Food Security and Safety: African Perspectives 3030506711, 9783030506711

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Olubukola Oluranti Babalola  Editor

Food Security and Safety African Perspectives

Food Security and Safety

Olubukola Oluranti Babalola Editor

Food Security and Safety African Perspectives

Editor Olubukola Oluranti Babalola Food Security and Safety Niche North-West University Mmabatho, South Africa

ISBN 978-3-030-50671-1    ISBN 978-3-030-50672-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50672-8 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

This book titled Food Security and Safety: Africans Perspective is dedicated to all researchers and non-governmental organizations who are constantly working on enhancing food and nutritional security in Africa in a bid to reduce malnutrition and poverty, as well as improve the safety of consumed foods in Africa, which promotes healthy well-being of the populace. May the labour of our hands not go in vain.

Foreword

Food insecurity has been a hot topic for discussion in recent times, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, a region often confronted with poverty, malnutrition, and insecurity as well as environmental factors such as climate change which is affecting agricultural productivity. Africa remains food insecure despite being endowed with rich human and natural resources. Africa can only be food secure if its inhabitants have at all times easy access to safe, nutritious, and sufficient food to meet their daily dietary demands and food preferences for an active and healthy life. A holistic approach needs to be taken by African governments and policymakers to achieve food security on the continent. Food Security and Safety: African Perspectives edited by Prof. Olubukola Oluranti Babalola comes in handy as a must-read by academics, researchers, students and professionals in the food and agro industries in Africa. The book is authored by someone who has much research and teaching experience in food security and safety and currently holds the position of Director of Food Security and Safety Niche Area at North-West University South Africa. The importance of food security and safety in our daily lives cannot be over-emphasized. The task of providing food security for Africa’s burgeoning population is becoming increasingly difficult. The economy of some African countries remains poor especially in the area of sustainable agriculture. This is further exacerbated by the impact of climate change, which has led to global warming and reduction in food production. Additionally, the activities of some food vendors, fast food outlets and retailers in the food value chain often contribute to the consumption of unhealthy foods, which takes a toll on human health. All hands must be on deck to tackle the food security crisis facing Africa, but this will require collaborative efforts among researchers from the various fields related to food security and safety; crop scientists/agronomists, breeders and geneticists; microbiologists; soil scientists; entomologists; and animal scientist, to mention a few. In light of this, having a compendium of book chapters that focuses on enhancing food security and safety as well as prospects in Africa couldn’t have come at a better time.

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As I reviewed the book chapters before writing this foreword, I was impressed by the array of chapters on various aspects of food security and safety, ranging from utilization of climate-smart and underutilized crops to efforts being made to enhance the detection of pathogens affecting crops, improving soil quality as well as improving the safety of processed foods using modern technologies, biotechnology and nanotechnology. The book is divided into two major parts: Part A focuses on food security issues in general, which forms the bulk of the book, while Part B focuses on food safety. The first seven chapters of the book gives an overview of the importance of neglected and underutilized crops and animal species as potential agents for enhancing food security in Africa. Chapter 1 highlights the hidden treasures in African yam bean, an underutilized tuberous legume with food security potentials. It’s a unique crop producing two products: edible seeds above the ground and underground tubers that look and taste like potatoes, both with high protein content and essential minerals and amino acids. If the crop is given more research focus by stakeholders for improvement in agronomic and nutritional quality traits, it will ameliorate the level of protein and mineral malnutrition in Africa especially among children and it could also be a good source of income for farmers. Chapter 2 discusses the role of indigenous food species in achieving food security in the southeastern region of Nigeria. The authors affirmed that food security can be attained by any nation if its government makes policies that favour the sustained production of indigenous foods. The proximate and phytochemical composition of some indigenous crops (yam, cassava, cocoyam, fruits and vegetables, and grain legumes) were evaluated and their importance in ensuring food and nutritional security among indigenous peoples of Southeastern Nigeria highlighted. Chapter 3 describes the strategies needed to tap the potential of African neglected and orphan crops in enhancing food security in Africa. The chapter highlights the genetic diversity, breeding efforts and nutritional benefits of orphan crops cultivated in Ethiopia and prospects for their conservation and utilization. Food-based strategies such as food production, dietary diversification and food fortification are regarded as the most sustainable approaches to increasing the micronutrient status of populations. Chapter 4 investigates the effects of optimized soaking conditions and drying temperature on the nutritional, anti-nutritional and functional properties of African yam bean (AYB) seeds to produce high-quality flour. Chapter 5 focuses on harnessing the potential of underutilized aquatic bioresource Dagaa, a lower-end fish species, for food and nutritional security in Kenya. This underutilized fish species also has a direct role in food security by being a food source rich in quality macronutrient (protein), calorie and micronutrient (mineral). Chapter 6 discusses the importance of exploring neglected and underutilized root and tuber crops for food security in Africa. The authors highlight the nutritional contents identified in some underutilized root and tuber crops (Hausa potato, Livingstone potato, sweet potato and cocoyam) and discuss various value additions in processing and storage technologies that have been developed along their value chains. Refocusing on these crops through awareness of their valuable nutritious

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content and various value additions could provide more diversified agriculture and food sources necessary to address food insecurity concerns in Africa. Chapter 7 highlights the potentials of finger millet for food security in Africa and how it can be effectively utilized in the development of diverse food products and formulations. Due to the versatility of finger millet as a staple food, its taste, outstanding storage quality and adoption under different agro-climatic conditions, it has a greater economic value than most cereals. It also has several medicinal properties which are outlined in the chapter. Chapter 8 associates household food securing activities with socio-economic factors in South Africa. It shows that food securing activities such as livestock production, fruits, and vegetables practiced on dryland farming, are prevalent among poor households, females, black Africans, rural dwellers, the unemployed, and those living in the Eastern Cape. These activities are carried out mostly by female-­ headed households and perceived unhealthy individuals. The urgent need to support and encourage small-scale food production is emphasized. Chapter 9 emphasizes the importance of neglected and underutilized plant species in food and nutritional security in Africa with a focus on the industrial potential of the Nigerian fluted Pumpkins (Cucurbita pepo L.), an underutilized vegetable. Bringing the potential of pumpkin to the relevant industries could encourage its commercial cultivation by farmers to better harness its utilization for food and nutritional security in Africa. Chapter 10 highlights the pre-slaughter and post-slaughter techniques that can be used to enhance the functional value of meat and how these may influence meat consumption trends and perceptions, and emphasizes the need to increase the nutritional value and health benefits of these high-quality protein sources which will expand consumer options, distribution and accessibility, particularly in communities faced with food security challenges. Chapter 11 discusses the importance of agricultural productivity strategies and processes as a key component of inclusive growth towards food security. African nations still have most of their population living in poverty and ravaged by undernourishment, food insufficiency and non-accessibility. Mitigating climate change and risk management, youth participation in agripreneurship, innovative research and technology transfer as well as gender equity in agriculture and productivity were recommended as ways of enhancing agricultural productivity in Africa. Chapter 12 describes research conducted to optimize the formulation of composite flour from biofortified cassava, pigeon pea and soybean for complementary feeding. The composite flour was composed of 65.81% biofortified cassava, 10% pigeon pea and 24.19% soybean. All the cooked gruels prepared from the composite flours were acceptable by nursing mothers as 100 g of the optimally formulated composite flour could supply 1%, 18.4% and 0.92% of an infant’s required daily intake of calcium, iron and zinc, respectively. Chapter 13, which focuses on gauging food insecurity resilience among pastoral communities with case studies of the Somali and Turkana communities of northern Kenya, uses a multi-stage approach study to validate the FAO food resilience model among households. Key relevant variables such as diet diversity score, durable

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index and education level of household head were identified as the vital d­ eterminants of household food resilience, which should be included while gauging of progress in pastoral food security resilience. Chapter 14 investigates the need to optimize and multiply large Fulani Eco-Type Chicken for sustainable production and genetic security in Nigeria by assessing the growth performance as well as meat and egg quality of Large Fulani Eco-type Chicken (LFEC) reared under modern management practices. A semi-intensive system is recommended for the rearing of LFEC Chapters 15 discusses the different categories of soil quality indicators, the importance of soil quality to ecosystem services and the criteria for choosing the best soil quality indicators. The quality of the soil determines the nature of the soil microorganisms and their role in maintaining soil quality for sustainable agriculture. Therefore, a reduction in microbial diversity reduces the ability of soil to function normally and reduces the resistance of soil to major environmental changes. Chapter 16 highlights the fact that food security and safety depend on the quality of soil since plants and animals depend on soils for sustenance. Degradation of soil results in poor quality and low soil fertility, which negatively affects the production of horticultural crops in Nigeria; hence, the improvement of soil quality to enhance Nigeria’s food security status is of utmost importance. The nutritional quality of a crop is influenced by the composition and quality of soil; therefore, healthy soils produce healthy crops and safe foods, thus improvement of soil quality for food and nutritional security is urgently required. Chapter 17 presents the benefits derived from Castor seed and thorns trees, two invader plants that are utilized in medicine, manufacturing, agriculture and food industries. The chapter gives detailed information on the beneficiation of the plants to the agro-food industry as well as discusses, the properties of castor oil and the nutritional composition of the thorn trees. These plants are viewed as a suitable alternative to agricultural raw materials which could enhance and compliment food security and generate a lot of jobs for the African youth. Chapter 18 highlights the importance of proper management of soil properties in achieving food production by tree crops and enhancing food and nutrition security. The proper use and application of soil information is indispensable in poverty alleviation, biodiversity conservation and economic development in sub-Saharan Africa. Chapter 19 discusses the significance of African Walnut as a natural depository of nutritional and bioactive compounds essential for food and nutritional security in Africa. Despite the benefits derived from the nuts, such as antioxidants, vitamins and essential minerals required for the prevention of chronic diseases and adequate maintenance of well-being of humans, it remains underutilized in Africa. The chapter explains the various roles of walnut in nutritional security in Africa and gives a better understanding of its composition and advantages to health. Chapter 20 discusses the implications of production, post-harvest and consumption of fish on food and nutrition security with a focus on Nigeria. Growing demand for fish is predicated on rising populations, changes in food habits and urbanization while factors that affect fish availability depend on fluctuations in capture fisheries productivity, fishery management regimes, aquaculture and a host of anthropogenic

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factors. As a focal country, Nigeria stands to benefit immensely from the United States Global Food Security Strategy (GFSS) and the FAO’s Country Programming Framework involving aquaculture and capture fisheries sub-­sectors, with focus on strengthening their roles in food and nutrition security if well implemented. Chapter 21 focuses on a critical problem affecting agricultural production in Africa, which is climate change, and proffers ways of improving food production by promoting climate-resilient crops. It highlights the need to improve physio-­ biochemical aspects of important cereal and legume crops by optimizing their agronomic efficiencies predicated by unpredictable climatic variables, extensively discusses the need for introgression of selected abiotic tolerant traits into economic crops for sustainable crop growth under climate change using modern biotechnology methods while improving conversion efficiency through leaf chlorophyll, and elaborates canopy architecture engineering. Chapter 22 calls for a paradigm shift in the way food is produced and distributed, to feed the ever-growing population in the face of climate change. This chapter promotes sustainable agricultural intensification as a strategy to combat food insecurity in the West African region. However, the systematic application of sustainable agriculture practices is still marginal. Chapter 23 discusses the need to promote environmentally smart agricultural practices as a veritable investment on insulating healthy nutrition from the adverse effect of environmental degradation in sub-Saharan Africa through focusing more attention on Africa’s climate-smart crops which can tolerate severe weather conditions and are resistant to pests and diseases, thus better adapted to climate change with the potentials of increasing food and nutrition security. Chapter 24 discusses the impact of food hazards such as microbial pathogens, toxins and heavy metals as well as their prevalence on foodborne disease due to changes in weather and climatic conditions. The food safety challenges and their impact on human health in the face of climate change and variability are highlighted. The next ten chapters focus the reader’s attention to the utilization of advanced technologies and innovative scientific researches in nanotechnology, plant breeding and biotechnology in enhancing food security in sub-Saharan Africa. Chapter 25 discusses microbial biotechnology as a viable tool for improvement and the sustenance of soil fertility for enhanced food security. A decline in soil fertility is more pathetic in sub-Saharan Africa since agricultural inputs, especially inorganic fertilizers that are necessary to alleviate soil nutrients losses, are beyond the reach of resource-poor farmers. This review highlights the relationship between the soil and microorganisms; the potentials of microbial biotechnology applications in manipulating, stimulating or engineering beneficial soil microorganisms as ­bio-­inoculants; and soil–plant associations that enhance soil nutrient availability for sustainable food security. Chapter 26 discusses the potentials of plant breeding in giving a boost to food security in Africa. Plant breeders are very influential in their quest to improve food security as they are concerned with generating new genotypes of crops that combine new traits that address the principal factors of interest to farmers, processors, consumers and storage specialists. This chapter expounds on the transition from con-

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ventional to modern plant breeding and highlights the importance of next-generation sequencing (NGS) together with genotyping by sequencing (GBS) in the development of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) needed for effective utilization or genetic improvement of a crop’s germplasm. Case studies from Nigeria, Ghana and South Africa are discussed. Chapter 27 discusses the extent of the commercialization of genetically modified crops against biotic and abiotic stresses. The impact of utilization of genetic engineering on the continent as well as the prospects and challenges of the use of the technology in crop production are also highlighted. The perceptions of people are very important in the adoption and expansion of genetically modified crops. Chapter 28 emphasizes the importance of soil microorganisms in enhancing crop production by making nitrogen, phosphorous, iron, potassium and other plant nutrient elements available for plant growth and development. The need to have a synergy between these beneficial microbes and the provision of food, feed, fibre and medicine using biotechnology are highlighted. Chapter 29 introduces microorganisms as a source of edible oils which are rich in long-chain unsaturated fatty acids, synthesized from palmitic and stearic acids. These microbial oils which have high productivity levels are widely used in the food and feed industries. The possibility of using edible oils from microbes rich in Omega 3 fatty acids as dietary supplements and for infant food formulations is highlighted. Chapter 30 introduces plant growth-promoting bacteria as key players in mitigating the effects of drought stress in plants towards the sustenance of agricultural productivity and the enhancement of food security. Drought remains a serious challenge towards agricultural productivity; nevertheless, the use of plant growth-­ promoting bacteria seems to be a promising and more effective way to cope with this menace as it presents itself to be cost-effective, less time consuming and ecologically friendly. The use of this technique could promote sustainable agriculture by increasing crop productivity and yield, thereby promoting food safety and security. Chapter 31 dwells on the importance of molecular markers as facilitators in plant breeding and germplasm conservation. Plant breeding through conventional methods with classical markers has significantly contributed to crop productivity and germplasm conservation for the sustenance of food security, but the integration of molecular markers has potentially revolutionized breeding of many well-known crops but not fully in orphan or underutilized crops. This chapter suggests that having full knowledge and judicious deployment of different informative and discriminatory molecular markers in crop breeding, especially of the orphan crops, could ameliorate breeding efforts in Africa to reduce hunger, poverty and malnutrition among the populace. Chapter 32 discusses the utilization of biofertilizers as an eco-friendly approach to sustainable crop production in Africa. The authors described the consequences of the excessive use of chemical fertilizers which harm the environment and the concept of sustainable agriculture. The use of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria as biofertilizers and their mechanisms of action in enhancing crop yield are presented.

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Chapter 33 reports the design of a hybrid bio-solar energy powered fruit dryer as a more reliable alternative to traditional sun-drying, which makes the products vulnerable to contamination, pests and inconsistent drying. The designed fruit dryer if made available to rural dwellers could enhance food security by ensuring fruits and vegetables are available in-between cropping seasons and also create employment for Africans. Chapter 34 highlights recent developments in extrusion cooking technology and its application to food processing in developing countries. The twin-screw extruder with operational efficiency, degree of mixing and ability to handle the different combinations of food material was recommended for use in extrusion in food industries towards producing novel extruded foods products that are inexpensive and could be used among agro-food processing industries. Chapter 35 highlights the negative impact of pests and diseases on crop yields. The chemical methods of control are often innocuous to plants and animals. Hence, the application of nanotechnology using nanoparticles from various micronutrients as carriers has opened an outlook of research linking up plant–microbe interaction in the sense of control of pathogen and plant diseases and also their interactions. Apart from the beneficial effects of biocontrol agents, some adverse effects have also been observed and with some trials using nanotechnology. Hence, further studies are required to determine the optimum dosage required during field application of nanoparticles, its toxicity and mechanism of interaction between the pathogen cell walls and silver NP. The subsequent chapters in Part B focus on food safety issues in Africa. Fusarium species threaten the quality and yield of many foods and their products; hence, they are of major concern to food safety and crop and feed production worldwide. Chapter 36 discusses mycotoxins produced by Fusarium in food and food products, and the role they play in animal and human nutrition and health in Africa, as well as their mitigation. Chapter 37 highlights technological advancement in the use of nanomaterials in enhancing food safety and discusses the concerns over the application of nanoparticles in food due to possible toxicity of the particles and energy consumption and expensive synthetic processes. A comprehensive review of green synthesis of nanoparticles and the applications in agri-food sectors are highlighted. Chapter 38 discusses the occurrence of non-typhoid salmonellosis in African countries and the prevalence and traits of non-typhoid Salmonella serotypes from meat and related meat products in African countries compared to the situation in other continents and evaluates the extent of resistance against antimicrobials by non-typhoid Salmonella recovered from humans in African countries in comparison to the rest of the world. The gaps in theoretical and practical knowledge of Salmonella enterica are highlighted and possible future research areas are proposed. Chapter 39 highlights the negative effects of heavy metal contamination of land used for agricultural purposes, which leads to bioaccumulation of these harmful metals in humans and animals when contaminated plants are consumed. This gives

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rise to health problems such as gastrointestinal discomfort/disorder, nausea, puking, diarrhoea, pulmonary fibrosis, renal dysfunction and cancer in some extreme situations. This chapter admonishes humans to eat their food as medicine, this becomes worrisome and difficult to achieve when food supply and safety is threatened by environmental contaminants. Chapter 40 discusses the occurrence and persistence of Toxoplasma and Toxocara parasites in relevant foods, current detecting methods in foods and possible control measures. Toxocariasis occurs by the ingestion of contaminated raw vegetables or water with embryonated Toxocara eggs and also by eating raw or improperly cooked infected meat containing viable Toxocara larvae, which makes them unfit for human consumption and safety. Proper cooking of meats, washing fruits and vegetables before eating, disinfection of drinking water, pasteurization of milk, and monitoring general good hygienic practices are recommended to minimize the possibility of foodborne illness by these parasites. Chapter 41 highlights the importance of African fermented foods from different plant sources such as cassava, millet, maize and soybeans in promoting food security in Africa. These fermented foods are known to contain bioactive metabolites as well as antimicrobial peptides and produce protein peptides that are beneficial to the health of consumers. The various roles of African fermented foods and the microbes they contain and metabolites useful as antimicrobial agents were discussed. Chapter 42 discusses the risks associated with acrylamide in food and ways to reduce the predicted mitogenic side effects based on strategy. Acrylamide (AA) may be critical for carcinogenic and genotoxic properties, where they form in vivo and in vitro DNA damage. Even though a limited number of starchy foods have been analysed for AA content, there is a lack of information for foods consumed in many countries, particularly in developing countries. This chapter discusses the formation of acrylamide (AA) in food products, its consumption and its possible carcinogenic effect. The present and future mitigation strategies that may reduce the exposure to AA are also discussed. Chapter 43, the last chapter, highlights the safety hazards along the animal supply food chain in Nigeria. Studies on Nigeria’s animal food safety status reveal that farm-to-fork production, processing and sales procedures are sub-optimal despite the enactment of the law on Nigerian national food hygiene and safety policy, which is to ensure the sale and consumption of wholesome food. Animal food safety legislation ought to be followed by surveillance and collaboration among stakeholders for effective planning and execution of Nigeria’s food hygiene and safety agenda. The authors recommend the improvement of operating standards of animal processing facilities, availability of veterinarians in all sectors, deployment of health inspectors, as well as effective food safety policy and implementation strategy which will entail the existence of comprehensive laws, food safety infrastructure and institutional capacities along the supply chain.

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Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to all the contributors upon their consent to be a part of this book and all the esteemed reviewers for graciously finding out time to review the various manuscripts submitted for the book chapters and their valuable comments and recommendations. Food Security and Safety Niche Area Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences North-West University Mahikeng, South Africa

Omena Bernard Ojuederie

Preface

This book focuses on food security and safety issues with an emphasis on Africa. The continent of Africa is currently faced with food insecurity issues and is most affected by undernourishment. The continuous increase in the human population in Africa will lead to more food demands. For Africa to be food secure, safe and nutritious, food has to be available, well distributed and sufficient to meet people’s food requirements. Achieving this requires that collective action problems be resolved to achieve food security and nutrition in Africa. Food Security and Safety: African Perspectives identifies those factors that lead to food insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa and highlight the positive efforts being made to address them through an interdisciplinary approach. It enhances the knowledge base of food security, food safety and food production, which have been major scientific and political topics of discussion in recent times, and also identifies the possible constraints to food security and addresses how these constraints could be overcome. Climate change has affected food production in most parts of Africa as a result of drought and excessive temperatures, leading to a reduction in crop yields and loss of livestock and income. The need to focus on climate-smart crops for sustainable agriculture was highlighted in some chapters. This book is intended for researchers, academics and students involved in scientific research and innovation in the areas of food security, food safety and food production as well as food safety professionals involved in the food industries. It will also be useful for policymakers and government agencies in Africa involved in ensuring food security and safety in the various African countries. Topics covered in the book chapters include the role of neglected and underutilized crops in enhancing food security and reducing malnutrition in Africa, food security issues in Africa, the impact of climate change on food security, technological advancements using modern technologies such as biotechnology and nanotechnology to enhance food quality, and food safety issues. Food Security and Safety Niche Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa

Olubukola Oluranti Babalola

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About the Book

This book focuses on food security and safety issues with an emphasis on Africa, a continent presently challenged with malnutrition and food insecurity. The continuous increase in the human population in Africa will lead to more food demands. For Africa to be food secure, safe and nutritious food has to be available, well distributed and be sufficient to meet people’s food requirements. The book enhances the knowledge base of food security, food safety and food production which have been major scientific and political topics of discussion in recent times. The contributions in this book identify the possible constraints that prevent Africans from having sufficiently nutritious food for physical and mental development and proffers solutions to food insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa and highlight the positive efforts being made to address them using a holistic approach. As a result of climate change, drought have affected food production in most parts of Africa, reducing crop yields and leading to loss of livestock and income. The various methods used to enhance food security such as food fortification, genetic modification as well as plant breeding for improved yield and resistance to diseases are also discussed. This book is unique as it seeks to: 1. Enhance the knowledge base of food security, food safety and food production, which are currently the major scientific and political topics of discussion 2. Emphasize the importance of hygiene and food safety in food preparations and preservation, and addresses how the constraints to food security such as climate change could be overcome using smart crops 3. Stress the need to harness the potentials of underutilized crops that are resilient, grow on marginal lands, and at the same time enhance food and nutritional security especially in this era of climate change. 4. Highlight ways of enhancing food security using genetic modification, food fortification, plant breeding and protection.

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1 Harnessing the Hidden Treasures in African Yam Bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa), an Underutilized Grain Legume with Food Security Potentials ����������������������������������������������������������������    1 Omena Bernard Ojuederie, Jacob Olagbenro Popoola, Charity Aremu, and Olubukola Oluranti Babalola 2 The Role of Indigenous Food Species in Achieving Food Security in South-­Eastern Nigeria����������������������������������������������������������   21 N. C. Onuegbu and J. C. Ibeabuchi 3 The Potentials of African Neglected and Orphan Crops in Augmentation of African Food Security��������������������������������������������   43 Kidist Bogale Kibret 4 Optimization of Soaking Condition and Drying Temperature for the Production of African Yam Beans (Sphenostylis sternocarpa) Flour ������������������������������������������������������������   63 Bolanle Adenike Adejumo, Rosemary Uju Ajibo, and Peter Ayodele Obasa 5 Harnessing the Potential of Underutilized Aquatic Bioresource for Food and Nutritional Security in Kenya������������������������������������������   97 Ogonda Lydia Awuor and Muge Kirwa Edward 6 Exploring Some Neglected and Underutilized Root and Tuber Crops for Food Security in Nigeria ��������������������������������������������  125 Chioma Ikechi Harbor and Chinyere Aniedu 7 Finger Millet: A Crop with Food Security Potentials for Africans������  139 Judith Chukwuebinim Okolo and Bolanle Adenike Adejumo 8 An Exploratory Study of the Association Among Household Food Securing Activities, Gender and Health in South Africa����������������������  155 Kehinde O. Omotoso and Jimi Adesina xxi

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9 Exploring the Industrial Potential of the Nigerian Pumpkins (Cucurbita pepo L.) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  169 F. M. Oloyede 10 Functional Meat and Meat Products for Sustainable African Nutrition Security����������������������������������������������������������������������  179 Felicitas Esnart Mukumbo, Yonela Zifikile Njisane, and Andrew Bamidele Falowo 11 Agricultural Productivity: A Key Component of Inclusive Growth Towards Food Security��������������������������������������������������������������  195 Charity Aremu, Omena Ojuederie, Adeniyi Olayanju, Ake Modupe, Obaniyi Kayode, Avwerosuo Erere, Okunlola Faith, and Shittu Adebayo 12 Optimal Formulation of a Composite Flour from Biofortified Cassava, Pigeonpea, and Soybean for Complementary Feeding ��������  217 Abiodun Aderoju Adeola, Taofik Akinyemi Shittu, Oluseye Olusegun Onabanjo, and Olufunmilola Olaitan Oladunmoye 13 Gauging Food Insecurity Resilience Among Pastoral Communities: A Case Study of Kenya ��������������������������������������������������  237 Patrick Wekondi Watete and Wambui Kogi-Makau 14 Optimisation and Multiplication of Large Fulani Eco-Type Chicken for Sustainable Production and Genetic Security in Nigeria��������������  255 Kazeem Olajide Bello, Abiodun Aderoju Adeola, Dare Akerele, Oluwatosin Adetutu Adeyeye, Oluwakemi Titilayo Irekhore, and Samuel Ayodele Famakinde 15 Soil Quality Indicators; Their Correlation and Role in Enhancing Agricultural Productivity����������������������������������������������������  271 Abisola Regina Sholeye, Omena Bernard Ojuederie, and Olubukola Oluranti Babalola 16 Soil Quality and Horticulture: Implication for Food Security and Safety in Nigeria ������������������������������������������������������������������������������  287 Okafor Bernard Ndubuisi and Madukwe Donald Kelechi 17 Beneficiation of Castor and Thorn Trees as Management Strategy to Food Security������������������������������������������������������������������������  299 Sunday Samuel Sobowale and Antoine Floribert Mulaba-Bafubiandi 18 Soil Information as a Factor to Consider in Sustainable Tree Crop Production for Nutritional Security, Poverty Alleviation and Biodiversity Management in Africa������������������������������������������������  315 Bernard Ndubuisi Okafor, Akeem Abayomi Olaniyan, and Oluwabunmi Aderonke Denton

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19 African Walnuts: A Natural Depository of Nutritional and Bioactive Compounds Essential for Food and Nutritional Security in Africa����  331 Juliana Bunmi Adetunji, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, and Olugbemi Tope Olaniyan 20 Implications of Production, Post-harvest and Consumption of Fish on Food and Nutrition Security: Nigeria as a Focal Country��������������  355 Kafayat Adetoun Fakoya, Ayojesutomi O. Abiodun-Solanke, and Elizabeth Olumuyiwa Mangai 21 Improving Crop Physio-Biochemical Efficiency and Abiotic Resilient Crops for Alleviating Food Insecurity in Africa��������������������  375 Oyeyemi A. Dada, Funso Raphael Kutu, and Sydney Mavengahama 22 Sustainable Agriculture: A Way Out to Combat Food Insecurity and Unsafety in the Context of Climate Change in West Africa ��������  393 Vincent Ezin and Mathieu Anatole Tele Ayenan 23 Smart Crops for Climate Change and Food Security in Africa����������  415 Adedola S. Adeboye, Grace O. Babarinde, John A. Oyedepo, E. Nwamaka Aniagor, and Naushad M. Emmambux 24 Impact of Climate Change and Climate Variability on Food Safety and Occurrence of Foodborne Diseases ������������������������������������������������  451 Ramona Duchenne, Vijayanti Mala Ranghoo-Sanmukhiya, and Hudaa Neetoo 25 Management of Soil-Microorganism: Interphase for Sustainable Soil Fertility Management and Enhanced Food Security����������������������������  475 Ifeyinwa Monica Uzoh, Chinyere Blessing Okebalama, Charles Arizechukwu Igwe, and Olubukola Oluranti Babalola 26 The Relevance of Plant Breeding to Food Security in Africa��������������  495 Ngozi Eucharia Abu, Emmanuel Uchenna Ugwu, and Omena Bernard Ojuederie 27 Extent, Impact and Prospects of Genetically Engineered Crops in Africa ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  529 Annabel Banda, Olga Mapanje, Joseph P. Musara, Rangarirai Mapuranga, Dumisa Dlamini, Abigarl Ndudzo, Lovelater Sebele, and Handsen Tibugari 28 Soil Microbes and Food Security Nexus: Imperativeness of Microbial Biotechnology ��������������������������������������������������������������������  545 Prince Chinedu Peter, David Chukwuebuka Enemo, and Ifeyinwa Monica Uzoh 29 Production of Edible Oil from Microorganisms ����������������������������������  563 Patricia Ogechi Ukegbu, Uzochukwu Anselm Onwuzuruike, and Nneoma Elechi Obasi

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Contents

30 Food Sustainability Enhancement: Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria as Key Players in the Alleviation of Drought Stress in Plants ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  593 Chinenyenwa Fortune Chukwuneme, Ifeyinwa Monica Uzoh, Funso Raphael Kutu, and Olubukola Oluranti Babalola 31 Molecular Markers: Potential Facilitators in Plant Breeding and Germplasm Conservation����������������������������������������������������������������  611 David Okeh Igwe 32 Biofertilizer: An Eco-friendly Approach for Sustainable Crop Production��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  647 Adenike E. Amoo, Ben J. Enagbonma, Ayansina S. Ayangbenro, and Olubukola O. Babalola 33 Design and Development of a Hybrid Bio-­Solar Energy Fruit Dryer����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  671 Buhle Maphosa, Khosi Ramachela, and Russel Mhundwa 34 Advances in Extrusion Technology and Its Applicability to Food Processing in Developing Nations����������������������������������������������������������  689 Samuel Sunday Sobowale, Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo, Olawale Paul Olatidoye, Adeniyi Tajudeen Olayanju, and Antoine Floribert Mulaba-Bafubiandi 35 Nanotechnology as Vehicle for Biocontrol of Plant Diseases in Crop Production������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  709 Caroline Fadeke Ajilogba, Olubukola Oluranti Babalola, and Daniel Ochukeme Nikoro 36 Fusarium Species and Their Associated Mycotoxins in Foods and Their Products in Africa������������������������������������������������������������������  725 Francisca Iziegbe Okungbowa and Tonjock Rosemary Kinge 37 Application of Nanobiotechnology in Agri-­Food Sector: A Promising Technique in Food Safety��������������������������������������������������  739 Muibat Omotola Fashola, Oluwafemi Sunday Obayori, Kehinde Oreoluwa Adebiyi, Olaide Oludayo Abiona, Bolanle Olaitan Opere, and Olorunjuwon Omolaja Bello 38 Salmonella enterica Subspecies enterica Serotypes Associated with Meat and Meat Products in African Countries: A Review����������  763 Serisha Naidoo, Albertus Kotze Basson, Patrick Butaye, and Evelyn Madoroba 39 Heavy Metals Contamination of Arable Lands: A Threat to Food Security and Safety��������������������������������������������������������������������  791 Iyadunni Adesola Anuoluwa, Babatunji Emmanuel Oyinloye, and Oyinlola Patricia Ogunmola

