Encyclopaedia Britannica [6, 14R ed.]

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ENCYCLOPiEDIA BRITANNICA miJk

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

The Encyclopadia Britannka is published

with the editorial advice of the faculties

of The University of Chicago

and of a

committee of members of the faculties of Oxford, Cambridge

and London

universities

and of a

committee

at The University of Toronto

KNOWLEDGE GROW FROM MORE TO MORE AND THUS BE HUMAN LIFE ENRICHED."

'LET

A New Survey of Universal Knowledge

ENCYCLOPiEDIA BRITANNICA Volume 6 Cocker

^

to

Dais

S

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC. WILLIAM BENTON, PUBLISHER

CHICAGO LONDON TORONTO •

•

•

GENEVA SYDNEY TOKYO •

•

1966 BY Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

Copyright under International Copyright Union All Rights Reserved under Pan American and Universal Copyright

Conventions by Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. printed in the U.S.A. Library of Congress Catalog Card

Number: 66-10173

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA Volume 6 Cocker OCKER,

EDWARD

(1631-167S), reputed English author of a famous Arithmetic, the popularity of which gave rise to the phrase "according to Cocker," meaning "in accordance with strict rule"; i.e., "quite Cocker was bom in 1651. In 16.^7 he is correct." known to have been living in London, where he worked as an engraver and also taught writing and arithmetic. Samuel Pepys, in his Diary, mentions Cocker favourably, and he appears to have been very skilled in his art. He died in 1675. probably in London. The Arithmetic was edited and published in 1678 by John Hawkins, after its reputed author's death, and passed through over 100 editions. Augustus de Morgan in his Arithmetical Books (1847) declared that the work was actually written by Hawkins condemned it as a diffuse compilation from older and better works, but added that "this same Edward Cocker must have had great reputation, since a bad book under his name pushed out the good ones." Cocker's many other works include several writing manuals. Cocker's Morals or the Muses spring-garden, a collection of poems suitable for transcription or translation (1685) and Cocker's English Dictionarv (1704). himself, and

COCKERELL, CHARLES ROBERT

(1788-1863), Britproponent of the classic tradition in 19th-century British architecture, was born in London on April 28, 1788. After training with his father, Samuel Pepys Cockerell (1754-1827), and Sir Robert Smirke ("17811867), he spent seven years (1810-17) studying and preparing publication on architectural remains in Greece, Asia Minor and Italy. Among his major discoveries were the marbles from Aegina ish architect

and archaeologist, an

influential

and Phigalia in Greece. He became a full member of the Royal Academy in 1836, architect to the Bank of England in 1833, and professor of architecture at the academy in 1840. While Cockerell's own architecture occasionally employed a Gothic mode (Lampeter college, chapel at Harrow), he may generally be considered a late adherent of 18thcentury neoclassicism, with a more correct antique vocabulary. His principal works were the Ashmolean museum and Taylorian institute, Oxford (1841-45), and the completion of St. George's He died hall, Liverpool, and the Fitzwilliam museum, Cambridge. in London on Sept. 17, 1863. His son, Frederick Pepys Cockerell ('1833-78), was also a distinguished architect. (R. Rm.)

to Dais COCKERILL, WILLIAM

(1759-1832), English inventor, He began life by making "roving billies" or flying shuttles. In 1794 he went to Russia, having been recommended to the empress Catherine II as a skilful artisan. For two years he flourished, but on the death of the empress he was flung into prison by her successor. Cockerill escaped to Sweden, and there constructed lock gates for the government; but he could interest no one in his own field of spinning machines. In 1799 he moved to Verviers, Belg., and under contract supplied spinning machines for the firm of Simonis and BioUey. His natural skill as a mechanic was quickly recognized, and in 1807 he was able, with the aid of his two younger sons, to open, in Liege, factories of his own for the construction of spinning and weaving machines. In 1810 an industrial commission acknowledged him He as an expert, and he was granted letters of naturalization.

was born

retired

in

Lancashire

from business

in 1759.

in 1812,

and died

at Aix-la-Chapelle, France,

(T.

in 1832.

COCKERMOUTH,

M.

S.)

market town and urban district of Cumberland, Eng., 26 mi. S.W. of Carlisle by road. Pop. (1961) 5,823. Area 3.2 sq.mi. It is just outside the Lake District National park and stands at the confluence of the Derwent and Cocker, at a focus of ways among the lower western hills of the Lake district (q.v.). It is the birthplace of the poet William Wordsworth, whose house in the main street was given to the NaFletcher Christian, leader of the "Bounty" tional Trust in 1938. mutineers, was born at Moorland Close, 1 2 mi. S.. in 1764. goes back at least to Roman neighbourhood Settlement in the times, there being a small fort 1 mi. N.W. of the town at Papcastle. Cockermouth was the head of the barony of AUerdale, and Waltheof is said to have built the castle, under the shelter of which the town grew up. There are remains of Norman work in the keep, The town but the castle is in part modernized as a residence. received no royal charter, but the earliest records mention it as a borough. In 1221 William de Fortibus, earl of Albemarle, was granted a market. The Whitsuntide and Martinmas fairs which a

originated in the 14th century are still held. Cockermouth forms the agricultural centre of a wide rural area, and there are also within it several light industries, the largest of

which produces shoes and

COCKFIGHTING,

slippers.

the sport of pitting

gamecocks

to fight,

COCKFIGHTING The game fowl probably the nearest to the Indian red jungle fowl (Galliis galbelieved to be delus), from which all domestic chickens are scended. The sport was popular in ancient times in India, China, Persia and other eastern countries, and was introduced into Greece and breeding and training them for the purpose. is

in the

time of Themistocles

(c.

514-449

B.C.).

The

latter,

while

against the Persians, observed two cocks fighting desperately and, stopping his troops, inspired them by calling their attention to the valour and obstinacy of the feathered

moving with

his

army

In honour of the ensuing victory of the Greeks, cockwere henceforth held annually at Athens, at first in a patriand religious spirit, but afterward purely for the love of the

warriors. fights otic

sport.

On

the chair of the high priest of Dionysus, in the theatre is carved a beautiful figure of a winged Eros

at Athens, there

holding a gamecock just about to fight. Lucian makes Solon speak of quail fighting and cocking, and evidently is referring to an era in Asia, about 3,000 years ago, when cocktighting enthusiasts, lacking the cocks, set quail to fighting quail and partridges to fighting partridges, since both are natural fighters. From Athens the sport

spread throughout Greece, Asia Minor and Sicily, the best cocks being bred in Alexandria, Delos, Rhodes and Tanagra. For a long time the Romans affected to despise this "Greek diversion," but ended by adopting it so enthusiastically that Columella (ist century A.D.) complained that its devotees often spent their whole

patrimony

in betting at the pitside.

became popular in the Low Countries, Italy, Germany, Spain and its colonies in the new world and the Philippines, and throughout England and Wales, as well as in Scotland (where it was introduced in 1681). Occasionally the authorities tried to repress it, especially Cromwell, who put a stop to it for a brief theless

it

among

the national

pastimes. From the time of Henry VIII, who added the royal cockpit to his palace of Whitehall, cockfighting was called the "royal diversion," and the Stuarts, particularly James I and Charles II, were its most enthusiastic devotees, their example being followed by the gentry down to the 19th century. The king's cockmaster presided over the pits at Whitehall. Gervase Markham, in his Pleasures of Princes (1614), wrote "Of the Choyce, Ordring, Breeding and Dyeting of the fighting Cocke for Battell," his quaint

among

directions being of the

most

explicit nature.

Cockfighting mains (matches) usually consisted of fights between an agreed number of pairs of birds, the majority of victories deciding the main but there were two other varieties that aroused the particular ire of moralists. These were the "battle royal" in which a number of birds were "set" {i.e., placed in the pit at the ;

remain until all but one, the victor, were killed or disabled; and the "Welsh main," in which eight pairs were matched, the eight victors being again paired, then four, and finally the last surviving pair. Among famous London cockpits were those at Westminster, in Drury Lane, Jewin street and Birdcage walk (depicted by Hogarth). The pits were circular in shape with a matted stage about 20 ft. in diameter and surrounded by a barrier to keep the birds from falling off. Upon this barrier the first row of the audience leaned. Hardly a town in the kingdom was without its cockpit, which offered the sporting classes opportunities fo'r betting. Perhaps the most famous main in England took place at Lincoln in 1830 between the birds of Joseph Gilliver, the most celebrated breeder, or "feeder," of his day, and those of the earl of Derby. The conditions called for seven birds a side, and the stakes were 5,000 guineas the main and 1,000 guineas each match. The main was won by Gilliver by five matches to two. His grandson was also a breeder, and the blood of his cocks ran in the best breeds of Great Britain and the United States. Another famous breeder was a Dr. Bellyse of Audlem. the principal figure in the great mains fought at Chester during race week at the beginning of the 19th century. His favourite breed was the White Pile, and Cheshire Piles were much-fancied birds.

same time) and allowed

to

of the 19th century.

When

the sport was at

its

height, the pupils

many

schools were made a special allowance for purchasing fighting cocks, and parents were expected to contribute to the expenses of the annual main on Shrove Tuesday, this money beof

William Fitzstephen (d. c. 1190) reported that the masters themselves directed the mains, from which they derived a material advantage, as the dead birds fell to them. Cockfighting was prohibited by law in Great Britain in 1849. Cockfighting was introduced into America at an early date, and ing called "cockpence."

is recorded that George Washington, Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton were devotees of the sport. Always frowned upon in New England, it was soon forbidden by some of the older states; Massachusetts passed laws against cruelty as early as it

1836. The sport is expressly prohibited in Canada and in most states of the U.S. it is specifically forbidden or is repressed by general laws for the prevention of cruelty to animals. Although cockfighting ceased as a public sport in the U.S., Canada and the British Isles, it continued to exist in private in those countries.

moved from place to place to avoid police and Sunday morning usually was fight time. In the United extremely popular along the Atlantic seaboard sport was States the and in the south. Cockfighting is not recognized as a form of sport by the LatinAmerican countries in general. In Argentina cockfighting was once one of the most popular amusements, but it was suppressed by police measures, although it persisted in several provinces. Paraguay prohibited it by law. In Cuba, however, cockfighting continued to be a patronized sport regulated by the government. Cubans always supported it and. although it was prohibited for a time, it was reinstated during the Gomez administration (1909-13) and was later regulated by municipal decrees. The sport became popular in Haiti, Mexico and Puerto Rico, an important cockfighting centre. Those who enjoy cockfighting insist that theirs is an amateur not a professport and that the greatest zest to be obtained from it sional lies in the many chances to gamble before and throughout a fight. Odds against one bird or the other fluctuate constantly and it is not uncommon for a great deal of money to be wagered. The Club Gallistico, Havana. Cuba, has been the scene of as much as $100,000 changing hands in a single afternoon. The betting language employed there was especially interesting, being the same as that used in Spain centuries earlier. With the coming of the Castro regime in 1959 the sport was curtailed. Breeding and Training. Breeders of gamecocks stress pedigree. They regard as fit for championship honours only those birds which have been produced by the blending of strains through hundreds of years, of the world's most courageous cocks. Famous Portable mains were raids,

From Rome the sport spread northward and was probably introduced into England by the Romans before Caesar's time. Although opposed by the clergy of the Christian church, it never-

period, but the Restoration re-established

In Wales, as well as in some parts of England, cocking mains took place regularly in churchyards and in many instances even inside the churches themselves. Sundays, wakes and church festiThe habit of holding vals were favourite occasions for them. mains in schools was common from the 12th to about the middle

—

—

—

among

the strains of the 20th century are the Shawlnecks, Irish Gilders, Eslin Red-Quills, Dominiques, Claibornes, Baltimore Top-

knots, War-Horses, Irish Grays and Gamecocks usually are put to the

Hammond-Gordons. main when between one and

Preceding their entrance into the fighting pit, age. they are given intensive training. As youngsters, they are permitted a great deal of exercise to develop muscles. Chief features of their special diet are cooked corn meal, chopped hard-boiled eggs and occasional helpings of raw beef. This is augmented by regular poultry feed. The birds are massaged with a mixture of alcohol and ammonia, which toughens their skin. Their wings are

two years of

at the slope; the hackle and the rump feathers are shortened; the comb is cut as close as possible to reduce it as a target for an enemy bird. In time, the cock is taken to a main, held by a trainer, and brought within a foot or two of another trainee, The frenzied efforts of the cocks to get at each similarly held. other add strength to their muscles. Later the birds get actual fight training by being pitted against each other with heavily

trimmed

padded leather over It

is

their spurs.

not definitely established

when metal

spurs

first

were

COCKLE—COCKNEY The first used In some cockfight-

also often eaten raw,

slipped over the natural spurs of the gamecocks.

were

silver spurs, later iron spurs, then steel.

ing countries

—notably

Cuba

—

steel spurs are

barred.

Instead,

bone spurs taken from nonfighting cocks and subjected to a special hardening process are employed. The modern short spur of metal or bone is i^ in. or less in length; the longer spur scales from 2 to 2^

^^jfJWWWMM!^}^S\

/^w^MMilfk^J^Y^ "^ ^%jSBf '

,rld is that of Gabriel Mathieu de Clieu, a

in 1723, Brazil 1727,

COFFEE

Kaffa. Ethiopia, is Picking wild coffee in Ethiopia. sidered the birthplace of coffee, and its name in va spellings is used for the beverage in most languages

COFFEE GROWING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING

Plate

I

COFFEE

—

COFFEE officer assigned as captain of infantry at Martinique. In 1723 (some authorities set the date as 1720), De Clieu, while on a visit to France, heard that the Dutch had succeeded in transplanting coffee from Arabia to the East Indies; he became determined to carry the cultivation to Martinique, where the climate resembled that of the East Indies. The few

young French naval

were guarded in the De Clieu obtained one (some hothouse of Louis XV. writers say two or three) of the precious plants. During his return trip across the Atlantic, De Clieu recorded that for more than a month he was obliged to share his scanty ration of water with his tiny coffee plant (he refers to only one) "upon which my happiest hopes were founded and which was the source of my delight." De Clieu's little tree was finally planted in Martinique and carefully nursed to its first harvest of coffee cherries, from whose seeds a big majority of the coffee plants in the Americas By 1777, three years after the death are said to be descended. of De Clieu, there were nearly 19,000,000 coffee trees in Marticoffee plants then being cultivated in Paris

royal

nique.

By

the 20th century, coffee had become responsible for much income of many countries lying between the Tropic of

of the

Capricorn and the Tropic of Cancer. Although practically every country within this area produces some coffee, the greatest concentration of production became centred in the western hemisphere.

Botany

of Coffee.

—The genus

Coffee, to which the

more

common

which grow wild in the tropics of the old world. arabica accounts for the bulk of Of the various species, Coffea Other species grown commercially are C. world production. robusta and C. liberica, although production of the latter is very limited in quantity. C. stenophylla is not known to have been produced commercially. The common Arabian coffee shrub (C. arabica) k an evergreen plant that under natural conditions may grow to a height of 30 ft. But for commercial purposes, particularly in countries or more. where the coffee cherries are picked by hand, the trees are usually topped to keep heights under 15 ft. so as to make harvesting easier. Leaves of the coffee tree resemble laurel in form (elliptic, 4 to 6 in. in length, 1^ to 2^ in. wide) and have a deep rich-green colour and a glossy surface. The white flowers of the coffee tree, which are produced in dense clusters in the axils of the leaves, have a five-toothed calyx, a tubular five-part corolla, five stamens and a Coffee trees in blossom are things of beauty, single bifid style. but the flowers last only a few days. The flowers are replaced by clusters of green cherries that advance in colour through various shades of green and golden brown until fully ripe, when they are bright red and are similar in shape to ordinary fruit cherries, although somewhat less plump and slightly elongated. The red outside covering of the coffee cherry is a thick pulpy skin. Under the skin is a layer of yellowish jellylike substance that completely surrounds the two beans or berries, which lie with their flat faces together like the two halves of a peanut. Each bean (also called seed or berry) is enclosed in a membranous endocarp, commonly called the "parchment," which is brittle when Inside the endocarp and completely surrounding each indried. dividual coffee bean is a delicate spermoderm (seed skin) comMalformation frequently mercially called the "silver skin." coffee tree belongs, contains 25 or

species,

most

of

produces a single bean called a "pea-berry" that is completely circular and not flat on one side. The coffee bean (seed) is bluegreen in colour and has a tough, hard texture.

—

Cultivation and Processing of Green Coffee. Primitive methods were used in the production of coffee for many years, but by the 20th century the large commercial producers were using intensive cultivation and mechanical processing methods. Growth Enemies. The coffee tree is susceptible to damage by The Ceylon coffee-leaf disease insect pests and plant diseases. (Hemileia vastatrix), a fungoid growth that appeared in Ceylon in 1869 and spread to almost every coffee-producing country, is at least partially to blame for having once destroyed the coffee

—

industry of the old world. The Stephanodores (coffee-bean borer, referred to in Brazil as the "coffee plague" or broca), coffee "leaf-

27

miner," Mediterranean fruit fly and various forms of root disease are other common pests. They are kept under control by rigorous and continuous use of insecticides. Research laboratories and technical stations have been established in the larger producing countries to further the science of coffeegrowing by increasing the yield per tree, creating new and improved techniques for fighting leaf rust and other forms of infestation and attempting to develop a frost-resistant coffee tree. Cultivation. Cultivation of the coffee plant for several hundred years has brought about considerable variations in local types. The colour of coffee beans after harvesting and processing may differ considerably as to shade, and variations in size and shape of the beans make it possible to differentiate commercial types by appearance, although these characteristics are not always indicIn general, it may be said that ative of quality "in the cup." the greatest differences in the drinking quality of coffee are proaltitude the higher the altitude, up to the limit of duced by This mildness is believed cultivability, the milder the product. to be produced by aromatic substances that also contribute to the pleasurable aroma and taste of the beverage.

—

—

grown under varying weather conditions at altitudes ft., but it is more or less generally conceded come from the higher elevations 3,000 to 6,000 ft. Coffee requires a warm and humid climate, preferably with the sun on the plant only part of the day, which explains why hilly or mountainous countries are preferred for planting trees. The most desirable temperature averages 65° to 75° F. the year around, although coffee grows well in some places where greater variations occur (over 80° or under 60° F.). It Coffee

is

from 1,500

to 6,000

that the finest coffees usually

should be noted that in tropical countries elevations of 6,000 ft. and above are not accompanied by the extreme low temperatures found at such elevations outside the tropics, although frost-producing temperatures have been recorded in some coffee countries at infrequent intervals and have caused serious damage to the coffee crop.

Coffee trees are planted according to precise plans for spacing but become so dense after a few years that they almost appear to be growing wild. Trees have to be pruned closely to create passageways and permit access at time of picking. The coffee

produce a small number of cherries when it is three years old but usually does not come into full bearing until its fifth year. A tree may continue to yield profitably for SO to 60 years, although 25 to 30 years is average, and many growers prefer to tree begins to

replace trees after 12 to 15 years in order to maintain quality and

high yield.

The

steps involved in the cultivation of coffee differ

somewhat

country and from locality to locality, but the over-all procedure is generally as follows: coffee trees are propagated either from seeds or from slips. In the latter case, the lower branches of the tree are bent down and the ends are buried After about four months, roots form and the new in the earth. growth starts. Seeds are usually propagated in carefully prepared nursery beds that are shaded to protect the tender shoots from too much sun as they come through the ground. When seedlings are four to six months old they are transplanted to allow room for development. At about 18 months, when the plants are approximately 20 in. high, they are transplanted for the last time to whatever permanent planting spot has been selected. As the coffee trees continue to grow and begin to reach maturity they require more and more sunshine for proper development and ripening of the cherries; for this reason, the shade trees among which the coffee trees are planted must be pruned frequently. In some producing countries, coffee cherries are allowed to ripen to a point where they shrivel and begin to dry on the trees and are then shaken off onto large sheets of canvas. The higher grades of coffee, however, are picked by hand when the cherries are at the desired stage of ripeness. Trees are not stripped. Only the ripe cherries are removed, and it takes several pickings before a crop is completely harvested. In some countries the harvesting is entirely seasonal, while in others it is almost a year-round Under good process, several crops being produced each year.

from country

to

COFFEE

28

is from 100 to 125 lb. of about 5 lb. of cherries to make 1 lb. of green coffee beans, so, in terms of usable coffee, it might be said that a picker's capacity is from 25 to 30 lb. a day. On the average, to 2 lb. of green coffee beans a coffee tree will produce from a season; thus a plantation must be of rather extensive size to consequence. great any produce tonnage of Coffee may be prepared by either a "dry" or a Processing. "wash" process. In the "dry" process, sometimes called the "unwashed" or "natural" process, the coffee cherries are thoroughly rinsed in water and then spread out on cement patios in the open After drying, the coffee is repeatedly run air and sun to dry.

Broadly speaking, the mild coffees are regarded as sutx-rior

conditions, a fair day's pick per person It takes

coffee cherries.

U

—

through fanning and hulling machines to remove the hulls, dried pulp and parchment, and then is subjected to further cleaning by machines that remove portions of the silver .skin.

The cherries are first put through a pulping machine that breaks them open and virtually squeezes the beans out of the pulpy skin. Then the beans go into The "wash" process

quite different.

is

where they are left for about 24 hours. Slight fermentakes place in the jellylike substance, which the coffee grower calls "honey." This fermentation loosens the honey so it can be removed easily by thorough washing back and forth through large tanks

tation

several hundred feet of washing canals. After washing, the coffee It takes two to three weeks in the is spread out in patios to dry.

sun for the coffee to become thoroughly dried, and during this time it must be continuously turned over so that every bean will be dried. When climatic conditions do not permit drying in the Warm air is circulated sun, drying machines are employed. through the coffee as it revolves in a large perforated drum. When the desired stage of drying has been reached, the coffee beans are put through hulling and polishing machines that crack and remove the brittle parchment and silver skin. In the case of the highest quality coffees, there

is then a careful hand inspection to remove imperfect beans, which is the final step before packing the coffee in bags for shipment to the coffee (In Brazil, coffee is sacked in 60-kg. bags ports of the world. 132.276 lb. In other countries, the shipping unit may vary from about 150 to 165 lb., and in a few instances may run as high as 200 lb. However, the 60-kg. bag is the accepted statistical unit is almost all computations of world production, exports or imports

that are expressed in terms of "bags.")

Tasting and Blending.

— In European countries, where

coffee

has been sold to a great extent in the whole bean, importers used to make their purchases largely on the basis of the size, colour and other physical characteristics of the bean, although after 1946 In the U.S., a more selective this practice became less general. manner of purchasing was established; coffees are bought prima-

on the basis of cup tests for taste and quality. Persons who as coffee testers must train for years before becoming proMost testers start training at an early age and continue ficient. studying almost without interruption, for they must depend entirely upon taste and smell; they devote great attention to the development of those senses. Coffee defies all known chemical tests for evaluation of quality and can be evaluated only by the rily

work

senses of taste and smell. Varieties of Cofee.

—

Coffees grown in the various countries

differ

by types and kind,

from show

different plantations in

by grades. In fact, coffees one producing section nearly always a variety of characteristics. In the parlance of the trade, the terms "Brazils," "milds" and "robustas" are used to describe the three major types of coffee. Brazils apply generally to coffees grown in Brazil. All those grown elsewhere in Central and South America, and most of those grown in Asia and Oceania, are called Most of the Brazils and milds are produced by the C. milds. arabica species of tree. The C. robusta species, which produces robusta

coft'ee,

is

to disease than

by

C. robusta

is

as well as

a native of the

Congo and

is

more

resistant

C. arabica; however, the beverage produced regarded as inferior to C. arabica. Much of the

is

increase in coffee production that took place in Africa during and after the late 1940s was produced by plantings of C. robusta trees;

by the

early 1960s the production of C. robusta in Africa was four times that of C. arabica.

characteristics to Brazils, although this

in

not a strictly true differentiation, for a great deal of the product of Brazil is of finer quality than some of the coffees that come from "mild"-producing This is also true with African growths. countries. The mild is

coffees from British East Africa and some parts of the Congo compare with the best.

described according to characteristics referred as hardness or softness, washed or unwashed, high-grown, naturals, etc. The task of the coffee tester is to combine these characteristics, which are obtained from many Coffee also

to

is

by growers and buyers

different lots of coffee, in a

Roasting.

— Until

coffee

way is

that produces a satisfactory blend.

roasted

it

has none of the flavour Roasting creates the

or taste generally associated with coffee.

brown colour and transforms the natural chemical constituents into others that give coffee

pleasing taste.

its

splendid aromatic qualities and

Full development of the flavour depends to a great

degree on the avoidance of underroasting or overroasting. Skill and experience are required to avoid the slight variations that might yield an undesirable result. Green coffee loses about 16% Therefore, approximately of its weight in the roasting process. 1.19 lb. of green coffee is required to produce 1 lb. of roasted coffee; and 1 lb. of green coffee is equivalent to .84 lb. of roasted coffee.

Grinding.

— Coffees

packaged

in

ground form by the manu-

facturer go through the grinding process immediately after roastIn most modern roasting plants, the grinding is accomplished ing.

by feeding the then cut

it

coffee through steel rollers that first crack

to the desired degree of fineness.

Some

it

and

coffees are

whole bean to be ground in the grocery store of purchase, or in some cases ground in the home. left in the

at time

Some roasters offer Ideas with respect to granulation vary. product in several different degrees of grind, each identified as being especially suited for certain types of coffee-brewing deOthers produce what is referred to as an "all-purpose vices. their

of certain proportions of coarse, medium and intended to permit proper extraction of the taste and strength elements so that the beverage will be balanced in aroma, flavour and strength no matter what method of preparation

grind,"

composed

fine particles

is

used.

Early in 1948 the national bureau of standards of the United States department of commerce, in co-operation with the National Coffee association of the U.S., issued a Simplified Practice recom-

mendation stipulating three degrees of fineness for standard grinds of coffee (with reasonable tolerances) identified as regular grind,

Adherence to these standards is not mandatory, but they have been followed fairly generally by U.S. Reroasters who market their product in more than one grind. drip grind and fine grind.

gardless of the type of grind, uniformity of granulation is important and various methods of checking, principally with wire screen sieves and sieve shakers, are used to make sure that the

proportions of the various-sized grains run uniformly throughout all production. Packaging. Generally speaking, roasted coffee is sold in bulk, in paper packages or in rigid containers that are either vacuumpacked or pressure-packed. Bulk coffee, distributed through re-

—

tail

outlets in sacks or

wooden drums

(like the old cracker barrel),

marketing had almost disappeared in the United States by the early 1960s. Coffee sold in special types of paper bags or cartons is usually packaged by the manufacturer and distributed over reasonably small geois

weighed out

to the purchaser; this type of

graphic areas from central roasting points. Most roasters operating over large areas (and this is particularly true in the United States) pack coffee by the vacuum process either in metal cans This is done immediately after roasting and or in glass jars. grinding.

Ground coffee begins to lose freshness when exposed to the air because of oxidation of the chemical ingredients that provide the flavour and aroma. The vacuum-packing process, first applied to the packaging of coffee in 1900 by a firm in San Francisco, Calif., protects the quality of coffee over a long period of time and enables the manufacturer to preserve the flavour and freshness of coffee

COFFEE immediately after roasting. After the can or jar is filled with ground coffee, the air is withdrawn from the container, which is then hermetically sealed, thereby preventing the entrance of air until the container is opened. The same result is achieved by pressure packing, the main difference being the introduction of an inert gas into the can after the air is withdrawn and before the can is sealed. By the early 1960s, approximately two-thirds of all the home-consumed ground coffee in the United States was vacuum-packed, mostly in metal cans. Soluble Coffee Soluble coffee is a powdered or liquid form of brewed coffee concentrate to which water is added to produce

ground

in his plant

the beverage. There are three types of soluble coffee: (1) dried or dehydrated; (2) liquid extract (3) frozen concentrate. Liquid coffee extract (packaged either in jars, cans or pressurized aerosol ;

dispensers) had not, by the early 1960s, proved very practical or successful, largely because it required refrigeration during distribution and exhibited a tendency to deteriorate. centrate likewise had not made any notable progress. coffee

consumed

in the early

Frozen con-

Most

soluble

1960s was of the dried type.

Although patents on powdered or liquid coffee concentrate or essence were first issued in the early 19th century (mostly in Europe), such a product did not become a commercial reality until G. Washington, an American chemist residing temporarily in Guatemala city, invented a "refined soluble coffee" in 1906 that was first sold in the United States in 1909. Prior to World War II, soluble coffee was a relatively neglible factor in the coffee industry. Its popularity, however, was considerably enhanced in the U.S. w-hen it was used by the U.S. armed forces in field rations; after the war several companies that had begun to produce such a product for military supply began to market commercial brands of "instant coffee," so-called because it could be prepared Soluble coffee adas the beverage simply by adding hot water. vanced from a relatively modest position in 1946 until by the early 1960s between J and j of all coffee prepared in U.S. homes was of the soluble type. During this time, most roasters of national or regional importance, and including some with only localized distribution, had either developed their own facilities for producing soluble coffee or acquired such a product from a producer for the trade (private-label packer).

In its early period of rapid growth, soluble coffee in dry form (referred to as powdered or granular) was either all coffee or what is known as product or filled type (coffee with carbohydrates

With continuing improvement in the quality of soluble consumer preference began to be evidenced in favour of the all-coffee type and by the mid-1950s the product type had practically disappeared from the U.S. market. The manufacturing of soluble coffee is an intricate process that varies considerably from company to company according to their

added).

coffee, a distinct

Generally speaking, however, soluble produced by first blending, roasting and grinding as in the case of regular ground coffee. Then follow extraction, evaporation and drying (for powdered instant coffee) by one of several methods, the two systems most commonly used being spray drying and drum (or belt) drying in vacuum. Varying percentages of extraction and differences in methods of evaporation and drying produce instant coffees that differ in colour, type and fineness of particles, and density. The finished product is packaged by automatic machinery either in glass jars or cans, glass containers being

process and equipment. coffee

in

is

common

use

in

the early 1960s.

—

Decaffeinated Coffee. A process was developed in Germany about 1900 by Ludwig Roselius, a coffee merchant, for removing a large percentage of the caffeine from coffee. His technique was Although later improved by manufacturers in the United States. the processes for decaffeination remain more or less secret, it may be said that the result is attained by steaming the green coffee and then soaking it in a chlorinated organic solvent. During the 1950s, preference in decaffeinated coffee shifted markedly from the ground to the soluble (instant) product, and in the early 1960s about i of all soluble coffee consumed in homes was decaffeinated. Ground and instant decaffeinated coffee together accounted for about

^

of the coffee used in U.S.

— In the

World Production.

first

homes.

half of the 20th century, after

29

the centre of coffee production shifted away from Arabia and other sections of the old world, the countries of the western hemisphere grew up to nearly 90% of all the coffee produced in the world. After 1950, the western hemisphere's share of world production dropped to approximately 7S%, chiefly because of the increased rate of coffee growing in Africa. Brazil continued to rank, however, as the world's largest producer of coffee, growing about 40,000,000 bags annually (1 bag = 132.3 lb., or 60 kg.). Other leading producers were Colombia, Ivory Coast, Togo, Mexico, Angola, Guatemala, El Salvador, Indonesia, Costa Rica and India. World production of coffee averages about 77,000,000 bags a year; about 80% of the crop is exported. The United States accounts for about 55% of the world imports; other major importing countries are France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Canada

and Great Britain.

—

Inter-American and International Coffee Agreements. in World War II (May 1940) almost all of the European coffee market was cut off, and it became necessary for producers Early

to attempt to sell their entire output to the United States.

wake tion

In the

enormous overproduction, there followed a price disrupthat threatened the economic stability of the producing of

The purpose of the Inter-.American Coffee agreement, drawn up between the governments of the United States and 14 Latin-American coffee-producing countries on Nov. 28, 1940, was to make possible the orderly marketing of coffee under the conditions then existing. The agreement provided for equitable allocation of the United States coffee market among the participating countries through limitation of exports by the Latin-American The agreement signatories according to a basic annual quota. expired Sept. 30, 1948. Thereafter, the Special Commission on Coffee was established within the Inter-American Economic and Social council in order that the United States and representatives of producing countries of the western hemisphere might continue to have the opportunity to discuss problems of mutual concern countries.

affecting coffee.

A new

imbalance between production and consumption appeared 1950s when crops began to be produced by the extensive new plantings that had been made in 1953-54, the year of crop damage and record high prices. In an effort to forestall a new price disruption, a Latin-American Coffee agreement was entered into by 15 western hemisphere producing countries in Oct. 1958. In Sept. 1959, these same countries joined with some of the African producers to create the International Coffee agreement, which was renewable on a year-to-year basis but aimed at eventually becoming a long-term arrangement that would include all producing countries. The objective was to stabilize the world coffee market through self-imposed export quotas and renewed These objectives were to be efforts to increase consumption. reached through more aggressive propaganda in the United States and active development of "new markets" as distinguished from "traditional" coffee-consuming countries. How to Make Coffee. The Coffee Brewing Institute, Inc., a nonprofit membership corporation formed in 1952 by the PanAmerican Coffee bureau and the National Coffee association of U.S., recommends observance of the following simple rules in making coffee: (1) Start with a thoroughly clean coffee maker. Rinse with hot water before using. Wash thoroughly after each Rinse with hot water and dry. (2) Use fresh coffee. Buy use. coffee in the size of can or package that will be used within a week after opening. (3) For best results start with freshly drawn cold water. (4) Use the full capacity of the coffee maker. For lesser Never, in quantities, it is best to use a smaller coffee maker. any case, brew less than three-fourths of the coffee maker's capacStandard accurately. and water both coffee Measure ity. (5) recommendation for full-strength beverage is two level tablespoons (6) After of coffee to each | measuring cup (6 oz.) of water. finding the exact timing that produces the desired results with a specific coffee maker, stick to it in order to get a uniform beverage. When coffee is boiled, an (7) Coffee should never be boiled. undesirable flavour change takes place. (8) Serve coffee as soon Freshly brewed coffee always tastes as possible after brewing. best. If necessary to let coffee stand for any length of time after in the late

—

COFFERDAM—COFFIN

3©

making, hold at serving temperature by placing the utensil in a pan of hot water over very low heat. Electrical devices usually have a "warm" unit for maintaining temperature. Making Soluble (Instant) Coffee. Soluble coffee can be prepared for individual servings right in the cup, or several cups at a time in any clean utensil, simply by adding the desired amount of boiling water to a measured amount of instant coffee and stirring. It is preferable to pour the water onto the coffee rather

a preacher in college and university chapels. Coffin was an advocate of the application of Christian ethics to social problems, an

than measure the coffee into the water. Most directions for preparing instant coffee call for "about 1 teaspoon to each cup of water," The exact amount depends on the size of cup, individual strength preference and the coffee itself. The degree of concentration is not the same in various soluble coffees, so larger or smaller measurements of one product may be required than of another to produce equivalent strength.

of Yale univ'ersity.

—

To prepare fill

iced coffee, place the instant coffee in a glass, half

with cold water,

stir,

and

fill

with

Quantities can be

ice.

made

similarly in a larger utensil.

See also references under "Coffee"

in

the Index volume.

—

—

Bibliography. .\ndres Uribe Compuzano, Brown Gold The AmazPan-American Coffee Bureau, Facts About ing Story of Coffee (1954) Coffee (1954) and Annual Coffee Slalislics (issued yearly) William H. Ukers, All About Coffee, 2nd ed. (1935) and Coffee Merchandising (1930)'; Dean Freiday, "The Story of Coffee," Natural History (Dec. 1939); Heinrich Eduard Jacob, Coffee: the Epic of a Commodity (1935); V. D. VVickizer, The World Coffee Economy, With Special ;

;

Reference to Control Schemes (1943). For figures on coffee production see the Britannica Book of the Year.

W.) a temporary dam formed to enable foundations to be laid or other construction operations to be undertaken on a site which is under water. The engineer surrounds the site with an enclosure in such a fashion as to make possible its de(T. C.

COFFERDAM,

watering.

When

small and the current slight, simple clay dams may be used, but in general cofferdams are somewhat more complicated structures. One type consists of the depth of the water

is

two rows of continuous wooden piles tied together at the top and filled between with clay puddle. Another frequently used type consists of adjacent cells whose continuous outside walls consist of interlocking vertical sheet steel piling.

They

are also

interpreter of the

Reformed

tradition of dignity and intellectual inpromoter of higher standards of theological education, a supporter of the League of Nations and of the United Nations, and a tireless worker and negotiator in the cause of tegrity in worship, a

Christian unity.

From 1922

until 1945 he served as a fellow of the

Corporation

He was moderator of the Presbyterian Church 1943-~14. He held many distinguished lecture-

U.S.A. during was the author of more than 20 volumes in the field of theology and religion. The Meaning oj the Cross (1931) in particular having been widely recognized as a fine statement of Chris-

in the

ships and

tian theology for the general reader.

on Nov.

He

died at Lakeville, Conn.,

25, 1954.

See Reinhold Niebuhr (ed.), This Ministry: the Contribution of and Walter Russell Bowie (ed.), Joy in Coffin (1945) Believing: Selections From the Spoken and Written Words and the Prayers of Henry Shane Coffin (1956). (M. P. No.)

Henry Shane

;

COFFIN, the receptacle in which a corpse is confined (Lat. cophinus, a coffer, chest or basket, but not "coffin" in its present sense). The Greeks and Romans disposed of their dead both by burial and by cremation. Greek coffins varied in shape, being in the form of an urn, hexagonal or like

the body being in a sitting posture.

modern coffins, or triangular, The material used was gen-

clay, and in some cases this obviously had been molded around the body and baked. In the Christian era stone coffins came into use. Examples of these have frequently been dug up in England. Those Romans who were rich enough had their coffins made of a limestone brought from Assus, in Asia Minor, which was commonly believed to "eat" the body; hence arose the

erally burnt

name sarcophagus (q.v.). The coffins of the Chaldeans were generally clay urns with the top left open, thus resembling immense jars; these were molded around the body, since the size of the mouth would prevent insertion after the clay was baked. The Egyptian coffins, or sarcophagi, as they

have been incorrectly

called,

were the largest stone

Mummy

with packed clay puddle. These cells join one another in such a way as to surround the site of the structure to be erected. The enclosed space may then be pumped dry. A cofferdam must be sufficiently strong to withstand the exterior presSee also Foundasures w'hich arise under these circumstances. (W. E. Hd.) tions; TUXNEL. COFFEYVILLE, a city of Montgomery county in southoften

coffins

generally highly polished and covered with hierochests shaped glyphics, usually a history of the deceased.

known and were

filled

mm

eastern Kansas, U.S., on the Verdigris river, about 150 mi. S. of

Topeka, near the southern boundary of the state. Founded in 1869 and incorporated in 1872. it was named for James A. Coffey, a pioneer settler. During the early lS70s, following the completion of a railroad, Coffeyville became a major shipping point for Texas cattle and later developed into an important trading and industrial centre.

The

city

is

located in the mid-continent gas and

oil field

(natural

1892 and numbers among its industries a refinery, a pipeline terminal and several manufacturers of oil-field equipment. Its industries include tile and pottery manufacture, railroad car repair, flour and soybean milling and preparation of gas was discovered

in

)

paint pigments and zinc sulfate. college, a public

The

two-year college.

city supports Coffeyville

For comparative population

(R. W. Ri.) (1877-1954),' U.S. clergyman, author and educator, a leader in the movement for liberal evangelicalism in the Protestant churches, was born in New York

figures see table in

COFFIN,

city on Jan.

theolog>' at

5,

Kansas: Population.

HENRY SLOANE 1877.

New

Graduating from Yale in 1897, he studied Edinburgh, Scot. (1897-99), at Marburg,

college,

FIG.

— ROMAN

t.

MARBLE SARCOPHAGUS DECORATED

IN

RELIEF FOUND AT

TARSUS, ABOUT 3RD CENTURY A.D.

form of the body were also used, being made of hardwood or painted papier-mache, and bore hieroglyphics (see Mummy). Unhewn flat stones were sometimes used by early European peoto the

One was placed at the bottom, others were stood on edge to form the sides, and a large slab was put on top, thus forming a rude cist. In England after the Roman invasion these rude cists gave place to the" stone coffin, which was used

ples to line the grave.

until the 16th century.

had

Ger, (1899), and at Union Theological seminary. New York city (1899-1900). After serving as minister of Bedford Park Presbyterian church (190(3-05) and Madison Avenue Presbyterian

been

church (1905-06), he became in 1926 president of Union TheoA many-sided man logical seminary, holding this office till 1945. of great intellectual power and unusual charm, in great demand as

proving in the that it belonged to the Bronze Age. This type of coffin, modified medieval Britain by those who could not by planing, was used

wooden down the

Primitive split

among

coffins

were formed of

a tree trunk that

centre and hollowed out

—

a

type

The Copenhagen museum, the implements found aboriginal peoples.

m

still

in

use

earliest specimen of this type in

it

is

COGGESHALL— COHEN

31

citizenship but also his special position in the counsels of the prov-

Rome

emphasized by (I. A. Rd.) COGNAC, a town of western France, departement of Charente (q.v.), is situated on the left bank of the Charente river, 37 km. Pop. (1954) 16,843. The (2i mi.) W.N.W. of Angouleme. 12th-century church of St. Leger has a Romanesque facade and a 15th-century tower. The chateau, dating from the 15th and 16th centuries, is the former residence of the counts of Angouleme. Cognac is on the main railway from Angouleme to Saintes, Rochefort and La Rochelle. The most important industry is the distilling of cognac, to which the town gives its name and which is exported by rail or through the nearby port of Tonnay-Charente [see Brandy). Casks and bottles for cognac are manufactured, and there is much trade in grain and cattle. In 1526 Cognac gave its name to a treaty drawn up in opposiIts tion to Charles V by Francis I, the pope, Venice and Milan. possession was contested during the wars of religion, and in 1570 In 1651 it withstood successit became a Huguenot stronghold. fully a siege against Louis II, prince of Conde, leader of the Fronde. In World 'War II the town was in German hands from

ince as an imperial legate.

His

fidelity to

is

Tacitus.

FIG.

2.

—WOODEN

ABUL NAGGA.

MUMMY CHEST COVERED WITH STUCCO FOUND

THEBES. EGYPT.

ABOUT 13TH CENTURY

AT DRAH

B.C.

afford stone, while the poor were buried without coffins, wrapped simply in cloth or even covered only with hay and flowers. To-

ward the end of the 17th century,

coffins

became usual

for all

classes.

Among the American Indians some tribes, e.g., the Sauk, Fox and Sioux, used roughhewn wooden coffins; others, such as the Seri. sometimes enclosed the corpse between the upper and lower shells of a turtle. The Seminoles of Florida used no coffins, while at Santa Barbara. Calif., canoes containing corpses have been found buried, though they may have been intended for the dead warrior's use in the next world. Rough stone cists, too. have been found in In their tree and scaffold burial the InIllinois and Kentucky. dians sometimes used wooden coffins or travois baskets, or simply wrapped the bodies in blankets. Canoes, mounted on a scaffold near a river, were used as coffins by some tribes, while others placed the corpse in a canoe or wicker basket and floated it out into the stream or lake.

The

aborigines of Australia generally

used coffins of bark, but some tribes employed baskets of wickerwork. Lead coffins were used in Europe in the middle ages, shaped like Iron coffins were certainly the mummy chests of ancient Egypt. used in England and Scotland as late as the 17th century. The coffins used in England are generally hexagonal in shape, In the of elm or oak lined with lead, or with a leaden shell.

United States glass is sometimes used for the lids, and the inside lined with copper or zinc. The coffins of France and Germany and the continent in general usually have sides and ends parallel. Coffins used in cremation throughout the civilized world are of some light material easily consumed and yielding little ash. Ordinary thin deal and papier-mache are the favourite materials. is

what is known as earth-to-earth burial (i.e., burial in which earth comes into contact with the corpse) are made of wickerwork covered with a thin layer of papier-mache over cloth. See also Funerary Rites and Customs. Coffins for

COGGESHALL, RALPH OF monastic chronicler, was a geshall in Essex.

He was

monk

(d.

after

of the Cistercian

1227),

abbey

English at

Cog-

elected abbot in 1207, but resigned his

on grounds of ill health in 1218. The abbey already posits own Chronicon Anglicanum, beginning at 1066; Ralph wrote the entries between the years 1187 and 1224. He wrote a

office

sessed

continuation of Ralph Niger's chronicle, extending from 1162 to 1178. and some short annals from 1066 to 1223. Bibliography. For texts see Raditlphi de Coggeshall chronicon Anglicanum, ed. by J. Stevenson (1875); Radidphi Nigri chronicon ab initio mundi ad A.D. 1199, ed. by R. Anstruther (1851). On the structure of the Chronicon Anglicanum see F. M. Powicke, "Roger of Wendover and the Coggeshall Chronicle," English Historical Re-

—

view, vol. xxi (1906).

COGIDUMNUS Britain

who

(CoGiDUBNus),

a native prince in

Roman

flourished in the third quarter of the 1st century a.d.

capital was at Chichester (Noviomagus Regnensium or the tribal centre of a people known as Regni or Regnenses, that is, the people of the regnum or "kingdom.'' This comprised, according to Tacitus in Agricola, ch. 14, more than one canton. Chichester boasts a famous inscription, set up ex auctoritate Tiiberi) Claud (i) Cogiditbni r{egis) legati Aug(usti) in Britiannia) and this not only indicates his kingship and Roman

His

Regnum).

;

June 1940

to Aug. 1944. means "knowing," in the widest sense of the In psychology it is used to denote one of the three ultimate functions or processes of consciousness, the others being feeling and conation (or willing). Cognition includes every mental process that can be described as an experience of knowing as dis-

COGNITION

term.

tinguished from an experience of feeling or of willing; it includes, in short, all processes of consciousness by which knowledge is built up. In its most familiar and fully developed form it is known as

judgment,

in

which

a certain object

(known

logically

and gram-

discriminated from other objects and Although cognition characterized by some concept or concepts. feeling and conation, yet in the distinguishable from is readily

matically as a "subject")

is

life the three types of experience are always found together, not separate, but one of them is usually predominant in one total experience, another in another, and this Psychology, as a fact facilitates their mutual discrimination. descriptive science, is not concerned with the epistemological question, how external objects can be revealed in subjective experiences; it simply takes at their face value these cognitive experiences in which objects appear to be known somehow, and leaves the critical problems to epistemology and logic. See Psychology, and Knowledge, Theory of, and authorities

actual flow of mental

there quoted.

COHAN, GEORGE M(ICHAEL)

(1878-1942), U.S. acpopular song writer, playwright and producer became famous Though he was born in Provias the "Yankee Doodle Dandy." dence, R.I., on July 3, 1878, his father foresightedly gave it as July 4. His parents were of the theatrical profession, and at an early age he appeared with them in juvenile parts, subsequently taking comedy roles in vaudeville and on the legitimate stage. Also at an early age he began writing plays and popular songs. A description of his early experiments and the stage career of the "Four Cohans" is in his autobiography. Twenty Years on Broadway and the Years It Took to Get There (1925). Among Cohan's productions may be mentioned The Governor's tor,

Son (1901); Forty-five Minutes From Broadway (1905); The Talk of

New

York (1907); Get-Rich-Quick Wallingford (1910);

Broadway Jones (1912); Seven Keys to Baldpate (1913); The Tavern (1921) The Song and Dance Man (1923) American Bom ;

;

(1925). Among his best-known appearances were those in Ah Wilderness! (1933) and I'd Rather Be Right (1937). He composed numerous songs, including "Mary's a Grand Old Name," "You're a Grand Old Flag" and the famous "Over There" of World War I, for which congress authorized him a special medal in 1940. Cohan died in New York city on Nov. 5, 1942. His career was the subject of a motion picture, Yankee Doodle Dandy (1942). See Ward Morehouse, George Theatre (1943).

M. Cohan:

COHEN, ERNST JULIUS

Prince of the American

(1869-1944), Dutch chemist,

whose most important work was on the allotropy of metals, par-

COHEN—CO-HONG

32

Born at Amsterdam, Neth., on March 7, i86q. he ticularly tin. studied chemistry under Svante Arrhenius at Stockholm, Swed., Henri Moissan

became tories at

at Paris,

and Jacobus van't Hoff

at

Amsterdam.

He

assistant to the latter in the university chemical labora.\msterdam in iSi),;, and in H)02 professor of physical

chemistry at the University of Utrecht, Cohen headed the Van't Hoff laboratory founded there in 1904, He published a large number of works on piezochemistry and electrochemical thermodynamics, particularly in relation to the study of standard galvanic During World cells he also wrote widely on the history of science. War he was arrested by the Germans because of his Jewish descent and died in the gas chamber at the concentration camp of Auschwitz, Ger.. on or about March 15, 1944, Cohen's writings include: Physical Chemistry for Biologists, Inorganic Chemistry for Medical Students (1907 I; Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff, Sein :

n

Leben und Werkcn

Some ProhUms

in

('1912

)

;

Pbysico-Chemical Metamorphosis and

Piezochemistry ("ig^S), (1842-1918), German-Jewish philoso-

COHEN, HERMANN

was born and educated at Breslau and Berlin. In 1876 he succeeded F. .\. Lange (q.v.) as professor at Marburg university. Between 1902 and 1912 he published the three parts of his philosophical system (Logik der reinen Erkennt-

pher, founder of the

Marburg school

of Neo-Kantianism,

at Coswig, Anhalt, on July 4, 1842,

Ethik des reinen Willens, Asthetik des reinen Gefiihls). As a reaction to both metaphysics and materialism, Neo-Kantianism restored the sovereignty of "pure'' thought existence is rooted in

nis,

:

The concept of the "thing in itself" {Ding an sich), Kant's concession to metaphysics, is to be discarded as being outside human knowledge. In his ethics, Cohen maintained man's absolute freedom. The state aims at the moral perfection of society. God is the "idea," expressing the correspondence between the realms reason.

of nature and morality. deals with

mankind

The

realization that philosophical ethics

as a whole, not with the individual, caused

Cohen's radical turn to religion and to his ancestral Jewish faith. In Religion der Vernunjt aus den Quellen des Judentums (1918) a systematic presentation of Judaism, he concentrated on the "cor-

God and the individual, divine love and messiAfter retiring from Marburg ( 1 9 1 2 Cohen taught Jewish philosophy at the liberal Institute for the Science of Judaism in Berlin. He died at Berlin, April 4, 1918. See also Jewish Philosophy; Modern Jewish Philosophy; Neo-Kantianism. relation" between

anic humanity.

) ,

See the introduction by Franz Schriften (1924) S. H. Bergman, ;

and

Rosenzweig to

Cohen's Jiidiscke

"Hermann Cohen," Between East (N. N. G.)

iVest (1958).

COHEN

(Hebrew for "priest"), a Jewish family name, implying descent from Aaron and the Hebrew priests. Many families claiming such descent are, however, not named Cohen, Other forms of the name are Cohn, Cowen, Kahn, etc. COHESION: see Solid State Physics; Surface Tension.

COHN, FERDINAND JULIUS

(1828-1898),

botanist whose studies on microscopic forms of plant

him

German

life entitle

rank with Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch as one of the founders of the science of bacteriology. He was born in Breslau on Jan. 24, 1828, completed his higher education at the University of Berlin and then returned to his native city, where he ultimately became director of the Institute of Plant Physiology in the Unito

versity of Breslau.

Chief among his contributions are his system of classification of microorganisms (1872, 187S), his discovery of bacterial spores (1876) and the bearmg of bacterial spores on the problem of spontaneous generation. From his accurate morphologic studies

Cohn concluded that it should be possible to arrange bacteria into genera and species. Nevertheless, he pointed out that morphology alone was an insufficient basis for classification. Indeed he was perhaps the first to recognize that organisms of similar form can and do differ from, each other in their physiological and biochemiDuring his lifetime Cohn was recognized as the foremost systematic student of bacteria of his day. It was 1876 that Robert Koch, then unknown, demoncal characteristics.

in his laboratory in

strated his proofs that Bacillus anthracis w'as the causative agent of splenic fever or anthrax, a disease of cattle, sheep and some-

times men.

Through Cohn, Koch was appointed

to the Imperial

Health

office

in

Berlin,

where he continued

Cohn was an outstanding teacher and received many honours, among them ber of the Royal society of London.

