Encyclopedia of Caves [3 ed.] 9780128141243, 1631671731, 1271271281, 2602602612, 2852852942, 0128141247

Table of contents :
Front Cover......Page 1
Encyclopedia of Caves......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Exceptional caves......Page 24
Evolution and adaptation......Page 25
Contributors......Page 26
Article Format......Page 30
Index......Page 31
Preface......Page 32
Food availability in caves......Page 34
How cave animals acquire more food and store nutrients......Page 35
How cave animals save the acquired energy?......Page 37
Enduring periods of starvation......Page 38
Bibliography......Page 39
Supply and consumption of do in groundwater......Page 41
Small-scale heterogeneity in do in groundwater......Page 42
Behavioral responses......Page 43
Respiratory responses......Page 44
During anoxia......Page 45
Imbrication of adaptive strategies to low food resources and low oxygen supply......Page 46
Bibliography......Page 47
Darkness as key driver of troglomorphic trait modifications......Page 49
Constructive vs regressive troglomorphic traits......Page 50
Positive and relaxed selection in troglomorphic trait evolution......Page 51
Positive vs relaxed selection in the regression of body pigmentation......Page 52
Regressive and constructive evolution of UV light tolerance......Page 53
Convergent troglomorphic trait evolution in other light-insulated environments......Page 54
Bibliography......Page 55
Feeding and foraging behavior......Page 57
Social behaviors: Reproductive behaviors, schooling, and aggression......Page 58
Activity and rhythms: Circadian rhythms and sleep......Page 60
Genetic basis of behavior......Page 61
Connecting morphology and behavior......Page 62
Brain and behavior......Page 63
Evolutionary history of cave behavior......Page 64
Bibliography......Page 65
Model systems for studying patterns and procsesses......Page 66
Neutral mutations......Page 67
Energy-economy......Page 68
Inconsistent patterns: Phylogenetic effects, time, and microhabitats......Page 69
Selection-function relationship......Page 71
Bibliography......Page 72
Historical development......Page 73
The action of natural selection in caves......Page 74
The selective regime in caves......Page 75
The role of natural selection in colonization and speciation......Page 77
Bibliography......Page 78
Preadaptation......Page 80
Mating behavior and hybridization......Page 81
Hawaii......Page 82
Cixiid planthoppers (Hemiptera: Fulgoromorpha: Cixiidae)......Page 83
Wolf spiders (Arachnida: Lycosidae)......Page 86
Conclusions......Page 87
Bibliography......Page 88
Geography and some historical data......Page 89
Cave morphology and hydrology......Page 90
Noncrustacean groups in the anchihaline fauna......Page 91
Anchihaline crustacea......Page 92
Biogeography......Page 94
Trophic relations......Page 95
Anchihaline fauna and humans......Page 96
Bibliography......Page 97
Archeology of the Mammoth Cave area......Page 98
Archeological evidence......Page 99
Interpretations......Page 100
Conclusion......Page 102
Bibliography......Page 103
Introduction......Page 104
Cave art in Europe......Page 105
Bibliography......Page 108
Development of troglomorphies......Page 109
Postojna-planina cave system......Page 110
Broader view......Page 112
Asellus kosswigi......Page 113
Continental scale......Page 114
Prospects for the future......Page 115
Bibliography......Page 117
Natural history......Page 118
Troglomorphic traits......Page 120
Developmental basis of troglomorphic traits......Page 123
Inheritance and genetic basis of troglomorphic traits......Page 124
Evolution of troglomorphic traits......Page 125
Bibliography......Page 126
Introduction......Page 127
Nursery roosts......Page 128
Hibernation roosts......Page 129
Ecosystem services and economic impacts......Page 131
Threats......Page 132
Conservation measures......Page 133
Bibliography......Page 134
Carabidae......Page 135
Distribution......Page 137
Life cycle......Page 138
Evolution and diversification......Page 139
Bibliography......Page 141
Introduction......Page 142
Geographic factors......Page 143
Cave atmosphere......Page 144
Energy supply......Page 148