Contents

xxv

40 A Step Forward Towards Food Safety from Parasite Infective Agents����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  807 Nagwa Mostafa El-Sayed, Manar Ezz Elarab Ramadan, and Nagham Gamal Masoud 41 African Fermented Food as Antimicrobial Agents ������������������������������  833 Abiola O. Obisesan and Funmilola A. Ayeni 42 Risk Assessment of Human Carcinogenicity of Acrylamide in Food: Way to Reduce the Predicted Mitogenic Side Effects Through Mitigation Strategy������������������������������������������������������������������  855 Heba K. Nabih 43 Safety Hazards Along Animal Food Supply Chain in Nigeria ������������  869 Olanike K. Adeyemo, Selim A. Alarape, Veronica E. Adetunji, Akeem B. Saka, Oluwawemimo O. Adebowale, Oniovosa O. Ubiogoro, and Samuel A. Agbede Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  885

About the Editor

Olubukola Oluranti Babalola  (Pr.Sci.Nat, MASSAF) is the Vice President of the Organization for Women in Science for the Developing World and a National Research Foundation rated established scientist. She received her PhD (Microbiology) in 2000 from the University of Ibadan and completed a MBA in Science Leadership from the North-West University (NWU) School of Business. She is a product of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and had postdoctoral experiences at Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel, and the University of the Western Cape, South Africa. She is the Research Director of Food Security and Safety at NWU and former Head of the Department of Biology and without reservation leading a microbial biotechnology laboratory as its principal investigator,. Olubukola is a trainer of trainees; she leads a research team of over a dozen scholars from different tribes and tongues. Her laboratory is a mini united nation, with students from within and outside Africa. She has guided 14 PhD, 16 master’s and 48 honours students. Olubukola’s areas of research interest are molecular plant– microbe interactions, soil metagenomics, food security and microbial ecology. She enjoys international collaborations, research grants and many awards. Olubukola is a prolific author with ~200 publications. She has over 40 professional certificates from the University of California, Berkeley, USA; University of Mauritius, Reduit; NWU, South Africa; and Bradford University, the UK, to mention a few. Her wealth of international experience spans through the Americas, Asia, Europe and Oceania.

xxvii

Contributors

Ayojesutomi O. Abiodun-Solanke  Department of Fisheries Technology, Federal College of Fisheries and Marine Technology, Victoria Island, Lagos, Nigeria Olaide Oludayo Abiona  Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Lagos State University, Ojo, Lagos, Nigeria Ngozi Eucharia Abu  Department of Plant Science and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria Shittu Adebayo  Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria Kehinde  Oreoluwa  Adebiyi  Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Lagos State University, Ojo, Lagos, Nigeria Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo  Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus, Gauteng, South Africa Oluwawemimo  O.  Adebowale  Department of Veterinary Public Health & Reproduction, College of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, Abeokuta, Nigeria Adedola  S.  Adeboye  Department of Food Technology, Moshood Abiola Polytechnic, Abeokuta, Nigeria Bolanle  Adenike  Adejumo  Department of Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria Abiodun Aderoju Adeola  Food and Nutrition Research Programme, Institute of Food Security, Environmental Resources and Agricultural Research, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria Jimi  Adesina  DST/NRF SARChI Chair in Social Policy, College of Graduate Studies, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

xxix

xxx

Contributors

Charles  Oluwaseun  Adetunji  Applied Microbiology, Biotechnology and Nanotechnology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Edo University, Iyamho, Auchi, Edo State, Nigeria Juliana  Bunmi  Adetunji  Nutritional and Toxicological Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry Sciences, Osun State University, Osogbo, Nigeria Veronica  E.  Adetunji  Department of Veterinary Public Health & Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Olanike  K.  Adeyemo  Department of Veterinary Public Health & Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Oluwatosin  Adetutu  Adeyeye  Agricultural Media Resources Center, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria Samuel  A.  Agbede  Department of Veterinary Public Health & Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Rosemary Uju Ajibo  Department of Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria Caroline  Fadeke  Ajilogba  Food Security and Safety Niche Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Science, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa Division of Agrometeorology, Agricultural Research Council – Soil, Climate and Water, Pretoria, South Africa Dare  Akerele  Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria Selim A. Alarape  Department of Veterinary Public Health & Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Adenike E. Amoo  Food Security and Safety Niche Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa E. Nwamaka Aniagor  Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria Chinyere Aniedu  Minor Root Crops Research Programme, National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike, Nigeria Iyadunni  Adesola  Anuoluwa  Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo City, Ondo State, Nigeria Charity  Aremu  Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, College of Agriculture, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria Ogonda  Lydia  Awuor  School of Medicine, College of Health Sciences, The University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya

Contributors

xxxi

Unité Fonctionnalité et Ingénierie De Protéines (UFIP), UMR CNRS 6286, UFR Sciences Et Techniques, L’Universite de Nantes, Nantes Cedex, France School of Medicine, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kakamega, Kenya Ayansina S. Ayangbenro  Food Security and Safety Niche Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa Mathieu Anatole Tele Ayenan  College of Basic and Applied Science, West Africa Center for Crop Improvement, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana Funmilola  A.  Ayeni  Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Olubukola Oluranti Babalola  Food Security and Safety Niche Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa Grace O. Babarinde  Department of Food Science, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria Annabel Banda  Gwanda State University, Filabusi, Zimbabwe Albertus Kotze Basson  Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa Kazeem Olajide Bello  Livestock Research Programme, Institute of Food Security, Environmental Resources, and Agricultural Research, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria Olorunjuwon  Omolaja  Bello  Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo, Ondo State, Nigeria Patrick  Butaye  Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, ST Kitts and Nevis, West Indies Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan, Merelbeke, Belgium Peter Prince Chinedu  Department of Agronomy, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa Chinenyenwa Fortune Chukwuneme  Food Security and Safety Niche, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa Oyeyemi  A.  Dada  Food Security and Safety Niche, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa Department of Crop Protection and Environmental Biology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Enemo David  Department of Soil Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

xxxii

Contributors

Oluwabunmi Aderonke Denton  Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, Ibadan, Nigeria Dumisa Dlamini  Gwanda State University, Filabusi, Zimbabwe Ramona  Duchenne  Faculty of Agriculture, University of Mauritius, Réduit, Mauritius Obasi  Nneoma  Elechi  Department of Food Science and Technology, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Nigeria Nagwa  Mostafa  El-Sayed  Medical Parasitology Department, Research Institute of Ophthalmology, Giza, Egypt Naushad M. Emmambux  Department of Consumer and Food Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Ben J. Enagbonma  Food Security and Safety Niche Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa Avwerosuo Erere  Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria Vincent  Ezin  School of Plant Science, University of Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou, Republic of Benin Okunlola Faith  Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria Kafayat Adetoun Fakoya  Department of Fisheries Technology, Federal College of Fisheries and Marine Technology, Victoria Island, Lagos, Nigeria Andrew  Bamidele  Falowo  Department of Animal Science, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria Department of Livestock and Pasture Science, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa Samuel  Ayodele  Famakinde  Livestock Research Programme, Institute of Food Security, Environmental Resources, and Agricultural Research, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria Muibat Omotola Fashola  Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Lagos State University, Ojo, Lagos, Nigeria Chioma Ikechi Harbor  Minor Root Crops Research Programme, National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike, Nigeria J. C. Ibeabuchi  Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria Charles Arizechukwu Igwe  Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria David  Okeh  Igwe  Department of Biotechnology, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Contributors

xxxiii

Section of Plant Pathology & Plant- Microbe Biology at Boyce Thompson Institute (BTI), Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA Oluwakemi  Titilayo  Irekhore  Agricultural Media Resources Center, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria Obaniyi Kayode  Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria Madukwe Donald Kelechi  National Horticultural Research Institute (NIHORT), Ibadan, Nigeria OCP Africa Fertilizers Nigeria Ltd, Abuja, Nigeria Kidist Bogale Kibret  Agronomix Software Inc., Winnipeg, MB, Canada Tonjock Rosemary Kinge  Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Bamenda, Bamenda, Cameroon Muge  Edward  Kirwa  School of Medicine, College of Health Sciences, The University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya Wambui Kogi-Makau  College of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya Funso Raphael Kutu  School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, Mbombela, South Africa Evelyn Madoroba  Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa Elizabeth  Olumuyiwa  Mangai  Department of Fisheries Technology, Federal College of Fisheries and Marine Technology, Victoria Island, Lagos, Nigeria Olga Mapanje  Gwanda State University, Filabusi, Zimbabwe Buhle Maphosa  Crop Science Department, Food Security and Safety Niche Area, North West University, Mahikeng, South Africa Rangarirai Mapuranga  Gwanda State University, Filabusi, Zimbabwe Nagham  Gamal  Masoud  Medical Student, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt Sydney Mavengahama  Food Security and Safety Niche, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa Russel  Mhundwa  Fort Hare Institute of Technology, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa Ake Modupe  Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria Felicitas  Esnart  Mukumbo  Rwanda Institute for Conservation Agriculture, Bugesera, Rwanda

xxxiv

Contributors

DST-NRF Center of Excellence in Food Security, Department of Livestock and Pasture Science, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa Antoine  Floribert  Mulaba-Bafubiandi  Mineral Processing and Technology Research Center, Department of Metallurgy, School of Mining, Metallurgy and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa Joseph P. Musara  Gwanda State University, Filabusi, Zimbabwe Heba K. Nabih  Medical Biochemistry Department, Medical Research Division, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt Serisha  Naidoo  Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa Okafor Bernard Ndubuisi  National Horticultural Research Institute (NIHORT), Ibadan, Nigeria Abigarl Ndudzo  Lupane State University, Lupane, Zimbabwe Hudaa Neetoo  Faculty of Agriculture, University of Mauritius, Réduit, Mauritius Daniel Ochukeme Nikoro  Agricultural Education unit, Department of Vocational Department, Faculty of Education, Delta State University, Abraka, Delta State, Nigeria Yonela  Zifikile  Njisane  Risk and Vulnerability Research Center, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa Peter Ayodele Obasa  Department of Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria Oluwafemi  Sunday  Obayori  Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Lagos State University, Ojo, Lagos, Nigeria Abiola  O.  Obisesan  Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Oyinlola  Patricia  Ogunmola  Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria Omena  Ojuederie  Food Security and Safety Niche, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa Omena  Bernard  Ojuederie  Food Security and Safety Niche Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa Bernard  Ndubuisi  Okafor  National Horticultural Research Institute, Ibadan, Nigeria Chinyere  Blessing  Okebalama-Obika  Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria

Contributors

xxxv

Judith  Chukwuebinim  Okolo  Environmental Biotechnology and Bio-­ conservation Department, National Biotechnology Development Agency (NABDA), Abuja, Nigeria Francisca Iziegbe Okungbowa  Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria Olufunmilola  Olaitan  Oladunmoye  Federal Institute of Industrial Research, Oshodi, Nigeria Akeem  Abayomi  Olaniyan  National Horticultural Research Institute, Ibadan, Nigeria Olugbemi T. Olaniyan  Laboratory for Reproductive Biology and Developmental Programming, Department of Physiology, Edo University, Iyamho, Auchi, Edo State, Nigeria Olawale  Paul  Olatidoye  Department of Food Technology, Yaba College of Technology, Lagos, Nigeria Adeniyi Olayanju  Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria Adeniyi  Tajudeen  Olayanju  Department of Agricultural and Biosystem Engineering, College of Engineering, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria F.  M.  Oloyede  Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Osun-State University, Osogbo, Nigeria Kehinde  O.  Omotoso  DST/NRF SARChI Chair in Social Policy, College of Graduate Studies, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa Oluseye  Olusegun  Onabanjo  Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria N. C. Onuegbu  Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria Uzochukwu Anselm Onwuzuruike  Department of Food Science and Technology, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Nigeria Bolanle Olaitan Opere  Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Lagos State University, Ojo, Lagos, Nigeria John  A.  Oyedepo  Institute of Food Security, Environmental Resources and Agricultural Research, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria Babatunji  Emmanuel  Oyinloye  Phytomedicine, Biochemical Toxicology and Biotechnology Research Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, College of Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria Biotechnology and Structural Biology (BSB) Group, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa

xxxvi

Contributors

Jacob Olagbenro Popoola  Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science and Technology, Covenant University, Canaanland, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria Khosi  Ramachela  Crop Science Department, Food Security and Safety Niche Area, North West University, Mahikeng, South Africa Manar Ezz Elarab Ramadan  Parasitology Department, National Hepatology and Tropical Medicine Research Institute, Cairo, Egypt Vijayanti  Mala  Ranghoo-Sanmukhiya  Faculty of Agriculture, University of Mauritius, Réduit, Mauritius Akeem B. Saka  Department of Veterinary Public Health & Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Lovelater Sebele  Gwanda State University, Filabusi, Zimbabwe Taofik  Akinyemi  Shittu  Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria Abisola Regina Sholeye  Food Security and Safety Niche, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa Sunday Samuel Sobowale  Mineral Processing and Technology Research Center, Department of Metallurgy, School of Mining, Metallurgy and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa Department of Food Technology, Moshood Abiola Polytechnic, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria Handsen Tibugari  Gwanda State University, Filabusi, Zimbabwe Oniovosa O. Ubiogoro  Nigeria Agricultural Quarantine Service, Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Abuja, Nigeria Emmanuel  Uchenna  Ugwu  Nigeria Agricultural Quarantine Service, Abuja, Nigeria Patricia  Ogechi  Ukegbu  Department of Human Nutritio, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Nigeria Ifeyinwa Monica Uzoh  Food Security and Safety Niche Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria Patrick  Wekondi  Watete  College of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries, Nairobi, Kenya

List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Geographical distribution of African yam bean. (Source: Adewale and Odoh 2013; USDA 2015)����������������������������������������������������������������� 5 Fig. 1.2 (a) AYB plant producing pods (b) variation in testa basal color of some AYB accessions (c) different shapes of AYB tubers. (Source: Ojuederie 2016)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 6 Fig. 2.1 Flow diagrams for Cassava processing into Fufu, Garri and abacha���� 27 Fig. 3.1 Number of studies involving analysis of micronutrient and antioxidant content of wild edible plants from 1997 to 2010��������������� 50 Fig. 4.1 3-D response surface plot for the effect of soaking duration and soaking water temperature on Sodium content of AYB flour�������� 78 Fig. 4.2 3-D response surface plot for the effect of soaking duration and soaking water temperature on potassium content of AYB flour����������� 79 Fig. 4.3 3-D response surface plot for the effect of soaking duration and soaking water temperature on phosphorus content of AYB flour��������� 81 Fig. 4.4 3-D response surface plot for the effect of soaking duration and soaking water temperature on Manganese content of AYB flour��������� 82 Fig. 4.5 3-D response surface plot for the effect of soaking duration and soaking water temperature on magnesium content of AYB flour��������� 83 Fig. 4.6 3-D response surface plot for the effect of soaking duration and soaking water temperature on tannin content of AYB flour������������������ 85 Fig. 4.7 3-D response surface plot for the effect of soaking duration and soaking water temperature on Phytate content of AYB flour���������������� 86 Fig. 4.8 3-D response surface plot for the effect of soaking duration and soaking water temperature on oxalate content of AYB flour���������������� 88 Fig. 4.9 3-D response surface plot for the effect of soaking duration and soaking water temperature on saponin content of AYB flour��������������� 89 Fig. 4.10 3-D response surface plot for foaming capacity in terms of soaking duration and soaking temperature��������������������������������������������������������� 90 Fig. 4.11 3-D response surface plot for the effect of soaking duration and soaking water temperature on bulk density of AYB flour��������������������� 92

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List of Figures

Fig. 4.12 3-D response surface plot for the effect of soaking duration and soaking water temperature on water absorption capacity of AYB flour������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 93 Fig. 5.1 The reproduction of the Influenza virus. (Adapted from Shalaby 2011)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 107 Fig. 6.1 Total carotenoid composition aerial yam, OFSP and provitamin A cassava. (Adopted from Aniedu et al. 2016)����������������� 130 Fig. 7.1 Mapping of geographical distribution of finger millet in Africa. (Source: Genesys PGR retrieved 2019)���������������������������������� 142 Fig. 7.2 Ear heads of finger millet and its grains. (Source: https://www. asiafarming.com/finger-millet-cultivation; retrieved 2019)���������������� 143 Fig. 8.1 The usefulness of agricultural products and stock keeping���������������� 161 Fig. 9.1 (a) Pumpkin Morphotype “green” shoot (b) Pumpkin Morphotype “green” immature fruit (c) Pumpkin Morphotype “green” mature fruit (d) Pumpkin Morphotype “green” seeds������������������������������������� 170 Fig. 9.2 (a) Pumpkin Morphotype “orange” fruits (b) Pumpkin Morphotype “orange” seeds������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 171 Fig. 10.1 An overview of the positive and negative image/implications of meat consumption. (Adapted from Jiménez-Colmenero et al. 2001; Muchenje et al. 2018; Pogorzelska-Nowicka et al. 2018)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 181 Fig. 10.2 Per capita meat supply in Africa (2003–2013). (Data source: http:// www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/CL)������������������������������������������������������ 181 Fig. 11.1 Sector contribution to GDP. (Data source from Economic bank 2012)������������������������������������������������������������������������� 198 Fig. 11.2 Fertilizer application rate (Kg/ha/year) among 5 continents. (Source: IMF World economic outlook 2013)������������������������������������ 200 Fig. 11.3 (a) Cereal grain yield Source: FAO, IMF 2010 (b) Cereal yield trends (ton/ha) among selected continents. (Source FAO, IMF 2010)�������������������������������������������������������������������� 201 Fig. 11.4 Intra- regional trade integration. (Source: IMF World Economic Outlook 2013)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 202 Fig. 11.5 Youth involvement in agripreneurship (Source: allafrica.com)���������� 211 Fig. 13.1 Map of Kenya showing location of Turkana and Mandera Counties������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 240 Fig. 13.2 Map of (a) Mandera and (b) Turkana Counties showing sample households������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 241 Fig. 14.1 LFEC roaming with guinea fowl under extensive management system���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 257 Fig. 14.2 Plumage color������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 260 Fig. 14.3 Comb types����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 261 Fig. 14.4 Shank color����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 261 Fig. 14.5 Body-weight of Large Fulani Eco-type Chicks (0–8 weeks)�������������� 263 Fig. 14.6 Weight gain (growth pattern) of Large Fulani Eco-type Chicks (0–8 weeks)������������������������������������������������������������� 264 Fig. 15.1 Soil Function in the ecosystem����������������������������������������������������������� 275

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Fig. 15.2 Soil Quality indicators. (a) Soil structure. (b) Nutrient mineralisation. (c) Organic matter content and aggregate stability���� 276 Fig. 16.1 Population growth by region, 1950–2100 (Billions). (Source: FAO 2017)���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 288 Fig. 17.1 (a) Castor seed oil (b) Castor seed/bean. (Source: Severino et al. 2012)��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 302 Fig. 17.2 Thorn trees (Acacia karroo). (Photo taken by Antoine F. Mulaba-Bafubiandi on 15 April 2019 at 07 h 45 am)��������������������� 304 Fig. 17.3 Castor cake after oil extraction (Photo taken by Antoine F. MulabaBafubiandi from our laboratory on 10 May 2017 at 13.00 h)������������� 309 Fig. 17.4 (a) XRD pattern of castor (b) FTIR pattern of castor cake (c) XRD pattern of biochar made from castor cake (d) FTIR pattern of biochar made from castor cake����������������������������������������������������������� 310 Fig. 17.5 (a) XRD pattern of coal (b) FTIR pattern of coal������������������������������� 310 Fig. 18.1 Distribution of Exchangeable Na in a 0.5 ha in a citrus orchard. Proper application of soil information can have very positive impact on tree crop production, while neglect of application of soil information can be harmful������������������������������������������������������ 318 Fig. 21.1 Prevalence of undernourishment in the world, 2005–2017. (Source: FAO Organization 2018)��������������������������������������������������������������������� 376 Fig. 21.2 Schematic representation of the consequences of drought on crop failure and food insecurity������������������������������������������������������������������ 379 Fig. 21.3 Desirable traits in crops that facilitate food security�������������������������� 384 Fig. 22.1 Prevalence of undernourishment (percent) (3-year average, 2015–2017). (Source: Data retrieved from FAOSTAT 2019) 396 Fig. 22.2 Interrelations between sustainable agriculture, climate change and food security��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 399 Fig. 22.3 Key roles and interventions along agricultural products value chains to promote sustainable agriculture��������������������������������� 401 Fig. 23.1 Farming systems in Sub-Saharan Africa��������������������������������������������� 420 Fig. 23.2 Length of Growing Season across Sub-Saharan Africa���������������������� 421 Fig. 23.3 Rainfall intensity across Sub-Saharan Africa������������������������������������� 422 Fig. 23.4 Temperature pattern across Sub-Saharan Africa��������������������������������� 423 Fig. 23.5 Environmental constraints to crop production in Africa��������������������� 424 Fig. 23.6 Fonio grains. (Source: Abioye and Babarinde 2009)�������������������������� 430 Fig. 23.7 Grains of Finger millet. (Source: Heuzé and Tran 2015)�������������������� 431 Fig. 23.8 Pigeon Pea (a) seeds (b) pods. (Source: Heuz et al. 2017)����������������� 433 Fig. 23.9 Bambara groundnut seeds. (Source: Swanevelder 1995)�������������������� 434 Fig. 23.10 African Yam Bean seeds. (Source: Nnamani et al. 2017)������������������� 436 Fig. 23.11 Pictures of dry Marama bean (Tylosema esculentum) samples from Botswana and Namibia (Holse et al. 2012)�������������������������������� 439 Fig. 23.12 Marama roots (6 months old). Harvested from Okomumbonde (Namibia). (Source: Adeboye and Emmambux 2018)������������������������ 440 Fig. 24.1 Relationship between climate variability, the effects of climate change and other related phenomena�������������������������������������������������� 453

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Fig. 24.2 Toxigenic Aspergillus species that affect the different types of nuts. (Adapted from Taniwaki et al. 2018)������������������������������������� 458 Fig. 24.3 Impact of climatic factors on safety of milk and dairy at the two main stages of the dairy production chain; (a) The growth and survival of microorganims are influenced by climatic factors and the ability of the microorganisms to cause an infection or produce a toxin is dependent on the climatic factors; (b) Mycotoxigenic fungi infect and colonize crops used in the feed production for dairy cows; (c) Mycotoxins produced by the mycotoxigenic fungi or dioxins present in the feed are passed to the cows via contaminated feed ingredients; (d) In the dairy farm, animal pathogens and zoonotic agents infect the cow; (e) antibiotics are administered to the cows to treat bacterial infections; (f) Mycotoxins, dioxins, “superbugs”, antibiotic residues and zoonotic agents are transferred from the cow to the milk and if not properly pasteurized, can also be present in dairy products������ 462 Fig. 26.1 ARC improved sweet potato cultivars (a) Ndou and Monate​creamfleshed cultivars with sweet and dry taste: ​​(b) Impilo and Bophelo orange-fleshed varieties with sweet and dry taste Source: ARC 2019 (http://www.arc.agric.za/arc-vopi/Pages/Plant%20Breeding/ Sweet-Potatoes.aspx)�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 520 Fig. 27.1 Biofortified crops generated by different approaches: transgenic, agronomic, and breeding. Staple cereals, most common vegetables, beans, and fruits have been targeted by all three approaches. Some crops have been targeted by only one or two approaches depending on its significance and prevalence in the daily human diet (Garg et al. 2018)������������������������������������������������������������� 536 Fig. 27.2 Overall conceptual model of the topics to be covered in the systematic map. Adapted from Garcia-Yi et al. (2014)���������������������� 538 Fig. 32.1 Long-term effect of chemical fertilizers��������������������������������������������� 649 Fig. 32.2 The main objectives of sustainable agriculture����������������������������������� 651 Fig. 32.3 Strategies employed by PGPR for plant growth enhancement����������� 655 Fig. 32.4 Phosphate solubilization by PGPR for plant growth�������������������������� 656 Fig. 32.5 Auxin synthesis pathways������������������������������������������������������������������� 658 Fig. 32.6 Effect of ethylene and ACC deaminase on plant growth and developmental processes��������������������������������������������������������������������� 659 Fig. 33.1 Tent fruit dryer������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 676 Fig. 33.2 Box fruit dryer������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 676 Fig. 33.3 Schematic view of an indirect solar fruit dryer����������������������������������� 677 Fig. 33.4 (a) Shows the front view of the hybrid bio-solar dryer. (b) Shows a side view of the hybrid bio-solar dryer��������������������������������� 680 Fig. 33.5 (a) Hybrid Bio-solar energy dryer temperatures. (b) Solar dryer- without bioreactor�������������������������������������������������������������������� 682 Fig. 33.6 Shows relative humidity in hybrid Bio-solar energy drying chamber and open sun drying������������������������������������������������������������� 683

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Fig. 33.7 Shows moisture content of the fruits in the hybrid Bio-solar energy dryer and open sun drying������������������������������������������������������������������� 683 Fig. 34.1 Mechanical sections of a single-screw food extruder (Harper 1981) 1. Throughput; 2. Cooling system; 3. Thermocouples; 4. Steam jacket (barrel); 5. Pressure transducer pressure; 6. Opening die; 7. Discharge opening; 8.Breaker Plate; 9. Barrel with hard liner; 10. Metering section; 11.Compression section; 12.Feed section; 13. Screw diameter; 14. Gear and thrust bearing�������������������������������� 692 Fig. 34.2 Twin screw counter-rotating screw mixer with blade, invented by Paul Pfeiderer (Riaz 2001) 1. Product feed; 2. Mixing blade; 3. Die plate; 4. Mixed product discharge�������������������������������������������� 693 Fig. 35.1 Relationship between biocontrol and nanotechnology as carrier of biocontrol agents����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 718 Fig. 37.1 Applications of nanotechnology in agriculture����������������������������������� 750 Fig. 38.1 Map outlining countries where Salmonella prevalence studies have been performed in meat/meat products in Africa����������������������� 766 Fig. 41.1 Lactic acid bacterial fermentation (Caplice and Fitzgerald 1999)������ 840 Fig. 42.1 Biotransformation of acrylamide in human. Hemoglobin (Hb); cytochrome P450, family 2, subfamily e, polypeptide 1 (cytochrome P450 2E1); N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoylethyl)-l-­cysteine (AAMA); N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoylethyl)-l-cysteine-sulfoxide (AAMA-SO); N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoyl- 2-hydroxyethyl)-l-cysteine (GAMA), N-acetyl-S-(1-carbamoyl-2-­hydroxyethyl)- l-cysteine (iso-GAMA); * indicates chiral carbons. (Tolgahan and Vural 2016)����������������������� 859 Fig. 43.1 Standard abattoir at Oko-Oba in Lagos State established to process meat in a wholesome manner������������������������������������������������� 871 Fig. 43.2 Lairage facility at the Oko-Oba Standard Abattoir in Lagos�������������� 871 Fig. 43.3 Cooling Van to transport meat to the market from the Oko-Oba Standard Abattoir in Lagos����������������������������������������������������������������� 872 Fig. 43.4 A major abattoir showing unsanitary environment and animal processing procedures������������������������������������������������������������������������� 872 Fig. 43.5 Drainage clogged with ingesta and run-off water from meat processing at a major Abattoir in Ibadan, Nigeria���������������������� 873 Fig. 43.6 A moribund cattle being wheeled to the slaughter slab���������������������� 874 Fig. 43.7 Frozen fish displayed for sale in a market in Nigeria������������������������� 875 Fig. 43.8 (a–c) Smoke Fish on display for sale and during the smoking process���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 875 Fig. 43.9 Diseased catfish from Nigerian Aquaculture Industry������������������������ 876 Fig. 43.10 Tuberculosed lungs condemned by Veterinarians (a small percentage of those hidden by butchers)������������������������������� 877 Fig. 43.11 Meat displayed for sale on wooden tables in markets������������������������ 878

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Comparison of the proximate parameters of the seed and tubers of Sphenostylis stenocarpa������������������������������������������������������������������� 8 Table 1.2 Utilization of molecular markers for genetic diversity studies in African yam bean������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 13 Table 2.1 Proximate composition of maize�������������������������������������������������������� 28 Table 2.2 Amino acid profile of maize(mg/g)���������������������������������������������������� 29 Table 2.3 Vitamin profile of maize��������������������������������������������������������������������� 30 Table 2.4 Proximate composition of some legumes������������������������������������������� 31 Table 2.5 Mineral content of some indigenous legumes������������������������������������ 32 Table 2.6 Proximate composition indigenous leafy vegetables in South Eastern Nigeria����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32 Table 2.7 Micronutrient composition indigenous leafy vegetables in South Eastern Nigeria(mg/100 g)����������������������������������������������������������������� 33 Table 2.8 Proximate composition of some fruits������������������������������������������������ 34 Table 2.9 Micronutrient Composition of indigenous fruits in South eastern Nigeria (mg/100 g)����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 35 Table 2.10a Vitamin and phytonutrient content some fruits (mg/100 g)��������������� 36 Table 2.10b Vitamin and phytonutrient content of fruits��������������������������������������� 37 Table 2.11 Nutritional Composition of Pleurotus oestrotus and some insect species������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 38 Table 2.12 Mineral composition of some insect species (mg/100 g)������������������� 39 Table 3.1 List of cereal crops and their wild relatives found in Ethiopia����������� 48 Table 3.2 Parts of plants analyzed from Appendix I������������������������������������������ 49 Table 3.3 Number of wild edible species analyzed for nutritional value from different countries������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51 Table 4.1 The experimental design to optimize the effect of soaking condition and drying temperature on the qualities of AYB seed flour��������������� 66 Table 4.2 The effect of soaking and drying temperature on the nutritional composition of AYBSF����������������������������������������������������������������������� 74 Table 4.3 Effect of soaking conditions and drying temperature on the antinutritional composition of AYBSF����������������������������������������������� 75 xliii