June

his

brilliant

work.

popularizer of science. He election as a foreign mem-

Cohn

died in Breslau on

25, 1898,

See Pauline Cohn, Ferdinand Cohn, Blatter der Erinnerung (1901) F. J. Cohn, Bacteria: the Smallest of Living Organisms (1872), trans, by C. S. Dolley (1881), with bibliography of Cohn's writings in 1939 ed. (M. C. L.) ;

COHNHEIM, JULIUS FRIEDRICH man

(1839-1884), Ger-

pathologist, noted especially for his study of inflammation of

the serous membranes, was born at Demmin, Pomorze, on July 20, 1839. After serving as an army surgeon in 1864-65 he became an assistant in the Pathological institute in Berlin and was the most distinguished of Rudolf Virchow's pupils. He was subsequently professor of pathology at Kiel (1868), Breslau (1872) and Leipzig (1878), where he was also director of the Paul Ehrlich was among his pupils at Pathological institute. Breslau. Cohnheim's first important dissertation on inflammation of serous membranes appeared in 1861, and was followed by other

important papers on that subject from 1869 to 1873. On this question his teaching was opposed to that of Virchow. He showed that inflammation is caused by the passage of white corpuscles through the walls of the capillaries and that pus is formed largely

Cohnheim made corpuscles in a disintegrated state. method of microscopical work. His most important book is his Vorlesungen iiber allgemeine Pathologic (1878). He died on Aug. 15, 1884, at Leipzig. a city of Albany county, N.Y., U.S., part of the of these

many

useful innovations in the

COHOES,

Albany-Schenectady-Troy standard metropolitan statistical area, located on the Mohawk river where it tumbles down the "Great The history of the city has been deFalls" into the Hudson. termined largely by its location on these falls. Established by settlers from Rensselaerwyck during the early 18th century, Cohoes developed into a small, thriving manufacturing city producing a variety of products, particularly textiles. These enterprises developed because a dam had been built at the falls and because the Erie and Champlain canals had been joined just outside the city by 1825. Capitalists were quick to take advantage of this opportunity for transportation and water power and Cohoes was incorporated as a village in 1848 and as a city in 1869. The old colonial military road from Albany to Ft. Edward and Lake George runs through the city. In 1866 construction workers found an almost perfect skeleton of a mastodon buried in rock alongside the falls. For comparative population figures see table in New York: (H. S. Pr.) Population. CO-HONG. This pidgin-English term is generally used to designate the group of Chinese merchant firms authorized by the government to trade with western merchants at Canton before the first Opium War of 1839-42 opened China to more extensive Such firms were called "foreign-trade contact with the west. firms" (yang-hang) and the merchants who headed them "hong merchants" (kang-shang). These officially sponsored merchants, in existence in the second half of the 17th century, were theoretically 13 in number, but actually there were fewer, sometimes no more than 4. In the 1740s a system was established requiring each foreign ship arriving at Canton to have a hong merchant serve as security, guaranteeing to the Chinese government By 1760, all duties and the good behaviour of the foreign traders. when Canton had become the only Chinese port where foreigners designated as were merchants were permitted to trade, the hong the only merchants in Canton who could sell tea and silk to westerners. A few. like the famous Howqua (Wu Ping-chien; 17691843). attained great wealth; but hong merchants were subject to heavy exactions from officials and many failed financially. The Co-hong has often been compared with a merchant guild. However, while the hong merchants collectively enjoyed the monopoly of the foreign trade at Canton, each merchant was independent in his dealings. As early as 1720 the hong merchants were known to have agreed upon a system of collective price fixing, having taken a blood oath in a manner reminiscent of

COHORT—GOITER Chinese merchant guilds. That arrangement was abandoned in It was not until 1760 that, under the leadership of an 1722. ambitious Hoppo (the official who headed the Canton maritime customs), the hong merchants formed an association called the That association was abolished, "collective firm" {kung-hang). however, in 1771 and subsequent attempts to revive it never The Chinese term kimg-hang carried a sense of a succeeded. price-fi.xing association; but its pidgin-English corruption, the Co-hong, came to be used by the western merchants in a broader (K.-C. L.) sense, without the connotation of an association.

COHORT

(Lat. cohors, an "enclosure"), the tactical infantry

Roman

unit of the

numbered ten cohorts. modern infantry battalion; it was

legion {q.v.), which

The cohort corresponded

to the

divided into three maniples (companies), each of which was in turn divided into two centuries (platoons). The size of a cohort varied with the strength of the legion, which in theory had 6,000

During the republic, however, a legion of 4,200 men had ten cohorts of 420 men each; during the empire the cohort reThe organization of the gained its full strength of 600 men. Roman legion into cohorts greatly increased its tactical flexibility over the Greek phalanx. Unlike the phalanx, the legion, because of its cohorts, was able to fight in an open, checkerboard formation readily adaptable to rough terrain and to changes in the tactical situation. The cohort was also the organizational unit of men.

Rome's

brigade (vigiles) and of the city's military garrison,

fire

See also Tactics: Tactics of the Ancient Do. A.)

the praetorian guard.

World.

I

COHOSH, a common name applied

known

the species of Actaea that are better the

summer cohosh

as baneberry ig.v.), the black cohosh and the blue cohosh

(Cimicijiiga americana),

of the crowfoot family,

{

C. racemosa).

(

Caiilophyllum tlialictroides

all

to several plants, including

)

All occur in

of the barberry family.

eastern North America, with the species of Actaea occurring as

Utah and Oregon.

far west as

COIMBATORE,

(J.

M.

Bl.)

municipality and district headquarters and one of the most important industrial and trading centres in south India. Pop. 1961 286,305. Located on the edge of a cotton area, it commands the famous Palghat gap. about 20 mi. wide, between the Nilgiris hills to the north and

in

Madras

a

state, India,

(

the Anaimalai hills to the south.

and

its

It is

i

an important

textile centre,

other industries include leather tanning, the manufacture

33 Founded

in 1290 in Lisbon, the university, (1960) 50,168. after being moved several times, was finally settled at Coimbra Its chapel has a beautiful door (1517-22) and the in 1537. richly decorated baroque library (1716-23) possesses 1,000,000 volumes and 3,000 manuscripts, among them a first edition of Luis de Camoes' Os Litsiades (1572). In the old part of the city, on a hill above the river, are the old Romanesque cathedral (1170); the church of Sao Salvador (12th century); the architecturally uninteresting new cathedral, begun in 1598; the Machado de Castro museum in the old episcopal palace, restored in 1592; Santa Cruz church, built in the reign of Afonso I and rebuilt in 1520; the aqueduct of Sao Sebastiao (1568-70), rebuilt on Roman foundations; the botanical gardens; the 12th-century monastery of Celas, built by Princess Sancha, daughter of King Sancho I; and Santo Antonio church, remarkable for the pottery sculptures in its chapels. On the right bank of the Mondego near Santa Clara bridge is Dr. Manuel Braga park. On the other side are the old and new convents of Santa Clara, 13th and 17th century respectively, in whose church is the tomb of St. Elizabeth of Portugal, patroness of Coimbra; the Quinta das Lagrimas where Ines de Castro, beloved of King Pedro I, was supposed to have been murdered; and the Lapa dos Esteios. The main industries are the making of pottery, fabrics, foodstuffs, beer, wine and paper. Tanning is carried on. Oil is found and maize, rice and fruits are

grown

in the district.

A

4th-century Latin inscription identifies Coimbra with Aeminium, while Condeixa, 13 km. (8 mi.) S.S.W., was the ancient Conimbriga or Conimbrica. Aeminium was for more than a century a Moorish stronghold, but in 878 it was recaptured by Afonso III and peopled by Galicians from the north. When the see of Conimbriga was transferred there, the bishop kept the old name and Aeminium became known as Coimbra. After many vicissitudes, it was captured by Ferdinand I of Castile in 1064 and for more than a century was the centre from which the reconquest of Portugal from the Moors was carried on. Six kings Sancho I

—

of soap and agricultural implements, and coffee and sugar proc-

COIN:

has a degree-granting college, an agricultural college and a school of forestry, affiliated with Madras university. Coimbatore is an important railway junction of the Southern railway, providing access through the Palghat gap with the western coast, and is also an important bus terminus, with services to Mysore

COINAGE OFFENSES:

essing.

city.

It

Three miles from the town

is

the temple of Perur, dating

partly from Chola times and partly from the early ISth century.

Coimbatore District (area 6,018 sq.mi.; pop. [1961] 3.557,471) comprises a hilly region on the west, north and south; the eastern part is a fertile plain, lying at an altitude of about 900 ft. is subhumid and hot. Droughts are not uncommon, and during periods of severe drought the small rivers become dry. The hilly west and north is devoted to coffee and tea plantations, and the forest y-ields good sandalwood and timber. In the plain region rice is an irrigated crop, and cotton, the most important

The climate

cash crop,

extensively grown.

is

The

district,

with parts of modern

Salem district of Madras state, was formerly named Kongu Nadu and in the 9th century was under the Chola dynasty (q.v.). In the 11th century the Hoysala {q.v.) kings of Mysore ruled it, and it later formed part of the great 14th-century kingdom of Vijayanagar (q.v.). It was conquered by Haidar Ali in 1761 and merged with his Mysore kingdom. After the fall of his son and successor Tipu Sahib 1799 the district became a part of British India and was incorporated in Madras state. In 1956, upon the reorganization of the state boundaries in the repubhc of India, the taluk of KoUegal was transferred to Mysore state. (G. K. Gh.) (

COIMBRA,

)

the university city of Portugal,

is

situated in the

centre of the country in the province of Beira Litoral, on the

bank of the Mondego river. It is 224 km. (139 mi.) N.N.E. of Lisbon by road, on the main Oporto-Lisbon railroad. Pop. right

—

and II, Afonso II and III, Pedro and Ferdinand were born there, as was the poet Francisco de Sa de Miranda (1481-1558). In 1755 Coimbra suffered considerably from an earthquake and in 1810 it was sacked by the French. Dom Miguel made the city his headquarters in 1834 and in 1846 it was the scene of a Miguelist insurrection. (M. C. Ca.; A. C. da S.) see

Mint; Numismatics. see Counterfeit Money.

COIR is the fibre obtained from the shell of the coconut. It can be processed by machinery but is considered to be of superior After steeping in sea water, quality when processed by hand. washing in fresh water and drying, the reddish-brown mass of fibre is opened up into fibres five to ten inches long, which are graded according to the end use. Coir is employed extensively in It is resistant to rot, and its rope, brush and mat manufacture. other valuable features include lightness coupled with elasticity and abrasion. Considerable mechanical wear and resistance to quantities are exported from the Pacific, and cultivation and preparation of coir also play a major part in Ceylon's economy.

Great Britain imports substantial quantities of coir, largely for re-export after manufacture. The German Federal Republic, the Netherlands, the United States, France and Italy also import and (A. Dr.) manufacture considerable amounts. (1534-1590?), COITER (CoYTER, Koyter), Dutch physician and surgeon who established the study of comparative osteology and first described cerebrospinal meningitis, was born in Groningen, in the Netherlands. He was awarded a grant by his native city that enabled him to study for five years at the principal universities of Italy and France under such masters as Fallopius, Eustachius, Aranzi and Rondelet. In 1569 he was ap-

VOLCHER

pointed city physician of Niirnberg. Shortly afterward he entered military service as field surgeon to the palatine prince Johann Casimir. The time of his death is variously given, ranging from

1576 to 1600. Colter was a brilliant investigator whose interests covered the range of the medical sciences of his time. He corrected some of the errors of Vesalius, and concerned himself with the finer full

COJEDES—COKE

34

He destructures of the sense organs and the nervous system. scribed embryology, particularly the development of the human fetus, as well as the comparative osteology of animals and ilHe performed lustrated the descriptions with his own drawings. autopsies whenever the opportunity presented, and de-

human

scribed

many

disease processes, including cerebrospinal meningitis (L.

(1573^.

COJEDES

M.

Z.)

northern Venezuela is regarded as one of the most typical llanos (grassland) states. Area 5,714 sq.mi., pop. (1961) 72,181. Since colonial days cattle raising has completely dominated the economy. The area is drained by secondary tribuThe climate is wet and dry tropical with taries of the Orinoco. about 48 in. of rain falling during the rainy season (May to September or October). Rains bring much hardship to the llaneros ("cattlemen"). In the capital, San Carlos, the temperature ranges between 63° F. in the rainy season and 102° F, in the dry season. in

in Cojedes rises above 700 ft. Coffee is grown in the hills north and corn, cotton, sugar cane and yuca (cassava) to the south where irrigation is possible. San Carlos and Tinaquillo are

No point to the

the principal market centres.

COKE, SIR

(L.

EDWARD

We.)

(1552-1634), English lawyer and

parliamentarian whose defense of the supremacy of the common law against the claims of the royal prerogative had a profound influence on the development of English law and the constitution,

was born at Mileham in Norfolk on Feb. 1, 1552. He was educated at Norwich grammar school and Trinity college, Cambridge, and entered the Inner Temple in 1572. Called to the bar in 1578, he soon acquired a reputation, his early cases including the Cromwell Under the libel case (4 Rep. 13) and Shelley's Case (1 Rep. 94). patronage of Lord Burghley, Elizabeth I's first minister, he entered the public service and rose rapidly, becoming member of parliament for Aldeburgh in 1589 and solicitor general and recorder of London in 1592. A year later he was elected speaker of the house of commons, showing considerable skill in carrying out Queen Elizabeth's policy of curbing the commons' passion for In 1593 he first crossed the discussing ecclesiastical matters. The attorney generalship fell path of Francis Bacon (q.v.). vacant, and Bacon, supported by the earl of Essex, became Coke's Coke got it in 1594 and then kept Bacon out rival for the post. of the office of solicitor general as well, or so Bacon thought.

Coke's later

first

and four months when he married Lady tempestuous and unhappy union.

wife, Bridget Paston, died in 1598

Bacon was again

his unsuccessful rival

Elizabeth Hatton; it was a As attorney general Coke was the champion of the crown and its prerogative powers. He started a series of state prosecutions for libel and conducted the great treason trials of the day, prosecuting the earls of Essex and

Southampton

in 1601, Sir

Walter

Raleigh in 1603 and the Gunpowder plot conspirators in 1605. His methods in these trials, especially in that of Raleigh, were brutal even by the standards of his age. In 1606 Coke was made chief justice of the common pleas, and there then began the series of conflicts which eventually broke his judicial career. At the time of Coke's appointment Archbishop Richard Bancroft had already started his attempt to shake off the control which the

common-law

courts exercised over the ecclesi-

by writ of prohibition. This matter came to a head Case (1607-08) when Coke, summoned to a disputation on the king's power to withdraw a case from the courts, earned James I's fury by his assertions that the common law was the supreme law and that "the king in his own person cannot adjudge ." any case. In 1610 Coke again crossed the king when he gave his celebrated opinion on proclamations before the council, stating that the king cannot change any part of the common law nor create any offense by proclamation which was not an offense before. The same year he disputed the claim of the court of high commission to imprison for adultery and when, in 1611, James attempted to put him on the commission he refused. Coke's position was strong. Incorruptible and respected, he was the embodiment of the common law. A last attempt was made to "buy" him when in Aug. 1613 James, on Bacon's advice, appointed him chief justice of the king's bench where it was hoped he would look after the royal interests. He was also made a privy astical courts in Fuller's

.

.

councilor and was the

first to be called lord chief justice of EngAt the king's bench he retained his predominance and continued to maintain the supremacy of the common law over all persons and institutions except parliament. In Peacham's Case he protested against the practice of consulting the judges individually and separately, which James, abetted by Bacon, was more or less driven to follow when the whole bench, if consulted together,

land.

merely echoed Coke.

In 1615, however, he tried his strength too bench started a dispute with Lord

high, for the court of king's

Chancellor Ellesmere (see Brackley, Thomas Egerton) over the right of the court of chancery to interfere with, and indirectly Coke was also believed to be nullify, a common-law decision. at the bottom of the abortive attempt to make some who had

been suitors in a case of this sort liable to the penalties of a praemunire. Meanwhile he had further endangered his position by throwing out from the bench in the Overbury murder trials dark hints of scandal in high places ("God knows what became Fiof that sweet babe. Prince Henry, but I know somewhat"). nally he came into collision with James I over the king's right hold livings in plurality). commendams (permission to grant to Coke and the other judges ignored a royal injunction that they should take no action upon a case involving this right until the They were called before the king king's pleasure was known. and council and ordered to obey the injunction. The other judges submitted, but Coke merely said that he would do what an honest and just judge ought to do. In June 1616 the privy council, with Bacon behind it, formulated One was a trumpery matter, never three charges against him. proved, about a bond that had passed through his hands. The other two were charges of interference with the court of chancery and of disrespect to the king in the matter of commendams. Coke was forbidden to go on circuit, ordered to revise the "errors" in his Reports and on Nov. 14, 1616, he was dismissed. Thereupon, presumably in search of an influential friend, he offered his daughter in marriage to Sir John Villiers, brother of the duke of Buckingham. His wife, supported by Bacon, objected and hid the child, who was then only 14. Coke abducted her violently and had her married, strongly against her will, to Villiers. Coke made a gradual return to public life, and by 1617 was back in the privy council and in the Star Chamber. In 1620 Coke entered parliament again as member for a Cornish borough, in theory as a supporter of the king. Yet for the rest of his career he

was

a leading

member

of the popular party.

He

opposed Prince Charles's proposed Spanish marriage, took a part in drawing up the charges against Bacon and spoke in the great debate on the liberties of parHament (1621), spending nine months in prison as a result, but nothing was found that could incriminate him. In 1628 it was his bill of liberties that ultimately took the form of the Petition of Right. This was his greatest parliamentary hour. Admitting his changed views. Coke, at the age of 76, molded the ancient precedents, including Magna Carta, into a charter of He retired at the end of liberty limiting the royal prerogative. the session and died at Stoke Poges, Buckinghamshire, on Sept. 3,

His papers were instantly seized and some, including his were never recovered. It is true that Coke was inclined to be overbearing and impatient both at the bar and on the bench, that he was undoubtedly rather narrow and that he was not always logical. However, his knowledge of law was unequaled, though he "read the Year Books Coke manipulated meas a Tudor, not as a medieval lawyer." dieval "precedents" and used them to support his 17th-century view of the common law. He successfully upheld (his common law in the courts and in parliament, against the church, the admiralty and the dangerous claims of the royal prerogative. He only failed in trying to uphold it against the chancery, which was too strong for him. While he was issuing his Reports no others 1634.

will,

came out. They are not so much reports in the modern sense as compendiums of the law bearing on a particular case, with personal comments on points raised or general remarks. A balanced estimate of his importance as a legal authority is that of Chief Justice William Best: "The fact is that Lord Coke had [often] no authority for what he states, but I am afraid we should get rid of a great

COKE considered law in Westminster Hall if what Lord Coke says without authority is not law. He was one of the most eminent lawyers that every presided as a judge in any court of ." Among his other publications are four volumes of InJustice. stitutes, of which vol. i is known as Coke Upon Littleton (1628). As a man, he evokes admiration more readily than sympathy. More learned a lawyer than Bacon but without his philosophical deal of

what

.

is

.

and domineering, a just judge but a savage prosecutor, obstinate in his opposition to illegal exercise of authority, resolute in his faith in the supremacy of the common law even to the extent of challenging the equity of the chancellor, genius, proud, ambitious

35

the type of coal or coal mixture from which

made and

the process and temperature used in its manufacture. In high-temperature carbonization, with which this article is concerned, the final temperature of the coke discharged from the ovens is about 900° C. (1,652° F.) or slightly higher. The primary purpose usually is to produce a coke having the requisite properties for it

is

metallurgical use, as in blast furnaces or in foundry cupolas, although the gas, tar and light oils recovered are also valuable prod-

In Great Britain and Europe, but no longer in the United States because of the availability of natural gas, processes of carbonization employing special retorts are used for the primary ucts.

vol. V,

purpose of making city gas (coal gas), with coke production a secondary objective. Such processes produce a coke suitable for varied industrial, commercial and residential uses, but not the type required for blast furnaces and foundry cupolas. (The mak-

S.

ing of coal gas

he could cringe before the king even crown.

in the act of

defying the

—

Bibliography. Sir William Holdsworth, A History of English Law, 2nd ed. (1937); William Cobbet, State Trials, vol. ii (1809); (G. H. J.) E. Thorne, Sir Edward Coke, 1552-1952 (1957).

COKE, SIR JOHN

(1563-1644), English royalist, who gave valuable service to Charles I, especially during the "11 years' tyranny," was born on March 5, 1563, and was educated at Trinity college, Cambridge. After leaving the university he entered public life as a servant of William Cecil, Lord Burghley, becoming deputy treasurer and then a commissioner of the navy. He became M. P. for Warwick in 1621 and was knighted in 1624, afterward representing the University of Cambridge. In the parliament of 1625 Coke acted as secretary of state (he was permanently appointed in Sept. 1625). In this and later parliaments he introduced the royal requests for money and defended the foreign policy of Charles I and other actions of the king. Disliked by the leaders in the house of commons, his speeches did not improve the king's position, but when Charles ruled without a parliament he found Coke's industry very useful. However, in 1639, when a scapegoat was required the Scots,

for

the humiliating treaty of

Coke was dismissed.

He

died at

BenA'ick with

Tottenham on

Sept.

8,

Coke's son. Sir John Coke, sided with the parliament in its struggle with the king, and it is possible that in later life Coke's own sympathies were with this party, although in his earlier years he had been a defender of absolute monarchv. (S. R. Bt.) (1747-1814), the first Methodist bishop COKE, and founder of Methodist missions, was born at Brecon, Wales, on Sept. 9, 1747. He was educated at Jesus college, Oxford, and ordained in the Church of England in 1772. From 1772 to 1776 he was curate at South Petherton in Somerset, but he was dismissed for adopting the open-air and cottage services suggested by John Wesley, with whom he had become acquainted. After serving on the London Wesleyan circuit he was in 1782 appointed president of the first conference in Ireland. In 1784 he presented to Wesley his Plan for Missions and on Sept. 2 he was ordained by him as "superintendent" of the Methodist societies in the new world and left on the first of his many visits to America. In 1787 the American conference changed his title to "bishop," a nomenclature which he tried in vain to introduce into the English conference, of which he was president in 1797 and 1805. Failing this, he asked the prime minister. Lord Liverpool, to make him a bishop in India. Refused, he raised funds to establish his own mission and was on his way there when he died at sea on May 3, 1814. Coke was always a missionary enthusiast, and the pioneer of such enterprise within the Methodist movement. He was an ardent opponent of slavery, and endeavoured also to heal the breach between the Methodist and Anglican communions. He published a History of the West Indies (1808-11 ). several volumes of sermons and, with Henry Moore, a Life of John Wesley (1792 ), 1644.

THOMAS

COKING AND HIGH-TEMPERATURE CARBONIZATION. Coke the solid residue which remains COKE,

is described in Gas Industry; see also Fuels: Gaseous Fuels: Coal Gas.) Coal carbonization may also be accomplished at lower temperatures of about 500° to 600° C. (932°1,112° F.). The coke is higher in volatile-matter content, is much more reactive and therefore suitable for use in residential heating equipment, but is not of metallurgical quality, {See Carboniza-

tion,

Low-Temperature.)

THE NATURE OF COKE Coke

is

a hard, cellular

beehive ovens occurs in blocks or columns of irregular length, which may be as long as two feet, depending upon the depth to which coal has been charged on the floor of the oven. Beehive coke is more silvery and uniform in appearance than oven coke. The end of a piece of oven coke which has been at the wall of the oven has a cauliflower appearance, a more silvery colour, and has been more thoroughly coked than the end at the centre of the in

oven.

Wide

with minor proportions of hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen (which together constitute the so-called fixed carbon), plus the mineral matter present in the original coal, which has undergone aheration during the coking process. The process of heating bituminous coal in this manner is referred to as carbonization or coking. The properties of coke depend on carbon,

in

size,

appearance, colour, hardness,

other material and operating factors. Coke is essentially a partially graphitized and cellular form of carbon: its true specific gravity is about 1.85 to 1.9. or about midway between the specific gravities of coal and graphite. Because of its cellular structure and high porosity, however, coke has a lower bulk density than coal; that is, coke requires about 40' out the carbonization in long piles enclosed

by two brick walls provided with holes for the controlled admission of air. By about 1S50 the beehive process had almost completely displaced the foregoing.

In this process, small charges of coal were coked by the heat released from combustion of practically all the matter and about one-sixth of the theoretical yield of coke. The ovens used were round in shape with domed roofs and were constructed of firebrick and stone. Although still highly inefficient, the beehive process produced excellent coke from coals having strong coking properties. Various improvements in the beehive oven were introduced in the last half of the 1800s, but volatile

those

still

in

use are relatively unchanged in their principal features

of construction. Fig. 1 is a cross-sectional view of a standard beehive oven showing a residue of coke before removal. Coal is charged to the oven through an opening in the roof and is leveled through the opening in the side. Heat remaining in the brickwork from the previous run starts the distillation of volatile matter. Air admitted at the top of the side door mixes with the volatile matter and combustion occurs chiefly above the coal charge. The progress of coking is downward. It is important that the air admitted be controlled to avoid loss of coke, and the amount of air admitted is reduced as coking proceeds. From five to six tons of coal are charged to an oven, and the time of coking may run from 48 to 73 hours, depending upon the type of coal charged and the coke properties desired.

ammonia and

surplus gas. Waste heat boilers were added to the beehive oven to aid in heat recovery from the combustion products. Improved ovens, rectangular in cross-section, were devised, with separate flues on the sides for combustion of the volatile gases liberated and transmission of heat to the charge through the walls of the oven. By-product recovery systems were added and provision was made to remove tars and light oils from the raw gas before it was directed to the heating flues. An important advance was made when Henry Simon, of Manchester, Eng., introduced a recuperative system whereby part of the heat of the burned gases from the heating flues was used to preheat the air which was supplied to the flues. As a result higher temperatures were obtainable in the ovens, and some surplus gas became available. During these developmental years, ovens were narrowed to furnish coke of more uniform properties, and heating flues were redesigned to give more uniform heating throughout the length of the

oven. More elaborate systems for recovery of chemical products were devised. The names of Simon-Carves, Coppee, Piette, Otto, Semet-Solvay, Koppers, and Wilputte, who were coke oven designers and builders, are still familiar to coke-oven operators. The first by-product coke ovens built in the United States were installed in 1893 at the plant of the Solvay Process company, Syracuse. N.Y. These were designed by Louis Semet and their primary purpose was to produce ammonia for use in the Solvay ammonia-soda process. The coke and gas obtained were used as fuels. Within the next few years, the quality of coke produced in by-product ovens was demonstrated to the satisfaction of blastfurnace operators and other oven installations were made by Semet-Solvay, Otto-Hoffman and others. Ovens designed by Heinrich Koppers. of Germany, were installed in 1906 at the plant of the Illinois Steel company, Joliet, 111. The first real impetus to coke oven construction resulted from demands for ammonia, benzene and toluene for e.xplosives and tars for dyes during World War I when imports of these coal-derived chemical products from Germany ceased. By 1919 more coke was produced in the United States from by-product ovens than from beehive ovens, and ten years later over 90% of the coke was produced in the new ovens. For many years beehive ovens have been operated chiefly to supply peak demands for metallurgical coke.

THE COKE-OVEN PLANT

floor of the

In the operation of a beehive oven all of the gaseous and liquid chemical products, which represent about 40% of the heat content of the coal charged, are lost. last half of the

Numerous

efforts

were made

in the

1800s to reduce this heat loss and to recover

tar,

The modern coke-oven plant consists coal by rail or barge, with provision for

of an area for receiving

handling, storage, blend-

ing and handling several types of coal, one or

more

batteries of

coke ovens, a plant for recovery of the gas and chemical products, and equipment for the discharge and quenching of the coke and for screening the coke and delivering it to storage, rail cars or the blast furnace. All operations are integrated and continuous. Chemical-Recovery Coke Ovens. In the United States the term by-product was being replaced in the second half of the 20th century by the term coal chemicals, and the coke ovens from which coal chemicals are recovered were being referred to as chemicalrecovery coke ovens. A typical modern chemical-recovery coke

—

oven

in

the United States and other countries is a rectangular of refractory materials. Each oven is about

chamber constructed

long and 12 to 13 ft. high, with an average width of 17 to The width is tapered 2 to 4 in. from front to back, with the wider dimension at the back to facilitate discharge of the coke by a pusher. For convenience in operation, a group of about 50

40 20

ft.

in.

or 60 ovens are built closely side

by

side in a single structure

known

as a battery.

Rows of heating flues separate the ovens, each row serving to heat two ovens except for the flues at each end of the battery. The flues connect into the regenerators which are located immediately below each oven and which" supply preheated air for combustion and receive the hot products of combustion. The heating gas is directed into the flues by a separate duct when the ovens are

FIG.

I.

CROSS SECTION THROUGH A BEEHIVE COKE OVEN

heated with coke-oven gas. Many of the coke ovens of the combination type are designed to be heated with either coke-oven gas or blast-furnace gas (also producer gas) in which case the blastfurnace gas (or producer gas) as well as the air is preheated in regenerators. Heating is carried out in half the number of flues

COKE

37

CRUSHED, MIXED COAL

the sensible heat of the hot coke

!'°Tt

is

TO STORAGE OR SHIPMENT

MIIIIIIIIMIIIIIMIIf

IIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII=

-GAS FOR UNDERFIRING

SULFURIC ACID

sometimes used.

The quenched

coke is dumped on an inclined wharf where it cools further and is then transported by belt conveyer to a screening station and separated into sizes before storage or shipment.

,

Recovery of Coal Chemicals.

EPARATOR

— Methods

SCRUBBERS = GAS HOLDER

I—

I

r^

f^

:;

GAS TO ^. EEL

MILLS

FINAL

TANKS

STILL

li^i

)Hiii(i'

-v^

I

recovery of

from the raw gas leaving the coke ovens vary somewhat according to the way the ammonia is recovered. Three methods have been used the socalled direct, semidirect and in-

I

^

AMMONIA

for the

coal chemicals

.

illllllilllllillll^

—

covered as

Ammonia is reammonium sulfate in

the

and semidirect proc-

direct processes. TANKS

'mous tracts, perhaps terminating with The Conduct of the Stage Consider'd (1721), which has been attributed to him. Collier's The Great Historical, Geographical, Genealogical, and Poetical Dictionary, a translation, with additions, of Louis Moreri's Grand Dictionnaire historique (1674), was published in 1701, with supplementary volumes in 1705 and 1721. His Ecclesiastical History, 2 vol, (1708. 1714), was attacked by Bishops Kennett, Nicolson and Burnet on grounds of popery. Collier ably defended himself in An Answer to Some Exceptions (1715) and Some Considerations on Dr. Rennet's Letters (1717). Consecrated in 1713 by George Hickes. the sole survivor of the nonjuring bishops, he was created, on July 21. 1716. primus of the church of the Nonjurors. He was a principal mover in the scheme, projected in 1716, for union with the Eastern Church and corresponded with the Orthodox authorities until 1725. Collier favoured the 1S49 Book of Common Prayer and regretted that later editions omitted certain usages from the communion service. His Reasons for Restoring Some Prayers (1717)

His interest in early English literature was stimulated by work on the Critical Review, and he produced a new edition of Robert Dodsley's Old Plays (1825-27), to which five more plays were added in 1833, Meanwhile he began to mix fraud with his genuine researches, first in his History of English Dramatic Poetry and .Annals of the Stage (1831). His so-called "new facts and particulars'' (1835-39), Memoirs of E. Alleyn (iS4i),Alleyn Papers (1843) and ihe Diary of P. Henslowe (1845) combine close scholarly work on neglected and important texts with imposture. Collier added to Henslowe's diary, for instance, and claimed to incorporate in his eight-volume annotated Shakespeare (1842-44) manuscript corrections from a copy of the First Folio. This was supplemented by useful work on Shakespeare's Library (1843) and Book Entries of the Stationers' Register (1848-49). but during 1852 he announced in letters to the Athenaeum the discovery of a copy of the Second Folio, with midi7th-ceritury annotations (the so-called Perkins Folio, from the name on the title pages). In the notes, punctuation and stage directions were changed; there were cancellations, numerous emendations and additions to the text of up to nine lines. These "revisions" were incorporated into Notes and Emendations to the Text of Shakespeare's Plays (1852) and a one-volume edition of Shakespeare (1853), The authenticity of the additions and substitutions was questioned by Alexander Dyce, Charles Knight, Howard Staunton and James Halliwell, and the first doubts were published by S. \\ Singer in The Text of Shakespeare Vindicated (1853) and by E, A, Brae, anonymously, in Literary Cookery (1855), Brae attacked again five years later in Collier, Coleridge and Shakespeare, as Collier had by then allegedly discovered his However, long-lost notes to Coleridge's lectures on Shakespeare. Collier's faith in the Perkins Folio was sustained in the 1858 edition of Shakespeare, and it had meanwhile been presented to the duke of Devonshire and subsequently to the British museum for examination (1S59), The fabrications were reported in the Times by N, E. Hamilton, who also made inquiries into Collier's other papers. The press took up the controversy, but expert opinion was against Collier. Only after his death at Maidenhead, Surrey, on Sept. 17. 1883. was it confirmed, however, that Collier was the This notoriety inevitably actual forger and not merely a dupe. undermined confidence in all Collier's work, even where it was inHis services to the Percy and Shaketelligent, useful and honest. speare societies, for instance, should be mentioned; so should his editions of Thomas Heywood 1842-51 and Spenser (1862), and his Bibliographical and Critical .Account of the Rarest Books in the English Language (1865). And even where he misused documents (as in the Henslowe papers) he directed to them an overdue

recommended

attention.

.

cation, the

.

.

the reintroduction of the oblatory prayer, the invo-

mixed chalice and the petition for the

The consequent "usages" controversy

split

faithful departed.

the nonjuring

commu-

may be attributed In 1718 was published a new Communion Office which embodied the changes required by Collier and was probably chiefly compiled by him. The exact dates of Collier's two marriages and the identity of his first wife are unknown. His marriage to Mrs. Cecilia Deacon, a widow, probably took place in 1716. Thomas Deacon, her son, was prominent among the nonjurors and possibly his extreme views influenced Collier in the "usages" connity and the ultimate extinction of the party

The biography in A. Kippis' Biographia Britannica, iv (1789), was written partly by Collier himself. There is an informative LiU in vol. ix of T. Lathbury's 9-vol. ed. of Collier's Ecclesiastical History (1SS2). For Collier's career as a nonjuring bishop see Lathbury's A History of the Nonjurors (1845). Sister Rose Anthony's The Jeremy Collier Stage Controversy, 1698-1726 (1937) examines the Short View and its consequences. (Jo. C.) Bibliography.

vol,

COLLIER, JOHN spearean scholar and

PAYNE

(i

789-1 883), English Shake-

whose great contributions to scholarship were marred by forgeries, was born in London on Jan. n. He worked as parliamentary and 1789. the son of a journalist. law reporter, critic and editorial writer for the Times and Morning Chrotiicle, and. having entered the Middle Temple in 1811, was critic,

called to the bar in 1829.

-

.

(

)

See H. B. Wheatley, Notes on the Life of John Payne Collier, With a Complete List of His Works (1884); C. M. Ingleby, A Complete View of the Shakespere Controversy (1861). (G. A. O.)

COLLIMATOR,

to this division.

its focal

a lens (q.v.) placed at a distance equal to length from the luminous object under examination; the

rays proceeding from the lens are thus rendered parallel, which

equivalent to the removal of the luminous object under examination to an infinite distance, without the loss of light intensity is

which such removal entails. Specialized measurements

in 'geometrical

and physical optics and

COLLIN—COLLINGWOOD

s»

require this collimation of the light.

spectroscopy the collimator

In these cases

usualK' a telescope with a slit at the principal focal length of the lens. Light from the luminous source is focused on this slit by a lens of similar focal length andthe slit then serves as is

the luminous object of the optical system.

5cc also Optics.

COLLIN, HEINRICH JOSEF

VON

(1771-1811), Aus-

dramatist and poet whose plays reflect the change from classicism to romanticism, was born in Vienna, Dec. 26, 1771, and died there, July 28, 181 1. He wrote patriotic lyrics against Napoleon {U'fhrmnnnslicdi'r, 1809) and ballads on medieval subtrian

jects (Gcdiclite. 181 2).

His early plays were

in the strict

form

but later he was influenced by German romanticism. His plays include Re^uliis (1802 ), Polyxena (1803) and Coriohin (1804I. to which Beethoven wrote an overture. of French

classicism,

Gesammelle Werke appeared in 6 vol. (1812-14). See also H. J. von Collin (1879) M. Lederer, H. J. von Collin und (H. F. Gn.) Kreis (1921).

Collin's

F. Laban, sein

;

COLLINGS, JESSE

(1831-1920),

British

politician

and

agrarian reformer, a strong advocate of the "three acres and a

cow" radical land reform policy. He was born at Littleham-cumExmouth, Devon, on Jan. 9. 1831, His first employment was as a junior clerk with a mercantile firm, over which he took direction He wms interested in social questions before he moved in 1864, to

Birmingham

in the

iS6os and soon became prominent

in local

In 1S67 he was appointed secretary of the BirEducation society and two years later of the influential

radical politics.

mingham

He had it. become a member of the Birmingham town council in 186S. and was soon prominent as one of Joseph Chamberlain's (q.v.) closest In 1880 he entered associates, succeeding him as mayor in 1S78. parliament as Liberal member for Ipswich, and from this agricultural constituency urged an "unauthorized program" of land policy, originally canvassed in 1872 when he helped to found the National Education league, which developed from

Rural Labourers' league, associated with the slogan "three acres and a cow." In Jan. 1886 he moved the small-holdings amendment to the address which caused the resignation of Lord Salisbury's government, and became parliamentary secretary to the Local Government board in the new ministry of W. E. Gladstone. In March he resigned with Chamberlain in opposition to Gladstone's Home Rule policy. At the general election in July he lost his seat at Ipswich on petition, but soon after was Returned for Bordesley. Birmingham, .\lthough he tried to maintain his radical land ideas. Liberal opposition to him led to his removal from the presidency of the Allotment and Small Holdings association in 1888, and. closely following Chamberlain-, he moved increasingly away from radicalism toward the Conservative party. In 1S95 he became undersecretar\' to the home office in Salisbury's government, retaining the post until 1902. He resigned from parliament in 1918 and died at Edgbaston. Birmingham, on Nov. 20, 1920. His chief works are: Land Reform (1906); The Colonization of Rural Britain, 2 vol. (1914); and The Great War (1916). An autobiographv was published by J. L. Green 1920). (A. Bri.) (

COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT COLLINGWOOD, Baron (1748-1810),

British naval

commander who was Nelson's

second-in-command at Trafalgar and held the Mediterranean command thereafter, was born at Newcastle upon Tyne on Oct. 24, 1748, and was sent to sea at the age of 12 in the frigate "Shannon" Captain Braithwaite. He served for sevon the home station with that officer and also under Adm. Robert Roddam. In 1774 he served on the North American station under Adm. Samuel Graves and was in the naval brigade that sawservice at the battle of Bunker Hill, there winning his lieutenancy (June 17, 1775). In the following year he was lieutenant of the sloop "Hornet" in the West Indies, and thereafter began his close association with Horatio Nelson. He followed Nelson as commander of the "Badger'' and captain of the frigate "Hinchingbrooke" (March 1780). After commanding another frigate and the "Sampson" of 64 guns, CoUingwood found himself again with Nelson in the West Indies, this time in the frigate "Mediator," He remained there three years and w-as present during the difference between Nelson and the commander in chief concerning the se-

in the care of his cousin.

eral years

verity with which the Navigation laws ought to be enforced against the United States. He agreed with Nelson, with whom he was by

now on

intimate terms, that no leniency should be shown. CoUingwood returned home and, with the exception of one brief command, remained there until 1 792. On the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars, he was appointed flag captain In 1786

to Rear Adm. Sir George Bowyer in the "Prince," and with him he shifted to the "Barfleur" and took part in Lord Howe's victory on the "glorious first of June," 1794. In Aug. 1795 he was appointed to the "Excellent" for his first experience of the Mediterranean station; he was engaged in the blockade of Toulon and took a conspicuous part in Sir John Jervis' victory off St. Vincent (Feb. When Jervis divided the Spanish line, the "Excellent" 1797). w-as the rearmost ship in his fleet and when Nelson, anticipating orders, turned his ship out of the British line to oppose Spaniards

that

seemed

likely to escape,

it

was

to

CoUingwood

that Jervis sig-

naled to go to his friend's assistance. He was already on his way. He and Nelson found themselves greatly outnumbered, until other ships arrived, but the Spanish flight was held up and four ships were made prize. In 1799 CoUingwood became rear admiral, and

he was at sea

Amiens

in the

"Triumph" and other

ships until the peace of

in 1802.

On

the renewal of war in 1803, ployed. He began in the channel

at once emunder Sir William Cornremained there until May

CoUingwood was fleet,

which was blockading Brest. He in the meantime been promoted to vice-admiral in May 1804). when he was given command of a small squadron which was intended to reinforce the Mediterranean fleet under Nelson. He placed himself off Cadiz when Adm. P. C. de Villeneuve, after his return from the West Indies, made that port, and there he was joined by Nelson, so becoming second-in-command In this battle he carried out brilliantly the part at Trafalgar. assigned to him by the commander in chief. With 15 ships he was As his attack the rear of the enemy to prevent their escape. to flagship "Royal Sovereign" was newly from the dockyard, and a fast sailer, he was the first to engage the enemy and had almost forced a Spanish flagship to strike to him before any other British ship had fired a gun. On Nelson's death in the battle, command passed to CoUingwood, and he had the difficult task of conserving For his the fleet and its prizes during the storm which followed. services he was created Baron CoUingwood and granted a pension wallis,

1805 (having

of £2,000 a year.

The completeness of victory at Trafalgar prevented Nelson's immediate successors from achieving any comparable triumph, but CoUingwood held the Mediterranean command with distinction until his death. He had wished to retire, but the admiralty would not spare him. As well as being a distinguished leader, he was a gunnery expert, a man of great political insight and diplomatic ability, benevolent and generous both as a commander and as a He died at sea, private person and an excellent letter writer. March 7, 1810. and was buried near Nelson in St. Paul's cathedral. Bibliography, G. L. Newnham CoUingwood, Selections From the Correspondence of Lord CoUingwood, With Memoirs of His Life (1828) E. Hughes (ed.). The Private Correspondence of Admiral Lord CoUingwood (1957) P. Mackesy, The War in the Mediterranean, 1803(0. M. W. W.) 1810 (\9S7). (i 889-1 943), EngROBIN lish philosopher and historian, bom at Coniston in Lancashire, early acquired artistic and scholarly tastes from his father, the friend and biographer of John Ruskin. He was educated at Rugby and at Oxford (University college), where he came under the influence of F. J. Haverfield and so was drawn into those archaeological and historical studies which were to make him the leading authority in his day on Roman Britain and culminated in his Roman Britain (1936), a volume of the Oxford History of England. These studies, however, were secondary to his profession as a phUosopher. He became a fellow of Pembroke college, Oxford, in 191 2 and taught philosophy there until he went to Magdalen college as Waynflete professor of metaphysical philosophy. This chair he held from 1935 to 1941, when he resigned because of Ul health. He finally returned to Coniston and died there Jan, 11, 1943. CoUingwood regarded it as his life work to bring about a

—

;

;

COLLINGWOOD,

GEORGE

rapprochement between phUosophy and history.

Philosophers

COLLINGWOOD—COLLINS had been too much preoccupied with science and so with methods and concepts inapplicable in the study of thought or action. Two world wars had convinced him that the sciences had been unable to solve the problems of human affairs, but a philosophy fused with history seemed to him to promise more success. The last of his works. The New Leviathan (1942), contains his only contribution to this result, but he had earlier made history the Leitmotiv of his work by arguing that the task of metaphysics was the historical one of disentangling and expounding the fundamental beliefs presupposed by a given civilization, or by natural science, or by history at different periods in their evolution. All his life he was keenly interested This first-hand experiin art, and he both painted and composed. ence gives a special freshness to his remarkable work on aesthetics, The Principles of Art (1938). His most important work, however, is perhaps his Essay on Philosophical Method (1933), where in defiance of logical analysis, the type of philosophy dominant in his day. he goes back to Plato and Georg Hegel and argues that the way to understand any philosophical concept (e.g., goodness) is to recognize it as a universal whose varying particularizations (e.g., pleasure, utility and duty) are specified on a scale of which each stage differs both in degree and in kind from its predecessor. since Descartes, he thought,

(T. M. K.) an inner suburb of Melbourne, \'ictoria, Austr., lying on the Varra river about 2^ mi. N.E. of the centre of the city. Pop. (1954) 27,155. Named after Adm. Cuthbert Collingwood, the town has grown into a thickly populated and highly industrialized quarter of Melbourne, its chief industries being the manufacture of footwear and textiles. It has two large technical schools and extensive parklands, arenas and sports grounds. (G. J. Bn.) (1676-1729 ), EngHsh deist and freeCOLLINS, Middlesex, on thinker, was born at Heston, near Hounslow in June 21, 1676. He was educated at Eton and King's college, CamAn important influence in his life was his intimacy with bridge.

COLLINGWOOD,

ANTHONY

John Locke, who in his letters speaks highly of him. Collins died at his house in Harley street, London, on Dec. 13, 1729. His writings summarize the work of previous English freeThough unorthodox, Collins was not an atheist, nor thinkers. even an agnostic. In his ow-n words, "Ignorance is the foundation of atheism and freethinking the cure of it'' (A Discourse of FreeThinking,

p. 105).

work of note was An Essay Concerning the Use of Reason in Propositions the Evidence Whereof Depends on Human Tes1707 timony ), in which he rejected the distinction between above reason and contrary to reason and demanded that revelation should conform to man's natural ideas of God. Like all his works, it was published anonymously. In 1713 appeared his chief work, A DisHis

first

(

course of Free-Thinking, Occasioned by the Rise and Growth of a Sect Called Free-Thiiikers. In England this essay, taken as a plea for deism, caused a sensation, calling forth numerous replies. In 1724 Collins published A Discourse of the Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion, with An Apology for Free Debate and Liberty of Writing prefixed. Ostensibly, it is written in opposition to William Whiston's attempt to show that the books of the Old Testament did originally contain prophecies of events in the

New

Testament which had been eliminated or corrupted by

the Jews, and to prove that the fulfillment of prophecy by the events of Christ's life is all "secondary, secret, allegorical and

No less than 35 answers were directed against this book, the most noteworthy being those of Bishop Edward Chandler, Arthur Sykes and Samuel Clarke. Collins rephed with the Scheme of Literal Prophecy Considered (1727). An appendix holds, against Whiston, that the book of Daniel was forged in the mystical."

time of Antiochus Epiphanes. In philosophy, Colhns is a defender of necessitarianism. His Human Liberty and Necessity (1715) is an excellent outline of the determinist position. Attacked by Samuel Clarke, he replied after Clarke's death with a dissertation on Liberty and Necessity (1729). Colhns also wrote A Letter to Mr. Dodwell (1707), arguing that it is conceivable that the soul may be material and, secondly, that

brief Inquiry Concerning

if

tended, that

it is

59

does not follow, as Clarke had conimmortal; Vindication of the Divine Attributes

the soul be immaterial

it

(1710); and Priestcraft in Perfection (1709). Bibliography. G. Lechler, Cesckichte des englischen Deismus (1841) J. Hunt, Religious Thought in England, vol. ii (1871) Leslie A. W. Stephen, English Thought in the 18th Century, vol. i (1881) Benn, History of English Rationalism in the 19th Century (1906) Freethought Short History (F. E. M.) Robertson, (1906). M. of J. (1896army ), COLLINS, JOSEPH officer, commander of the VII corps in Europe during World War La,, On graduation May 1, 1896. II, was born in New Orleans, from the United States Military academy at West Point in 1917, he was commissioned second lieutenant of infantry. He served with occupation forces in Germany, 1919-2L In 1941 Collins was chief of staff, VII corps, and then chief of He was commander of the 25th distaff, Hawaiian department. vision in the Pacific, 1942-44, and of the VII corps in Europe, 1944-45. The latter force landed on Utah beach in Normandy on June 6, 1944, later captured Cherbourg, led the breakout from Normandy, pierced the Siegfried line, captured Aachen and Cologne, enveloped the Ruhr from the south and east, and then drove eastward to a meeting with the Russians on the Elbe at Dessau. Collins, who attained the rank of general in 194S, served as chief of staff, U.S. army. 1949-53. and in 1953 became U.S. representative to the military committee and standing group of the North Atlantic Treaty organization. In 1954 he served as special (F. C. Pe.) representative of the United States in Vietnam.

—

;

;

;

;

LAWTON

COLLINS, MICHAEL

US

(1890-1922),

Irish

revolutionary

leader and a hero of the struggle for independence, was born near Clonakilty, County Cork, on Oct. 16, 1890, the eighth child of

Michael Collins, a prosperous farmer, and

his

young

Anne O'Brien, whom he had married

at the age of 62.

the British civil service and went to

London

in 1906.

wife,

Mary

He entered He stayed

working first as a postal clerk and then in a solicitor's During this time he became interested in Irish nationalists activities and in 1909 joined the Irish Republican brotherhood. In 1916 Collins returned to Ireland in time to fight under P. H. for ten years,

ofiice.

Pearse

in the

Easter rising at Dublin.

He

escaped being taken

later was arrested and sent with the great body of suspects to the detention camp at Frongoch, Wales. Released with the rest in Dec. 1916, he was returned at the general election in Dec. 1918 as Sinn Fein member for West Cork. Out of 73 elected only 27 were present when the dail eireann (assembly of Ireland) met in the Mansion house and declared for the Irish repubhc.

under arms but

Eamon

de Valera, their elected president, was in

jail,

so

was the

Much responsibility now fell on Sinn Fein minister for home affairs and, after the dramatic escape of De Valera from Lincoln jail in Feb. 1919 (for which Collins was largely responsible), minister for finance. But it was in his military capacity as adjutant general

vice-president, Arthur Griffith. Collins,

who became

of the volunteers

first

and director of organization and of intelligence

army that Collins became famous. Until 1921 and during the time when he was head of the list of men "wanted" by the British authorities, Collins discharged the refor the Irish Republican

sponsibilities of these various offices.

He

controlled the entire

correspondence of the revolutionary movement and almost all enterprises were considered, financed and many were also carried out by him. A reward of £10,000 was offered for his arrest and pictures of him were published. Yet he used no disguise, went about Dublin alone on a bicycle and frequently made appointments for an interview in the streets. He helped to demoralize the British secret service and created a most effective spy system of his own. In the debate on the Irish treaty in the dail Griffith was to speak of Collins as the man "who won the war." When the truce with Britain was proclaimed in July 1921, Collins for the first time became directly known to the Irish public. No other figure was so popular. Griffith and CoUins were the principal

Irish

plenipotentiaries

at

the

negotiations

in

London

in

Oct.-Dec. 1921. By his genial personality and his realism Collins undoubtedly smoothed over many of the difficulties. Though in principle a repubhcan he was not a doctrinaire and signed the treaty on Dec. 6, 1921, as marking the greatest advance in Ireland's status that could be obtained in the circumstances. He recognized that

COLLINS

6o

in so doing he was almost certainly signing his own death warrant. In the ensuing debate in the dail, Griffith alone could not have per-

suaded the majority to approve the treaty against De Valera's This achievement was largely due to the magnetic opposition. personality of Collins. When the result of the voting (Jan. 1922) showed the narrow majority of seven for acceptance, Collins warned the dail of the anarchy that might follow dissension. The first result of the daU's decision was confusion. Griffith was elected president, not of the Free State but of the Irish republic. Collins was appointed chairman of the provisional government, but administration in the ordinary sense was impossible. Civil life had been destroyed in the guerrilla war; the Royal Irish constabulary was disbanded; the British garrison was evacuating the country, and the Irish army, still considered the army of the Mutiny broke out and Collins, hoping republic, was disaffected. against hope to avoid civil strife, refrained from drastic action. He was instrumental in postponing the general election (stipulated for under the treaty), and when at last a date for it was fixed in June he entered into a compact with De Valera by which he and the republican leader agreed to appeal for the unopposed return of candidates jointly nominated by them. This would have given a very large representation to opponents of the treaty. When, however, independent candidates were put for^vard, Collins at the last moment advised his countrymen to vote as they wished. At the elections the republicans were heavily beaten and the Irish government challenged by force even in the capital, decided to use force in return.

assuming chief command, flung himhis energy. Opposition was crushed in Dublin and all the large towns. Suddenly, on Aug. 12, 1922, Griffith collapsed and died and Collins became at once head of the state and of the army. He went to Munster, where the chief resistance lay. On Aug. 22, traveling with a strong escort from Skibbereen to Cork, his party was ambushed at Beal-na-Blath, and in the skirmish he was shot through the head. No man since C. S. Parnell had so caught the imagination of Ireland. See also Ireland, Republic of: History. Civil

war began.

self into the struggle

New

with

all

—

P. Beaslai (Beasley), Michael Collins and the MakIreland, 2 vol. (1926) Frank O'Connor, The Big Fellow

Bibliography. ing of a (1937)

Collins,

;

Rex Taylor, Michael

(S. G.; P. N. S. M.) (1721-1759), English poet in whose hands one of the most rigid poetic conventions of his time, the personified abstraction, became the vehicle for a unique vision of reality. He was born at Chichester on Dec. 25, 1721, the son of a wealthy hatter and mayor of that town. Collins' literary career was brief and, in terms of bulk, not very productive; yet he was a precocious writer. He was sent to Winchester college, where he established one of the most stable and fruitful relationships of his unstable life, with his fellow poet Joseph Warton. Tradition speaks of a poem "On the Battle of the Schoolbooks," written in Winchester when he was 12. On the other hand a poem "On the Royal Nuptials," printed in 1734 but lost, which was long attributed to Collins, seems to have been ;

Collins (1958).

COLLINS, WILLDLM

work of another. More certainly his are the verses, "When Phoebe Formed a Wanton Smile," in the Gentleman's Magazine for 1739, and the "Song. The Sentiments Borrowed From Shakespeare," both apparently composed while Collins was a schoolboy. He was only 1 7 when, under the influence of Pope's Pastorals, he composed his four Persian Eclogues (published in 1742; 2nd ed. as Oriental Eclogues in 1757) which alone of his works were much esteemed in his lifetime. Published when Collins was at Magdalen college, Oxford, they were followed the next year by his Verses the

Humbly

Address'd to Sir Thomas Hanmer, in heroic couplets. To and revised edition, published as Epistle: Addressed to Sir Thomas Hanmer, issued the next year over the poet's name, was appended the exquisite "Dirge from Cymbeline." It is already notable how these early pieces lean upon other poems what a second

;

more

view of their date, is that the precedent they Shakespeare. Collins graduated in 1 743 and, having failed to secure a fellowship, came to London in 1 744. By the death of his mother in this year he came into a little money, and with further allowances is

lean on

striking, in

most

is

from his uncle, Colonel Martin, who had supported him at Oxford, he was able to live for the time as a man about town. He made friends with both Garrick and Johnson; the latter expressed respect for his talents and, later, concern for his fate. By 1746 Collins was in and out of the bailiff's hands, and there was mention of a project (one of many which came to nothing) to translate Aristotle's Poetics. Meanwhile he had agreed to collaborate with Warton on a volume of odes. In the outcome Warton's odes and Collins' appeared separately, both in Dec. 1746, the title page of Collins' Odes being dated 1747. Warton's collection was well received, but Collins' Odes on Several Descriptive and Allegorical Subjects (the title was exact and considered) was barely noticed. Collins, though indignant, continued to practise the style announced and exemplified in the "Ode to Simplicity" and he surpassed himself in the "Ode to Evening" and "Ode Written in the Beginning of the Year 1746," both published in Dodsley's Miscellany, and in an elegiac ode on James Thomson, with whom Collins had been intimate in the last years before Thomson's death in 1748. In 1746 Dodsley's Museum, to which Collins may also have contributed some essays, printed "A Song. Imitated from the Midsummer Night's Dream of Shakespeare," a poem now attributed to him. In April 1749 Colonel Martin died, leaving his nephew enough money to extricate him from his debts. In the next few months Collins wrote a lost poem, "Epistle to the Editor of Fairfax His Translation of Tasso," and also his "Ode on the Popular Superstitions of the Highlands of Scotland." This, left unperfected, was addressed to John Home, author of Douglas; it anticipates most strikingly some attitudes and interests of the romantic revival. In 1750, in a letter to William Hayes, who had set to music the ode on "The Passions" for public performance in Oxford, Collins wrote of another ode, now lost, on "The Music of the Grecian Theatre." In 1754, after a vain attempt to cure himself by travel of the mental illness, joined with physical debility, which had threatened him since 1751, Collins was confined in a lunatic asylum. Released to the care of his sister, he survived wretchedly in Chichester until June 12, 1759. Although some theorists had allowed that personification could play a more positive role in poetry than merely to permit of economical phrasing, although in contemporary painting and funerary sculpture personifications were sometimes profoundly imaginative and although the Wartons had elevated this possibility into a conscious poetic program, only Collins constantly visualized his personifications so intensely as to transform them from set pieces of allegory into visionary apprehensions of a transcendent world. Enthralled by this possibility and dedicated to achieving it, Collins vowed himself to a classicism more thoroughgoing and exacting than his contemporaries conceived of. In particular it was Greek rather than Roman and it turned upon what Collins exalted as "simplicity." This has nothing to do with plainness and easiness (his diction for instance is throughout choice, sumptuous and It shows elaborate), but rather has the meaning of "severity." itself particularly in a calculated avoidance of sensuous appeal, as (consummately) in the "Ode to Evening," where the abstraction. Evening, is made concrete by steady negation of all sounds but the faintest, all colours but the most subdued. The severity that everywhere precluded rhythms in the least insistent or intoxicating here precluded rhyme also. Yet in fact, and by this very process of negation, the world evoked by Collins is very distinctly present to the senses, as a world above all damp and chill. The noble elegy on Thomson is only one example of how Collins assigns moral values to moistness and cold, sensations which he consistently associates with spiritual worth and achievement.