Copepoda......Page 149
Ostracoda......Page 151
Isopoda......Page 152
Spelaeogriphacea......Page 153
Opiliones......Page 154
Diplopoda......Page 155
Blattodea......Page 156
Coleoptera......Page 157
Conclusions......Page 158
Bibliography......Page 159
Biospeleological research......Page 160
Subterranean biodiversity......Page 161
Amphipoda......Page 163
Actinopterygii......Page 164
Diplopoda......Page 165
Araneae......Page 166
Coleoptera......Page 167
Bibliography......Page 168
Diversity comparisons to other continents......Page 169
Troglomorphy and relictness......Page 171
Geographic patterns within Europe......Page 174
Bibliography......Page 178
Current state of knowledge......Page 179
Cave freshwater......Page 181
Oligotrophic terrestrial habitats and troglobionts......Page 183
Guano and guanobionts......Page 184
Geographical patterns of species richness......Page 187
Troglomorphy along environmental gradients......Page 191
Tropical versus temperate subterranean biodiversity......Page 192
Bats, guano, and biodiversity conservation......Page 193
Endemism and vulnerability......Page 194
Bibliography......Page 195
Distribution of karst, caves, and cave biodiversity......Page 196
Class Arachnida......Page 200
Other Arachnids......Page 202
Order Amphipoda (amphipods)......Page 203
Class Diplopoda (millipedes)......Page 204
Order Diptera (true flies)......Page 205
Class Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes)......Page 206
Class Aves (birds)......Page 207
Discussion......Page 208
Bibliography......Page 209
Terrestrial cave faunas......Page 210
Aquatic subterranean faunas......Page 217
Bibliography......Page 219
Small-scale features......Page 220
Large-scale features......Page 221
Breakdown mechanics......Page 222
Geologic processes that initiate breakdown......Page 224
Crystal wedging or limestone replacement to initiate breakdown......Page 225
Role of breakdown in speleological processes......Page 226
Bibliography......Page 227
Physical and geologic setting......Page 228
History of exploration......Page 229
Breathing cave......Page 231
Bobcat (Chestnut Ridge Cave system)......Page 232
Blarney Stone (Chestnut Ridge Cave system)......Page 233
Barberry......Page 234
Battered Bar......Page 235
By-the-road......Page 236
Fuhls paradise pit......Page 237
Special attributes......Page 238
Bibliography......Page 239
Chapter 23: Camps......Page 240
Bibliography......Page 244
Morphology and genesis......Page 245
Modern hydrology......Page 247
Cave sediments, speleothems, and dating......Page 248
The fauna of Castleguard......Page 249
Bibliography......Page 250
Location and present environment......Page 251
Cave deposits and processes......Page 252
The prehistoric and historical sequence of cave occupations in the middle east......Page 253
Bibliography......Page 255
Physical environment and habitat zones......Page 256
Energy flux and limitation......Page 257
Nutrients......Page 258
Bibliography......Page 259
Geographic distribution......Page 260
Co-occurrence of cavefishes......Page 262
Morphological troglomorphy......Page 266
Physiological, life history, and behavioral adaptations......Page 267
Bibliography......Page 268
The distribution and diversity of Chinese cavefish......Page 270
Characteristics of Chinese cavefish......Page 271
Morphology and genetic adaptation......Page 273
Changes in body shape......Page 274
Sensory apparatus......Page 275
Eye degeneration......Page 278
Disappearance of scales......Page 282
Lack of diurnal rhythms......Page 283
Phylogenesis, speciation mechanisms, and biogeography......Page 284
Research and conservation......Page 286
Bibliography......Page 287
Types of caves......Page 288
Caves as repositories......Page 290
Caves as habitat......Page 291
Bibliography......Page 292
Characteristic formation history of caver organizations......Page 293
Land trusts, conservancies, and caver villages......Page 294
Public and private cave enterprise communities......Page 295
International caver communities and organizations......Page 296
Conclusion......Page 298
Bibliography......Page 299
Carbon fixation pathways......Page 300
Reduced inorganic sulfur compounds......Page 302