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Table 4.4 Effect of soaking conditions and drying temperature on the functional properties of AYBSF��������������������������������������������������������� 76 Table 4.5 ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic Model sodium content����� 78 Table 4.6 ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic Model potassium�������������� 79 Table 4.7 ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic Model for phosphorus������ 80 Table 4.8 ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic Model for manganese������� 81 Table 4.9 ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic Model for magnesium������ 83 Table 4.10 ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic Model for taninn�������������� 85 Table 4.11 ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic Model for phytate������������� 86 Table 4.12 ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic Model for oxalate������������� 87 Table 4.13 ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic Model for saponin������������ 88 Table 4.14 ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic Model for foaming capacity����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 90 Table 4.15 ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic Model for bulk density����� 91 Table 4.16 ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic Model for WAC���������������� 92 Table 5.1 Macroalgae and their bioactive ingredients with potential health benefits���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 100 Table 5.2 Some algal extracted compounds with antioxidative activity���������� 103 Table 5.3 Anticancer bioactive compounds from Macroalgae������������������������� 105 Table 5.4 Some algae extracted biochemical compounds with antiviral activity�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 107 Table 5.5 Proximate Composition of Dagaa on a wet weight basis (wwb)����� 111 Table 5.6 Correlation matrix of proximate parameters of Dagaa��������������������� 112 Table 5.7 In vitro antioxidative capacity assays����������������������������������������������� 117 Table 6.1 Sensory qualities of sweet potato-based confectioneries and their controls��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 127 Table 6.2 Sensory qualities of (non-confectionery) sweet potato-based foods and control food products������������������������������������������������������� 128 Table 6.3 Proximate composition of the raw samples�������������������������������������� 129 Table 6.4 The sensory evaluation of the value-added products of aerial yam�� 130 Table 6.5 The nutrient composition of 1 g of Hausa potato tuber�������������������� 131 Table 6.6 Polyphenols content of Hausa potato leaves������������������������������������ 132 Table 6.7 Essential minerals present in Hausa potato leaves��������������������������� 132 Table 6.8 Nutrient composition and energy value of Hausa potato leaves������� 132 Table 7.1 Structural composition of finger millet grain����������������������������������� 143 Table 7.2 Proximate composition of Finger millet������������������������������������������� 144 Table 7.3 Mineral composition of Finger millet���������������������������������������������� 144 Table 8.1 The distribution of household food securing activity across key socio-­demographic factors, GHS 2017 (N = 17,772)����������������������� 160 Table 8.2 The type of food production or agricultural activities that households engage in������������������������������������������������������������������������ 161 Table 8.3 Practice of crop planting activities and farming practice����������������� 162 Table 8.4 Agriculture-related assistance from the government������������������������ 162 Table 8.5 A regression result showing an association between food securing activity and socio-­demographic factors����������������������������� 163

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Table 10.1 Functional compounds and potential source ingredients for meat and meat product enhancement�������������������������������������������������������� 187 Table 11.1 Top 10 Africa countries by GDP (US Dollars)��������������������������������� 199 Table 12.1 Proximate composition, carotenoid content and anti-nutritional factors of composite flour of cassava, pigeonpea and soybean�������� 226 Table 12.2 Mineral composition of composite flour of cassava, pigeonpea and soybean�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 227 Table 12.3 Functional properties of complementary food from cassava, pigeonpea and soybean flour blends������������������������������������������������� 229 Table 12.4 Response surface regression model for optimised flour blend of biofortified cassava, pigeonpea and soybean������������������������������������ 230 Table 12.5 Sensory attributes of cooked gruel prepared from composite flour of cassava, pigeonpea and soybean������������������������������������������ 231 Table 13.1 Household Food Insecurity and Access Score sheet������������������������ 242 Table 13.2 Household diet diversity score sheet������������������������������������������������ 243 Table 13.3 Means of income and access indicators������������������������������������������� 245 Table 13.4 Mann Whitney test for indicators of access to basic assets�������������� 245 Table 13.5 Mann Whitney test for indicators of social safety nets�������������������� 246 Table 13.6 Mann Whitney test for indicators of household assets��������������������� 246 Table 13.7 Comparing adaptive capacity indicators between Resilient and non-Resilient households����������������������������������������������������������������� 247 Table 13.8 Mann Whitney test for indicators of household stability����������������� 247 Table 13.9 PCA output of relevant resilience indicators������������������������������������ 249 Table 13.10 ANOVA test for resilience index across livelihood strategies���������� 250 Table 13.11 Descriptive statistics of resilience index across livelihood strategies�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 250 Table 14.1 Cholesterol profile and proximate composition of large fulani chicken egg��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 262 Table 14.2 Vital signs of Large Fulani Chicken Reared under Intensive and Semi- intensive production systems������������������������������������������������� 264 Table 14.3 Carcass yield of large fulani chicken meat��������������������������������������� 265 Table 14.4 Cholesterol profile and proximate composition of large fulani chicken meat (breast portion)����������������������������������������������������������� 266 Table 14.5 Sensory attributes of large fulani chicken meat�������������������������������� 266 Table 15.1 Physical soil indicators and results obtained from different land use practices������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 278 Table 15.2 Chemical soil indicators and results obtained from different land use practices������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 279 Table 15.3 Biological soil indicators and quantity/counts obtained from different land use practices��������������������������������������������������������������� 280 Table 16.1 Indicators and criteria of physical, biological and chemical degradation of soil���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 289 Table 16.2 Effects of dyestuff concentrations on chromium (Cr) levels in shoots and root of Amaranthus at 6WAP������������������������������������������ 290

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Table 16.3 Effect of fertilizer application on fruit yield and its components on snake tomato�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 292 Table 16.4 Mean value for maize yield parameters as affected by fertilizer application���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 292 Table 16.5 Effect of fertilizer sources on accumulation of Cd and Pb in plant tissues���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 293 Table 16.6 Proximate composition of some horticultural crops������������������������� 294 Table 17.1 Physical properties of castor oil������������������������������������������������������� 303 Table 17.2 Nutritional composition (g kg−1 DM) of Acacia karroo leaves������� 306 Table 17.3 Mineral profiles of Acacia karroo leaves������������������������������������������ 306 Table 17.4 Elemental composition of castor seed cake as measured with the X ray Fluorescence (XRF) after oil extraction��������������������������������� 309 Table 17.5 Properties of some of the products obtained from castor cake and thorn tree invader plant��������������������������������������������������������������������� 309 Table 18.1 Nutritional values of some indigenous tree crops in Nigeria����������� 316 Table 18.2 Land suitability index����������������������������������������������������������������������� 317 Table 18.3 Irrigation capability index���������������������������������������������������������������� 318 Table 18.4 Soil fertility index����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 318 Table 18.5 Impact of soil properties on crop performance�������������������������������� 321 Table 18.6 Soil ratings and recommendations for management of soils for Tree crop production������������������������������������������������������������������� 322 Table 18.7 Information on the physical properties of six soils types in South Western Nigeria������������������������������������������������������������������ 322 Table 18.8 Information on the Chemical properties of six soil types in South Western Nigeria������������������������������������������������������������������ 323 Table 18.9 Effects of use of soil information on Citrus sinensis yield in two cropping seasons������������������������������������������������������������������� 323 Table 18.10 Effect of Tithonia compost rate on fruit quality of Long Cayenne Pepper������������������������������������������������������������������ 324 Table 18.11 Rating of soil fertility classification������������������������������������������������� 324 Table 18.12 Effect of use of soil information on Income of citrus in two seasons����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 325 Table 21.1 Percentage and number of people affected by severe food insecurity in 2016��������������������������������������������������������������������� 377 Table 23.1 Main cropping systems in Sub-Saharan Africa�������������������������������� 419 Table 23.2 Average dry matter (dm,%) composition and ash, protein, lipid content (% dm) of Marama bean samples from different harvest years and areas��������������������������������������������������������������������� 439 Table 23.3 Soluble and insoluble dietary fibers (%, db) in Marama bean samples from different harvest years and areas�������������������������������� 439 Table 24.1 Summary of major effects of climate-dependent environmental factors on the behavior of foodborne pathogens and their impact on food safety����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 454 Table 26.1 Summary of the various molecular markers and their weaknesses and strengths������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 504

List of Tables

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Table 26.2 Progress in rice development in Nigeria������������������������������������������� 509 Table 26.3 Estimated 2013 dryland and irrigated wheat production by South Africa Provinces���������������������������������������������������������������� 518 Table 29.1 Summary of microbial species suitable for edible oil production and the quantity of accumulated edible oil in dry weight basis������� 566 Table 29.2 Composition of Fatty Acid Methyl Esther (FAME) of plant and edible oil from microorganism�������������������������������������������������� 568 Table 29.3 Oil yield and FA composition of important oil-bearing seeds and oil-producing microorganism����������������������������������������������������������� 570 Table 29.4 PUFAs and their primary microbial producers��������������������������������� 580 Table 29.5 The productivity of selected oleaginous yeasts, fungi and bacteria����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 585 Table 29.6 The lipid content, biomass and oil productivity of selected microalgae�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 585 Table 31.1 Comparison of different molecular markers and their various applications�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 614 Table 34.1 Difference between single and twin-screw extruding equipment (extruder)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 693 Table 34.2 Summary of some studies on the application of extrusion technology in foods�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 699 Table 35.1 Effect of biocontrol agents on some fungal pathogens of plants������ 714 Table 35.2 Effect of biocontrol agents on viral pathogens of tomato plants������ 715 Table 35.3 Effect of biocontrol agents on some bacterial disease-causing pathogens of tomato plants��������������������������������������������������������������� 716 Table 35.4 Effect of biocontrol agents on nematodes (or Meloidogyne species) that infest tomato���������������������������������������������������������������� 716 Table 37.1 Nanoparticle-based Produced from Biocompatible Green Materials�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 745 Table 37.2 Nanoparticles Produced by Plant Materials������������������������������������� 746 Table 37.3 Nanoparticles produced by Bacteria������������������������������������������������� 748 Table 37.4 Nanoparticles produced by Fungi����������������������������������������������������� 749 Table 38.1 Salmonella spp. prevalence from selected African countries categorized according to type of meat������������������������������ 767 Table 38.2 Salmonella spp. prevalence in diverse unprocessed red meat types����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 768 Table 38.3 Salmonella spp. prevalence among different raw unprocessed poultry types������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 770 Table 38.4 Salmonella spp. prevalence among diverse organ meat types���������� 771 Table 38.5 Salmonella spp. prevalence among different processed meat types����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 772 Table 38.6 Salmonella spp. prevalence among diverse ready-to-eat meat types����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 773 Table 38.7 Most common serotypes isolated according to year and country��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 778

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Table 38.8 Sources of Typhimurium and Enteritidis isolates����������������������������� 780 Table 38.9 S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium isolates resistances towards different antimicrobial classes�������������������������������������������� 782 Table 40.1 Occurrence of T. gondii infection in foods��������������������������������������� 815 Table 40.2 Occurrence of Toxocara spp. infection in foods������������������������������� 821 Table 42.1 Some mitigation strategies for acrylamide formation reduction in different foodstuffs. (Baskar and Aiswarya 2018)������� 864

Chapter 1

Harnessing the Hidden Treasures in African Yam Bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa), an Underutilized Grain Legume with Food Security Potentials Omena Bernard Ojuederie, Jacob Olagbenro Popoola, Charity Aremu, and Olubukola Oluranti Babalola

Abstract  Over the years, man has derived his nourishment from the consumption of the major staple crops with the disregard for other crops that are nutritionally rich, and capable of promoting food security in sub-Saharan Africa. The African yam bean (AYB) (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) an underutilized grain legume, is extensively cultivated for both its seeds and tubers in Western and Central Africa, respectively. Moreover, it can fix nitrogen in deficient soils due to its nodulation ability, in addition to its rich nutritional content, especially in essential amino acids and protein. This makes it a useful substitute for the supply of protein for both man and livestock. The socio-cultural uses of the species are enormous. It has been used for various cultural practices in weddings and festivals as well as an alternative medicine to treat some ailments. The crop remain an underutilized grain legume due to anti-nutritional contents, as well as the long time required to cook the grains. This book chapter discusses the hidden potentials in AYB and proffers ways of enhancing its cultivation and utilization for improved food and nutritional security. CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing technology could play a vital role in the genetic improvement of AYB. Keywords  CRISPR · Food security · Sphenostylis stenocarpa · Malnutrition · Neglected grain legume O. B. Ojuederie · O. O. Babalola (*) Food Security and Safety Niche Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences North-­ West University Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] J. O. Popoola Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science and Technology Covenant University, Canaanland Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria C. Aremu Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, College of Agriculture, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 O. O. Babalola (ed.), Food Security and Safety, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50672-8_1

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1.1  Introduction As long as man continues to live on earth, they will always need to produce food to feed the human race; hence the need to invest in agriculture for sustainable food production. It is estimated that “by 2050, almost 52% of global population may dwell in nations with average calorie intake more than 3000  kcal/person/day, although the populace residing in nations with an average less than 2500 kcal will possibly decline from 2.3 billion to 240 million” (FAO 2015; Konuma 2018). In 2010, sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) with an average per capita income of $688 was regarded as the most impoverished region on the globe in comparison with other parts of the world, with an average per capital of $1717 (Chauvin et  al. 2012). Likewise, it is the region that is the most affected by undernourishment and climate change. Africa may face food crisis in the nearest future if adequate steps are not taken to boost food productivity and limit the destruction of the forests as this aids the release of greenhouses gases into the atmosphere which will, in the long run, increase the negative effects of climate change on food production. Currently, agricultural productivity in Africa is faced with several challenges from the effects of changes in climatic conditions due to anthropogenic activities of man, as well as environmental factors. Moreover, insurgency by Boko Haram in parts of West Africa, and cattle herdsmen whose cattle destroy farmlands has led to food insecurity in the region. The El Nino induced drought that occurred in 2016, also caused the reduction of crop yield and loss of income to farmers. Despite these setbacks, we still have to look for ways to reduce the level of malnutrition and food insecurity in Africa. The continuous increase in the human population in Africa will lead to more food demands and, most likely, lead to the expansion of agricultural land for food production. For Africa to be food secured, the amount of food available has to be well distributed and be sufficient to meet people’s food requirements. Food security is a situation in nature at which “all people, constantly have physical and economic access to adequate, safe and nutritious food that meets their nutritional needs and food preferences for an energetic and healthy life” (FAO 1996; Mihalache-O’Keef and Li 2011; Pérez-Escamilla 2017). A lot of importance has been given to the cultivation of the key staple crops in Africa such as wheat (Triticum aestivum), yam (Dioscorea spp), sorghum (Sorghum bipolar), rice (Oryza sativa), cassava (Manihot esculenta), maize (Zea mays), plantain (Musa spp), sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas), soybean (Glycine max), and potato (Solanum tuberosum) in addition to various fruits and vegetables for nourishment. However, in recent times, cultivation of these crops is being faced with abiotic stresses such as drought and extreme temperatures, which negate their growth with a reduction in yield. As a result, the human diet should be diversified by several neglected and underutilized crops that are capable of increasing food production and sustain resilient agro- and Horti-food systems (Baldermann et al. 2016; Aditya et al. 2019). There is, therefore, a need to harness the hidden treasures in underutilized crops that can grow in areas prone to abiotic stresses, while still giving man the nourishment he requires.

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Neglected and underutilized legumes (NULs) are gaining more awareness as potential crops that could lessen malnutrition and advance food security among Africans. These NULs were previously disregarded even though their cultivation and intake serve as an alternative source of nourishment and livelihood for the rural poor (Padulosi et al. 2002; Azam-Ali 2010; Ofosu et al. 2017). Lack of research interest for improvement, utilization, and conservation has relegated these NULs to become orphan or under-exploited crops. There are several underutilized legumes in the spotlight in Africa. These include the African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) grown and cultivated in West and Central Africa, Winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus), grown and cultivated in Burma and the Papua New Guinea Highland and northern Ghana, the Marama bean (Tylosema esculentum) grown and cultivated in Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, Mozambique and the northern part of South Africa and the Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) which is widely cultivated in sub-Saharan Africa, with Nigeria as the highest producer, and also cultivated in the South African provinces of Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal and Limpopo. These underutilized legumes belong to the Fabaceae family; some produce both seed and edible tubers (African yam bean, Winged bean, and Marama bean) while others such as Bambara groundnut produces only bean seeds. These legumes can strive on marginal lands and possess drought resistance traits. In recent times, the African yam bean is gaining more research focus among scientists in West Africa due to its potential as a food security crop. This review, therefore, seeks to showcase the hidden treasures of the Sphenostylis stenocarpa as a food security crop and to promote its cultivation and utilization of both its seed and tubers, for nutritional security in Africa.

1.2  Origin and Distribution of African Yam Bean African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa Hochst Ex A. Rich) Harms is a vigorously climbing herbaceous plant, with vines that get to heights of about 3 m or more based on the height of the stake or cultivar (Adewale and Odoh 2013). Several suggestions were made in the past on the exact origin of cultivated Sphenostylis stenocarpa based on the manner of domestication of the crop. The first center of domestication was given as Abyssinia in Ethiopia (Dalziel 1937; Kay 1973; Potter and Doyle 1992). However, after two decades, Sudan (in Northeast Africa) was proposed as the center of domestication (Murdock 1959; Purseglove 1976; Potter and Doyle 1992). Central Africa was later suggested as a possible center of domestication, especially in Zaire, now called the Democratic Republic of Congo by Potter (1991). These researchers regarded a single domestication event for AYB. Hence, human dispersal could have moved the landraces from either West or Central Africa to the other regions. Based on the two products (seed and tubers) produced by the plant, Okigbo (1973) proposed that two independent domestication

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events must have taken place in West and Central Africa, respectively. This is because the crop is cultivated mainly for seeds in West Africa while Central Africa cultivates it mainly for the tubers. Nevertheless, the possibility of multiple domestication events in the savannah-forest ecotone of West and Central Africa was proposed by Harlan (1971), because African crops ought to be classified based on the ecological zones of their domestication and not on particular sites of origins (Potter and Doyle 1992).

1.3  Hypothesis of Domestication of African Yam Bean An attempt to elucidate the exact hypothesis of domestication of the species and examine relationships among several accessions (wild and cultivated populations), was conducted by Potter and Doyle (1992), using both cladistics and phonetic analyzes of morphological, chloroplast DNA (cpDNA), and isozyme variation. Considerable variation was more pronounced among wild populations as opposed to cultivated populations. However, variation was not identified between landraces cultivated for tubers and those cultivated for seeds. Nevertheless, five distinct groups of plastomes were obtained with cpDNA within AYB: one each for accessions cultivated for tubers and seeds, and the other three plastomes among wild accessions. Mutations that discriminates seed from tuber groups were found in all accessions evaluated, which supports double domestication but, this observation does not support the single domestication event hypothesis (Potter and Doyle 1992). From the data obtained, both hypothesis of independent domestication in East and Central Africa, and a single domestication event occurring in either of the two regions, were supported for the distribution of the cultivated accessions of AYB. Sphenostylis stenocarpa is now widely distributed and cultivated throughout Africa (Fig. 1.1). The Germplasm Resources Information Network (USDA 2015), spread the center of diversity of AYB in Africa to the following regions: Angola, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe (South tropical Africa), Chad and Ethiopia (Northeast tropical Africa), Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (East tropical Africa), Burundi, Central African Republic and Zaire (Central tropical Africa), with most countries in West tropical Africa (Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, and Togo) (Adewale and Odoh 2013).

1.4  Cultivation of African Yam Bean AYB is cultivated mainly for seeds in West Africa and its tubers in Central Africa. In Nigeria, it is cultivated in the South-South states of Edo, Cross River, and Akwa Ibom, the South–East States of Anambra, Abia, Ebonyi, and Enugu, the South-West States of Ogun, Ondo, Osun, and Oyo, as well as the middle belt (Benue State) and

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Fig. 1.1  Geographical distribution of African yam bean. (Source: Adewale and Odoh 2013; USDA 2015)

parts of the north of the country (Adewale and Odoh 2013). Cultivation of the crop usually takes place in May/June each year and matures after about 7  months, at which time the pods are dry and the tubers, if present, ready for harvesting. The production of AYB remains in the hands of the aged farmers, the custodians of the crop’s genetic resources. Thus, several landraces are yet to be evaluated for their nutritional or medicinal benefits to man. The plant requires staking after 2 weeks of germination if one is to obtain a good yield. However, AYB, like most leguminous crops is faced with problems of pests and diseases, especially fungi and viral pathogens during the vegetative and reproductive stages of growth. The cowpea aphidborne mosaic virus is transmitted by a species of aphid not common to cowpea, giving the characteristic vein banding symptoms on the leaves (Bashir et al. 2002). At the reproductive stage of growth, a yet to be identified fungal disease dries up the pods beginning from the tapering ends of the pods, thereby reducing seed yield. Cultivation of AYB will, therefore, require a holistic approach with the collaboration of the breeders, pathologists, and entomologists, for farmers to derive the benefits of the crop. A description of a matured AYB plant and the two products (seeds and tubers) is presented (Fig. 1.2).

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Fig. 1.2 (a) AYB plant producing pods (b) variation in testa basal color of some AYB accessions (c) different shapes of AYB tubers. (Source: Ojuederie 2016)

1.5  Socio-cultural and Economic Uses of AYB Developing countries of the world are lacking in nutritious foods required for their dietary needs. Consequently, crops like AYB, with vast nutritional benefits, could aid in reducing malnutrition if more focus is given to its cultivation and utilization (Oagile et al. 2007). In periods of food scarcity, the rural farmers could prepare a meal of AYB for the family and eat it as a good substitute for cowpea. KIu et al. (2001) documented the utilization of the AYB in Ghana where it is made into puddings or fortified with cassava by a particular tribe. Also, the cooked bean serves as a sauce, while lactating mothers usually drink the drained water after boiling the beans as a means to increase breast milk production. It also serves as a special delicacy at special ceremonies such as the traditional marriage among the Ekiti’s in Western Nigeria. In Togo, Ghana, and Nigeria, the paste obtained from the ground seeds of AYB could be utilized in treating ailments such as stomach aches, and acute drunkenness when the pulp is mixed with water (Asuzu 1986; Adewale and Dumet 2010). Although the pharmacological evidence for such treatments has not been fully understood, it was established that AYB seeds contain rich pharmacological properties that can be subjected to further screening (Asuzu 1986). Socio-culturally, the seeds are also used in the preparation of a special delicacy during festivals such as the puberty rites of girls by the Avatime tribe of the Upper Volta region of Ghana (Klu et al. 2001). Besides, the Bandudus, the Shabas and the tribe at Kinshahsa in Zaire take pleasure in the tubers of AYB in important meals (Klu et al. 2001). Several reports have been made on the utilization of AYB in meals in various forms. For example, in the South-Eastern State of Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, and Enugu in Nigeria, ethnobotanical studies and surveys by Nnamani et  al. (2017) revealed that most easterners consume AYB roasted and eaten as snack or prepared as pottage, or mixed with “Ugba” (Pentaclethra macrophylla), “Okporoko” (stockfish) and serves as a special meal at different traditional festivals such as marriages, the new yam festival and burial ceremonies. Some districts in Anambra state cook it as pottage using yam, while in Enugu State it is prepared like moi moi which is a

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special delicacy usually made with cowpea bean flour (Nnamani et  al. 2017). Utilization of the bean seeds in different forms helps to supplement the protein requirements of the diet of those who consume it in the various communities.

1.6  Nutritional Benefits of Sphenotylis stenocarpa 1.6.1  Proximate and Mineral Composition of AYB Products AYB belongs to the Fabaceae family which produces seeds within pods of different shapes and sizes. Like the traditional legumes, these under-exploited legumes are a rich source of nutrients and could serve as an alternative protein source for man. Furthermore, such legumes could improve the earnings of subsistence farmers who grow legumes for their households. The two products of AYB; the seeds and the tubers are rich in protein, carbohydrate, crude fiber, as well as minerals and essential amino acids. Within the last decade, the number of researches conducted on AYB to determine the nutritional benefits of the crop increased. The proximate composition of the two products of the legume has been evaluated by several researchers (Table 1.1). Ameh reported an average of 17.70% protein in the seeds with a low moisture content of 8.80%. However, one of the accessions he evaluated had 23.7% protein. In general, protein content ranged from 17.70% to 37.20% and moisture content from 8.80% to 16.24% in raw seeds reported by several authors. The seeds have a higher percentage of protein and carbohydrates than other fractions. Hence, the cooked bean is relinquished by farmers and rural dwellers in lean periods as it fills up the stomach and keeps one active for a longer duration of time. The report of Ndidi et al. (2014) and Ojinnaka et al. (2017) revealed that boiling and roasting of the seeds still leaves an appreciable amount of protein (18.78–19.74%) while fermentation of the seed flour increases its protein content to 30.85%. Limited reports exist on the proximate composition of the tubers. Ameh (2007) reported 8.32% protein in the tubers, moisture content of 9.40%, and very high carbohydrate content of 79.40%. Recently Ojuederie et  al. (2015) Ojuederie and Balogun (2019) reported a higher quantity of protein (15.50%), moisture content of 10.30%, and carbohydrate content of 68.30% in the tuber for accessions of AYB evaluated. This shows that the tubers of AYB have an appreciable amount of protein in its tubers which could help reduce protein malnutrition in children. With such high protein content (15.50%) in the tubers of AYB, it makes it a good source of alternative protein for human and livestock consumption. The 15.50% protein obtainable in the tubers of Sphenostylis stenocarpa, is about six times that of cassava and three times that of Irish potato or sweet potato. Additionally, the tubers are also low in moisture content (9.40–10.30%), which indicates its ability to store for a longer period without spoilage from increased microbial action. The moisture content of the tubers was within the acceptable range (Ceirwyn 1995). The differences in composition could be due to genetic variation

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Table 1.1  Comparison of the proximate parameters of the seed and tubers of Sphenostylis stenocarpa Product Raw seed Tuber Raw seed Raw seed Boiled seed Roasted seed Boiled seed flour Raw seed Fermented seed flour Raw seed Raw seed Raw seed Raw seed

CP (%) 17.70 8.32 19.00 21.70 19.74 20.47 18.78 24.31 30.85 27.57 37.21 22.46 22.40

Ash (%) 2.12 2.44 9.00 2.64 2.61 2.61 2.59 1.86 3.58 4.85 5.78 4.28 3.10

MC (%) 8.80 9.40 10.00 9.37 11.95 4.88 10.95 13.33 15.25 16.24 1.96 9.52 11.80

CF (%) 10.50 8.06 – 9.29 7.99 8.38 7.80 2.47 4.31 4.73 3.55 6.47 3.60

Tuber

15.50 2.90 10.30 2.40

CFT (%) – – 13.00 – – – 1.81 1.88 4.52 – 9.49 3.59 1.90 1.30

CHO (%) 70.46 79.40 – 63.51 63.91 69.62 58.08 58.64 41.92 – 44.40 53.68 57.20

References Ameh (2007) Ameh (2007) Esan and Fasasi (2013) Ndidi et al. (2014) Ndidi et al. (2014) Ndidi et al. (2014) Ndidi et al. (2014) Ajibola and Olapade (2016) Ojinnaka et al. (2017) Onuoha et al. (2017) Chinedu and Nwinyi (2012) Baiyeri et al. (2018) Ojuederie and Balogun 2019 68.30 Ojuederie and Balogun 2019

CP Crude protein, MC Moisture content, CF Crude fiber, CFT Crude fat, CHO Carbohydrate

among the genotypes evaluated or due to the quality of the soil in which the plant was grown. The highest protein content of 37.21% reported by Chinedu and Nwinyi (2012) was well above that obtained in Winged Bean (32.49%) another underutilized legume by Chimmad et al. (1998). The mean carbohydrate contents in AYB tubers (68.30 and 79.40%) is much higher than that obtainable in winged bean (30.11%) reported by Chimmad et al. (1998). There appears to be an inverse relationship between the protein and carbohydrate contents of AYB. An increase in carbohydrate content leads to a decrease in the protein content of AYB and vice versa. Underutilized crops provide essential micro-nutrients and thus able to complement staple foods (Padulosi et  al. 2013). Both products of AYB are also rich in minerals and essential amino acids. Ojuederie and Balogun (2017) identified magnesium (454.16 mg100g−1), potassium (398.25 mg100g) -1 and phosphorous (204.86 mg100g−1) as the most prominent minerals analyzed in the seeds of 40 AYB accessions with considerable amounts of calcium (37.44 mg100g−1) and iron (11.70 mg100g−1) which correspond to the observations of Edem et al. (1990). The tubers of two accessions TSs 107 and TSs 140 were rich in potassium and magnesium as well as high in protein and carbohydrate contents in the study of Ojuederie and Balogun (2017). TSs 140 with good tuber yield would be useful for further breeding work to obtain larger tubers for human and livestock consumption. Appreciable amounts of calcium and iron were also detected in the tubers AYB (50.41 mg100g−1) and (9.75 mg100g−1), respectively (Ojuederie 2016). Recently, Baiyeri et al. (2018) reported zinc and iron contents of 7.90 mg 100 g−1 and 10.40 mg100g-1, respectively, in the seeds of 6 accessions of AYB. These minerals are essential for the growth and development of infants and children. A signifi-

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cant cause of malnutrition in Nigeria is a lack of protein, energy, and micronutrients such as iron and zinc. Up to 63% of women in Nigeria are anemic, and 31% and 20% are zinc deficient (Baiyeri et al. 2018). From the preceding, both seeds and tubers of AYB will help to reduce iron deficiency in women, especially pregnant women, and improve the amount of calcium in children if consumed in their diets.

1.6.2  Amino Acid Profiles of African Yam Bean Sphenostylis stenocarpa is rich in amino acid composition compared to most other legumes. Assessment of the nutritional properties of 44 genotypes of AYB reveals that it is well-adjusted in essential amino acids and possesses higher amino acid levels than pigeon pea, cowpea, and Bambara nut (Uguru and Madukaife 2001; Ndidi et al. 2014). The amino acid composition of AYB is comparable to the amino acid reference values given by FAO/WHO (1985), with lysine (Lys), Phenylalanine + tyrosine (Phe + Tyr), methionine + cystine (Met + Cys) higher than the suggested range of amino acid needs for infants and significantly higher than the values suggested for pre-school children and school children (Oshodi et al. 1995). AYB serves as an excellent source of essential amino acids, such as leucine (Leu), isoleucine (Ile), and valine (Val) (Oshodi et al. 1995). Glutamic acid (103 mg g−1) and aspartic acid (90.5 mg g−1) are the primary amino acids in the species, as observed by Oshodi et  al. (1995). This corresponds with the observation made by Esan and Fasasi (2013), who obtained glutamic acid and aspartic acid contents of 12.1 g 100 g−1 and 10.0 g 100 g−1, respectively. However, high amounts of essential amino acids threonine (4.58 g 100 g−1), methionine (5.44 g 100 g−1), phenylalanine (6.13 g 100 g−1), leucine (7.90 g 100 g−1), lysine (8.80 g 100 g−1), cysteine (5.44 g 100 g−1) and histidine (5.51 g 100 g−1) were obtained (Esan and Fasasi 2013). It is therefore evident that the amino acid composition in AYB meets the basic requirements for infants and adults (Adeyeye 1997; WHO 2007).

1.7  N  odulation and Nitrogen Fixation in Sphenostylis stenocarpa African yam bean is well adapted to different soil types. It can fix atmospheric nitrogen into the soil biologically, as it has a symbiotic relationship with an array of rhizobia strains in its root nodules. This makes AYB a suitable candidate for sustainable development purposes in most cropping systems (Oagile et al. 2012). Soil bacteria belonging to the Rhizobiaceae family can inhabit the roots of legumes in nitrogendeficient surroundings, thus leading to root nodules formation (Tettey 2014; PeláezVico et al. 2016). Within the root nodules, Rhizobia converts atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia by induction of the nitrogenase complex (Tettey 2014; Maheshwari 2012). The ammonia produced is then utilized by the plant, while in exchange, the

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bacteria obtain its source of carbon from the plant for the reduction of nitrogen. Studies have been conducted to evaluate the nitrogen-fixing ability of AYB nodulated by rhizobia strains indigenous to Botswana (Oagile et  al. 2012) and Ghana (Tettey 2014), respectively. However, there is a lack of information on the true potential of biological nitrogen fixation and its contribution to enhancing soil quality and, subsequently, a sustainable environment with AYB.  Recently, Adegboyega (2019) carried out an extensive investigation on the nitrogen-fixing ability of 25 AYB accessions in field experiments at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan. He obtained significant differences among accessions for growth parameters with accession TSs 67 having significantly higher fresh shoot weight, dry shoot weight, and dry root weight (516.00 g, 219.10 g, and 14.70 g) respectively compared to other accessions with a total biomass of 233.45  g (Adegboyega 2019). The amount of nitrogen fixed also differed significantly among the accessions. There is a need to isolate and characterize rhizobia from the root nodules of AYB landraces with the view of identifying strains with a high nitrogenfixing ability which could be harnessed in the restoration of agricultural soils deficient in nitrogen and aid crop improvement. Metagenomic analysis could also be conducted to determine the functionality of the genes in such strains and possibly transferred to other rhizobia strains and rhizobacterial strains with high growth-promoting traits such as indole-­ 3-­ acetic acid, 1-aminocyclopropane-1 carboxylate (ACC) deaminase, phosphate solubilization as well as exopolysaccharide production which would be very useful in enhancing the growth of AYB used in mixed cropping with other crops for sustainable production. This is essential, especially with the current experience of climate change in SSA affecting crop production.