—

Bibliography. See his life in Johnson's Lives of the Poets, and a study by E. G. Ainsworth, Poor Collins (1937); also J. M, Murry Countries of the Mind (1922) C. F. Chapin, Personification in Eighteenth-Century English Poetry (1955). There is a bibliography in I. A. Williams, Seven 18th Century Bibliographies (1924). (D. A, De,) in

;

COLLINS, WILLIAM WILKIE

(1824-1889),

English

and an early master of the mystery story, was the elder son of William Collins (1788-1847), the landscape painter. He was born in London on Jan. 8, 1824, and died there on Sept. 2i, novelist,

COLLITZ—COLLOID At the age of

iSSt).

academy later,

12

accompany

to

he was removed from the Maida Hill two years

his parents to Italy; returning

he was sent to a private boarding school in Highbury, where

have employed him as a storyteller, rewarding success with pastries and visiting failure with a cat-o'He was articled to a firm in the tea trade, but soon nine-tails. abandoned commerce to enter Lincoln's Inn. Although called to the bar in 1849 he had no disposition to practise law. He worked on a historical novel, had a picture hung at the Royal academy, engaged in theatricals and visited Paris where he was attracted by the morgue. His father had died in 1S47. and his first essay in literature was The Lije oj William Collins, published in 1848. Then his fiction began to appear: Antonina, or The Fall oj Rome in 1S50; Basil, a highly coloured tale of seduction and vengeance with a contemporary middle-class setting and passages of uncompromising realism, in 1852; Hide and Seek, or The Mystery oj Mary Grice in 1S54. He made the acquaintance of Dickens, to whose Household Words he contributed as serials Ajter Dark (1856) and The Dead Secret (1857). His first major achievement, The Woman in White (i860), is based upon a French cause celebrc, but its opening has been declared to contain a reminiscence of Collins' first encounter with Caroline Courtenay, his mistress for many years. Among his most successful subsequent books were No Name (1862), Armadale (1866) and The MoonThe quality of his later writing shows a steady stone (1868). His health was poor and he made injudicious use of decline. opium. Collins was one of the first and greatest masters of the mystery story, a literary kind which was to proliferate astonishingly in the 50 years after his death. Less concerned than Edgar Allan Poe to emphasize the intellectual aspect of detection, he lends to the progressive elucidation of unaccountable events and perple.\ed situations something of the traditional amplitude of the English The Moonstone is a masterpiece of construction and novel. Armadale of controlled melodrama; Count Fosco in The Woman in White is the illustrious original of innumerable bravura villains. See Kenneth Robinson, Wilkie Collins (1951). (J. I. M. S.) COLLITZ, 1855-1935), German-U.S. philologist, noted for his work on the Indo-European languages, particularly the Germanic languages, was born Feb. 4, 1855. at Bleckede near Lijneburg. He entered the University of Gottingen in 1875. where he studied under a number of distinguished scholars; he received his doctorate in 1S78. His dissertation dealt with the the senior boy

is

said to

HERMANN

(

origin of the Indo-Iranian palatal series of consonants.

In collaboration with Bechtel and others he edited the Sammlung der griechischen Dialektinschrijten (4 vol., Gottingen, 1884-1915).

During the he settled

later period of his life,

in

the

L'.S., his

however, and especially after

teaching and publications were devoted

comparative and historical study of the Germanic After several years in Berlin and Halle, Collitz went in 1886 to Bryn Mawr college, Pa., as associate professor of German. In 1907 he became professor of Germanic philology at Johns Hopkins university in Baltimore. Md.. where he remained as emeritus professor after 1927. In 191 2 his Das schn'ache Prdteritum was published. He died on May 13, 1935. (J. W. P.)

mainly

to the

languages.

COLLODION,

a colourless, sticky fluid,

made by

dissolving

guncotton and the other varieties of pyroxylin {see NitrocelluLOSE) in a mixture of alcohol and ether. It was first described in 1846 by the Swiss-German chemist C. F. Schonbein, discoverer The quality of collodion differs according to of guncotton. the proportions of alcohol and ether and the nature of the pyroxyhn it contains. Collodion in which there is a great excess of ether gives by its evaporation a very tough film; the film left by collodion containing a large quantity of alcohol is soft and easily torn. Under the microscope, the film produced by collodion of good quality appears translucent and colourless. To preserve collodion it should be kept cool and out of the action of the light. For the iodizing of collodion, ammonium bromide and iodide and the iodides of calcium and cadmium are the agents employed. (See Photography.) Collodion is used in surgery since, when painted on the skin, it rapidly dries to a thin contractile film, affording both pressure and protection. Flexible collodion, con-

6i

Canada balsam and castor

taining

oil,

does not crack, but, on the

other hand, does not contract.

COLLOID,

a substance in a particularly fine state of sub-

much larger than atomic or simple molecular dimensions, much smaller than particles visible to the unaided eye. The of preparing and processing colloidal materials goes back many

division,

but art

thousands of years; as far back,

in

fact,

as

civilization

itself.

Colloids and colloidal materials are vital to everyday

life,

com-

mon

silk,

wool

examples being butter, cheese, dough, inks, paints,

and other fibres, soils, rubber, plastics, potter's clay, even fog and smoke, to mention only a few. The long-known method of splitting open rocks by inserting dry wooden wedges, which are then moisan interesting practical use of the swelling pressures of The alchemists of the middle ages were familiar with "potable gold" (a gold suspension still used for medicinal purposes), and the preparation of gold ruby glass goes back to the tened,

is

colloids.

i6th century.

This article

divided into the following sections:

is

History

I.

Irreversible Systems 1. Lyophobic Sols (Dilute Suspensions)

II.

2.

Emulsions

3.

Foams

Pastes (Concentrated Suspensions) Gel Structures Reversible Systems

4. 5.

III.

1.

Polymers

2.

3.

Proteins Gels

4.

.Association Colloids (Soaps I.

The

scientific

and Dyes)

HISTORY

study of colloids dates only from the beginning of

and of the early investigators special mention Brown, F. M. Ascherson and Francesco Selmi. Reuss (1809) packed a clay plug into a U tube, and after filling the two sides with water applied a potential from The small suspended particles of a voltaic cell across the plug. clay W'ere seen to move toward the positive electrode, and after level some time the water stood lower in the arm containing this electrode. Such movements of suspended colloidal particles and of liquid under an applied electrical field are termed "electrophoresis" or "cataphoresis" and "electroosmosis" respectively. the 19th century,

must be made

of F. Reuss, Robert

If suspensions of very finely divided

(colloidal)

particles are

examined under the microscope they are seen to undergo unceasing irregular movements, termed the Brownian movement (q.v.) in honour of the botanist Robert Brown, who in 1827 first recorded Brownian the phenomenon with aqueous suspensions of pollen. motion is now known to be caused by the irregular bombardment of the molecules of the surrounding liquid, and its study provided one of the earliest and most striking pieces of evidence in support of the real existence of atoms and molecules and of the simple kinetic theory.

In 1838 Ascherson, then lecturer in medicine at the University of Berlin and interested in the physiological role of fats, gave a paper to the Paris Academy of Sciences upon his studies of oliveoil droplets in the presence of dissolved proteins {e.g., egg white or records that "coagulation in form of a membrane ocinstantaneously when albumin comes into contact with a liquid fat." This observation explained the skins around fat droplets in living systems and laid the basis for the

serum).

He

curs inevitably and

study of "denaturation" of proteins at interfaces. Francesco Selmi, an Italian professor, published (184S-S0) the systematic study of inorganic colloids, in particular silver chloride, prussian blue and sulfur. Selmi showed that salts would coagulate these colloidal bodies and that they differed in their From the absence of heat changes upon precipitating power. coagulation or upon peptization he concluded that the dispersed particles were not in a state of molecular dispersion, a conclusion

first

fully vindicated

by

later work.

Thomas Graham (1805-69) is usually regarded as the founder of modern colloid science, although his contributions to other branches of chemistry were also outstanding. Of his 46 publications the two of particular interest here are entitled Liquid Dij-

COLLOID

62

1861 >, and On the Properties of Silicic Acid and Other Analogous Colloidal Substances (1864). Graham

fusion Applied to Analysis

(

realized very clearly the proi^erties that

we regard

as characterizing

the colloidal state, such as low diffusivity, absence of crystallinity relations, as well as its biological signifi-

and of ordinarj- chemical cance. cles

(c.

Low

diffusivity arises

io~' cm.

to

c.

from the large

size of colloidal parti-

compared with ordinary

io~-* cm.) as

molecules.

The term "colloid" (from the Greek word for glue) was coined by Graham in 1861 and applied by him to substances such as gelatin, albumin, gums, etc., which are retained by membranes such as parchment paper when subjected to dialysis (q.v.). Substances such as salts, sugars, etc.. which readily pass through the membrane, he termed "crystalloids." by virtue of the comparative ease with which they could be obtained in crystalline form from their solutions. Of Graham's other contributions to the nomenclature of colloids, those still in use are the terms "sol," "gel," "peptization" and "syneresis." A sol is a dispersion of a solid in discrete units, the type of dispersion medium being shown by a prefix; e.g., hydrosol (for dispersions in water), aerosol (for dispersions in If the solid particles were linked together to form a air), etc. structure with some mechanical strength the system was termed a

—

—

from analogy with peptic digestion referred spontaneous dispersion of a precipitate to form a colloid, as for example, the dispersion of a precipitate of prussian blue when an attempt is made to wash it. Syneresis was the term suggested by the study of silicic acid (obtained from water glass and dilute acids) for the phenomenon of spontaneous shrinkage of a gel with exudation of the dispersion medium. Gold sols, prepared by reducing dilute solutions of gold chloride, Alare usually strikingly coloured (ruby red, blue, green, etc.). though they were known to the alchemists of the 17th century, it was Michael Faraday (1857) who first made a scientific study of gel.

Peptization

to the

their preparation

and properties.

He showed

that addition of

turned the ruby sols blue and then coagulated them, and that these effects could be prevented by addition of gelatin and other hydrophilic colloids. The ruby sols, which had all the appearances of solutions, were shown by him to contain particles (of gold) since, unlike true solutions, a cone of light passing through them salts

became visible to an observer situated at right angles to the beam. This phenomenon was later studied in more detail by John Tyndall, and is usually referred to as the "Tyndall effect." Of the metal sols, those of silver were much studied, particularly by Carey-Lea (1823-97) in the U.S., in connection with the photographic process, The preparation and purification of sols were facilitated by electrodialysis, and by ultrafiltration, i.e., filtration through porcelain

filters

of very fine pore size.

The stability of hydrophobic sols to salts was quantitatively examined by Hans Schulze (1882) and somewhat later by W. B. Hardy. Electrophoresis had shown that all colloids carry a charge to which hydrophobic colloids owe their stability, since the like charges prevent collision. According to the Schulze-Hardy rule, coagulation is brought about by the ion carrying the opposite charge to that on the colloidal particle, and the coagulating power of an ion increases very rapidly with its charge (e.g., to coagulate negatively charged sols such as Au or AsoS.,, the requisite concentration of Na + Ca^"*" and Al^"'' are approximately in the ratio ,

1:1/70:1/900). Addition of a hydrophilic colloid to a hydrophobic one protects it

from the coagulating action of salts, a phenomenon termed proand first pointed out by Faraday.

tection

Hydrophilic colloids such as the proteins are only precipitated

by high concentrations of

salt.

For a

series of salts the efficacy

runs approximately parallel to the solubility in water (F. Hofmeister, 1888), indicating that precipitation is caused by dehydration of the colloid. A series of cations or anions in order of coagulating power (e.g., is termed the Hofmeister or lyotropic series. In 1903 a notable advance was introduced in the techniques for

Li+>Na+>K+)

examining colloidal systems with the invention of the ultramicroscope by H. Siedentopf and R. Zsigmondy (see Microscopy). The chief difference from the usual method of microscopic examina-

tion

was the mounting of the microscope at right angles to the beam; the colloidal particles, because of the light they

incident

scatter laterally, then stand out as bright points of light on a dark

This apparatus can detect particles down to about 100 A (0.2 fi) for the ordinary microscope. Jean Pcrrin in 1905 introduced the terms hydrophilic and hydrophobic to differentiate aqueous suspensions of markedly differing properties, as typified by gelatin and the colloidal metals re.spectively. These differ in many ways, the most striking being in their ground.

in size,

compared with about 2000 A

and

stability to salts

reversibility after precipitation.

A

gelatin

only precipitated by high concentrations of .salts and after drying will readily take up water again. A sol of a metal, or of an insoluble salt like AsvS.^, is precipitated readily by traces of salts and does not return to the colloidal state, even solution, for example,

if

is

the salts are eliminated by washing the precipitate.

This ex-

and irreversible for hydrophobic systems. To cover dispersion media other than water, the terms lyophilic and lyophobic were proposed by Herbert

plains the indications reversible for hydrophilic

Freundlich.

The early years of the 20th century witnessed many striking developments in physics and chemistry, many of which bore directly upon colloids; for example, the electronic structure of the atom and its bearing upon valency, the ideas of molecular size and shape as revealed by X-rays and the nature of solutions, to mention only a few. In addition, powerful new methods for studying the size and shape of colloidal particles were developed, such as the ultracentrifuge, electrophoresis, diffusion, the scattering of light

and of X-rays. etc. The study of interfaces, a topic clearly of great relevance to colloids, developed into a major field under the title of surface chemistry. The investigation of colloids in industry and biology also led to major developments in such fields as detergents, dyes, proteins, polymers, etc.

The main

classification of colloids is that into reversible

irreversible systems.

and

In the latter systems, to which belong sols

(dilute suspensions), emulsions, foams, pastes (concentrated sus-

pensions) and certain types of gels, the size of the particles is dependent greatly upon the method of preparation. In the reversible systems particle size is either given by the molecular size of the colloidal material, as in polymers, polyelectrolytes, proteins, etc., or the particles are formed from small molecules by a reversible association, as in soaps, detergents and certain dyes. Some of the important aspects of these diverse systems are outlined below. II. 1.

Lyophobic

IRREVERSIBLE SYSTEMS

Sols (Dilute Suspensions).

are dilute systems;

some

—Lyophobic

sols

typical examples, such as colloidal metals,

and prussian blue, have already been mentioned. Of suspensions in gaseous media (aerosols some, such as fogs, mists and smokes, are well known; others, such as air-bome suspensions of bacteria, viruses and molds, are less obvious but of equal importance. Smokes have found considerable use in wartime for camouflage and antipersonnel purposes. The peacetime uses of aerosols include insecticidal sprays and frost prevention in orchards by means of smudge pots. The removal of smokes still In the electrostatic prepresents a major industrial problem. cipitator, one of the best-known methods, the smoke passes between wires charged to a high potential difference because of the charges which they carry, or which are induced upon them, the smoke particles are attracted to the wires and thereby removed. silver chloride

)

;

Dilute suspensions are

known

in all the three possible dispersion

media (gas, liquid and solid), of which only those in air and in aqueous solutions can be considered here. The dispersed particles are almost invariably composed of a large number of atoms or molecules, and are usually visible in the ordinary or ultramicro-

—

A about 10 fi). The amount of dispersed phase is always small, usually much less than 1%. Suspensions can be prepared by breaking down particles of macroscopic dimensions (dispersion) or by growth from molecular or atomic units (aggregation) until particles of the requisite colloidal dimensions are obtained. scopes (about 100

COLLOID

63

Dispersion is usually carried out in the laboratory by grinding in an agate mortar, commercially by means of a colloid mill in which the mixture of coarse particles and dispersion medium is subjected to intense shearing forces between a rotor and stator (a protective colloid is frequently added to prevent the colloidal

from the charges carried by the particles preventing contact under conditions such that collision would otherwise occur. The charges are usually obtained by the preferential adsorption of one type of ion, often a negative ion, since most sols are

from reaggregating). As first shown by G. Bredig, metals can be dispersed in liquids by striking an electric arc between them, usually in the presence of a trace of sodium hydroxide to stabilize the sol formed. In some cases dispersion can be brought about by adding a small amount of a third substance termed a peptizing agent. Examples are the peptization of clays by alkalies (caused by OH- ion) and many finely divided precipitates by soaps or

attractive forces of the

particles

other hydrophilic colloids. In aggregation processes the first step

is

to

form a supersaturated

by chemical or physical means. This leads to formation grow to colloidal size and that have then to be stabilized in order to prevent flocculation. An example of a chemical process is the reaction between arsenic oxide and hydrogen solution,

of nuclei that

sulfide in very dilute solution, As20:i

+ 3H^S-^As^S3 + 3H20,

in

which the insoluble arsenic sulfide appears in the form of minute A common physical particles dispersed in the aqueous solution. is typified by the formation of sulfur sols by pouring a solution of sulfur in alcohol into water. Mist, fog and clouds are rapid cooling of air saturated aerosols formed by physical means

method

—

with water vapour.

The

size of

the particles formed in aggregation processes

is

determined by the ratio of nucleation and crystal growth. A high rate of nucleation is imperative for the formation of small particles.

Liesegang Rings.

— Another

phenomenon, named after

its

dis-

coverer, R. E. Liesegang, where nucleation plays an important role

is

observed

if

an insoluble precipitate

diffusion of one reactant into the other.

formed during the

is

If,

for example, a thin

layer of dilute potassium dichromate in a gelatin gel

on a glass plate and a crystal of

silver nitrate

is

is placed placed at the

chromate is evenshown in fig. i. formed when a certain supersaturation has been so that nucleation occurs. By subsequent growth

centre, a periodic precipitate of insoluble silver

tually formed, as

Each band

is

reached locally,

lowered also in the neighbourAgNO^ can proceed a certain degree of supersaturation is again

of the nuclei the concentration

hood of the band, and the

is

diffusion of

distance before a sufficient

reached and the next band precipitates. These bands are very similar to the banding in some minerals, such as agate, and are believed to explain such formations. Stability. As has been mentioned earlier, the stability of sols

—

arises chiefly

When

negatively charged. forces in gases

the sol particles are close together,

same nature

make themselves

as the

London-Van der Waals

felt.

Addition of inorganic salts, which effectively screen the charges on the colloidal particles, leads to a reduction of the range of the repulsive forces so that the attraction becomes predominant and coagulation follows. It has been possible to explain the Schulze-Hardy rule (see above) on this basis. 2. Emulsions. The term emulsion is used to denote any stable electrical

—

one liquid in another, but in practice only oil and aqueous solutions need to be considered, since biological emulsions, as well as those of most domestic and industrial importance, contain an oil and some aqueous solutions as the two colloidal dispersion of

immiscible phases. stability a third

In order to attain the requisite degree of in addition to the oil and aqueous

component,

is necessary. This component is termed the emulsifying and is usually present in amounts of about i%-5%. Emulsions can exist in two types, oil-in-water (denoted by O/W) and water-in-oil (W/0), depending upon whether the aqueous or the oil phase is the continuous one. Two fundamental problems arise therefore the origin of the stability induced by the emulsifying agent and the reason why some agents promote O/W and others the inverse type. The subject of the technical and biological aspects of emulsions is a vast one. The principal technical uses are in pharmacy and cosmetics (creams and ointments are usually emulsions), in food preparations (e.g., salad cream, mayonnaise, margarine) and in many industries, particularly leather, textiles and paper. Margarine, for example, is a W/0 emulsion stabilized by about 1% of oxidized soybean oil; mayonnaise and salad cream are emulsions of edible vegetable oils in aqueous solutions of edible acids stabilized by egg yolk.

phases, agent,

—

Oils are often emulsified commercially. The three main reasons are dilution of the oil, increase in area of interface and modiDilution effects economy of the

fication of physical properties.

by spreading it over a Increase in area of interface may accelerate some chemical reactions (e.g., polymerization of vinyl compounds, hydrolysis of fats in soap manufacture). Modification of physical properties includes removal of objectionable characteristics; for example, emulsification diminishes the taste or smell of pharmaoil

(e.g., polishes, oil-soluble insecticides)

larger surface.

ceutical preparations such as cod-liver oil

of heavy oils such as tar.

On

and increases the

fluidity

the other hand, crude petroleum

is

frequently produced as a W/O emulsion. Breaking of this emulsion is often difficult but necessary before further processing. In evaluating the stability of emulsions, creaming, coagulation

and coalescence should be distinguished.

Creaming

is

the

accumu-

lation of the droplets (usually at the top of the emulsion) under

Small drops cream much more slowly than large ones. In coagulation the droplets come together forming aggregates in which the original drops are still separated. Coagulation enhances creaming. Coalescence means that the drops unite to form a continuous phase. Fresh milk creams markedly in a few hours. By acidification it can be made to coagulate. Coalescence is strongly increased by churning. Emulsification is achieved by intense agitation of the mixture. On the small scale this can sometimes be done merely by hand shaking, but it is more usual to force the coarse emulsion under pressure through some type of valve, as in the household "cream machine." Industrially various types of colloid mill are used, in which the emulsion is subjected to very intense shearing forces, finally passing through a homogenizer. These treatments decrease the particle size and so increase the stability. (Milk is frequently homogenized in order to diminish creaming.) The principal emulsifying agents are as follows: for O/W emulsions proteins, gums, carbohydrates, natural and synthetic soaps, clays and certain hydrated oxides, particularly of silica or aluminum for W/0 emulsions heavy metal salts of the fatty acids the influence of gravity.

Fig LIESEGANG RINGS OF SILVER CHROMATE STRIKINGLY RESEMBLE THE BANDING IN MANY MINERALS. SUCH AS AGATE. AND ARE BELIEVED TO EXPLAIN THE MINERAL FORMATION I

— ;

—

COLLOID

64

(e.g., zinc stearate, nickel oleate), long-chain alcohols such as cetyl alcohol, long-chain esters such as glycerol monooleate, oxioils, soot, lampblack, graphite, etc. Various theories have been advanced to explain emulsion type, the most obvious being that originally suggested for solid powders.

dized

As fig. 2 shows for idealized spherical particles, if the solid is preferentially welted by one phase then more particles can be accommodated if the interface is convex to that particular phase, an encounter between two droplets actual contact between is prevented, so that coalescence cannot occur. In other words, preferential wetting by water should tend to give 0/VV emulsions as in fig. 2(A), preferential wetting by oil the inverse type as in fig. 2(B). This is in agreement with the above list of emulsifiers, those promoting 0/VV emulsions being

and

in

the liquid in the drops

all

hydrophilic whereas those that favour W/0 are more oleophilic. that other factors also enter, in particular the oil and water and even the order in which the

must be realized relative amounts of It

phases are mixed.

The

natural and synthetic soaps soluble in water are among emulsifying agents. Certain synthetic

the most widely used

O/W

soaps (see Association Colloids {.Soups and Dyes~\ below') are often preferable to ordinary fatty acid soaps, as they are not precipitated by calcium ions and so can be used with hard water. The electric charge obtained by the oil drops by adsorption of the soap ions is

one factor in stability; the mechanical properties of the adsorbed The strong reduction of the interfilm seem to be another one. facial tension, which may become as low as o.i dyne/cm., facilitates emulsification greatly.

As previously mentioned, nickel oleate

)

di-

and trivalent fatty acid salts {e.g., VV/O type. In these

are efficient emulsifiers for the

systems the interfacial film consists of solid particles or a polymolecular skin rather than a monolayer. A simple experiment to illustrate phase inversion is to prepare an O/W emulsion stabilized by sodium oleate and to add a few drops of saturated magnesium chloride. On being shaken the system inverts to the W/0 type because of the magnesium oleate formed by double decomposition.

Proteins and

emulsion.

A

gums normally only promote

O/W

the

type of

great variety of proteins are used commercially, such

as egg albumen, dried blood, casein (from milkl, etc.. and proteins are wholly or partly responsible for the stability of many natural emulsions such as milk and rubber latex. Food emulsions are

frequently stabilized by proteins, gelatin, etc.

The

stabilizing

action of these substances arises from the mechanical protection

given by the adsorbed skins which form spontaneously and which are relatively impenetrable for oil.

Foams.

—

.\ foam is a gaseous dispersion (usually of air) in Pure liquids do not give stable foams and any reasonable stability a third component, the foaming agent, is essential. Of the great variety of substances that act as foam promoters the best known are the soaps (natural and synthetic), proteins including gelatin and other degraded proteins, certain finely divided solid powders, certain polymers and the saponins. Household soap, which consists chiefly of a mixture of sodium stearate (Ci^H^jsCOONa) and sodium palmitate (C,,:;H;„COONa),

3.

a liquid

continuum.

for

is well known for its bubble-blowing capacity. This property is greatly improved by the addition of glycerol, which probably acts

'xoo ©0.0

'

COLLOID moved, should be kept to a minimum. Putty ground whiting (natural calcium carbonate) in a medium of linseed Pure caloil, its characteristic property being termed "string." cium carbonate and acid-free linseed oil give a friable putty withAfter out siring, the system being a typical flocculated one. adding small amounts of free fatty acid to the oil and of oxides carbonate, the system is decalcium the of aluminum or iron to flocculated and possesses excellent string. The desirable properties of the usual commercial material are therefore believed to arise from reaction between traces of these oxides and of fatty acids in the oil, forming a metal soap which deflocculates the system. a paste of finely

is

Pastes, particularly those with the higher concentrations of disperse phase, usually show some sort of yield value upon deforma-

This

tion.

is

properties

clearly essential

{e.g.,

if

the material

potter's clay), since

is

to exhibit plastic

has to retain

it

its

shape

Certain pastes exhibit the phenomenon after stirring or shaking they become

i.e.,

known much

as thixotropy; thinner in con-

on being allowed to stand. quicksand, which consists of a paste of

sistency, returning to their original state

well-known example is sand and water made thixotropic by the presence of certain clays. Paint should be thixotropic in order to flow easily under the brush and to allow the brush streaks to disappear. .After a short time it should solidify to prevent the paint from flowing away from vertical planes. The reverse phenomenon, termed dilatancy. in which a suspension that flows freely under a small force turns rigid when larger forces are applied, is shown by very concentrated, highly stabilized suspensions; e.g., by pastes of pure silica in w'ater. 5. Gel Structures. A flocculated paste or suspension of very fine particles often behaves as a gel; i.e., a quasi-homogeneous solidUke system, rich in liquid. During the flocculation a scaffoldis formed preventing sedimentation and enmeshing

ing structure

medium. Such structures are preferentially formed by long or flat particles. The systems are often thixotropic, the bonds between the particles can be broken by mechanical action. They show syneresis; i.e., in the long run the scaffolding retracts by further flocculation and liquid is exuded. Examples are: certain clays, particularly bentonite (flat par(needles). ticles), iron hydroxide (flat), vanadium pentoxide Those from iron hydroxide are reddish brown and become more the dispersion

transparent when liquefied. In some cases gels are formed directly by chemical reaction.

Substances that tend to separate as amorphous precipitates frequently give gels when lirst formed, the hydroxides of aluminum, chromium and silicon being good examples. Of these, the formation of silica gel by reaction between sodium silicate (water glass) and acids, or between silicon tetrachloride and water, has been much studied. The sol first formed slowly transforms spontaneously into a translucent gel showing bluish opalescence, and this gel may later shrink, exuding the aqueous medium (syneresis). The changes are believed to arise from the polymerization of the monosilicic acid first formed; e.g.,

OH

OH

I

I

I

I

I

I

OH I

HO— Si— OH+HO— Si— OH- -HO— Si— O— Si— OH+HjO OH

OH

the particles together.

is that the particles are linked at the points of contact through weak, secondary valence forces, the same forces that are active in ordinary flocculation. Ion Exchange or Base Exchange. A property of clays of great

—

importance

in agriculture is

termed base exchange

rectly, ion or cation exchange.

If,

OH

I

OH

that the process can be repeated in one, two or three

dimensions, leading to high molecular weight silicic acids and a rather rigid three-dimensional gel. Silica gel undoubtedly owes its high mechanical strength to the linking

the

of

silicic

molecules through primary valence

acid

bonds

(

I

— Si — O — Si — etc.), I

this also explaining the

absence of

I

thixotropy, the irreversibility of the gelling process and the com-

paratively small effect of drying on the gel volume.

With

the thixotropic types, where the gel structure can be easily

and reversibly produced,

it

more

cor-

such as potassium sulfate percolates through a soil, the potassium ions are removed and replaced by an equivalent amount of calcium ions originally present in the clay. Ion exchange also forms the basis of the zeolite or permutite In this case calcium ions are replaced water-softening process. by sodium ions and the water is thus softened. Clays, the finest (CH3Coo">cr>N03 >r>CNS" The

—

two

—

the iodide and thiocyanate do not salt out even saturated solutions. Alcohol can also precipitate proteins; in subprecipitating amounts it renders them more readily coagulated by salts. In all cases precipitation occurs most readily last

in

added

at the isoelectric point (see

below). Of other physical properties of proteins a great deal of atten-

67

been given to their size, shape and charge. The size and shape of soluble proteins (and of other polymers in solution) have been chiefly found by measuring rates of diffusion and their rate of movement in very strong centrifugal fields. In the ultracentrifuge, developed largely by T. Svedberg at the University of Uppsala, Swed., the protein molecules are subjected to intense forces up to 1,000,000 times that of gravity. Under these conditions particles as small as 50 A sediment at measurable speeds, whereas if only gravity were available nothing less than about 10000 A (1 /i) could be attempted. By such means the molecular weight and approximate shape of many proteins were determined, the former ranging from about 10,000 The single molecules are thus of sufficient to several million. size to bring them into the colloidal range. For example, hemoglobin has a molecular weight of about 68,000, hemocyanin (the respiratory pigment of certain snails) one of about sXio". In both these cases the molecules are approximately spherical in shape, showing that the polypeptide chain must be folded in some way, whereas others, such as myosin, are quite elongated, with the tion has

polypeptide chain more or less fully extended. Because of the presence of ionizable groups, particularly — NH2 and — COOH, protein molecules in solution normally carry a charge.

In very acid solutions they are positively charged (be+

— NH3),

very alkaline ones negatively (because of the hydrogen ion concentration the This value is termed the isoelectric point and is of considerable importance. It can be determined in various ways, usually by measuring the electrophoretic mobility in buffer solutions of different pH on both sides of the isoelectric point, cause of

— C00~);

at

net charge

is

in

some value of

zero.

plotting the results graphically, mobility. (See also Proteins.)

As

different

proteins contain

and reading different

off

the

pH

of zero

numbers

of ionizable groups, their electrophoretic mobilities at a given pH are different. A. Tiselius of the University of Uppsala developed a technique of electrophoresis in which these differences in mobility are used for analytical or for preparative purposes. 3. Gels. Several lyophilic colloids can form gels. Table jel-

—

blancmange and cold starch paste are well-known examples. These gels can all be considered as network structures with enmeshed liquid. The jelling component may be gelatin, agar, starch, pectin, etc., and is usually present in concentrations of less than 10%. Table jellies are usually made from gelatin (a protein) (2%-3%) jams are jelled by pectin (a carbohydrate derivative). Agar slopes or plates, widely employed in bacteriological work, consist of a suitable nutrient medium jelled by the addition of i%-2% agar, a polymer of carbohydrate nature prepared from certain seaweeds. Fatty acid salts such as aluminum, calcium and zinc oleates are the thickening agents in many greases, which are examples of gels with a nonaqueous liquid phase. Some materials such as gelatin and agar set to a gel on cooling whereas in other In both cases gelation is brought about by heating (egg white). cases, however, gelation arises from a process akin to a diminution lies,

;

of the solubility of the jelling agent leading to the formation of

interconnections between the individual molecules.

—

4. Association Colloids (Soaps and Dyes). Soaps and other detergents and a number of dyes constitute by far the most important substances classed as association colloids; i.e., substances of relatively small molecular weight which associate spontaneously

to micelles of colloidal size in certain concentration ranges.

Soaps.

— Originally limited

to substances of natural occurrence, a

very great number of compounds have been prepared synthetically in view of their importance as wetting agents, emulsifiers, detergents, etc. A few typical soaps are given below, the classification into anionic, cationic and neutral types being based on the charge carried by the organic part of the molecule. Compound Formula Type Sodium palmitate CisHsiCOO" and Na* Anionic Sodium dodecyl sulfonate Anionic CnHz-^SOs and Na* Cetyl trimethyl

ammonium

bromide

+

Ci6H33N(CH3)3 and Br"

Cationic

Polyethylene oxide derivatives e.g.,

Ci2H25(OCH2CH2)3.0CH2CH20H Neutral

COLLOT D'HERBOIS

68 In addition, there are naturally occurring bile salts

and

All these

lecithin, of great biological

compounds (and

as the

importance.

features a large hydrocarbon

These two parts differ to the portion and a small polar group. extreme in their atYinity for water, and it is this two-sided or amphipathic nature which leads to the formation of colloidal aggregates. J,

W. McBain and

his

solutions of the sodium

co-workers showed that with aqueous

and potassium

tion.

After hydrolysis

tion of

the dyes also), despite their diverse

common

chemical types, possess as

compounds such

salts of the fatty acids the

members differed in certain physical properties from those with shorter chains. These higher members (e.g., the palmitate or stearate) appeared to possess a smaller number of particles (as indicated by the freezing point or vapour pressure) but nevertheless a quite high electrical conductivity. higher

common

is

complete the soap

salted out

by addi-

The potassium salts (soft soap) rather than the sodium are preferable for some purposes, since they have a higher solubility in cold water.

Dyes.

— Dye

molecules, although resembling the soaps in posmore polar groups, lack their comparative uniformity as regards the relative disposition of these sessing a hydrophobic part and one or

constituent parts.

This results in the aggregation being much more specific and hence in a more varied colloidal behaviour. The structure of two of the simpler

members

is

shown below.

On="-0

SOI Na

Orange II

This combination led McBain to suggest that the parafhn-chain ions aggregated, forming a colloidal particle or ionic micelle, as

shown

is

salt.

N

in fig, 3.

In the case of sodium palmitate, for example, the size of the

from diffusion measurements, is about 40 A and thus contains about 50 molecules, the molecular weight being micelle, as determined

In relatively dilute solutions the shape of micelles is spherical or slightly elongated. The opinions on the micellar form in concentrated solutions are conflicting and vary from a

+

(CH3)2N

about 14,000.

regular latticelike array of spherical micelles via very elongated

rods or threads to

flat

structures.

Aggregation to micelles

is

caused by the tendency of the water

to squeeze out the paraffin chains

responsible for the

The

— the same factor that

marked surface

is

largely

activity of soap solutions.

features of soap solutions arise from the combination of surface activity and the peculiar properties of micelles in solution. characteristic

/

S ci-

N(CH3)a

Methylene blue Dyestufi's are usually classed as acidic or basic (corresponding to

anionic or cationic soaps) according to whether the organic ion carries a negative or a positive charge.

The question of aggregation is of considerable importance in connection with the dyeing process. The size of the aggregates or micelles can be determined by the same methods as for soaps, diffusion being regarded as the best. The degree of association is increased by increasing salt content, which explains the influence of salts in dyeing.

The power of soap solutions to dissolve (solubilize) organic compounds insoluble or only slightly soluble in water arises directly from the presence of micelles. As will be clear from fig. 3,

The dyeing process has naturally excited considerable interest, although it is by no means fully understood. The materials to be

micelles possess an interior closely

of vegetable, animal or purely synthetic origin.

resembling a droplet of liquid hydrocarbon, in which hydrocarbons, etc., can dissolve. One important application of this phenomenon is in connection with synthetic polymers, for it enables polymerization of relatively insoluble monomers such as styrene (see Polymers, above) to be carried out in aqueous solution or suspension.

The

characteristic

and most

widely used property of soap solutions

is,

of course, their deter-

gent action.

"Dirt," in general,

AGGREGATED HYDROCARBON CHAINS

dyed are usually of a fibrous nature, consisting of macromolecules

Most vegetable

such as linen and cotton, have cellulose as the fundamental constituent; wool and silk are the principal animal fibres and of the purely synthetic materials nylon is without doubt the best fibres,

known. In dyeing a fibre the coloured molecules have to diffuse into the where they are held in position by precipitation or by some other reaction. The behaviour of wool and silk is probably the interior,

simplest, for the

®

©

AQUEOUS PHASE OF A MICELLE formed by the aggregation of paraffin-chain ions in a soap FIG. 3.

major factor

in

bringing about combination

is

—

©

— STRUCTURE

solution

believed to be salt formation between the dye anions NH3 groups on the fibre. With cellulose (cotton and rayon) the affinity of the dye for the fibre is probably due to Van der Waals's forces and hydrogen bonding. Dyes also find an important use in the identification of biological materials (e.g., bacteria by staining methods. These depend upon )

the different affinities of the enveloping constituents for various

consists either of greasy materials or of particles covered with a

dyes, the principles involved being closely related to

greasy film. Its removal involves three separate stages access of the detergent to the dirty surface, the loosening or peptizing

ordinary dyeing. Dyestuffs of the basic type (e.g., gentian violet) find use as antiseptics, resembling the cationic soaps in their bactericidal powers. Bibliography. Elementary textbook: Allen Gordon Ward, Colloids, Their Properties and Applications (1945) advanced textbooks: Albert Ernest Alexander and Paley Johnson, Colloid Science, 2 vol. (1949; reissued 1952); Hugo Rudolph Kruyt (ed.). Colloid Science, vol. i, Irreversible Systems, vol. ii. Reversible Systems, Eng. trans, by L. C. Jackson (1949-S2). (A. E. A.; J. T. G. O.)

—

of the dirt and finally

its removal into the bulk of the solution. Because of its greasy surface, dirt is hydrophobic and not wetted by water, but absorption of the surface-active soap molecules makes its outer surface hydrophilic and therefore greatly increases

its affinity

for water. In addition, the detergent, because of its all surfaces, will tend to displace the grease from the surface. The dirt, thus loosened, is detached by mechanical agitation and carried away into the solution by an emulsion or suspension, or

powerful tendency to adsorb on

solubilized in the interior of the micelles. The chief drawback of fatty acid soaps (ordinary household soaps ) arises from their rea^y precipitation with calcium or mag-

nesium salts. This is why hard water is softened and why it is impossible to get a lather in sea water with ordinary soap. Many of the synthetic detergents do not suffer from this disadvantage and thus are used in "sea-water soaps." Ordinary household soap

is prepared by boiling natural fats, glycerides of the higher fatty acids, with strong caustic soda solu-

those in

—

;

MARIE

(1749-1796), D'HERBOIS, JEAN French revolutionary, a Jacobin, terrorist and opponent of Robeswas born in Paris on June 19, 1749, the son of a goldsmith named CoUot, Educated by the Oratorians, he became an actor and began writing comedies (including Le Paysan magistral, Le Bon Angevin, L'Ainant-lonp garou). After managing the Lyons theatre (1787), he settled in Paris (1789) and won success with his plays at the Theatre Feydeau, Joining the Jacobin club, he

COLLOT

pierre,

served several times as its secretary in 1791. To spread constitutional principles, he composed his Almanack du Pere Gerard, which made him famous. A member of the Paris commune of Aug. 10, 1792, he became president of the Paris electoral assembly

COLLOTYPE—COLMAN and then its deputy in the Convention. In Nov. 1792 he was sent to Nice to investigate the depredations committed by the Var army. He voted for Louis XVI's death without reprieve. Sent in March 1793 to the Nievre and Loiret departements, he ordered Having taken part in the overthrow that all priests be arrested. of the Girondins (May-June 1793) and undertaken a mission to the Oise and Aisne departements (August), he was made a member Sent on Oct. 30, of the committee of public safety on Sept. 6. with Joseph Fouche, to suppress the revolt in Lyons, he accompHshed the task with pitiless bloodshed. Recalled to Paris, he made a great show of energy and argued in favour of the Hebertists in the Jacobin club, emerging as a possible rival to Robespierre. An attempt on his life (May 23, 1794) enhanced his popularity. As president of the Convention he declared himself violently against Robespierre on 8-9 Thermidor (July 26-27, 1794), but charges were subsequently brought against him by the Thermidorians. After the abortive Jacobin rising of 12 Germinal (April 1, 1795), he was deported to Guiana, where he died on June 8, 1796.

COLLOTYPE

(Ma. Bo.) (Photogelatin), a photomechanical printing

process capable of accurate facsimile reproduction. It differs from other methods such as letterpress, offset lithography and

gravure in that no halftone screen is employed to break the images into dots. Collotype illustrations, therefore, resemble photographs more closely than do products of the other processes. It is a planographic method; that is, the printing image is on Collotype printing is the same plane as the rest of the plate. based upon the principle that grease and water repel each other. The nonprinting areas of the plate contain the most moisture and therefore reject the greasy ink, while the printing areas hold

moisture and accept the ink. Collotype is used where accuracy of detail is desired. The absence of screen pattern makes it suitable for large blowups and for reproductions of manuscripts, works of art and scientific illustrations. It is unexcelled for the reproduction of fine paintings. The process is used for small and medium editions, ranging from 100 to 10,000 copies. The basic principle of collotype was described in Louis Poitevin's French patent of 1855. T. du Motay and C. R. Marechal of France produced the first good results in 1865. It remained for Joseph Albert of Germany, however, to develop collotype as a practical process about 1868. It was improved in 1869 by Ernest Edwards of England, who added chromated alum (a mixture of alum and a chrome salt) to toughen the gelatin film. Edwards went to the United States in 1872 and was instrumental in making the process commercially successful. Edward Bierstadt, however, little

who was

licensed to use Albert's process, produced the

types in the United States in 1870.

first collo-

Edwards took out

the

first

patent for colour collotype in England in 1869, but Albert invented the most practical early process, using three colours, in 1874. Formerly, almost all collotype printing was done from glass plates inked by hand and printed on a flat-bed press. This method was largely superseded by the use of big rotary presses with auto-

matic inking devices. In plate making, two negatives are made, one for the continuous-tone illustrations and another for the line copy (type, black-and-white copy). The plate, usually of aluminum, is coated in a whirling machine with a light-sensitive solution of gelatin, potassium bichromate and ammonia. It is exposed to light in a printing frame under each negative successively, or under a single negative made by combining both. The transparent parts of the negative allow light to pass freely, hardening the gelatin; darker areas retard light, preventing hardening in proportion to their opacity. The plate is then soaked in glycerin, which is absorbed most by the soft, nonprinting areas. In printing, the plate receives moisture from the air in the pressroom, which is kept at a relative humidity of 60%-80%. When the ink roller passes over the plate, the soft or nonprinting areas of gelatin, which hold moisture, repel the greasy ink. The hardened exposed areas, which cannot hold moisture, accept the ink. Intermediate areas accept ink in varying amounts. Printing is done directly from the gelatin, which has a delicate natural grain. Tacky ink is used, and since this dries slowly,

69

necessary to slip-sheet each impression; that is, a sheet of absorbent paper or other material must be placed over each printed sheet to avoid offsetting ink to the sheet above. Flat-bed presses produce about 1,000 impressions in an eighthour day; cylinder presses can turn out 5,000 in the same period. The life of a collotype plate is short; it will rarely last for 15,000

it is

impressions.

For colour work, the separations can be made by hand as well by photography. In the hand method a single negative is made. or stencil is prepared for blocking out the unwanted areas in each colour separation. The same negative with a different mask is exposed over each plate. By this process colour plates can also be made from monochrome copy. as

A handmade mask

Collotype

is

also

known

as albertype, phototypie, Lichtdruck,

heliotype and photocollotype. BrBLioGRAPHY. Emest Edwards, The Heliotype Process (1876), a description, with many reproductions; Julius Schnauss, Collotype and Photo-Lithography (1889), a practical manual, with illustrations of early equipment; T. A. Wilson, The Practice of Collotype (193S), a handbook for printers; William T. Berry, Collotype Printing Process (1958). a compact description of the process. (J. Ka.) (d. 676), the leader of the Celtic party

—

COLMAN, SAINT

synod of Whitby, was born in Ireland. He was a monk at lona before becoming bishop of Lindisfarne in 661. After the Roman method of calculating the date of Easter was accepted at Whitby (663 or 664), he returned to lona and then to Ireland with all the Irish monks of Lindisfarne and 30 of the English ones. He settled on Inishbofin, Connaught, where he built a monastery, but had to found a separate one at Mayo for the English monks. He was abbot of both until his death on Aug. 8, 676. His feast day is Feb. 18 in Scotland (diocese of Argyll and the Isles). at the

See Butler's Lives of the Saints, ed. by H. Thurston and D. Attwater, i, pp. 369-370 (1956).

vol.

COLMAN, GEORGE,

the Elder (1732-1794), one of the foremost English writers of comedy and theatre managers of his time as well as an agreeable essayist, was born in Florence in April 1732. His father, Francis Colman, envoy to the grand duke of Tuscany, died in 1733 and the child became the ward of his uncle, William Pulteney (later earl of Bath). He went to Westminster school and Christ Church, Oxford, where he founded with Bonnell Thornton The Connoisseur (1754-56), to which he contributed many essays. Called to the bar (1757), he traveled the Oxford circuit from 1758 to 1761, but relinquished law for literature

and the

His

first

theatre.

play, the afterpiece Polly

Honey combe (1760),

satiriz-

was presented by David Garrick at Drury Lane. It was followed by The Jealous Wife (1761), one of the best comedies of its age, which remained a stock piece for nearly a century. In his early plays he mocked the vogue for sentimentalism, later seeking to revive the Elizabethan dramatists and adapting Beaumont and Fletcher's Philaster (1763) and Bonduca (1778) and Jonson's Epiccene (1776) and Volpone (1782). He translated Terence's comedies (1765) and Plautus' Mercator for Thornton's edition (1767) and also contributed essays to various newspapers and periodicals. In 1764 Lord Bath died, leaving Colman an annuity. Colman's association with Garrick culminated in their collaboration in The Clandestine Marriage (1766), a comedy blending satire with sentiment, which still holds the stage. In 1767 Colman purchased a quarter share in Covent Garden, which he managed for seven ing the craze for romantic novels,

years. In spite of quarrels with his partners, he raised the standard both of acting and of drama, himself contributing several In comedies and afterpieces and adapting Shakespeare plays. 1774 he sold his share to his partners and in 1776 purchased the Little Theatre in the Haymarket from Samuel Foote: under his direction for 12 years, this summer theatre reached the peak of its career. Colman had a stroke in 1 785 and in 1 789 his brain became affected. He died on Aug. 14, 1794. His Dramatick Works, four volumes (about half his plays), were published in 1777 and his miscellaneous writings in verse and prose, as Prose on Several Occasions, three volumes, in 1787. He also translated Horace's

Ars poetica (1783).

See Eugene Page, George Colman the Elder (1935).

(S.

M.

R.)

COLMAN—COLOGNE

70

Younger (1762-1836), English COLMAN, GEORGE, dramatist and theatre manapcr, son of George Colman the Elder the

and the actress Sarah Ford, who were subsequently married He was born in London on Oct. 21. 1762. and went to Westminster school and Christ Church, Oxford, but because of his contraction of debts was removed to King's college. Aberdeen. Though a student at Lincoln's Inn. he never completed his legal His first play. The Female Dramatist, presented at his studies. father's Little Theatre in the Haymarket in 1782, failed, but his comic opera Two to One (Haymarket, 1784) was successful. His comic opera Inkle and Yarico (1787) and his melodrama The Battle of Hexham ( 1 789) became stock plays. In 1 784 he married the actress Catherine Morris at Gretna Green. After his father's mental breakdown in 1 789 he took over the management of the Haymarket. which he purchased on his father's death in 1794. His management was marked by struggles against the encroachments of the patent theatres, by litigation and e.xtravagance. Several of his melodramas and comedies held the stage for many years, notably The Iron Chest (1796) based on William Godwin's novel Caleb Williams (1794) The Heir at Law (1797) Blue-Beard (1798); The Poor Gentleman (1801); and his most popular comedy, John Bull (1803). He wrote several of his heroines for Mrs. Gibbs (nee Mary Logan), whom he is said to have eventually married. His outstanding comic creation was "Dr. Pangloss" in The Heir at Law. Colman disposed of part of his interest in the Haymarket in 1805 but continued to act as manager (q.v.)

in 1767.

—

;

;

when he

sold his share to his brother-in-law, David published books of verse, some very scurrilous. As a difficulties he was compelled to reside in the rules of the King's Bench for many years but was released on his

until 1820,

Morris.

He

result of

monetary

appointment as lieutenant of the yeomen of the guard in 1820. He was appointed examiner of plays in 1824, a post he retained until his death and in which he aroused resentment owing to his narrow severity and petty tyranny. He died in Kensington on Oct. 17, 1836. See George Colman, of the

Random Records

(1830)

;

R. B. Peake, Memoirs

Colman Family (1842).

(S.

M.

R.)

COLMAN, NORMAN JAY nalist

and the

first

(1827-1911), U.S. farm joursecretary of agriculture, was born May 16,

1827, near Richfield Springs, N.Y. After a short law career, he in 1852 to St. Louis, Mo., where he became editor-publisher

moved

The Valley Farmer (called Col man's Rural World after 1865). Through its pages, he advocated better farming methods and disseminated knowledge of new techniques, some of which he publicized on his own farm. Colman entered the Missouri legislature in 1855 and after 1874 served a term as lieutenant governor. He supported numerous farm organizations, helping to establish the Missouri Grange in 1870. of

Appointed U.S. commissioner of agriculture in 1885, he authored Hatch act of 1887 which set up federal-state agricultural experiment stations. Pres. Grover Cleveland named him secretary of agriculture in 1889, when the department of agriculture received cabinet status for the first time, but he served only briefly because of a change of presidential administrations in the same year. He returned to St. Louis to edit Colman's Rural World until his death on Nov. 3, 1911. His periodical was absorbed by the Jourtial of the

Norman

J.

Colman and Colman's Rural World (C. C. J.)

COLMAN, (1832-1920), U.S. landscape painter, whose landscapes of the early west remain popular, was born at Portland, Me., March 4, 1832. He was a pupil of Asher Durand in New York city, and in 1860-62 studied in Spain, Italy, France and England. In 1871-76 he was again in Europe. With James D. Smillie, he founded the American Water Color society (1860), becoming its first president, 1866-67. His own water-colour paintings are particularly fine. He was elected a member of the National Academy of Design in 1862. Among his works are "The Ships of the Western Plains," in the Union League club, New York city, and

SAMUEL

"The Spanish Peaks, Colorado," Art,

New

York.

COLMAR, a

He

,

1

;

Dominican nuns, was made into a museum containing fine ISthand 16th-century paintings, including the masterpiece of Mathias Griinewald (ij.v.). his Isenheim altarpiece. Colmar is on the main railway from Strasbourg to Mulhouse and Basel. It is a centre of the textile industry and for tourism as well as marketing the products of the neighbouring vineyards and orchards. Colmar (Columbaria) is first spoken of in a chronicle of the Saxon wars of Charlemagne, then mentioned in a charter of 823. In 1226 it was raised to the status of an imperial town by the emperor Frederick II and surrounded by walls. Civil rights (Stadtrechte) were granted to it by Rudolph of Habsburg in 1278. Colmar joined the league of imperial towns of Alsace and in 1476 and 1477 took a vigorous share in the struggle with Charles the Bold. It suffered in the wars of the 17th century, was occupied by the Swedes in 1632 and was gradually annexed to France during 1648-78 and to Germany in 1871, reverting to France in 1919. During World War II it was occupied by the Germans in 1940 and was liberated by the Allies on Feb. 2, 1945. (L.Ku.) (Coloquintida or Bitter Apple), a plant, Citrullns colocynthis, of the family Cucurbitaceae (q.v.), whose fruit yields a very powerful cathartic. The fruit is round and about the size of an orange; it has a thick, yellowish rind and a light, spongy and very bitter pulp, which contains the active principle, colocynthin. The seeds, which number from 200 to 300 and are disposed in vertical rows on the three parietal placentas of the fruit, are flat, ovoid and dark brown; they are used as food by some of the tribes of the Sahara, and a coarse oil is expressed from them. The foliage resembles that of the cucumber, and the root The plant has a wide range, being found in Ceylon, is perennial.

COLOCYNTH

the Indian subcontinent, Iran, Arabia, Syria, north Africa, the Greek islands, the Cape Verde Islands and southeast Spain.

The commercial colocynth consists of the peeled and dried fruit. In the preparation of the drug the seeds are removed from the pulp.