Iron and manganese......Page 303
Chemolithoautotrophy in caves and karst settings......Page 304
Sulfur cycle......Page 305
Nitrogen cycle......Page 307
Chemolithoautotrophically based cave ecosystems......Page 308
Bibliography......Page 309
Basic physical properties......Page 310
Stratigraphy......Page 311
Sediment production......Page 313
Stream sediments......Page 314
Geomorphic perspective......Page 315
Bibliography......Page 316
Morphology and size of dolines......Page 318
The structure of dolines......Page 319
Hydrological behavior and related solution processes in dolines......Page 320
Examples of evolution......Page 322
Summary of solution dolines......Page 326
Collapse dolines......Page 327
Intersection dolines......Page 329
Poljes: The largest closed depressions in karst areas......Page 330
Bibliography......Page 333
Sea caves......Page 334
Flank margin caves......Page 335
Blue holes......Page 338
Bibliography......Page 340
Systematics and distribution......Page 341
Troglomorphic traits......Page 346
Diversity......Page 349
Bibliography......Page 351
General chemistry......Page 353
Iron and manganese......Page 355
Speleothems and cave deposits......Page 356
Storm-enhanced transport of sediment-associated metals......Page 357
Bibliography......Page 358
NAPL characteristics and sources......Page 359
Epikarst......Page 360
Fractures, open drains, and sinking streams......Page 362
Sediment......Page 363
Bibliography......Page 364
Stygobitic crustaceans......Page 366
Class Remipedia......Page 367
Subclass Mystocarida......Page 368
Subclass Copepoda......Page 369
Class Ostracoda......Page 371
Superorder Syncarida......Page 372
Superorder Peracarida......Page 373
Superorder Eucarida......Page 377
Bibliography......Page 380
Relative versus absolute dating techniques......Page 381
Burial dating with cosmogenic nuclides......Page 382
Requirements for burial dating......Page 383
Bibliography......Page 385
Traits of the Dinaric karst......Page 386
Structural geology of Dinarides......Page 389
Lithology of the Dinaric karst......Page 390
Karst features of the Dinaric karst......Page 391
Land use......Page 394
Bibliography......Page 395
Introduction......Page 396
Documentation issues......Page 397
Information storage......Page 398
Retrieval......Page 399
Data safety......Page 400
Publication and global access......Page 401
Components......Page 402
Database issues......Page 403
Disadvantages......Page 404
Bibliography......Page 405
Background......Page 409
Evolutionary classifications......Page 410
Bibliography......Page 412
Types of cave entrances......Page 413
Statistics of cave entrances......Page 417
Bibliography......Page 419
The power of environmental DNA......Page 420
The procedure......Page 421
Challenges associated with groundwater and other subterranean habitats......Page 424
Bibliography......Page 425
In hydrogeology......Page 427
Epikarst, a not yet fully agreed concept......Page 428
Place of epikarst in karst evolution and morphology......Page 429
Bibliography......Page 430
Environmental conditions......Page 432
Taxonomic composition......Page 434
Estimating total species richness of epikarst copepods......Page 436
Biogeography of epikarst species......Page 437
Ecology of epikarst species......Page 438
Bibliography......Page 439
Vertical caves......Page 440
Light sources......Page 441
Clothing......Page 442
Going up......Page 443
Underwater caves......Page 444
Bibliography......Page 445
Chapter 48: Exploration of caves: Underwater exploration......Page 447
Bibliography......Page 452
Rigging......Page 453
Descending......Page 455
Ascending......Page 456
Traverses and Tyroleans......Page 457
Bibliography......Page 458
Chapter 50: Folklore, myth, and legend, caves in......Page 459
Sinking streams......Page 462
Percolating water......Page 463
Bats......Page 464
Crickets......Page 465
Tree roots......Page 466
Bibliography......Page 467
Exploration......Page 468
Morphology and genesis......Page 470
Oxic-sulfidic environments......Page 472
Microxic-sulfidic zone......Page 473
Conclusion......Page 474
Bibliography......Page 476
Hydrology and hydrogeology......Page 477
Geology......Page 479