1.8  Constraints to the Cultivation and Utilization of AYB Despite the nutritional benefits highlighted above, the consumption and utilization of the products of AYB are constrained by the presence of anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) such as trypsin inhibitor, phytate, tannin, oxalate and alkaloids and long cooking time (Nwokolo 1987; Ajibade et al. 2005; Fasoyiro et al. 2006; Adwale and Odoh 2013). These anti-nutritional factors in legumes decrease the overall nutritional quality of the seeds by impairing protein digestibility and mineral availability (Ndidi et al. 2014). Comparison of the ANFs present in the seeds and tubers of four AYB accessions revealed higher concentrations of saponin in the seeds of unprocessed African yam bean TSs107 (440 mg 100 g−1), TSs140 (330 mg 100 g−1), AYB 45 (351  mg 100  g−1) AYB57 (350  mg 100  g−1) compared to the tubers (TSs107 (3 mg 100 g−1) TSs140 (5 mg 100 g−1) AYB45 (275 mg 100 g−1) AYB57 (225 mg 100 g−1) respectively (Ojuederie 2016). Saponins lead to cytotoxic permeabilization of the intestines through its biological activities, depending on the structure (Soetan and Oyewole 2009). The concentration of phytate were also elevated in the seeds of TSs140 (550 mg 100 g−1), AYB45 (460 mg 100 g−1) and AYB57 (485 mg 100 g−1) compared to the tubers; TSs140 (14.8 mg 100 g−1) AYB 45 (275 mg 100 g−1) and

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AYB57 (240 mg 100 g−1). It is well known that phytate chelates ions; thus, it reduces the availability of calcium and inhibits the absorption of iron as a result of calcium phytate complexes produced (Abioye et  al. 2015). Notwithstanding, the higher ANFs in the unprocessed seeds of AYB can be eliminated or reduced by efficient processing techniques and proper cooking (Adewale and Odoh 2013). Ikhajiagbe and Mensah (2012) also reported that roasting eliminates or reduces the amount of phytate in seeds more efficiently than boiling, while boiling eliminates oxalate from seeds much better than roasting. The tubers of AYB evaluated by Ojuederie and Balogun (2019) shows that it contains fewer anti-nutrients when compared to the seeds. However, the tubers are hardly eaten in West Africa. With the current information on the low concentrations of ANFs detected in AYB tubers, West Africans should utilize the nutritional benefits of the tubers by incorporating it into their diets as they do with other tuber crops. The flour from the tuber could be used in baking or fortification of foods.

1.9  E  xploitation of the Genetic Diversity in African Yam Bean One essential requirement for the genetic enhancement of any crop species is the presence of genetic variability in the germplasm of crops. Hence the various crop genebanks in collaboration with plant breeders need to embark on exploration to areas where AYB are cultivated in each country to have a vast gene pool for genetic improvement of the species. Efforts have been made in the past to characterize germplasm of AYB from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture Ibadan, which currently holds the largest germplasm of the crop. Notwithstanding, several farmers are still in possession of landraces of AYB whose nutritional or medicinal potentials have not been identified. There are reports in the literature on the phenotypic or agro-morphological characterization of AYB by various researchers from few accessions, to many accessions (Popoola et  al. 2011; Adewale et  al. 2012b; Aremu and Ibirinde 2012; Ojuederie et al. 2015) and studies on the variability in seed metrics (Adewale et al. 2010, 2012a). Likewise, molecular markers have been used to assess the level of genetic diversity among different populations of AYB germplasm. Molecular characterization is much more efficient because it is not affected by environmental factors as it occurs with the morphological characterization of traits that often differ when assessed in multi-locational trials. Molecular breeding helps to reduce the length of the breeding process by the identification of suitable parents for breeding programs. DNA can be isolated from young seedlings and amplified with specific molecular or genetic markers that occur close to the genes of interest. The ability of a scientist to identify these markers confirms the presence of the genes as they are linked. Thus molecular markers could be used to develop a linkage map for the species. Molecular markers used for genetic diversity studies should be informative and have a high degree of polymorphism. Several

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markers have been utilized for assessing the extent of genetic diversity in AYB; these include Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) (Moyib et al. 2008). Amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLP) (Ojuederie et al. 2014; Adewale et  al. 2015) Simple sequence repeats (SSR) otherwise known as microsatellite markers (Shitta et  al. 2015) and recently Inter Simple Sequence repeats (ISSR) (Nnamani et al. 2019). A summary of the use of these markers for genetic diversity assessment in African yam bean is given in Table 1.2. Moyib et al. (2008) evaluated 24 AYB accessions using 9 RAPD markers. This was the first genetic marker to be employed for diversity studies in AYB. RAPD markers do not require sequence information for its utilization and can be used across different plant species, especially underutilized crops. The study of Moyib et al. (2008) revealed the presence of substantial genetic variation in the Nigerian AYB accessions with a similarity coefficient of 0.42–0.96. However, RAPD ­markers are dominant and cannot distinguish homozygotes from heterozygotes. Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism markers were later used for diversity assessment of 40 and 77 accessions of African yam bean with 4 and 5 Eco RI and Mse I primer combinations respectively in independent studies (Ojuederie et al. 2014; Adewale et al. 2015). AFLP can screen entire genomes of plants randomly for genetic polymorphism, and it is beneficial for underutilized crops such as AYB. It gave some level of discrimination among 40 and 77 accessions of AYB and also does not require sequence information. It requires quality DNA and expertise to obtain good results. Although Adewale et  al. (2015) obtained low polymorphism (25.6%) in the 77 accessions evaluated, a mean percentage efficiency (82.9%) of the five AFLP markers was obtained with E-ACT/M-CAG having the highest polymorphic efficiency of 85.5% (Ojuederie et al. 2014). The evaluation of 40 AYB accessions by Ojuederie et  al. (2014) using AFLP markers revealed an average polymorphism of (95.6%) with primer combinations E-AAC/M-CAG and E-ACT/M-CAG recording 100% polymorphism. Thirty-seven (37) of the 40 AYB accessions evaluated were identified as having a genetically diverse population. AFLP markers have also been used in other underutilized legumes such as Bambara groundnut (Ntundu et al. 2004; Massawe et al. 2002) and South American yam bean (Pachyrhizus erosus)(Santayana et al. 2014). Shitta et al. (2015) were able to show the transferability of 36% of cowpea SSR markers for genetic diversity studies in the species. SSR markers require sequence information for development. Nevertheless, the results they obtained revealed that only 8 of the 67 SSRs evaluated amplified more than 60% of AYB accessions and generated 55 polymorphic fragments with an average of 6.9 per primer (Shitta et al. 2015). The assessment of genetic diversity in Sphenostylis stenocarpa using AFLP and SSR markers in the above studies concurs that clustering of accessions in the researches was not based on geographical origins (Moyib et  al. 2008; Adewale et  al. 2015; Shitta et al. 2015) due to high exchange of planting materials amongst smallholder farmers across diverse regions (Shitta et al. 2015). The method of assessing genetic variation using SSR markers is based on the high degree of sequence length variation resulting from nucleotides repeats in the genome. SSR makers and Inter-Simple

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Table 1.2  Utilization of molecular markers for genetic diversity studies in African yam bean Molecular markers RAPD

AFLP

AFLP

SSR

ISSR

Markers used OPA-12, OPB-09. OPD-08 OPE-03, OPE-06, OPF-02 OPG-03, OPL-03, OPY-20 E-AAC/M-CAG E-AGC/M-CAG E-ACT/M-CAG E-ACG/M-CAT E-AAC/M-CAG E-ACT/M-CAG E-AGC/M-CAG E-ACG/M-CAT E-ACG/M-CTG Cowpea SSR Markers VM13, VM31, VM51, VM74, VM54, VM40, VM71, VM30, Bmd17 and VM70 (genomic) CLM0899, CLM0938 and CLM0936 (ESTs) and VuUGM25 (uni-gene) ISSR811, ISSR901, UBC835, UBC814, ISSR818, ISSR889 UBC826, UBC816, ISSR890, ISSR888, ISSR827, ISSR825 ISSR856, ISSR888

No of accessions evaluated 24

Percentage polymorphism (%) Average

Mean Range gene of PIC diversity 0.000– – 0.89

References Moyib et al. (2008)

40

95.55

0.945– – 0.963

Ojuederie et al. (2014)

77

25.57

–

Adewale et al. (2015)

67

36.00

0.669– 0.801 0.886

Shitta et al. (2015)

17

–

0.384– 0.766 0.875

Nnamani et al. (2019)

–

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Sequence Repeat (ISSR) markers are outstanding in discriminating among genotypes with a high level of polymorphism, being co-dominant markers, highly reproducible and abundant in the genome of plants. A recent study was carried out on the use of ISSR markers to assess the genetic diversity of 17 accessions of AYB from Ebonyi State, East Nigeria, by Nnamani et al. (2019). A specific center of divergence for Sphenostylis stenocarpa was identified with marker UBC 826 (PIC-0.875) been most discriminative. The wide variation discovered among the AYB accessions in Ebonyi State by Nnamani et al. (2019) indicates ample opportunity for genetic improvement of the species (Ojuederie et al. 2014). Genetic diversity studies with the various molecular markers with a high level of polymorphisms could be exploited in the development of genetic linkage maps to identify genes in the species. Nonetheless, not much has been done to improve AYB through conventional breeding, although it is known that the crop is majorly self-­ pollinated (91.38%) with an 8.62% out-crossing rate (Ojuederie et al. 2015).

1.10  Prospects for Genetic Improvement The AYB is indeed a rich crop with protein and nutritional security potentials. Its cultivation and utilization need to be promoted to fully harness the hidden potentials in both products. A concerted effort is therefore required from all stakeholders including the plant breeders, nutritionists, agronomists, geneticists, entomologists, extension officers and of course the farmers, to achieve this goal. One major factor preventing the consumption of the seeds has been the hardness of the seed coat which demands long cooking time and expense in terms of fuel for cooking. The African Orphan Crops Consortium’s (AOCC) is carrying out an ongoing project to sequence, assemble and annotate the genomes of 101 traditional African food crops to improve their nutritional content (http://africanorphancrops.org). Having the full genome sequences of these orphan or underutilized crops will offer long-term solutions for Africa’s food and nutritional insecurity problems. In the case of AYB, researchers will be able to use the recent advancement in gene editing, to edit the sequences of AYB to possibly identify the genes responsible for seed coat thickness as well as genes responsible for the high anti-nutritional factors that exist in the seeds. The discovery of the gene-editing technology with the report of specific and homozygous targeted gene editing in rice by Zhang et al. (2014) has revolutionized genomics (Soda et al. 2018) and since then, several successful gene-editing technologies have been carried out to genetically improve several crops such as Arapidopsis thaliana (Zhao et al. 2016) Oryza sativa (Shan et al. 2013; Sun et al. 2016), Nicotiana benthamiana (Guo et al. 2013; Ali et al. 2015) Solanum lycopersicum (Pan et al. 2016) and Hordeum vulgare (Lawrenson et al. 2015). The Clustered

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Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) and its related Cas9 nuclease from Streptococcus pyogenes enables gene characterization in the genome as well as insertion of small mutations known as Indels (insertion-deletions) into the plant genome. The bacterial CRISPR-Cas9 nucleases structure has been regarded as the most robust and multiplexable genome editing tool due to its ease of use for accurate genome editing (Doudna and Charpentier 2014; Ma et al. 2016; Soda et al. 2018). To improve AYB, the whole genome sequence and functional characterization of the candidate genes through accurate genome editing is required. This means that research focus on next-generation sequencing (NGS) of non-model and under-­ exploited crops should be given more attention. Due to the low cost of NGS, estimation of genetic diversity within and between germplasm of related genomes of plants and identification and tracking of genetic differences have become efficient and precise enabling thousands of variants to be tracked within large populations (Varshney et al. 2009). Recently, Aina et al. (2018), sequenced 93 AYB accessions from the Genetic Resources Center (IITA), using restriction-site associated DNA Sequencing (RADSeq) which is useful for crops without any genome information. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) were identified which placed the 93 accessions into 4 structured populations. They were able to unravel the genetic diversity within the 93 accessions using RADSeq. Comparative genomics using bioinformatics can hasten gene identification by comparing the sequences of underutilized legumes to that of other known legumes such as cowpea and soybean using proteomics and transcriptomics analyzes. It will also aid plant breeders in their quest to obtain erect or dwarf varieties of the crop, which will go a long way to put an end for the need of staking the climbing vines of AYB.  With these improvements in place in the nearest future, AYB will in no time, become a household diet for breastfeeding mothers, children and also as livestock feeds.

1.11  Conclusion AYB if given the much-needed research attention by stakeholders for the improvement of agronomic and nutritional quality traits, will reduce the level of protein and mineral malnutrition in Africa especially among children, and it could also be a good source of income for farmers. Cultivation and utilization of both its seeds and tubers for food and nutritional security should be promoted to harness the hidden potentials inherent in the crop.

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Massawe, F., Dickinson, M., Roberts, J., & Azam-Ali, S.  J. G. (2002). Genetic diversity in Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc) landraces revealed by AFLP markers. Genome, 45(6), 1175–1180. Mihalache-O’Keef, A., & Li, Q. J. I. S. Q. (2011). Modernization vs. dependency revisited: Effects of foreign direct investment on food security in less developed countries. International Studies Quarterly, 55(1), 71–93. Moyib, O., Gbadegesin, M., Aina, O., & Odunola, O. (2008). Genetic variation within a collection of Nigerian accessions of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) revealed by RAPD primers. African Journal of Biotechnology, 7(12), 1839. Murdock, G.  P. (1959). Africa its peoples and their cultural history. New  York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.. Ndidi, U.S., Ndidi, C.U., Olagunju, A., Muhammad, A., Billy, F.G., & Okpe, O. (2014). Proximate, antinutrients and mineral composition of raw and processed (boiled and roasted) Sphenostylis stenocarpa seeds from southern Kaduna, Northwest Nigeria. ISRN Nutrition 2014. Nnamani, C., Ajayi, S., Oselebe, H., Atkinson, C., Igboabuchi, A., & Ezigbo, E. (2017). Sphenostylis stenocarpa (ex. A. Rich.) harms., a fading genetic resource in a changing climate: Prerequisite for conservation and sustainability. Plants, 6(3), 30. Nnamani, C.V., Afiukwa, C.A., Oselebe, H.O., Igwe, D.O., Uhuo, C.A., Idika, K.O., Ezigbo, E., Oketa, C.N., Nwankwo, V.O., Ukwueze, C.K. & Nwaojiji, C.O. (2019). Genetic Diversity of some African Yam Bean Accessions in Ebonyi State Assessed using Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) markers. Journal of Underutilized Legumes, 1(1), 20–33 Ntundu, W.  H., Bach, I.  C., Christiansen, J.  L., & Andersen, S.  B. (2004). Analysis of genetic diversity in Bambara groundnut [Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc] landraces using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. African Journal of Biotechnology, 3(4), 220–225. Nwokolo, E. (1987). A nutritional assessment of African yam bean Sphenostylis stenocarpa (Hochst ex A. Rich) harms, and Bambara groundnut Voandzeia subterranea L. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 41(2), 123–129. Oagile, O., Davey, M. R., & Alderson, P. G. (2007). African yam bean: An under-utilized legume with potential as a tuber and pulse crop. Journal of Crop Improvement, 20(1–2), 53–71. Oagile, O., Mmolotsi, R., Segwagwe, A., & Babili, T. P. (2012). African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) Nodulates promiscuously with rhizobium indigenous to soils of Botswana. Journal of Plant Studies, 1(2), 109–113. https://doi.org/10.5539/jps.v1n2p109. Ofosu, I., Ellis, W., Nsiah, K., & Oduro, I. (2017). Neglected and underutilized legumes (NULs): Exposure assessment, habitual cooking and eating habits and consumers’ characteristics. Journal of Food Security, 5(5), 169–175. Ojinnaka, M., Okakpu, C., Ihemeje, A., & Onuobia, F. (2017). Nutrient composition and functional properties of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) flour and protein isolates. Nigeria Journal of Agriculture Food Environment, 13(4), 45–49. Ojuederie, O. B. (2016). Assessment of Genetic Diversity in African yam bean Sphenostylis stenocarpa (Hochst ex. A. Rich) harms. Ph.D. thesis University of Ibadan, Ibadan Nigeria. Ojuederie, O. B., & Balogun, M. O. (2017). Genetic variation in nutritional properties of African yam bean (Sphenostylis Stenocarpa Hochst Ex. A. Rich. Harms) accessions. Nigerian Journal of Agriculture, Food and Environment, 13(2), 180–187. Ojuederie, O. B., Balogun, M. O., Fawole, I., Igwe, D. O., & Olowolafe, M. O. (2014). Assessment of the genetic diversity of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa Hochst ex. A Rich. Harms) accessions using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. African Journal of Biotechnology, 13(18), 705. Ojuederie, O. B., Balogun, M. O., Akande, S. R., Korie, S., & Omodele, T. (2015). Intraspecific variability in agro-morphological traits of African yam bean Sphenostylis stenocarpa. Journal of Crop Science and Biotechnology, 18(2), 53–62. Ojuederie, O.B., & Balogun, M.O. (2019). African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) tubers for nutritional security. Journal of Underutilized Legumes, 1(1), 56–68.

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Okigbo, B. (1973). Introducing the yam bean: Sphenostylis stenocarpa (Hochst ex A. Rich) harms. Proceeding of the First IITA Grain, 2 November 1973, pp. 224–237. Onuoha, C.H., Harry, B.J. & Eze, S.O. (2017). Evaluation of nutrients and anti-nutritional factors of different species of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa). European Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 4(1), 2017. Oshodi, A., Ipinmoroti, K., Adeyeye, E., & Hall, G. (1995). Amino and fatty acids composition of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) flour. Food Chemistry, 53(1), 1–6. Padulosi, S., Hodgkin, T., Williams, J., & Haq, N. (2002). 30 Underutilized crops: Trends, challenges and opportunities in the 21st century. In Managing plant genetic diversity (p.  323). Wallingford: CAB International. Padulosi, S., Thompson, J., & Rudebjer, P. (2013). Fighting poverty, hunger and malnutrition with neglected and underutilized species: Needs, challenges and the way forward. Rome: Bioversity International. Pan, C., Ye, L., Qin, L., Liu, X., He, Y., Wang, J., et al. (2016). CRISPR/Cas9-mediated efficient and heritable targeted mutagenesis in tomato plants in the first and later generations. Scientific Reports, 6, 24765. Peláez-Vico, M.  A., Bernabéu-Roda, L., Kohlen, W., Soto, M.  J., & López-Ráez, J.  A. (2016). Strigolactones in the rhizobium-legume symbiosis: Stimulatory effect on bacterial surface motility and down-regulation of their levels in nodulated plants. Plant Science, 245, 119–127. Pérez-Escamilla, R. (2017). Food security and the 2015–2030 sustainable development goals: From human to planetary health: Perspectives and opinions. Current Developments in Nutrition, 1(7), e000513. Popoola, J. O., Adegbite, A., Obembe, O., Adewale, B., & Odu, B. (2011). Morphological intraspecific variabilities in African yam bean (AYB) (Sphenostylis stenocarpa ex. A. Rich) harms. Scientific Research and Essays, 6(3), 507–515. Potter, D. (1991). Systematic studies of Sphenostylis and Nesphostylis. Ph. D Dissertation: Cornell University. Potter, D., & Doyle, J.  J. (1992). Origins of the African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa, Leguminosae): Evidence from morphology, isozymes, chloroplast DNA, and linguistics. Economic Botany, 46(3), 276–292. Purseglove, J. (1976). The origins and migrations of crops in tropical Africa. In Origins of African plant domestication Paris: Mouton Publishers. (pp. 291–310). Santayana, M., Rossel, G., Núñez, J., Sørensen, M., Delêtre, M., Robles, R., Fernández, V., Grüneberg, W.  J., & Heider, B. (2014). Molecular characterization of cultivated species of the genus Pachyrhizus Rich. ex DC. by AFLP markers: Calling for more data. Tropical Plant Biology, 7(3–4), 121–132. Shan, Q., Wang, Y., Li, J., Zhang, Y., Chen, K., Liang, Z., et al. (2013). Targeted genome modification of crop plants using a CRISPR-Cas system. Nature Biotechnology, 31(8), 686. Shitta, N. S., Abberton, M. T., Adesoye, A. I., Adewale, D. B., & Oyatomi, O. (2015). Analysis of genetic diversity of African yam bean using SSR markers derived from cowpea. Plant Genetic Resources, 14(1), 50–56. Soda, N., Verma, L., & Giri, J. (2018). CRISPR-Cas9 based plant genome editing: Significance, opportunities and recent advances. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 131, 2–11. Soetan, K., & Oyewole, O. (2009). The need for adequate processing to reduce the anti-nutritional factors in plants used as human foods and animal feeds. A review. African Journal of Food Science, 3(9), 223–232. Sun, Y., Zhang, X., Wu, C., He, Y., Ma, Y., Hou, H., et al. (2016). Engineering herbicide-resistant rice plants through CRISPR/Cas9-mediated homologous recombination of acetolactate synthase. Molecular Plant, 9(4), 628–631. Tettey, A. (2014). Nodulation, nitrogen fixation and diversity of the African yam bean rhizobia in four Ghanaian soils. M.Sc. thesis, University of Ghana, Ghana.

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Uguru, M., & Madukaife, S. (2001). Studies on the variability in agronomic and nutritive characteristics of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa Hochst ex. A. Rich. Harms). Plant Products Research Journal, 6(1), 10–19. USDA. (2015). USDA ARS National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network–(GRIN). National Germplasm Resources Laboratory Beltsville, Maryland. Varshney, R. K., Nayak, S. N., May, G. D., & Jackson, S. A. (2009). Next-generation sequencing technologies and their implications for crop genetics and breeding. Trends in Biotechnology, 27(9), 522–530. WHO. (2007). Protein and amino acid requirements in human nutrition. Geneva: World Health Organization. Zhang, H., Zhang, J., Wei, P., Zhang, B., Gou, F., Feng, Z., et al. (2014). The CRISPR/C as9 system produces specific and homozygous targeted gene editing in rice in one generation. Plant Biotechnology Journal, 12(6), 797–807. Zhao, Y., Zhang, C., Liu, W., Gao, W., Liu, C., Song, G., et al. (2016). An alternative strategy for targeted gene replacement in plants using a dual-sgRNA/Cas9 design. Scientific Reports, 6, 23890.

Chapter 2

The Role of Indigenous Food Species in Achieving Food Security in South-­ Eastern Nigeria N. C. Onuegbu and J. C. Ibeabuchi

Abstract  Food Security entails the availability of sufficient, nutritious and affordable food at all times to the population. Every country and region always seek to attain the highest possible level of food security. However, this has been very difficult for many to attain. This situation has been linked to poverty, illiteracy, poor governmental policies, man-made and natural disasters etc. However, in south east Nigeria, the most predominant causes are the over dependence on few staples as well as the consumption of refined/modern starchy foods (polished rice, bread and other pastries, pasta, noodles etc.). The several forms of malnutrition (undernutrition, over-nutrition, micronutrient deficiency) still ravage the population, with a triple burden on the government and the economy. While most of the indigenous species are neglected and grossly under-utilized. Unfortunately, these neglected species have been shown by several authors to contain relevant nutrients and phytochemicals. They may hold the key toward achieving food security in the region. The nutritional composition of some species are reported and discussed. This paper reveals their important contributions to the diet and health of the population if given their rightful place in the diet. Keywords  Food security · Micronutrients · Underutilized · Indigenous species

2.1  Introduction Nigeria is one of the developing countries of West Africa that is plagued by the triple burden of malnutrition. On one hand is undernutrition which is characterized by inadequate food intake and seen as underweight, stunting or wasting, and on the other hand, is over nutrition where there is surplus nutrient (mainly the energy nutrients) intake which results in obesity and its associated diseases, and micronutrient N. C. Onuegbu (*) · J. C. Ibeabuchi Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 O. O. Babalola (ed.), Food Security and Safety, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50672-8_2

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N. C. Onuegbu and J. C. Ibeabuchi

deficiency (hidden hunger) where micronutrients required for normal optimal growth and body development is in short supply. This present state of malnutrition has been attributed to ignorance, poverty, poor governmental policies. There is high consumption of starchy staples (cassava, yam and maize products) that are low in other important nutrients, as well as reliance on over-processed and imported food products (pasteries, confectioneries, soft drinks etc), while most of our indigenous foods remain neglected and underutilize. This paper provides information on nutrient composition of some underutilized indigenous species that have played significant roles in ensuring food/nutrient security among indigenous peoples of south eastern Nigeria in the past.

2.2  Food Security Food security is a topic of high global concern. It is a state of having access to adequate food. A situation where all people at all times have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meet their dietary requirements for normal healthy living. Food security can be attained through local sourcing of cheap, nutritious, safe and convenient foods. Food security is indicated by the ability of individuals and households to secure enough food to meet their dietary needs. This implies that food must be timely, available, accessible, nutritious and utilized for both productive and healthy life. To attain food security, the government should make policies that favor the sustained production and utilization of indigenous foods. Utilization of the cheap local and indigenous raw materials to produce more efficient, convenient, shelf stable nutritious food is an important aspect of food security.

2.3  Food Insecurity Food insecurity or put in another way very low food security is a situation of being without reliable access to sufficient quality of affordable nutritious food for an active healthy life. It is an economic and social condition of limited access to nutritious foods. It is characterized by the following:

2.3.1  Poor Health Food insecurity is usually revealed by the poor health of the population or individuals concerned. Data reveals that 11.5%, 22.8% and 2.5% of children under 5 years of age in Nigeria are severely underweight, stunted and wasted respectively (NBS/ UNICEF 2017). Also 29.5% and 26% of the children suffer from vitamin A and iron

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23

deficiency respectively (Egesi and Ilona 2015). Malnutrition and food insecurity predispose an individual or a population to diseases. Alleviating food insecurity would automatically lead to better health outcomes.

2.3.2  Poor Child Development Poor academic performance especially among school children is related to poor feeding. Children from food insecure homes tend to be late and in extreme cases, they lack self-esteem and thus tend to be absent in school and are poor in their academic performance. Severe malnutrition at a very early stage in life, particularly the first 1000 days of life spanning from pregnancy to 2 years of age, produces individuals with very poor intelligence and most times cannot cope with school work due to poor brain development.

2.3.3  Social Function Food insecure families tend to have difficulty getting along with others as a result of financial constraint. Aggression is also an outcome of food insecurity, note the saying “A hungry man is an angry man”.

2.3.4  Productivity The performance at work is usually reduced when there is poor feeding or food insecurity. Such individuals are unable to engage in energy intensive manual work or the brain tasking mental work, thus leading to very poor productivity.

2.3.5  High Mortality Insufficient or inadequate intake of food leads to malnutrition which in turn increases the rate of child and adult mortality. Limited or uncertain availability or inability to acquire nutritionally adequate, safe and acceptable foods may lead to anxiety and suicide attempts.

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N. C. Onuegbu and J. C. Ibeabuchi

2.4  Causes of Food Insecurity Some common causes in South Eastern Nigeria are discussed below:

2.4.1  Poor Agricultural Production Agriculture is still at subsistence level in most developing countries like Nigeria. This is due to lack or high cost of farm inputs (fertilizer, equipment, pesticides etc). Local farmers who depend on farming for livelihood cannot produce enough food for their families and extra to earn a living.

2.4.2  Poverty Majority of people in developing countries live below the poverty line. Consequently, they resort to cheap low-quality foods that supply minimal nutrients (Okaka 2010). These groups may spend 70–80% of their annual income on food.

2.4.3  Ignorance Ignorance of the right type of foods to eat may lead to poor nutrition. Neglect of most indigenous species deprives families of relevant nutrients and phytochemicals contained in them. Ignorance also leads to overdependence and consumption of a few starchy staple foods. Ignorance is responsible for the poor eating habits among poor, medium and even high-income earners.

2.4.4  Poor Infrastructure Bad roads especially in the rural areas affect transportation of foods from the areas of plenty to the urban markets. In Nigeria for instance farm produce are poorly distributed such that those in the riverine areas eat mostly sea foods while those tuber producing areas eat mainly the tubers. The government should provide adequate infrastructure to ensure efficient communication and distribution systems by so doing there will be food for all.

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25

2.4.5  Postharvest Losses Wastage of fresh food produce is due to poor food preservation techniques after harvest. Fresh foods if processed into shelf stable products will make them available all year round thereby improving the food security of the country. Excess food harvest like beans, cassava should be processed into flour while fruits like pineapple, pawpaw, orange etc. should be processed into fruit juices, jams marmalade and wines (Nwokoma 2003). Post-harvest wastages and losses occur both in the field and after harvest as a result of poor storage facilities. All these causes of food insecurity including, illiteracy, unemployment, all hinge on financial instability and low political will from the government to tackle the problems. Money is required to procure farm, inputs, equipment, farmland; transportation of farm produce etc. This can be achieved through issuing of soft loans and making policies that are nutrition sensitive and encourage food security.