COLOGNE

(Ger. Koln), a city and river port of Germany which after partition of the nation following World War II was in the Land (state) of North Rhine-Westphalia, Federal Republic of Germany. Situated 295 mi. W.S.W. of Berlin, it lies mainly on the left bank of the Rhine in the fertile lowland plain below Bonn. Pop. (1959 est.) 780.124. Cologne's historic importance arose from its location at the crossing of the route from England, France and the Netherlands to eastern Europe with that between Italy and northwestern Europe

—a

Agriculture in 1916. See G. F. Lemmer, (1953).

dipartement stands on the Lauch and Logelbach, tributaries of the III, 67 km. (42 mi.) S.S.W. of Strasbourg by road. Pop. (1954) 45.453. Many notable Renaissance buildings surround the Roman Catholic St. Martin's church (13th and 14th centuries). They include the Kaufhaus (15th century), the Pfister house (1537) and several others. The former Franciscan church (13th century) is now Lutheran. The Hotel de Ville, the Palais du Conseil and the college chapel of St. Peter are 18th century. Frederic Auguste Bartholdi, sculptor of the Statue of Liberty erected at New York harbour, was born in Colmar in 834 his home is a museum. The town library is in the former Dominican monastery. The Unterlinden Kloster, former convent of the

died in

in the

New York

town of France,

Metropolitan city,

March

capital of the

Museum

of

27, 1920.

Haut-Rhin

{q.v.)

the great traffic artery of the Rhine. centre which grew up there was also a patron of learning and the arts, a tradition which has persisted

route accentuated by The medieval commercial into

modern

times.

Despite the destruction suffered by the city during World War Cologne lies princiII, its appearance still reflects its history. pally on the left bank of the Rhine in the semicircle which it assumed in 1180, when several new parishes were brought within the

town boundaries. The flat side of the semicircle is bounded by the Rhine, which is spanned by five bridges. The half circle is formed by a great ring road, the Ringstrasse, which in the 1880s replaced the medieval fortifications and along which a green belt was laid out. Remains of the old walls may still be seen and three surviving gates, the Eigelsteintor, Hahnentor and Severintor, are used as museums for zoology, history and antiquities, and geology, respectively. The Bayenturm, a medieval tower, stands near

COLOGNE

71

and the 16th-century Zeughaus or arsenal, which contains a historical museum, were only outwardly restored in medieval form. These ancient buildings share the crowded city centre with modern banking and insurance houses, shops and offices, a new theatre and opera house (opened 1957) and, immediately north of the cathedral, the great railway station and the radio station of the Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk. Near the perimeter of the city is the new town hall. On the other side of the river are the Rhein museum and the Wallraf-Richartz museum, housing paintings and Roman antiquities. Two other important museums, both on the left bank, are the Schntitgen museum for ecclesiastical art and the festival hall,

THEATRE AND OPERA HOUSE OF COLOGNE. GER., OPENED IN 1957; AT UPPER RIGHT IS COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. BEGUN IN THE MID-13TH CENTURY the Rhine.

Beyond

the Ringstrasse

modern suburbs have pro-

jected spurs but the main shopping and business streets such as the Hohestrasse and Schildergasse, as well as the city's historic buildings,

lie

within

it.

Not far from the Rhine is the cathedral, the largest Gothic church in northern Europe. It stands on the site of a church begun in the 9th century by Hildebold, metropolitan of Cologne, and After a fire in 1248, rebuilding finished under Willibert in 873. was begun by Meister Gerard. The choir was completed in 1322, and work on the cathedral went on until 1510 when it is said that Renaissance contempt for the Gothic style brought building to a Work was resumed in 1820 and the building was completed, halt. according to the original design, in 18S0. It was badly damaged during air raids on Cologne in 1944. Though poorly proportioned, the cathedral is impressive in its vastness, being 468 ft. long and 275 ft. wide. Its great twin towers rise over 500 ft. above the centre of the city. The 14th-century stained glass windows in the choir are particularly beautiful. the art treasures which

it

The

contains.

cathedral

On

is

also notable for

the high altar are the

relics said to be those of the Magi, brought to Cologne from Rome in 1164 and preserved in a solid gold shrine which is one of the The painting finest medieval examples of the goldsmith's art. above the altar is the centre panel of a triptych by Stephan Lochner (q.v.). Painted in the early 15th century, it depicts the Adoration of the Kings in clear, bright colours and gold. At the south side of the cathedral lies a reminder of Cologne's more ancient past the Dionysian mosaic, originally the floor of the banquet hall of a great Roman villa discovered during excavations near the cathedral in 1941. Other Roman remains are a 3rdcentury tower, Roman-Frankish catacombs and a Roman mausoleum in Weiden, in the outskirts. The cathedral itself is ringed with noble churches, largely built in the prosperous middle ages. St. Gereon is of late Roman origin, although the building is 11th13th century. St. Maria im Kapitol, which was severely damaged in World War II, is Romanesque and has a particularly fine crypt. Both St. Maria and St. Kunibert, which is Byzantine-Moorish in style, date from the 7th century although the actual buildings are 11th and 13th century, respectively. Other medieval churches include St. Severin 10th-15th century), St. Andreas (13th century) with the tomb of Albert Magnus, St. Aposteln (13th century), St. Georg (11th century), St. Ursula (llth-15th century), GrossSt. Martin (12th-13th century), the Minoritenkirche (13th century) and St. Maria Lyskirchen (13th century). The 13th-century Antoniterkirche, a secularized monastery church, was made over to the Protestants in 1802 and became the first public Reformed church in Cologne. It contains a war memorial, the "Angel of Death," by the sculptor Ernst Barlach. Cologne's secular medieval buildings as well as its churches suffered in World War II, among those damaged being the Templerhaus and the Gothic Rathaus. The Giirzenich or Festhaus of the merchants of the city (1437^4), reconstructed as a concert and

—

(

Rautenstrauch-Joest ethnological museum. The University of Cologne, founded in 1388, was dissolved in 1798 during the Napoleonic Wars, and refounded in 1919. There are also teachers' training colleges and colleges for the study of music, engineering and administration. A sports stadium was built in the green belt just beyond the Ringstrasse. Among several parks are the zoological and botanical gardens to the north, the Stadtgarten and the Volksgarten, while on the other side of the river is the Rhine park with the Tanzbrunnen ("dancing fountain") and the halls where the many fairs and exhibitions are held. Cologne's geographical position and commercial importance have combined to make it a focal point for communications. A great rail junction, it also has an airport in the Wahner Heide, and on the edge of the city centre there is a helicopter landing ground with services to Brussels, Liege, Maastricht and Bonn. The Autobahn connects Cologne with Aachen and with the Ruhr, Frankfurt and the south. The Rhine harbour, important since Roman days, is used even by small seagoing craft. The city is still, as it was in the middle ages, a banking centre, and the wine trade and textile manufacturing remain prominent. In modern times, however, insurance became of great importance and engineering and electro-engineering, metals and chemicals came to the fore. Other manufactures include chocolate and the famous Eau de Cologne. The brown coal industry is the second largest in Germany and is the basis of an electricity plant which supplies not only large parts of west Germany but also Switzerland and the Tirol. An annual festival, part of the Rhenisch pre-Lenten Carnival, is celebrated with great ceremony in Cologne. A folk festival, the Kolscher Fasteleer, is peculiar to the city.

History.

ment

— Cologne was

as 38 B.C.,

about 12

originally the central point of the settle-

It was a Roman camp as early and the beginnings of a town may be traced back to

of a tribe

B.C.

known

as the Ubii.

In a.d. 50, at the request of Agrippina, the wife of title of Roman colony was conferred

the emperor Claudius, the

upon the town which was her birthplace. It was named Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensis, contracted later to Colonia. At first governed by the admiral of the Rhine fleet, it was later made the headquarters of the governor of Lower Germany. About 400 a.d. Cologne was conquered by the Franks and in 475 became the residence of the Prankish king Childeric.

A

Christian

community

existed in the

town probably

as early as

being mentioned in 313. Charlemagne created an archbishopric there and by the 12th century the archbishop dominated the city politically and commercially, rethe 2nd century, a bishop

ceiving a wide range of

first

tolls,

customs duties and other payments.

Cologne's industry goes back to Roman times when ceramics and glass were manufactured, and, with steadily growing commercial prosperity during the middle ages (especially from about the 10th century), an increasingly bitter conflict developed between the wealthy merchants and the archbishop, the former seeking commercial and political freedom, the latter the preservation of his temporal power. In 1074 Archbishop Anno was expelled but the revolt was put down. It was not until the battle of Worringen in 1288 that the archbishop was finally defeated and the city of Cologne secured full self-government. The battle was fought in the course of the struggle over the Limburg succession (see LimBURG). From that time Cologne was in fact a free imperial city, although it was only officially recognized as such in 1475. Until the end of the 14th century its government was in the

COLOMB—COLOMBIA

72

hands of the Richerzeche, an association of the wealthy patricians, but in 1396, after a bloodless revolution, a new municipal constiUnder tution was established (embodied in the Verbundbrief). this constitution the 22 branches of the guilds were the basis of the government. They in turn elected a council which had power over all the internal affairs of the town. This medieval period was a splendid one for Cologne. It was a

mer-

prominent member of the Hanseatic League (g.v.) and its chants had probably the widest connections and the most varied trade of textiles

all

German

the

towns.

and books and working

Crafts included the making of enamels and metals, the

in leather,

The wine of Cologne's goldsmiths being particularly fine. industry was well established. The arts flourished and the city of the later greatest The three had many beautiful churches. work

scholastics, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus, After the Thirty Years' War, however, all taught in its schools. the city declined, partly, no doubt, as a result of the exclusion of Protestants and Jews. As late as 1794, when the French occupied the city, public Protestant services were banned, and the city remained predominantly Roman Catholic in the 20th century. The Jewish community, which had existed in the time of Constantine, was expelled in 1424 and until 1794 no Jew was allowed to stay

overnight in the city. In ISOl Cologne was taken by France and when the archbishop elector died a year later the see was left vacant. The archbishopric was restored in 1821. In 1815 Cologne passed to Prussia and from Its industry showed that time a new era of prosperity began. were inas wide a variety as in medieval days, and when railways troduced its geographical position made it a great railway centre. conguilds, the of the days in The interest in organization, shown tributed in the early 19th century to the formation of a chamber of commerce, the oldest of its kind in western Europe. The population

grew from 41,685

1939. In World

in 1801 to

372,529 in 1900 and 768,352 in

life

and works, but by 1473 he had

See Paul Vitry, Michel Colombe temps, with full bibliography (1901).

lation continued to rise rapidly, while a vast

and the popu-

work

successively in the Mediterranean, China,

Burma, the

arctic

and

in

Crimean War, when he took part in the bombardment of Among his later services was the suppression of the Arab slave trade when in command of the "Dryad" (1868-70), of which he left an account in his Slave Catchhig in the Indian Ocean (1873). His new system of signals was adopted in 1867, and his recommendations on the causes of collision at sea were adopted at the

Sveaborg.

an international conference in 1889, three years after his retirethe navy. Colom.b made a special study of naval tactics for steam vessels, and his biography of his friend Adm. Sir Astley Cooper Key is a valuable contribution to the history of that epoch of changing methods of sea warfare. In his Naval Warfare (1891) he came independently to many of the conclusions about

new meaning

of sea power that later were publicized by Adm. He died at Botley, Hampshire, on Oct. 13, 1899. His younger brother. Sir John Colomb (i 838-1 909), an officer in the royal marines and a member of parliament, was also the author of a number of works on sea warfare and imperial defense, among which may be noted The Defence of Great and Greater Britain (1879), The Use of Marine Forces (1883) and Imperial Federation: Naval and Military (1886). (C. C. L.)

Alfred Mahan.

COLOMBE, MICHEL also the last)

(c. 1430-c. 1512), an important (and Gothic sculptor in France, was born in Brittany Nothing is known about his early

(bishopric of St. Pol de Leon).

sculpture franfaise de son (A. K. McC.)

la

per and sheet-metal work, cycles and motor scooters, plastics, ceramics, oil and vinegar. Colombes is on one of the suburban railways from St. Lazare station, Paris. The largest stadium in the Paris district was built there on the site of the old racecourse.

(H. DE S.-R.) (Republica de Colombia) is a republic occupying the northwestern angle of South America. It is bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea and Venezuela; on the east by Venezuela and Brazil; on the south by Brazil, Peru, and Ecuador; and on the west by Ecuador, the Pacific Ocean, Panama, and the Caribbean Sea. The repubUc has an extreme length from north to south of 1,050 mi. and an extreme width of 860 mi. It has an area of 439,512 sq.mi. and a population (1964 est.) of almost 17,000,000.

COLOMBIA

This article

divided into the following sections and sub-

is

sections; Physical Geography 1. 2.

II.

Geology Physiography

3.

CHmate

4.

Vegetation

5.

Animal Life

Geographical Regions 1. Caribbean Coastal Lowlands

Lowlands

2.

Pacific

3.

Eastern Plains (the Oriente)

Andean Region The People 1. Physical Types and Languages 4.

III.

2.

Religion

3.

Customs and Culture

IV. History 1.

Preconquest

2.

Conquest

Colonial Era Vicerovaltv 5. The Republic 6. The 20th Century V. Population VI. Administration and Social Conditions 3.

4.

1.

2.

3.

4.

ment from

the

et

Colombes is a working-class district and Pop. (1962) 76,849. 15,000 of its inhabitants are employed in local factories making pneumatic and electrical equipment, measuring instruments, cop-

HOWARD

COLOMB,

(1831-1899), British naval PHILIP officer and historian, bom in Scotland on May 29, 1831, was an innovator of tactics for steam warships and the inventor of an improved system of signals. He entered the navy in 1846, serving

His

COLOMBES,

of clearance

and reconstruction was undertaken. See also references under "Cologne" in the Index volume. For full account and detailed bibliographies see E. Keyser, Rheinisches (M. Ki,.) Stddtebuch (1956).

Tours.

a suburb of Paris, Seine d^partement, is situated on the left bank of the Seine in the Gennevilliers loop of the river, 13 km. (8 mi.) N.W. of Notre Dame cathedral by road.

I.

in the city

in

Tours after 1512.

II

December, however, there were 447,000

up shop

Colombe is the marble panel of St. George and the Dragon (in the Louvre), commissioned by Cardinal d'Amboise for the chapel Italian influence on Coof his palace at Gaillon near Rouen. lombe's work is very slight, and that only in details. He died in

Cologne suffered 262 air raids; there were 20,000 casualties and the city was left in ruins, with nearly all the dwellings in the old town damaged and 91 out of 150 churches destroyed. In April 1945 the population had sunk to 69,000. By

War

set

generally acknowledged masterpiece is the white tomb of Francis II of Brittany and his consort Marguerite de Foix (1502-07) in the cathedral of Nantes. The four corner figures of Virtues are The only other certain work of particularly to be remarked.

5. 6.

VII.

Government Living Conditions Welfare Services Health

Education Defense

The Economy 1.

2. 3.

Production Trade and Finance Transport and Communications

There are separate articles on the departments and more important towns. I.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

—The Andes reach

their northern end in Colombia, where they are divided into three principal ranges, of which the 1.

Geology.

This range, the Cordillera Central, is the highest. which is separated from the western one by the valley of the Cauca and from the eastern one by the valley of the Magdalena, includes peaks rising to heights of approximately 18,000 ft. The highest of these, Nevado del TnUma (17,109 ft.) Nevado del Huila (18,701 central one

,

COLOMBIA and Nevado del Ruiz (18,340 ft.), are volcanic. The flanks of the igneous and metamorphic cores of these ranges are overlain by folded and faulted sedimentary rocks of Cretaceous age that are in turn covered in many places with thick deposits of ft.),

volcanic ash.

The western

chain, the Cordillera Occidental or Western Corextends northward from Ecuador nearly to the Caribbean Sea. In its southern part it is flanked on its west side by steeply tilted Paleozoic beds; in its northern part on both sides by Mesozoic beds. The eastern Andean range, known as the Cordillera Oriental, the Cordillera of Sumapaz, or the Eastern Cordillera, is composed mainly of folded Cretaceous beds. The Cordillera Central, which is the continuation of the Cordillera Oriental of Ecuador, consists chiefly of beds of Cretaceous sandstone and porphyritic rocks. The axes of folding in all these ranges conform in direction with the trend of the ranges. Along the Pacific coast of Colombia there is a lower range, composed mainly of Tertiary volcanic rocks, which are covered in places with soft Quaternary sandstones and marls containing the remains of species of marine animals such as inhabit the neighbouring ocean. The Magdalena Valley is a structural trough 560 mi. long and 9-56 mi. wide, outlined by faults and filled with Tertiary clay and sandstone which unconformably overlie Cretaceous beds. The Cucuta Basin, which is a southwestward continuation of the Maracaibo Basin of Venezuela, is occupied by Cretaceous and Tertiary formations related to those in the Maracaibo Basin. In the part of Colombia that lies east and southeast of the Andes the surface deposits are mainly Tertiary and Quaternary sand, loam, and gravel. 2. Physiography. The western and northwestern sections of Colombia are occupied by the terminal ranges of the great Andean system. The two closely parallel ranges of northern Ecuador unite to form the Macizo de Pasto as they enter southern Colomdillera,

—

From

Western and Central cordilleras of the triple-spurred Colombian Andes emerge and stretch away side by side toward the north. The Eastern bia.

this great

mountain knot,

in turn, the

Cordillera originates in a secondary knot in the central range not far north of the Macizo de Pasto, and crosses the country in a northeasterly direction until it in turn splits asunder, sending one spur north into the Caribbean to form the Guajira Peninsula, and

the other to the east to form the Sierra

Nevada de Merida south

of Lake Maracaibo in western Venezuela.

The Eastern

Cordillera sharply divides the mountainous district and western Colombia from the low-lying plains of more than half the total area. To the south, a region covered by nearly impenetrable jungle growth is drained by the tributaries of the Amazon. Except along the principal rivers it is largely unexplored and inhabited mostly by unciNdlized tribes of Indians. The northern part of these transmontane lowlands, the so-called llanos, is a region of open tropical plains, alternately flooded and parched with the changThe aping seasons and drained by tributaries of the Orinoco. proximate length of this region is 640 mi. and the average width 320 mi. The Western Cordillera roughly follows the Hne of the Pacific coast, terminating in three low, wooded spurs which merge into the Caribbean coastal plain in the southern part of Bolivar and of northern

the interior which comprise slightly

Cordoba. A short transverse range connects it with the Cordillera de Baudo, which extends from the mouth of the San Juan River north to form the highlands of Panama. The Western Cordillera is covered with vegetation, and its Pacific slopes are precipitous and humid. Its highest elevation, the Nevado de Cumbal, is 16,043 ft. and stands near the Ecuador border. To the north, the range is lower, with summits of 13,300 ft. A low saddle between the Cauca Valley city of Call and Buenaventura, on the Pacific coast, is an

important transport route.

The Central

Cordillera, also called the Quindio,

is

separated

from the eastern and western Andean ranges by the Magdalena River on one side and its principal tributary, the Cauca, on the other. It terminates in low hills near the confluence of the two

The Central Cordillera has a series of lofty volcanoes, some of them perpetually snowcapped. Its highest elevation is the Nevado del Huila. The cordillera is crossed at an elevation rivers.

of 10,800

73 ft.

by the Quindio

followed by travelers

main route between Bogota and the Cauca Valley and road, historically the

The northernmost extension

Buenaventura.

of this range

is

the

an old peneplained upland surface (average elevation, 7,000 ft.) which is shot through with goldbearing veins. It supported the most important mining activity granitic batholith of Antioquia,

in colonial

New

The Eastern is

Granada. is

the region of densest population and

its large

area of plateau and elevated valley

Cordillera

distinguished by

The sabana

lying within the limits of the vertical temperate zone. of

Bogota (8,660

ft.),

with an area of 425 sq.mi.,

lustration of the higher of these plateaus.

Mild in temperature and production of the temperate zone. other.

Pleistocene lakes,

fertile,

They

a good ilSogamoso hes in anis

they have the varied are the beds of former

some of them interconnected, that have dried

up with the diminution in precipitation at these latitudes. From Bogota or Sogamoso one may drop abruptly to the edge of the eastern llanos by road in a few hours. The Pacific coastline, omitting minor convolutions, is about 800 mi. in length; that of the Caribbean is about 1,000 mi. The Caribbean ports are Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta, and Riohacha. There are two commercial ports on the Pacific coast, Buenaventura and Tumaco. Because of its unhealthful character and the high mountain barriers, the Pacific coast has played only a slight role in the country's development. The Caribbean plain is hot and low except in the northwestern section of Magdalena Department, where the surface is elevated in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta whose lofty, snow-covered peaks reach 18,693 ft. The Caribbean islands of San Andres and Providencia, 300 mi. N of the South American mainland and 120 mi. E of the Central American shore, lie within Colombian jurisdiction, as does Malpelo Island

off

the Pacific coast.

— For

convenience of description the rivers may be divided into three general classes: those that find outlet in the Pacific, those that flow into the Caribbean, and those whose waters reach the Atlantic through the Orinoco and the Amazon. The Rivers.

most important

Colombia are the Magdalena and its Cauca (see Magdalena River; Cauca River). Both rise in the high plateau of the Andes adjoining Ecuador. The Magdalena empties into the Caribbean Sea near Barranquilla. It is about 950 mi. long and traverses 9° of latitude —nearly the entire country. In the lower reaches, throughout perhaps half its course, the waters of the Magdalena are dissipated over a wide area of swamp, lagoons, and lakes, and its course is continually changing through the wearing away of its alluvial banks. The Cauca unites with the Magdalena about 200 mi. from the sea through several channels. The Cauca is navigable in two widely separated stretches of 200 mi. each. The upper section, between Call and Cartago, is no longer much used but there is still a considerable traffic on the lower river downstream from Caceres. The lower Cauca and its right-bank tributary, the Rio Nechf, have built up extensive deposits of gold-bearing gravels, especially in the vicinity of Pato and Zaragoza in Antioquia. These gravels were being dredged by U.S. and Canadian mining interests as early as 1909. Both the Rio Atrato (q.v.) and Rio Sinu flow to the north coast and are navigable by small steamers. rivers in

principal tributary the

The

rivers of the Pacific coast are

numerous.

They have

short,

precipitous courses with comparatively short navigable channels.

From the downstream section of the Rio Atrato the low passes to the west along the routes of the Rio Truando or the Rio Salaqui provide easy access to the Pacific coast and have been suggested as possible routes for a second interoceanic canal. The waters of the rivers of the great eastern plains pass to the Atlantic through the Orinoco and Amazon rivers. Some of them are navigable, which fact may be of great importance to the future development of this region, as yet only partially explored. 3. Climate. Colombia lies almost entirely in the north tropical zone. The heat of the tropics is, however, modified throughout a large part of the area by the elevation of the surface and the action of winds. In general, high temperatures prevail in the lower areas, including the coastal plains and the valleys of the larger rivers. These regions are characterized by excessive mois-

—

COLOMBIA

74

ture and dense forests, except where agricultural colonization has been active. The health conditions in these lowlands have recently been much improved, especially by means of the successful cam-

.Above the tropical zone in the mounpaigns against malaria. tainous area are found all gradations of cooler climate. The subtropical districts comprise the valleys and slopes lying between Some of them are among the 1.500 and 6.000 ft. of elevation.

and productive areas of the country. The temperate between 6.000 and 10,000 ft., and the cold, bleak paramos at from 10.000 to 15.000. Above these are wastes of ice and snow. Most of the principal cities are situated between 3,000 and 9,000 ft. above sea level in areas of temperate climate. In general, the year is divided into a wet season called inviemo, or winter, and a dry season called verano, or summer. In some sections there are two wet and two dry seasons. The time when these seasons occur and their duration vary greatly, however, in the different regions and even vary from year to year in the same The driest area of Colombia is probably the northernlocation. most part of the Guajira Peninsula w^here the average annual Humidity, however, is relatively rainfall is less than ten inches. high. There are local pockets of aridity in the upper parts of the valleys of the Cauca and Magdalena rivers as, for example, the Dagua Valley on the Cali-Buenaventura route and the Neiva area The rainiest area in Colombia, and probably in all of in Huila. South America, is the Pacific coastal zone, especially near the San Juan-Atrato divide in the department of Choco. There, average annual rainfall exceeds 400 in. (Andagoya, 415 in.) and there is no dry season. 4. Vegetation. The Colombian vegetation is very rich, ranging as it does through all varieties from those of the tropics to the A luxuriant forest growth alpine species of the highest plateaus.

most zone

fertile

lies

—

covers a large part of the republic, including the foothills, slopes, Cordilleras; a large part of the plains adjacent to the north coast; the entire surface of the Western Cordillera and coast; and the southern section of the eastern plains. There are many varieties of forest products, including vanilla and medicinal plants such as quinine, ipecac, sarsaparilla, gums, and balsams,

and valleys of the

and dyewoods, and the tagua nut, Forest products form a potential source of wealth as yet little exploited. Up to an altitude of 10,000 ft. the palm is abundant and varied, with incredibly numerous uses. There are extensive groves of the coconut palm on the Caribbean coast. Orchids are abundant in the forests and many valuable varieties have been secured in Colombia. Com-

also rubber, tanning agents

known

as

vegetable ivory.

mercial production of orchids for export has centred in Medellin. The great stands of giiadua or American bamboo, especially in the Valle del Cauca. provide an important and widely used construction material.

Human

activity in recent years has

been converting

vast tracts of the tropical lowlands, especially on the north coast, to artificial pastures,

dominated by guinea

grass,

Para grass, and

cary,

herbivorous. Characteristically South American types of birds, such as touMore than 1,500 species and cans and hummingbirds, abound. subspecies of birds are recorded. These include the many North American migratory forms that winter in Colombia. Reptile life is likewise rich, with a great variety of turtles, lizards, and snakes.

(which reaches the West is abundant in the Magdalena River. There are various smaller species of caymans. Among amphibians there are a few caecilians, a few species of salamander, and a multitude of frogs. The freshwater fishes are of South American types, including catfishes and characins in abundance, and also the electric eel and related forms. The insect fauna of the country as a whole is extremely rich and far from being fully known. During and after World War II southern Colombia was a centre for the intensive study of mos-

The widespread American

crocodile

Indies and the southern tip of Florida)

quitoes, a necessary part of the

campaign against malaria and

jungle yellow fever. II.

The exaggerated

(Js. J. P.). ^'

GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS

.:

''^

physical contrasts within Colombia and the

relative difficulty of east-west

movement have tended

to

com-

partmentalize economic and political Ufe and to intensify regional distinctions. Unlike most Latin-American countries, Colombia has no single preeminent metropolis, but rather a series of regional capitals that are comparable in size and economic importance.

The Andean

or interior orientation of the

economy has

persisted

pre-Columbian times. 1. Caribbean Coastal Lowlands. These comprise an extensive zone of low, rolling hills, marine terraces, and river alluvium lying between the northern Andes and the sea. Despite its early colonial importance (Santa Marta and Cartagena were the first permanent cities in Colombia), this coast has been an area of cultural lag. It supports about 17% of the population, most of whom live in the urban centres of Barranquilla, Cartagena, and Santa Marta. The low, forested spurs (Sierra de Abibe) of the Western Cordillera reach the coast between the Gulf of Uraba and the Sinu River. To the west lie the rain-drenched and nearly uninhabited lower Atrato River plains. To the east, in the Magdalena plains, the lowland zone widens to more than 200 mi. The granite Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, which rises behind the port of Santa Marta, is probably to be thought of as an outlying peak of the Eastern Cordillera system. Beyond it, to the northeast, the low hills of the arid Guajira Peninsula extend in the shape of a closed fist, the northerly projection of the Sierra de Perija, which forms since

—

the frontier with Venezuela.

jaragua.

As the surface changes.

The larger herbivores are the tapir, the two kinds of pecand the various deer, as well as large tropical rodents such The carnivores that prey on them as the paca and the agouti. are the puma and jaguar, a variety of smaller cats, foxlike canids, raccoons, and mustelids. The spectacled bear is almost entirely

keys.

From

tropical fruits.

of the land rises the character of the vegetation

1,500 to 4,500

ft.

there

is

a great variety of semi-

The temperate zone commences

at

6,000

ft.

and

The dered

rivers of the coast are sluggish,

by

extensive

(cienagas).

areas

of

meandering streams bor-

seasonally

The bordering cienagas

of the

swamps

inundated

Magdalena and the

There practically all the cereals, vegetables, and fruits commonly found in the United States are produced. Above 10,000 ft. are the paramos with stunted vegetation. Farther up only alpine species are found. Colombia especially is rich in fine woods. The varieties include mahogany, lignum vitae, brazilwood, walnut, cedar, oak, and many others. One of the most useful trees of the temperate zone is the eucalyptus introduced from Australia. Extensive areas have been planted to Inga, Albizzia, and other leguminous trees to provide shade for

Simi prQvide pasturage and drinking water for livestock during the verano (January to May) when the upland grasses are seared with drought. The rich riverine alluvial soils are but little cul-

coffee plants.

navigable for small vessels inland to Monteria, also has extensive bordering swamps, of which the Cienaga Betanci and Cienaga

is

a dairy and agricultural region.

—

5. Animal Life The fauna of Colombia reflects in its com.position the climatic variety within the country, from tropical lowland to the icy paramos of the high mountains; the isolation of the valleys by the three great ranges of the Andes; and the posi-

tion of the country at the meeting of the

The

rich, tropical

from the south

Amazonian

two American continents. Colombia

forest fauna ranges into

in the drainages of the

Amazon and

Orinoco. This group includes sloths, anteaters, opossums, and a variety of mon-

tivated because of the difficulty of flood control and the unre-

The Magdalena

liability of the rainfall.

restricted extent near the coast,

west by the Tertiary

hills

where

floodplain it

is

is

of relatively

hemmed

of Atlantico, but upriver from

in

on the

Magangue

it is joined by the San Jorge, the Cesar, and the Cauca rivers in a vast area of ill-drained seasonal swamps and lakes. The Sinu,

Grande are of greatest

extent.

climate of the coast is warm and relatively dry. Aridity increases from west to east, in part because of the northerly

The

trend of the coast which carries the Guajira into the subtropical trade-wind zone at latitude 12° N. The annual average precipitation, 45 in. in the lower Sinii, is 2S in. at Cartagena and less than 10

in. in

the Guajira.

Inland, however, the dry season becomes

.

COLOMBIA

CITIES Top

left:

The

city of

Cartagena

as seen Ui

battlement

San Felipe right: Street in the old section of Bogota Centre right: Jungle settlement along the banks

AND VILLAGES OF COLOMBIA of the fortress of

Bottom Bottom

Top

of

the lower Magdalena

left: Courtyard of the Museum of Colonial Art. Bogoti right: Street of Call, showing the Club Colombia

Plate 1

Plate II

COLOMBIA

COLOMBIAN AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY Top Top

left: El Cenlro oil wells in the jungle near Barrancabermeja right: Indian farmers planting potatoes in tfie Cordillera Oriente between Pamplona and Bucaramanga Centre right: Farmer breaking ground on a hillside with a primitive wooden

plow 1 i

Sugar cane entering a press at a refinyy near Palmira right: Cacao workers spreading beans to dry at a plantation leit:

in

the

COLOMBIA everywhere

less

pronounced and

precipitation

total

increases

Near the confluence of the Cauca and Magdalena it exceeds 120 in. and supports luxuriant rain-forest vegetation. Stock raising has been the traditional economic activity of the Successful large-scale agricultural developments, with cotcoast. ton and sesame as the principal crops, have taken place on the sharply.

75

mid-slopes toward the Magdalena below 6,000 ft. elevation. The middle and upper Magdalena Valley, a deep, grabenlike deLife on the pression, stands apart as another distinctive land. windswept open plains of Tolima and Huila, where water is at a

premium much

of the year, contrasts sharply with that of the

cordilleran slopes that rise abruptly on either side.

Commercial

better-drained alluvial lands in the Sinu and Cesar valleys. The extensive irrigated acreage in bananas in the lee of the Sierra

agriculture

Nevada de Santa Marta, and smallholder mixed farming on the

taken from streams such as the Coello as they flow eastward across a wide alluvial apron before joining the Magdalena. The central and western Andean cordilleras are distinguished from the eastern highlands by their steep slopes, often of volcanic

between Barranquilla and Cartagena date back to an earlier period. At Turbo, on the Gulf of Uraba, bananas have become a major crop. Lowlands. These comprise the narrow, rain2. Pacific drenched littoral between the Western Cordillera and the Pacific By convention, they may include the physically and culOcean. turally similar Atrato River drainage, though the Atrato empties into the Caribbean, The Pacific lowlands thus comprise the department of Choco and the forested, empty Pacific slopes of the departments of Valle del Cauca, Cauca, and Narino. Because of the excessively high rainfall, generally more than 200 in. a year, this Its deeply weathered entire area is cloaked in a lush rain forest. red lateritic soils offer very limited agricultural promise. Rivers are the principal highways of communication and agricultural clearings and settlements are largely confined to their natural levees. hills

—

About 85% of the Pacific lowlands are scantily peopled. area's 335,000 population is of Negroid stock, descendants of escaped slaves who worked the gold and platinum placers during the colonial period. A proposal for the construction of an interoceanic canal in this area was made in 1540. It was still under consideration at mid-20th century. 3. Eastern Plains (the Oriente). Although they comprise two-thirds of the area of Colombia, the eastern plains contain less

The

—

2%

They are the vast outwash numerous streams that drain the eastern face of the Andes, among them the Arauca, the Casanare, the Meta, the Caqueta, and the Putumayo. In the past, malaria, banditry, and isolation have tended to retard their economic development. In the northern third of the region, which hes within than

of the country's population.

surfaces and fans of the

is well marked, soils are and there are extensive areas of open savanna llanos) which have long been exploited by stockmen. South of Villavicencio, within the Amazon drainage system, the savanna openings become less frequent. The vast comisarias of Vaupes and Amazonas and the inteiidencias of Caqueta and Meta are almost

the Orinoco drainage, the dry season better,

(

entirely cloaked with dense rain forest (selva), inhabited almost

exclusively by primitive Indian groups.

Colonization zones, how-

from the and Mocoa. mintemperate climate, This area, whose

ever, have been established along roads of penetration

Andean 4.

foothills, as at Florencia

Andean Region.

—

come

(tobacco, cotton, sesame, artificial pasture) has beimportant, especially in Tolima, where irrigation waters are

and by the distinctive qualities of their people. In the far south the volcanic outwash slopes coalesce to form high intermontane valleys and plateaus with relatively fiat surfaces, as There, and especially in Naririo, at Ipiales, Pasto, and Popayan. Norththe rural population is dense and Indian ways survive. ward from the Popayan district, commercial agriculture and the production of cash crops for sale become more important and The Valle del Cauca, the 120-mi.cities become more numerous. long, flat-floored valley 3,000 ft. above sea level, is the floor of a former lake that was probably formed when the Cauca River was origin,

dammed by

Pleistocene volcanic eruptions to the north.

It is

a

and cultural subregion, centring on the commercial city of Cali (q.v.), headquarters for the Cauca Valley Development project, which was modeled after the Tennessee Valley Authority. The floor of the valley, alternately subject to flooding and drought, has been traditionally devoted to the raising of pasture grasses, sugar cane, tobacco, and rice. The mountains overlooking the valley on either side were colonized by Antioqueiio settlers, the front wave of aggressive frontiersmen who began moving south onto the unpeopled mountainsides overlooking the Cauca gorge in southern Antioquia during the 19th century. These small Antioqueiio farms, together with those in Caldas and western Tolima, produce the bulk of Colombia's exportable coffee. The department of Caldas, carved from the three states of Tolima, Cauca, and Antioquia in 1905 by Antioqueiio homesteaders, produces one-third of the country's coffee crop though the roughness of the topography makes local farm-to-market roads impractical. An exception is in the rich Quindio district of southern Caldas where gentler slopes prevail. The Antioquia granite batholith, the terminal rampart of the clearly delimited physical

flourishing

Central Cordillera, is a relatively flat surface of limited agricultural attraction, but the lower volcanic slopes to the south and west and the folded Tertiary ranges of the Western Cordillera beyond the Cauca trench are of superior productivity and soil erosion there has been contained. After 1800 these slopes were centres of intensive colonization and agricultural development as the surge of colonists southward from the Antioqueno core area

and large Indian population originally exerted so strong an attraction on the Spaniards, still is the centre of poHtical and economic power in Colombia. There live 78% of the population and there are the three largest cities Bogota (pop., 1961 est., 1,256,640 [mun.]), Medellin (651,240), and Cali (639,900). The Andean region may be broken down into numerous subregions or economic-physical areas, each with distinctive characteristics. The massive Eastern Cordillera has been the traditional centre of Chibcha, Spanish, and Colombian culture and government. The most dense rural settlement and largest cities are generally on the higher plateaus and interior basins of the tierra fria (e.g., Bogota, Chiquinquira, Sogamoso, Tunja). To the north, in the Santanders, elevations are lower and sugar, cotton, tobacco, and coffee replace potatoes, wheat, and barley as the primary crops. Deep barrancas such as that of the Rio Sogamoso cut into the flank of the Cordillera and make north-south travel difficult except along the flattened Andean crest, but movement between the highlands and

around Medellin and Rionegro got under way. Medellin remains the regional capital and cultural heart of this northern highland zone, its original importance as a mining centre having later been overshadowed by trade and industry.

the Magdalena Valley is relatively easy. The peoples of the Eastern Cordillera are mostly ultraconservative subsistence farmers living on dispersed farmsteads. Extreme poverty and excessive parcehzation of the land are found in this area. In some places, near the larger cities, dairying and truck farming have prospered. Tobacco is an important crop in Santander, as is coffee on the

The Indian population of pre-Columbian New Granada was both numerous and culturally advanced (see History, below). The Tairona, Simi, Quimbaya, and Chibcha and their relatives, while lacking the political sophistication of the Incas and Aztecs,

eral wealth,

—

m. THE PEOPLE

—

Physical Types and Languages. Colombia is a mestizo country where the mixing of Indians and whites has been going on for four centuries. Persons of unmixed European descent may 1.

constitute

10-15%

of the total population; they are represented

by the upper classes of the larger cities and by a part of the rural population of Antioquia, Caldas, and the Santanders. An estimated 20% of the population is Negro or mulatto (see chiefly

The 1951 census recorded approximately Population, below). 300.000 Indians, including the tropical forest tribes of Amazonas, the desert Guajiro, and the Paez of the Tierradentro country near the headwaters of the Magdalena River.

were peoples of high culture for whom manioc (cassava), poThe assimilation tatoes, and maize were the principal staples.

COLOMBIA

76

of colonial Spanish culture by aboriginal tribes was curiously rapid and complete. This was favoured by the fact that most of the tribes were small in number and scattered, sjieaking different languages. In much of the land west of the Magdalena the Indian population seems to have been virtually exterminated within a

few years of the first etilnidas by wars, epidemics, or forced exile. In the Eastern Cordillera and in Narino the Indians survived in the largest numbers, usually on land reser\-es {resguardos) which had been first established by Spanish legislation at the end of the Even there, however, the Spanish language was 16th century. adopted, together with European dress and the Roman Catholic It is in the southern highlands of Narino and in the highlands of Boyaca and Cundinamarca in the Eastern Cordillera that the Indian element is most conspicuous in the rural mestizo On the Caribbean coast and in the Cauca Valley, population. especially, Negroes have intermingled with whites and Indians

religion.

to form an ethnic stock of distinctive character. Wherever slave labour was employed extensively during the colonial period, as in the Antioquia mining camps, the Negro element is often still subThe principal Negro area of Colombia, however, is the stantial. The tiny Colombian-owned islands of Pacific coastal lowland. and Providencia have a predominantly Negro populaAndres San

Jamaican ancestry. The modern Colombiano is not cut to any single mold. Perhaps because of the country's extreme physical diversity, cultural particularism is highly developed in the various departments and Antioquenos, Santanderefios, Tohmense, Narinense, regions. Bogotanos, and Boyacense are recognized by habits of speech, dress, and diet at home and abroad. Most numerous and economically the most important of these groups are the Antioquetios. self-styled "Yankees of South America," who in the 19th century spilled out from the heartland of Antioquia to colonize southward along the flanks of the Central and Western Cordilleras. This energetic and cohesive cultural group, long renow^ned for its high birthrate and colonizing genius, numbers more than 3,000,000 persons, or close to one-fourth of the population. It has been one of the most important forces behind the economic growth of the country during the 20th century. Wherever he has gone, the Antioquefio has transplanted his unique cultural heritage. Caldas has become a department "more Antioquefio than Antioquia." Antioquerio smallholders produce threefourths of Colombia's coffee and control much of the country's The popular belief that Antrade, banking, and manufacturing. tioquia was settled in part by Sephardic Jews recently converted Among the other to Christianity has never been substantiated. physiprincipal cultural groups of Colombia the Santanderefios cally, at least most resemble the Antioqueiios. They are a mountain folk of predominantly white stock. Bucaramanga is their principal urban centre. European immigration has been of relatively little importance in Colombia since the colonial period. 2. Religion. The Roman CathoUc faith was introduced into Colombia by the Spanish conquerors and until IS 53 was the only religion permitted to Colombians. Until amended in 1936, the tion of

—

—

—

constitution provided that tional rehgion protected

Roman

by the

Catholicism should be the nabut a complete disestablish-

state,

During the colonial period many churches were built and religious communities established, and the church was wealthy and powerful. Although under Pres. Tomas Cipriano de Mosquera (g.v.) most of the church property was transferred in 1861 to the state, the church remained quite strong. Its influence in matters of education was materially decreased by the policies followed under Pres. Alfonso Lopez Pumarejo (1934-38). However, the Catholic Church is probably stronger in Colombia than in any other country in South America.

ment was

effected in that year.

Other forms of religion are permitted as long as they are "not contrary to Christian morals and to the law." Protestant missionary activities have not been lacking, but in 1953-57, during the internal strife associated with the rule of the dictator Gen. Gustavo Rojas Pinilla, Protestants complained of poHce persecution and religious disorders. Terrorism against Protestants has been openly condemned by the government and the Vatican. 3. Customs and Cttlture Isolation has tended to preserve

—

the language, manners, and physical characteristics of the early colonists with less variation in Colombia than in any other SpanAmerican country. The traditional cultural ties of the upper

ish

have been with Europe, but during and after World War II came to be of primary importance in this regard. Bogota, "the Athens of South America," has always prided itself on being a centre of learning, with special emphasis on litThe writing and reading of poetry erature, poetry, and music. traditionally has had an especially important place in the Colombian hierarchy of values although few Colombian poets are known beyond the limits of their country. Regional literature has been developed to an extraordinary degree and reflects a keen appreciation of local history and geography. The study of anthropology developed notably during and after World War II, particularly at the Instituto de Antropologia in Bogota. The conservarive quality of Colombian life is a matter of frequent comment by visitors. The rimtia or poncho cloak is everywhere worn by the country people. Among those with a more Indian culture the felt derby hat is worn by both sexes. In the cities, men in traditional black hats and suits still crowd the streets during the evening hours for long political debates over their tinto, classes

the United States

or coffee demitasse.

home.

Courting

the street

Women's

is still

windows

life is

traditionally centred in the

carried on through the iron grills that frame

of private houses.

See also Indian, Latin-American; South America: AnthroFor Colombia's literary pology; Arawak; Carib; Chibcha. development see Ibero-American Literature. (Js. J. P.) IV.

HISTORY

—

Preconquest. Even before the Spanish conquest the western mountainous part of Colombia attracted the bulk of the population. The higher Indian cultures were found in this region, and the most favourable location for the growth of civilization was the high plateau in the Eastern Cordillera of the Colombian Andes. The present capital city of Bogota is located near the southern terminus of the plateau, which extends northward to the mounThere the tains dividing it from the drainage of the Rio Cesar. Spanish found the major concentration of the Chibchan-spealdng (See Chibcha.) peoples, who were divided into several tribes. At the time of the Spanish conquest the Chibcha were in the process of consolidation by warfare. They had not achieved firm union and political institutions, and their other cultural traits had not attained the solidity and refinement needed to resist cultural 1.

conquest.

Except for the invading Carib peoples in the deep mountain was a considerable similarity among the Chibcha, They subandean, and circum-Caribbean cultures of Colorhbia. were all characterized by intensive agriculture, fairly dense popudivisions, and religion, class lations, living in villages, organized matrilineal inheritance of political and religious offices. The subandean culture in the Central Cordillera and the narrower portions

valleys, there

of the Cauca Valley generally lacked the feature of large villages because of the unsuitabihty of the terrain. The more advanced Chibcha made war for political ends, using large forces armed with the dart and dart thrower, shields, and

wooden

clubs.

Geographic and climatic conditions placed limits to the development of the Chibcha and other cultures in Colombia. Of the total Indian population at the time of the conquest, probably about one-third were Chibcha. None of the larger domesticated animals and their wild related species found in the central Andes existed in Colombia, where only the dog and the guinea pig were domesticated. The Chibcha were adequate craftsmen, but their

work shows more

interest in utility or in the expression of ideas

than in the attainment of the skilled workmanship striven for among the subandean peoples such- as the Quimbaya of the Cauca Valley. No significant use of stone in construction was made and the famed stone ruins at San Agustin in the upper Magdalena Valley date from a much earlier period. 2. Conquest. Exploration of the Colombian coastline was the work of Rodrigo de Bastidas. who in 1500-01 ran out the Caribbean coast from Cabo de la Vela to Nombre de Dios in Panama, and of Francisco Pizarro, who sailed the Pacific coast in 1525.

—

COLOMBIA 152S with the founding In 1533 of Santa Marta on the north coast by De Bastidas. Pedro de Heredia founded Cartagena, which became one of the empire. By the of the bases major naval and merchant marine end of 1539 all but one of the major inland colonial cities had been founded, as well as the most important communications The capital city of centres along the routes connecting them. Santa Fe de Bogota was founded by Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada By mid-century the era of the conqueror drew to an in 1538,

Colombia began

Effective conquest of

end.

in

—

Establishment of the audiencia of Santa Fe 3. Colonial Era. de Bogota in 1550 opened the colonial era. The conquerors had organized local governments in accordance with the terms of their The crown then rapidly repossessed contracts with the crown. the broad powers granted the conquerors and formed its own inThe governments of Popayan, stitutions to rule the empire. Antioquia, Cartagena, Santa Marta, Riohacha, the New Kingdom of Granada (Bogota), and the llanos of Casanare and San Martin were made subject to the new audiencia. The president of the audiencia was the executive head of government, subject to the

viceroy of Peru in administrative matters. travel,

The

difficulties

of

however, impeded communications and checked centrahzed

control.

The

area declined in population after the conquest as a result of disease and the economic demands made upon the Indians. As elsewhere in the empire, the downward trend seems to have

reversed itself at the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century. Acculturation and intermarriage rapidly destroyed most of the special cultural traits of many remaining Indians. Subordinate political jurisdictions developed strong regional characteristics as a result of isolation,

loyalties

and

which fostered intense

local

The economy was based on mining and

rivalries.

agriculture but a small yet important textile industry

had grown

up in Socorro, north of Bogota, by the mid- 18th century. Slavery was introduced during the conquest and became common in the placer-mining areas of the Choco and western Antioquia and in the agricultural regions of the Cauca Valley, the lower Magdalena Indians were subject to the Valley, and the coastal lowlands, encomienda tribute, but by 1700 most of the privately held encomiendas had reverted to the crown and they were rarely granted thereafter. During the era of the audiencia, from 1550 The Roman Cathoto 1740, the population was politically quiet. lic Church played a very important role in the life of the people, providing most of the welfare services and operating most of the The church was an effective instrument of the crown, schools. since the latter controlled appointments to church offices, intervened in church administration, and censored official church documents.

—

4. Viceroyalty. Creation of the viceroyalty of New Granada, which included present-day Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador, temporarily in 1 7 1 7-23 and permanently in 1 740, opened a new era. In the next decades the crown introduced political and economic measures to reorganize and strengthen the empire by greater centralization of authority, improved administration and communication, and freer development and movement of trade within the empire. These changes coincided with and were an effect of new, important trends in western Europe. Population grew, trade increased, and prosperity touched the colonial subjects. There was a spurt of intellectual activity and the formation of a corps of Creole intellectuals and professional men, many in government positions, (See Creole,) The Creole officer corps, small though it

was,

came

into being

when Charles

A

III authorized mihtia defense

group of wealthy landowners and merchants constituted the economic community that Between 1785 and 1810 in New supported these new groups. Granada the outlook of the Creole upper and middle groups changed from resistance toward poUtical and economic change introduced by government to a quest for specific changes in imperial policies. Thus in the Comunero Rebellion of 1780-81 the Socorrans opposed change, while in 1809 they proposed new units in the colonies.

policies leading

to the

slavery, restrictions

relatively large

free-enterprise system, the abolition of

on government, and worldwide freedom of

trade.

77

The intendancy system

{see Intendant")

of administra-

was not established because of the Comunero Rebellion and subsequent viceroys found it inexpedient to attempt it, although of the terminology and some of the spirit of the system became a part of government. Educational reforms played an important role in the changing outlook of the Granadines. Archbishop Caballero y Gongora as viceroy 1782-S8) made education one of his main interests. He modernized the program of studies in the schools, opened a school of mines, and initiated the botanical expedition under the able guidance of naturalist Jose Celestino Mutis. The new institute greatly improved scientific education and trained many of the major figures of the independence movement. The 1790s were the decade in which the first newspaper and the theatre became features of Bogota life. A new interest in writing developed and In 1808 intellectual gatherings for discussion were introduced. the allegiance of the Granadines to the crown remained unquestioned except for a few individuals. The once warm loyalty of the Creole middle and upper classes, however, was cooHng under tion

all

much

(

the pressure of economic interests, scandals in the royal family, social tension between Creole and European Span-

and persistent iards.

The French invasion of Spain in 1808 caused an outburst of loyalty to king and country and excited grave concern for the church. Profound Granadine anxiety over the fate of the empire and conflicting courses of action attempted by colonial and peninsular subjects over control of government during the captivity of Ferdinand VII led to strife in New Granada and to declarations of independence. In 1810 the subordinated jurisdictions in New Granada threw out their Spanish officials, except in Santa Marta, Riohacha, modern Panama, and present-day Ecuador, The uprising in Bogota on July 20, 1810, is commemorated as independence day in Colombia. These new governments swore allegiance to Ferdinand VII and did not begin to declare independence until 1811. To restore unity, all levels of government above the municipality had to be reconstituted by negotiation and agreement. Idealists and ambitious provincial leaders desired federation. Creole leaders who had been in Europe sought to centraKze authority over the new governments. A series of civil wars ensued, facilitating Spanish reconquest of the United Provinces of New Granada between 1814 and 1816. A remnant of republican forces fled to the llanos of Casanare where they reorganized under Francisco de Paula Santander, who remained a prominent figure in Granadine politics until his death in 1840. Any remaining loyalty to the crown was alienated by the punitive arbitrary conduct of the European and partisan troops whose Their conduct gave officers ignored the Spanish civil authorities. vaHdity to the attack on Spanish civilization that began late in 1810 and continued throughout the 19th century. The forces in Casanare joined those of Simon Bolivar (g.u.) in the Orinoco Valley of Venezuela. By 1819 arrangements for a regular government were completed and a constitutional convention met at Angostura (now Ciudad Bolivar, Venez.) with delegates from In that same year Casanare and some Venezuelan provinces. Bolivar invaded New Granada and decisively defeated the Spanish forces on Aug. 7 at Boyaca. There followed the decisive battle of Carabobo, Venez.. in 1821 and that of Pichincha, Ecuador, in Mopping-up operations were completed in 1823, while 1822. Bolivar led his forces on to Peru. 5. The Republic. The congress at Angostura laid the foundation of the Repubhc of Colombia (1819-30), generally known as Gran Colombia because it included Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador. The republic was definitively organized by the congress of Cucuta in 1821. Prior to that time the government was highly military and strongly centralized with direct executive power exercised by regional vice-presidents while President Bolivar was campaigning. Organized as a centralized representative government, the republic had Bolivar as president and Acting President Santander as vice-president. Gran Colombia had a brief, virile Subsequent civilian and military riexistence during the war. valry for public office and regional jealousies led in 1S26 to a rebellion in Venezuela led by Gen. Jose Antonio Paez. President

—

COLOMBIA

78

Bolivar returned from Peru to restore unity, but secured only As discontent the acknowledgment of his personal authority. spread it became clear that no group loved the republic enough By 1S29 Bolivar had divided the land to fight for its existence. into four jurisdictions under Venezuelan generals possessing civil and military authority. Meanwhile the convention of Ocaiia had failed to reorganize the

republic,

and the

brief dictatorship of

Bolivar (,lS2S-30) had no better success. Bolivar then convoked the convention of IS30 which produced a constitution honoured During this convention only in New Granada (Colombia).

servatives favoured ea.sing the controls. to use the church as a political status.