Hydrology of the cave......Page 480
Cave paleohydrology......Page 481
Bibliography......Page 482
General hypotheses on the mechanism of adaptation to the cave environment......Page 484
General ecology of Gammarus minus......Page 485
Variation in Gammarus minus......Page 486
Population structure of Gammarus minus......Page 488
Origin of troglomorphic cave populations of Gammarus minus......Page 489
Bibliography......Page 490
Electrical resistivity imaging......Page 492
Ground-penetrating radar......Page 494
Thermal variation......Page 495
Cave radiolocation......Page 496
Case study-New mexico brine well caverns......Page 497
Bibliography......Page 499
Introduction to glaciers......Page 501
Englacial caves......Page 502
Exploration of glacier caves......Page 505
Bibliography......Page 506
Guano: Definitions and importance......Page 507
Guano microbiomes......Page 508
Taxon-specific patterns and preference for guano types......Page 510
Ecology of guano invertebrate communities......Page 513
Guano metacommunities......Page 515
Impacts and conservation issues......Page 516
Bibliography......Page 517
Occurrence of gypsum and types of gypsum karst......Page 518
Implication of equilibrium chemistry and dissolution kinetics to speleogenesis in gypsum......Page 519
Speleogenesis in different types of karst......Page 520
Bibliography......Page 527
Speleothems......Page 529
Sources and depositional mechanisms of evaporite minerals......Page 531
Bibliography......Page 535
Physiographic setting......Page 536
Geologic setting......Page 537
Geological controls......Page 540
Tectonics, passage levels, and time......Page 542
River caves of the K Bàng massif......Page 543
Bibliography......Page 545
Anthodites......Page 547
Cave shields......Page 548
Subaqueous helictites......Page 551
Subaqueous ``helictite bushes´´......Page 552
Bibliography......Page 553
The Anglo-Saxons......Page 554
12th-Century histories and caves: William of Newburgh......Page 555
Yet another historian or perhaps a satirist: Walter Map......Page 556
The 13th century: Gervase of Tilbury......Page 557
A 12th-century vision narrative: St. Patricks Purgatory......Page 558
Bibliography......Page 559
Cave description......Page 560
Geology......Page 562
Hydrogeology......Page 564
Biology......Page 565
Paleontology......Page 566
Archaeology......Page 567
Bibliography......Page 569
Porous media aquifers......Page 570
The triple porosity model......Page 571
Conduit permeability......Page 572
Karst groundwater basins and groundwater flow systems......Page 573
The Karst water table......Page 574
Discharge characteristics: Hydrographs......Page 575
Water wells in Karst......Page 576
Contaminant transport......Page 577
Bibliography......Page 578
Deep-seated hydrothermal Karst......Page 579
Dissolution due to mixing of waters (CO2 and H2S)......Page 580
Solution porosity......Page 581
Phreatic maze caves......Page 582
Mineralogy......Page 583
Bibliography......Page 584
Chapter 66: Ice in caves......Page 586
Scientific significance of ice in caves......Page 589
Bibliography......Page 591
Geology and morphology of iron formation caves......Page 592
Genesis of IFCS......Page 593
Geomicrobiology of IFCS......Page 596
IFC ecosystem......Page 597
Bibliography......Page 599
Stable isotopes and fractionation......Page 600
Radioisotopes and decay......Page 601
Isotopes in the atmosphere......Page 602
Water in the cave......Page 604
Rock-water interaction......Page 605
Cave sediments and speleothems......Page 606
The hypogene isotope story: A saga from the bottom up......Page 607
Bibliography......Page 608
Barometric airflow......Page 610
Loft level......Page 611
Main level......Page 612
Recent geological mapping......Page 613
Hydrology......Page 614
Origin of Jewel cave......Page 615
Mass transfer system......Page 616
Cave life......Page 618
Other black hills caves......Page 619
Bibliography......Page 620
Controls on karren form......Page 621
Descriptions of features......Page 622
Karren vs pseudokarren......Page 631
Bibliography......Page 632
Basic controls......Page 633
Description of some karren features......Page 636
Karren assemblages......Page 640
Bibliography......Page 641