2.5  Indigenous Food System in South Eastern Nigeria The food system in any region comprises the food plants and animals, farming methods/practices, harvesting, handling, preservation and processing methods as well as consumption methods for them. Indigenous food plants are the crops that are cultivated and harvested on farms or gathered from the wild for food. All of them have nutritional, economic as well as cultural importance. These include the starchy roots and tubers, grains and legumes, fruits and vegetables, palm oil, spices/ herbs and products from them. The indigenous cultivated plant species include those that may have grown naturally in the wild and were domesticated in the region and those food plants which have been imported from other cultures/regions. They have gained acceptance and predominance over time in the diet of the indigenous peoples in the region due to several reasons. These crops have become adapted to the environment, marginal soils, adverse climatic conditions and may have some pest resistant abilities. They usually require fewer farming inputs (labour, irrigation, fertilizers etc). The indigenous peoples of south eastern Nigeria have developed practices which are suitable for their cultivation, preservation/processing and utilization. The major staples such as cassava, yam maize, some local vegetables belong to this group. They provide the much-needed energy, proteins and some micronutrient, provide employment and generate income for the farming communities since they serve as both food and cash crops. On the other hand, the wild food plants grow naturally in the bush. They usually spring up on their own and survive even when untended in the midst of the wild, while the semi wild food plant although uncultivated are usually protected if found near homesteads. These food plants make important contributions to the diet due to their micronutrient content as well as a vast array of phytonutrients. Most of the wild vegetables serve as medicinal foods and are used as condiments and spices in

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N. C. Onuegbu and J. C. Ibeabuchi

traditional cuisines. Some of the wild fruits/nuts are only accidentally encountered and consumed mostly by women and children during their various adventures in the bush. However, during pre-harvest seasons or during famine, these crops become extremely important for the survival of individuals in the population. At such times, they are actually hunted and harvested. The wild and semi-wild food resources make important contributions to the diet of the indigenous people of south eastern Nigeria in many ways. They require less time and energy to manage and have well adapted to the environmental conditions of the region. They are used in local delicacies and ceremonial dishes and so are a major part of the culture of the people. Also, the wild and semi-wild food plants provide the diversity needed in the diet which otherwise would be monotonous considering that only very few staples are cultivated in the region. It is important for one to consume plant foods from up to 30 biologically distinct groups, in order to meet his/her nutrient needs (WHO/ FAO 2003). However, the food culture in south eastern Nigeria has a lot of impact on food choices and the nutrition of the population. In this region, the roots and tubers are most preferred, followed by the grains and then the legumes. The leafy vegetables are used in preparation of soups which serve as accompaniments for consumption of the root, tuber and grain dishes. Fruits are the most devalued in the food system. They are rarely cultivated but only spring up around homestead where they are protected as semi wild. In such cases, they are usually considered purely cash crops, mostly harvested and sold out only to buy the more appreciated starch staple (roots, tubers, grains) and the highly refined/processed food products. A greater proportion of them remain underutilized and lesser known in the wild. They are generally regarded as only good for children who accidentally stumble on them in their various adventures in the wild. Yet fruits remain the main sources of vitamins and minerals. This results to a high level of micronutrient deficiency among the population.

2.6  Root and Tubers Among the roots and tubers that grow well in South Eastern Nigeria are cassava, yam, cocoyam, and potato. These staples are consumed for their high energy value mainly in the form of carbohydrate, with values ranging from 70% to 85% on a dry weight basis (NIFOODS 2017). They are not depended upon for other nutrients and are therefore consumed in combination with protein and vegetable-rich sauces/soups.

2.6.1  Cassava Cassava is the most commonly consumed starchy staple crop in the region. About 54 million tonnes of cassava are produced annually and more than 90% of that is used as food which are normally processed using the local methods (Maziya-Dixon

2  The Role of Indigenous Food Species in Achieving Food Security in South-Eastern… Cassava roots

Cassava roots

Draining

Peeling

Washing

Washing

Washing

Soaking

Cassava roots

Peeling

Peeling

27

Boiling 10-15min (3-4 days fermentation)

Grating ←

Fibrous Material

Sieving Cooking

Fufu

Draining Pressing Sieving Toasting

Addition of

Slicing/shredding

(Optional)

1-2 days

←fermentation use of hydraulic press

Fibrous Material

Overnight soaking Washing several times Drying

Abacha

Garri

Fig. 2.1  Flow diagrams for Cassava processing into Fufu, Garri and abacha

et al. 2004.) Common species include the bitter cassava (Mainhot utilissima) and sweet cassava (Manihot palmate). Cassava roots contains cyanogenic glucoside which releases hydrocyanic acid (HCN), known to be poisonous especially at high concentration. The roots therefore need to undergo rigorous processing in order to obtain a toxin-free final food product. As a result, fresh cassava roots must be processed by one or more of the following: soaking, boiling, drying, fermentation, toasting, to reduce the concentration of the glucoside HCN to safe limits. The flow diagrams of the main traditional methods of cassava processing into different products are shown in Fig. 2.1.

2.6.2  Yam The second most common staple food in South eastern Nigeria is the yam. Yam has a lot of cultural significance among the Ibo-speaking people of South eastern Nigeria. It is regarded as the king of crops and is cultivated by men with a lot of prestige attached to it. Most planting and harvesting ceremonies are attached to yam. There are many yam species in the region. The most popular one is the white yam (Dioscorea rotundata) which are usually boiled, fried or roasted prior to consumption. Other species are the water yam (Dioscorea alata), three leaved yams (Dioscorea dumetorum), yellow yam (Dioscorea cayenensis), etc. which are neglected and underutilized. Utilizing these species in the diet will improve the diversity of the diet and will aid in achieving food security.

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2.6.3  Cocoyam Cocoyam is another staple food in the South Eastern part of Nigeria suffering serious neglect. There are many species of cocoyam but the most common are Colocasia esculenta and Xanthosoma sigitifolium species. The tubers of cocoyam (corns and cornels) are usually boiled or roasted and eaten with fresh palm oil, pepper and salt. A delicacy in Cross River State known as ‘Ekpan Kwukwo’ is prepared by steaming grated cocoyam wrapped with its tender leaves after mixing with fish, fresh palm oil, pepper and salt. Cocoyam is used as soup thickener especially for “onugbu” soup, a delicacy in Anambra state of Nigeria. Irritating/itching effect of some cocoyam species (due to oxalate), discourage some families from eating cocoyam. The oxalate content is usually reduced by prolonged cooking. The interesting thing about cocoyam is that the leaves especially the taro specie (Colocasia esculenta) are edible. They contain 5% protein, pro-vitamin A (483 μg/100 g), vitamins B, C, E, and minerals (Pamplona-Roger 2008).

2.7  Grains Legumes and cereals are classified as grains. The most popular indigenous cereal in south eastern Nigeria is the maize grain. With 8 million tonnes of maize produced each year, Nigeria ranks as the highest maize producer in Africa (http://iita.org/ maize accessed Nov 10, 2015). It is eaten after boiling, roasting or as porridge. Ogi/ Akamu is a popular fermented gruel produced from maize through a process that involves soaking, milling, sieving and cooking. It is used a complementary food for babies or as breakfast cereal for adults. The proximate composition of maize is shown on Table 2.1 while the amino acid profile and micronutrient profile are shown on Tables 2.2 and 2.3 Among the popular indigenous legumes consumed as porridge are pigeon pea, Bambara groundnuts, African yam bean. African breadfruit (Treculia africana) is a tree legume that is very popular among the indigenous peoples of South eastern Nigeria. African breadfruit is highly nutritious and the fresh seeds contain 38.3% Table 2.1  Proximate composition of maize Ether Maize Dry Organic Crude extract samples matter matter protein (fat) 1 90.10 90.53 9.65 3.98

NFE (Starch Crude fiber Ash + sugars 1.99 9.47 73.46

Gross Energy (Kcal/ kg) ND

2 3

2.10 1.4

ND 4140

91.80 ND

ND ND

8.8 9.8

4.1 5.2

1.0 1.3

75.80 73.10

References Abubakar et al. (2006) Olomu (1995) Subramanian and Metta (2000)

852

Source: PRC (1981)

Maize

13.5

4.3

3.8

Food species Nitrogen Arginine Cystine Glycine

Table 2.2  Amino acid profile of maize(mg/g)

3.3

Histidine

2.6

Isoleucine

3.0

11.1

Leucine Lysine

2.5

2.3

Phenyl Methionine alanine

4.5

Serine

4.3

0.4

3.9

4.3

Threo Trypto nine phan Tyrosine Valine

2  The Role of Indigenous Food Species in Achieving Food Security in South-Eastern… 29

Food species Maize

Vitamin E (i.u/kg) 5.0

Thiamine (mg/kg) 22

Table 2.3  Vitamin profile of maize

Riboflavin (mg/kg) 3.5

Nicotinic acid (mg/kg) 1.0

Pantothenic acid (mg/kg) 24

Vitamin B6 (mg/kg) 4

Vitamin B12 (mg/kg) 7.0

Choline (mg/kg) 620

References Bolton and Blair (1977)

30 N. C. Onuegbu and J. C. Ibeabuchi

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31

Table 2.4  Proximate composition of some legumes Crude Moisture protein (%) Legumes (%) 21.68 African Yam bean 12.05 (Sphenostylis stenocarpa 10.17 21.46 Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) Bambara groundnut (Voandzeia subterranean) Achi (Brachystegia eurycoma) African Oil Bean (Pentaclethra macrophylla

Crude Crude fiber fat (%) (%) 2.10 1.2

Ash Carbohydrate (%) (%) References 3.56 44.18 Nwosu et al. (2011)

0.69

9.0

4.30 63.38

Ene-Obong and Carnovale (1992) Chinma et al. (2011) NIFOODS (2017)

11.2

22.08

1.94

8.05

3.79 54.66

7.9

20.00

6.5

3.7

3.1

58.30

12.5

9.10

15.00

2.9

4.5

56.60

NIFOODS (2017)

7.5

14.98

48.92

1.97

2.75 28.34

NIFOODS (2017)

Source: NIFOODS (2017)

carbohydrate, 17.7% crude protein and 15.9% fat (Nuga and Ofodile 2010), and several micronutrients (Edet et  al. 1985). Others whose flours are used as soup thickeners include (‘ukpo’ (Mucuna slonei), ‘achi’ (Brachystegia eurycoma), etc) and fermented condiments (African oil bean seeds) used in the preparation of local dishes. Their proximate compositions and micronutrient contents are shown on Tables 2.4 and 2.5. The legumes are popular for their supply of protein. Most populations in developing countries depend on legumes for their protein because meat, milk and other animal products high in protein are generally too costly for them.

2.8  Fruits and Vegetables Many fruits and vegetables are indigenous in the region but a lot are still neglected. They are known for their supply of micronutrients and phytochemicals in the diet. Vegetables are usually cultivated in the garden for home use. For some of them almost all the botanical parts of the plants such as leaves, stem/stalk, flower, roots, etc. can be eaten. They are mostly used in soup/sauce preparation which serve as accompaniment to staple dishes of cassava, yam, maize. Others serve as spices/ condiments in local dishes. The proximate and micronutrient composition of some indigenous leafy vegetables and fruits are shown on Tables 2.6 and 2.7. Few fruits are grown in homesteads while others are only available in the wild. The fruits do

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Table 2.5  Mineral content of some indigenous legumes Legumes African Yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa

K Na 1477.33 2.74

Lima bean 1724 (Phaseolus lunatus Pigeon pea 2111.5 (Cajanus cajan) 13.70 Bambara groundnut (Voandzeia subterranean) Achi (Brachystegia 0.17 eurycoma)

18/00

Mg

81

22.4

P Fe Zn Mn Cu References 27.8 4.64 2.63 ND ND Ene-Obong and Carnovale (1992) 385 7.51 2.83 1.67 0.74 NIFOODS (2017) 358 4.69 3.09 1.74 1.06 NIFOODS (2017) 309 3.30 0.8 ND 0.2 NIFOODS (2017)

13.92 143.5 18.3 8.00

0.05

12.72 18.5

African Oil Bean(Pentaclethra macrophylla

Ca 46

50

58

0.8

0.21

0.33 ND ND ND ND Akinyele and Shokunbi (2015) 31.43 29.21 35.19 5.63 0.98 ND ND NIFOODS (2017)

ND not determined Table 2.6  Proximate composition indigenous leafy vegetables in South Eastern Nigeria

Leafy Vegetables Akwukwo ofe Eggplant leaf (Solanum melongna) Ngbolodi Indian spinach (Basella alba) Okorobom English spinach (Solanecia biafrae) Akuekpe Chaya leaves (Cnidoscolus aconifolius) Ocimum grattisimum nchanwu Piper Guineense uziz Gnetum Africana ukazi Vernonia amygdalina Olugbu

Crude Moisture protein (%) (%) 90.01 4.38

Crude Crude fiber fat (%) (%) 0.51 1.02

Ash (%) 2

83.25

3.75

0.48

5.71

2.31

3.3

80.33

4.23

0.76

6.57

3.86

4.27

81.76

4.33

0.53

5.34

3.47

4.59

Uzoije and Asumugha (2013)

31.5

4.7

ND

10.8

ND

3.2

Mensah et al. (2008)

76

3.8

ND

4.6

ND

4.2

73

15.2

ND

2.5

ND

37.4

21.6

14.6

ND

9.7

ND

47.9

Mensah et al. (2008) Mensah et al. (2008) Mensah et al. (2008)

Carbohydrate (%) References 2.06 Bamigboye et al. (2013)

Uzoije and Asumugha (2013) Uzoije and Asumugha (2013)

Okorobom English spinach (Solanecia biafrae Akuekpe Chaya leaves (Cnidoscolus aconifolius) Ocimum grattisimum nchanwu Piper guineense (uziza) Gnetum Africana (ukazi) Vernonia amygdalina (Olugbu)

Leafy vegetables Akwukwo ofe Eggplant leaf Ngbolodi Indian spinach (Basella alba)

3.92 0.08 3.75

0.07 2.1 1.5 4.13 0.05 2.25

1.01 3.3 0.45

ND ND ND

0.08 ND ND ND ND 0.01 ND ND ND ND 0.02 ND ND ND ND

14.5 11.3 345

Mensah et al. (2008) Mensah et al. (2008) Mensah et al. (2008)

Vit A K Na Ca Mg P Fe Zn Cu I (μg/100g) Vit C References 633 304 420.9 115 198 1.61 2.28 1.45 ND ND ND Bamigboye et al. (2013) 135.56 ND 124.86 19.61 128.73 2.66 2.64 2.75 3.24 117800 38.64 Uzoije and Asumugha (2013) 228.86 ND 118.71 24.81 132.81 2.84 1.85 3.84 5.96 24850 45.23 Uzoije and Asumugha (2013) 117.27 ND 93.43 16.29 92.88 1.64 1.35 1.22 2.75 28730 30.92 Uzoije and Asumugha (2013) 2.34 0.75 1.22 0.43 ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND 18.3 Mensah et al. (2008)

Table 2.7  Micronutrient composition indigenous leafy vegetables in South Eastern Nigeria(mg/100 g)

2  The Role of Indigenous Food Species in Achieving Food Security in South-Eastern… 33

34

N. C. Onuegbu and J. C. Ibeabuchi

not occupy a prominent place in the diet. They are consumed casually when available mostly by children who are attracted by their sweet taste. However, there is no conscious effort to include fruits regularly in the local diet. Most indigenes harvest the fruits in their homestead, or from the wild just to sell them in order to buy the starchy staples. The proximate composition of some of the lesser known/underutilized fruits are shown on Table 2.8, while the micronutrient and phytochemical contents are shown on Tables 2.9 and 2.10a, 2.10b respectively. Table 2.8  Proximate composition of some fruits

Fruits Garden Egg (Solanum melongna) fruit Plantain (Unripe) Musa paradisiaca Plantain (ripe) Musa paradisiaca African walnut Tetracarpidium conophorum Eaw Ukpa African walnut Tetracarpidium conophorum boiled Black plum uchakoro Vitex doniana Wonder cola uke Buchholzia coriacea Ubemgba Canarium Utuohia Landolphia sp Monkey cola Cola lepidota Ochicha Ube Dacryodes edulis Udi Coula edulis

Crude Moisture Protein (%) (%) 86.66 1.57

Crude Crude fiber fat (%) (%) 0.15 0.87

49.6

1.4

0.3

1.2

0.9

64

2.28

0.78

0.3

1.16 32.2

2

23.01

52.1

1

2

19.33

31

28

20.1

2

2

15.9

16.66

8.24

34.62

0.58

11.5 28.4

1.34

13.28

2.5

1.7

5.53 77.18

Amaechi (2009)

16.77

6.39

64.04

16.37

9.37 2.85

82

0.7

0.5

7

0.5

9.6

81.7

1

0.2

0.2

1.6

15

Nyam et al. (2014) Nyam et al. (2014) Ene-Obong et al. (2016)

13.79

8.26

32.58

9.17

3.15 32.19

14.61

4.6

24.37

4.72

6.09 45.67

Ash Carbohydrate (%) (%) References 1.42 6.4 Bamigboye et al. (2013) 45.88

Adekalu et al. (2011) Adekalu et al. (2011) Amata (2010)

Adekunle and Oyerinde (2004) Olayiwola et al. (2013)

Onuegbu and Ihediohanma (2008) Onuegbu and Samson (2015)

Fruits Garden Egg (Solanum melongna) fruit Plantain (Unripe) Musa paradisiaca Plantain (ripe) Musa paradisiaca Udara Chrysophyllum albidum (dry wt) Spondias mombin yellow plum Irvingia gabonensis Bush mango Cola millenii Monkey kola Ochicha Ukpa African walnut Tetracarpidium conophorum Boiled Black plum uchakoro Vitex doniana Wonder cola uke Buchholzia coriacea Ubemgba Canarium schweinfurhii Utuohia Landolphia sp Monkey cola Cola lepidota Ochicha Ube Dacryodes edulis Udi Coula edulis 52

ND

10.4 18.1 0.12 170 0.05 1.14 207 6 209 61 39 1.18 375.7 0.22 409.7 512.1 130.4

651

688 15 1580 0.21 14.6 24 0.51 130.4

ND

34 ND ND

16.5 0.81 1.74

416 0.8 ND 0.2 0.45 3.32 ND ND

4

Fe 2.14 2.5 13.8 2.17

Zn 3.49 ND ND 3.17

Mn 3.29 ND ND 45.3

ND ND ND ND 0.23 0.85 1.39

ND

ND ND ND ND ND 8.97 1.44

ND

ND ND ND ND 0.3 6.4 0.7

ND ND ND ND 30000 ND ND

ND ND

0 0.01 0.01

P 168 10.14 13.39 73.8

1054.1 1297 156.2 2108.1 193.5 14.5 1.08 1.08 0.5 1113.5 12.28 118 103.5 56.7 1.92 54.9 54.9 0 1103.5 11.22 87.17 68.1 42.53 0.85 40.5 40.5 0

Mg 93 7.9 11.85 75.23

Se ND ND ND 0.01

Ca 433.9 17.16 23.55 75.27

Cu 1.7 ND ND 0

K Na 698 373 9.38 5.25 12.07 6.59 1120.6 12.3

Table 2.9  Micronutrient Composition of indigenous fruits in South eastern Nigeria (mg/100 g)

Olayiwola et al. (2013) Amaechi (2009) Nyam et al. (2014) Nyam et al. (2014) Ene-Obong et al. (2016) Onuegbu et al. (2011) Onuegbu and Samson (2015)

Adekunle and Oyerinde (2004)

Olayiwola et. al. (2013) Olayiwola et. al. (2013) Olayiwola et. al. (2013)

References Bamigboye et al. (2013) Adekalu et al. (2011) Adekalu et al. (2011) Olayiwola et. al. (2013)

2  The Role of Indigenous Food Species in Achieving Food Security in South-Eastern… 35

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N. C. Onuegbu and J. C. Ibeabuchi

Table 2.10a  Vitamin and phytonutrient content some fruits (mg/100 g) Fruits Plantain (Unripe) Musa paradisiaca Plantain (ripe) Musa paradisiaca Udara Chrysophyllum albidum (dry wt) Spondias mombin yellow plum Irvingia gabonensis bush mango Cola millenii monkey kola Ochicha

Vitamin C 48.27 67.24 15.87 204.86 76.07 73.39

Carotenoids Phenholics Anthocyanhinhs References ND ND ND Adekalu et al. (2011) ND ND ND Adekalu et al. (2011) 1380.17 398.23 52.25 Olayiwola et al. (2013) 381.19 367.36 57.42 Olayiwola et al. (2013) 1267.60 382.30 27.78 Olayiwola et al. (2013) 172.77 121.39 48.73 Olayiwola et al. (2013)

2.9  Palm Oil This is the only cooking oil used for all traditional food preparation in South eastern Nigeria. Apart from its energy content (3679.65KJ/100 g), it is very beneficial for its carotenoid content (68,680 μ/100 g). This is important for prevention of vitamin A deficiency in the region (Oguntona and Akinyele 1995).

2.10  Miscellaneous Food Sources The group classified here as miscellaneous are the unconventional food sources, such as mushrooms and insects. These foods future occasionally in the diet during the seasons in which they are available. There are different species of mushroom commonly available such as Agaricus species, Pleurotus species etc. They are picked by women and children from the wild and are used in garnishing of soups where their peculiar flavors are highly appreciated. The nutritional composition of Pleurotus ostreatus is shown on Table 2.11 (Onuegbu et al. 2017). Insects are also consumed in most rural communities. They include the termites, grasshoppers, larvae of rhinoceros’ beetle and moths, etc. These food sources make important contribution to the protein intake of many rural dwellers. They are also important for their micronutrient and phytonutrient content (Table 2.11 and 2.12).

Fruits Black plum uchakoro Vitex doniana Wonder cola uke Buchholzia coriacea Ubemgba Canarium schweinfurhii Utuohia Landolphia sp Monkey cola Cola lepidota Ochicha Ube Dacryodes edulis Udi Coula edulis ND 0.35

15,000

75

2.5

10.6

154.84 ND

ND

ND

0.32

ND

ND

0.05

ND

ND

ND

6.58

ND

17.11 ND

0.43 1.32

ND

0.03 0.04

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

428.6

ND

ND

ND

0.28

ND

ND

ND

162

3.18

0.72

ND

27

ND

240

0.11

0.22

ND

ND

ND

26

1.06

0.18

ND

89.2

ND

ND

4.03

1.07

ND

70.25

ND

ND

ND

Onuegbu et al. (2011) Onuegbu and Samson (2015)

Nyam et al (2014) Ene-Obong et al. (2016)

Nyam et al (2014)

Amaechi (2009)

Vit Total B6 Phenol Flavanoid Phytates Tannins Oxalate Saponins Alkaloids References 20.45 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND

0.17 0.82

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

Vit Vit Carotenoids(μg/100) B1 B2 270 18.33 48

Vit C 35.58

Table 2.10b  Vitamin and phytonutrient content of fruits

2  The Role of Indigenous Food Species in Achieving Food Security in South-Eastern… 37

Crude protein (%) 0.143

ND

21.1

Moisture content (%) 93.38

60.56

45

ND Not determined a Onuegbu et al. (2017) b NIFOODS (2017) c Adepoju and Omotayo (2014)

Food species Pleurotus oestrotusa Rhinoceros beetle larvab Winged Termitec

26.9

0.3

23.2

6.4

1.2

0.3

0.87

ND

Crude fiber Carbohydrate Ash Vit B1 (%) (%) (%) mg/100 g 0.041 0.20 0.029 0.29

14.87 0.2

Crude fat (%) 0.017

0.32

ND

Vit B2 mg/ 100 g 0.27

Table 2.11  Nutritional Composition of Pleurotus oestrotus and some insect species

1.59

ND

Vit B3 mg/ 100 g 0.46

1.09

ND

Vit B5 mg/ 100 g 0.013

ND

ND

Vit D mg/ 100 g 0.236

ND

ND

Saponins mg/ 100 g 0.019

ND

ND

Oxalate mg/ 100 g 0.21

ND

ND

Tannins mg/ 100 g 0.123

ND

ND

0.012

Phytates mg/ 100 g

38 N. C. Onuegbu and J. C. Ibeabuchi

2  The Role of Indigenous Food Species in Achieving Food Security in South-Eastern…

39

Table 2.12  Mineral composition of some insect species (mg/100 g) Food species Ca Fe Mg P K Na Zn Cu Mn 71.06 49.48 262.96 ND 62.71 1640.49 9.33 1.13 5.21 Rhinoceros beetle larva (Oryctea rhinoceros) 0.85 10.7 146.30 75.1 19.80 1.80 1.9 0.96 Winged termite 26.9 (Macrotermes belicosus)

References NIFOODS (2017)

Adepoju and Omotayo (2014)

2.11  Conclusion For one to satisfy his overall nutrient needs from his diet, the person’s diet must cover several biologically distinct types of foods (biodiversity), with emphasis on plant foods. This seems to be an impossible task considering the restrictions on the food sources for the daily diet in the modern-day South-eastern Nigeria. The application of dietary diversity (covering a wide range of indigenous species) to improve nutrient supply seems to be the only way to reach this target. Biodiversity is important for improved nutrition and it involves inter-species and intra-species biodiversity. Inter-specie biodiversity means eating many different foods which is called a diverse diet in nutrition, while intra-species biodiversity means adding a new dimension below the species level such as varieties, cultivar and breeds. Achieving this involves the consumption of the indigenous food crops including the wild, neglected and underutilized species. This is the cheapest, most sustainable way to achieve food/nutrient security among the population in South Eastern Nigeria. Also, agricultural policies should be nutrition sensitive in order to encourage the cultivation, processing and importation of foods that provide the nutrients that are lacking among the populace and not just food production. This will make it possible for farmers to domesticate these wild food plants, mushrooms and insects that have played important roles in the diet and culture of the indigenous people of South eastern Nigeria. Through this, food diversity and food security will be ensured.

References Abubakar, M., Doma, U. D., Kalla, D. J. U., Ngele, M. B., & Augustine, C. L. D. (2006). Effects of dietary replacement of maize with malted and unmalted sorghum on performance of weaner rabbits. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 18(5). Article #65. Retrieved November 28, 2006, from http://www.cipav.org.co/lrrd18/5/abub18065.htm Adekalu, J. B., Ojuawo, R. O., & Adekalu, O. A. (2011). Proximate and elemental Analyzes of Banana (Musa paradiasaca) during the ripening process. Nigerian Food Journal, 29(1), 29–35. Adekunle, V. A. J. & Oyerinde, O. V. (2004). Food Potentials of some Indigenous wild fruits in lowlnd rainforest ecosystem of South west Nigeria. Journal of Food Technology 2(3), 125–130.

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Adepoju, O.  T., & Omotayo, O.  A. (2014). Nutrient composition and potential contribution of winged termite (Macrotermes belicosus Smeathman) to micronutrient intake of consumers in Nigeria. British Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 4(7), 1149–1158. Akinyele, I. O., & Shokunbi, O. S. (2015). Concentration of Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Cr, Cd, Pb, Ni in selected Nigerian tubers, legumes and cereals and estimates of the adult daily intake. Food Chemistry, 173, 702–708. Amaechi, N. C. (2009). Nutritive and anti-nutritive evaluation evaluation of wonder kola (Bucchozia coricea) seeds. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 8(8), 1120–1122. Amata, I. A. (2010). Nutritive value of leaves of Myriathus arboreus: A browse plant. International Journal of Agricultural Research 3(8), 576–581. Bamigboye, Y. A., Adigun, M. O., & Komolafe, A. A. (2013). Nutrient and Antinutrient composition of eggplant leaf and fruit (Solanum melongna). Nigerian Journal of Nutritional Sciences, 34(1), 23–25. Bolton, W., & Blair, R. (1977). Poultry Nutrition. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Bulletin 174 (London, H.M.S.O.) Chinma, C. E., James, S., Imam, H., Ocheme, O. B., Anuonye, J. C., & Yakubu, C. M. (2011). Physiochemical and sensory propertiesand in-vitro digestibilityof biscuits made from blends of tigernut (Cyperus esculentus) and pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan). Nigerian Journal of Nutritional Sciences., 32(1), 55–62. Edet, E. E., Eka, O. U., & Ifon, E. T. (1985). Chemical evaluation of the nutritive value of seeds of African breadfruit (Treculia africana). Food Chemistry, 17(1), 41–47. Egesi, C., & Ilona, P.. (2015). Biofortification: Towards bridging agriculture and nutritional divide in Nigeria. Paper presented at the 39th national conference and AGM of the Nigeria Institute of Food Science and Technology, held at Concorde Hotel Owerri. October 13th to 16th, 2015. Ene-Obong, H. N., & Carnovale, E. (1992). A comparison of the proximate, mineral and amino acid composition of some known and lesser-known legumes in Nigeria. Food Chemistry, 43, 169–175. Ene-Obong, H. N., Onuoha, N. O., Aburime, I. C., & Mba, O. (2016). Nutritent composition, Phytochemical and antioxidant activities of some indigenous species consumed in Southern Nigeria. Paper at the 11th IFDC, Hyderabad, India. Pamplona-Roger, G.  D. (2008) Vegetables. In Encyclopeadia of foods and their healing power. Talleres Grphics Penalara, Madrid, Spain 8, 92–112. http://iita.org/maize. Accessed 10 Nov 2015. Maziya-Dixon, B., Akinyele, I. O., Oguntona, E. B., Nakore, S., Sanusi, R. A., & Harri, E. (2004). Nigeria food composition and nutrition survey 2001–2003 summary report. IITA Ibadan. Mensah, J. K., Okoli, R. I., Ohaju-Obodo, J. O., & Eifediyi, K. (2008). Phytochemical, nutritional and medicinal properties of some leafy vegetables consumed by Edo people of Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology, 7(14), 2304–2309. National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). 2017. Multiple indicator cluster survey 2016–17, survey findings report. Abuja, Nigeria: National Bureau of Statistics and United Nations Children’s Fund. NIFOODS (2017). Nigeria Food Composition Table. Ibaban, Nigeria. Straight Gate publ. pp 1–39. Nuga, O. O., & Ofodile, E. A. U. (2010). Potentials of Treculia africana Decne - an endangered species of Southern Nigeria. Journal of Agriculture and Social Research, 10(2), 91. Nwokoma S. (2003). NigeriaStaple foods (pp. 1–75). Springfeild Publishers. Nwosu, J. N., Ahaotu, I., Ayozie, C., Udeozor, L. O., & Ahaotu, N. N. (2011). The proximate and functional properties of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) seeds as affected by processing. Nigeria Food Journal, 29(2), 39–48. Nyam, M. A., Makut, M. D., Itelima, J. U., & Daniel, A. M. (2014). Nutritional Potential of the fruits of Black Olive (Canarium schweinfurthii Linn) from Plateau State, Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 13(6), 335–339.