The

weapon

Thereafter they tried

in return for a protected

Liberals adopted a Benthamist approach in which,

under "separation" of church and state, the church is regulated and deprived of property and its clergy are elected and paid as government officials. A number of leading Liberals were actively hostile to organized religion, and the party, hampered by the church's hostility to the basic philosophy of Liberalism, sought to limit its influence. tilities

The extraordinary

bitterness of party hos-

was largely a product of the struggle over

religion

and the

Under the leadership of President Mosquera the power of the church was reduced in 1861 and most of its property appropriated by the nation. The settlement of 1886 and the concordat of 1888 quieted these issues until

Bolivar resigned and left for the northern coast where he died near Santa Marta on Dec. 17, 1830. By that time Venezuela and Ecuador had seceded from Gran Colombia. New Granada, after several changes of title, assumed the name of the Republic of Colombia in 1SS6. The many changes

associated problem, control of education.

of constitutions in the republic's early history were related to three basic problems of Colombian society: the proper organization and

6. The 20th Century.— Civil war (1899-1902) opened the 20th century at a cost of about 100,000 hves and economic ruin for the country. The government, victorious over the Liberal rebellion, was then confronted by the secession of Panama. In 1878 a French company had been given a concession to construct a canal across the isthmus of Panama. Although much of the excavation was accomplished in the 1880s, the problems of disease in Panama

powers of national and local government in relation to the needs and aspirations of the people; the adjustment of church-state relations to the constitutional principles of liberal republican gov-

ernment; and the hostility between the Liberal and Conservative The constituparties, whose delineation took place in the 1830s. tion of 1SS6, which was still in use during the latter half of the government with centralized form of 20th century, provided for a provision for local autonomy. It represented a Colombian consensus formed of traditional practice, both legal and de facto, profound regionalism, and strong national feehng. Prior to 18SS both major parties were moderately centralist, and had been giving greater recognition to the demand for local autonomy. Thus, the number of units of local government with an alcalde, a town council, and a court of first instance increased from fewer than 200 to about 816 between 1832 and 1853. The number subsequently declined and in the mid-20th century the number of alcaldes was scarcely greater than in 1SS3. The alcalde has always held executive and judicial functions, and has taken part in the legislative process as chairman of the town council. His powerful position Responsible for in the locaUty is easily convertible to tyranny. enforcement of national, departmental (province, state), and municipal laws and ordinances in his area, he may interpret them in In the 19th century, municipal officials genhis own interest. Alcaldes and judges were full-time erally received no salary. officials whose offices had to support them if they had no other income. Beginning with the civil war of 1840-42, relations between the parties remained on a basis of hostility, sometimes active and always latent. Party hostility led to the division of the country into federally related states (party strongholds) between 1855 and June 1857, and resulted in laws that limited the national government to minor functions with no provision for interstate or state-national governmental relations. The constitution of 1858 creating the Granadine confederation restored a national government. Liberal denial of that constitution led to the "organized anarchy" of the 1863 document under Liberal governments. A segment of the Liberal Party under Rafael Nuiiez then sought constitutional reform, and had to ally with the Conservatives to do it. The constitution of 1886 was the result, and the Conservatives retained control of the government until 1930. The Liberal and Conservative parties were loosely knit associations generally led by extremists representing little more than two separate bodies of defined opinion. In the locality, political bosses known as gamonales, later caciques, provided leadership and determined the conduct of government through the alcaldes. From the gamo?uiles and the intellectuals came the provincial and national leaders of the parties. The parties have frequently spUt and reunited, and they have made common cause against any individual who threatened to become an authoritarian mihtary ruler as in 1854, 1909, and 1957. The highly organized status of the parties after World War I was not proof against division. Both parties still represented a complete cross section of the population. Church-state relations were a crucial point in interparty relations. Until about 1840 both parties supported retention of the old powers of the Spanish crown over the church, but the Con-

1936.

in Paris wrecked the enterprise. Subsequent efforts to revive the work failed, despite the cooperation of the Colombian government in extending the concession. As a result of ex-

and of graft

perience in the Spanish-American War, the United States decided to build a canal either in Nicaragua or in Panama. The latter route was selected, the Colombian government liked the French company idea, and the hoped to recover some of its losses. Negotiations broke down between the two governments and, threatened by the loss of the canal, Panamanian leaders in concert with the French company organized a rebellion and declared the

independence of Panama in 1903. Using the treaty of 1846 with Colombia, the United States prevented the landing of Colombian troops but ignored the clause in which it guaranteed Colombian sovereignty over Panama. The United States then recognized Panamanian independence, negotiated a canal treaty, and began construction. Subsequently, under the terms of the ThompsonUrrutia Treaty ratified by Colombia in 1921, the United States made reparations for the loss suffered by Colombia, including a $25,000,000 payment. Colombia then recognized Panama's independence. (See Panama Canal.) Forty years of pohtical peace followed the loss of Panama. The disrupting effects of World War I on the economy were followed by fiscal and banking reforms in 1922 and the entry of foreign investment capital. Inflation followed. Wages of urban and rural workers lagged far behind the rising cost of living, and serious rural social disturbances occurred in several sections from 1925 to 1929. In the cities, modern labour organizations of a class character began to replace the old mutual associations. Division in the Conservative Party and popular unrest enabled the election of a moderate Liberal to the presidency in 1930. The new Liberal era lasted until 1946. Under the goad of the traditional spoils system and local vengeance, the harassed Conservatives were on the point of return to violence in 1932 when a conflict with Peru (1932-34) ended the internal struggle. Pres. Enrique Olaya Herrera (1930-34) took initial steps to reform public health and education, public housing, and land distribution. A moratorium on debts was declared to counter effects Pres. Alfonso Lopez Pumarejo (1934-38) of the depression. hastened the pace of reform. Labour enjoyed the patronage of government and the National Confederation of Workers became an important arm of the Liberal Party. Taxes on capital and income were effectively collected, an ineffective agrarian reform law was passed, and the government took on the philosophy of a welfare state. The social functions of property were estabhshed in law; public assistance was declared a function of the state; and the protected status of the church was terminated along with its Eduardo Santos Montejo, who succeeded control of education. Lopez, did httle more than maintain the work of his predecessor. During his second administration (1942-45) Lopez was crushed between the opposition of his party's right wing to further reform

COLOMBIA and the necessities of the working class who looked to him to ease the impact of inflation and improve their standard of living. To this was added the pressure of an ever larger propaganda attack by the Conservatives as unrest grew among the people. Lopez was driven to resign in July 1945, and Alberto Lleras Camargo filled Aug, 7, 1946. In the 1946 elections the Liberals were so deeply divided that they ran two candidates; Jorge Eliecer Gaitan, who had made himself the leader of the working classes with a social reform program, and Gabriel Turbay, the Moderate Conservative Mariano candidate of the right wing. Ospina Perez won the election, but his party did not win control of the congress until he imposed a state of siege on the country This state of siege was partially Hfted in 1958. in 1949. Ospina attempted until 1948 to govern with a coalition cabinet, hoping to restore peace and order to the country. Meanwhile his party began to move into the offices of government under the Early in 1948 Gaitan was recognized as the leader spoils system. of the Liberals only to be assassinated in Bogota on April 9. The capital exploded into the worst riot in Colombian history and The counsimilar, less serious incidents occurred in other cities. his post until

try

had gradually moved into

full-scale violence during the 1940s, a

condition caused by interparty hatreds and social unrest. It was serious enough by 1944 to warrant extending the jurisdiction of

mihtary courts over certain crimes by civihans in areas where violence erupted. By August 1957 an estimated 260,000 persons had been killed and 750.000 had become refugees. Laureano Gomez, extremist head of the Conservative Party, became president in August 1950 and proceeded to eliminate Liberals from government payrolls. By 1951 Conservatives were split over his policies and evinced growing opposition to the authoritarian Gomez, constitutional reforms he planned to impose in 1953. inactive after November 1951 because of bad health, resumed direct control of the presidency on June 13, 1953, but was overthrown on the same day by Gen. Gustavo Rojas Pinilla, Conservative chief of the military forces.

The

constitutional assembly, called

by Gomez, approved Rojas as provisional head of government and then elected him president for the 1954-58 term. nationally welcomed as a harbinger of peace, justice, and Rojas, hberty, forgot his promises and merely replaced the dictatorship Gradually the Liberal and Conservative of Gomez with his ow-n. parties reconciled their differences and formed the National Front The coalition, based to restore civil constitutional government. on a 50-50 split of government offices and rotation of the presiArrest of dency, was later given an expiration date of 1974. the National Front presidential candidate on April 30. 1957, started a series of demonstrations capped by a national economic strike. The armed forces acted as broker between president and National Front and on May 10, 1957, Rojas resigned after appointing a for 1953

military junta to oversee transition to a popularly elected govern-

ment.

The junta

faithfully fulfilled

its

assigned role.

The

agree-

ments establishing the National Front were made part of the constitution by a plebiscite on Dec. 1, 1957. On July 20, 1958, Congress met for the first time since 1952 and Alberto Lleras Camargo, Liberal leader and major architect of the National Front, took office as president on Aug. 7, 1958. President Lleras ended the state of siege 1949-58) in most of the country, violence was sharply reduced, and the grave socioeconomic condition of the country improved. During the Lleras administration an agrarian reform law was enacted. It provided for the breaking up of large estates on w'hich the land was inadequately used and for the redistribution (

In May 1962 Guillermo Leon Valencia, candidate of the National Front, was elected president of the country. While Valencia was on a state visit to Venezuela in August 1963, government troops arrested former President Rojas and several of his supporters, charging them with plotting to seize control of the government. Rojas was removed to a remote military base. Late in 1963, President Valencia's administration underwent a period of crisis caused mainly by a deterioration in the domestic economy. The situation forced Congress to grant limited decree authority to the president from August to December 1963 in of this land in smaller plots to landless peasants.

Area and Population of Colombia by Major

79 Civil Divisions*

COLOMBIA

8o

the rate of natural increase appears to be very high. Estimates place the birthrate at about 42 and the death rate at approximately (T. L. Sh.) 13 per 1,000 population.

VI.

ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS

Government.

—

Under the constitution of Aug. 5, 1886, which wa.s revised and codified in 1945, the executive branch is formed by the president and 13 cabinet ministers and the governors of the deiiartments, who are appointed by the president, as 1.

well as other administrative authorities directly or indirectly controlled by him. The president is elected by the people for a term

may not succeed himself. Attached to the a seven-member consulting body known as the Council

(founded 1573), and also by 13 universities elsewhere.

VII.

of four years, and he

president

is

power, according to the constitution, is vested in Congress, consisting of the Senate and the House of RepresentaThe Senate is composed of three or more members from tives. each department (one for each 1>

heat

This i)rocess is also octransfer and diffusion of chain carriers. (For combustion waves in casionally referred to as an explosion.

Turbulent gas motion aids the heat gas streams, .sec Flame.) transfer and thus accelerates progress of the combustion wave. In tubes the thermal expansion of the burning gas induces considerable llow with attendant pressure waves. With high-explosive mixtures these pressure waves and the combustion wave merge into a detonation wave, which constitutes a self-propelled shock wave travelinc along the tube at a rate exceeding the velocity of

sound

in the

burned

gas.

Knock in inlcnuil-combuslion engines of the four-stroke cycle type is sometimes referred to as detonation; however, it is not caused by the merging of combustion and pressure waves, but by a mixed thermal and branched-chain explosion occurring in the unburned gas ahead of the combustion wave. As the latter spreads from the spark plug through the cylinder head, the unburned gas chamber

compressed and heated: this produces an initially slow but self-accelerating combustion which, with lowoctane motor fuels, becomes explosive before the combustion wave It is conceivable that, has completely overrun the gas mixture. under special conditions, the ignition of this end gas may start at simultaneously and even close to the oncoming a number of points combustion wave, and that this effect may result in a markedly accelerated combustion wave through the highly reacting and inin

the rest of the

cipiently igniting gas.

is

The explosion

leads to violent gas vibrations

—

which increase the heat flow to the engine cylinder wall a dangerous condition for aircraft engines which, because of their size, cannot dissipate the excess heat. Tetraethyl lead destroys certain types of chain carriers and thus improves the knock resistance of motor fuels. The speed of the combustion wave is largely determined by the turbulence prevailing in the chamber. Without turbulence, it would be too slow, and the engine could not operate. (See also Internal-Combustion Engine.) Catalytic combustion is e.xemplified by the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen on surfaces of platinum or palladium. Hydrogen molecules diffuse into the metal and dissociate into atoms there; they are thereby enabled to combine with adsorbed oxygen, ultimately forming water vapour. Finely divided metal (platinum sponge) can become so hot that the mixture is ignited. In compact form the metal remains comparatively cool and is thus generally nonincendive. For heats of combustion, see Heat; see also references under "Combustion" in the Index volume. Bibliography. B. Lewis and Guenther von Elbe, Combustion, Flames and Explosions of Gases (iq.si) Third Symposium on Combustion and Flame and Explosion Phenomena (iq4q) Fourth Symposium (International) on Combustion (1953) M. W. Thring, The Science of Flames and Furnaces (1952). (G. v. E.) FRANCAISE. The national theatre of France and the most famous of the European state-subsidized theatres, often also called the Theatre Franqais or La Maison de Moliere, was organized in 1680 by direct decree of Louis XIV issued in

—

;

;

;

COMEDIE

camp at Charleville. It was originally formed by joining Moliere's troupe (amalgamated in 1673 with the Theatre

his military

de Guenegaud, formerly the Theatre du Marais) with the most ancient Paris company, the troupe of the Hotel de Bourgogne. The Hotel de Bourgogne theatre was surrendered to the Comedie Italienne, and the united French company, called Comedie Franit from the Italian troupe, performed at the Theatre de Guenegaud until Jean Baptiste Lully (q.v.) succeeded in dispossessing them. They converted a tennis court (le jeu de paiinie de I'Etoilc in the Rue Neuve des Fosses, St. Germain-desPres. into a theatre, which they occupied from 1 689 to 1 70. Their 7 theatre and location no longer suitable, they moved to the Salles des Machines at the Tuileries, where they remained until a new theatre (later called the Odeon) was erected for them and opened in 1789 in the garden of the Hotel de Conde. near the Luxembourg palace on the left bank. The conflicts of the French Revolution caused a split in the company of the Comedie in 1 791. The revolutionary liberals under the leadership of Frani;ois Joseph Talma (q.v.) seceded from the more conservative group under Fran(;ois Rene Mole and moved to a new theatre in the Rue de Richelieu, then called the Varietes Amusantes. After the burning of the

?aise to distinguish

older theatre on the left bank, the company was again reconstituted in 1799 and has continued since that date to make its home

Rue de Richelieu. In 1816 Louis Benoit Picard, with a subvention, reconstituted the Theatre Royal de I'Odeon on the left bank and established a company. The new Odeon, after again being destroyed by fire in 1818, was rebuilt with government aid and subsidized as the second-ranking theatre of Paris. On several occasions in the 19th century the two theatres were united under in the

a single management. After the end of World War II, they were again united under one administrator and placed under the depart-

ment of arts and letters in the ministry of education; both became branches of the Comedie Fran(;aise with the two houses designated the Salle Richelieu and the Salle Luxembourg.

In 195') the Salle

Luxembourg, renamed Theatre de ? ranee, was again separated and the activities of the Comedie Frangaise were confined to the Salle Richelieu.

The internal organization of the Comedie Fran(;aise stems from by Moliere when his troupe returned to Paris in 165S. The company was organized as a co-operative society with the chief members, the societaires, having a direct voice in the operations of the organization, receiving a share of the net profits and being eligible for a pension upon retirement, usually after 20 years' service. The pens!o?maires were actors hired at fixed salaries "on probation" and without the voting, profit-sharing and pension privileges: from the ranks of the pensionnaires new societaires were elected annually. Louis XIV perpetuated this organization and operation when he established the united company, and Napoleon in his famous Moscow decree. Oct. 15, 1812, substantially confirmed and reiterated the longstanding policy. Externally, as a state institution, Louis placed the theatre under the supervision of the gentlemen of the chamber. Around 1756 this function was taken over by the intendant des menus and in 1 799 the theatre was placed under the jurisdiction the organization and operation established

of the department

of

the interior.

The

external

management

changed during the 19th century with the fall and rise of French governments, and various acts and decrees altered and curtailed With the reorganizathe powers and duties of the societaires. tion after World War II. the administrative head of the Comedie is nominated by the director-general of arts and letters and appointed by the minister of education. During the period of its monopoly, prior to the decree of 1791 on the liberty of the theatres, the Comedie was the only Paris theatre in which new plays could be produced. After that decree, and especially during the 19th century, it tended more and more to build its repertory from the great masterpieces of French drama of the past, though it never abandoned entirely the production In 1900 it gave 267 performof new scripts and modern plays. ances of older classical plays and 419 performances of contemporary pieces; in 1952, by contrast, it presented 567 performances It has produced the of classic plays and 456 of contemporary. plays of all of the great French dramatists and the most eminent actors in the history of the nation have appeared upon its boards. Its fame rests upon an illustrious history, upon the splendid ensemble performances of its actors and upon its conservation and perpetuation of the best in the French theatre and drama. It is cherished by the French people as a national theatre and as a cultural and educational institution. Bibliography. Jean Valmy-Baysse, Naissance et vie de la Comedie Franfaise (1945) Emile Genest and E. Duberry, La Maison de Moliere, connue el inconnue (1922); Pierre Aime Touchard, Six annees de Comedie Fran^aise: memoires d'un administraleur (1953).

— ;

\

COMEDY literature.

(H. C. Hr.) is

a term used of both dramatic

As used

in

and nondramatic

the 20th century to describe contemporary

it applies to plays written in a light and humorous style, with laughable incidents and characters. This usage, however, is inadequate to cover what has been and still is recognized as

drama,

comedy

in the

definite genre

drama

Comedy for the Greeks was a have developed out of rites and

of the past.-

which seems

to

celebrations involving song and the wearing of masks. The fact that there was an element of fertility ritual in these origins has led >

some

authorities to accept the tradition that the actors of

comedy

wore the leather phallus; but other modern experts do not believe

COMEDY happened in performance. It is agreed, howthat the earliest forms of Greek comedy apparently devel-

that this actually ever,

oped as

a

combination of

ritual

chorus with histrionic episodes. and unifying theme were first

Aristotle says in his Poetics that plot

introduced by Crates. Comedy was first performed as part of the competitive city festival in Athens in 486 B.C. It is usual to talk of three phases of Greek comedy proper, the earliest. Old Comedy, retaining chorus, mime and burlesque from the older forms. Old Comedy, of which the most famous exponent and the only one whose work has survived was Aristophanes, included fantasy in

—

—

its exuberant and high-spirited satire of public persons and affairs. As it was not restricted completely to political satire, it has been suggested that Old Comedy developed quite naturally into what is called Middle Comedy, the preoccupation of which with social themes should not be regarded as a new departure in a new form. (No plays of Middle Comedy are extant.) This phase was followed by that of New Comedy, introduced by Menander (q.v.), which deals with contemporary manners and with familiar and domestic themes, with plots composed of intrigue and involving romance {see also Drama: Greek and Roman). The attitude to humanity and affairs expressed in such art is obviously different from that involved in the expression of heroic themes in tragedy and epic. Aristotle was describing what existed as much as dogmatizing about what ought to exist when he stated

that instead of expressing the heroic conception of

life,

comedy

essentially dealt in an amusing way with plebeian characters in everyday situations. It followed that a high and heroic style of writing could not be used to express what had not been conceived in a heroic spirit. These were the fundamental assumptions about persons, attitudes, themes and style which the Romans took over from the Greeks, together with the masks, stock characters and love intrigue of New Comedy. Roman comedy, however, involved more sheer enjoyment; it has been described as amusing, reflecAs satire of public men was too tive and, in some cases, moral. dangerous, ordinary people became the target and social and religious matters were not exempt. In the typical plot a young gentleman in love with a slave girl tries to raise money to buy her; eventually she is revealed as a long-lost child of a family of rank equal to his, who has preserved herself chaste; and so they can be married. From Roman comedy, as written by Plautus and Terence (gq.v.), postclassical critics developed a conception of comedy as a play of quality, of good literary style, capable of in-

The

form, the fabiila togata, treated of rural and small town society and contributed to the methodical development of a dogma that comedy's function was to teach and delight by exhibiting a picture of ordinary unspiring morality as well

as mirth.

later

heroic persons and events in a suitably low or mediocre style of writing. Cicero described it as "the imitation of life, the glass

custom and the image of truth." Traditionally, moreover, its events involved no serious dangers. These ideas combined to inspire the definition, ascribed to the 4th-century Donatus {q.v.), that comedy is concerned with private affairs, without violence or danger to life, with unhappiness giving way to a happy outcome of

which lost children are recognized and from which men may what is useful and what is to be avoided. The fact that comedy was drama was probably never forgotten completely, but in the early medieval period the term was extended to types of nondramatic literature possessing some of the essential qualities of the dramatic genre. For the Spanish encyclopaedist Isidore of Seville (c. 560-636) the genre encompassed Old Comedy, consisting of the plays of Plautus and Terence, and New Comedy, which was undramatic and was composed of the satires of Horace, Persius and Juvenal. Eventually, narrative with a happy ending in a familiar style of elegiac verse was described as comedy; and by the 1 2th century the term applied to versified narrative. For many, comedy was a poem beginning in sadness and ending in joy; and Dante called his Paradise a comedy partly for this reason and partly because it was written in the "speech of the masses in which even womenfolk converse" and not in in

learn

heroic Latin verse.

In the Renaissance critics had classical authority for the two dominant conceptions of comedy, which was now a strictly dra-

129

matic form again. The first type, associated with Ben Jonson (q.v) in England, is in the tradition of Aristophanic satire, exposing the ridiculous sins of the petty to the punishment of well-deserved This form owes much to the apparent authority of derision. Cicero and the medieval grammarians for the assumption that comedy is critical and realistic in its treatment of the life of ordinary unheroic people, being in Jonson's words, "a thing throughout pleasant and ridiculous and

Low

manners." kind of

Heywood

accommodated

to the correction of

and intricacy of plot was shared by

style

comedy with

the other, which, in the words of

(q.v.), begins "in trouble"

of these kinds of Renaissance

comedy avoids

this

Thomas

and ends "in peace."

Each

the heroic in style,

person, incident and theme; and each comes nearer to the realistic in its treatment of its subject, especially in characterization

which tends away from the tent

A Midsummer

Night's

its intrigue ending unhappiness to joy; but

kind,

in

ideal to the individual.

To some

ex-

Dream

has the qualities of the second the triumph of true love, passing from

it is quite different in the qualities which representative of popular English comedy, for it mingles high and low persons and styles; it involves the heroic as well as the ridiculous and the plot does not avoid danger. English popular

make

it

outcome, can nevertheless include danger should not, however, be confused with a strict neoclassical relation, tragicomedy, as practised by Guarini in // Pastor fido (1590) and defined and defended theoretically as a not unclassical compound of fused elements from classical tragedy and comedy, mingling the heroic with the unheroic in style, person and incident, avoiding tragic catastrophe for a happy outcome

comedy, happy and bloodshed.

in its It

which punishment by death or derision gives way to reconciliaThe romantic comedy of Beaumont and Fletcher (q.v.) and Shakespeare's Measure for Measure and his last four comedies are fundamentally akin to this neoclassical form in their fusion or attempted fusion of the tragic and comic spirits without doing violence to either. Another form of comedy in niany ways similar was that of 17th-century Spain, which did not aim at laughter but avoided bloodshed, giving a happy ending to intrigues of love and considering, if superficially, the serious issues of conduct, love and honour which led to misery and bloodshed in tragedy. In France and England the same century saw more attention given to laughter and the correction of follies embodied in in

tion.

individual

characters.

Not only Thomas Shadwell, Jonson's

disciple, but the courtly Restoration dramatists of

avowed

Eng-

land treated character in their comedy of manners. In France, Moliere treated similar themes and persons, but with more humour and less satirical bite. For him the function of comedy was "to enter rightly into the ridiculous aspects of mankind and to repreFrench comedy, sent people's defects agreeably on the stage." before him, had been derived largely from that of the Italians and Spaniards, but he makes his native, despite borrowings, and has a wide range of subjects and themes, treating avarice, jealousy, snobbery, both social and intellectual, but not love as such in a romantic way. He treats the particular and individual with an awareness of the universal, a task more difficult in comedy than in tragedy.

With the 18th century a new element entered into comedy in Europe, that of sentiment. The concentration was now on the story involving unhappiness and virtue beset with troubles which ended happily and which was still not conceived of in a high heroic style but dealt with events and persons in the circumstances of ordinary life. With much less wit and bite than the comedy of manners of the previous century, this comedy of sentiment in England dealt with characters not acting under the predominance of natural feeling, but warped from their genuine bent by the habits, rules and ceremonies of a sophisticated but not heroic high society.

The equivalent

of what

was

called "genteel

comedy"

in

France and in Germany in the plays of such writers as Marivaux and Lessing (qq.v.). Where the sentiment degenerated into sentimentality the result was really something approaching melodrama, but avoiding the emotional excitement which is the melodramatic equivalent of tragic tension. The sentimental comedy of England had its counterpart in what was called the comedie larmoyante ("sentimental comedy") first made the

England

is

found

in

COMENIUS

^o

I

vogue by La Chaussee in France; in both, a true comic attitude of any kind is constantly menaced by the superficial exploitation of virtue to produce tears followed by the relief of experiencing the reward of a happy ending. As comedy has always had a tendency to reject idealization in favour of what seems more real by the standards of everyday life, form responded quickly it was natural that in the lTnents to the sterling area and to other transferable-account countries. For a time there was also a num-

ber of "bilateral countries" which could use their balances freely only inside the sterling area, but these countries were merged with the transferable-account group and, although only eight accepted, the dollar became virtually the only hard currency for the sterling area.

There was, however, a succession of minor crises over gold and In Sept. 1949 pressure on sterling led to a major devaluation from $4.03 = £1 to $2.80 = £1, all members of the commonwealth following (Canada and Pakistan excepted) and most of Europe. Another crisis followed the outbreak of the Korean war but measures were agreed upon to restore the position at the commonwealth conference of 1952 which also decided to make convertibility the goal. The American recession of 1953-54 delayed recovery but by 1955 restrictions had become comparatively slight for current transactions, and difficulties over disparities between foreign rates for official and transferable sterling were removed by the authorization of action by the Exchange Equalization account in New York. Ziirich and other financial markets. Since then, sterling has been virtually convertible for all nondollar reserves.

residents.

The central reserves, nevertheless, again came under serious, if mainly speculative, pressure in mid-1957. Anxieties had developed about the ability of the United Kingdom to control inflation, a crisis arose over the French franc, there was uncertainty about an appreciation of the German deutschemark, and another American recession was under way. The Bank of England met the situation by a drastic rise of discount rate to 7%, and the position was further helped by an announcement, at the meeting of the International Monetary fund (I.M.F.), that the deutschemark would not be revalued. Improvement was so rapid that, on Dec. 27, 1958, sterling was made officially convertible, for nonresidents, into any currency. The same step was taken simultaneously by west Germany. France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Denmark, Norway and Sweden, Sterling thus became not only a

stronger but also a simpler currency. No distinction is now made between American accounts, transferable accounts or the registered

accounts set up in 1954 to facilitate dealings in the London gold market; these are now merged into a single set of "external accounts." The sterling area's reserves, moreover, have since included all convertible currencies as well as gold and dollars.

Although still too small for comfort, they have been strengthened, not only by the convertibility of European currencies but also by an increase of 50% in I.M.F. subscriptions and stand-by credits.

—

2. Banking. All independent members of the commonwealth have their own currencies which, subject to legislative provisions, are controlled by their own central banks. These banks have a monopoly of the note issue, act as bankers and financial agents for their governments, control credit and regulate foreign exchanges. The Bank of England (q.v.) is a venerable institution, but other commonwealth central banks are comparatively recent institutions. The Reserve Bank of South Africa began operations in 1921. The Commonwealth Bank of Australia was established in 1911, but developed only slowly from a commercial and savings bank into a central bank; the necessary central bank powers were not finally conferred until 1945; the Commonwealth Trading bank and the Commonwealth Saving bank were not split off until 1953, and it was only in 1959 that the name was changed to the Reserve Bank of Australia. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand was opened in 1934, and both the Bank of Canada and the Reserve Bank of India a year later. The State Bank of Pakistan was set up in 1948 and the Central Bank of Ceylon in 1950. When the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was created the powers of the Central African Currency board were transferred, in 1956, to the Bank of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. In 1957 some powers of the West African Currency board were transferred to the Bank of Ghana and the remainder, in 1960, to the Central Bank of Nigeria. The Central Bank of Malaya was set up in 1958 but an agreement with Singapore and North Borneo led to powers of issue remaining with the Malayan Currency board. Most of these institutions are government owned. The Bank of England, after centuries as a joint stock company, was nationalized in 1946. The Bank of Canada, the Reserve Bank of Australia and the Central Bank of Ceylon have been state owned from the outset. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand and the Reserve Bank of India were at first partly owned by private shareholders, but the former was nationalized in 1936 and the latter in 1949. The Reserve Bank of South Africa was a mixed institution with 6 of its 1 1 directors elected by private shareholders, and the State Bank of Pakistan has a minority of private shareholders. The new central banks of Rhodesia, Ghana, Nigeria and Malaysia are all government in-

stitutions.

Note these

issues used to

be prescribed by statutory regulations but

now apply only to the Bank of England, which has a premaximum fiduciary issue, to the Bank of Ghana, which

scribed

has a similar limitation, and to the Central Bank of Nigeria, which must have at least a 60% backing of sterling for its notes. In the case of other commonwealth central banks the tendency has been to relate legal reserves both to deposit and note liabilities but, later, to dispense altogether with statutory reserve requirements. The

Reserve Bank of South Africa was required to maintain gold reserves at 30% of note and deposit liabilities, and there are corresponding requirements of 25% and 20% in Canada and Pakistan. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand, up to 1950. had to keep a reserve of 25%, but since then the reserve has been left to the discretion of its board. A similar freedom is accorded the central banks of Australia, India and Ceylon. An important feature of commercial banking throughout the

commonwealth

is

its

concentration into a small

number

of large

banks operating a widespread system of branches. Pakistan, it is true, has about 30 scheduled banks and India more than 100, but nearly one-quarter of India's banking is in the hands of the Imperial bank. Until the late 1950s commercial banks in the United Kingdom were not obliged to maintain deposits at the Bank of England, but their practice was to have such deposits at a fairly constant rate of 8% of their own deposit liabilities. After the publication, however, of the Radcliffe report in 1958 the Bank of

COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS England took the power of requiring "special deposits" and made two such calls in 1960. It followed the practice of Australia, a practice which began as a wartime control but was made a regular In other commonwealth credit regulation in 1945. countries commercial banks are legally obliged to maintain minideposits with the central bank, expressed as ratios of their

method of

mum

deposit liabilities, and these are often varied as the central bank sees fit. Canadian banks have to maintain deposits at the Bank of

Canada equal

to at least

5%

of their total liabilities to the public.

In both India and Pakistan the requirement

2%

is

The Central Bank

of time liabilities.

5*^ of

demand and

of Ceylon

may

vary and 20%, and the and 10%. In New

14% and 5% to 40% of Rhodesia from 6% and 3% to 25% Zealand the commercial banks are required to hold balances of Reserve bank notes and deposits which cannot be less than 7% of demand and 3% of time liabilities, but which may be any higher percentages set by the bank. The traditional methods of credit regulation, developed by the Bank of England, are variations of discount rate and open market operations. The Bank of Canada and formerly the Reserve Bank of South Africa have been able, with difficulty, to make some use of these techniques but insufficient to dominate credit conditions. statutory ratios from

Bank

The major obstacle a strong

in

commonwealth

and active market

countries

government

in

is

the lack of

securities.

For

this

reason other commonwealth banks have been given the power of varying statutory deposits required from commercial banks or, in Australia, of levying special deposits the size of which is fixed

by the central bank. Direct controls have also been used. In Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, Pakistan and Ceylon the central banks possess, and have used, wide powers in issuing directives to commercial banks. There is also, of course, much use made of procedures for consultation and "moral suasion." 3. Investment., Most of the external finance raised by commonwealth countries, both for public and private purposes, has come from the United Kingdom. Before World War I it was estimated to have held about £3,700,000,000 of overseas investments, one-quarter in South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, and

—

another quarter in the rest of the commonwealth. About one-fifth of these investments were disposed of during that war. The United Kingdom resumed overseas lending in the 1920s but on a reduced scale,

and most of the new loans went

International investment greatly

to

the

the United

Kingdom's external

assets

was partly matched by

cor-

debts of other commonwealth countries. During World War II Canada's external debt became only 2% of its total debt, and United Kingdom hold-

responding reductions

east Asia.

Commonwealth

in the external public

Australia repaid £80,000,000 of London debt. New Zealand £55,000,000 and South Africa £78,000,000. India and Pakistan, for a time, completely extinguished their external public debts. The colonies acquired £90,000,000 of dominion and colonial securities, and temporarily lent £32,600,000 to the United King-

ings negligible.

dom. Notwithstanding the postwar difficulties, the United Kingdom had by the early 1960s increasingly made available grants and loans for rehabilitation and development. As much as £2,570,000,000 may have been invested overseas, and three-quarters of it in the sterling area. Private loans accounted for the greater part of this investment, and it was estimated that they rose from a net figure of £120,000,000 in the late 1940s to one of more than £200,000,000 in the eariy 1960s. Over the same period, official loans and grants were of the order of £60,000,000 a year. A number of official measures have been taken to promote development in commonwealth countries. A series of Colonial Development and Welfare acts provided by the early 1960s more than £220,000,000 in order to supplement local revenues and loan resources in United Kingdom dependencies. In addition, a Colonial

ministers, at a meeting held in

Colombo

Jan. 1950, agreed upon a scheme for assisting the development of this area by means of six-year plans involving help with external in

A

finance and the provision of technical assistance.

following

year

brought

in,

meeting

commonwealth

besides

in the

countries,

Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, the United States and the International bank. The scheme was extended first to 1961 and then to 1966. In 1958-59 external aid was running at £500,000,000 a year, two-fifths of which was provided by the United States, and one-quarter by Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand. At the commonwealth conference of 1952 it was also agreed to set up a Commonwealth Development Finance company in order to assist enterprises that could not obtain external finance from other sources. During the first six years of operation only £15,500,000 had been lent, mainly to Rhodesia, South Africa, Canada and New Zealand, and almost half this sum was provided by the Bank of England. But in 1959 authorized capital was increased to £30,000.000 and thereafter commonwealth central banks were invited to subscribe as well as large private companies.

Commonwealth countries have also turned to dollar By the early 1960s the International bank had

finance.

sources of lent $317,-

700,000 to Australia, $196,800,000 to South Africa, $143,100,000 Rhodesia, $27,700,000 to Nigeria and $24,000,000 to East Africa,

to

as well as $577,600,000 to India, $121,000,000 to Pakistan

and

$17,600,000 to Ceylon. New Zealand, which did not ratify the Bretton Woods agreements until 1961, did not borrow from either the I.M.F. or the International bank but raised loans of $4,000,000 from the U.S. Export-Import bank, as well as a temporary loan of $46,000,000 from a group of American banks and an issue of $10,000,000 in New York. But the greatest flow of private dollar capital to the commonwealth has come from direct investment and the purchase of equities, mainly in Canada but to an increasing extent in Australia and other

commonwealth

countries.

(C. G. F. S.)

VI.

commonwealth.

during the 1930s, and the United Kingdom's external loans barely exceeded reconversions of commonwealth debt in London. At the outbreak of World War II the United Kingdom was estimated to have held about £3,545,000,000 overseas securities, and at the end of it £2,417,000,000. In 1945, moreover, it incurred a debt of $4,372,000,000 to the United This reducrion of States, and one of $1,185,000,000 to Canada. fell off

195

Development corporation (g.v.) was established with a capital which had risen to more than £160,000,000. Most of these funds have gone to African and West Indian dependencies. But another urgent problem of development confronts the countries of south-

Communications are

COMMUNICATIONS essential

group of countries.

Where

main

upon

interest centres

to

single

the

life

of

any country or

countries are concerned the

internal communications.

But for the

widespread countries of the commonwealth, bound together by

and by ties of trade and commerce, external communications assume increased importance. After World War II intracommonwealth communications of all kinds developed considerably and all communication services were kept under constant review to meet changing conditions. 1. Shipping. Sea-borne trade between members of the commonwealth is not the exclusive preserve of commonwealth shipping. Shipping of all flags is free to engage in it, although the large United Kingdom merchant fleet takes a major share. There are many important bulk cargo trades from commonwealth ports to attract British tramp shipping and British tankers figure largely in the political associations

—

bulk carriage of tunities

for

again, although

services,

the liners of

wealth ports. United tion.

many

oppor-

both passenger and cargo.

Here

The commonwealth

oil.

liner

many

also offers

flags offer services to

Kingdom companies hold

common-

a prominent posi-

Special associations were established with countries of the

commonwealth,

the Orient line with Aden, Ceylon and AusIndian Steam Navigation company with Aden, New Zealand Shipping comZealand; the Union Castle line with St. Helena

e.g.,

tralia; the British

East Africa, India and Pakistan; the

pany with New and South and East Africa; the Canadian Pacific line, the Cunard Steamship company and the Donaldson line with Canada; the Peninsular and Oriental Navigation company with Aden, India, Ceylon, Malaya, Hong Kong and Australia; the Royal Mail line with Bermuda and the West Indies. Other companies which operate to commonwealth countries include T. and J. Harrison, Fyffes, Furness Withy and Pacific Steam Navigation to the West

COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS

196

Mediterranean; Elder Glen and Shire lines to Malaya. Hong Kong and Australia; and the Canadian Australasian After World War II some commonline to Fiji and Australia. wealth countries, such as India, Pakistan and South Africa, developed their own fleets and Ghana and Nigeria later followed suit. In the Caribbean a shipping service operates between islands under arrangements with the governments concerned. The growth Indies; the Ellerman

Dempster

ment

in

lines to the

to west Africa; the Blue Funnel,

of seaborne

War

and Prince

commerce has

necessitated extensive port develop-

many commonwealth

II.

Air Communication.

countries since the end of

World

—

After the inauguration of the emscheme in 1937, British trunk air services were operating only on the main routes through Egypt and East Africa to South Africa, and through Egypt, India and Malaya to Australia. Connecting services were operated from Khartoum to and from Singapore and Hong Kong. Local air services were being developed in many commonwealth countries, but little thought was then given to the problems of the organization of such services as feeders to the main trunk routes or as factors which would conMoreover, there tribute to the development of outlying areas. were still many territories with no air services, and areas, such as the Caribbean, still dependent upon foreign air services, which provided no air connection with the mother country. World War II brought revolutionary changes and immense technical advances in aviation. To meet essential war requirements transatlantic services were developed to both North and South America. When the Mediterranean was closed the main air route to the middle and far east was diverted to pass through west Africa. After the fall of Singapore connection with Australia was maintained through Ceylon and the Cocos Islands. To meet military and other needs airfields and landing facilities for seaplanes were developed in overseas territories, and many of these were later of material assistance in the development of civil air services. In the years immediately following World War II, the main trunk air routes were largely operated with converted military aircraft or with aircraft developed from military types, while local air services had to rely mainly upon prewar or secondhand aircraft. But these years saw great progress: the main trunk routes were developed to link most countries of the commonwealth to the United Kingdom, either directly or indirectly, by air services operated by one or other of the United Kingdom corporations as well as by other commonwealth airlines; and local and regional services were promoted to act as feeders to the main trunk routes and to assist in the opening up of outlying areas not only in the larger commonwealth countries such as Canada, Australia and South Africa but also in and between many of the independent areas. Foreign air services also developed rapidly and many commonwealth territories came to be served by air lines of several nationalities. By the 1960s most of the world's leading airlines, including several commonwealth airlines, were operating on parts of the old Imperial airways route from the United Kingdom across the middle east to India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Malaya and Australia, which was still the main aerial artery of the commonwealth. Commonwealth airlines also operated on the western route of the Pacific linking the United Kingdom with Australia and New Zealand through Canada. A third major commonwealth air link between the United Kingdom and South .\frica was served by British Overseas Airways corporation (B.O.A.C.) and by South African airways on a route through east Africa and the Nile valley. The development of commonwealth air transport after World War II was marked by increasing co-operation both between governments and between airlines with the object of avoiding wasteful competition and the unnecessary duplication of services and facilities. This co-operation found expression in three different forms: joint ownership and control of airlines; parallel partnership operations and the division of responsibility between trunk-route, regional and local operators. Many regional services are operated by airlines based in the overseas territories of the commonwealth and to an increasing de2.

pire airmail

;

gree these operators are entering the field of long-range trunk "Coach-class" services were operated on certain common-

services.

wealth routes for some time, but after 1960, in addition to first-class tourist services, economy-class and "skycoach" services at still lower fares were introduced on many other commonwealth

and

routes. 3.

Railways and Roads.

—Commonwealth countries connected

India and Pakistan by the Eastern Bengal railway (Pakistani) and the North-Eastern railway (Indian) in the east,

by

rail

are:

and by the North-Western railway (Pakistani) and the Northern railway (Indian) in the west; India and Ceylon by ferry services between Dhanu.shkodi on the Indian Southern railway and Talaimannar on the Ceylon government railway; Southern Rhodesia and the Bechuanaland protectorate by Rhodesia railways, which connect at Vryburg with the main South African line from Cape Town and pass through the eastern side of the protectorate to serve Southern Rhodesia and Zambia, and Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika by the lines operated by the East African Railways and Harbours administration. For other commonwealth railway services see articles on the individual countries.

Road development has been largely designed to meet the internal needs of the individual countries concerned, Lut by the middle of the 20th century consideration was being given to the possibility of linking the principal commonwealth countries in Africa by main arterial roads; in particular to the completion of the Great North road to provide a highway from Cairo to the Cape of Good Hope. 4. Telecommunications. The overseas telecommunications system of the commonwealth consists of extensive networks of submarine cables and radio stations. The technical operation of the networks is closely integrated. Together they provide for the peoples of the commonwealth a full range of telegraph and telephone services, which are operated in accordance with the International Telecommunications convention and regulations, both between the commonwealth countries and with foreign countries The cable network, in the North and in all parts of the world. South Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans and in the Mediterranean and Red seas, totals about 150,000 nautical miles and is the largest in the world. Most cables are owned by the United Kingdom post office and maintained by Cable and Wireless, Ltd.; the cable stations and radio stations are owned and operated by the governments of the commonwealth countries in which they are situated,

—

though

in

most of the dependent

territories the cable

stations used for external services are

and radio

owned and operated by

Cable and Wireless, Ltd. While the governments have complete executive independence, both as to development and operation, broad policy is co-ordinated through the Commonwealth TelecomThese munications board on which they are all represented. arrangements date from 1948 when, under the commonwealth telegraphs agreement of that year between the governments of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India and Southern Rhodesia, these governments decided to take over the assets of Cable and Wireless, Ltd., and associated local companies in their respective territories. first telephone cable across the North Atlantic was laid in At the Commonwealth Telecommunications conference held London in 1958 agreement was reached for the construction of a round-the-world cable; the section between the United Kingdom and Canada was completed in 1961 and the Australia-New Zealand section in 1962, to be followed by the North America-Australia section across the Pacific. The provision of phototelegraphic and

The

1956.

in

telex services increased rapidly after the 1950s.

Internal telecommunications services are mainly the responsibility of the

governments of the

territories concerned,

though in

by private enterprise Short wave, very-high-frequency and microor statutory board. increasingly used in developing the 1960s services were by wave

some areas telephone

services are operated

telecommunications in outlying areas. 5. Postal Services. Each commonwealth country is responsible for the maintenance of the postal services within its territory and the nature of the services provided depends upon the state of development of the country concerned. The services provided in areas such as the far north of Canada, in the Northern Territories

—

of Australia and in the outlying areas of Nigeria. Kenya and Tanzania (Tanganyika) must obviously differ in nature and fre-

COMMUNE

197 economic development of

quency from those provided in London. External postal services are maintained in accordance with the Universal Postal convention, to which all commonwealth countries are parties. The empire airmail scheme, which was inaugurated in 1937 and provided for the carriage by air at normal postal rates of all firstclass mail on the main commonwealth routes, was discontinued on

and, to a lesser extent, the precocious

the outbreak of World War II, when surcharges for airmail letters Surcharges at varying rates were still were again introduced. payable in 1960 on the main commonwealth air routes but in many local areas mails were carried by air without surcharge if this In offered earlier delivery than carriage by surface transport. addition to the normal surcharge rates for letters and postcards, special rates were made available for second-class mail and for

The stronger of these city-republics surde facto supremacy. vived at the expense of their weaker neighbours into the Renaissance, though by this time most had fallen to a single ruler isignore). Milan and Florence continued as powerful states into the early modern period and Venice right up to the Napoleonic era. Nowhere else did the towns achieve such complete independence, but the communes of Flanders were in advance of all but the Italian in size and industrial and commercial organization, and at times

many commonwealth destinations. The airgraph or microfilm ser\ace which was operated during World War II was discontinued after the war, but special lightweight air letter forms might be sent at cheap rates between the U.K. to most countries air parcels to

to

which surcharge airmail services were available. See also references under "Commonwealth of Nations" in the (A. H. Sd.)

Index.

—

A. E. Zimmern, The Third British Empire (1926); A. B. Keith, Responsible Government in the Dominions, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1928), and The Governments of the British Empire (1935); The Cambridge History oj the British Empire, 8 vol. (1929-36) R. CoupW. K. Hancock, Survey oj land, The Empire in These Days (1935) Lord Hailey, An British Commonwealth Affairs, 2 vol. (1937^2) African Survey, rev. ed. (1956); Robert B. Stewart, Treaty Relations of the British Commonwealth of Nations (1939) Jan C. Smuts, Alexander Brady, Democracy in Plans for a Better World (1942) the Dominions, 2nd ed. (1952); G. M. Carter, The British Common1919-?9 (1947) H. V. Hodson, wealth and International Security.

Bibliography.

;

;

;

;

;

.

.

.

;

Twentieth-Century Empire (1948); F. H. Soward (ed.). The Changing Commonwealth (1950-51); Sir Ernest Barker, The Ideas and the H. J. Harvey, ConsultaIdeals of the British Empire, rev. ed. (1951) E. A. Walker, tion and Co-operation in the Commonwealth (1952) N. The British Empire, Its Structure and Spirit, rev. ed. (1952) the Nations and (1948), Survey of Mansergh, The Commonwealth British Commonwealth Affairs, 1931-52, 2 vol. (1952 and 1958), The Multi-Racial Commonwealth (1955); K. C. Wheare, The Statute of Westminster and Dominion Status, 5th ed. (1953); J. D. B. Miller, ;

;

;

The Commonwealth in the World (1958). Documentary material is contained in A. B. Keith (ed.). Speeches and Documents on the British Dominions, 191S-1931 (1932), and N. Mansergh (ed.). Documents and Speeches on British Commonwealth Affairs, 1931-1952, 2 vol. (1953). Colonial See also Commonwealth Relations OfUce List (annually)

—

between the count of Flanders, the French king and England gave Ghent in particular an individual In France, "Germany" {i.e., the role on the European stage. imperial territories north of the Alps) and the Iberian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. the towns were "judicial islands" having

political relations

(his overlord)

own law and transacting their own business within the field what would now be styled "local government." Here, as in the English borough {q.v.). the king or overlord normally retained supremacy but was willing to part with control in detail in return Obviously for financial benefits and military or other services. there are exceptions to these regional generalizations, for each town differed from all others in its social and economic development, its their

of

political history

and

of the Year.

During the central and

later

period of the middle ages most of the towns of western Europe (i.e., to the west of the Baltic in the north and the Adriatic in the south) acquired municipal institutions which have been loosely

designated as communal. political

and

A

brief account

is

given here of these

social institutions.

embraces satisfactorily every type of commune, but most were characterized by the oath binding the citizens or burghers to mutual protection and assistance. Such an oath between equals, though analogous with other Germanic institutions, contrasts with the oath of vassalage typical of early medieval society, by which the man promised obedience to a superior in re-

No

definition

Feudalism). The body became an asowning property and entering into agreements, of exercising varying degrees of jurisdiction over its members (who did not normally comprise the There entire population of the town) and governmental powers. were very marked regional differences between different types of commune. In northern and central Italy (and parts of southern France) the absence of powerful centralizing political authority turn for protection {see

sociation, a commtinitas or universitas capable of ,

traditions.

by a struggle for control, as a result of which the wealthiest and most powerful citizens (often called, by modern writers, patricians) were usually more or less successful in monopolizing power. Within the communes oligarchy was the norm. The direct inheritance of the modern nation-state from the communes was small, despite their role in parliamentary institutions, which was particularly important in the Spanish Cortes {q.v.). When monarchies were sufficiently powerful, they sought to stamp out municipal patriotism

;

COMMUNE (MEDIEVAL).

its

general importance in European history of the medieval lies perhaps in the social and political education acquired by the citizens through their exercise of self-government. It would be very wide of the mark, however, to imply that the communes were "democracies." The life of all the towns was characterized

The

commune

;

Book

to acquire a degree of self-govern-

—

;

Sir Charles Jeffries, The Colonial Office, "New Office List (annually) Whitehall Series" (1956) The Commonwealth Year Book (annually); C. Parry, Nationality and Citizenship Laws of the Commonwealth and Republic of Ireland (1957); G. Marshall, Parliamentary Sovereignty and the Commonwealth (1957); The Economist, Economic Geography of the Commonwealth, 2nd ed. (1959); Commonwealth and Europe (1960); Commonwealth Universities Yearbook (annually). See also official publications of the several governments as well as biographies The Journal of the of the leading personalities in imperial history. Parliaments of the Empire is a useful record of debates in dominion Table (quarterly) should Round parliaments. Among periodicals the be consulted. annually in Britannica summarized statistics are history and Current

commune

the towns enabled the

ment that easily surpassed the transaction of municipal affairs. Here the towns conquered the intervening countryside and pursued independent diplomatic policies, and their de jure superiors, the Holy Roman emperor or the pope, were rarely able to exercise

in

and

civic

organization.

Certain rural zones were also organized as communes, normally response to the need for collective agrarian organization (pastur-

There are age and other rights or property held in common). important differences between such institutions and the urban communes with which this article is exclusively concerned, and which are treated here by geographic area.

ITALY In describing the communes of Italy one is concerned with the northern and central parts of the peninsula; i.e., with imperial terCertain communal institutions ritory and with the papal state. had developed in some of the cities of southern Italy and Sicily, e.g., at Naples, Amalfi and Messina, but these were stifled by the Norman rulers of the Sicilian kingdom in the late 11th and 12th

Thenceforward, with the exception of a few brief and Normans and their Angevin and Aragonese successors prevented any development of municipal independence This conin the south comparable with that in the rest of Italy. centuries.

isolated episodes, the

trast

is

the clearest illustration of the fact that the cities of the owed their powers primarily to the nominal suze-

centre and north

rainty of an emperor who was normally absent or of a pope whose temporal resources were feeble. The origins of the Italian communes can be ascribed to no single cause, but the essential factors which made for their strength, apart from the lack of central control which marked the medieval period everywhere, were the survival of Mediterranean traditions of living together in urban communities and the big role of the Italian towns in the expansion of commercial and industrial activity which began in the 10th or 11th centuries and continued till the 14th. Though the continuity of civic institutions was broken, some of the Roman cities, aided by their walls and by the presence of a

COMMUNE

198

bishop and ecclesiastical community, had sur\'ived as centres of population through the disturbed periods of Ostrogothic and Lombard settlement. Milan, for example, retained its importance as a road centre and the head of an influential bishopric, while Pavia became a Lombard capital and housed merchants, moneyers and other craftsmen connected with the court. Characteristic of the Italian town was the large proportion of the population engaged in agriculture

who

often traveled long distances daily to

work

in the

This was not merely a matter of tradition: the town, be-

fields.

cause of its walls, was a more secure place of residence, and it was often situated on high ground that was relatively healthy. Even more strikingly different from the towns north of the Alps was the presence within the walls of a number of nobles holding land in the countryside: a 13th-century Italian writer was to comment on the unconventional habits of the nobles of Bologna who lived outside the city in villas "like the French."

The rank

of these

town-dwelling nobles varied, some being vascounts and captains, mere knights, usually known as valvassors; some, permanently in the town, some for part of the year only.

neighbouring towTis which became subordinate often submitted in the earliest communal period to the recognized authority of the bishop, later to the bishop and commune and, finally, to representatives of the

commune

alone.

References to the "formation" of a commune are rare in contemporary sources: the process was a gradual one and tended to go unnoticed. The leading inhabitants of a town normally collaborated and acquired certain virtually governmental rights some time before they possessed communal institutions and officers. At Milan the valvassors revolted against the archbishop in 1035-36, but there is no surviving reference to consuls before 1097. Florence had its own weights and measures in 1079, embarked on the conquest of the surrounding countryside in 1107 but is not known to have had consuls before 1138. The appointment of a definite executive, the consulate, was thus a further stage in the formalization of an increasingly busy institution. The title consul shows the Italian lawyers' awareness of the Roman past. Most of the larger

while others were

towns were coming

too, lived

12th century;

This minor rural aristocracy had benefited greatly by the breakup after the 9th century of the vast (mainly ecclesiastical) estates, and its members had often insinuated themselves successfully as de facto landowners between the lord and the cultivator of the soil. If trade was not the main concern of the leading class in the early commune, it was nevertheless to give the towns their financial and demographic strength. In the period up to the 11 th century, Italian maritime commerce had maintained a link with Byzantium and the eastern Mediterranean; this was the role of Venice and, to a lesser extent, of Bari, Naples, Amalfl and Gaeta. Venice was well suited to serve as an entrepot joining the Mediterranean with northern Europe, while Milan was the base south of the Alps of the communications extending into France. The 11th century saw a. great expansion in trade in the Tyrrhenian sea and, in particular,

Bologna in 1123, Siena in 1125 (these earliest references, however, are compatible with the existence of the institution some time before). The number of consuls varied in the different towns and from time to time. Milan had 18 (most of whom were nobles) in

the rise of

Genoa and

Even before the

crusade (109697) these cities had raised naval expeditions to harry the Muslims in Sicily and north Africa. After an initial period of caution, the Pisa.

first

three great maritime towns gave their assistance to the crusaders and were rewarded by the grant' of trading "colonies" (privileged quarters) in the towns of the Syrian littoral. These ports of the crusading kingdom of Jerusalem thus became the main places of transit during the great period of expansion of trade between western Europe and the east, though there was also considerable commerce with Constantinople and often with Muslim towns, such as Alexandria. The crusading movement was thus not so much the cause of increased commercial activity as the means that determined its routes and institutions. By the 12th century there were considerable communities of merchants and financiers in a number of inland cities, such as Cremona and Piacenza in Lombardy. Padua and Verona in Venetia, and Florence, Lucca and Siena in Tuscany. Some towns (Piacenza and Siena) specialized in banking, while most developed industry and crafts producing for a fairly localized

market.

The Boni Homines, the Consulate and the Arengo. towns

in

which the merchant

an important part

class

was

sufficiently

—The

powerful to play

commune were, howThe dominant class in the 11th and 12th cenwas normally the landowning nobility, whose juridical superiority as experts on local custom and as the normal arbitrators and legal witnesses was recognized by their denomination as boni homines ("good men"). The crucial stage in the formation of the in the early history of the

ever, exceptional. turies

commune came with the desire to formalize the transaction of common municipal affairs by the boni homines. The need to maintain local defenses (in particular the walls) and to regulate weights and measures and other matters pertaining to markets and fairs, as well as mutual religious activities, must normally all have played a part in shaping municipal co-operation. Such matters could not be left entirely to the bishop, who was often the de facto (though

more

rarely the de jure) local representative of the emperor's power. At Milan and certain other towns religious disputes with the bishop did much to crystallize the nascent commune, and as the community gained in strength and confidence, it tended to take over some of the functions hitherto exercised by the bishop. Thus

e.g.,

to possess the consulate

Pisa

c.