Location......Page 642
History......Page 644
Closed depressions (dolines, sinkholes)......Page 646
Poljes......Page 647
Cones and towers......Page 648
Alpine karst......Page 649
Hypogenetic karst......Page 650
Bibliography......Page 651
Local visitation......Page 652
Survey and systematic exploration......Page 653
Speleogenesis......Page 654
Extraneous tubes......Page 655
Multilevel and lavafall development......Page 656
Primary speleothems......Page 657
Bibliography......Page 659
Krubera Cave and other deep caves in the Arabika Massif......Page 660
The Arabika Massif: Geology......Page 664
The Arabika Massif: Hydrogeology......Page 665
Evolution of the deep cave system in Arabika......Page 666
Bibliography......Page 667
Definitions......Page 668
Ecology and composition of lampenflora......Page 669
Alteration of underground habitat......Page 671
Control and restriction of lampenflora growth......Page 672
Bibliography......Page 673
Geologic setting......Page 675
Stratigraphy and structure......Page 676
Regional/local hydrogeology......Page 677
Mineralogy......Page 678
Description of the cave......Page 679
History of exploration......Page 682
Bibliography......Page 683
Growth rates, age, and size at maturity......Page 685
Egg number, egg size, and reproductive effort......Page 687
Sex ratio at birth......Page 688
Confounding factors: Phylogenetic effects and body size......Page 689
Bibliography......Page 690
Earth and sediment magnetism......Page 691
Paleomagnetism of clastic cave sediments......Page 693
Importance of the magnetic record in caves......Page 695
Bibliography......Page 697
Use of caves......Page 698
Human impacts and conservation......Page 699
Open questions and new tools......Page 700
Bibliography......Page 701
Prehistoric explorers and miners......Page 702
History of Mammoth Cave......Page 703
Mammoth Cave passage patterns......Page 705
Biology of Mammoth Cave......Page 708
Bibliography......Page 710
Data requirements......Page 711
Investigating spatial patterns......Page 712
Including spatial autocorrelation into modeling......Page 714
Investigating the drivers of biodiversity patterns......Page 716
Predicting the biodiversity patterns......Page 717
Bibliography......Page 718
Caves in Maya cosmology......Page 719
Caves and community......Page 720
Cave burial......Page 721
Cave modifications......Page 722
Bibliography......Page 723
Microbial diversity and metabolism......Page 724
Molecular genetics revolution......Page 725
Microbial activity from geochemical and experimental data......Page 726
Microbial diversity of caves......Page 727
Bibliography......Page 730
Introduction......Page 732
Oxides and hydroxides......Page 733
Halides......Page 735
Carbonates......Page 737
Nitrates......Page 738
Sulfates......Page 739
Phosphates, arsenates, and vanadates......Page 740
Why study cave minerals?......Page 741
Bibliography......Page 742
Characterization of flow in karst aquifers......Page 743
Representation of flow in conduits......Page 744
Response-function and lumped-parameter or reservoir models......Page 745
Equivalent porous media models......Page 746
Dual-continuum models......Page 747
Discussion......Page 748
Bibliography......Page 749
Calcium equilibrium......Page 750
The single fracture......Page 752
Modeling the evolution of karst aquifers......Page 754
Bibliography......Page 757
Taxonomic and biogeographic patterns of cave molluscs......Page 758
Bivalves......Page 759
Gastropods......Page 760
Bibliography......Page 763
Caves in the southern hills......Page 765
Caves in Gunung Api......Page 767
Caves in Gunung Benarat......Page 769
Caves in Gunung Buda......Page 770
Bibliography......Page 771
Symphyla......Page 772
Diplopoda......Page 773
Bibliography......Page 777
Morphological variation......Page 779
Diversity of habitats, physiological tolerance to abiotic factors, and ecological niches......Page 782
Interspecific interactions-Predation and competition......Page 783
Footprints of competitive exclusion, niche separation, and character displacement in Niphargus communities......Page 784
Bibliography......Page 787
Land-use factors......Page 789
Nitrate contamination of springs......Page 791