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Oguntona, M. O., & Akinyele, I. O. (Eds.). (1995). Nutrient composition of commonly eaten foods in Nigeria-raw, processed and prepared. Ibadan, Nigeria: Food basket Foundation publication series 131 p. Okaka, J.  C. (2010). Food strategies, food securities in foods: Composition, spoilage, shelflife extension (2nd ed., pp. 302–318). Enugu: Academic publishers. Olayiwola, I. O., Akinfenwa, V. O., Oguntona, C. O., Sanni, S. A., Onabanjo, O. O., & Afolabi, W. A. O. (2013). Phytonutrient, antioxidant and mineral composition of some wild fruits in South West Nigeria. Nigerian Food Journal, 31(2), 33–40. Olomu, J.  M. (1995). Monogastric animal nutrition  – Principles and practice (pp.  112–118). Benin City: A Jachem Publication. Onuegbu, N. C., & Ihediohanma, N. C. (2008). Some proximate analysis of African pear (Dacryodes edulis). Journal of Applied Science and Environmental Management., 12(1), 83–85. Onuegbu, N. C., & Samson, C. A. (2015). Physical and nutritional characteristics of African walnut (Coula edulis) and its performance in biscuit manufacture. Paper presented at the 11th International Food Data Conference, held at National Institute of Nutrition Hyderabad India on November 3rd to 5th, 2015. Onuegbu, N.  C., Adedokun, I.  I., Kabuo, N.  O., & Nwosu, J.  N. (2011). Amino acid profile and micronutrient composition of African pear (Dacrodes edulis) pulp. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition., 10(6), 555–557. Onuegbu, N.C., Okafor, D.C, Peter-Ikechukwu, Ann, ; Ijioma, B. C, ; Ibeabuchi, J.C; Njideka N.E Alagbaoso, S.O; Eluchie, C.N and Dike A.K. (2017): Production of mushroom based food condiment and nutritional and anti-nutritional properties of pleurotus ostreatus Nature and Science; 15(6):110–117. http://www.sciencepub.net/nature PRC. (1981). Analytical data of poultry feedstuff I. General and amino acid analysis (1977–1980). Occasional Publication No. 1. Poultry Research Center, Roslin. Midlothian. Subramanian, V., & Metta, V.  C. (2000). Sorghum grain for poultry feed. In A.  Chandrasher, R. Bandyopadhayi, & A. J. Hall (Eds.), Technical and institution options for sorghum grain mold management. Proceeding of the International Consultation. International Crop Research for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). Patacheru 502–504, Andhra Pradesh, India (pp. 242–247). Uzoije, I. O., & Asumugha, V. U. (2013). Nutrient composition of three lesser known green leafy vegetables. Nigerian Journal of Nutritional Sciences, 34(1), 23–25. WHO/FAO (World Health Organization/Food and Agriculture Organization). (2003). Diet. Nutrition and the prevention of of chronic diseases. Report of the joint WHO/FAO expert consulatation, Geneva, 28 Janary – Ist February 2002 (WHO Technical Report Series No 916), Geneva. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_916.pdf?ua=1

Chapter 3

The Potentials of African Neglected and Orphan Crops in Augmentation of African Food Security Kidist Bogale Kibret

Abstract  The African continent has diverse plant species that are edible and consumed by the hundreds of different cultures. They can be categorized into wild, semi-wild and cultivated. These variations have a huge potential for breeding of the crops. The so called orphan or underutilized crops in contrary to the narrow genetic diversity of major crops that underwent rigorous selection for a few traits, can harbour genes for disease resistance, yield and abiotic stress resistance. This chapter describes the genetic diversity, breeding efforts and nutritional benefits of orphan crops. The crops included are yams, African yam bean, wild and semi-wild edible plants of Ethiopia, and crop wild relatives found in Ethiopia, the Vavilonian center of diversity for several domesticated crops. The documentation, biodiversity, breeding and nutritional research efforts are reviewed and future challenges and prospects discussed. Keywords  Underutilized crops · Yams · Genetic diversity · Edible plants

3.1  Introduction Human civilization flourished as a result of the domestication of about 200 plants for food, feed and fiber (Paterson et  al. 2004). As a result of the ever-expanding human population, there is a treat to biodiversity. All plant species have not yet been discovered and many species are becoming extinct resulting in loss of biodiversity along with knowledge of plant uses (Bennett 1998). For example, yam (Dioscorea spp.) diversity is decreasing in Ethiopia, and being replaced by cash crops such as chat and coffee (Kibret 2012). Thus, it is very important to document information about the uses of plants from various locations.

K. B. Kibret (*) Agronomix Software Inc., Winnipeg, MB, Canada © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 O. O. Babalola (ed.), Food Security and Safety, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50672-8_3

43

44

K. B. Kibret

Ethiopia has been one of the centers of genetic diversity and its indigenous forests have been repositories of biodiversity. Forest coverage in Ethiopia is rapidly decreasing because of agricultural land expansion, exploitation of forestland and use of forestland for investment, overgrazing and land fragmentation (Berihun and Molla 2017; Tebkew et al. 2018). Currently, the less disturbed natural forests are found in the southwestern parts of the country. However, even this area is being affected by agricultural expansion and investment (Negash 2002; Yeshitela and Bekele 2003). A good example of the rich biodiversity in this part of Africa is Dioscorea species (Yam) exhibit highest genetic diversity around Southern Ethiopia (Abebe 2008). Worldwide, about 50–60 species of Dioscorea are recognized to be cultivated or harvested from the wild for pharmaceutical purposes (Craufurd et al. 2001). There is a need to document plants and their uses from Ethiopia. The people in Ethiopia consist of diverse ethnic groups who have their own unique dietary system prepared from various plants.

3.2  C  rop Wild Relatives (CWR) in the Ethiopian Flora: Collection, Documentation and Preservation 3.2.1  Definition of a Crop Wild Relative Harlan and de Wet (1971) proposed three categories of crop wild relatives based on genetics. Members of the group Primary gene pool (GP-1) intercross easily, produce fertile hybrids whose chromosomes can pair facilitating gene segregation and smooth gene transfer. These groups constitute members of the same species, wild or cultivated genotypes. The authors divided species into two subspecies: Subspecies A to include the cultivated races and subspecies B to include the spontaneous races. Secondary gene pool (GP-2) refers to close relatives of the crop species that can cross with the crop. Gene transfer from GP-2 is possible but difficult using conventional breeding techniques. Gene transfer from tertiary gene pool (GP-3) is either not possible using conventional breeding techniques or if possible, requires additional techniques. This classification is only possible when sufficient information is available on patterns of genetic diversity and crossing ability for the species. Based on the concept described above, a crop wild relative can be defined as a wild plant that is useful based solely on its close genetic relationship to a crop providing the opportunity of gene transfer to the crop for the crop improvement. These wild relatives have the potential to contribute to enhanced disease resistance and increased yield of the crop (Maxted et al. 2006).

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3.2.2  Utilization and Conservation of Crop Wild Relatives Wild relatives are essential for improved and increased agricultural production. Plant breeders first started to cross wild potato relatives with cultivars in the 1890s. In the 1990s, wild species have been used to breed crops mostly for pest and disease resistance (Hoyt 1988). According to a review made by Hajjar and Hodgkin (2007), although the use of crop wild relatives for crop improvement has increased steadily from 1986 to 2007, there is still huge potential to be exploited. New cultivars are valid only for about 5–10 years and breeders need to develop new varieties continuously. Modern genotypes are low in genetic diversity due to breeding for enhancement of a few traits. Crop wild relatives provide the opportunity to incorporate novel genetic diversity and new traits not conventional in the traditional breeding programs (Maxted and Kell 2009). Gene transfer from tertiary gene pools has become possible due to the advancement of biotechnological techniques but this potential has not been fully exploited yet (Miflin 2000; Heywood et al. 2007). So far, yield improvement quantitative trait loci (QTLs) (Swamy and Sarla 2008) and disease resistance gene diversity have been identified from wild relatives of several crops (Lenne and Wood 1991). Useful genes have been found in wild relatives of many globally important crops like legumes (Muehlbauer et  al. 1993), tomato (Fulton et  al. 1997), barley (Ellis et  al. 2000), rice (Xiao et  al. 2000) and wheat (Colmer et al. 2006). Recently, Eragrostis pilosa has been used as source of genes for the improvement of E. tef (Hewan and Fujimura 2010). The biodiversity of crop wild relatives is threatened by deforestation, climate change, loss of habitat and collection (Maxted et al. 2008). The study of Jarvis et al. 2008 indicated that climate change poses a threat to the biodiversity of crop genetic resources from wild close relatives. Thus, it is critical and urgent to work on the taxonomic identification and conservation of these valuable wild plants (Jarvis et al. 2008). Since wild crop relative conservation requires a multi-disciplinary and multinational approach for success, it is being addressed by various national and international initiatives. Some of the key issues include the definition, the need for information systems and priority-determining mechanisms. The first step is taxonomic identification and inventory of species supplemented with field eco-­ geographic studies. The source of the inventory is mainly herbarium specimen labels and literature (Heywood et al. 2007). Paper records, collection reports, gene bank accessions, flora and taxonomic databases are the other sources of information on crop wild relatives (Moore et al. 2008). Due to the large volume of data on the species and location information, bioinformatic approach for record-keeping of crop wild relatives is essential. A highly relational database system such as SQL servers would be best to store and interlink several layers of data such as taxonomy, biology, and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) tools (Heywood et al. 2007).

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This approach has already been utilized to record crop wild relative data with the Crop Wild Relative Information System created by the European Crop Wild Relative Diversity Assessment and Conservation Forum (Moore et al. 2008). With the current genomics era, sequencing has become affordable to sequence orphan crops. Such an initiative with Dioscorea spp. is being supported by the bioinformatics platform YamBase (https://yambase.org/) that not only supports platform for OMICS analysis but also facilitates breeding data management and analysis. Research and breeding of other orphan crops such as African Yam Bean can be enhanced by such resources. With the above general introduction to the international efforts of crop biodiversity conservation, I zoom into the case of Ethiopia, which is a Vavilonian center of crop biodiversity in East Africa. In addition to wild ecosystems, various traditional agroecosystems in this country are major in situ conservatories of crop genetic diversity. Farmers maintain species and genetic diversity in the field, and benefit from this biodiversity in terms of food security and meeting nutritional needs. Field conservation is one of the effective strategies for poor and small-scale farmers. This conservation practice is also beneficial for availability of useful genetic material to breeding programs worldwide. The other opportunity with in-situ plant genetic diversity conservation is new genetic combinations that can arise in small scale farmer’s fields as a result of intercrossing between the crop and wild or weedy relative. Such diversity has allowed farmers to maximize output under adverse farming conditions and environments. Traditional varieties or landraces are well adapted to the local environments and produce stable yields over changing climatic conditions in different years, local soil types, disease outbreaks and water shortage (Worede et al. 2000). One of the four strategic priorities of Ethiopia’s biodiversity strategy and action plans is to effectively conserve the rich agro-biodiversity of Ethiopia through a mix of in situ and ex situ programs (Anonymous 2005).

3.2.3  T  he Ethiopian Flora: Collection, Documentation and Preservation An herbarium is not only a collection of dried specimens for identification but also a documentation facility of valuable plant genetic resource use, habitat, biology and much more. It is a special kind of museum that can be regarded as a data bank. The following information can be extracted from herbarium specimens: information on finding (date of collection, collector and number, locality, scientific and common names); environment (altitude, vegetation, plant association, special growing conditions); organisms (morphology, variation, etc.); uses (medicinal, fiber, food, etc.) and ethnobotany (local knowledge about plant uses) (Seyani 1988). Similarly, the Ethiopian National Herbarium (ETH) provides such a database for Ethiopian flora. Early records and descriptions of Ethiopian plants attracted attentions of more travelers and scholars focusing on species of economic and cultural importance

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including food crops (Asfaw and Wondimu 2007). By the work of Harlan (1969) Ethiopia was ranked as one of the best repositories of domesticated and wild edible plants that contribute to food diversification based on the abundance and diversity of species and varieties of food crops. The founding of the National Herbarium for Ethiopia in 1958 and the beginning of the Ethiopian flora project in 1980 mark the entrance of Ethiopian scientists into botany. There has been good correlation between collecting activity and naming of new taxa (Friis and Edwards 2001). The accumulation of herbarium specimen by various collectors in the Ethiopian National Herbarium (ETH) has facilitated the identification of specimens for various botanical studies (Addis 2009). Recently, the Ethiopian flora project has been completed (Hedberg et al. 2009) and the Herbarium now has above 70,000 specimens deposited. To provide a list of the crop wild relatives native to Ethiopia, the following approach was used by the author of this chapter: a list of cultivated plants was made from various literature (Westphal 1975; Demissie 1988; Edwards 1991; Mekbib 1991), the presence of the wild relatives in the flora of Ethiopia was checked from Hedberg et al. 2009 and to determine whether the wild plant closely related, various literature were referred to. This list from literature was compared with a list obtained from the specimens deposited in the herbarium. Information about the plants was collected from flora and specimen labels. Information was compiled from flora of Ethiopia volumes 1–8 and various literatures on crop wild relatives found in Ethiopia. The plants providing most of the caloric need for the country in the category of cereals, legumes, root crops and oil crops were included in the study. The most widely used staple cereal crop in Ethiopia is Eragrostis tef. It is native to Ethiopia and has close wild relatives in the country as well. Biochemical studies suggested that E. pilosa, E. aethiopica and E. barrelieri and possibly also E. curvula and E. cilianensis to be involved in the evolution of tef. Based on morphology and chromosome number, E. pilosa and some of the E. cilianensis complex are closest to E. tef. E. aethiopica, E. barrelieeri, E. cilianensis, E. mexicana and E. minor are close relatives of E. tef based on karyotype morphology. E. pilosa, E. macilenta, E. minor, E. mexicana and Eragrostis cilianensis are closely related to E. tef based on molecules. E. pilosa is closely related, forms hybrid with E. tef (Bekele and Lester 1981; Jones et al. 1978; Tavassoli 1986; Ingram and Doyle 2003; Admas and Dagne 2008; Hedberg et al. 2009). Other cereal crop with wild relatives in Ethiopia is Pennisetum glaucum. P. glaucum cultivars and landraces, P. glaucum subsp. monodii and P. glaucum subsp. stenostachyum are primary wild relatives. P. purpureum and P. squamulatum are secondary wild relatives. All the other species in the genus are tertiary wild relatives. Thirty-four species are found in Ethiopia from the genus. P. purpureum x P. glaucum readily produce hybrids, the sterile triploid hybrid sometimes cultivated for fodder (Maxted and Kell 2009; Hedberg et  al. 2009; Philips 1995). Other cereals and their wild relatives from Ethiopia are listed in Table 3.1. From oil crops, the most widely used native to Ethiopia is Guizotia abyssinica also locally known as Noug. G. scabra subsp. scabra progenitor of G. abyssinica, G. scabra subsp. shimperi, G. scabra subsp. scabra and G. villosa are

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Table 3.1  List of cereal crops and their wild relatives found in Ethiopia Domesticated species Amaranthus caudatus Avena abyssinica Eleusine coracana

Oryza sativa Sorghum bicolor

Wild relatives and their relation to the cultivated A. dubius, A. graecizans, A. hybridus, A. lividus, A. palmeri, A. sparganiocephalus, A. spinosus, A. thunbergii, A. tricolor and A. viridus A. vaviloviana is closely related to A. abyssinica A. barbata, A. fatua and A. sterilis E. indica subsp. indica, E. indica subsp. africana E. coracana forms hybrids with both; these are ancestors of finger millet E. floccifolia, E. intermedia, E. jaegeri, E. kigeziensis, E. multiflora and E. tristachya. E. africana, E. indica and E. kigeziensis are primary wild relatives of finger millet O. bartii, O. longistaminata S. arundinaceum and S. bicolor form hybrid and are closely related S. halapense, S. purpureo-sericeum and S. versicolor

References Hedberg et al. (2009)

Edwards (1991) and Hedberg et al. (2009) Edwards (1991), Hancock (1992), Hedberg et al. (2009) and Maxted and Kell (2009)

Hedberg et al. (2009) Edwards (1991) and Hedberg et al. (2009)

cross-compatible with G. abyssinica and with each other (Dagne 1994). G. schimperi, G. zavattarii and G. arborescens are other species in the genus but not cross-­ compatible with each other (Hedberg et al. 2009). Among spices, the most authentic one used in most traditional dishes is Aframomum korarima, which is a wild harvested spice itself. It has wild relatives A. polyanthum and A. sanguineum (Hedberg et al. 2009). The vegetable Moringa stenopetala and M. oleifera are edible species with other species in the genus: M. arborea, M. borziana, M. longituba, (edible), M. peregrine, M. rivae and M. ruspoliana (Hedberg et al. 2009). Among root and tuber crops, Ensete ventricosum is very important staple in the south of the country. It is both cultivated and wild (Edwards 1991). Dioscorea cayenensis-­D. rotundata complex (guinea yam) and D. abyssinica are also cultivated in the south of Ethiopia. The wild D. praehensilis is ancestor of guinea yam. D. alata, D. bulbifera, D. dumetorum, D. gilletti, D. quartiniana, D. sagittifolia and D. schimperiana (Hancock 1992; Miege and Demissew 1997; Hedberg et al. 2009). Another underutilized and yet nutritious root crop worth mentioning alongside yams is African yam bean, Sphenostylis stenocarpa (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Harms [Fabaceae]. It is native to west and central Africa and used as food and animal feed. Both the tuber and the seed are edible. It is cultivated in South and East Africa (Heuzé and Tran 2016). It is highly nutritious and widely used in Africa. The main issue consuming the seeds is they take too long to cook, although soaking and blanching improve the cooking quality (Aminigo and Metzger 2005). There are breeding efforts to improve the palatability of the crop. The seeds are very nutritious and good source of protein, fat, carbohydrate and potassium (Adeyeye et al. 1997). Although yams (Dioscorea spp.) have received much attention in recent multinational, breeding and research projects, African yam bean is still an orphan crop that has not received much attention in the plant science community (Dansi et al. 2012).

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3.3  M  icronutrient and Antioxidant Content of Neglected Crops and Wild Edible Plants The author of this chapter has witnessed that the compilation of literature on nutritional value of edible wild species is difficult. This is because different studies use widely different field and laboratory methods that make study comparisons difficult. In addition, different studies use different techniques to determine micronutrient composition (Grivetti and Ogle 2000). Studies involving nutritional composition are useful to exploit the potential of biodiversity as solutions to malnutrition. For this reason, it is essential to study the nutritional compositions of all edible plant species, wild and cultivated (Toledo and Burlingame 2006). As part of the solution to fill the information gap in nutritional composition, compilation of nutritional information on wild and semi wild edible plants is necessary in spite of the difficulties. Kibret (unpublished) contains information on the nutritional analysis of various wild and semi-wild plants in various studies. An attempt was made to explore the nutritional value of the plants irrespective of the diverse methods and measurements used to arrive at the result. This was done by using review and analysis of articles collected using Google Scholar search engine and other additional references. The search words like ‘wild edible nutrition’, ‘wild edible antioxidant’ have been used on Google Scholar search engine. Then, the relevant articles were selected. From these articles, the micronutrient and antioxidant content of 85 wild edible plant species of 43 families has been compiled (Kibret, unpublished). From this, 37 species (43.52%) have antioxidant property. Out of the total species compiled, 31 species (36.5%) are consumed in Ethiopia (Kibret, unpublished). Majority of the analysis (46.78%) was made on leaves followed by fruit (23.85%), stem (11.9%), seed and tuber (7.34%) and others (Table 3.2). There are many studies that confirm the presence of antioxidants and micronutrients in wild fruits (Table 3.2). According to review of Jabłońska-Ryś et al. (2009), wild edible fruits are a valuable source of anticancer, anti –mutagenic nutrients as well as provide protection against cardiac disorders. Vitamins A, C, E and polyphenols contained in fruits have antioxidant features and can play an important role in the prevention of many diseases (Jabłońska-Ryś et al. 2009). Similar to wild fruits, wild vegetables contain health boosting micronutrients, such as vitamins and Table 3.2 Parts of plants analyzed from Appendix I

Part analyzed Leaf Fruit Stem Seed Tuber Flower Petiole

Number of analyzes 51 27 13 8 8 1 1

Proportion 46.78% 24.8% 11.9% 7.34% 7.34% 0.92% 0.92%

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­ inerals and promote immunity against infections (Table 3.2). They have been the m primary sources of vitamins and minerals in human diets since pre-historic times. Wild vegetables are easily adapted to local growing conditions thus require less care and agronomic inputs (Flyman and Afolayan 2006). Compared to cultivated vegetables, wild vegetables and are higher in micronutrients. For example, wild green vegetables are higher in calcium, iron, magnesium, and vitamin C than cultivated plants. Even traditional “salt,” which could include salt evaporated from the sea, plant ash, sea vegetables, or salty foods, contain trace minerals such as iron, manganese, zinc, and copper (Milburn 2004). The number of studies that analyze micronutrient and antioxidant content of wild edible plant species shows an increasing trend from 1997 to 2010 according to the literature (Fig. 3.1). When seen in terms of countries and number of species analyzed, the highest numbers of species (25.84%) were studied from South Africa, followed by Ethiopia and Burkina Faso (Table 3.3). Antioxidant and micronutrient composition of wild and semi-wild edible plants consumed in Ethiopia were analyzed as part of this review. Of these, 15 species (16.85%) have been analyzed from Ethiopia (Addis 2009), while the rest of the studies are from outside Ethiopia. Edibility of Ethiopian wild edible plants are reported mostly from ethnobotanical studies of local knowledge but laboratory analysis of the nutritional composition has also been carried out. Addis (2009) carried out extensive laboratory analysis of the nutritional composition of some green leafy vegetables used by the Hamar and Xonso people. The plants were found to have minerals, protein, fat and other pigments in addition to calories (Addis 2009). However, the same species of plants whose edibility has been reported in Ethiopia have been analyzed for nutrient content elsewhere and were found to be nutritious.

Fig. 3.1  Number of studies involving analysis of micronutrient and antioxidant content of wild edible plants from 1997 to 2010

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Table 3.3  Number of wild edible species analyzed for nutritional value from different countries Country South Africa Ethiopia Burkina Faso Nigeria, Turkey, Zimbabwe Iran Nepal, Spain, India, Ghana and Sudan Slovenia

Number of species analyzed 23 15 12 6 each 5 3 each

Proportion of total species reviewed 25.84% 16.85% 13.5% 6.74% each 5.62% 3.37%

1

1.12%

3.4  I ndigenous Knowledge of Plant Nutrition: An Example from Ethiopia Wild edible plants could act as a supplement to the daily dietary intake of the Ethiopian cereal diet which is otherwise vitamin deficient. For instance, wild fruits and berries add crucial vitamins particularly for children. It would be beneficial if wild food sources become daily food habits of all groups of the society (Olana 2001). Wild plants serve as supplement to the regular diet as a snack and dietary variety (Asfaw and Tadesse 2001). Some of the species consumed are unique to regions, and rate of consumption is limited by encounter in the wild. However, there are commonly consumed and widely abundant species throughout the country such Carissa edulis, Solanum nigrum, Ziziphus mauritiana, Tamarindus indica. Wild plants have supplemented the food deficit of poor members of society and the diets of nuns, monks and hermits in the past. In remote rural areas of Ethiopia, some minority ethnicities consume wild plants as part of the regular diet (Asfaw and Tadesse 2001). During normal periods, most wild fruits are consumed by young rural male who go out to the wild as shepherds and to help with farming. The second most consumers are children because they are eager to taste new and colorful fruits, and benefit from the nutrients (Asfaw and Tadesse 2001). The study conducted in Adiarkay, Debark and Dejen districts of Amhara revealed that informants at and under the median age of 40 were more knowledgeable than those above. Here also, children were found to know more than adults (Mengistu and Hager 2008). Ethiopia, the wildest plants are consumed by children and adolescents than adults during seasons of food availability than adults. Young people and children were able to tell all the names of the wild edible plants and the parts used. During some ethnobotanical studies, they were the only informants about Capparis fascicularis, Erythrina brucei, Scutia myrtina, Toddalia asiatica and Ziziphus spina- christii (Wondimu et al. 2007). In addition to children, females are more knowledgeable in collection and especially preparation of wild foods, and sometimes get income from the sale. They care for the marginal areas of field and other areas where the plants grow (Christine and

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Allen 1990). In Afar, the herders, particularly the children herders and the mothers are busy collecting the seeds of D. glabra which they store for consumption during the drought period. Shepherds are regular consumers of this fruit fresh (Tsegaye et al. 2007). Indigenous people in Gambella commonly use non cultivated food plants as supplements or main food when there is food shortage. Wild plants, especially wild fruits are the main food sources when people are away from home for honey gathering, mining, hunting and fishing. The appearance of some wild herbs is seasonal, especially before crops are harvested and their consumption alternates with cultivated crops (Awas 1997). In Gambia, edible wild plants are providing the much-­ needed nutrients for pregnant and breastfeeding women (Grivetti and Ogle 2000). The wild edible plant Dobera glabra is used as a drought predictor in the lowlands of Xonso special wereda, along the Segen River. It’s potential to predict drought is due to the increased rate of growth and development upon decreased water availability in the soil. If rains are delayed or fail, the plant increases its production of new shoots, fruits and seeds. Informant farmers declared that in non-­ drought years, Dobera glabra does not produce much fruit and seed. Konso people predict drought and food shortage using this plant species. Besides its drought indicator qualities, Dobera glabra produces edible fruits and the seed is consumed during times of food shortage (Guinand and Lemessa 2000). Tsegaye et al. 2007 also documented the use of Dobera glabra as a drought predictor among northern Afar pastoralists. In addition, the plant is used as drought food and feed for camels, and is a highly valued plant species in this area. In addition, Ziziphus spina-christi and Grewia erythrea are the wildest edible plants for the Afar pastoralists who reside in the desert areas of the country (Tsegaye et al. 2007). Awas 1997 collected 84 plant species of uncultivated food plants and 13 species of wild relatives of cultivated crops from Gambella. The various ways of consumption include fresh fruits, leafy vegetables, plant ash as source of edible salt and tubers. The seeds of Butyrospermum paradoxum, Trichilia dregeana and Ximenia americana are important sources of edible oil used sold in local market. The seeds of N. nouchalii, Oryza barthii and O. longistaminata are dried and ground for meal as a cereal. The inflorescence of Ocimum canum and naturalized Capsicum annum are used as spices from the wild. The climate of Gambella plain is hot and difficult to get water when people go into woodlands. The stem of a climber with soft wood, Cissus populina is used as a source of cool water. Flowers of Whitfieldia elongata produce sweet nectar on which children suck (Awas 1997). Sixty-six wild plants reported from a study involving the Kushume, Derashe and Gamo ethnic groups, 83% with more than one use. Wild edibles used as cabbage, fresh fruit, juice like (Syzigium guineense and Ximenia americana). Leaf of Lantana rhodensiensis is roasted to make tea which is used to regulate appetite. The wild edibles with commercial value in these areas are Moringa stenopetala, Solanum macrocarpon and Cordia africana and occasionally Balanites aegyptiaca, Opuntia ficus-indica, Leptadenia hastata, Ximenia americana and Sclerocarya birea either for fruit, timber or firewood (Balemie and Kebebew 2006).

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Forty-one species (58%) of the food plants around Dheera town, Arsi were recorded to be wild edible plants. Balanites aegyptiaca is most favored followed by Ziziphus mucronata, Grewia bicolor, Ficus sycomorus, Mimusops kummel and Rhus natalensis (Wondimu et al. 2007).

3.5  I ndigenous Knowledge of Uncultivated Edible Plants as Potential Solutions to Malnutrition As discussed in the previous sections, micronutrient deficiencies significantly affect health and development of a significant proportion of the world population in both developed and developing countries. Traditional diets are based on a wide variety of sources with diverse nutrients and antioxidants, and they must be preserved against loss of food diversity in the modern era (Balick and Cox 1996; Milburn 2004). Nutrition and health campaigns should include the promotion of underutilized and wild plants. Local food systems should be maintained along with the sustainable use of wild species for food (FAO 2010). This campaign for underutilized and wild plant food sources is well justified from the documentations about their nutritional importance (Grivetti and Ogle 2000). According to FAO, sustainable approaches to increase micronutrient consumption of a population is food fortification, production and diversification of food sources. Food supplements cannot be distributed to remote areas of developing countries and are not readily available for a wide population since they rely on external support for supply of supplements, which may make them difficult to sustain in the long term. In addition, these programs are usually hard to distribute to the most severe cases of micronutrient deficiency in remote areas and they are too expensive for people in these areas (FAO 1997; Nanchukwa 2007; Musinguzi et al. 2007). Food based approaches that include the consumption of foods that are naturally rich in micronutrients would be the most sustainable solution in these areas. Wild edible plants have been recommended as a solution to malnutrition, especially in developing countries because foods enriched through fortification are not accessible to the whole population of developing countries (Nanchukwa 2007; Musinguzi et al. 2007). In addition, currently the advantage of fortification over natural nutritional source is debatable and natural sources are possibly more favorable for health and longevity (Datta and Vitolins 2016). Several studies have proven the efficiency of local based foods in solving malnutrition sustainably Nanchukwa (2007) conducted such a study in Malawi and found that about 60% of malnourished children had their nutrition states improved within 12  days of feeding on locally available foods. They used local knowledge about food for treating malnutrition (Nanchukwa 2007). Glew and VanderJagt (2006) suggest consumption of wild edible plants for rural Niger local wild plant based foods offer the major micro- and macro nutrients whose deficiency cause diseases such as protein, essential fatty acid, iron, calcium and zinc. Musinguzi et  al. (2007)

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r­ecommended the use of local sources of nutrients in Uganda as a food-based approach to complement supplementation and fortification efforts that currently leave a lot of ‘hard to reach people’ not served. Chemical analyzes carried out on Physalis minima and Carissa spinarum fruits and indicated that they are rich sources of micronutrients especially minerals compared well with the exotic ones like mangoes (Musinguzi et al. 2007). Moringa oleifera was suggested as a potential solution to the problem of vitamin A deficiency in Malawi because of its rich Vitamin A and Vitamin C content (Babu 2000). The laboratory finding showing high iron content of Grewia spp. validates the traditional use of Grewia spp. in the treatment of anaemia (Elhassan and Yagi 2010). Indigenous knowledge possessed by rural women in Kenya indicates that Cleome gynandra has several nutritional uses. Leaves are consumed to cure diseases such as scurvy, improve eyesight, provide energy and cure marasmus, a protein-energy malnutrition. It is highly recommended meal for pregnant and lactating women. Eating the vegetable is believed to reduce dizzy spells in pregnant women. Laboratory analysis found the plant to contain protein, carbohydrate, minerals and antioxidants (Chweya and Nameus 1997). Some communities in Ethiopia like Hamar and Xonso consume wild vegetables as part of the regular diet (Addis 2009). Wild fruits, berries and vegetables add crucial vitamins to the diet particularly for children (Olana 2001). This brings to light the value of wild and semi wild edible plants in combating child malnutrition in Ethiopia. Wild edible plants are also consumed as famine food in Ethiopia (Addis 2009; Guinand and Lemessa 2000; Tsegaye et al. 2007). Cultural taboos prevent the widespread and continuous use of these plants to some extent. For instance, in some cultures, it is a source of shame to consume wild plants as it is a sign of poverty and food shortage. The importance of food source diversification needs to be promoted (Olana 2001). In case of Ethiopia, development organizations consider wild edible plants when developing strategies to achieve food security (Guinand and Lemessa 2000; Gelmesa 2010). It would be beneficial if wild food sources become daily food habits of all groups of the society (Olana 2001). Traditional daily diet of Ethiopia is also nutrient-­ rich. Nutritional analysis of traditional Ethiopian foods prepared from Eragrostis tef, Ensete ventricosum and Brassica carinata revealed that they are rich sources of minerals (Umeta et al. 2005). Through nutritional analysis, teff (Eragrostis tef) was found to be a good source of iron (Umeta et al. 2005) and recommended as solution to iron deficiency anaemia (Fayed and Stojceska 2010). In general, plant biodiversity has a huge potential in solving micronutrient deficiency and disease. Plant based nutrition source is much more bio-available than fortification. The diverse nutrition and health benefits that plants provide in a traditional culture along with indigenous knowledge of plant diversit, should be exploited to benefit modern society (Johns 2003). This needs to be supported with biodiversity of wild and gathered species or varieties, and under-utilized and under-exploited food resources (Toledo and Burlingame 2006). Important contributions to the diet from edible wild plants are well documented and numerous studies support the importance of these plants to meet the macro- and

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micronutrient needs of groups at risk such as infants, children, pregnant and breastfeeding women, plus old people (Grivetti and Ogle 2000). For instance, wild edible plants could make an important contribution to combating micronutrient malnutrition and providing food security, especially in African rural communities. Unfortunately, these plant species are currently underutilized, and have been neglected by researchers and policy makers. Their promotion and integration into human diets would not only enhance human health but also facilitate their conservation (Flyman and Afolayan 2006) and perhaps cultivation and domestication.