1084, Asti in

by the end of the

1093, Arezzo in

1117, at least 2i in 1130, 4 in 1138, 8 in 1140, 6 in 1141.

1098,

By

the

second half of the 12th century consuls with judicial functions iconsules causarum or pro placitis) were often differentiated from those with executive duties. In this stage of its formation the most characteristic institution of the commune was perhaps the parliament of all the citizens, the arengo, rather than the consulate. It was only slowly that the right of representatives (or even of a majority) to bind the com-

mune by

their decisions was recognized and that the transaction of business by a large gathering was abandoned as impracticable. The

was in part the result of the private and even temporary nature of the commune in its earliest manifestations. The Genoese commune or compagna was in 1157 still formed for four years only, and its terms assumed that some merchants might refuse to enter this association, although a whole century earlier an emperor had confirmed the "good customs" of Genoa's inhabitants. But during the 12th century the communes were given shape by their external relations. Some received privileges from the emperor, e.g., Pisa and Genoa in 1162, which recognized their right to elect their consuls; others formed the Lombard league (q.v.; 1167) against the same emperor, Frederick I Barbarossa. Long before this the towns had embarked on the conquest of the surrounding countryside in the attempt to secure their food supplies and to extend the area rendering them fiscal and military aid. The ecclesiastical diocese was recognized as the natural boundary to which the city could lay claim, but inevitably there were soon territorial and other disputes (Milan was at war with Pavia and other Lombard towns by the mid-12th century), and neighbours tended to become enemies. This was the great age of the citizen militia, in which nobles fought on horseback and non-nobles on foot, and the ceremonial carroccio (q.v.) was drawn into battle as the emblem of municipal patriotism. The main task of the commune was then to secure the submission of neighbouring feudatories and rural communes, and the overlordship thus gained set the town a new task in government. The Podesta The last decades of the 12th century saw the breakup of the consulate in many communes. After the commune had asserted its right to exist, temporarily dormant differences of interest within the governing class tended to emerge, and this was a time of bitter disputes. Moreover, there were difficulties about the diplomatic representation of towns by a consulate which was often divided and whose juridical position was not yet fully accepted by the emperor. Already at the peace of Venice between pope and emperor (1177) a number of communes were represented by a single rector or potestas (podesta). The advantages of granting the supreme executive position to a single individual whose position transcended the quarrels of the local consular class were soon recognized, and the institution spread rapidly. It is found at Pisa c. 1169, at Peiugia in 1177, at Milan in 1186, at Piacenza in status of the arengo

—

COMMUNE 1188, at Florence in 1193, at Siena in 1199; by the early 13th century it was almost universal. At first it alternated with the

Soon c. 1210. the podesta from another town (not

consulate, but the consuls are rarely found after it

became normal

to select

usually a neighbouring one) to ensure his neutrality in local dis-

He came with serve the commune

own

household, took an oath on arrival

putes.

his

to

loyally and held his position for a fixed pe-

riod,

which was usually

six

months or a

nized profession, in which able one post to the next.

Naturally the

commune

men

year.

His

noble, and he needed a legal training.

The podesta was a became a recog-

office

on from

specialized, traveling

did not convey full powers in

matters

all

The councils, though summoned by the podesta and presided over by him, retained control of internal and external affairs. The conciliar structure varied greatly from to this alien "city

manager."

town to town and was the subject of constant experiment (as were methods of election). Most commonly there was a great council (the de facto heir of the parliament and a small, inner "secret" council {di credenza). The great council might have as many as )

800 members (as at Milan), while the smaller council occasionally numbered 100 (as at Parma) or even more, though its size was frequently limited to 24 or even 16. council, a large part in

In addition to the regular

communal government was played by ad

hoc commissions (balie), which were often granted special powers in military, financial or constitutional matters.

—

The Popolo and the Capitano. During the age of the podesta (roughly the first half of the 13th century), power normally remained with a governing class roughly similar in composition to and, occasionally, merchants which that body of minor nobles had formed the 12th-century commune. It was natural, however, that trade and finance (and, to a lesser extent, the fortunes of agriculture should bring to the fore some men whose ancestors had not ranked among the boni homines and consuls. This was

—

—

)

particularly the case in a period in which good luck

and

skill

in

overseas trade and in banking might make a man a great deal of money in a short period. Furthermore some noble families tended In such a situation to recede in financial and social importance. there was no possibility that a closed oligarchy could retain power New men were always for itself by "freezing" the constitution. coming to the fore and requiring for reasons of finance and prestige

The govto receive a share in the government of the commune. erning class was rarely officially sealed against new entrants, but

the social largely

by

199 power

of the "magnates."

legislation

This process was pursued

denying magnates

official

position and pre-

venting them from overawing the weaker elements in the population: the declared aim of the Bolognese statutes of 1282 was "that rapacious wolves and meek lambs should be able to walk with equal steps." There was, however, no wholesale dispossession of the original governing class, nor did "popular" gains secure advantage for the workers, the popolo minute. The popolo sought to compensate by unity for lack of social prestige and military strength, but it was only one of a number of organized associations struggling to assert themselves within the all-embracing commune. Among these were the family-groups iconsorzerie) of nobles and

— linked with them —the of

Guelph and Ghibelline parties, societies magnate families whose feuds had become assimilated into a

greater system through their polarization by the two magnets of

medieval Italy, the empire and the papacy. The Rise of the Signori. The history of all the Italian communes was turbulent, both internally and externally. Warfare was constant, and mercenary cavalrymen, many of them nobles exiled from their home towns by the hostile faction, had superseded the militia. Constitutional arrangements were unstable. Dante likens Florence to a restless man, shifting constantly because he cannot The willingness of the popolo to accept a single get to sleep. leader has already been mentioned, and in any crisis, military, financial or political, men were liable to entrust their cause to one able and ambitious individual. Constitutional precautions against prolonging the period of office of a capitano or podesta could be set aside. Nor were men lacking who sought to subvert republican institutions. Feudal lords and dependents of the Hohenstaufen or Angevin rulers, demagogues, successful mercenary generals, were all prepared to accept office as a town's lord isignore) with special powers which were at first temporary but might be prolonged to life tenure and ultimately inherited by a son or other relative. In times of bitter factional dispute republican political processes, slow and lacking both secrecy and continuity, had obvious disadvantages. Hence Guelphs, Ghibellines and popular parties tended to turn to a single saviour. The earliest significant signorie appear in Venetia and Lombardy in the middle years of the 13th century: by 1237 Frederick H's ally Ezzelino da Romano was holding both Verona and Padua, and by 1255 Oberto Pelavicino was signore of Cremona, Piacenza and Pavia. From 1258 mastery at Milan alternated between two rival families, the Delia Torre

—

absorb newcomers with sufficient rapidity, it found The institution through which the men excluded from power expressed their ambitions was the popolo. The popolo was a sort of "pressure group" organized as a societas and possessing its own military structure. Essentially the organized body of nonnobles, it was frequently closely connected with

and the Visconti. The earliest Tuscan signorie are those of the condottieri Uguccione della Faggiuola at Pisa and Lucca (131316) and Castruccio Castracani, also at Lucca (1320-28). By that period the signorie had become the rule rather than the exception, and lords were accepting imperial or papal titles or vicariates to

the guilds (arti) and was divided into local regional groups, as

so through the control of a tightly knit oKgarchy.

well as craft bodies. The earliest popular societies emerged in the Lombard and Piedmontese towns in the late 12th century and early 13th, but they did not commonly capture a considerable

a series of oligarchies

if it

its

failed to

position threatened.

share of political power in the

of the 13th century.

commune

They then

until

around the middle

often gained a position whereby,

legitimize their position.

city-state that continued to be a republic into the

The main

raison-d'etre of the popolo

was the neutralization of

modern

period.

SOUTHERN FRANCE In Provence and Languedoc the Roman towns and the custom of nobles living within them survived, and in consequence communes arose in circumstances in some ways analogous to those prevailing

The institution of the consulate is found in many of these towns, and some, such as Toulouse, Avignon and Beaucaire, secured the subordination of certain neighbouring feudatories who became their "vassals." In the course of the 13th century, however, the counts of Provence and the French kings reduced these communes to a dependent position: they had never achieved the in Italy.

full political autonomy of their Italian counterparts. The development of the commune of Toulouse illustrates well how the towns depended on the external situation for the acquisition of self-rule.

At Toulouse the counts were wilhng to part with much of their control over justice, economic life and internal policing in return for the

guilds.

it did Florence, after

had dominated the commune, submitted from 1434 to the Medici, though their position as formal signori was confirmed only much later. Venice, where membership of the great council was "closed" from 1297, was the only Italian

either formally or informally, they took a large part in govern-

ment: as early as 1229 the general council at Modena had to include representatives of the guilds and popular associations, and four years later half the offices at Piacenza were allotted to the popolo. Elsewhere the popolo's institutions often existed side by side with those of the commune and exercised power in rivalry with them. At the head of the popolo a conciliar body, whose members (analogous to the consuls) were usually styled anziani, was often superseded by a single official, comparable with the podesta (he was normally from another city), namely the capitano or captain. The capitano del popolo is found at Milan in 1240, at Parma in 1244. at Florence in 1250 and very soon after this in many other towns. Later the capitano might in turn lose his predominance to a body of anziani: after 1282 the Florentine capitano was overshadowed by the six priors representing the seven major craft

Where republicanism survived

commune's

alliance, particularly during the period of the

count's resistance to the French crown (1226-29).

After this

COMMUNE

200 time, and particularly under Alphonse of Poitiers Toulouse lost its former status and liberties.

(1249-71),

Low

Countries, Ghent, Bruges, Ypres and Arras, rivaled the biggest north Italian cities in size during In the same area as these major places the later middle ages. were a number of other towns such as Douai, St. Omer and Brussels

greatest towns of the

—

—

of considerable economic importance.

Farther to the south-

Huy, Namur and Dinant. The Flemish towns were situated in a zone specially suited to become a centre of commerce, for they were at the meeting point of four major routes. London and other English ports lay close at hand. To the east there was easy access to the Rhineland and the other German towns and, by east lay Liege,

Sea routes to the west connected Flanders with and Spain and, in the later medieval period, the Mediterranean. The main connection by land was to the south, with Champagne, Burgundy and eastern France and, by Alpine passes, with Italy. This was the principal link with the Mediterranean until galleys opened up the sea route at the end of the 13th century; in the earlier period Champagne iq.v.), with its fairs, was a great centre of exchange. Trade was the first raison-d'etre of these towns and brought them to life again in the 10th century after a long period during which they had been almost effaced by Viking inroads, but in the 12th-I4th centuries most of Bruges was an exception owed their greatness less the towns to commerce than to textile manufactures; again the proximity of England was an all-important factor, for English wool was that most used for the looms of Flanders. The population of the industrial towns rose rapidly, and local production became inadequate for their food supply; they were dependent on the grain of eastern Germany and northeastern France. By the middle of the 14th century Ghent probably had more than 50,000 inhabitants, and Bruges was of comparable size. The dominance of a single industry was, however, a danger. At Ypres in 1431 more than half the workers were engaged in cloth manufacture, and already the town had been severely hit by the rise of the English sea, to the Baltic.

the Atlantic coasts of France

—

untrue to his oath binding him to the other burghers was driven into exile. The Echevins. The process whereby the counts granted a degree of self-government to these communities was a simple one.

—

FLANDERS The

man who was

—

industry.

Their political situation facilitated the acquisition by these towns of semiautonomous institutions. Most of them lay within the zone of the counts of Flanders, who held the territories west of the river Scheldt as fiefs of the French king and those to the east as fiefs of the emperor. The counts, however, lost many of their French-speaking subjects to the French kingdom Artois as a dowry in the late 12th century; Lille and Douai in 1312. The great advantage of the towns was the comparative weakness of the counts, who were willing to grant privileges in return for financial and military support. This was particularly the case in times :

of disputed succession or division within the comital family: for

example, after the murder of Count Charles the Good in 1127, when the towns helped Thierry (Dietrich) of Alsace to succeed; and again after the cession of Hainaut to John of Avesnes (1256). Ghent, which grew up at the confluence of the Scheldt and Lys, provides an example of the emergence of a trading community and of the institutions that such a community required and evolved. There had been an abbey and probably a trading settlement at this site in the early Carolingian period. It was raided and occupied by Vikings but revived after Count Baldwin II the Bold built a castle there c. 900. A new partus of traders grew up around this castle and another round the abbey of St. Bavon, one kilometre away, where an annual fair was held early in the 1 1th century. By the end of that century the two partus were linked; Ghent had four parish churches, and its cloth industry was starting to develop. Such a body of traders and craftsmen could not be content to remain under the normal feudal jurisdiction of the count. They needed exemption from feudal services, the right to mortgage their property and the power to make their own arrangements concerning market regulations and local taxation; above all they had to have jurisdiction in a special court applying a particular type of law to itinerant merchants who needed quick justice. The burghers were organized in a guild merchant and in craft guilds and themselves evolved institutions for mutual assistance; the

The Carolingian institution of a local class of law-worthy men known as echevins (scabini) acted as the bridge. In the first place a town had its own ichevins (usually numbering 12 or 13)

who judged according

to the town's law while remaining magisInsensibly their position altered, and they tended to become the judicial and, ultimately, also the executive representatives of the town itself. An important stage in this development was reached when the commune claimed the right to appoint the echevins. Nominally the count continued to appoint, but the burghers themselves made the choice de facto in many towns. The institution of the echevinage was transformed in another way by the towns: beginning as a status conferred for life, it became an annual office when it fell to the control of the burghers. The date of this change, which approximately marks that of the commune's ascendancy, is 1194 at Arras. 1209 at Ypres, 1212 at Ghent. 1228 at Douai, 1235 at Lille and 1241 at Bruges. The echevinage could become the council of the commune only when the count permitted it to usurp what had been the authority

trates of the count.

of his castellan or

claims

—as

bailiff.

Where

the lord resisted

the bishop of Liege did in his

Dinant and Maastricht

own

— the burghers instituted

echevins, namely the jicres (jiirati).

city

communal

and

at

Huy,

a rival office to the In such circumstances the

echevins maintained control over justice, though the bishop's authority might be checked by the competence of the jures in some municipal matters. This was the situation also at Cambrai, where a 50-year struggle ended in favour of the bishop after 1227.

The Flemish towns

did not win great territorial "counties" like

the Italian republics, but they did assert their authority in the

immediately neighbouring "fiat land." In 1314 Ghent forbade the production of cloth within five leagues of the town, and similar Bruges would not permit regulations were enforced elsewhere. money-changers to do business at Sluis, its own seaport. The policy of the communes, as in Italy, was normally dictated by the class of prominent citizens known to contemporary writers as In majores, ditiores (the wealthier), hani homines and so on. many places craftsmen were formally debarred from the echevinage, and normally a system was evolved combining the rotation of offices with a patrician monopoly. Even this was vulnerable and might be the victim of a cUque within the patriciate itself: at Ghent, from 1228, 39 echevins were installed in power for life, the 13 echevins of each year being accompanied in office by those of the two preceding years. In the period of Flemish decline the patricians were seriously challenged by the craft guilds, till both parties had to yield before the Burgundian dukes and their successors. Even in the 13th century there were occasional strikes, and (in 1274) an attempted rising against the echevins of Ghent by the weavers and fullers. At the beginning of the 14th century the artisans found the count an ally against the coalition of Philip IV of France, and the The battle of Courtrai (1302) saved the Flemish patricians. former party, and throughout the 14th century the crafts held on to their tenuous advantage. The constitutions of most towns were now altered in such a way as to give representation to the craft After 1369 guilds, the minor trades combining in "members." Ghent had a fixed organization of three "members," of which one consisted of poarters (merchants, etc.), one of weavers and fullers and one of the small craftsmen; the paorters chose three echevins: Flanders' relative economic the other two members, five each. decline in this period played its part in this weakening of the oligarchy. Under Jacob van Artevelde the weavers of Ghent for a time (1338—45) used the economic and diplomatic link with England to dominate all Flanders. These courageous men suffered defeat after defeat, but by the 15th century the towns themselves, never skilful at looking beyond their own immediate interests, began to yield before the encroachments of the centralizing state. Other areas were now coming to the fore economically, in particular Holland and northern Germany, but the towns could still furnish much wealth to the Burgundian dukes. Bruges fought alone

COMMUNE Good

1436-37, and Ghent did so in 1452-53. The last flicker of the old municipal spirit in Flanders was the unsuccessful revolt of Ghent against Charles V in 1539-40. against Philip the

In

ence and Languedoc (mentioned above), characteristic communal institutions developed, although the towns achieved only a limited degree of self-government. A commune or conjuratio was formed in many French towns in the 12 th century and in some as early as the 11th. The circumstances leading to this development were often, but certainly not always, revolutionary. The revolt was

and

in

securing representation in the commune's offices. The role monarchy in recognizing and fostering the communes also the opportunity of intervening in the towns and ultimately

rose against the duke of Normandy, taking advantage of his absence in England, "and they made a conspiracy which they called a commuiiio" (says the chronicler) "binding themselves to each

of depriving

Its

crisis.

This sworn association, which was the essence of did not necessarily arise in a time of violence or

purpose was to ensure internal security, justice and which the markets and

order, to bring about conditions under crafts could develop

and

flourish.

Thus the inhabitants

)

military and financial strength and a potential ally

baronial interests overlapped with his

which made of

it

own

so long as

whose it

anti-

received

a satisfied but not overmighty subject.

From

the king's point of view the commune was "a collective feudatory," whose representatives took an oath to him, the terms of which resembled closely feudal oaths of homage. By the

reign of Philip Augustus (1180-1223) at least 39 towns owed military service to the French crown, most of them providing some mounted troops or money in lieu. Poitiers owed the king service "beyond the Loire in the same places as the royal feudatories of Poitou." At the fateful battle of Bouvines (1214) Philip had the assistance of the militia of Beauvais, Corbie, Amiens, Compiegne

and Arras. Many towns also rendered feudal "aids"; Abbeville, for example, had the obligation of paying 100 livres when the king required to be ransomed and when his son was knighted or his daughter married. The strategic use of the towns was a fundamental aspect of the policy of the counts of Anjou, and in this, as in other ways, the French were willing to learn from the Angevins. Philip's charters went mainly to towns situated near the frontiers of his domain. The communes could aid him against hostile feudatories, as did Dijon against the duke of Burgundy. The towns whose functions were most specifically military were the bastides {q.v.) created by the king and other lords. Where the purpose of the foundation was mainly economic it was more often

known The

as a ville-neuve.

French communes were known as juris pairs and the towns normally had one or more councils. from their Flemish counterparts in that they had a

officers of the

or echevins,

They

it

them

of

most of

differed

their independence.

half of the 15th century, after the end of the

the French kings,

same

by favouring compliant

In the second

Hundred Years' War,

oligarchies, achieved the

centralization at the expense of the

communes

that their

Burgundian neighbours had carried out a little earlier in Flanders. After Louis XI's reign (1461-83) the very concept of a "commune" withered away, though the villes a echevinage lingered on.

GERMANY

to give

(

privileges

gave

of the

each other aid at times of need and threatened the destruction of their home, or even expulsion, to those who were false to the oath. The oath was compulsory for all members of the commune. Those who had taken it, the burgesses, were the juris, like the men of Beauvais "dwelling within the wall of the city and in the suburbs" who, as their charter says, "had sworn a commune." These communities were often small and their members primarily agriculturalists and craftsmen. With the grant of royal charters and privileges the French communes emerged from obscurity, but the association was already formed (except in the case of new foundations and might already possess its own "good customs" those of Tournai were confirmed by Philip II Augustus' charter of 1188). From the point of view of the recipient, these charters were mainly promises of protection against unjust treatment by royal officials and in particular of alleviation of arbitrary demands for services and money. If the grantor was a lay feudatory or prelate, the charter might represent a compromise with the commune concerning jurisdictional powers to be exercised by the two parties. But the lord was often the king himself, and to an increasing extent it was the crown that shaped the development and limitations of communal institutions in France. To the king the commune was a promising source of

town swore

and similar methods pre-

.

of the

commune,

100,

many other towns. As elsewhere the positions of importance were inevitably monopolized at first by a patriciate. "The rich men possess rule in the towns," says the sire de Beaumanoir, the 13th-century legal writer, but he goes on to describe "many disputes. .the poor against the rich and the rich against each other." As in Flanders, the craft guilds usually succeeded by the later medieval period in breaking into the merchants' monopoly

often against an episcopal lord (as at Laon in 1112), though in some cases a lay lord was involved: in 1070 the men of Le Mans

the

as the

vailed in

In the French kingdom, excluding the areas of Flanders, Prov-

other by oath."

known

drawn up by the council of

three

NORTHERN FRANCE

20I

mayor (maire). The mayor, however, was not always chosen by the commune. At Rouen he was selected by the duke of Normandy from a list of single leading official, usually

In certain features the development of urban institutions in Germany resembles closely that of Flanders and northern France. The most distinctive aspects of the medieval German commune are the important role of royal and princely founders and the consequences, in the later period, of the weakness of the monarchy, the towns then joining in leagues that sought to enforce law and order and to weaken the competing power, the territorial princes. In many western German towns near the Rhine, such as Cologne, Mainz and Worms, occupation was continuous from the Roman period, though there was a break in local institutions. The nucleus of the later commune was normally the settlement of traders {Wik), growing in size and importance during the Ottonian and Salian periods (936-1125) as commercial contacts with the Baltic and Slav areas increased, as German settlement in the east extended and as the merchant's way of life became less peripatetic. These trading communities, in which some quasi-political functions were normally exercised by the guild merchant, fostered their internal peace by an oath binding the burghers to mutual protection and brotherhood, forbidding private vengeance and threatening exclusion for those breaking the oath. Sometimes the earliest reference to a conjuratio suggests an association formed for specific action, particularly against an episcopal lord (as at

Mainz

Worms

in

1073, at

1101-11 and at Cologne in 1106 and 1112). Even when there was no such purpose the commune inevitably tended to accrete powers extending to economic regulations, taxation for the upkeep of defenses and the right to demand military service from the burghers. The merchants also required their own law giving their market special protection and granting them freedom to alienate land, etc. Through their possession of a separate law and their police powers the towns acquired much jurisdiction and often put forth a formidable mass of legislation. The great expansion to the east was accompanied by the foundation of communes, though this movement was by no means confined to newly settled territories. About 50 communes are known to have achieved recognition before the end of the 12th century, and the number had increased by about 500 by the end of the 13th. The greatest founders were the higher nobles. Typical foundations were that of Freiburg im Breisgau by Duke Berthold III of Zahringen (1120) and of Liibeck by Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony (c. 1158). In each case the site was already settled, and the founder chose to grant privileges to an existing community in return for financial and military advantages. Freiburg, intended to act as a market centre for the trading routes passing through the Black forest, recruited merchants from all southwestern Germany; the duke accepted, or may actually have organized, its conjuratio. Lijbeck, destined to an even greater future, was already a Baltic trading station before Henry the Lion privileged it, setting up its merchants with burgage building plots. Most of the "new" towns were intended as markets for local crafts rather than as in 1077, at

Speyer

in

—

COMMUNE

202 centres on main trading

routes,

and landowners and ministeriales

often remained an important element in the population. In the Rat (council) the commune's officials bore the titles which seem virtually synonymous of ichevins, jurh or consuls. The last of these, an importation from Italy, is found at LUbeck

—

in 1201, Erfurt in 1212 and Freiburg in 1218; soon after this it had become general in the Rhineland, Saxony and Swabia. These officers were normally appointed for a year and frequently numbered 12 (occasionally 24). There was also commonly one head Town charters normally confirmed the official, the Biir germeister. constitutional status of the Rat and sanctioned the principle (which town's population against erstwhile lords') that residefended the dence in the town for a year and a day conferred freedom. In Germany, as elsewhere, a patriciate tended to gain control of the towns in the earlier period, but during the 14th century this monopoly was diluted, the crafts normally securing representation in the Rat; e.g., there was an equal share between patrician and guild representatives at Freiburg, Strasbourg, Zijrich, Vienna and Mainz. Royal policy in Germany missed an opportunity in failing to Frederick II went so far as to legislate foster the communes. (ineffectively') in 1232 against all urban (and interurban) "leagues and communities." With the breakdown of central power after Frederick's death (1250), the towns attempted to supply the need for an institution that would preserve the peace and protect their interests against the nobles. The Rhenish confederation of 125457 finally numbered more than 100 members. The Hanse towns, the cities trading in the Baltic under the leadership of Liibeck, were co-operating long before the official formation of their political league in the 13SOs (see Hanseatic League). A league of Swabian towns formed in 1376 united with a new Rhenish league in 1381, but despite the rise to commercial and industrial greatness of some south German towns, such as Augsburg and Niirnberg, the princes were generally successful (save in the Swiss confederation) against the towns, which were divided and gained no imperial

assistance.

ARAGON AND

CASTILE

During the reconquest many Spanish towns were founded by the Castilian and Aragonese kings and by lay and ecclesiastical lords in territory previously under Muslim rule. The purpose of this movement, which was at its height in the 12 th century, was to provide military, administrative and economic centres for newly colonized areas. The privileges (fueros) granted to these towns made of them "judicial islands" with their own law and market regulations. The status of these communes favourably affected that of the older Christian towns, but most of the Iberian towns gained no great degree of independence; there, as elsewhere, the organization of the town as a community in some ways made it easier for the lord to enforce his will.

Altogether exceptional was the position of the great port of Barcelona within the countship of Barcelona under the Aragonese kingdom. The formation of

hermandades (fraternities) between towns is a phenomenon closely comparable to the leagues of German towns. The major Castilian hermandades appeared at times of royal weakness: for example, in 1282 (first hermandad general'); in 1295 (many hermandades formed, that of Leon and Galici'a having 33 members); in 1296 (the "sea-alliance" of Cantabrian coastal towns); in 1313; and in 1315. The normally close link of the towns with the monarchy in Spain is illustrated by their role in the parliaments of Aragon and

Town representatives were summoned to the Cortes of 1188 and to that of Catalonia in 1214. They were called assembly during the reign of Alfonso X (1252-84) and often by his successors. As early as 1283 the towns of Catalonia secured a promise from their ruler that they would be consulted annually. See also references under "Commune (Medieval)" in the Index volume. Bibliography.—Genero;.- M. 'V. Clarke, The Medieval City State (1926); N. Ottokar, / Comuni cittadini del Medio Evo (1936); H. Pirenne, Medieval Cities (1925); J. Lestocquoy, Les Villes de Flandre et d'ltalie sous le gouvernement des patriciens (1952); E. Ennen, Castile.

Leon

in

at least ten times to the Castilian

Friihgeschichte der europdischen Stadt (1953); F. Rorig, Die europiiische Stadt und die Kultur des Biirgertums in Mittelalter (1955).

(OF PARIS) J. H. Mundy and P. Riesenberg, The Medieval Town (1958). Economic background: M. M. Postan and E. E. Rich (eds.), The Cambridge Economic History oj Europe, vol. ii (1952).

Italy: J, Luchaire, Les Dimocralies italiennes (1920), Les Sociitis du Xllle au XVe siicle (1933); C. W. Previt^-Orton, "The Italian Cities Till c. 1200," in The Cambridge Medieval History, vol. v (1926) G. 'Volpe, Medio evo italiano (1928) E. Rota (ed.), Questioni di storia medievale (no date); G. Luzzatto, An Economic History of Italy from the Fall of the Roman Empire to the Beginning of the Sixitaliennes

;

;

teenth Century (1961). Flanders: H. Pirenne, Belgian Democracy: Its Early History (1915). France: E. C. Lodge, "The Communal Movement, Especially in France," in The Cambridge Medieval History, vol. v (1926); C. Petit-Dutaillis, Les Communes ftanfaises (1947). Germany: H. Planitz, Die deutsche Stadt in Mittelalter (1954). Spain: J. M. Font Rius, "Oriscnes del regimen municipal de Catalufia," Anuario de Historia del Derecho Espanol, vol. xvi and xvii (1945^6) L. Suarez Fernandez, "Evolucion historica de las hermandades castellanas," Cuadernos de historia de Espana, vol. xvi (1951). Histories of individual towns should also be consulted. (D. P. W.) ;

COMMUNE

(OF PARIS,

insurrection in Paris which lasted It is difficult to

causes of the

1871),

the

name

from March 18

given to the

May

to

28, 1871.

determine the relative importance of the various

Commune. The

revolutionary tradition of a section of the Parisian population, which had been revived toward the end of the second empire by the struggle of the republicans against the government of Napoleon III, was exacerbated tional concourse of circumstances.

Paris were exhausted and enervated suffering of a long siege (see

by an excepIn Feb. 1871 the people of by the physical and mental Cut off from

Franco-German 'War)

.

contact with the provinces for four months, they did not react to events in the same way. The election of a national assembly with royalist tendencies,

composed of deputies from the

rural areas,

aroused their fears that the monarchy might be restored. The occupation by the Germans of a part of Paris inflamed their paMoreover, the assembly committed the error triotic sentiment. of canceling the moratorium on rents and bills and terminating the payment of national guardsmen. The feelings of Parisians were further wounded by the assembly's decision to sit at 'Versailles. In order to maintain order Adolphe Thiers, who was head of the executive of the republic, decided to disarm the national guard, which had constituted itself into a "republican federation" with its own central committee; hence the name fidiris given to the soldiers of the Commune. On March 18 Gen. Joseph 'Vinoy attempted unsuccessfully to remove the cannons of the national guard parked at Montmartre and at Belleville. Some of 'Vinoy's troops went over to the insurgents, who shot two generals (Claude Martin Lecomte and Clement Thomas) who fell into their hands. At the insistance of Thiers the government withdrew to 'Versailles. Confused negotiations then took place between the central committee and the maires of Paris on the one hand, and the maires of Paris and the government on the other. However, the heated atmosphere in which they were held rendered the negotiations abortive. Municipal elections arranged by the central comThose elected, dominated by mittee took place on March 26. extremists, formed themselves into a "Commune of Paris" from which the moderate elements withdrew. When the news of the insurrection became known "communalist" movements on a minor scale broke out at Lyons, St. £tienne, Toulouse, Narbonne, Marseilles, Limoges and Le Creusot, but were immediately suppressed. After the withdrawal of the moderates the Commune comprised: 17 members of the international (notably Gustave Lefran^ais, Eugene Varlin and Leo Franckel), mainly men of the artisan class who wanted social reform by legal means; 8 supporters of Auguste Blanqui (q.v.), who favoured a social revolution through insurrec-

and dictatorship; 8 members of the central committee (including Varlin and two Blanquists) chiefly concerned with military

tion

,

action against the government at Versailles; and about 30

men

belonging on the whole to the revolutionary tradition of 1793 (such as Louis Charles Delescluze, Felix Pyat [qq.v.'\, Jules Miot and Charles Ferdinand Gambon), who were for the most part men of the middle class journalists, students or clerks. Apart from halfa-dozen diclassh (such as Jules Valles, Raoul Rigault and Charles Theophile Ferre [q.v.']) and two who were mentally unbalanced, they were honest men, fanatical, full of illusions and without ex-

—

perience.

—

COMMUNICATION Within the Commune, in which men of middle-class origin were classes, there were two distinct trends. The larger group, chiefly middle class, was centralist in outlook and favoured a Parisian dictatorship which would impose its rule on the whole of France. The other, predominantly working class and inspired by the international, wanted to set up a federation of equal communes throughout the country. At no time did the Commune succeed in forming a coherent leadership (Blanqui, who might have headed the movement, was in prison It was divided into commissions (executive, miliin the south). tary, general security, finances, justice, labour, industry and trade, public services, education and external relations), the chief of these The l^ing the executive, which was dominated by Blanquists. Commune did not find the time to deal with social reforms. The central committee of the federation of the national guard wanted to keep control of military matters in its own hands, and this involved it in a dispute with the leaders appointed by the Commune. There were in all 30,000 effective combatants, but they were never

more numerous than those from the working

properly organized. Thiers raised an army of 130,000 under the command of the marshal de MacMahon. The latter moved slowly and his troops took the offensive on April 2. On the following day at Rueil, Bellevue and Villacoublaye the fidiris attempted a sortie, but this showed that they were incapable of mounting an offensive. MacMahon's troops captured the fort of Issy on April 30, the fort of Vanves on May 14 and entered Paris through an undefended sec"la It took the army seven days tion of the town on May 21. semaine sanglante" to reconquer Paris. The federis put up a courageous defense, establishing barricades and setting fire to pubhe buildings before withdrawing. The last battles took place on May 28 in the Pere Lachaise cemetery (where an annual ceremony of remembrance is still held). During the final week's fighting the Communards executed about 60 hostages, including the archbishop of Paris, Georges Darboy.

—

The

regular troops shot a large

The

arms.

total

number

number

of insurgents captured in

of deaths caused

by the insurrection

is

Estimates vary from 17,000 to 36,000 but 20,000 seems a likely figure. After the suppression of the Commune there were 38,000 arrests. The courts-martial which were set up sentenced 270 people to death (there were, however, only 26 executions), 410 to forced labour, 3,989 to transportation to a restricted area, 3,507 to simple transportation, 1,259 to special detention, 3,398 to terms of imprisonment, i22 to banishment, 117 to surveillance by the police and 9 to fines; 56 children were sent to reformatory inThose sentenced to be transported were sent to New stitutions. Caledonia. The repression affected the faubourgs or outlying quarters of Paris in particular, that is to say the districts inhabited by petty craftsmen: more than 50% of the painters, tilers, leadworkers, zincworkers and shoemakers, and 30% of the cabinetmakers disappeared. Karl Marx, however, saw the Commune as an episode in the struggle of the organized proletariat. There were two amnesties, the first on Jan. 17, 1879, and the second on July 19, 1880.

unknown.

— F.

Lepelletier, Histoire de la Commune de 1871, Karl P. Lissagaray, Histoire de la Commune (1876) in France (1871) L. Fiaux, Histoire de la guerre civile de 1S71 (1879) (Ad. D.) G. Bourgin, La Commune (1907).

Bibliography.

3 vol.

(1911-13)

Marx, The Civil

;

;

War

;

;

COMMUNICATION

ha^ several different and equally acword has been found to

ceptable meanings, but no better English

denote a process both interactive and purposeful. "Communication" derives from the Latin comtnunicare, "to make common, to share, to impart, to transmit." In this article the interpretation of making common or sharing of something between two or among several persons or groups of people is preferred. This definition stresses the interaction that distinguishes

203

Measuring: Recording Instruments; Information Theory.) The purpose of the thermostat, for example, is to keep a room at some wanted temperature, a function it performs by reacting to lower temperatures so as to trigger the heating system, and to higher ones by closing the heating and starting the cooling system. This process also appears in the instinctive adaptations to environmental changes as made by such biological organisms as the termites (see Social Insects General Remarks on Insect Societies), and in the international relations of a democratic state whose government receives wide popular support and is served by an efCommunication applies to each ficient intelligence organization. of these examples, from the thermostat to the national government, insofar as the reactions to its messages or questions enable the system or organization to maintain the direction of its efforts toward the efficient accomplishment of its purposes. Sources of Evidence. As a life process, communication extends beyond the frontiers of present knowledge and so beyond the range of present social controls. Hence this article attempts merely to outline the process with reference to the frontiers and to suggest some effects of public communication upon contemporary institutions and affairs. The communication process has been most profitably studied in such particular biological organisms as The processes of public communication, as bees and termites. affected by developments of the mass media within the 20th century, have been more clearly explained in such particular situations as a general election than they have been explained by re:

—

liable theoretical principles.

A

theory of pubhc communication sufficiently valid to support even the short-run effects of public communications on public issues, e.g., information campaigns, is reliable predictions concerning

still

far to seek.

Evidence contributing to a general theory has been supplied by a wide range of arts and sciences, ranging from the arts of rhetoric and literary criticism through the biological and social sciences The need to synthesize and integrate the evito mathematics. dence supplied by each of the many contributing sources is stressed by most workers in the field. One of the more successful attempts to meet this need was made by Kenneth P. Adler in The Communication Process (1959), the bibliography of which includes works in philosophy; the rhetorical, dramatic and literary arts, in part applied by hnguistics and semantics; learning theory; Gestalt psychology; psychoanalytic psychology; sociology; political science; psychophysics and mathematics; theoretical models; and communication effects.

The Public-Communication

Process.

—A

bird's-eye conspec-

from this wide range of evidence is afforded by Wilbur Schramm's chapter: "How Communication Works" in The Process and Effects of Mass Communication The substance may be partially represented by the (1954). tus of the process emerging

diagram.

The initial component mind of the sender;

an idea or impulse in not be sufficiently clear to be communicable to the receiver. The second component is the formal expression (encoding) of the idea, which constitutes The third component is the receiver's the message, or signal. interpretation (decoding) of the message as received from the sender directly, and also as received indirectly via the various publics concerned with the issue; for example, in a national steel strike, messages between the union and management have such publics as congress, chambers of commerce, manufacturers needing the

of the process

the idea

may

is

or

may

communications from

other messages, and stresses the effects of a message. Only by the appreciable effects of, or reactions to, a message can a com-

munication be distinguished from a message that

is

both under-

stood and rejected.

The

relations

between the purposive and interactive functions have been clarified by analogies with automa(See Instruments, Electrical

of communications tions,

such as servomechanisms.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS. (*PUBLICS ARE GROUPS ASIDE FROM THE SENDER AND THE RECEIVER WHO RECEIVE MESSAGES INDIRECTLY. See TEXT)

COMMUNICATION

204.

The other unions, and, of course, the public at large. fourth component consists of the receiver's response to the meswhich may or may not come to the attention of the sender of the original message. If they do, they constitute a fifth component, the "feedback"; and the sender's interpretation or desteel,

sage, reactions

coding of this response to his message would complete one round of the communication cycle. This one round is sometimes decisive, as when one world power states an issue of global importance and Normally receives a dear answer from another world power. this first round is merely preliminary to many other rounds, each adding something to what both the sender and the receiver previously knew' about the other's position and hence about the posSuch intersibilities of some mutually satisfactory compromise. actions may, of course, serve both to sharpen hostilities and to compromise them. Evidence supplied by the various branches of knowledge mentioned above concerns each component of the process as overFor example, the second simplified by Schramm's conspectus. component expressing an idea persuasively to a given audience has occupied many of the best minds of all ages and all cultures. The bare bones of the evidence include: (1) how to compel attention to the message, involving many of the forensic, histrionic and literary arts as developed and variously applied by different civilizations and cultures; and (2) how to carry the message to the given audience. The latter involves the techniques of adapting the message so closely to the dominating values, motives and aspirations of the audience that the audience is inspired and eagerly welcomes the message. Implications of similar depth and scope could be stated with reference to other components of the communication cycle, and particularly with reference to the role of the audience. The influence of audiences upon the public communications they receive is apparently greater than the influence

—

—

of the communications on the audiences.

The Communication Revolution.

—Fairly

the Industrial Revolution (1750-1850) in

its

comparable with

effects

upon

socio-

economic and political institutions is the world-wide impact of mass media, such as wireless transmissions of spoken words and photography in natural colours. The technologies developed at the outset of the 20th century enabled millions to hear, see and read the same messages at about the same time, whereas only hundreds could do so before; and the communication revolution is, in the second half of the 20th century, far from completed. The high costs of installing and operating the mass media could be offset only by obtaining a favourable mass response; e.g., television in the U.S. To obtain this response, great efforts were made to discover what the masses most wanted to be told or shown and then to tell or show them just that. The new mass media were indeed revolutionary to the degree that they shifted the origin of mass messages from prominent individuals statesmen, scholars, popular authors and others to the masses themselves.

—

Effects of Public

Communication

—

—The

effects of

messages

mass media are naturally more interesting to more people than any other aspect of the communication process: they have accordingly been most diligently investigated. Franklin Fearing, via the

"Social Impact of the Mass Media of Communication," chapter VIII of Mass Media and Education (1954), the 53rd Yearbook,

Part

of the National Society for the Study the following appraisal of the evidence to (a) The responses to content of the mass media of are determined by a large number of factors, only one content itself. II,

makes

of Education,

date:

communication which is the

of

(b) More specifically, the relationship of the interpreter to content has the characteristics of perception, the course of which is determined by his need-value-motivational system, the total situation in which the process occurs, and the content. [Fearing uses "interpreter" to mean what has been here called "the receiver of the message" or "the audience."] (c) The outcomes ("effects") of exposure to particular content extremely diverse and cannot be predicted in any particular case cept on the basis of comprehensive knowledge of the content itself, need-value system of the interpreter, and the characteristics of

are exthe the

total situation as perceived by the interpreter. (d) The outcomes or impact of exposure to content may or may not take the form of overt behaviour. (e) Whatever form the response to content may take, covert or

overt, it is always dynamic in the sense that it serves the socialpsychological needs of the interpreter. (f) In general, the content of the mass media reflects existing value systems of the society in which they occur.

Among

the plausible effects of public communications the fol-

lowing are generally assumed: (1) integrating the society by promoting consensus on basic policies; (2) stabilizing the society by supporting majorities against dissident minorities; (3) facilitating public administration by advising officials of community problems and advising citizens of official policies and actions; (4) strengthening national defenses by reporting both external and internal threats to national security; (5) extending the range of discourse by popularizing new terms, technical and cultural; (6) reinforcing social customs, such as etiquette or personal health practices; (7) stimulating fads and fashions. One of several probable consequences of the

revolution

is

that

public

opinions

are

rather

communication reinforced

than

changed by mass communications. The changes were and are largely by interpersonal communications. The conditions that help mass communications change public opinions include

made

the following: (1)

when

the audience addressed

is

directly reached

by the given medium and is open-minded on the issue; (2) when the content and style of the communication stress events more than opinions, appeal more to emotions than to reason, talk the language (exploit familiar concepts) of the audience, are not blocked by competing communications and attack opposing opinions indirectly; (3) when the media or channels used are personal, are directed at opinion leaders and are specialized; i.e., focused

on appropriate interest groups; and (4) when the subject or problem discussed is new, is far away in time and space, is of relatively minor importance to the people addressed and emphasizes the personalities involved. (This outline is based on Bernard Berelson's "Communications and Public Opinion" in Communications in Modern Society, ed. by Wilbur Schramm [1948]). Institutions Involved All institutions of national scope and many smaller ones, in western cultures at least, were affected by social forces stimulated by the new mass media. Some institutions were largely restructured, or reconstituted, including the basic institutions of government, justice, church, press, schools, commerce and industry. The degree of change in the structure, if not the goals, of each institution was largely proportional to two

—

factors in combination: (1) the extent of arbitrary authority the had previously exercised; and (2) the size of the

institution

populations directly affected by the institutions. The more authoritarian and widely influential institutions were the more obliged to heed the popular criticism of their operations as the

mass media steadily and geometrically increased the number of articulate critics by broadcasting the information needed to make their protests effective. Such institutions as the foreign ministries of major world powers were forced to change their procedures when both the problems and the approaches of "secret diplomacy" were broadcast by the mass media. Mass communication thus tended to move international negotiations from the smoke-filled

room

to the global

expanse of broadcast nationalist propagandas.

Bernard Berelson's over-all generalization of the available evidence on the effects of mass communication is as follows: "The

—

nature of the audience its social position, attitudes, interests, intelligence, level of information, educational status, personality traits, etc. has a determining influence on what communications will be given attention; how they will be perceived and interpreted; and what effects they will have." (Letter of Bernard Berelson to Douglas Waples.) This goes far to explain why and how the mass media, during the first half of the 20th century, managed to equalize, occasionally to reverse, the previously top-heavy ratio between the authority of the officers and policy makers of an institution and the proposals supported by the publics affected. Examples may be cited from a few key institutions. Commerce and Industry. The mass media were naturally first exploited in the western industrialized nations by the advertising agencies, in the other less industrialized nations by the politicians. In between was the British Broadcasting corporation (and its imitators in Australia, Canada and other members of the Commonwealth of Nations), which undertook to protect radio and tele-

—

—

'

COMMUNION— COMMUNISM from control by either commercial or political interests. Because the underdeveloped countries were less able to operate technically efficient services, the effects of the new media upon In their institutions were less revolutionary but still apparent. the industrially developed countries the mass media made the advertising industry so rich that it could spend much more money on communication research than any other institution could afSuch research enabled the advertising agencies to sell more ford. advertising, and the high-pressure mass advertising doubtless sold more goods and services, with inevitable inflationary effects on the national economies. Market analysis followed by mass advertising proved so efficient in selling commodities at home that the United States government was persuaded to employ similar methods in vision

selling its policies abroad.

shows the

effects of

The evidence

mass appeals

the seriousness of the issue:

moved from one toothpaste

so far, as suggested above,

to be inversely proportional to

the masses are

much more

easily

or cigarette to another of similar

quality and price than they are

moved by

the mass media

change their views on economic, political or other social issues. The mass markets developed by mass communication had an

more highly industrialized nations, upon management and labour in industries of national scope. Management discovered that wages high enough to enable employees to become consumers of the industry's prodappreciable effect, in the the relations between

ucts paid double dividends. self-interest,

was

inclined,

Hence, capitalism, for reasons of

by the

leveling

effects

the

of

mass

media, toward labour policies progressively socialistic. The social psychologies explaining the Political Institutions. effects of the mass media on commerce and industry also explain Mass communicatheir effects on political and other institutions. tion stimulated urbanization: increased both social and geographical mobility: increased impersonality by enabling people to live in a city without any close friends; accelerated social changes. These and other effects of the communication revolution tended to substitute the shotgun for the rifle in presenting public issues The issues had to be stated to the voters in democratic states. broadly in order to elicit a mass response; hence, the more closely analytic (rifle) presentation was discouraged. The most obvious effect of the mass media on political decisions was thus to substitute centralized propaganda for small group consensus. The mass media substituted stereotypes for statements

—

on personal experience, and the substitution had not yet proved advantageous in the second half of the 20th why do we insist on century. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., asked ". propagating abroad stereotypes which impress few foreigners and The New have long ceased to represent the American reality." York Times Book Review, December 20, 1959, Arthur M. Schlesinger's review of As Others See Us: The United States Through Foreign Eyes.) The Schools. The educational curricula of most modern states normally lag five or more years behind the realities of the technical and social problems that the schools teach the oncoming genHistorically, the development of educational erations to meet. theory has been guided by successive popular philosophies and social values as interpreted by scholars authorized to prescribe the curricula. The mass media have tended to democratize the authority of scholarship by slanting the curricula of the schools and universities toward what the students want to learn. The Press. Newspapers, magazines and books have been called slow media. Their mass influence is delayed by the time required to read and react to the reported details of a significant event or to an editorial analysis of it. As an advertising medium the press had certain advantages which it fully exploited. The result was an effort by publications addressed to the general public to write what their readers wanted to be told. In short, the influence of the readers on the press became greater than the influence of the editors on their readerships. Conclusion. The mass communication media had already by the second half of the 20th century produced important changes in the policies and organizations of many basic social institutions. Further changes may be expected until the effects of public communication on public issues are sufficiently explained to permit of opinions based

.

.

(

—

—

—

—

Reader in Public Opinion and Communication, 2nd ed. (195.^) Stuart Chase and Marian Tyler, Power of Words (1954) Carl I. Hovland, Irving L. Janis and Harold H. Kelley, Communication and Persuasion: Charles R. Wright, Psychological Studies of Opinion Change (1953) Mass Communication (l9S9) Jurgen Ruesch and Gregory Bateson, Communication: the Social Matrix of Psychiatry (1951); Karl W. Deutsch, "On Communication Models in the Social Sciences," Public Opinion Quarterly, 16:356-360 (Fall 1952); John W. and Matilda White Rilev, "Mass Communication and the Social System" in SociElihu Katz, ology Today, ed. by Robert K. Merton et al. (1959) "The Two-Step Flow of Communication: an Up-to-Date Report on an Hypothesis," P-ublic Opinion Quarterly, 21:61-68 (Spring 1957) Joseph ;

;

;

;

;

;

T, Klapper. to

205

Such explanation requires an integration of the evidence supplied by the several fields of knowledge mentioned earlier, the integration required to produce a reliable theory of public communication in the modern world. See also Language; Propaganda; Public Opinion; Semantics, General; Semantics in Linguistics. Bibliography. Bernard Berclson and Morris Janowitz (eds.), A a society to control the effects.

"What

We Know

Mass Communica-

.^bout the Effects of

Opinion Quarterly, 21:454-474 (Winter 1957-58) Irving Charles W. Morris, Signs, J. Lee, How to Talk With People (1952) Language and Behavior (1946) Douglas Waples, "Publicity vs. DiploDouglas Waples, macy," Public Opinion Quarterly (Spring 1956) Bernard Berelson and Franklyn Bradshaw, What Reading Does to (D. Wa.) People (1940). tion," Public

;

;

;

;

COMMUNION, HOLY,

one of the commonest terms in English for the Christian Eucharist. The Authorized Version translated I Cor. x, 16: "The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not the communion of the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not the communion of the body of Christ?" In strict usage, the term refers to participation in the sacrament

and

to

reception of the elements, but from this meaning it has been applied to the entire sacramental action, especially in those denominations where such practices as the adoration of the Host

do not obtain and where, consequently, the sacramental action consists almost completely of eating and drinking in common. See also Eucharist. (J. J. Pn.) a term used to denote systems of social organization based upon common property, or an equal distribution of income and wealth. In the past there were many small communist communities, most of them on a religious basis, generally under the inspiration of a literal interpretation of passages in the Scripture. Some early or "LUopian" socialists of the 19th century followed a similar course, though they replaced the religious emphasis by a rational and philanthropic motivation. Best known among them were Robert Owen (1771-1858), who founded New Harmony in Indiana (1825), and Charles (Francois) Fourier (1772-1837), whose disciples organized settlements in the United States after the model of his original "phalanx," the most famous of which was Brook Farm in West Roxbury, Mass. (1841-47). In 1848 the word communism acquired a new meaning when it was used as identical with socialism by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (qq.v.) in their famous Communist Manifesto. (See also Marxism.) Communist writers have continued to use the word socialism to denote the type of social order known as communism

COMMUNISM,

English-speaking countries. did not find the basis for the communist movement in assumptions but in the new social sciences. Living in the century of confident faith in science and of a rapid

in

Marx

religious or ethical

industrial revolution, he claimed as a disciple of

Georg Hegel an work

infallible certainty for his analysis of the historical forces at

in society. He regarded the changing economic structure as the foundation of social life. He looked upon the industrial working class as the bearer of a new order which would emerge on a world-wide scale as the result of an immanent historical process

using the class

war

as its vehicle.

Because Marx's doctrine was ambiguous on many points, esperegarding its application and the future course of its realization, it gave rise to various interpretations, the most noted Because of being those developed by Russian revolutionaries. the success of the Russian Revolution the term communism becentury and in 20th with ideas practices of the the came associated Russian Marxists, and particularly of those who became the developers of the soviet system of government. The Origins of Communism. Communism as developed in cially

—

COMMUNISM

2o6

Russia may be traced back to the foundation in 1883 of the Group for the Emancipation of Labour by G. V. Plekhanov and P. B. Axelrod. The latter, deeply influenced by the doctrines of Karl Marx, which were just beginning to exercise a wide influence on Russian socialism, broke with the older Populists, who had counted upon a peasant revolution as the source of Russian emancipation. The Group for the Emancipation of Labour preached the doctrine that the main pivot of revolutionary success must be the organized Because of its consequent emphasis upon the working class. class structure of society the Group may be regarded as the first

Marxian organization in Russia. But it was not until the founding cratic party, later to

in Russia of a Social Demobe called Communist party {see Communist

Parties), that the special characteristics of communism as a Intraparty debate clarified these characterdoctrine matured. Some members of the party believed that the first essential istics.

work was to win working-class adherents by pushing their economic claims to better industrial conditions; the vaster task of capturing the state was, in their judgment, not yet ripe. Others, of whom Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, known as Lenin {q.v.), was the most outstanding, insisted that economic discontent must be from the outset merely the base from which the capture of the bourgeois state by the working class is organized. The first group (P. B. Struve, S. N. Prokopovich, E. D. Kuskova) insisted that the overthrow of tsarism was not a duty of the working class; the latter should occupy itself with matters like hours of labour and rates of wages. Proponents of this policy were called Economists. Their opponents (Lenin, L. Martov, Plekhanov) were known later as Iskrists from the title of their journal Iskra (founded in 1900). The period from 1898 until 1903 was the most critical in the development of the doctrine of communism, for ideas were in flux.

The number

of adherents of the

grew as students poured into

it

from

new revolutionary universities

school

and technical

schools, founding groups of every shade of socialist opinion.

The

development, moreover, of liberal bodies like the Union for Liberation, of which Pavel Milyukov was leader, raised in acute form

Democrats to the There were problems, further, as to how

the question of the relationship of the Social radical bourgeoisie.

was desirable

to encourage those isolated acts of terrorism was so full. The nascent Democratic party was then only a loosely confederated system of semiautonomous groups, doctrinally united upon the ultimate goal of creating a communist society as preached by Marx, but with no clear view either of method or of order of far

it

of which Russian history at this period Social

Communism was

to be distinguished

from Blanquism and

ter-

The former pinned

its faith to sudden mass action without regard to time and place; the latter had confidence in the exemplary value of isolated acts such as assassination. The communist

rorism.

was more realistic. A successful revolution, outcome of careful preparation applied to a of circumstances. laid

down

Insurrection, as

Marx

in his

five rules as its guiding principles.

must never be played with; once

view, was the

suitable conjuncture

said, is

an art

;

and Lenin

Insurrection,

first,

has begun, it must be carried on to the bitter end. When, secondly, the time has been chosen, the revolutionists must mass at the proper place forces superior to those of the enemy; otherwise they will be overwhelmed. Once begun, thirdly, the offensive is fundamental, because, as Marx pointed out, "the defensive is death to the insurrection." Surprise, fourthly, is fundamental; and the moment to choose is

when

it

the forces of government are scattered.

finally,

is

vital;

and the announcement of

Moral daily,

superiority,

even hourly,

successes has great importance in depressing the enemy, in con-

and in keeping the masses on your side. Surrounding all must be the ultimate perspective of audacity without which supreme success is impossible. Revolution, therefore, may be said, from the angle of socialism, to depend on three conditions. First, it must be not a conspiracy nor a party move Secondly, it but the rise of the revolutionary working class. must have the masses on its side and must therefore build its appeal on their most urgent demands. Thirdly, it must break out solidating the offensive

at the

crux of rising activity

change and at the

moment

among

the friends of revolutionary

of greatest indecision on the part of

the enemy.