Bibliography......Page 792
Physical setting......Page 794
Prehistory, history, and speleological history......Page 796
Origin and enlargement of the caves......Page 797
Minerals......Page 799
Biology past and present......Page 800
Bibliography......Page 801
History and early exploration......Page 802
Cave geology......Page 804
Hydrogeology......Page 806
Speleogenesis and other research in the cave......Page 809
Bibliography......Page 811
Chapter 94: Orthoptera......Page 812
Bibliography......Page 816
Importance of absolute chronology-Dating techniques......Page 817
The early studies-Paleotemperature......Page 818
The last glacial-Contribution from stalagmites......Page 819
Tracking insolation and paleomonsoons......Page 820
Ties between solar variability and climate change......Page 821
Vegetation and soil dynamics......Page 822
Timing of climatic changes......Page 823
Paleotempestology......Page 824
Bibliography......Page 825
Introduction......Page 827
Alluvial and colluvial transport......Page 828
Raptors......Page 829
Bats......Page 830
Large carnivorans......Page 831
Other vertebrate sites......Page 835
Importance of fossil vertebrates from caves......Page 837
Bibliography......Page 838
The earliest stages......Page 839
Vertical organization of cave passages......Page 840
Adjustment of caves to changing conditions......Page 842
Conclusion......Page 843
Bibliography......Page 844
Geologic setting......Page 845
Other interesting research in the Postojna Cave System......Page 846
History of exploration......Page 850
Description of the cave......Page 852
Bibliography......Page 853
Threats to subterranean fauna......Page 855
Intrinsic vulnerability of troglobionts and stygobionts......Page 857
International legislation to protect subterranean fauna......Page 858
Conservation assessments of subterranean fauna......Page 859
Moving forward in the protection of subterranean biodiversity......Page 860
Bibliography......Page 861
Why caves matter......Page 863
Threats to caves......Page 864
Management strategies......Page 865
Management tools......Page 866
Education......Page 867
Bibliography......Page 868
Glacier landforms......Page 869
Sea caves......Page 871
Tectonic caves......Page 872
Talus caves......Page 873
Tectono-talus caves......Page 874
Anthropogenic pseudokarst......Page 875
Salt ingestion caves......Page 876
Additional pseudokarstic features and further considerations......Page 877
Bibliography......Page 881
Introduction......Page 883
Lithology and occurrence......Page 884
Speleogenesis......Page 888
Cave morphologies......Page 889
Cave deposits......Page 891
Bibliography......Page 892
Types of cavers......Page 894
Urban caving, other voids, and not exactly caving......Page 895
Modern caving equipment......Page 896
Demographic methodology......Page 897
Contemporary trends......Page 899
Factors contributing to the frequency of recreational visitation to specific caves or cave areas......Page 900
Why is everyone not a caver?......Page 901
Summary......Page 902
Bibliography......Page 903
Troglomorphy in salamanders......Page 904
Brook salamanders (Eurycea)......Page 906
Texas cave and spring-dwelling Eurycea......Page 907
Blepsimolge (sighted salamanders)......Page 908
Other troglophilic Eurycea......Page 911
Spring salamanders (Gyrinophilus)......Page 913
Other salamanders......Page 914
Bibliography......Page 916
Saltpeter mining......Page 918
Saltpeter processing......Page 920
Bibliography......Page 921
Groundwater flow velocities......Page 922
Calculation of discharge and other parameters......Page 924
Uses and pitfalls of scallop discharge data......Page 925
Other phenomena......Page 927
Bibliography......Page 928
Seepage springs......Page 929
Epikarst......Page 932
Hyporheic......Page 933
Calcrete aquifers......Page 935
Milieu souterrain superficiel......Page 936
Soil......Page 937
Lava tubes......Page 938
Generalities......Page 939
Evolutionary and biogeographic connections with other subterranean habitats......Page 940
Bibliography......Page 941
The environmental protection of show caves......Page 942
The development of a show cave......Page 946