3.6  L  essons for Africa from Other Parts of the World About Adverse Effects of Edible Plant Diversity Importance of local diet to health, including wild edibles, is evidenced by negative effects of shift from traditional to simplified modern diet consisting of limited number, high energy foods. Globally, limitation of the diets of large numbers of people to a few of high-energy food sources resulted in previously unexpected hazards to human health and are directly responsible to the emergence of diabetes, hypertension and cancer. Although wild edible plants are still used in some countries, change of diet from traditional diet to carbohydrate and fat rich and micronutrient poor western diet is becoming widespread (Johns 2003; FAO 2010). The following diseases, among others, used to be considered as “Western” such as obesity, Type II diabetes, hypertension, coronary heart disease and cancer are becoming common in developing countries as well (Milburn 2004). Urbanization in developing countries have made diets higher in energy such as sugars, white flour, vegetable oils and other fats more common. In contrast, consumption of diverse fruits and vegetables is less in urban than those of rural populations. As a consequence, the rates of obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and cancer have started to follow the epidemic trends (FAO 2002). At the beginning of the millennium, these western epidemic trends were already seen in developing countries such as those in Latin America (Albala et al. 2001) China and India (Popkin et al. 2001). Recently, in Ethiopian urban population, obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases were found to be reasons for morbidity and mortality (Tesfaye 2008). Ethiopia has become one of those countries challenged with the burden of hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases due to deficiency of antioxidant and micronutrients, along with infection and malnutrition (Tesfaye et al. 2007). Many countries of the world have had traditional healthy diet that was lost through time. For instance, wild edible vegetables gradually disappeared from the polish diet. By 2010, the tradition of incorporating several wild greens in a single dish was lost. Local people usually utilized a small number of taxa, but in large quantities, resorting to some other available species only in times of famine (Luczaj 2010). The review of Kuhnlein and Receveur (1996), gives many examples of indigenous people whose traditional diet has disappeared: Kung Bushmen of the Kalahari

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Desert, Botswana, Nuxalk of British Columbia, Papua of New Guinea, Maya of Guatemala and Baffin Inuit. The native North American people were familiar with the vitamin C disease called scurvy and knew how to prevent it (Milburn 2004). Europe is losing the edible wild plants used by their ancestor farmers. However, these plants are still consumed at the present day in many other parts of the world, but not considered for nutrition in Europe today (Guerrero et al. 1998). Guerrero et al. (1998) analyzed the chemical composition of some of these plants and they were found to be highly nutritious. The native North American people were adversely affected by the change of diet from traditional diverse food including wild food source to the modern processed, calorie dense, nutrient poor diet (Milburn 2004). A tribe from Arizona traditionally lived by harvesting wild plants and cultivating beans and corn. Today, they buy most of their foods in stores and such western staples as white bread prominently in their diet. They have high rate of diabetes (Balick and Cox 1996). The Caucasians of North America also made use of wild edible plants in history. Soldiers used to consume wild edible plants to avoid scurvy and other nutrient deficiency diseases during war in North America at some point in history (Grivetti and Ogle 2000). Even in the arctic region so devoid of obvious vitamin C-containing plant foods, the Inuit avoided scurvy, and the Chinese, recognizing the pattern of symptoms associated with scurvy and how to prevent it, used sprouted soy beans and various citrus fruits on their global sea voyages of the early fifteenth century (Milburn 2004).

3.7  S  trategies for Conservation and Efficient Utilization of Edible Plant Resources Despite the role of edible wild plants in bridging periods of food shortages and providing dietary variety, attention has been given to the inventory and conservation of species. The production of a complete modern flora of Ethiopia with a convenient list of useful plants, including edible plants as an index to all the volumes further facilitates research in ethnobotany as well as many other botanical researches in Ethiopia. The accumulation of herbarium specimen by various collectors in the Ethiopian national herbarium (ETH) has facilitated the identification of specimens. The ETH and a complete modern flora of Ethiopia have made ethnobotany achievable. Even if the primary aim of the Ethiopian Flora Project was to have a scientific treatment of all taxa known from the flora area, the authors also included as far as possible any information on the use of the plants to add to the usefulness of the flora (Poncet et al. 2009). Even before the complete publication of the flora, herbarium data demonstrated an increasing trend with time for collectors to incorporate plant-­ use information on specimen labels indicating the rising awareness on the importance of traditional botanical knowledge in economic development and resource conservation (Giday et al. 2005).

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If local people are made partners to management of protected areas, their extensive knowledge would be an asset to managing the resources sustainably (Christine and Allen 1990). Home gardens can be good examples of traditional biodiversity management and conservation. For instance, Home gardens in south western Ethiopia are established in forest clearings where useful forest plants are deliberately retained in situ. They utilize many species of the natural ecosystem and recruit promising new crop species, which facilitates geneflow between spontaneous and home garden populations of crop species as well as with their wild relatives. In central Ethiopia, home gardens make use of stony or rocky ground earmarked for living quarters. A well-developed home garden with diverse horticultural classes and high species diversity results in environmental, social and economic benefits for the family. It also improves soil conditions. Thus, home gardens have the potential for sustained subsistence farming and biodiversity conservation with intensive land utilization in space and time. Home gardens have preserved local knowledge of plants and skills of their cultivation and utilization (Asfaw 2001). One example of the many cases of endangered wild plants that need human intervention for propagation is D. glabra. Afar pastoralists are aware of the problem of biodiversity loss of their most useful wild edible plant D. glabra (Tsegaye et  al. 2007). Attempts should be made to propagate wild plants, especially the most useful and endangered ones. Measures should be taken to propagate, for instance conducting germination experiments and vegetative propagation trials, which are important for conservation. A good example of this kind of study is the work of Tsegaye et al. 2007, which reports germination experiments and vegetative propagation experiments of D. glabra from Afar. They found that the seeds germinate quite well with the provision of moderate amount of moisture but this species cannot perpetuate through the stem cutting.

3.8  Conclusions Underutilized, wild and semi wild edible plants were forgotten over time as a result of ‘modernization’, but are now gaining recognition, as shown by the increasing trends of studies involving nutritional composition of wild edible plants. These plants have been found to be rich in micronutrients and antioxidants, as can be seen from studies done both within the country and elsewhere. Lack of these nutrients results in severe impediment to human health. Various diseases were found to be caused due to micronutrient and antioxidant deficiency. In our country also, wild and semi wild edible plants are widely consumed. They are consumed mostly in rural areas during food scarcity, as part of the daily menu, supplemental food and wild fruits mostly consumed by children in rural areas. These plants were found to be highly nutritious as seen from nutritional analysis done on plants collected from within the country and abroad. Their potential to alleviate micronutrient deficiency in Ethiopia both in rural and urban areas needs to be exploited. Documentation of these plants through ethnobotanical studies is being done and in addition to this,

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more studies on nutritional composition would contribute to the employment of the resources for food and nutritional security. Underutilized, wild and semi wild edible plants contribute to food and nutrition security as well as prevention of ‘Western diseases’ as a result of shift from traditional diet to simplified modern diet. The diseases and consequent economic loss caused by micronutrient malnutrition can be solved by educating people about use of wild edible plants and underutilized crops in areas where they are still available. Study of nutritional composition is essential for the effective utilization of these resources.

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Chapter 4

Optimization of Soaking Condition and Drying Temperature for the Production of African Yam Beans (Sphenostylis sternocarpa) Flour Bolanle Adenike Adejumo, Rosemary Uju Ajibo, and Peter Ayodele Obasa

Abstract  The effects of optimized soaking conditions and drying temperature on the nutritional, antinutritional and functional properties of African Yam Beans Seeds (AYBS) were investigated to produce high-quality flour. Box Behnken design with three factors was used to optimize the soaking processing conditions. AYB seeds were cleaned to remove all contaminants, soaked, dehulled, dried and milled at the processing conditions as prescribed in the experimental layout while uncooked dehulled and milled samples served as control. All samples were analyzed for nutritional, antinutritional and functional properties using standard methods. The numerical optimization technique of the design expert software 7.0 was used to simultaneously optimize the multiple responses. Result showed that soaking conditions and drying temperature had significant effect (5%) on sodium, potassium, phosphorus, manganese, magnesium, foaming capacity, bulk density, and water absorption capacity but had no significant effect on moisture, protein, crude fiber, ash, fat, carbohydrate, calcium, vitamins A, vitamin C, and oil absorption capacity of AYBS flour. Processing conditions significantly decreased the saponin, phytate, oxalate and tannin content. It is concluded that AYBS soaked at 27.46  °C for 64.52 min and dried at 59.42 °C yielded AYBSF with optimum nutritional, functional and minimum antinutritional properties and therefore recommended. Keywords  African Yam Beans · Sodium · Bulk density saponin · Phytate · Oxalate

B. A. Adejumo (*) · R. U. Ajibo · P. A. Obasa Department of Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 O. O. Babalola (ed.), Food Security and Safety, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50672-8_4

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4.1  Introduction African yam bean (AYB) belongs to the family Fabaceae subfamily faboidaeae, tribe phaseoleae, sub-tribe phaseolinae (Aburime 2012). Due to its capacity to flourish in distinct types of soil types that explain the distinct local name for AYB in every portion of Africa, it is grown by distinct ethnic groups throughout Africa. Such names include Azama, Ijiriji, Azam, and Uzoaku in Igbo; Wakesuya in Hausa, Akpaka in Delta, Nsama in Ibibio, Sese in Yoruba, Kulegu in Ghana, and Yam pea in English. The origin is uncertain as it is domesticated in nearly all African locations (Potter and Doyle 1992). AYB is a legume that goes up to a height of 3 cm and twine. It has greenish leaves; the average length of each leaf is about 14 cm and the width of each leaf is about 5 cm. Its flowers are magenta, pink, red and violet with petals approximately 2.5  cm long (Klu et  al. 2001). When fresh, AYB contains about 20–30 seeds each enclosed in a greenish pod. Progressive field drying changes the greenish pod’s color to brown. The seed coat is susceptible to shatter after drying before harvesting. The color of the seed differs between cream, brown, white and marble (Potter 1992). AYB has a tuberous root that develops like sweet potatoes under the vine. AYB’s tuber in as much as it looks like potatoes; its protein content is twice as much as potatoes and ten times as much as cassava. It can be consumed just like yam, regarding its adaptability in all settings, AYB tubers with its outstanding succulent and crunchy texture could be acceptable to a lot of taste buds (Ameh 2006).

4.2  Nutritional Composition of AYB Seed Recently, AYB’s dietary awareness is on the rise as more research is carried out on the use and assessment of AYB seed products for its dietary composition. The dietary composition showed that AYB seeds contain protein, dietary fiber, starch, sugar, and total carbohydrate. The specked varieties have greater amounts of protein, sugar, while the cream variety has a greater amount of starch, total carbohydrate, and dietary fiber (Ishaya et al. 2016; Ndidi et al. 2014; Adeoti et al. 2017). AYB seed nutritional benefit cannot be overemphasized as the amino acid values in AYB plants are greater than those in pigeon pea, cowpea and groundnut Bambara (Uguru and Madukaife 2001). Protein content in AYB tuber is up to 19% and in AYB seed is up to 29%. AYB seeds crude protein content is lower than that in soybean, but the amino acid profile showed that AYB contains most essential amino acids such as lysine methionine, histidine, and isoleucine, which are higher than those of other legumes (Uguru and Madukaife 2001; Ekpo 2006). AYB seed minerals include potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, iron, and zinc (Edem et al. 1990) and are similar to that of other legumes (Ameh 2006).

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4.3  Antinutritional Composition of African Yam Bean Seed Antinutrients are natural chemical components found in various food types that are very prevalent in leguminous plants. Antinutrients inhibit nutrient bioavailability and body system nutrient intake. AYB plant includes alpha glucoside, cyanogenic glucoside, phytic acid, and soluble oxalate, the concentration of cyanogenic glucosides, saponin (Ndidi et al. 2014; Adeoti et al. 2017). AYB seeds are subjected to distinct handling methods such as soaking, boiling, fermentation, blanching, cooking and roasting before milling to reduce the antinutrient content in other to enhance the seed’s overall acceptability (Aburime 2012). The main objective of this chapter is to investigate the effects of optimized soaking conditions and drying temperature on the nutritional, antinutritional and functional properties of AYB seed flour (AYBSF) to produce high-quality flour.

4.4  Materials and Method Properly dried seeds of African yam bean (Sphenostylis Stenocarpa) were purchased from Nkwo Ibagwa in Igboeze local government of Enugu State. The experiment was carried out at the processing and storage unit of the Department of Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering, Federal University of Technology Minna, Niger State, Nigeria. To optimize the soaking processing conditions, the Box Behnken design with three factors was used. Soaking water temperature, soaking duration and drying temperature was regarded as the independent variables, while the dependent variables were the nutritional, antinutritional and functional properties. The experimental design for the soaking technique of AYBS flour production process is as presented in Table 4.1.

4.4.1  Sample Preparation and Experimental Set up Twenty kilograms (20 kg) of cream colored AYB seeds were cleaned thoroughly to remove contaminants such as plant stalk, sand, stones, and spoilt bean. Two hundred grams (200 g) of the cleaned AYB seed was dehulled and milled without any pretreatment using the Panasonic blender (model: MX-GM1581, United Kingdom) which served as the control for the experiment. The milled flour was sieved using a 90 mm sterilized sieve, packaged in an airtight sterilized container and placed in a refrigerator until it was analyzed. Five (5) kg of the cleaned AYB seeds sample was subdivided into Two Hundred grams (200 g) each making a total of 17 samples as prescribed by the experimental design using the Box Behnken design (Table 4.1). The samples were soaked, dehulled, dried and milled at the processing conditions as prescribed in the experimental

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Table 4.1  The experimental design to optimize the effect of soaking condition and drying temperature on the qualities of AYB seed flour Run 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Soaking temperature (°C) 35.00 30.00 35.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 35.00 35.00 30.00 25.00 30.00 30.00 25.00 30.00 30.00 25.00 25.00

Soaking duration (Hrs) 6.00 72.00 72.00 39.00 72.00 39.00 39.00 39.00 6.0.00 6.0.00 39.00 39.00 72.00 6.00 39.00 39.00 39.00

Drying temperature (°C) 50.00 40.00 50.00 50.00 60.00 50.00 60.00 40.00 40.00 50.00 50.00 50.00 50.00 60.00 50.00 40.00 60.00

layout as presented in Table 4.1. A Panasonic blender (model: MX-GM1581, United Kingdom) was used to mill the dried AYB seed samples. The flour obtained was sieved using a 90 mm sterilized sieve, packaged in an airtight sterilized container and stored in the refrigerator until analysis was carried out on it.

4.4.2  Determination of Nutritional Composition of AYB Seed The following nutritional compositions were determined using the standard method of AOAC (2005). 4.4.2.1  Determination of Moisture Content Cleaned crucibles were dried in a hot air oven at 100 °C for 1 hour (hr) to obtain a constant weight and then cooled in a desiccator. Two gram (2  g) of each of the samples were weighed into the different crucibles and dried at 100 °C until a constant weight was obtained. The moisture content was calculated using Eq. 4.1. %moisture content 

w2  w3  100 w2  w1

(4.1)

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where, W1 = Initial weight of the empty crucible, W2 = weight of dish + sample before drying, and W3 = weight of dish + sample after drying. 4.4.2.2  Protein Determination Protein was determined by the micro-Kjeldahl method. One gram of each sample was weighed into the micro- Kjeldahl flask and 20  ml Concentrated H2SO4, 2  g Na2SO4, 0.5 CUSO4 (as a catalyst) and 0.1 g, selenium was added in the flask. The mixture was boiled on a digester until the black solution became clear after which it was made up to 100 ml with distilled water. Boric acid, blue methyl, and red methyl were added to 5 ml of the sample drawn from the solution and steamed. The end product was titrated against 0.01 N HCL. The percentage of nitrogen was calculated using Eq. 4.2. %Nitrogen 

Titre  N  DF  Nmx  100 Weight of simple in mg

(4.2)

Titre = Final burette reading – initial burette reading N = Normality of acid DF = Dilution factor NMN = Molecular weight of nitrogen. Percentage protein = % Nitrogen × 6.25 (conversion factor). 4.4.2.3  Fat Determination The fat content of the sample was determined by Soxhlet extraction method. The extraction flask was weighed; 2 g of each sample was weighed into a filter paper and introduced into the extraction thimble. The thimble was placed into the Soxhlet extractor; some quantity of petroleum ether was placed into the flask and connected to the Soxhlet apparatus. The extraction lasted for about 6 h at 40–600 ° C after which the solvent (petroleum ether) was recovered leaving only the extract in the flask. The extract was dried at 100 °C to expel the remaining solvent, then cooled in the desiccators and weighed. The fat extract was calculated using Eq. 4.3. %Fat 

Weight of

flask     weight of flask 

Weight of sample

 100

(4.3)

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4.4.2.4  Ash Determination Two grams of each sample was weighed into a weighed crucible and incinerated in a muffle furnace at 600 °C for about 6 h. The crucible was removed and cooled in desiccators and reweighed. The ash content was calculated using Eq. 4.4. %Ash 

Weight of

crucible  Ash    Weight of crucible  Weight off sample



100

(4.4)

4.4.2.5  Determination of Crude Fiber Two gram of the sample was weighed and put in a boiling 200 ml of 1.25% H2SO4 and allowed to boil for 30 minutes (m). The solution was then filtered through linen or muslin cloth fixed to a funnel. It was washed with boiling water until it is completely free from acid. The residue was returned into 200  ml boiling NaOH and allowed to boil for 30 m. It was further washed with 1% HCl boiling water to free it from acid. The final residue was drained and transferred to a silica ash crucible to be dried in the oven to a constant weight and cooled. Percent of crude fiber was calculated using Eq. 4.5. %Crude fiber 

Loss in weight on ignition  100 Weight of food sample

(4.5)

4.4.2.6  Carbohydrate Determination This was determined by difference. The determined percentages of protein, fat, crude fiber and moisture will be summed up and subtracted from 100%. 4.4.2.7  Determination of Mineral Content The mineral content of the formulated samples was evaluated using the method described by AOAC (2005). One gram of dried samples was digested with 2.5 ml of 0.03 N hydrochloric acid (HCl). The digest was boiled for 5 m, allowed to cool to room temperature and transferred to 50 ml volumetric flask and made up to the mark with distilled water. The resulting digest was filtered with ashless Whatman No. 1 filter paper. Filtrate from each sample was analyzed for mineral (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, Iron, sodium, manganese, copper and zinc) contents using an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Buck Scientific Atomic Absorption

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Emission Spectrophotometer model 205, Nowalk, Connecticut, USA) using standard wavelengths. The real values were extrapolated from the respective standard curves. Values obtained were adjusted for HCl-extractability for the respective ions. All determinations were performed in triplicates. 4.4.2.8  Determination of Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) Ascorbic acid was determined according to the 2, 6  – dichlorophenol titermetric method of AOAC (2005). A 2 g of the sample was homogenized with acetic acid solution and extracted. Vitamin C standard solution was prepared by dissolving 50 mg standard ascorbic acid tablet in 100 ml volumetric flask with distilled water. The solution was filtered out and 10 ml of the clear filtrate added into a conical flask in which 2.5  ml acetone had been added. This was titrated with indophenol dye solution (2, 6 – dichlorophenol indophenol) for 15 seconds (s). The procedure was followed for the standard as well. Ascorbic acid was calculated using Eq. 4.6.

Ascorbic acid  m / g  sample  C  V   DF / WT 



(4.6)

where C = mg ascorbic acid/ml dye, V = volume of dye used for titration of diluted sample, DF = Dilution factor, and WT = weight of sample (g). 4.4.2.9  Determination of Vitamin A Vitamin A in the form of β – Carotene was determined using the method of AOAC (2005), which involved extraction of the samples with acetone and hexane. Concentrations were determined by comparison with a standard curve.

4.4.3  Determination of Antinutritional Properties of AYB Seed The following antinutritional properties were determined: 4.4.3.1  Determination of Tannin The Folin-Denis colorimetric method as described by Kirk and Sawyer (1998) was used for the determination of tannin content in the samples as follows: 5 g of the samples were dispersed in 50 ml of distilled water and agitated. The mixture was allowed to stand for 30 m at room temperature and shaken every 5 m. After 30 m it was centrifuged and the extract obtained. The extract (2 ml) was taken into a 50 ml volumetric flask. Similarly, 2 ml standard tannin solution (tannic acid) and 2 ml of

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distilled water was poured in separate 50 ml volumetric flask to serve as standard and reagent (1.0 ml of Folin-Denis) added to each of the flasks, followed by addition of 2.5  ml of saturated sodium carbonate solution. The content of each flask was made up to 50 ml with distilled water and allowed to incubate for 90 m at room temperature. Their respective absorbance was measured in a spectrophotometer at 260 nm using reagent blank to calibrate the instrument at zero. The tannin content was calculated using Eq. 4.7.

%Tannin  An / W  C / Va  Vf 100 / 1

(4.7)

where: An = absorbance of the test sample, AS = absorbance of standard solution, C = concentration of the standard solution, W = weight of sample used, Vf = total volume of extract, Va = volume of extract analyzed. 4.4.3.2  Determination of Oxalate The titration method (AOAC 2005) was used. Two gram (2 g) of the sample was suspended in a mixture of 190 ml of distilled water in a 250 ml volumetric flask. 10 ml of 6 M HCl and the suspension was heated for 1 hr. at 100 °C in a water bath. The mixture was cooled and made up to 250 ml mark with distilled water before filtration. The duplicate portion of 125 ml of the filtrate was measured into 250 ml beakers. Each extract will be made alkaline with concentrated sodium then made acid by dropwise addition (4 drops) of acetic acid until the test solution is changed from salmon pink to faint yellow (pH 4–4.5) (methyl red indicator used). Each portion was heated at 90 °C to remove precipitate containing ferrous ions. The filtrate was heated again to 90 °C on a hot water bath and 10 ml and 5% calcium chloride solution added while being stirred constantly. After heating, it was centrifuged at full speed (2500 rpm) for 5 m. The supernatant was decanted and the precipitate completely dissolved in 10 ml of 20% (v/v) H2SO4 solution and the total filtrate resulting from 2 g of the sample was made up to 300 ml. Permanganate titration method was used to determine the oxalic acid content of the AYB flour. Aliquot 125 ml of the filtrate was heated until near boiling and then titrated against 0.05 M KMNO4 solution to a faint pink color which persisted for 30 s. Oxalic acid content was calculated using Eq. 4.8. %Oxalic acid 

T   Vme  Df   105 ME  Mf

(4.8)

where, T = Titre of KMNO4 (ml), Vme = volume – mass equivalent (1 ml of 0.05 M MNO4 solution is equivalent to 0.0022 g anhydrous oxalic acid), Df = the dilution factor (i.e 300 ml) 125 ml, ME = the molar equivalent of KMNO4 in oxalic acid (KMNO4 redox reaction is 5), Mf = the mass of the sample used.

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4.4.3.3  Determination of Phytate Phytate determination was carried out using the method described by Abulude (2004). Each sample (8  g) was dispersed in 200  cm3 of 2% HCl and extracted. Following extraction, the dispersion was filtered and 50  cm3 of the filtrate was mixed with 10 cm3 of 0.3% ammonium cyanide (NH4SCN) and diluted with 107 ml of distilled water. The extract was calculated using Eq. 4.9.

Phytate phosphorous  iron equivalent  1.95 g of titre



Phytate  phytate phosphorous  3.65 g

(4.9)

4.4.3.4  Determination of Saponin Content The method of AOAC (2005) was used for the determination of saponin in the sample. Each sample (5 g) was mixed with ethanol and allowed to stand for 10 m, centrifuged, transferred into a tube and evaporated to dryness in a water bath then cooled. After cooling, 2 ml of ethyl acetate was added followed by the addition of 1 ml of reagent consisting of 0.5 ml anisol aldehyde and 99.5 ml ethyl acetate. Then 1 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid and 50 ml of ethyl acetate was added. The solution was stirred and incubated for 20 m in a water bath at 60 °C, allowed to cool for 10  m and the absorbance (model: Jenway 6305, United Kingdom) was taken at 470  nm against a blank. Saponin content was calculated with the expression in Eq. 4.10. Saponin  %  

Saponin  evaporating dish  evaporating dish 100 (4.10) Sample size

4.4.4  D  etermination of Functional Properties of AYB Seed Flour The following functional properties were determined as described below. 4.4.4.1  Bulk Density Determination Bulk density was determined for each of the formulated samples using the method described by Onwuka (2005). Each sample was slowly filled into a l0 ml measuring cylinder. The bottom of the cylinder was gently tapped on a laboratory bench until

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there is no further diminution of the sample after filling it to the l0 ml mark. Bulk density was estimated as the mass per unit volume of the sample (g/ml). 4.4.4.2  D  etermination of Water and Oil Absorption Capacity (WAC/ OAC) The water and oil absorption capacities of the samples were determined using the method described by Onwuka (2005). One gram (1 g) of each of the samples was weighed into a conical graduated centrifuge tube, and then a warring whirl mixer was used to thoroughly mix the sample with 10 ml of distilled water or oil for 30 m. The mixture was allowed to stand for 30 m at room temperature and then centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 30 m. The volume of free water or oil (supernatant) was read directly from the graduated centrifuge tube. The absorption capacity was expressed as a gram of oil or water absorbed (or retained) per gram of sample. 4.4.4.3  Determination of Foaming Capacity The foaming capacity was determined using the method described by Onwuka (2005). Two grams (2 g) of each of the formulated samples was blended with 100 ml distilled water in a warring blender (the suspension will be whipped at 1600 rpm for 5 m). The mixture will then be poured into a 250 ml cylinder and the volume after 30 s will be recorded. The foam capacity was calculated using Eq. 4.11.



Formula; FC 

Volume after whipping  Volume before whipping 100 Volume before whipping.

(4.11)

4.4.5  Statistical Analysis The experiment was performed and responses were fitted in the design. After each experiment, responses were analyzed to access the effect of the process variable on the samples. The numerical optimization technique of the design expert software 7.0 was used to simultaneously optimize the multiple responses. The optimum process combinations for all the responses were obtained with respect to the assigned desired goals for each factor and responses chosen.

4.4.6  Result The results of the effects of processing conditions on the nutritional, antinutritional and functional properties of AYBS flour are as presented in Table 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4

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respectively. The result showed that the flour produced from raw AYBS contained 19.80% protein, 5.00% moisture, 6.00% fiber, 4.28% ash, 3.00% fat, 61.87% carbohydrate, 345.00 mg/100 g sodium, 166.8 m/100 g potassium, 28.63 mg/100 g phosphorus, 4.68 mg/100 g manganese, 47.56 mg/100 g magnesium, 252.1 mg/100 g calcium, vitamin A 99 μg/100 g, and 4.96 mg/100 g Vitamin C. The protein content of the raw sample was similar to 20.73% reported for raw AYBSF earlier reported (Ishaya et al. 2016; Ndidi et al. 2014; Adeoti et al. 2017). Anti-nutritional compositions of the raw sample were as follows: tannin 11.00  mg/100  g, phytate 318.88 mg/100 g, oxalates 81.45 mg/100 g, saponin162.6 mg/100 g, these results indicate the need for further pretreatment to reduce these anti-nutritional factors which will enhance the utilization of AYBSF. The functional properties of raw sample were as follows: water absorption capacity 1.2 g/cm3, oil absorption capacity 0.45 g/cm3, foaming capacity 39.22% and bulk density 0.64 g/cm3.

4.5  Discussion 4.5.1  T  he Effect of Soaking and Drying Temperature on the Nutritional Qualities of AYBSF The statistical analysis showed that soaking temperature, soaking duration, and drying temperature has no significant effect on the moisture content. The 3-D response surface plot for moisture content in terms of soaking duration and soaking temperature showed that the minimum moisture for AYBSF was 6.39% obtained at 27.46 °C soaking temperature, 64.52 m soaking duration and dried at 59.42 °C. This result is similar to 8.43% reported for soybean flour by Pele et al. (2016). The moisture content is suitable for the shelf stability of the flour. The model for the moisture content is as presented in Eq. 4.12. YMC  39.63207  0.88564 X1  0.060121X 2  0.67390 X 3  4.39394 E  004 X1 X 2  5.55000 E

 0033X1 X 3  3.78788E  004 X 2 X 3  0.011600 X12  3.09917E  004 X 2 2  3.87500 E  003X 32

(4.12)

The protein content of soaked AYBSF ranged from 19 to 24.62%. The soaking temperature, soaking duration and drying temperature had no significant (p  F  F 279.593 40% to the current food crisis. The productivity of Nigerian soils has reduced as a result of inadequate fertilizer application and soil nutrient mining. This has affected food security, quality, and safety. Soils contribute over 90% to food production in Africa and remain vulnerable to low productivity as its quality continues to decline due to soil erosion, loss of organic carbon, nutrient imbalance, the effect of war, poor soil management, inappropriate farming systems, land degradation, and drought. Horticultural crops are major components of Nigerian diets. They are useful in combating hidden hunger, human nutritional deficiencies, and food insecurity. However, their production in Nigeria has declined due to poor soil quality, degradation, and low soil fertility. Therefore, food sufficiency and safety are highly compromised leading to rising Hunger Index rating >15 for Nigeria. No crop is resistant to bad soils and good soils lead to better crops. It is important to improve soil quality in order to enhance Nigeria’s food security status. Keywords  Soil quality · Horticulture · Food security · Hidden hunger · Nigeria

16.1  Introduction African population continues to rise and so its food needs as shown in Fig. 16.1. Several factors militate against the provision and actualization of adequate O. B. Ndubuisi National Horticultural Research Institute (NIHORT), Ibadan, Nigeria M. D. Kelechi (*) National Horticultural Research Institute (NIHORT), Ibadan, Nigeria OCP Africa Fertilizers Nigeria Ltd, Abuja, Nigeria © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 O. O. Babalola (ed.), Food Security and Safety, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50672-8_16

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Fig. 16.1  Population growth by region, 1950–2100 (Billions). (Source: FAO 2017)

food/nutritional security in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA). This includes land degradation and low soil quality. Soil quality is the ability of the soil to sustain crops and other ecological functions. Soils play host to a variety of activities which include food production, shelter, and production for raw materials for industries. However, its integrity and productivity are hampered by climate change and industrialization among other factors. Maintenance of soil quality in order to reduce hunger and malnutrition in SSA remains a challenge. Lee’s ways of improving soil quality and productivity include organic farming, conservation agriculture, zero tillage, Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) and agroforestry (FAO and OECD 2019). These methods improve soil fertility and productivity, increase organic matter, reduce soil erosion and ultimately enhance crop yield, food availability and the ability of the soil to perform its ecological functions. Soils provide sustenance for crops and the quality of the crop is as good as the soil on which it is grown as no crop is resistant to bad soil. Crop performance is directly related to inherent (Pimpini et al. 1992), soil fertility (Rashidi et al. 2010). Utuk (2015) observed that land degradation is a threat to food security in Africa. Ogunkunle (2016) citing Douglas, (1994) stated that land degradation and soil quality loss have three dimensions namely, ecological, economic and social consequences. These three angles of land degradation are interlinked as one side if uncontrolled leads to another. According to Ogunkunle (2016), if the loss of a crop which is an ecological effect of a decline in soil quality is not controlled, it leads to hunger/poverty and poor financial capability which are social and economic problems respectively.

16.2  Improving Soil Quality Soil quality can be improved through the use of fertilizers and the adoption of suitable land management options. Skupien and Oszimmainski (2007) observed

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that fertilizer use can affect food and fruit quality as it can cause a reduction in sugar and phenols. From the foregoing, soil quality improvement techniques should be adopted cautiously. There is a strong link between food quality and soil properties. Soils that are inherently low in fertility will supply low nutrients to crops. The same applies to polluted soils. Therefore, the crops’ nutrients base and contributions to food security will also be affected. Excessive fertilizer use can affect food taste/flavour, ascorbic acid content, protein content fruit color, dry matter and bioavailability of food nutrients after Ingestion (Musa and Ogbadoyi 2012).