The working

The communist power involves the dictatorship essential to crush out opposition and to

class is thus

brought to power.

insisted that the preservation of

of the proletariat.

It is

shatter the institutions of the defeated regime.

Revolution

is

war and until there is complete acquiescence in the victor's terms, the methods of war alone are suitable to it. "The enemy," said Lev (Leon) Trotski, "must be made harmless, and this means he must, in wartime, be destroyed." For, willing the end, the communist cannot wipe his hands of the means. Hesitation, weakness, worship of democracy, only stimulate the forces of and prevent the consolidation of the new dictatorship is exercised by the Communist party because: (1) its members have been tried and can be trusted; and (2) they represent the real will of the workers that has been The dictatorship is a suppressed and obscured by capitalism. pity, a false

counterrevolution regime.

The

priority in objectives.

trust for the revolution that, in

Debate in the years between 1903 and 1917 clarified the aims and the character of the instrument of revolution, namely the Communist party, whose opportunity to develop communism in

mission to which the working class is historically called. Violence therefore wins the revolution and dictatorship consolidates it. The transition to socialism is accomplished in two stages. In the first, the oppression of classes disappears, and, with it, the state, which is merely the instrument of class oppression. The proletariat seizes power and by using it to destroy

practice

came

in

1917.

As

to

the aims,

some party members

indicated reverence for universal suffrage and popular determination of the future

government of Russia through a constitutional

its

turn,

is

a fulfillment of the

convention. Others, including Lenin, thought such aims secondary and subordinate to the fomenting of revolution; the hegemony of the proletariat seemed to them fundamental. They thought

The the class structure of society ceases to be a proletariat. instruments of production are socialized. But coercive power is

working

elements in society and also sacrifice of the freedoms formulated by the French and American Revolutions as well as of a democratically elected assembly. The Consolidation of Doctrine. From debates prior to 1917

accustomed to the new regime. Government therefore continues, though growing acceptance of the new society means growing democratization of social processes. This, however, does not mean parliamentarianism, which is merely a bourgeois form of government, but the soviet system which combines the advantages

communism matured

upon Marx's

of the territorial with the virtues of producers' representation.

assumptions which communist leaders had inherited from the pioneers of 1883. To this Marxian base was added doctrine distilled from experience of the revolutionaries, especially that derived from the abortive attempt in 1905 to seize power from a

Formal democracy is replaced in the first stage by what the communist called "the revolutionary dynamic of living forces," which means that all elements in society except the working class are deliberately excluded from power. Great industrial enterprises, the banks, the means of communication and the large landed estates must be confiscated. Wholesale commerce should be nationalized; foreign trade must become a government monopoly. The means of propaganda, the press and education, must be Small business may be left confined to working-class direction. untouched, because it is futile to think that communism can be established at a stroke. Measures must be taken to associate intellectual technicians with the new order and to neutralize the

that revolutionary success required dictatorship of the class over all other

—

tsarist

War.

as a political doctrine resting

government weakened by defeats in the Russo-Japanese Fundamental to all communist thinking was the unshakable triumph of the working class in revolution

belief in the inevitable

and the equally unshakable conviction that to achieve victory the working class must separate itself from bourgeois elements in society and fight them to destruction. Emphasis was upon violence in seizing power and complete denial of the possibility of utilizing

parliamentary institutions to achieve working-class aims.

still

necessary because the minds and hearts of

men

are not

easily

COMMUNISM peasant classes by organizing the poorer, while repressing sternly the antagonism of the richer peasants. So, mutatis mutandis, with the poorer bourgeoisie of the towns. Communism cannot be said to have had any clear view of the

ultimate social order it proposed to establish. It took over from Marx phrases like the demand "from each according to his powers, to each according to his needs," and the "administration of things instead of the administration of persons."

But

was mainly occonceived, more-

it

cupied with the immediate revolutionary task. It over, of the revolution thus established as a world revolution made For this in each country on conditions similar to those in Russia. purpose the formation of a world Communist party rigorously directed from a single centre and sternly disciplined from above was fundamental. To advance the revolution advantage must be taken of national, racial and economic discontent where these exist; but propaganda in relation to them must seek always to move them Union should be sought to significance in terms of the class war. with the reformist working-class parties, but always on the understanding that they are bound to fail and that if they arrive in power the communist must separate from them and fight them. Finally, it is to be noted that communism regarded religion as a capitalist instrument used as an anodyne for the workers and sought wherever possible to destroy its influence. Revolutionary Additions. Lenin seized power in wardevastated Russia in Nov. 1917, over-throwing the short-lived democratic revolutionary regime established through the collapse of tsarism in March 1917. During World War I he assumed an intransigent attitude against any form of "patriotism" and wished He returned to to transform the national war into a class war. Russia in April 1917; under his leadership the left wing of the Social Democratic party, the only group with strict discipline and definite purpose, emerged in the general chaos to channel the amorphous and leaderless discontent of the masses. The group

—

established

its

dictatorship as a "dictatorship of the proletariat," won political and civil liberties in Russia, re-

abolished the newly

named

the party

ship of Lenin

"Communist

and Trotski, kept

party," and, because of the leaderitself in

power against great

initial

odds.

According to Leninism, political, economic and intellectual life must be regulated by the "proletariat's advance guard," the party, because the people and even large parts of the proletariat, educated in the pre-Communist era, are unable to realize the new order. The masses have to be guided in a strictly regimented fashion toward participation in the new order. Communism believes that "true" democracy cannot be realized in any nonCommunist society because of the economic exploitation by private elements of society (the possibility of economic exploitation by the state itself' is not considered), and that parliamentary democracy only veils the control of society by capitalists. Therefore the building of the future perfect society proceeds under an autocracy, unbound by any law or ethical consideration of the "bourgeois" age. To this future, the coming of which is assured under omniscient leadership, the happiness of the present generations and the rights of the individuals are sacrificed. Marxism and Leninism originally expected that with the triumph of the proletariat the state which Marx defined as an organ of class rule would "wither away" because class conflicts would come to an end. Communist rule in Russia, however, resulted in an ever increased power of the state apparatus. The Communist dictatorship created the first and most perfect example of the totalitarian state in

which no sphere of individual

outside

its

life was allowed to remain In the effort to create a "true" democracy, terror was employed without hesitation; humanitarian considerations and individual rights were disregarded; and the assumption of the class character of all intellectual and moral life led to a relativization of the standards of truth and of ethics. On the other hand, communism gained much of its power over human minds by the "scientific" prediction and promise of establishing social justice and perpetual peace after the liquidation of all its

all-inclusive grip.

actual or potential adversaries.

Though

the final goal was never lost sight of, communism passed through several phases of adaptation on this road. In

207

1919 Lenin had founded the communist or third international, but it proved unable to make any serious progress outside Russia before World War II, and the several Communist parties existing abroad became instrumental to the policy of the Communist state in Russia. (See International, The.) With the temporary abandonment of an immediate world revolution, Lenin replaced

"war communism" by the "new economic policy" 1921. It represented a compromise between nationalized and private economy, but in 1928 a renewed drive for the "realization of socialism" in the Soviet Union set in under the policy of

(NEP)

in

March

the leadership of Stalin, Lenin's successor.

This speedy drive toward socialism called for advanced planning in all branches of the economic and cultural life of the country. Under the form of five-year plans, the natural resources of the country were successfully exploited and large-scale heavy industry was built up; individual farms were collectivized and machinery and more efficient methods of cultivation were introduced into agriculture; illiteracy was fought and education used for the re-education of the soviet citizen. The deep-seated conviction of an "inevitable" clash between Communist Russia, the bearer of the true faith and of the only valid social order, and the outside world led to emphasis being placed on a "war economy" and the subordination of all activities to the need of "defense." After having abandoned the hope for revolution in Europe, communism concentrated for some years upon the revolutionary movements in the orient, especially in China which by its geographic position and its potential strength became the centre of Communist interests and activities in Asia. But hopes there were temporarily frustrated by Chiang Kai-shek in 1927, Tactical Change. The growth of aggressive fascism in Germany and Japan during the 1930s brought about a complete tactical change in Communist policy. The U.S.S.R. joined the League of Nations in 1934 and stressed its willingness to cooperate with democratic forces against fascism. Communists outside Russia declared themselves ready to form a "popular front" with the liberals and socialists whom they had formerly vehemently combated and abused. After 1935 much greater stress was put on the U.S.S.R. as the only genuine leader and representative of communism. Communism was regarded as a new form in which the historical traditions and aspirations of the Russian empire and the Russian people were vitalized. The flexibility of Communist policy was perhaps enhanced by the ruthless "purges" of 1936-38, in which Stalin eliminated all those persons, many of them among the oldest and most renowned Communists and closest collaborators of Lenin, who could endanger his leadership. In this process several hundred thousand leading personalities of the political, economic and military life of the U.S.S.R. were liquidated as "traitors" or "enemies of the people." This flexibility in policy, though not in Communist principles and goals, showed itself in the sudden change of the "general line" in Aug. 1939 when the Soviet Union reversed its policy of collaboration with the democracies in the struggle against fascism and lined up with aggressive fascism, which Communists had proclaimed until then the mortal enemy of the proletariat, of peace and of progress. In Aug. 1939 Stalin concluded a treaty of friendship and nonaggression with Adolf Hitler and thereby gave the green light to German aggression which unleashed World War II. The U.S.S.R. participated with Germany in the destruction and partition of Poland. In April 1941 Stalin concluded a five-year treaty of friendship and nonaggression with Japan which, however, he broke four years later. During the first two years of World War II Communists everywhere vied with the fascists in directing their attacks against democracy or, as the fascists called it, "plutodemocracy." They regarded the cause of World War II to be not German aggression but British and French imperialism. They tried to sabotage the intellectual and material defense program of the democracies against fascist aggression. The candidacy of Franklin D. Roosevelt for president of the United States in 1940 was violently opposed as that of a "warmonger" in the service of U.S. big business. The attitude of sympathy toward fascist Germany changed naturally with the unprovoked German attack on the U.S.S.R. on June 22, 1941.

—

—

COMMUNISM

208

For the next four years all the forces of communism were concentrated on winning the war against Germany. To that purpose an uneasy alliance with the democracies was maintained, without the

Communists ever

losing sight of their ultimate political goal

which divided them sharply from their wartime allies. Against the strict unity and carefully planned strategy of the Communists the democracies showed neither unity nor an understanding of the Thus the war ended not only with the military issues involved. victory over Germany and later over Japan but with rich fruit to the farsighted policy of Stalin. The Soviet Union, which counted in 1939 a population of 170.000,000, acquired in central eastern Europe and in the far east additional territories with a population More important, however, was the of more than 20,000,000. spread of Communist governments which by 1950 controlled a territor>' stretching from beyond the Elbe river to beyond the Yangtze river and contained a population of more than 800,000.000 people, about one-third of mankind, closely integrated by unity of In manpower, resources, geoleadership and social philosophy. graphic vastness and contiguity, this new Eurasian axis promised than immensely more powerful the German-Japanese axis to be of a decade before. During World War II the national patriotic trend, which had been visible already in the preceding years, became more and more pronounced in Communist Russia. Stalin himself took the lead when he called upon the Russian people on July 30, 1942, to be inspired in the war by "the daring spirit of our great ancestors." Military heroes of Russia's feudal past were set up as examples for Communist youth. The patriotic feeling of the Russian Orthodox Church was also mobilized by the Communist government, which stopped the formerly officially sponsored violent antireligious propaganda of the "Union of the Godless." In 1943 the Russian Orthodox Church was restored to its traditional splendour and became a willing instrument of Stalinist policy. The new patriarch ordered all churches to offer prayers "for the health and wellbeing of the God-sent leader of the peoples of our Christ-loving nation." The Russian Church tried to unite all Orthodox Churches under its leadership. As an apparent concession to the wartime allies, the Communist international was dissolved on May 22, 1943. Yet the Communist parties everywhere continued to follow without criticism or hesitation the party line as laid down by the Russian Communist leaders. The cause of the Soviet Union was identified with the Communist cause; loyalty to the U.S.S.R. and loyalty to communism were one. This attitude continued in spite of the change from the original proletarianism of Lenin to the emphasis on Russian traditions carried through by Stalin in all fields after 1940. He restored the titles and splendours of the old regime with its ornate uniforms and its militarized bureaucracy, even in the most civilian departments. Coeducation was abolished in all higher schools, to take into account the different nature of the two sexes; the boys were trained for a stern soldier's life while the girls were educated for motherhood. A new stress was put upon family and authority. Stalin himself was regarded more and more as the object of a Byzantine adulation, surpassing even that accorded to the tsars of the past. He was regarded no longer as the autocratic leader of one empire, as Ivan the Terrible and Hitler were, but was glorified as the infallible leader of all peoof the whole of "progressive" teacher of all sciences and all arts.

ples,

Postwar Revision

—At

the end of

—

mankind, the omniscient

World War

II this stress

on the Russian cultural past which was now exalted as superior in its nature and in its achievements to all other civilizations was combined with a new emphasis on the purity of the Leninist-

A relentless war was waged upon all "deviaTo that purpose. Communist Russia was more strictly by its rulers from any contact with the outside world than had ever been attempted before in the traditionally closed society of tsarist Russia. This policy of self-isolation was accompanied by violent campaigns against what was called "homeless cosmopolitanism" and "belittling" of the leadership of the U.S.S.R. in all fields of culture, a sin apparently committed by some Soviet critics and scientists who continued to indulge in the

crime of "toadying" before the west. Communist writers and scholars outdid each other in praising the new culture of the U.S.S.R. as many times higher than all other cultures and therefore endowed with the right to teach others the new panhuman morality of which the Soviet citizen was proclaimed the highest bearer. By the middle of the 20th century, the chauvinist tradition of the superiority of the Soviet Union over the decadent west, and the Communist faith in the superiority and ultimate triumph of communism over disintegrating capitalist democracy, were thoroughly systematized in Stalinist Russia and raised to an unassailable religious

of communism after World War II showed two opposite faces a completely closed society in Russia, protected from every contact with the outside world, and, at the same time, the resumption of the original world-wide revolutionary drive. Summing up Lenin's testament to the party, Stalin had declared after the leader's death in Jan, 1924: "Lenin never

—

regarded the republic of Soviets as an end in itself. He always regarded it as a necessary link for strengthening the revolutionary movements in the lands of the west and the east, as a necessary link for facilitating the victory of toilers of the whole world over capital. Lenin knew that only such an interpretation is the correct one, not only from the international point of view but also from the point of view of preserving the republic of Soviets Twenty-five years later, after the victories of the Russian itself."

army and of the Communist diplomacy in Europe and Asia, Soviet communism felt a new aggressive and dynamic vitality. It saw itself as the irresistible vanguard of an immense forward movement which the military and economic disintegration of Europe and Asia seemed to favour. Nevertheless, Communists nowhere gained a majority in free elections, not even in territories which were under the control of Soviet armed forces or within the orbit of Soviet diplomacy. The weight of the continuous Communist offensive was mainly sustained not by the mighty Communist propaganda machine and its outwardly attractive slogans and appealing oversimplifications but by the power and preparedness of the Soviet army. Even in China and Korea Communist successes were due to the existence and strength of Communist armies, and not primarily to Communist programs or policies. In Italy and France, where such armies were not in existence, the numerically very strong Communist parties with their excellent financial and intellectual backing were unable to score any lasting

success.

In

Sept.

1947

representatives

of

nine

Communist

parties

(U.S.S.R., France, Italy, Poland, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Rumania,

Hungary and Czechoslovakia) met in Poland to establish the Communist Information bureau (Cominform). Belgrade, Yugos., was selected as its seat; a vote of confidence by international communism for the Yugoslav Communists and their leader Tito was seen in this choice. The Cominform asked all those in favour of "democracy and peace" to close ranks around it against the threat of "reactionary and imperialist" aggression led by the United

The Communist-dominated countries outside the Soviet States. Union were organized as "people's democracies." Though the Soviet Union always stressed their sovereignty, they were assimilated more and more completely into the pattern of life in the Soviet Union. The often propagated thesis that the various Communist parties were independent and could follow a different and more moderate line than that taken by Russian communism, was definitely ended when in 1948 the Soviet Union and the Cominform attacked violently the Yugoslav Communists for not submitting completely to the directives coming from Moscow. The Cominform revealed itself as the supreme directive and

Stalinist doctrine.

centralizing

tions."

victory.

isolated

dogma.

The new development

organ in the world-wide struggle for Communist

Like the Comintern -before, it was unreservedly under the control of the Soviet party, and the slightest deviation from the Moscow line was mercilessly fought as treason. The Yugoslav

Communists were excluded from transferred to Bucharest,

was

as violently attacked

as a "fascist

"

such as Leon

Rum. by the

Cominform and its seat From that moment on Tito Communist spokesmen the

official

and "warmonger" as were the moderate socialists or Ernest Bevin, or as was the "monopoly

Blum

COMMUNISM, PRIMITIVE capitalism" of the United States. All those who disagreed (or were believed to disagree) in the slightest manner with the official

were regarded as enemies and presented to the as one unit, acting and plotting under a common command and according to a strictly integrated plan against communism and the "fatherland of all the workers." On the other hand, the democrats found themselves in their struggle against communism, as formerly against national socialism, often hindered because they were the prisoners of their own methods of fair play and civil liberty and failed to understand the completely different nature of the Communist doctrine and methods. The world-wide implications of Communist policy were stressed by Georgi Dimitrov, the famous Bulgarian Communist leader, who wrote on Dec. 18, 1948: "It should not be forgotten that in line of Stalinism

Communist world

—

spite

of

the

—

fact

that

Communist

the

International

does not

all Communist parties in the world form one single Comexist munist front, under the direction of the most powerful and most Communist party, the party of Lenin and Stalin; that all Communist parties have one common scientific theory as a guide to their actions Marxism-Leninism and that all Communist parties have one leader and teacher, recognized by all Com-

experienced

—

;

—

Commemorating the Communist seizure of power Prague, Czech., of Feb. 1948, the Communist speaker of the Czechoslovak parliament, Oldfich John, declared on Feb. 22, 1949: "February 1948 was not a decision concerning only our country, but the whole world. At a decisive moment and at a decisive key rade Stalin."

in

Europe we achieved a critical shift of the forces of the Our February belongs to the working class of the whole world which is expecting its February. It will have it." position in

world.

The

.

.

.

.

.

.

declaration introducing the

first

constitution of 1923 of the

newly formed Union of Soviet Socialist Republics stated that since the formation of the Soviet Union the countries of the world had split into two camps, the camp of capitalism, with national oppression, imperialist brutality and wars; and the camp of socialism, with peace and harmonious collaboration. Thirty years later, the Communists were more than ever convinced that history had put on the order of the day the final and total victory of communism. This victory, according to Communist doctrine, held with religious fervour would create a world of one faith and one leadership which would assure the peace and security for the Soviet Union and the certainty of salvation for the whole of mankind. The shift of power following World War II made, in the eyes of the Communists, the United States the leader in the opposite camp of democracy, of that western way of life which, according to Soviet communism, had been doomed by its own inner contradictions and by the irresistible march of history. Khrushchev.— Stalin's death on March 5, 1953, ended the era of inflexible personal dictatorship over every detail within the SoAfter a brief interval of readjustment, Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev (q.v.) emerged as successor to Stalin's office, but not to his policies. He introduced flexibility, abandoning

viet orbit.

Stalin's isolation from his people and the world. In May 19SS Khrushchev reversed Stalin's rejection of Tito for assuming an independent attitude. In Feb. 1956 at the 20th Communist party congress he denounced Stalin's assumption of omniscience, not only political but literary, artistic, scientific and military, as the "cult of the individual." Khrushchev's new approach, coupled with Mao Tse-tung's unwillingness in China to accept from younger men the direction he had tolerated from Stalin as a senior with long experience, set off a chain of events undermining the previously

monolithic character of Communist leadership. Polish Communists, emboldened by the new flexibility and forced to compromise by a population embittered by Stalin's program of speedy adoption of Soviet patterns, restored Wladyslaw Gomulka to the leadership from which Stalin had evicted him. Khrushchev capitulated after Soviet threats proved unavailing and accepted in Oct. 1956 the right of Polish communists to devise their own path so long as they moved toward socialization and supported Soviet foreign policy. Chinese communists, wishing greater freedom of action, supported the Poles. Hungarians misread the signs and revolted, not only denouncing Moscow's

dictatorship

of

their

policy

but withdrawing

from the 19SS

209

Moscow-oriented Warsaw pact of military alliance (see Warsaw Treaty Organization). Faced with armed rebellion, Khrushchev quelled the revolution with Soviet troops and re-established the Hungarian Communist party's power, but under a less fanatical leader, Janos Kadar. Hungary was permitted to satisfy demands for consumer goods but not for worker control of factories or intellectual freedom. Tito's sympathy for the Hungarian renegade Communists and granting of brief asylum to Imre Nagy, moderate Communist chief of government for the revolutionary days, aroused Khrushchev's anger. To overcome emerging centrifugal forces, in Nov. 1957 Khrushchev summoned to Moscow Communist party leaders from states where they ruled. The meeting issued a declaration of unity under leadership of the Soviet Union's party in furtherance of "proletarian internationalism." Tito alone refused to sign, bringing upon himself subsequently renewed denunciation as a revisionist of

Marxism; the Chinese Communists were even more

attack than were the Soviet Communists. In spite of lip service to Soviet leadership Chinese Communists asserted their right to introduce agricultural communes contrary to Soviet vitriolic in the

advice and to share in foreign policy major voice in those relating to Asia.

decisions, even to having a

Communism

as an international force ended the 1950s without the monolithic leadership Stalin had provided earlier and with

the notable emergence within the Chinese Communist party of a demand to be heard, albeit as a party in second place to that of the U.S.S.R. International Communism was still dominated by the

Communist

leaders of the U.S.S.R., but the seeds of what Khrushchev called a "Communist commonwealth" had been planted. Traces of nascent duality of leadership appeared when Khrushchev journeyed to the United States in Sept. 1959 and professed to renounce force as a means of settling disputes. Chinese Communists at their 10th anniversary celebration on Oct. 1, 1959,

indicated reluctance to abandon their militant policy of expansion in Asia.

See also references under Bibliography. (1848)

;

— K.

F. Engels,

"Communism"

in the

Index volume.

Marx and

The

F. Engels, The Communist Manifesto Origin of the Family, Private Property and the

by E. Untermann (1Q02) V. I. Lenin, Imperialism, the HighStage of Capitalism (1916), The State and Revolution (1917), Left Wing Communism: an Infantile Disorder (1920); N. Bukharin and E. Preobrazhensky, The ABC of Communism, tr. by E. and C. Paul (1922); L. Trotsky, History of the Russian Revolution (1936); j. Stalin, Leninism (1940); H. J. Laski, Communism (1927); N. Berdyaev, The Origin of Russian Communism (1937); Karl Kautsky, Social Democracy Versus Communism (1946) A. Y. Vvshinskv, The Law of the Soviet State, tr. by Hugh Babb (1948); E.'H. Car'r, The Bolshevik Revolution, S vol. (1951-58); Hans Kohn, The Twentieth Century (1949); A. Meyer, Leninism (1957); H. Marcuse, Soviet Marxism: a Critical Analysis (1958). (H. Kc; J. N. H.) State, tr.

;

est

;

COMMUNISM, PRIMITIVE. communism was

The concept

of primitive

essentially a product of the evolutionary theories

of the mid- 19th century, according to which the early history of mankind was characterized by a stage of society radically opposite

modern western type. Hence it was thought that early held his property, including his land, in common, and that

to the

man

some kinds

of relations between persons, especially sex relations, were governed by no rule within the group. To such primitive communism, it was held, there succeeded various more limited forms of property holding and marriage. In the attempt to give reality to such evolutionary schemes, the institutions of certain

contemporary primitive peoples were identified as having this communistic character or as being at a stage barely removed therefrom. W. H. R. Rivers, for example, held that in Melanesia there was a fairly definite association of two kinds of communism, in ownership of property and in sexual association. He interpreted clan rights over land in Ambrym as excluding all individual ownership; he thought that at Raga communistic ownership still persisted for canoes; he looked upon the Fijian custom of kerekere (which allows a person to appropriate the property of others in the category of maternal uncle)

communism; and he regarded

as

fairly

definite

evidence of

the system of prenuptial sex relaEddystone Island (which had a very strict code for married people) as "a state of organized communism which may be tions in

COMMUNIST PARTIES

2IO

the survival of an earlier state in which this communism also existed after marriage" {Social Organization [1924]; copyright

Routlcdge

& Kegan

Paul Ltd., London).

Rivers, however, did

not regard organized se.xual communism as the earliest stage in the evolution of human society but as growing out of a condition in

which the institution of family was recognized.

E.

Durkheim

Tenure, PRiMiim:; Marriage, PRiMiTrvE.

—

W. H. R. Rivers, History of Melancsian Society, (1914), and Social Organization (1924); B. Malinowski, Crime in Savage Society (1926); R. Thurnwald, "Eigentum," "Kommunismus," in M. Eberts's Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte, IS vol. (1924-32); O. Leroy, Essai d'introduction critique a I'Hude de I'^conomie primitive (1925) R. Firth, Primitive Economics of the BiBi.iOGRAi'nY.

vol.

i

and Custom

;

generalized such views in terms of his theory of primitive collectivity, arguing that communism of property was a necessary

product of the special cohesion in primitive society which marked the absorption of the individual into the group. The question of the validity of the concept of primitive communism, which did not receive much support from developments in anthropology in the 20th century, was revived by Soviet theorists. Some, such as P. Kushner and P. F. Preobrazhenski, held that such theories were based upon insufficient knowledge of primitive conditions, but others, such as N. M. Matorin and E. Kagarov, argued that ethnographic data had confirmed it beyond doubt. Basing their arguments largely on the views of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who in turn had drawn upon the work of L. H. Morgan, they regarded the postulate of primitive communism as an augury for the future according to the idea expressed by Marx that the new system which modern society is approaching will be the re-emergence of the archaic social type in the highest form. Most Soviet ethnographers seem to adhere to Morgan's evolutionary scheme and uphold the collective

—

communal-clan character of early human economy as universal. Leaving aside political implications of the concept, modern anthropology found it inadequate as a matter of ethnographic fact. The essential features of a communist condition of society are: a common ownership of the means of production, labour contributed according to ability and the product shared according to the needs of the members of the society. This is antithetical to a system of private control of productive resources. The evidence from a wide comparative study of primitive economic systems does indicate a marked communal interest in rights over property, especially over the basic productive resources: in an agricultural community the rights of any individual over land are subject to the overriding rights of the kin group of which he is a member; in a pastoral community he may seem to have no separable rights to land at all. But the system of rights is complex. All members of the community do not share alike but have their rights to ownership closely defined by rules of kinship and residence. Use of land, water, crops, cattle and canoes is governed by recognition of the primary title of some kin group or even of some individual, and other individuals base their claims upon defined kin or other status rights as, for instance, being a sister's son. In an Australian aboriginal community the game that is killed must be shared among other members of the hunter's group, and this is not done on the basis of need of the individuals concerned but of their entitlement according to a complex set of rights and duties in virtue of their kinship to the hunter. So, even in the simplest primitive communities the principles of ownership involve complex patterns of individual rights, not undifferentiated community control and sharing according to need. When careful analysis is made of the concrete system of rights and obligations in any primitive society, modern anthropologists agree with B. Malinowski, O. Leroy and R. Thurnwald that, while these cannot be adequately described exclusively in terms of individualism, the concept of communism is equally inadequate. Primitive institutions of sex relations and iparriage also exhibit analogous complex systems of rights, which frequently differ from those in modern western institutions but to which the label primitive communism

—

is

quite inapplicable.

of an earlier communistic state.

Primitive institutions are inin the context of other social, economic and political circumstances immediately associated with them; reference to some hjTDOthetical past is not necessary. The argument for primitelligible

communism

human history remains in See also Labour, Primitive; Land

as an early stage in

the realm of speculation.

;

COMMUNIST INTERNATIONAL:

see

International,

The.

COMMUNIST PARTIES,

groups organized for political action designed to inaugurate a world-wide communist social order by seizing and exploiting political power and economic resources in conformity with a pattern introduced in Russia in 1917. Outside Russia. Communist party leadership followed directions given by Russian initiators for 30 years until Yugoslav Communists demanded autonomy in decision making in 1948 and refused to accept the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as the "fatherland." Other Communist parties denounced the Yugoslav party as "revisionist."

General Characteristics.— Characteristic

of

all

Communist

were strongly held beliefs traced in origin to the doctrines of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (qq.v.) but modified and developed by their successors. These were belief in the superior productivity of a state-planned economic system over private enterprise; the necessity of state ow-nership of productive resources to prevent exercise of economically derived political power by private individuals or corporations; the organization of land use by communities; the propagation of atheism the impossibility of obtaining power except by violence; the monopolization of political power after victory by a leadership corps composed of a relatively few disciplined, politically active persons dedicated to the achievement of communism and the preliminary favouring of the mass over the parties, including Yugoslavia's,

;

;

individual as essential to ultimate fulfillment of the individual.

Where Communists had

not achieved power or where power, although achieved, had not become absolute, goals were often compromised, as in Poland in 1956, but basic aims were reasserted

when

possible.

Before seizure of power and briefly thereafter Communist parties sought influence by attracting disgruntled social elements, notably ethnic minorities and the poor, to whom successful members of the pre-revolutionary society were depicted as exploiters. In extension of this tactic to the international scene powerful states blocking realization of Communist policies were castigated as "imperialist," notably France, Great Britain and Germany between the world wars, and the United States thereafter. Playing upon the universal craving for peace. Communist parties sought political advantage by claiming for their scheme of world order the role of "peace program" and calling their opponents

"warmongers." To advance their cause

in states where power could not yet be Communists sought membership in mass organizations, notably labour unions, social and cultural associations, military forces and the government bureaucracy, attempting to weaken the Hoping to society from within, as in Czechoslovakia in 1948. prevent such infiltration, governments of 38 independent states outlawed Communist and semi-independent colonial areas had parties by law or practice by 1960, arguing that they were not true political parties pledged to function within a parliamentary democracy but an instrument of revolution directed from Moscow.

seized.

{See also

If the material from modern primitive communities cannot be interpreted as evidence of extant primitive communism, neither does it allow modern institutions to be postulated as survivals

tive

New Zealand Maori (1929) E, Kagarov, "The Ethnography of Foreign Countries in Soviet Science," Ethnography, Folklore and Archaeology in the U.S.S.R., V. 0. K. S., vol. iv (1933). (R. F.)

Communism.)

Contrast With Socialist Parties.

— Communist

parties dif-

fered from Socialist parties in- aims and organization, although Communist parties had often emerged originally as left wings of Socialist parties, and although both sometimes participated after the

initial

organizational

split

in

coalitions

to

oppose

rightist

While both espoused state economic in parliaments. planning and held state ownership necessary to planning, Socialists bankbelieved it necessary to seize only "commanding heights" in contrast to Coming, communications, key heavy industry parties

—

—

COMMUNIST PARTIES all economic enterprises employing labour After 1958 German and British Socialists accentuated the contrast by questioning even the desirability of state ownership of key industry provided state control was as-

munist doctrine that must be state-owned.

Communists, professed working-class orientation, but Socialist parties opened membership to all. Communist parties admitted relatively few, except in countries where competition with Socialists dictated competitive membership tactics, Socialists thought achievement as in Italy after World War II. Socialists, like

of goals possible through parliamentary procedures;

Communists

denied the possibility and sought power through violent revolution, although where such tactics attracted little support, conventional election campaigns were conducted until violent seizure

power seemed Socialists left

feasible.

religious belief

Communists required members

to

the individual's conscience:

espouse atheism. Communists without institutionalized force to maintain order, force being unnecessary when human wants were satisfied and self-discipline learned. Socialists considered this aim Utopian, if not a mask for contemporary police regimentation. (See also Socialism; Socialism: Principles foresaw

ultimate

social

to

organization

AND Outlook.)

—

Origin. Industrial unrest at the end of the 19th century brought forth a small vigorous Marxist movement in the cities of Russia. Although industry developed so slowly that there were by 1890 only an estimated 2,400.000 industrial workers in the Russian empire, the influence of the more advanced working classes of western Europe was noticeable, Russian emigres such as Georgi Valentinovich Plekhanov served as the funnel through which Marxist literature and concepts were smuggled from abroad to Russian groups operating at home. Most Russian workmen's groups adopted the concepts of Social Democratic thought represented by the second international, which had been formed by western European workmen in 1889. (See International, The.) The first important split with the second international's approach to seeking power by peaceful parliamentary means came in 1895. Organized in St. Petersburg, it took the name of League of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class. One of its influential sponsors was Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, known as Lenin (q.v.),

who was

later to

become the

principal figure of the Russian

Revo-

Similar leagues were formed in other cities and these joined with a left-wing Jewish organization called the Bund to send delegates to a meeting in Minsk in 1898. At this meeting was formed the Russian Social-Democratic Labour party lution.

(R.S.D.L.P.), from which the

Communist party

dates

its official

Delegates issued a manifesto calling for a struggle against autocracy and capitalism until the complete victory of socialism. After the meeting most of the party leaders were arrested and the work of the party was reduced to activity in the beginning.

local

underground organizations.

The

great industrial depression of 1899-1900 in Europe spread to Russia at the beginning of the 20th centur>', resulting in bankruptcy and unemployment. Street demonstrations and strikes appeared. Lenin, who had been exiled to Siberia in 1897, returned to take part in reorganization of party work in the fertile soil of industrial unrest. The Russian Social-Democratic Labour party was re-formed at a congress of delegates, which met in Brussels, Belg., in 1903 to avoid arrest at home. Police observation was such that this congress transferred its session to London to complete the work of organization. At this congress appeared the great split between left and right wings which plagued party unity for years.

The

left

wing, supported

by Lenin's adherents, called for a which would be proletarian

militant, disciplined, centralized party, in composition.

It urged a clear line of demarcation between nonparty members, who might sympathize with party aims, and party members, who would be required to recognize the party program, pay dues, enter one of the party organizations and work actively. The right wing, to which Lev Davidovich Bronstein, known as Leon (Lev) Trotski (q.v.), adhered, urged a broader membership base, requiring only that a member recognize the

aid.

The

right wing's conception

was adopted

at this time.

The

right-

and left-wing factions

Some

in the party split again later

who had disagreed withdrew so that in the vote for members of the central committee and the editorial board of the party press, the left wing became the majority. It was given the name bolshevist, signifying this fact. The minority right wing was called menshevist in turn. These labels were carried ever after, even though power passed back and forth from time to time. The split between the factions became so great that in 1905 they met separately. The menshevist faction met in Geneva, Switz. The bolshevist faction, meeting in London and led by Lenin in person, adopted his concept of membership. This remained the rule of the party. Although there were subsequent periods in which the menshevists and bolshevists acted in concert, the split continued up to the Revolution. After the Revolution some menshevist leaders transferred their allegiance to the bolshevist cause. The menshein the

congress.

with the conduct of

sured.

of

program and render

211

right-wing elements

affairs

disappeared as a political unit in the U.S.S.R. itself the Russian Communist party in March 1918. It changed its name again in 1924 to AU-Union Communist party (Bolshevik) to dramatize its place within the federation. In 1952 it became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. External Influence. The Russian Revolution, coincident with world-wide popular discouragement and regional impoverishment, stimulated creation of Communist parties in many lands, sometimes on a base of a prewar, Marxist-oriented group paralleling that of Russia. A Swedish group created a Communist party in 1917, and similar parties appeared in defeated Germany, Austria and Hungary after World War I and also in Greece, Yugoslavia, Poland, Bulgaria, Argentina, Mexico, Denmark and the United States. Thereafter the movement gained recruits, following Lenin's organization in Russia of the communist international in 1919 to prepare leadership for eventual world-wide revolution and to support the policies of his fledgling government. In 1920 Communist parties were founded in France, the United Kingdom, Turkey, Australia, Iran, the Dutch East Indies and Uruguay. In 1921 they appeared in Italy, Spain, Brazil, Chile, India, Switzerland, Rumania, Czechoslovakia, China and Mongolia; in 1922 in Japan and Norway; in 1924 in New Zealand; in 1925 in Cuba and Korea; in 1928 in Ecuador and Paraguay; in 1930 in Syria-Lebanon, Costa Rica and Indochina; in 1934 in Algeria (previously under the French party); in 1943 in Ceylon and Morocco (previously under the French party); in 1946 in the German Democratic Republic; in 1948 in Israel; in 1949 in Bolivia; and in 1951 in Nepal and Vietnam. Moscow claimed 33,000,000 members for Communist parties Foreign experts believed these figures in 83 countries in 1959. to be approximately accurate and estimated that 85% of the Communists were in the Sino-Soviet bloc. The 1960 estimates vist faction

The party named

—

membership (made by the U.S. department of state) were China 16,000,000; the U.S.S.R. 8,708,000; Italy 1,791.000; Poland 1,155.000; German Democratic Republic 1,473,000; Czechoslovakia 1,559,000; Korea 1,200,000; Hungary 438,000; Vietnam 500,000; Yugoslavia 984,000; France 250,000; and Bulgaria

of

484,000.

Between the two world wars, Communist success outside the continental Europe and China, and

U.S.S.R. was greatest in

weakest in Anglo-Saxon, Scandinavian, Islamic, southeast Asian, Latin-American and African countries. Various factors, including alternative outlets for discontent, satisfactory wages and working conditions, strongly held religious beliefs, and insulation from outside influence because of illiteracy or sealed frontiers, accounted for Communist failure to penetrate these areas. Great Britain. British workers, although class conscious, supported the Fabian socialism of the Labour party so that Communists were without effective influence in Britain. Communists at maximum strength held two parliamentary seats in 1945; they lost them in 1950 and remained without representation in 1959. Similar lack of interest existed in Canada, Australia and New

—

Zealand.

COMMUNIST PARTIES

212 Germany.

— German Communists,

whom

Lenin looked for primary foreign support, tailed to gain control of the constituent assembly in 1919. Their power waned after assassination in 1919 of their leaders, Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht (qg.v.), not to be regained until economic disintegration increased disillusion, evidenced by an increase of Reichstag representation from 4 seats in 1920 to 62 in 1924, 77 in 1930 and 81 in 1933 when 12'\vhere in mathematics. For example, the commutative law does not necessarily hold for conditionally conlating to

'

+

1—

vergent series such as i the rearrangement is displaced

from

its

original

position.

+ i — i+ more than Also

there

.

.

,

unless no term in

a fixed

are

number

of places

numbers, such

quaternions, for which the commutative law of multiplication invalid.

The vector product obeys

the law

oX&=

— &Xa

as is

in-

—

—

—

The Memoires. The first part of the Memoires of Commynes, dealing with Louis XI's reign, was written during 1489-91. The second part, dealing with Charles VIII's Italian expedition, was compiled during 1495-98. Commynes, who had received little formal education and knew no Latin, was a writer of considerable talent, remarkable for his psychological perceptiveness, his sense of the picturesque and the vividness of his narrative. Despite his resentment against Charles the Bold and his admiration for Louis XI he succeeded in achieving a fair degree of impartiality. His writings are also interesting for their revelation of his political theories: he insists on the reduction of taxes, which, moreover, he thought should not be levied before they had been approved by the estates-general and as befits a contemporary of Louis XII, who was known as "the father of his people" he maintains that the state should encourage the development of the country's economy. Finally, regarding history as an accumulation of useful experience, he draws examples from it for the guidance of princes and offers reflections on the destiny of states. In this respect he may be compared with Niccolo Machiavelli. Editions of the Memoires (first printed 1524, 1528 and 1552) include those by Mile E. Dupont. 3 vol. (1840-^7), by R. Chantelauze (1881), by B. de Mandrot, 2 vol. (1901-03), and by There is also an J. Calmette and G. Durville, 3 vol. (1924-25). ;

—

—

Commynes' Lettres et negociations by Kervyn de Lettenhove, 3 vol. (1867-74). edition of

stead of the usual law.

See also Arithmetic; Associative Laws; Groups; Number: (R. W. Bd.) Addition and Multiplication: Algebra. (CoMiNEs), PHILIPPE (c. 1447-1511), Memoires establish him and chronicler, whose French statesman as one of the greatest historians of the middle ages, was bom at the castle of Renescure, in western Flanders, of a noble family. His father, the lord of Commynes (now Comines), was a knight of the order of the Golden Fleece. The godson of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, Philippe de Commynes was brought up at the Burgundian court and in 1464 became squire to Philip's son, Charles of Charolais {see Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy). He took part in the war of the League of the Public Weal against Louis XI iq.v.) of France in 1465 and accompanied Charles the Bold on his first expedition against Liege (1466-67). When Charles succeeded to the duchy of Burgundy in 1467 he appointed Commynes his counselor and sent him as ambassador on missions to England, Brittany and Spain. In 1468 he was present at the famous meeting at Peronne when Charles had Louis XI virtually as a prisoner, and it was Commynes who negotiated an agreement between them. Recognizing Commynes' abilities as a diplomat, Louis in 1472 persuaded him to desert Charles the Bold and to enter his service as his chamberlain and confidential adviser. As Charles confiscated his property, Louis in compensation bestowed on Commynes estates taken from the house of La Tremoille (including the principality of Talmond and the viscountship of Thouars) and appointed him seneschal of Poitou, Moreover, through his marriage in 1473 to Helene de Chambres, Commynes acquired other large estates, including Argenton (hence his title of sire d'Argenton). He played an active part in the signing of the treaty of Picquigny between Louis XI and Edward

COMMYNES

of the negotiators of the treaty of Senlis (1493) between Charles and Maximilian of Austria. Charles subsequently sent him as ambassador to Venice at the beginning of his expedition to Italy (1494-95). Although during the first years of Louis XII's reign Commynes was contrary to his expectations not given any position, he later helped to formulate the king's Italian policy and accompanied him on his campaign against Genoa, He died at Argenton on Oct. 18, 1511.

DE

IV of England and in the settlement of the Burgundian succession. Louis also sent him as ambassador to Florence and to Savoy. After Louis' death in 1483 Commynes was at first one of the counselors of the regent Anne of Beaujeu, but he intrigued against the government with the due d' Orleans ( the future Louis XII of France) and was implicated in the "Mad War" between the two. As a consequence he was imprisoned for several months and sentenced to have a quarter of his property confiscated and to be confined for ten years to his castle of Dreux. Nevertheless, he was restored to favour by Charles VIII at the end of 1489 and was one

M.

B.

C.

—

G. Heidel, La Langue et le style de Philippe de (1934); G. Charlier, Commynes (1945); K. Bittman, "Die

Bibliography.

Commynes

J.

Zusammenkunft von Peronne: ein Beitrag zur Kritik an den Memorien des Philippe de Commynes," Historische Zeitsckrijt, 184, 19-24 (1957). (Ml M.) COMNENUS, the name of a Byzantine family from Paphlagonia whose members occupied the throne of Constantinople for over a century (lOSl-1185). Its first member to appear in Byzantine history was Manuel Eroticus Comnenus, an able general who served Basil II in the east. His son Isaac I, the leader of the military nobles and the soldiery of Asia Minor, was emperor (1057-59) after the abdication of Michael VI Stratioticus, the feeble represenIsaac's nephew" Alexius I (lOSltative of the civil aristocracy. 1118), the founder of the Comnenian dynasty (1081-1185), was succeeded by his son John II (1118-43), his grandson Manuel I (1143-80) and his great-grandson Alexius II (1180-83), with

whom

the elder line of the family died out.

Alexius II's successor,

(1183-85), the son of John II's brother Isaac, was the last Comnenian emperor, but the family continued to play an important part in affairs of state and was allied by marriage to other ruling families such as the Angeli and the despots of Epirus. After the Latin conquest of Constantinople in 1204 Andronicus I's grandsons Alexius and David founded with Georgian help the empire of Trebizond iq.v.: Trabzon), which lasted until 1461, when David Comnenus, its last ruler, was deposed and executed by Mohammed II. See also Byzantine Empire. See C. du Cange, Historia Byzantina (1680). a town of the Lombardy region, northern Italy, capital of Como province and an episcopal see, is located 40 km. (25 mi.) N. of Milan. It is built on a slope that rises to 663 ft. at the extreme southwestern end of Lake Como. On all but the lakeside it is surrounded by mountains. .Pop. (1957 est.) 74,387 commune. In the oldest part of the town the streets are narrow and the

Andronicus

I

COMO,

The city's centre is in the The modem Piazza Cavour, open to the lake on the north, divides the lakeside promenade into eastern and western sections. The tower of the Porta Vittoria or Porta Torre (about

buildings irregularly close-packed.

newer

130

part.

ft.)

is in

the

Roman

style.

Two

of the oldest buildings are

the church of S. Carpoforo (6th century), regarded as the first Christian church and standing on the site of a temple to Mercury,

COMO—COMORO and the

second half of the 13th Abbondio, formerly the cathedral, was

basilica of S. Fedele, built in the

The church of S. consecrated by Pope Urban II in 1095. The cathedral of Sta. Maria Maggiore was rebuilt in the ISth century and is a lovely example of the fusion of Gothic and Renaissance styles. It contains many art treasures including paintings by Bernardino Luini and Gaudenzio Ferrari and 11 tapestries by century.

Fiandra. Near the cathedral is the Broletto (1215), the ancient Palazzo Communale, a Gothic building of gray, white and pink calcareous stone. Another medieval palace is the Palazzo RusIn the Palazzo Giovio is the civic museum of archaeology coni. with objects from the lake dwellings of lakes Como and Varese. is an ancient art in Como and it was there that Baldassare Fossato printed the Opus statutorum of Alberico di Resale in 1477 and the Vita di S. Giovanni da Capistrano in 1479. The two

Printing di

Plinys were born at

Novum Comum.

The

physicist Alesandro

buried in the cemetery of Camnago and is commemorated by the Tempio Voltiano built in 1928. Como is connected with Milan by railway and road. It is on

Volta

is

the international

portant industry silk.

Gotthard is

line

(Milan-Lugano).

Institute of Silk, with large

laboratories, offers vocational training.

and mild climate, which tract a large

The most imand weaving workshops and

the old-established one of spinning

The National

number

—

is

The

beautiful surroundings

particularly suited to winter visits, at-

of tourists.

History The ancient Comum had perhaps a Gallic origin. It was conquered in 196 B.C. by the consul M. Claudius Marcellus. Under Julius Caesar it became a Roman colony. It was a diocese from A.D. 379, when St. Ambrose consecrated St. Felix as bishop. In the middle ages, after the struggle with the Lombards and the Franks, it became a free commune. In an attempt to regain territory lost in a war with Milan, Como took sides with the emperor Frederick Barbarossa in his struggle with the cities of the Lombard league. The emperor built the fortress of Baradello there in 1159. After the treaty of Constance, Como made peace with Milan and became a seigniory, first under the rule of Filippo Maria Visconti and then of Francesco Sforza. During this period its silk industry and wool trade played an important part in the Milanese economy. Como followed the fortunes of Lombardy and was successively under Spanish, French and Austrian rule. During the Risorgimento it was ruled by a provisional government until the defeat at Novara (1849), after which it fell once more under Austrian domination. It was liberated in 1S59 by Garibaldi. In World War II Como was not liberated by the Allies until the last few days of the fighting. (M. T. A. N.) COMO, (Lago di Como), in Lombardy, north Italy, lies 52 km. {i2 mi.) due north of Milan (it is sometimes called Lario, from its ancient name of Lacus Larius). The lake has three branches, all of appro.ximately equal length (about 25 km. or 16 mi.) projecting northward, southwestward to the town of Como iq.v.) and southeastward beyond Lecco (this branch being also known as Lago di Lecco), the promontory of Bellagio marking the bifurcation. It is formed by the Adda, which flows westward along the Valtellina, into the northern branch and out of the southeastern. The area is 146 sq.km. 56 sq.mi.), the surface lies 650 ft. above sea level and the greatest depth is 1,345 ft. The lake fills a remarkable depression cut through the limestone ranges that enclose it, and the northern arm once doubtless extended as far as Chiavenna. enclosing the area now covered by the lake of Mezzola. The north wind, the tivano, blows during the morning and the

LAKE

(

south, the breva, in the afternoon.

The lake

is

associated with

two Plinys and Claudian. The shores are bordered by splendid villas perhaps the most lovely spot on the lake is Bellagio. Lecco is a manufacturing town which lies toward the southeastern end of Lake Como. Pop. (1957 est.) 44,990 commune. The Ponte Grande, which spans the Adda, was built in 1336-38 by Azzone Visconti but subsequently enlarged. There is a monument to Alessandro Manzoni (1785-1873), author of the novel / protncssi sposi. The town is also a centre for mountain climbing. Lecco is connected by railway with Colico, Chiavenna and Sondrio northward and Bergamo to the south. Cadenabbia, at the centre of the western shore of Lake Como,

Virgil, the

;

217

with Tremezzo (almost joined to it) a very popular holiday resort. Several of the towns and resorts on the shores of the lake, including Menaggio and Varenna, are connected by steamer serv-

is

ices,

including car ferries.

COMODORO

RIVADAVIA, Argentine city located at the Gulf of San Jorge on the Patagonian coast. Pop. (1956 est.) 45,779. Founded in 1901, it is the major Argentine city south of Bahia Blanca and the centre of the national oil industry. The surrounding arid, windy plain supported only sheep prior to the discovery of oil near the port in 1907. A nationalized corporation, Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales, administers the oil wells. In 1944 the city became headquarters of the Comodoro Rivadavia military district which controlled the fields. Oil tankers and a national highway link the city with Buenos Aires, and in 1949 a natural-gas line. 1,050 mi. long, was built to the national capital. A further administrative change in June 1955 made provinces of the remaining Chubut and Santa Cruz national territories and divided the district at latitude 46° S. The city and northern area were included in Chubut province; the remaining area to the cape was incorporated in Santa Cruz province. (Js. R. S.) COMORIN, CAPE, a headland in Madras state forming the southernmost point of India. It is in latitude 8° 4' 20" N., longitude 77° 35' 35" E., at the southern end of the Cardamon hills, themselves a continuation of the Western Ghats. At the apex of the headland is Comorin village, with the temple of Kanya Kumari, the "virgin" (an attribute of the goddess Devi). This is a muchfrequented place of pilgrimage which has been famous at least since the beginning of the Christian era (when it was so described by the author of the Periplus). (L. D. S.) ISLANDS CFrench Territoire des Comores), a group of volcanic islands at the northern end of the Mozambique channel, lie roughly halfway between the Malagasy Republic (Madagascar) and the African mainland in latitude 11° to 13° S. After 1947 the islands were an overseas territory of France. Pop. (1958) 181,288. Area 832 sq.mi. Physical Geography. From southeast to northwest the islands are: (1) Mayotte (144 sq.mi.), which has a basalt plateau rising to 2,165 ft. and a coastal plain on the west. Mayotte is partly encircled by an irregular coral reef, within which are the islets of M'Zambourou and Pamanzi. On Pamanzi is Dzaoudzi, the capital of the group. Opposite it on the main island is the port of M'Sapere. (2) Anjouan (164 sq.mi.) is a triangular island rising centrally in a volcanic massif (M'Tingui) reaching 5,177 ft. Mutsamudu on the northwest coast is its chief town. Pomoni on the south coast is an anchorage formerly used by British warships for coaling. (3) Moheli (81 sq.mi.), the smallest of the group, is a basalt plateau about 1,000 ft. high, ending in the west in an escarped ridge reaching 2.592 ft. Its chief towns are Fomboni on the north coast and Nioumachoua in the southwest. (4) Grande Comore (443 sq.mi.), the largest and loftiest island, rises near its southern end in the dome-shaped active volcano of Kartala (7,746 ft.). In the north many truncated conical volcanic peaks rise from a plateau of about 2.000 ft. In the southwest is Moroni (pop. [1958] 6,448) and on the north coast the town of Mitsa-

COMORO

—

miouli.

Climate.

—The

season between the

monsoon

two clearly marked seasons: and October and a hot, humid

tropical climate has

a fresh, dry period between

May

November and

April.

In

November

the onset of

(cascassi) brings the highest temperatures (Dzaoudzi,

minimum

December, 82° F.). The highest rainfall occurs in January (11-15 in.) and the summer also bring cyclones, often accompanied by waterspouts and damaging tidal waves. During the winter the temperature falls with the southeast trade wind (coKSsi). reaching a minimum in July (Dzaoudzi, 73° F.). The annual rainfall varies between 39 and 118 in. The hydrology of the islands is of importance, especially on Rain sinks so deeply into the lavas and arid Grande Comore. porous rocks that wells (foiimbous) deep enough to reach the water table can be sunk only in the coastal lowlands, where the water Hence most of the supplies for Grande obtained is brackish. Comore and Dzaoudzi are drawn from reservoirs filled in the rainy season. In the other islands it is oossible for streams to form

average

in

;

.