Recommended international guidelines for the development and management of show caves......Page 947
Bibliography......Page 954
Hydrogeology......Page 955
Overview of the cave systems and history of their exploration......Page 956
The Bärenschacht (``bear´s shaft´´)......Page 958
The F1 (Innerbergli area)......Page 960
Genesis and age of the cave systems......Page 961
Cave minerals......Page 964
Bibliography......Page 965
Sinkhole classification......Page 967
Interactions among man and sinkholes......Page 973
Bibliography......Page 975
General characteristics of caves in high-relief areas......Page 976
Relative chronology......Page 977
Example of a relative chronology......Page 978
Cave character and geomorphology......Page 979
Vertical to subvertical shafts and meandering canyons......Page 981
Cave character and geomorphology......Page 983
Cave character and geomorphology......Page 984
Cave character, geomorphology......Page 985
Bibliography......Page 986
Origin of solution caves......Page 988
Dissected plateaus of southern Indiana and western Kentucky......Page 991
Appalachian Plateaus......Page 993
Ridge and Valley Province, Appalachian Mountains......Page 994
Glaciated plateaus of northeastern and north-central United States......Page 996
Bibliography......Page 998
Predation and cannibalism and their effects on phenotypic variation......Page 1000
Competition and ghost of competition past......Page 1001
Ambiguous epibionts......Page 1003
Bibliography......Page 1005
Introduction......Page 1007
Basic concept and definition......Page 1008
Diagenetic environments......Page 1009
Groundwater systems and regimes......Page 1010
Chemical mechanisms......Page 1011
Hydrogeologic and structural controls......Page 1012
Karstification through rock alteration (ghost-rock karstification)......Page 1014
Porosity patterns......Page 1015
Meso-morphology features......Page 1017
Genetic types......Page 1018
Distribution and settings......Page 1019
Bibliography......Page 1020
From fracture to conduit: Evolution of one-dimensional fracture......Page 1022
Evolution of conduit networks......Page 1024
Bibliography......Page 1028
The chemistry of precipitation and dissolution of calcite......Page 1029
Precipitation rates from thin water layers......Page 1030
Precipitation from water films in turbulent flow......Page 1031
Morphology of regular stalagmites......Page 1033
A similarity rule of regular stalagmites......Page 1036
Growth of stalagmites under conditions variable with time......Page 1037
Bibliography......Page 1038
Mechanisms for speleothem deposition......Page 1039
Speleothems created by dripping water......Page 1040
Speleothems created by flowing water......Page 1043
Speleothems created by seeping water......Page 1044
Speleothems created in standing water......Page 1045
The calcite/aragonite problem......Page 1046
Speleothems in volcanic caves......Page 1048
Bibliography......Page 1050
Biology......Page 1051
Order Scorpiones (Scorpions)......Page 1052
Order Amblypygi (Tailless whipscorpions)......Page 1054
Order Araneae (Spiders)......Page 1055
Order Palpigradi (micro whipscorpions)......Page 1056
Order Pseudoscorpiones (Pseudoscorpions)......Page 1057
Order Acari (Mites and ticks)......Page 1058
Order Opiliones (Harvestmen)......Page 1061
Bibliography......Page 1063
Gravity springs......Page 1064
Offshore springs......Page 1065
Overflow, underflow, and distributary springs......Page 1067
Magnitudes of spring discharges......Page 1068
Ebb-and-flow springs......Page 1069
Analysis of spring hydrographs......Page 1070
Turbidity and chemical variability......Page 1071
Springs as water supplies......Page 1072
Bibliography......Page 1073
Mineralogy and processes of formation......Page 1074
Stalagmites......Page 1077
Stalagmites as valuable archives of Earth´s history......Page 1079
Bibliography......Page 1081
The Messinian crisis of salinity, a major geological event in the Mediterranean basin......Page 1082
Main consequences on karst aquifers......Page 1083
Bibliography......Page 1085
Diagnostic features of sulfuric acid caves......Page 1086
Chemical reactions......Page 1087
Cueva de Villa Luz, Mexico......Page 1088