16.3  Indicators of Soil Quality Components of Soil quality include measurable characteristics such as pH, texture, micro-organism, aggregate stability, soil organic carbon, etc. Some indicators of soil quality are presented in Table 16.1.

Table 16.1  Indicators and criteria of physical, biological and chemical degradation of soil Indicator Physical indicator Soil bulk density Permeability Chemical indicators Content of nitrogen element (multiple decrease) N% Content of phosphorus element (mg/kg) Content of potassium element (cmol/kg) Content of readily soluble salts (increase by%) Content of ESP (increase by% of CEC) Content of base saturation (decrease of saturation if more than 50%) Excess salt (salinization) (increase in conductivity) mmho/ cm/year Biological indicator Content of organic matter in soil (%) Source: FAO (1979) and Snakin et al. (1996) 1 = None to slightly degraded 2 = moderately degraded 3 = Highly degraded soils 4 = Very highly degraded soils

Degree of degradation 1 2 3 20

>0.13 0.10– 0.13 >8 7–8 >0.16 0.14– 0.16 40% to yield reduction in tree crops. Table 18.9 shows the differences in fruit yield in a farm area where soil information was applied and one in which soil information was not applied. Application of soil information and proper land use allocation promote fruit yield (Herrera 2002). Mapping unit E has high water table and is prone to flooding. This can cause problems for plant root and a consequent decrease in reduction. However, information on such soils can be used to can be used to work out drainage styles to enhance production. The requirement for good land use allocation is the availability of accurate soil maps. (Lambeck 1999). Soil maps reflect soil capability and their suitability for agricultural land uses including tree crop production. (b) Fruits Nutritional quality: Every crop reflects the state of the soils. Poor soils produce poor quality fruits. Soils affect the quality of plants on which they are grown. Soils that are inherently low in fertility can scarcely support plant life. With reference to Pepper, Table 18.10 shows the impact of soil quality on fruit nutritional quality. For instance, in order to prevent nutrient mining and enhance the nutritional quality of fruit produced, mapping unit F needs application of NPK fertilizers as the present total nitrogen and available phosphorus are below the critical limits of 0.3 g/ kg, 35% loss of biodiversity in many African countries as many biological materials are lost during land clearing. (e) Poverty increase: Tree crop have proved to be a reliable source of income to farmers. Poor soil management and decline in quality affect the performance of trees and so reduce their output. This has led to the continuous pauperization of people. With adequate land resources data, soil can be properly, managed and applied to production which they can best support and sustain. This reduces pressure on soil resources and increase soil quality. With good soil quality and management, better crop performance can be obtained and hence increase farmers’ income and poverty alleviation. Table 18.12 shows low income from cultivation of citrus on a marginal land compared to a more suitable soil as shown by earlier soil survey report and recommendation for the area by Jaiyeola (1974). Table 18.12  Effect of use of soil information on Income of citrus in two seasons Cropping season 1 2 Total

Application of soil information Income (naira) 4570 19,725 24,295

Non application of soil information Income (naira) 1080 1825 2905

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18.6  Conclusion Unless soil information through soil survey and investigation is given its pride of place in tree crop production in sub Saharan Africa, there will continue to be decline in production and attendant reduction in yield and eventual income to farmers. Furthermore, biodiversity conservation will suffer a loss as almost extinct plant materials can be lost through bad soil management. Proper application of soil ­information will increase production and in the final analysis reduces poverty, improve nutrition and conserve biodiversity. The way forward for optimum tree crop production still remains adequate soil information as it will help soil conservation. Experts in the field of soil information should be consulted in all tree crop production programs, especially for identification of restrictive layers and soil fertility problems which are always limiting factors in Tropical soils. Soil information can aid zonalisation of tree crops and in the process improve nutrition, reduce poverty and conserve biodiversity as better crop will be produced as a result of using soils for production systems for which they are most suitable.

References Abd-Elmabod, S. K., Bakr, N., Muñoz-Rojas, M., Pereira, P., Zhang, Z., Cerda, A., Jordán, A., Mansour, H., Diego, D. E., & Laurence, J. (2019). Assessment of soil suitability for improvement of soil factors and agricultural management. Sustainability, 11, 1588. https://doi. org/10.3390/su11061588. Abdelrahman, M. A. E., Natarajan, A., & Hedge, R. (2016). Assessment of land suitability and capability by integrating remote sensing and GIS for agriculture in Chamarajanagar District, Karnataka, India. The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Science, 19(1), 125–141. Abera, T., Wegary, D., Semu, E., Msanya, B. M., Debele, T., & Kim, H. (2016). Pedological characterization, fertility status and classification of the soils under maize production of Bako Tibe and toke Kutaye districts of Western Showa, Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Applied Science Technology, 7(1), 1–17. Adam, J., Saleh, S., Olowosulu, A.  T., Ashara, A.  H., & Srividhya, S. (2018). Mapping of soil properties using geographical information system (GIS): A case study of Hassan Usman Katsina Polytechnic. Open Journal of Civil Engineering, 8, 544–554. https://doi.org/10.4236/ ojce.2018.84039. Adhanom, D., & Tosheme, T. (2016). Characterization and classification of soils of Aba-Midan sub watershed in Bambasi Wereda, West Ethiopia. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 6(6), 390–399. Akinfasoye, J. A. (2019). Growth, yield and nutritional quality of Long Cayenne Pepper (Capsicum frutescens L.) as influenced by organic fertilizers in Ibadan and Ogbomoso, Nigeria. PhD thesis, Department of Agronomy, University of Ibadan, p. xviii+164. Akpovwovwo, U. E. (2014). Fertility capability classification and GIS mapping of soils in Agbarho town, Delta State. Journal of Agricultural Research, 9(21):635–1640. Alegbejo, M. D. (2017). The role of horticulture in food security and sustainable development in a recessed economy. In C. M. Ekenta, E. Opoola, & J. F. Owolabi (Eds.), 35th annual conference of the horticultural Society of Nigeria (pp. xxiii–xl). Alva, A. K., & Tucker, D. P. H. (1999). Soils and citrus nutrition. In L. W. Timmer & L. W. Duncan (Eds.), Citrus Health management (pp. 59–60). St. Paul: APS Press.

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Chapter 19

African Walnuts: A Natural Depository of Nutritional and Bioactive Compounds Essential for Food and Nutritional Security in Africa Juliana Bunmi Adetunji, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, and Olugbemi Tope Olaniyan

Abstract  African walnuts are seasonal underutilized nuts that possess health and nutritional benefits like antioxidants, vitamins, and essential minerals required for prevention of chronic diseases and adequate maintenance of wellbeing of humans. Several studies have been conducted over the years on the nutritional and medicinal benefits of African walnut which includes: anti-aging, antioxidant, fertility boosters, anticancer, prevention of miscarriages, biosynthesis of protein and promotion of a healthy heart, immune booster, reduction of low-density lipoprotein, antidiabetics, weight management, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. This chapter provides a holistic review on the medicinal and nutritional properties of the bioactive constituents of African walnuts and the mechanism of action through which these biologically active compounds exhibit their biological activities for the optimum benefits to human. It will also provide a detailed study on the previous health merits of African walnuts and some cogent reasons why it needs to be included in our daily diets and their advantage over other available nuts. This will go along by serving as a guild and a baseline study that will give people from different parts of the world better food choices to better the health of mankind. Keywords  African walnuts · Plukenetia conophora · Nutritional · Active compounds · Health attributes · Antimicrobial effects · Food security

J. B. Adetunji (*) Nutrition and Toxicology Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, Osun State University, Osogbo, Nigeria C. O. Adetunji Applied Microbiology, Biotechnology and Nanotechnology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Edo University, Iyamho, Auchi, Edo, Nigeria O. T. Olaniyan Laboratory for Reproductive Biology and Developmental Programming, Department of Physiology, Edo University, Iyamho, Auchi, Edo, Nigeria © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 O. O. Babalola (ed.), Food Security and Safety, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50672-8_19

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19.1  Introduction Herbal medicines involve the utilization of various parts of plants such as root, flowers, seeds, barks, berries, leaves with little industrial processing for the benefit of mankind. The application of herbal medicine has been recognized as a sustainable solution for the prevention and treatment of various diseases affecting human being such as anti-bacterial, antifungal, anticancer, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, antiulcer, and anticancer (Adetunji and Olaleye 2011; Adetunji et al. 2011a, b, c, d, 2014). It has been forecasted by the World Health Organization that almost 80% of global population depend on the utilization of herbal medicine for their principal healthcare where the yearly market for the various products derived from herbal medicine was estimated around US$60 billion (WHO 2004; Chen et al. 2011). The African walnut (Plukenetia conophora) formerly called Tetracarpidium conophorum is a member of Euphorbiaceae family, being a perennial climber, it is widely distributed and eaten in most cities of the Sub-Saharan Africa. The nuts derived from the plant is grown mainly for the purpose consuming them as snacks. Plukenetia conophora are rich in protein, carbohydrate, minerals, vitamins, fats and oil needed for development and overall nutrition required for the maintenance of human health (Kanu et al. 2015). The usage of medicinal plants has been highlighted as a remedy to several ailments adopted in various region of the world. Plukenetia conophora has been affirmed to contain several benefits which contains nutritional benefits, ethnomedicinal, pharmacological and phytochemical activities. Moreover, Plukenetia conophora has been highlighted as one of beneficial medicinal plants that could be a sustainable solution for effective healthcare management in African countries due to its uncountable importance as a potential functional food and towards the development of pharmaceuticals drugs (Ayeni and Nuhu 2018). It has been discovered that the consumption of Plukenetia conophora possess protective effects against several diseases such as metabolic (diabetes), cardiovascular, age-related degenerative conditions, infertility and cancer. The nutritional constituents of Plukenetia conophora indicate that this edible nut has a robust potential in the prevention, treatment and promoting human health which might be linked to the presence several bioactive molecules like dietary fiber, folate, melatonin, phytosterols, higher content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, protein; and antioxidant agents such as α and γ-tocopherol and polyphenolic compounds which have been extensively studied as well as several reports on its utilization for the prevention and/or attenuate several disease conditions. Therefore, this chapter intends to write a comprehensive report on the medicinal and nutritional benefits of Plukenetia conophora most especially their beneficial health promoting effects for the greater benefits of mankind.

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19.2  P  lukenetia conophora: Potential Nutrition and Health Benefits Food safety in Africa have become a major challenge with the current situation, therefore, it has become a necessity to evaluate the nutritional contents of various African food most especially for the wellbeing of mankind. Plukenetia conophora forms a larger percentage of a good nutritious food mostly eaten in Africa. Food and nutrition security are germane areas to be considered in trying to ascertain the safety of these available food. Plukenetia conophora a common nut in Africa having some essential nutrients embedded there, which have been used for numerous functions in in this part of the world. Therefore, in view of the aforementioned, this chapter will elaborate on various role of walnut in nutritional security in Africa and in a bit, to understand it composition and advantages to health, various researchers have evaluated and reported their finding on it. Tabasum et  al. (2018) reported that Walnuts have been found as a constituent in human diet with a great nutritious value that is traditionally used over a long time. Also, there were presence of essential lipids and some bioactive constituents especially polyphenols which contributes to it biological properties and health sustainability. These bioactive agents present in walnut have been reported to contain beneficial antioxidant which could limit various disease initiation and progression in cases like cardiovascular, cancer as well as neurodegenerative disorders (Tabasum et al. 2018). Udedi et al. (2013) compared the nutritional constituents of raw and cooked Plukenetia conophora in southern region of Nigeria and their results revealed that T. conophorum contains nutrients in an appreciable amount which could serve as an excellent food material to fight against nutritional insecurity in all age group. Chikezie (2017) assessed the quality of African walnut seed and the screening revealed it contained high concentration of alkaloid and steroids with a moderate tannins’ concentration. Hence, the author observed that present in the Plukenetia conophora seeds when boiled are some active substances with high nutritional potential that can be of industrial importance (Chikezie 2017). Consequently, they further perform investigation into the nutritional constituents and antioxidant capacity of African walnut popularly consumed in some region in Nigeria. Udedi et al. (2014) determined the proximate composition and active constituents in walnut and the following phytochemical constituents like phenols (7.44 and 7.04 mg/ml), flavonoids (3.5 and 1.66 mg/ml), with vitamin C (54.56 and 44.0 mg/kg) were observed for both the raw and the cooked walnut respectively. The extracts of walnut showed higher H+ donating potential because the uncooked walnut could scavenge the reactive oxygen species better than the cooked walnut. The study revealed that the Plukenetia conophora plant possess an excellent nutritive and antioxidant capacity. Nutritionally, the antioxidant capacity of Plukenetia conophora nut was due to the phenolic metabolites found in plants. The plant can then be exploited as a food source. Nevertheless, the extracts 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) reactive species scavenging potentials were in less appreciable amount when compared to butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) depicting that the extracts can acts as a

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p­ roton-­donor, free radical inhibitors or scavengers and possibly as potential antioxidants. Thus, walnuts are highly recommended for everybody for healthy living. Udedi et al. (2014), concluded that T. conophorum (African walnut) have the capacity to supply the same amount of essential nutrients available in some fruits such as banana, guava, mango and avocado popularly consumed based on their proximate content and energy contents which make them significant in fighting food and nutrition insecurity. Rodrigues et al. (2016), carried out a research on the potential health benefit of African walnut over the English walnuts. The result showed that African walnut contain high amount of monounsaturated fatty acids and some antioxidants which includes γ-tocopherol and polyphenols. These phytochemical constituents could play a crucial role in the prevention or attenuation of some common diseases like cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative conditions respectively. It was also established that it could serves as a useful source of proteins, fibers, folic acid, melatonins, phytosterols and many more linked with-it multiple health promoting capabilities in human (Rodrigues et al. 2016). Thus, gave the African walnut a hedge over the English walnuts. To further support this claim Kanu et al. (2015) reported that African walnut are very rich reservoir of lipids, protein, vitamins, carbohydrate with minerals necessary for development and growth, thereby influencing complete nutritional wellbeing. Plukenetia conophora was also evaluated to contains monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids especially α-linolenate that helps to promote good health. Godwin (2015) and Kanu et al. (2015) also confirmed that boiled and roasted African walnut during postharvest storage are rich in both essential and non-essential lipids like, oleate, palmitic acids, stearic acids, arachidonic acid, α-linolenic acid and linoleic acid with α-linolineate as the most abundant. Ogunwusi and Ibrahim (2016) also reported that plukenetia conophora is an underutilized nut found growing as a wild plant most of time in most forest region in Africa. The fruit is a very good source of vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and essential nutrients. The nut offers a good source of carbohydrate, proteins, polyunsaturated acids like α-linolenate an essential fatty acids and calories. These nuts contain rare fatty acids being utilized in defensive coatings, pharmaceuticals, dispersants, cosmetics and a variability of artificial intermediates. Also, the phytochemical investigation of the nuts, roots and leaves displayed bioactive compounds like phytates, oxalates, saponins, tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids and terpenoids used in wound healing, anticancer agents, anti-inflammatory, infertility, disease prevention and treatment. Walnuts are used during production in pharmaceutical industries in most developing nations. Furthermore, several scientists have reported the secondary metabolites, proximate, vitamin and minerals constituents of Tetracarpidium conophorum (walnut) seeds extract and it revealed that alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins, glycosides, terpenoids, steroids and reducing sugar were available in this special nut (Onawumi et al. 2013; Ojobor et al. 2015; Igara 2017; Chikezie 2017). However, the fat-soluble vitamins and the B complex were also present in different proportion. The result of proximate analysis reveals that the plant contained substantial amount of moisture, fat, fiber, protein, ash and carbohydrate. Also, the report of the authors revealed that the seed extract provided some major minerals like calcium, potassium, sodium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron,

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zinc, manganese and copper. Moreover, the authors affirm that the presence of secondary metabolites, vitamins and other components assessed in Tetracarpidium conophorum seed supported it claim as a useful source of food and drugs with great anti-inflammatory properties that might be helpful in asthma, rheumatoid, arthritis and cancer prevention (Ojobor et  al. 2015). Igara and colleagues in 2017, also assessed the bioactive and nutritive constituents available in walnut seed as adequate depository of essential nutrient necessary for maintenance of healthy living. They claimed that some of these nutritional properties in walnut seed support its uses as a cardio-protective, an anticancer, pain and trauma relieving food substance (Igara et al. 2017). hence, some of the vitamins supplied by this plant are essential to the proper functioning of the body system to support a good health. Chikezie (2017) concluded that boiled Plukenetia conophora seeds having biological constituents, enhanced nutritive features, and medicinal properties nutritional value which could be explored for food and pharmaceutical drug formulations for adequate maintenance of human health most especially in developing countries especially Africa continent where malnutrition has become endemic. Al-Snafi (2018) highlighted the phytochemical, proximate, mineral and nutritional parameters present in the bark, leaf and kernels of Juglans regia another species of Plukenetia conophora and it was documented that it contains carbohydrates, alkaloids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, steroids, saponins and tannins were presence. Also Al-Snafi (2018) went further to analyze the nutritional content of the kernels of Juglans regia, which revealed that it contained monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, fat soluble viatamins, vitamin C and B complex and minerals (phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, sodium, copper, vitamin K zinc, manganese and aluminum). Conversely, the nutritional contents depend on several factors such as genotype, cultivar, nature of soil as the major factors responsible for variations in the chemical constituents, pharmacological, nutritional and therapeutic characteristics of Juglans regia utilized in their study. Milind and Deepa (2011) carried out an extensive review work on walnut and they found out that African walnut is a good delicacy that are ethnomedicinal, nutritional with pharmacological in promoting and realizing good health in the global sustainable development goals. According to Ayeni and Nuhu (2018) medicinal plants have been use as an antidote in numerous ailments in a number of countries across the world by traditionalist. Reports have shown that all parts of Plukenetia conophora plant studied in ethnomedical survey have beneficial value on human well-being. In their article, they reported the various phytochemical, nutritional, pharmacological and ethnomedicinal potentials of Plukenetia conophora plants necessary for attaining global sustainable development constitution in health for all, being the last resort for mankind in managing health in most developing nations. Hence, these findings documented that there is a great potential for black than English walnut in promoting good health system in human. Esekheigbe and Onimawo (2015) investigated the influence of different processing on the bioactive and nutritional properties of Plukenetia conophora. The processing of the matured nuts was in three different ways; 2  h cooking, hot sand roasting for 1 h at 130 °C and natural open-air fermentation for 3 days. Both the

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processed and raw samples are oven-dried and then milled into powder to determine the proximate, antinutrients and mineral composition respectively. Their results displayed high level of protein and fat in the raw sample but fermentation and cooking further improved the protein level available in the nut. Moreover, it was discovered that fermentation significantly lowered the fat, all minerals and antinutrients especially alkaloid content. The three processing methods significantly increased ash, carbohydrates and crude fiber content. Therefore, fermentation and cooking could serve as good method of processing walnuts to prevent nutrient loss and preserving the bioactive compounds.

19.3  P  lukenetia conophora and Some Pharmacological Effects Food safety and security need not be compromised to stay healthy. WHO (2019) wrote that when scarcity of food occurs, hygiene and nutrition security are often ignored, and these are pointer to health risk. Often time, health disorders are developed due to the exposure humans to unsafe foods contaminated by microbes, chemicals, zoonotic and others. Ogunlade et  al. (2014), evaluated the African walnut (Plukenetia conophora) usually eaten as snacks by most people in the western and southern region of Nigeria. They discovered that the nuts possessed high phenolic content, an antioxidant substance that could reduce free radicals responsible for several degenerative diseases such as infertility, diarrhea, malaria, hypertension, cancers most especially in the developing countries where environmental factors could have led to degeneration of human health due to constant exposure to contaminants. Thus, the constant consumption of walnut has been linked to improved health of mankind with an utmost astonishing nutritional discovery of the nineties (Ogunlade et al. 2014), reported that. However, various researchers have established that essential and non-essential nutrients, bioactive component and some minerals are available in Plukenetia conophora (Africa walnuts). This attests to the nutritional benefits that could be derived from the consumption of the African nuts.

19.4  Enhancement of Male Fertility Olaniyan et al. (2018) reported the effects of Plukenetia conophora in male infertility when triggered by exposure to cadmium chloride. Several studies have confirmed the detrimental effect of heavy metals on the male reproductive system. The authors reported that many infertile people, particularly those in developing nations, recourse to folkloric medicine due to its several benefits and Plukenetia conophora is one major plant being utilized to promote fertility. Olaniyan et al. (2018) studied the effects of both Plukenetia conophora and its isolated compound 4­ H-Pyran-4-­One

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2, 3-Dihydro-3, 5-Dihydroxy-6-Methyl on cadmium chloride-induced testicular injury on Wistar rats with for 54 days. From their results, the biochemical parameters; nitric oxide, malondialdehyde, antioxidant enzymes, and proton pumps including reproductive hormones were determined. There were significant increases in sperm count, viability, motility, antioxidant enzymes, proton pump, and testosterone in the groups treated with standard drug vitamin E, Plukenetia conophora extract significant led to decreases in malondialdehyde and nitric oxide levels when compared with the toxicity group. The authors concluded that Plukenetia conophora alleviated male reproductive toxicity induced by cadmium chloride in Wistar rats. They suggested that 4H-Pyran-4-One 2, 3-Dihydro-3, 5-Dihydroxy-6-Methyl present in Plukenetia conophora may be responsible for the ameliorative effects.

19.5  Anti-diarrhoea Effect In 2015, Nwachoko and Jack revealed that aqueous extract of hot nut of Plukenetia conophora prevented rats against diarrhea induction through castor oil; this effect may be credited to the high content of the phytochemicals and bioactive molecules which supported its use in ethnomedicinal. Ezealisiji et al. (2014a, b) investigated the extract from methanol and n-hexane of Plukenetia conophora nut. This was performed by utilizing ethanol-induced gastric and pyloric ligation induced ulceration methods. Extract decreased the ulcer index, total and free acidity level, gastric volume but significant increase in the pH as compared with the control. It was also confirmed by the authors that phytochemicals like terpenoids, tannins and flavonoids were involved in the wound healing activity and cytoprotective properties. Anosike et al. (2015) also reported the anti-ulcer activity of Plukenetia conophora seeds methanol extract in indomethacin-induced ulcer. This effect was linked to the existence of some active metabolites such as flavonoids having recurring immunomodulatory activities together with antioxidant properties. Also, Bello et al. (2013) evaluated the wound healing activities of Plukenetia conophora leaves in catfish (Clarias gariepinus) and resolved that Plukenetia conophora leaf extract could significantly reduce mortality linked with wound infection and aid the aquaculture industry.

19.6  Anti-malarial Effect Dada and Ogundolie in 2016 investigated the activity of raw seeds extract of Plukenetia conophora as an anti-plasmodial in Plasmodium berghei infected Swiss mice, the result shows a dose-dependent pattern on chemo-suppression. It was therefore suggested that the Plukenetia conophora seeds might be potent in the treatment or prevention of malaria. Dada and colleague also studied the effects of the ethanol seeds extract of Plukenetia conophora on histopathological and

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h­ aematological indices of P. berghei (NK65) infected Swiss mice and observed an elevation in the haematological indices like haemoglobin (HGB), red blood cells (RBC), packed cell volume (PCV), platelet (PLT) of all treatment groups. The histological study of kidney and liver of the mice treated with the seeds extract showed a restorative effect.

19.7  Antihypertensive Effect Oguwike et al. (2014) gave an account on the potential use of plukenetia conophora as anti-hypertensive agent using 130 hypertensive subjects. The result indicated that plukenetia conophora normalizes high blood pressure with short term meal of walnut; other parameters investigated are serum electrolytes and high cholesterol in which the extract was able to normalize. Plukenetia conophora had no effect on packed cell volume, haemoglobin concentration, platelet counts, white blood cell count, as compared with the controls. They therefore concluded that plukenetia conophora contains some active elements that can serve as anti-hypertensive agent if harness.

19.8  Antioxidant Effect Amaeze et al. (2011) determined the bioflavonoid content and the antioxidant capability in fresh and dried leaves of methanol and ethanol-water extracts of African walnut (Plukenetia conophora). Radicals of DPPH, nitric oxide inhibition together with ferric scavenging power assays were the parameters utilized in the evaluations of the antioxidant activities of Plukenetia conophora which was performed using spectrophotometrically. The total secondary metabolites content of flavonoids, proanthocyanidin and phenolics were also examined. It was reported that the highest free radical scavenging ability with 50% inhibition of 2,2-diphenyl-1-­picrylhydrazyl at 0.017  mg/mL concentration was observed in the dried leaves extracted using ethanol: water when compared with ascorbate and tocopherol standards with inhibition at 0.019 and 0.011 mg/mL respectively. It was further reported that at 0.1 mg/ mL the extract and rutin nitric oxide inhibition activity were 54.45% and 55.03%. The ferric reducing power in comparison with ascorbic acid revealed 287 μMFe and 281 μMFe (11)/g at 1  mg/mL concentration. Furthermore, the methanol extract when compared with the ethanol: water extract shows a higher polyphenol (flavonoids, proanthocyanidin and phenolic) levels in the dried and fresh leaves respective (Amaeze et  al. 2011). Furthermore, the authors claimed that the extracts of Plukenetia conophora leaves exhibited good antioxidant capacity with the best

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activity derived from the dried leaves extracted with ethanol-water ratio. Hence, their study showed that walnut entails natural source of antioxidants or ­nutraceuticals which can be beneficial in the reduction of oxidative stress thereby leading to good health sustainability (Amaeze et al. 2011). In an attempt to search for safer and cheap source of natural antioxidant with the ability to treat disorders resulting from oxidative stress, Akomolafe et al. (2015b) reveal the inhibitory potential of Tetracarpidium conophorum on lipid peroxidation in genitals of rat by FeSO4 induction. The authors reported that there was a drastic reduction in the malondialdehyde concentration in the homogenate of the testes and penis of FeSO4 induced rats with respect to extract concentration. Furthermore, the extract administered to the induced rats that gave the minimal MDA production was derived from the concentration containing 0.625 mg/mL. Meanwhile, in vitro study conducted on the plant extract using HPLC showed the presence of the major active constituents such as gallate, catechin, chlorogenate, kaempferol, caffeic acid, rutin, quercitrin, coumarin, quercetin and luteolin (Akomolafe et al. 2015b). It was also pointed out that the ABTS(2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) and vitamin C scavenging ability of Tetracarpidium conophorum extract was able to scavenged DPPH (2,2-diphenylpicrylhydrazyl), NO (Nitric oxide), OH* (Hydroxyl) radicals and chelated Fe2+ in response to concentration. Thus, supporting the claim Tetracarpidium conophorum have inhibitory effect.

19.9  Anticancer Activity Carvalho et al. (2010) showed the crude extract obtained from Plukenetia conophora possess an anti-inhibitory influence against kidney cancer and human colon cells respectively. The result obtained also affirms that the crude extract exhibited an enhance anti-proliferative effectiveness. Their study showed that there is presence of natural antioxidant in the walnut and they have tendency to serve as a chemo preventive agent. Moreover, the author established the antitumor effectiveness of walnut when induced by azoxymethane. Their study indicated that the crude extract prevented intestinal carcinogenesis which showed that the crude extract could serve as a chemo-preventive agent for human intestinal neoplasia. Moreover, Ji et  al. (2011) discovered that Juglone could prevent the development of apoptotic sarcoma 180 SGC-7901 cells when tested in an in-vivo trial. The mechanism of action through which the Juglone exhibit an anticancer effectiveness includes up-­regulation of Bax apoptotic protein expression, stimulation of the mitochondrial death pathway, down-regulation of Bcl-2 protein expression, inhibition of reactive oxygen species respectively.

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19.10  Antidepressant Activity Rath and Pradhan (2009) establish the antidepressant influence of hexane extract of J. regia fruit when tested at concentration containing 100 and 150  mg/kg body weight in comparison with a synthetic drug on a male wistar rats. This antidepressant influence was confirmed by tail suspension test and forced swimming. In 2011, Aladeokin and Umukoro examined psychopharmacological actions of oral administration of extract of Plukenetia conophora nuts in mice. The results obtained shows a substantial concentration-dependent reduction in the period of rigidity in the forced swim test. Moreover, it was established that thiopentone did not protract the period of sleep nor change the arrangement of the stereotyped actions prompted by amphetamine. The authors resolved that Plukenetia conophora extract established antidepressant-like features.

19.11  Wound Healing Properties Ezealisiji et  al. (2014a) investigated healing potential of n-hexane and methanol solvent extract of cooked Πλυκενετια χονοπηορα and it was observed that 5% and 10% concentration of each solvent extracts or gentamicin showed a significant accelerated healing rate when compared with that of the pure ointment. It was also validated that the 10% n-hexane group had significant wound contraction on the fourth day while the other groups shows no significant percentage wound contraction activity before the sixteenth day in comparison with the standard. Hence, percentages of mean wound contraction was examined in the negative control, gentamicin, 5% n-hexane, 5% methanol, 10% n-hexane, 10% methanol and on the 18th day were 69.18%, 98.09%, 84.14%, 88.36%, 90.60% and 96.50% and respectively. The authors attributed the healing potential of African walnut to some bioactive secondary metabolites mostly flavonoids with reported to have free radicals scavenging potential and immune-stimulating capacities. Their study showed that the wound healing potential observed is in a dose-dependent pattern. Bello et al. (2013) carried out a study on wound healing potential of Africa walnut (Plukenetia conophora) leaves and Onion bulb (Allium cepa) bulb residue on Clarias gariepinus. The authors formulated nine experimental diets with 40% protein addition to eight diets: 0% (Control), 0.5%(OB2), 1.0%(OB3), 1.5%(OB4), 2.0%(OB5), 0.5%(WL6), 1.0%(WL7), 1.5%(WL8) and 2.0%(WL9). It was observed that both sex of Clarias gariepinus fish that had a weight of 1 kg were fed twice daily with the formulated diet. The lateral and caudal parts the Clarias gariepinus are been monitored for percentage healing rate on days 0, 7 and 14 respectively. Bello et al. (2013) in their results revealed that groups of fish fed with walnut leaves and residues of onion bulb had improved performance of healing dermal wound rate than the control on the lateral and caudal parts as 100%, 14.29 and 100%, 14.29 in WL 8 for both sexes compared with 98%, 14.00 and 80%, 11.43 of

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the control respectively. It was observed that there was a better healing potential of Africa walnut leaves and onion bulb at 100%, 14.29 in the male Clarias gariepinus than in the female Clarias gariepinus with 82%, 11.71. The diets formulated with the two components Plukenetia conophora leaves and Allium cepa residues showed a better wound healing capability and can therefore be a potential fed for fish farming. Furthermore, the fish diet composed with 1.5% of walnut leaf inclusion enhance wound healing in Clarias gariepinus (Bello et al. 2013).

19.12  Cytotoxicity Effect Godwin (2015) documented an in vitro research on the cytotoxic potential of four African nuts extract on lung cancer (A549) cells using diethyl ether, dichloromethane, n-butanol and water. Cytotoxicity experiment carried out revealed that there is no decrease in cell densities in treated plates using different concentration of unprocessed nuts extract of Πλυκενετια χονοπηορα. Different concentrations of roasted walnuts extract using various solvents such as Diethyl ether-ethyl acetate, n-­butanol, dichloromethane and water (1:10 g/mL) extract of boiled Πλυκενετια χονοπηορα caused a no significant decrease of