel h eads

3 13

2 6. M ourens ( L&G), S ainte C olombe. C apital w ith d own-turned l eaf 2 6b. F or c omparison: Z aragoza , A ljaferia , d ome s upports

3 14

A R CA D E S

2 7.

( left) M ezquita. F ragment o f a rch p ierced b y A lmanzor i nto a l-Hakam I I's e ast w all

2 8.

( above) M ezquita. P lan o f a l-Hakam I I's s outh e nd w ith t ransverse a rches d otted b eyond m aqsura

2 9.

( below) M ezquita. A rch C D 1 ( see p lan f ig. 2 8

3 15

3 0

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3 16

3 2.

M ezquita. S pring o f a rch C D 1,

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3 3.

M ezquita. S pring o f a rch C D 1,

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