Frasassi Cave System, Italy......Page 1090
Caves of the Guadalupe Mountains, New Mexico......Page 1091
Caves of the Grand Canyon, Arizona......Page 1093
Relation of sulfuric acid caves to Mississippi valley-type ore deposits, uranium deposits, hydrocarbons, and reservoir porosity......Page 1094
Bibliography......Page 1095
Locating cave entrances......Page 1096
The survey......Page 1097
Recording and processing the traverse line......Page 1098
Random errors, systematic errors, and blunders......Page 1099
Paper maps......Page 1100
Bibliography......Page 1102
Types of tiankengs......Page 1104
Features of tiankengs......Page 1105
Distribution of tiankengs......Page 1107
Bibliography......Page 1108
River incision and the record in caves......Page 1110
Water table positions at Mammoth Cave, Kentucky......Page 1112
Incision pulses on the Cumberland River, Tennessee......Page 1113
Bibliography......Page 1114
Regional geology and hydrogeology......Page 1115
Patterns and meso-morphology of caves......Page 1116
Speleogenesis......Page 1118
Bibliography......Page 1121
Chapter 127: Underwater Caves of the Yucatan Peninsula......Page 1122
Bibliography......Page 1128
Principles of U-series dating......Page 1129
Reporting and assessing U-Th ages......Page 1130
How much sample material is needed for an age determination?......Page 1131
Growth dynamics of speleothems......Page 1133
U-Pb dating of ancient speleothems......Page 1134
Bibliography......Page 1135
Vicariance and dispersal-two alternative explanations......Page 1136
The situation is more complex in caves......Page 1137
Dispersal......Page 1139
Vicariance......Page 1140
Conclusion......Page 1141
Bibliography......Page 1142
Speleomorphology of Vjetrenica......Page 1143
Habitats......Page 1146
Cultural history......Page 1147
Exploration of Vjetrenica......Page 1148
Ecological changes......Page 1149
Bibliography......Page 1150
Secondary volcanic rock caves......Page 1151
Primary volcanic rock caves of large extent (pyroducts)......Page 1152
Formation of pyroducts......Page 1153
Internal development......Page 1155
General types of pyroducts......Page 1157
Hollow Tumuli, Peripheral Lava Rise Caves, and Drained Lobes......Page 1158
See Also the Following Articles......Page 1159
Bibliography......Page 1160
Introduction......Page 1161
Geologic framework......Page 1162
Paleontology......Page 1163
Hydrology......Page 1164
Speleogenesis......Page 1165
Exploration and mapping of Wakulla spring cave......Page 1166
Bibliography......Page 1168
The role of CO2 gas in calcite solubility......Page 1169
The chemical composition of groundwater in limestone terrain......Page 1170
Saturation state of the aqueous solution......Page 1171
Environmental factors influencing calcite dissolution......Page 1172
Precipitation of minerals and the formation of speleothems from cave waters......Page 1174
Bibliography......Page 1175
History of water tracing in karst aquifers......Page 1177
Tracers......Page 1179
Qualitative tracing using passive detectors......Page 1181
Quantitative water tracing in karst areas......Page 1184
Interpretation of water tracing tests......Page 1185
Bibliography......Page 1187
Introduction......Page 1189
Cerknisko jezero/polje......Page 1190
Planinsko polje......Page 1191
Pivka intermittent lakes......Page 1193
Bibliography......Page 1196
Initial bat mortality and the causative pathogen discovered......Page 1198
Diagnostics......Page 1199
Bat species affected by WNS......Page 1201
Fungal infections and tissue damage......Page 1202
Characteristics of fungal virulence and pathogenicity......Page 1203
Management and control......Page 1205
Bibliography......Page 1206
History of studies......Page 1208
Order: Temnocephalida......Page 1209
Phylum: Annelida (segmented worms)......Page 1210
Class: Polychaeta......Page 1211
Subclass: Oligochaeta......Page 1212
Subclass: Hirudinea (leeches)......Page 1213
Phylum: Onychophora (velvet worms)......Page 1215
Bibliography......Page 1216
Regional setting......Page 1218
History of exploration......Page 1219
Description of the cave......Page 1221
Hydrology......Page 1224
Bibliography......Page 1225
Index......Page 1226
Back Cover......Page 1260