COMPACT—COMPANY

2l8

on the decomposite basalt lavas and wells can be sunk. The character of the vegetation VegelalioH and Animal Life. varies with height and degree of exposure to the wind. Only about 16""^ of the land remains covered with the primitive forest. A coastal zone of mangroves is followed by one of coconut palms, mangoes and bananas up to about 1,300 ft., above which the forest zone (mahogany, rosewood, tacamahac) rises to about 5,900 ft. On the highest peaks only broom, heather and lichens grow. The animal life is allied to that of Malagasy rather than to the mainland of Africa; it includes some land birds and a lemur peculiar to the islands. Turtles abound along the coasts and are exported. In the 1950s a number of specimens of the primeval coelacanth (q.v.) were caught in the surrounding waters. History. The Comoro Islands were shown on Diogo Ribero's world map of 1527 but the first European to visit them appears to have been the British mariner James Lancaster about 1591; The dominant influence and civilization in the islands was then and for long afterward Arab. In 1843 France took possession of Mayotte and in 1S86 the sultans of the other three islands were In 1914 the group was subplaced under French protection. ordinated to the governor general of Madagascar and in 1925 was own administration; in given its local 1947 it became an overseas In a referendum held in 1958 the Comoro territory of France. Islands voted to retain overseas territory status. In 1960 they were granted internal autonomy. People. The people are of diverse origins. Malay immigrants and Arab traders have mixed with Sakalavas and other Malagasy tribes and with various African peoples brought in as slaves. The most important community are the Antalaotra, who are of mixed origin and are most numerous in Anjouan (hence their incorrect name Anjouanais and Grande Comore. Most of the people are Shafi'i Muslims living in single-story whitewashed stone houses surmounted by a terrace for prayer. They converse mainly in Arabic Swahili, the language used for commerce, has been transcribed into Arabic characters. In the late 1950s there were in the islands 35 elementary schools with more than 2,500 pupils, 1 secondary and 1 technical school. Of the population, about half live on Grande Comore and about one-third on Anjouan, There are about 1,000 Europeans. Economy. The lack of pasture and of flat cultivable land calls for a large importation of foodstuffs. Subsistence agriculture on small plots shaded by coconut palms or fruit trees and tilled on a family basis yields cassava, sweet potatoes and other vegetables some mountain rice is grown. There are about 25,000 goats and about 10.000 cattle. European plantations dating from the early 19th century first cultivated sugar cane; this was supplanted in the 20th century by vanilla, to which were added perfume plants

—

—

—

)

;

—

(ilang-ilang.

citronella, bitter orange, basil). Later, coconuts, cocoa and (in Anjouan and Grande Comore) sisal were cultivated. The plantations, which cover 35', laboured and rather monotonous. chief works are notable mainly because of the scope, magnitude and importance of his project and the conscientious persistence with

esis

which he developed and expressed his ideas. Sources of Comte's Ideas. Comte drew many of his basic ideas from earlier writers, going back as far as Plato and Aristotle, but he took them mainly from thinkers of the 18th and early 19th centuries. From David Hume, Immanuel Kant and F. J. Gall he derived his conception of positivism in method and his notions about psychology. Catholic writers like Bonald and De Maistre impressed him with their views concerning a religious

physics, chemistry, biology

—

framework for social organization. The repudiation of Christianity and the installation of the worship of the Goddess of Reason in the French Revolution stimulated his idea that the religious order should be of a secular nature. From Hume, Kant and Turgot, Comte took over the idea of historical determinism, which was somewhat paradoxically tempered by the notion of a providential order of human development which he adopted from Bossuet, Vico, Bonald and De Maistre. Through Turgot, Condorcet, Burdin and Saint-Simon he conceived his idea of progress and the law of

that

the sciences

in the following genetic series: mathematics, astronomy, and sociology. Each of these sciences from and depends upon those which precede it in the series. draws

peared

Sociology not only completes the series but also reduces social facts to laws and synthesizes the whole of human knowledge, thus rendering it equipped to guide the reconstruction of society. Comte devoted much of the first three volumes of the Positive Philosophy to an exposition of the special philosophy of each of But this has been rethe five sciences which precede sociology. garded as one of his least successful intellectual achievements, lacking in originality and precision and excessively dogmatic. It did not compare with his broader treatment of the positivist philos-

ophy

in

general or his elucidation of the province and principles

of sociology.

In addition to his system of positivism as such, Comte made important contributions to philosophy in general. His philosophical writings were probably the most powerful inspiration to the devel-

opment

of a scientific orientation in philosophical thought in con-

COMTE

250

temporary times. The evolutionism of Herbert Spencer gave this trend a more dynamic pattern. Comte's thinking also had some influence upon the assumptions of the 20th-century philosophical

known as logical positivism (q.v.). Planning and Utopia. In his plan for social reorganization Comte proved his own thesis that theological concepts position

—

Social

survive longest in sociology. John Stuart Mill and Comte's rationalistic admirers were astonished and shocked when Comte's

conception of the ideal positivist society was revealed in his System of Positive Polity as a religious utojjia. But he had foreshadowed this in his earlier writings. His relations with SaintSimon had given him a spiritual frame of reference with respect

His 1826 volume, Considerations on the Spiritual Power, indicated that he believed that the organization of the Catholic Church, divorced from its supernaturalism, might to social reconstruction.

well provide an ideal structural

and symbolic model for the new

His episode with Clotilde de Vaux stimulated his mysticism and developed a cult of sentimental womanhood. It had been a cardinal tenet of Comte that any desirable and permanent social improvement must be preceded by an appropriate moral transformation. For the Catholic God, Comte substituted the worship of the Great Being, namely, humanity past, present and future. He called his new faith "the religion of humanity." It was more truly a system of social ethics. The spiritual power of the priesthood was to be independent of and superior to the temporal authority. Comte even worked out a positivist catechism, hierarchy of the sacraments, calendar of the saints, and the like (see Main Writings above), but beneath or within this fantastic positivist society.

symbolism there was much realism and substance, Comte himself was the supreme social planner of the new social system based on the worship of the Great Being. But, he said, his original planning would require detailed guidance and interpretation, constant e.xhortation, and continuity. To assure these would be the responsibility of the spiritual power lodged in the priesthood with headquarters in Paris. But the priesthood was actually to be made up of secular sociologists, who would work out the details of the new social order, preach the positivist gospel, give advice and counsel, control education and public morality, and arbitrate disputes, although devoid of any material power to enforce their decisions and recommendations. The actual administration of the temporal power Comte would hand over to the economic leaders, especially the captains of industry businessmen and bankers. It would be their task to establish and maintain social control and to assure political, social and economic justice, thus making certain that public morality would be upheld. The maintenance of private morality was the province and responsibility of womanhood, which was to be given dignity, discipline and austerity through the monogamous family, indissoluble marriage and perpetual widowhood. But women were to be excluded entirely from public or political life although given

—

special educational advantages. tivist

Universal education stressing posiprinciples was to be introduced as a cornerstone of the new

social order.

—

Comte's Contributions to Sociology. Comte's extensive contributions to sociology can only be briefly summarized here. He gave this basic social science its name, even though he did not originate the concept or the province of the subject which had already been clearly discerned by his immediate predecessors. But he did greatly extend and elaborate the field of sociology and systematized its content. He anticipated the organismic school of sociologists

by regarding society

as a "collective organism."

Here

he anticipated Herbert Spencer by holding that social progress is characterized by an increasing specialization of functions and a more perfect adaptation of organs (institutions). He thoroughly established the theory of social causation by showing how individual acts and motives are determined or conditioned by their

through the social division of labour, and the latter by means of the state and government. In its most general sense, social progress is manifested or exhibited through three inevitable stages of social evolution, comparable to those of intellectual development. These are the military-theological, the critical-metaphysical, and the industrial-scientific, thus emphasizing the interrelation of intellectual trends and social change. Material progress also takes place through three stages in which the main activities and interests are, in sequence, conquest, defense and industry. In the realm of moral progress man's social nature had found satisfaction first in the family, then in the state, and finally in the race.

Comte's Influence on Later Thought Comte's chief service to philosophy consisted in

Comte divided

sociology into two main fields or branches; social statics, or the study of social organization; and social dynamics, or the general theory of social progress. He held that the underlying principles of social organization are the distribution of functions and the combination of efforts. The former is achieved

Policies.

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comprehensive to establish the priority of the positive or scientific method,

effort

his law^ of the three stages of intellectual evolution, his classifica-

and his encouragement of a scientific perspecand literature as represented by H, A. Taine, Ernest Renan and Marcelin Berthelot in France, John Stuart Mill in England, and Theodor Gomperz in Germany. In sociology, his main contribution was to christen the new science and to be its first systematizer. He divided the subject into Next its two traditional fields of social statics and social dynamics. to these should be placed his emphasis on the dominant role of sociology in social planning, a point of view later accepted and promulgated by Lester F. Ward, Ludwig Stein, Leonard T. Hobhouse, Charles A. Ellwood and others. In a special field of sociology, criminology, he promoted the trend toward a secular and social interpretation of crime and its treatment which repudiated tion of the sciences, tive in thought

the existing savagery.

In the realm of history, Comte left his mark through his law of the three stages of intellectual development w-hich inspired Karl Lamprecht and other students of intellectual history. He laid the basis for social history through his emphasis on the social condi-

tioning of human actions and motives. He greatly stimulated the search for possible laws and stages of historical development. In the area of economics, while he refused to recognize either economics or political science as a separate science, Comte encouraged what came to be known as institutional economics in the hands of

Simonde de Sismondi,

J.

A. Hobson,

and Thorstein Veblen and

Werner Sombart. Max Weber, In political science, Comte

his disciples.

anticipated the sociological interpretation of politics which was later cultivated by Hobhouse, Robert Michels, Graham Wallas,

and the students of group activities and interests within the state, notably Ludwig Gumplowicz, Gustav Ratzenhofer, Albion Small and A. F. Bentley. Comte had a considerable influence on social reform movements, especially in England through the work of John Stuart Mill who was more deeply influenced by Comte than by any other French His religion of humanity not only encouraged reform thinker. tendencies

in

liberal Christian circles

but stimulated the

rise of

humanism. Comte has been esteemed in antidemocratic circles from his time to our own as a result of his opinion that the ideal government is one of the intellectually elite, thus foreshadowing Gaetano Mosca and \'ilfredo secular religious

movements such

as

He anticipated the managerial system involving the assumption of power by administrators (bureaucrats) in business and government, elucidated a century later by James Burnham and now in operation in different degrees throughout the world (see Bureaucracy). His insistence upon universal education aided Pareto.

the educational reformers.

See Positivism; Sociology; see also references under "Comte, Auguste" in the Index volume. Bibliography. Works, Editions and Translations: Cours de pliilosopkie positive (18JO-42; 2nd ed. with preface by E. Littre, 1864; 5th ed., 1S93-Q4; Eng. trans, by Harriet Martineau, 2 vol., 1853; 3 vol.,

—

1896) Discours sur I'esprit positif (1844; Eng. trans, with explanation by E. S. Beesley, 1905) Ordre el progres (1S48) Discours sur I'ensemble de posiiivrsme (1848; Eng. trans, by J. H. Bridges, 1852); Systeme de politique positive, ou traile de sociologie (1852-54; ed. 1S98; Eng. trans, with analysis and explanatory summary by Bridges, Catechisme posilivistr F. Harrison, Beesley and others, 1875-79) (1852 3rd ed., 1890; Eng. trans, by R. Congreve, 1858; 3rd ed., 1891 subjective (1S56, Synthese Conservaleurs Appel aux (1855, 1898); P. Descours and H. Essai de pkilos. mathematique (1878) 1878) ;

;

institutional setting.

and his

;

;

)

;

;

;

;

.

COMYN—CONCENTRATION CAMPS Gordon Jones, Fundamental Principles oj Positive Philosophy, trans, with biog. preface by Beesley (iqos). The letters of Comte have been published as follows: the letters to M. Valat and J. S. Mill, in La Critique philosophique (1S77), correspondence with Mme de Vaux Correspondance inedite d'Aug. Comte (1903 et seg.) Lettres (1S84) inedites de J S. Mill a Aug. Comte publ. avec les responses de Comte ;

;

.

(1S99). Criticism : ] S. Mill, Auguste Comte and Positivism, new ed. (igoS) J. H. Bridges' reply to Mill, The Unity of Comte's Life and Doctrines Herbert Spencer's essay on the Genesis of Science and pam(1866) phlet on The Classification of the Sciences; Huxley's "Scientific Aspects Positivism" in his Lay Sermons; R. Congreve, Essays Political, of Social and Religious (1874) J. Fiske, Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy (1S74); G. H. Lewes, History of Philosophy, vol. ii; Edward Caird, The Social Philosophy and Religion of Comte (1885); Hermann Gruber, Aug. Comte der Begriinder des Positivismus. Sein Leben und seine Lehre (1889), Der Positivismus vom Tode Aug. Comtes bis auf unsere Tage, iSfy-iSgi (1891) H. D. Hutton, Comte's Theory of Comte, the Man and the Founder (i8gi) Man's Future (1877) Comte's Life and Work (1892) E. de Roberty, Aug. Comte et Herbert Spencer (1894) J. Watson, Comte, Mill and Spencer, an Outline L. Levy-Bruhl, La Philosophic d'.-iug. of Philosophy (1895, 1899) Comte (1900) R. Millet, La Souverainete d'apres .iug. Comte (1905) L. de 0. Dumas, Psychologic de deux Messies positivistes (1905) Montesquieu Fezensac, Le Systeme Politique d'Aug. Comte (1907) F. W. Ostwald, .iuguste Comte Der Mann und sein Werke (Leipzig, A. Roux, La Pensee d'.-iuguste Comte (1920) F. J. Gould, 1914) Auguste Comte {1920); B. A.. A. L. Seilliere, .iuguste Comte (1924); Charles de Rouvre, .iuguste Comte et le Catholicisme (1928) G. Cantecor, Comte (1930) Henri Gouhier, La Vie d'.iuguste Comte Alexander Mar(1931), La Jeunesse d'.iuguste Comte, 2 vol. (1935) cuse, Die Geschichtsphilosophie .iuguste Comtes (1932) F. S. Marvin, Auguste Comte (1937); H. E. Barnes, Introduction to the History of Sociology, ch. iii (1948); Jean Lacroix, La sociologie d' Auguste Comte (1956). Reviews. The following reviews deal -with positivism: El Positivismo (Buenos Aires), and La Revue Positiviste internal ionale Certain aspects of the Comtist philosophy are dealt with in (Paris) L'.innie sociologigue (Paris); in the Sociological Review (London); and in the American Journal of Sociology (Chicago). (H. E. Bar.) the name of four Scottish barons of Nor^

_

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

'

;

;

;

;

;

—

.

COMYN, JOHN,

man

,

'

descent who figured prominently in the troubled history of Scotland during the late 13th and early 14th centuries. John CoMYN (d. 1274) was justiciar of Galloway and nephew of Alexander Comyn (d. 1290). earl of Buchan, and of Walter Comyn (d. 1258), earl of Menteith, in whose days the family dominated Scotland. The justiciar's son John (d. c. 1300). called "the Black Comyn." was one of the six guardians of Scotland after the death

,

1

When

Alexander's granddaughter Margaret the Maid of Norway died in 1290, John was one of the 13 claimants to the throne, but he supported his brother-in-law John de Balliol, whom the English king Edward I confirmed as king of of Alexander III (1286).

Scotland (1292). He joined Balliol's rising against Edward (1295) but was soon forced to submit. John (d. 1306), called "the Red Comyn," was the only son of the Black Comyn. He also supported the rebellion (1295) of his uncle, John de Balliol, and he raided England in 1296 and was held ;

he became by Edward as a hostage (1296-97). On guardian of Scotland and headed resistance to the English after their defeat of Sir William Wallace at the battle of Falkirk (1 298 ) Despite Comyn's victory at Roslin (1303), Scotland was overrun and he submitted to Edward in 1304. Subsequent rivalry with Robert the Bruce (afterward Robert I ended with Comyn's murder at Dumfries on Feb. 10, 1306. his release

)

John Comyn

(d.

stable of Scotland,

1308), earl of

was cousin

Buchan and hereditary connamesake the justiciar and

to his

son of Alexander Comyn. He took part in the negotiations which led to Balliol's establishment as king, and with him surrendered to Edward after the rising of 1295. Having helped to crush Wallace, he again changed sides and did not finally submit to the English until 1304. The murder of his kinsman the Red Comyn confirmed (R. G. Ni.) his support of the English and enmity to Bruce.

CONAKRY,

capital

and

principal port of the Republic of

Guinea. Africa, is situated on the small island of Tombo, which is Unked to the Kaloum peninsula by a causeway 328 yd. long, and extended by the Los Islands (g.zi.). Pop. (1961 est.) 56,000. The town's development dates from World War II. It is a handsome place of wide, parallel avenues with large buildings and bordered with mango trees, and is surrounded by a coastal promenade lined with villas. There are several distinct quarters: the Centre, with

251

the chief stores; the administrative quarter; Boulbinet quarter to the south, with its picturesque fishing harbour and old streets;

Hospital quarter; and Corinthie quarter, a slum of huts with corrugated iron roofs. A suburb has grown up outside the island, residential on the peninsula and industrial along the road to the airport (9^ mi. distant). Conakry is the seat of the Guinea government and the commercial, industrial and intellectual centre of the country. It is the railhead of the Conakry-Niger line, and has an excellent modern port with quays, warehouses and oil storage tanks. The port's progress is the result of the development of agriculture and of the mining industry (iron at Kaloum and bauxite on the Los). (J. D.) (1893), U.S. educator and scientist, president of Harvard university and U.S. high commissioner for western Germany following World War II, was bom in Dorchester, Mass.. March 26, 1893. He received his A.B. and Ph.D. (1916) degrees from Harvard university and, after spending a year in the research division of the chemical warfare service during World War I, returned to Harvard as instructor in chemistry. He was advanced in rank to professor of organic chemistry, winning recognition as a brilliant organic chemist. He specialized in research into free radicals, the chemical structure of chlorophyll and the quantitative study of organic reactions. On May 8, 1933, he was elected president of Harvard, succeeding A. Lawrence Lowell; as president he led the university toward a broadening of the social and geographical make-up of the student bodies of the undergraduate college and the professional schools. An early advocate of aid to the Allies in the late 1930s. Conant became a central figure in organizing United States science for World War II, including the development of the atomic bomb. After the war he served as a senior adviser to the National Science foundation and In 1953 he was appointed to the Atomic Energy commission. United States high commissioner for western Germany and in 1955 ambassador. He became known as a defender of the democratic spirit in the new Germany. Returning to the United States in 1957. he took up an earlier interest in public education and conducted studies of the comprehensive high school and the junior high school, on which he reported to both the general public and

CONANT, JAMES BRYANT

his fellow educators.

Conant's publications include two textbooks. Practical Chemwith N. H. Black (1920), and Chemistry of Organic Compounds (1933). He was particularly successful in writing about science for the nonscientifically trained person, as in On Understanding Science (1947). Among his books on educational policy may be mentioned Education and Liberty (1953), The American High School Today (F. Kl.) (1959 and Suburbs aJid Slums (1961). (c 1680-1764), Italian baroque CONCA, painter, created great, animated compositions, superficial but dazHe was born at Gaeta, zling in colour and brilliant in execution. and studied at Naples under Francesco Solimena. In 1706, along with his brother Ciiovanni, who acted as his assistant, he settled at Rome, where for several years he worked in chalk only, to imistry, written

)

SEBASTIANO

prove his drawing. patronized by Pietro Cardinal Ottoboni, who introduced Pope Clement XI; and a "Jeremiah" painted in the church of St. John Lateran was rewarded by the pope with a knighthood and by the cardinal with a diamond cross. "Pool of Siloam" is

He was

him

to

considered his finest picture.

CONCENTRATION CAMPS

are internment centres, es-

tablished outside the ordinary detention system, in which persons are confined for reasons of military or political security, and for

punishment or exploitation. Imprisonment usually is by executive decree or military order and frequently includes groups or classes Concentraof persons without regard to individual culpability. tion camps are thus to be distinguished from prisons in which persons convicted of crimes under civil law are confined, and from prisoner-of-war camps in which captured military personnel are held under the laws of war. They are to be distinguished, as well, from many other camps or centres in which large numbers of persons may be temporarily confined, such as refugee camps, detention stations and relocation centres.

CONCENTRATION CAMPS

252 Military Concentration Camps.

— In periods of

hostility, ci-

sometimes have been concentrated in camps to prevent them from engaging in guerrilla warfare or providing aid to enemy forces, or simply as a means of terrorizing the populace into submission. Upon the failure of Arsenio Martinez de Campos to put down the Cuban rebellion of 1895, the Spanish government vilian populations

The O.G.P.U. established many corrective labour camps in northern Russia and Siberia, especially during the first five-year plan, 1928-32, when thousands of rich peasants (kulaks) were driven from their farms under the collectivization program. The inmates of the camps in northern Russia were used principally in the lumbering and fishing industries and on large public-works

sent Valeriano VVeyler y Nicolau to Cuba to command the Spanish As a part of his efforts to pacify the country Weyler troops.

projects, such as the construction of the

by a decree of Oct. 21, 1896. Under the decree Cuban men, women and children living in rural areas were forced from their homes and "concentrated" in large camps enclosed by barbed wire and guarded by Spanish soldiers. The prisoners were held in deplorable conditions, with little food and inadequate shelter. Protests in the United States and Spain over this inhumane waging of war against civilians led to Weyler's His successor. Gen. Ramon Blanco y Erenas, found that recall. reconccntrados -were dying by the thousands, and he ordered the concentration camps abolished. During the 1901-02 period of the South African War the British, under Horatio Herbert Kitchener, adopted similar measures of repression against the Boers. Having withdrawn his garrisons to major centres. Kitchener established concentration camps for the confinement of noncombatants of the republics of Transvaal and Cape Colony, By July 1901 the camps were filled to overflowing, and at the end of the war they contained about 200,000 persons. Although the concentration policy was criticized in England, the system was not abandoned until the cessation of hostilities in

bering and mining.

March

of the Baltic states into the Soviet

instituted his "concentration" policy

1902.

While reprisals against noncombatants for hostile acts against occupying military forces are not expressly prohibited by international law, they must be reasonably related to acts of provo-

The concentration camps established by military authority Cuba and South Africa were excessive measures for military control and were not supportable in law. Even so. confinement was solely for the period of hostilities, and was not characterized by cation.

in

the deliberate mistreatment inflicted

Political

upon the inmates

of political

Laws of War.) Concentration Camps. Concentration camps

concentration camps.

{See

—

political control

have been used chiefly

punitive power

may

in police states in

for

which

be exercised outside the ordinary judicial system. To a considerable extent the camps have served as the special prisons of the secret police. Persons suspected of opposition to the totalitarian regime have been summarily arrested by the secret police and placed under long or indefinite terms of confinement in the camps. The principal purpose of the political concentration camp thus has been the maintenance of totalitarian control. A secondary purpose has been the utilization of inmates for forced labour. Prisoners have been required to work for wages in food. Those unable to work usually died from starvation, and those who did not starve frequently died from overwork. While political concentration camps have been established, under various forms, in many totalitarian regimes, they have been used most extensively in the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. Millions of persons have been confined, punished and exploited in such concentration camps. Corrective Labour Camps of the Soviet Union. During the first years of the Soviet regime the Cheka (All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Repression of Counterrevolution and Sabotage was the primary repressive instrumentality of the state.

—

)

The Cheka was given the power to exile persons camps without judicial, trial. It was replaced

to concentration

in 1922 by the O.G.P.U. (United General Political administration). At that time there were 23 concentration camps in various locations in Russia. Although its powers were not absolute, the O.G.P.U. could arrest and send to concentration camps, without trial, persons accused of political offenses, such as espionage and counterrevolution, as well as those accused of certain criminal offenses, such as looting and illegal border crossing. In 1923 the O.G.P.U. established a concentration camp on Solovetski Island in the White sea in which prisoners were first used extensively for forced labour. Thereafter the Soviet concentration camp system became a gigantic organization for the exploitation of inmates through work.

White sea-Baltic sea canal. camps were used principally in lumIn 1932 the O.G.P.U. set up corrective labour camps for gold mining in the arctic taiga along the Kolyma river in far eastern Siberia. The O.G.P.U. was replaced by the N.K.V.D. (people's commissariat of internal affairs) in 1934. Thereafter the corrective labour

The inmates

of the Siberian

camp system was administered by the N.K.V.D. which had its own para -military force. The Stalinist purges of 1936-38 brought adBy ditional thousands of political "unreliables" into the camps. 1939 a vast system of concentration camps, utilized primarily for forced labour, existed across the northern reaches of European Russia and Siberia. tutions of slavery.

These camps were said to be essentially instiInmates were housed in rough barracks and

were inadequately clothed for the severe arctic climate. The standard rations of bread and soup were scarcely adequate to maintain life. Camp commandants were credited with the amount of work produced against the amount of food consumed. As a consequence the prisoners were driven to, and beyond, the limits of

human endurance. The occupation of

eastern Poland in 1939 and the incorporation Union in 1940 led to incarcera-

camps of large numbers of non-Soviet citizens Following the outbreak of war with Germany prisoners of war and Soviet nationals camps received 1 94 accused of collaboration with the enemy. After the war, Russian soldiers who had allowed themselves to be captured were sent to the camps. The powers of the N.K.V.D. were transferred to the M.V.D. (ministry of internal affairs) in 1946. Under the M.V.D. corrective labour camps continued to serve as primary instruments for political control over the peoples of the Soviet Union and of tion in concentration

from those

in

1

areas.

the

the Soviet satellite states.

—

Concentration Camps of Nazi Germany. In Nazi Germany camps (Konzentrationslager) were first estab-

the concentration

lished for the confinement of opponents of the Nazi party.

Reichs-

marshal Hermann Goring, who was responsible for the institution of the concentration-camp system, stated that the camps had been created for the confinement of thousands of leaders of the Communist and Social Democratic parties. But political opposition soon was enlarged to include individuals who opposed the methods of the Nazis and persecuted minority groups, particularly the Jews. In the anti-Jewish pogrom of 1938, 20,000 Jews were taken into "protective custody" by the Gestapo and sent to the concentration camps. By 1939 six major camps had been established: Dachau, Sachsenhausen, Buchenwald, Mauthausen, Flossenbijrg and Ravensbriick.

The outbreak of World War II created a tremendous demand for labour in Germany, and Nazi authorities turned to the concentration-camp population to augment the labour supply. From 1940 to 1942 nine new camps were established; Auschwitz, Neuengamme, Gusen, Natzweiler, Gross Rosen, Lublin, Niederhagen, Stutthof and Arbeitsdorf. Thousands of forced labourers from countries occupied by Germany were placed in concentration camps and auxiliary labour camps. Under the "night and fog decree" {Nacht und Nebel Erlass), a terrorist measure, prominent citizens of occupied territories were spirited aw'ay by the Gestapo under cover of "night and fog" and secretly imprisoned in concentration camps. Escaped Soviet officer prisoners of war w'ho were recaptured were sent to Mauthausen where they were executed under the "bullet decree" (Kugel Erlass). The concentration camps were under the administration of the W.V.H.A. (Economic Administration Main office) of the SS. They were guarded by special units of the SS. (Schutzstaffel). known as the death's-head battalions (Totenkopjverbdnde). While severity of treatment depended upon the categories of prisoners confined, conditions in general were degrading and brutal.

CONCEPCION—CONCEPT Prisoners were used for medical experiments, in the course of which

90%

many were maimed,

way

Housing was so deplorable, rations were so meagre and work was so excessive that few persons could survive long internment. Crematoriums were established in the camps to dispose of the bodies of the dead. Toward the end of the war, when food and fuel supplies became exhausted, thousands died of starvation and disease. The Allied forces found the quick and the dead lying side by side in the barracks. Camp tortured and killed.

camp presented a scene of The most shocking extension

after

horror.

of the concentration-camp system Nazi Germany was the establishment of extermination centres under cover of the war by order of Reichsjiihrer SS. Heinrich Hiramler. These centres, located principally in Poland, were for the primary purpose of the mass murder of unwanted populations, The elimination of such populations was particularly the Jews. part of the Nazi plan to develop a "master race." Victims were shipped to the camps in freight trains. Those who were not fit for heavy manual labour were sent at once to gas chambers which were usually disguised as bathhouses. Children as well as adult men and women were exterminated in the gas chambers. Bodies of the dead were removed by special details of prisoners and were burned on the ground or in the crematoriums. Everything of value was taken from the victims, including even the gold fillings extracted from The most notorious of the extermination the teeth of corpses. centres was the concentration camp at Auschwitz (Oswi^cim), Pol. Rudolf Hoess, the commandant of Auschwitz, confessed to the extermination of 2.500,000 people in that camp alone. Bibliography. David J. Dallin and Boris I. Nikolaevskii, Forced Labor in Soviet Russia (1947) U.S. Government Printing Office, Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, 8 vol. (1Q46 suppl., 2 vol., 1947-48) Secrein

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tariat of the International Military Tribunal, Trial of the

Major War

Criminals, 42 vol. (1947-49) Walt W. Rostow, The Dynamics of Soviet Society (1953); Whitney R. Harris, Tyranny on Trial (1954). (W. R. Hs.) ;

CONCEPCION,

province of south central Chile lying almost is bounded by the province and east, Bio-Bio and Cautin on the south and the Pacific on the west. It is approximately bisected by latitude 37° S. One of eight provinces created in 1S26, Concepcion was reduced to 2,201 sq.mi. by the segregation of territory to form Nuble, Bio-Bio, Malleco, Cautin and Arauco provinces. Concepcion is the third province in population (537,711 in 1960) and in population density. The city of Concepcion (g.v.) is the provincial and departmental capital. Lesser administrative centres are Talcahuano. site of a major naval base, Coronel (q.v.), a coal-mining entirely within the coastal mountains,

of I^uble on the north

Tome and Yumbel. For many years Chile's third industrial centre, Concepcion produced in the 19505 10% of the manufactured goods, 7% of the mineral wealth (value) and about 8% of the timber (volume). Iron and steel, textiles and food products are major manufactures in the diversified industry. Coal (about 80% of the national output) and glass and ceramics raw materials are the chief mineral products. Tree farms (pine and eucalyptus) yield most of the timber. Although the climate is temperate and humid, the soils are among the least productive in Chile. Only the vineyard acreage is significant. Nevertheless, a variety of food crops and livestock is raised for the markets of Coronel, Lota, Concepcion, TalcahuanoSan Vicente and Penco-Tome. The cities are joined by rail and highways. Double rail communication with the Santiago-Puerto Montt railway is made by way of the Bio-Bio valley or by the more northerly Itata and San Rafael valleys. J- T.) ( centre.

CONCEPCION, third largest city of Chile, provincial and departmental capital and a major educational and manufacturing centre, is located in latitude 36° SO' S., longitude 73° 06' W. Pop. 167,468 (mun.).

The

city

is

an episcopal

see,

and the seat of an

appellate court and of the University of Concepcion.

The

city's

commercial and industrial prominence may be related to a number of geographic assets. Concepcion bay, to the north, is large and protected; the Bio-Bio river, which enters the sea just below the city, provides a corridor through the coastal mountains to a valley region where agricultural and forest industries are well developed. The river's volume and hydroelectric potential are ample to meet foreseeable regional industrial and domestic requirements. Over

253 The

rail-

serving the major mines ends in Concepcion, as do the

rail-

of Chile's coal

is

mined within 55 mi. of the

city.

ways which follow the Bio-Bio and Itata rivers into the interior. The Itata railway links the east-shore Concepcion bay industrial and resort towns of Lirquen, Penco and Tome (textiles, sugar and wine processing, glass and ceramics, coal mining). A local railway serving the southwestern side of the bay joins Talcahuano, Huachipato and San Vicente with Concepcion. Talcahuano is a major naval base, a commercial port for the region from Talca to Temuco and, like San Vicente, a source of Santiago's fresh and preserved Huachipato, a planned industrial town, is the site of a Concepcion's industries include textiles, food processing, woodworking and brewing; across the Bio-Bio is a paper factory and upstream is the Chiguayante cotton mill. The city has an attractive university campus and Concepcion, founded on the present adjacent residential area. site of Penco in 1550, was twice burned by the Araucanians (in

sea food.

modern

steel mill, built in the late 19405.

the issos) and struck by several earthquakes, two of them followed by tidal waves (1730, 1751). In 1754 the city was transSerious earthquakes have continued ferred to the present site. (

1835, 1898, 1922, 1939, 1960).

CONCEPCION,

(J.

T.)

department of north central Paraguay, lies between the Apa river on the north and Ypane on the south, and is bounded on the west by the Paraguay mainstream. The terrain is swampy lowland in the west, rising eastward into hilly Economic activities centre around country. Area 6,970 sq.mi. lumbering, cattle raising and subsistence agriculture. The principal settlements are Concepcion, the capital. Horqueta. Loreto and Belen, all in the southwest of the department. Of the estimated population of 80,174 (1960), 90% live south of the Aquidaban river, in the districts served by these towns. A road links Concepcion to Brazilian centres and a narrow-gauge railway serves Horqueta. (G. J. B.) , CONCEPCION (Villa Concepcion), the principal town and river port of northern Paraguay, lies on the Paraguay river near the mouth of the Vpane river. Pop. (1960 est.) 20,642, including many with an admixture of Indian blood. It is an export point for cattle, lumber and yerba mate, and a distributing centre for merchandise brought up the Paraguay river from Argentina and from Asuncion, the national capital, which lies 134 mi. to the a

It has a considerable trade with the Brazilian province of Grosso, to the north, as well as with the quebracho ports of Casado and Pinasco. It is also linked by internal air services with the capital. Founded in 1773, it was an important logistic point

south.

Mato

during the Chaco war, 1932-35, and has remained a garrison city. A metre-gauge It is the headquarters of the bishop of the Chaco. railway eastward to Horqueta serves a cattle-raising and lumbering (G. J. B.) area. In philosophy the word "concept" (of which "conception" is an older equivalent) is very frequently employed: it is indeed so convenient as to be almost indispensable, though its use has sometimes been thought to raise difficulties. A typical instance of its use is in the title of Gilbert

CONCEPT AND CONCEPTION.

The Concept of Mind, where it implies that the purpose of the author is not to investigate empirically (e.g., by the methods of psychology) the mind itself, but to investigate the salient logical features, or in the author's phrase the "logical geography," of the language in which we speak of the human Similarly, investigations of the logical features of dismind. course about pleasure or duty or remembering would be said to be concerned with the concepts of pleasure or duty or memory. Derivatively, to use. or to be able to use, the linguistic expressions in question would be said to be to apply, or to possess, those concepts. The convenience of the word "concept" is that it supRyle's book

plies a brief

mode

of referring to the interest of philosophers in

logical, or linguistic,

problems, as distinct from the interest of other (nonlinguistic) matters of fact. Its use

inquirers in empirical

has, however, been occasionally deplored, on the ground that it might suggest that philosophers are concerned with nonsensible entities, "objects of thought" or "mental contents," and thus might actually obscure the essentially linguistic, or logical, character It need not be denied that the use of philosophical problems.

CONCEPT FORMATION— CONCEPTUALISM

2 54

of this expression might, as indeed might the use of

any other,

prove sometimes misleadinu; however, the danger of this is an insufficient reason for renouncing altogether the use of so convenient a term. See also Abstract and Abstraction; ConcF.pTi'ALisM Universal. (G. J. Wk.) ;

CONCEPT FORMATION, PSYCHOLOGY

OF.

A

prominent aspect of the human thought process is the utilization of abstraction, in which generalized categories are used to repreThe "general sent a diversity of particular objects and events. ideas" which are used for classes of items arc called concepts (see Concept and Conception), and the process by which the person comes to give a common response (usually a name) to a general class of objects which despite differing details have certain characteristics in

common

is

called concept formation.

The

relation-

ship between universals and particulars has been discussed by

philosophers since the time of Plato, but not until the 20lh century was the problem given experimental study.

Concepts develop slowly through experience. They are usually derived from a series of concrete examples, or instances, some of which are found to be members of the class being derived and

The

others of which are not.

first

referred to as a positive instance (a latter as a negative instance (not a

type of example

member member

is

commonly

of the class)

and the

of the class).

Thus

on many occasions that the animal he sees is a dog, but on other occasions he is told that his teddy bear or the family cat is ?wt a dog. Depending on its nature, positive and negative instances have varying utility in conveying a concept. In the child

is

told

seem to be more effective in learning, although with complex concepts negative instances are essential to limit appropriately the possible range of generalization. Observation of and interviews with children in the process of learning concepts at successive ages have had an important influence in the study of how concepts are acquired. Jean Piaget analyzed into four general stages the development of concepts in general, positive instances

children.

of objects

During the first stage the child shows discrimination by a characteristic reaction to particular objects. In employs words to stand for particular objects

the next stage he

but not for classes of them. In the third stage the child responds symbolically to a class of objects but is unable to give an adequate verbal formulation of the concept. During the fourth stage the child is able to give an acceptable definition of the concept. These stages are not, of course, perfectly clear-cut, and there is considerable overlapping between them. A pioneer study by C. L. Hull involved the learning of nonsense syllables to various symbols drawn to resemble Chinese characters and devised to have certain common characteristics imbedded in them. Hull found that the appropriate nonsense syllable was learned to each class of stimulus on the basis of the hidden characteristics, although in many cases the learners were not able to verbalize the basis on which they did this. Extensive further study was undertaken by E. Heidbreder, who believes that concepts in-

volving concrete objects are more readily learned than those involving spatial forms or abstract numbers.

Appropriate concept formation ing of the nervous system

is

dependent upon the function-

and brain.

Studies of the effects of brain

damage, particularly among wounded

soldiers, indicated that injury to the frontal cortex of the brain impairs the person's ability to utilize abstract concepts but has much less effect on his dealing concretely with particular objects. For example, one of the patients studied by K. Goldstein and M. Scheerer could readily drink out of a glass filled with water but was unable to demonstrate

how

to drink when the glass was empty. Another patient could use a generic term like flower in a particular way (as, "I grow flowers in my garden") but could not deal with the abstract concept of flower.

Somewhat

related

phenomena

are found in studies of mental pawith schizophrenia (q.v.). L. S. Vigotsky, a physiologist, who devised an important clinical test used in the study of conceptual capacity, advanced the thesis that thinking in schizophrenics is a regression to childlike thinking. Significant studies of thinking in schizophrenia were carried out by tients, particularly those

E.

Hanfmann and

J.

Kasanin,

who found marked

deterioration

in the pattern of concepts utilized

by schizophrenics.

There was,

however, considerable variability, the lowest

levels' of conceptual functioning occurring consistently only among patients also having organic damage. Since schizophrenic patients typically have severe emotional ditTiculties. it is not clear to what extent the deteriorated performance is attributable to personality disturbances

rather than to changes in intellectual functioning. Most of the concepts the child learns and the adult uses in his everyday thinking exist ready made in the culture in which he is

The task of the individual is not to form them but to acquire them by means of his relations with others. The invention of entirely new concepts is a much rarer and much more brought up.

This is, of course, particularly characteristic of Here, in addition to the inductive type of concept attainment which has been discussed, there is need for inference of the type classically labeled deduction and also for creativity to develop novel combinations not formerly considered. Concepts involving relationships where there are long time lapses between an event and its consequences, or concepts involving contingencies and interdependence, are particularly difficult to dedifficult

task.

scientific activity.

velop. There are also frequently motivational resistances to the acceptance of new concepts which have to supplant those derived

from earlier experiences. See also Child Psychology and Development; Thinking and Problem Solving. Psychology of. Bibliography. J. S. Bruner, J. J. Goodnow and G. A. Austin, A Study of Thinking (I9.S6) E. Heidbreder, "The Attainment of

—

;

Concepts," /. Gen. Psychol., 35:173-189, 191-.'23 (1946); C. I. Hovland, "A Communication Analysis of Concept Learning," Psychol. Rev., .S9:461-472 (1952) C. L. Hull, "Quantitative Aspects of the Evolution of Concepts," Psychol. Monogr., 28 (no. 1) (1926); J. Piaget, The Child's Conception oj the World (1929) and Judgment and Reasoning in the Child (1928) L. S. Vigotsky, "Thought and Speech," Psychiatry, 2:29-54 (1939). (C. I. H.) (from "concept"), in philosophy, a ;

;

CONCEPTUALISM

term applied by modern writers to a scholastic theory of the nature of universals. to distinguish it from the two extremes of

nominalism and realism. The scholastic philosophers took up the old Greek problem as to the nature of true reality, whether the is more truly real. Between realism which asserts that the gevus is more real than the species, and that particulars have no reality, and nominalism according to which genus and species are merely names (nomina, flatus vocis), conceptualism takes a mean position. The conceptualist holds that universals have a real existence, but only in the mind, as the concepts which unite the individual things; e.g., there is in the mind a general notion or idea of boats, by reference to which the mind can decide whether a given object is, or is not, a boat. On the one hand "boat" is something more than a mere sound with a purely arbitrary conventional significance; on the other it has, apart from particular things to which it applies, no reality; its reality is purely abstract or conceptual. This was enunciated by Abelard in opposition to Roscelin (nominalist) and Guillaume de Champeaux (realist). Abelard held that it is only by becoming a predicate that the class-notion or general term acquires reality. Thus similarity (conformitas) is observed to exist between a number of objects in respect of a particular quality or qualities. This quality becomes real as a mental congeneral idea or the particular object

cept when it is predicated of all the objects possessing it. Hence Abelard's theory is alternatively known as sermonism (sermo, "predicate"). His statement of this position oscillates markedly, inclining sometimes toward the nominalist, sometimes toward the

statement, using the arguments of the one against the other. is described by some as a realist, by others as a nominalist. When he comes to explain that objective similarity in things which is represented by the class concept or general term, realist

Hence he

he adopts the theological Platonic view that the ideas which are the archetypes of the qualities exist in the mind of God. They are, therefore, ante rem, in re and post rem, or, as Avicenna stated it, universalia ante multiplicitatem, in multiplicitate, post multipUcstatrni ("universals exist before, in, and after the multiplicity of The whole controversy suffers from a tendtheir particulars"). ency to confuse "idea" in the sense of a concept or notion in the mind with "idea" in the Platonic sense of an ultimate archetype of

phenomenal

objects.

(A.

Wo.)

CONCERT—CONCERTO CONCERT.

The

concert

is

a social institution for the per-

formance of absolute, as distinct from religious or dramatic, music which developed to its present form from the informal music-making of the 17th century. The social influences affecting the concert also affected the music conceived for it, and the evolution in music from Mozart to Beethoven has a counterpart in the aristocratic, as opposed to the democratic, patronage of the conSimilarly, cosmopolitan aspects of music in the second half cert. of the 20th century are associated with the increasingly international outlook of concert audiences.

Early forms of the concert were associated with university In the first half of the i8th century many German

activities.

universities maintained a Collegium

Musicum

for the

performance

chamber music, and "music meetings" were regularly held at Oxford and Cambridge. Gatherings of amateurs to hear music had been a feature of the Italian academies of the Renaissance, notably those at Bologna and Milan founded in the 15th century. Like the French academies that succeeded them, they fostered music as one of the humanities and anticipated in this respect the function of i8lh-century concert patrons. The more important Italian and French academies were, however, principally concerned with exploring the borderlands of music and poetry, and these opened a of

way to the opera rather than to the concert. The first public concerts for which admission was charged were given in London by the violinist John Banister at his home in Whitefriars in 1672. In 1678 Thomas Britton, a charcoal seller, established weekly concerts in a loft in Clerkenwell at the subscription rate of los. a year. Handel and Pepusch were among the performers at these humble but historic concerts which were the forerunners of several other London series, particularly in the

neighbourhood of Covent Garden. Concerts of instrumental and vocal music were frequently given The at the homes of the nobility in France in the 17th century. first public concerts in France were the Concerts Spirituals, organized by the composer Anne Danican Philidor on days of reliThese flourished in gious festivals when the Opera was closed. Paris from 1725 to 1791. Closely associated with the development of the symphony and bringing the 18th-century repertory to a wide public, the Concert Spirituel served as a model for similar concert

255

I" the United States concerts had been given in the 1 8th century at New York, Philadelphia and Boston, and also at Charleston, S.C, where a St. Cecilia society was founded in

founded

in 1859.

1762 and where, five years later, concerts were inaugurated under title "New Vauxhall," on the model of the London garden con-

the

But the main U.S. contribution to concert activity came with the foundation in the 19th century of symphony orchestras in several towns. Prosperity attracted European artists and enabled high standards to be reached by U.S. musicians. From the early 20th century, concert activity in the larger U.S. cities attained at certs.

least the level of that in

European

CONCERTINA,

the reeds in fraised sockets, and also the pallet valves and finger

buttons by which air is selectively admitted to the reeds. The reed tongues,

Among

the

numerous iSth-century concert

societies in

Germany

and Austria the Gewandhaus concerts at Leipzig, dating from 1781, and the Tonkijnstlersocietat (Musicians' society), founded in 1771 in Vienna, were later to be associated with the great figures of romantic music. The court concerts given by the orchestra of the elector palatine between 1743 and 1778 at Mannheim, described by Charles Burney as "an orchestra of generals," reached the highest standard of orchestral playing in Europe at that time. A change came at the beginning of the 19th century when conNew certs attracted audiences drawn from a wider social range. concert societies were formed to meet the demands of a growing democratic spirit. Many societies, formed when the symphonies of Beethoven and the romantic works of Berlioz were first heard, exist to the present day, notably the Philharmonic society (later, Royal Philharmonic society in London, the Concerts du Conservatoire in Paris and the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna. So far concert giving had been mainly confined to England, France, Germany and Italy. With the growth of nationahsm concert societies were formed for the promotion of national music in many European countries, notably the Russian Music society )

of

steel

or brass,

are

attached to their individual brass frames by screwed plates. The concertina employs "double action" (see Accordion), each note

societies in other countries.

In the second half of the i8th century the symphonies of Haydn and Mozart were introduced in England at the professional concerts, and Haydn wrote a famous set of 12 symphonies for performance in London at the Salomon concerts. Earlier, concerts reflecting the social elegance of 18th-century London were given in elaborate settings at the gardens of Vauxhall, Ranelagh and Marylebone. An English equivalent of a fete galante was suggested by the masquerades and Handelian opera singers at these pleasure gardens where the programs ranged from works by the Something seven-year-old Mozart to popular songs of the day. of the spirit of the London garden concerts was revived at the end of the 19th century at the Crystal Palace concerts in London.

centres.

In the 20th century, and particularly after World War II, conwas greatly stimulated by the radio and the phonograph. Larger concert halls were built and orchestral and chamber-music concerts became one of the main attractions at music Concert societies were established in countries of the festivals. British Commonwealth and South America. Others sprang up in India and Japan. With the world-wide popularization of music concert repertories were, however, marked by a new trend. Wellestablished works of the classical and romantic periods were genOn the other erally more favoured than contemporary works. hand, standards of execution at concerts, particularly of instruOrchestras, as well as mental works, were noticeably higher. soloists, traveled freely from one country to another, and concerts even in provincial towns, sometimes the scene of a music festival, reached a standard which must have been unknown in the main (E. Lr.) centres of concert activity in the 19th century. a musical instrument of the free-reed class (see Wind Instruments), patented by Sir Charles Wheatstone Hexagonal hand bellows are fastened between in London, 1829. two sets of boards that carry cert activity

EARLY CONCERTINA MADE OF ROSE-

WOOD AND LEATHER WITH

being given by a pair of reeds, one to sound on the press of the bellows, the other on the draw. In the original and subsequently

IVORY

the most usual model, the chromatic scale is divided between the hands in some later models, two STONE; c. 1829 as the duet-system concertina, a chromatic scale is provided for each hand. Wheatstone's other invention in this field, patented in 1829, was the Symphonium. This was a chromatic mouth organ with reeds contained in a small nickel-silver box and controlled by finger buttons at the sides. The blowing hole was at the back of the box, and the reeds (one for each note) were all sprung to be sounded on the blow, none on the draw. The patent also describes

KEYS

LETS;

AND MOTHER-OF-PEARL PALBY SIR CHARLES WHEAT-

;

a bellows

attachment for the Symphonium.

After the great days of the concertina virtuoso in the 19th cenfrom Giulio Regondi to Alexander Prince, the instrument

tury,

gradually became superseded from

c.

1910 by the improved con-

(A. C. Ba.) See also Harmonium. in music, a term used since about 1700 as the title for compositions in which the skill of a single virtuoso instrumentalist is set into relief against an orchestral background. The word has two, apparently contradictory, meanings: first, it describes music played in consort, i.e., together; second, it describes music characterized by a conflict between separate groups of instruments with different tonal qualities. The Early Concerto. The early history of the concerto is not easy to trace because of this confusion in meaning and because of the inexact application of the term a difficulty that is also encountered with the sonata and the symphony. The word "concerto" first makes its appearance in late 16th-century Italian tinental accordion.

CONCERTO,

—

—

—

CONCERTO

256

by Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli (1587), Cristofano Malvezzi and Luca Marenzio (1S91) and

concerto a stage further, notably in Bach's set of six Brandenburg concertos composed between 1716 and 1721. Each of the Branden-

Adriano Banchieri (1596); and in the title of a treatise on instrumentation by Ercole Bottrigari, // desiderio, overo de' concerti di In these books, as in dozens of varij strumenii musicali (1594). others published during the first 40 years of the 17th century, the Italian term "concerto" is exactly synonymous with the Latin concentus, the English "consort" or the French "ensemble." A concerto of this time was a comparatively short piece of polyphonic music for a relatively small number of singers and players, or players alone, each performing an individual part of no particular The ensemble was usually welded together technical difficulty. by the accompaniment of an organ, harpsichord or lute, and the performers were expected to improvise their own embellishments Such a style could only arise in cities like to their written parts. Venice, where there was a long tradition for elaborate ensemble

burg concertos displays a different combination of soloists, but at least three of them belong to the repertory of chamber music rather than to that of the symphony orchestra since all the parts are for

sources: in

anthologies of music

music on great church and state occasions, or at the courts of wealthy art-loving despots {e.g., the Medici of Florence) all the In many early concertos are associated with such surroundings. early concertos the players were arrayed in two or more groups In others so that the music formed an antiphonal dialogue. notably the very influential Concerti ecclesiastici of Ludovico Viadana (1602) the music is what now would be termed a motet or, more rarely, a madrigal for one or more solo voices, accompanied by the organ and sometimes by other instruments as well. Throughout the first 40 years of the 17th century the concerto remained an Italian form, practised almost exclusively by Italian composers, and it retained its connotations of ceremony, the church and court, and improvised embellishment. Between c. 1640 and 1680 the word disappeared altogether, for reasons that are far from clear, in favour of sonata or sinfonia (for instruments) and cantata (for voices). When it reappeared (Giovanni Bononcini's Concerti da camera, 1685; Giuseppe Torelli's Sinfonia e concerti, 1692 Giulio Taglietti's Concerti e sinfonie, 1696) its meaning had become restricted to instrumental music, and it has remained so ever since. Concertos of this date are distinguishable from the trio-sonata (for two violins, cello and keyboard) only in that the composers appear to have envisaged several players to a part. An attempt also seems to have been made at distinguishing between the church concerto solemn, pompous, contrapuntal and the chamber concerto, which was more light hearted and less intricate ;

—

;

—

(see

Chamber Music).

—

—

The Concerto Grosso By 1 700 or so the viola had become an integral part of the ensemble and each violin part had forked into two, one for an accomplished soloist and the other for his less proficient colleagues. This orchestral ensemble of strings and keyboards was usually handled by composers as a double body: a concertino ("little concerto") consisting of the old trio-sonata combination of two violins, cello and keyboard; and a ripieno ("filling out") of strings in four or five parts, with a second keyboard. Music for such an ensemble was called a concerto grosso (a term first encountered in 1698), and the style was perfected by Torelli (1698), Tommaso Albinoni (1700), Arcangelo Corelli (published posthumously in 1714) and Antonio Vivaldi (1710-20). Most of this music was composed in Rome, Bologna or Venice during the years from 1680 to 1720; it was widely disseminated, above all by the enterprising though piratical music publishers Estienne Roger of Amsterdam and his rival John Walsh of London and it was widely imitated, by Handel and Bach among many others. Soon the concerto grosso broke into two diverging forms: the ;

solo concerto for a single soloist,

and the orchestral concerto for an ensemble of strings, woodwind and accompanying keyboard. Vivaldi took the lead in the development of both these forms, and he also established the pattern of an animated rhythmic first movement, an expressively singing slow movement, and a high-spirited brilliant finale. His hundreds of concertos include 71 (printed) violin concertos, 27 cello concertos, 37 bassoon concertos and three oboe concertos, as well as many orchestral concertos for highly diversified ensembles. Bach and Handel were the first to write concertos for a solo keyboard instrument ^they were renowned as virtuosi on the harpsichord and organ, just as Vivaldi was on the violin and they also carried the development of the orchestral

—

—

single players.

By 1730 Vivaldi's three-movement form (quick, slow, quick) had become standard throughout Europe. Its dramatic elements of contrast and display appealed instantly to an age that was mad about opera; Bach's Italian concerto for unaccompanied twomanual harpsichord is not only a perfect example of the genre but also demonstrates how it could be transferred intact to a single instrument. Such a work as this is very close to the classical sonata, concerto or

symphony

of the next generation, lacking only

trio, and the new structure of sonata form. With the concertos of Bach's sons Carl Philipp Emanuel and Johann Christian, the bridge between the two styles is crossed into the

the minuet and

familiar territory of Mozart, Haydn and Beethoven. In their music the violin at last yielded its supremacy as a solo instrument, and the newly perfected pianoforte took over instead. Mozart

composed

six

concertos for violin, but nine for piano;

Haydn

nine

Beethoven one for violin, five for piano. During the classical period the concerto steadily increased in length, brilliance and emotional content; the listener found it ever easier to identify himself with the soloist's problems and triumphs, as an analogue with his own attempts to make his way in the world, and the concerto soon became the favourite among all forms of concert music. The piano's increasing power permitted an ever richer and louder orchestral accompaniment; its keyboard was extended to higher and lower notes until its range exceeded that of all other orchestral instruments put together; and the piano concerto became more and more an adventure in contest and endurance, rather than an essay in contrast and elegance. Small wonder that the great romantic composers of the 19th century chose it with such unanimity: two piano concertos each by Weber, Mendelssohn, Chopin, Liszt, Brahms; one each by Schumann and Grieg; three by Tchaikovsky. The array of violin concertos by the same composers makes a striking comparison one each by Mendelssohn, Schumann, Brahms and Tchaikovsky. Some special developments in the concerto during the classical and romantic periods are worth noting: (1) the appearance of for violin, 20 for piano;

The

Classical Concerto.

—

:

concertos for almost every instrument of the symphony orchestra (e.g., Haydn's for trumpet, and cello; Mozart's for horn, bassoon, clarinet, oboe, flute and harp; Domenico Dragonetti's for double bass; Rimsky-Korsakov's for trombone); (2) the growth of the accompanied cadenza, finally reducing the soloist's improvisatory

freedom to nil; (3) the cyclic form adopted by Liszt for his concertos, in which the three movements become welded together into one long fantasia; (4) the single-movement concerto or Konzertstiick; (5) the introduction of new concerto forms {e.g., Cesar Franck's symphonic variations for piano and orchestra) (6) the return of the multiple concerto (concertos for two or three soloists are usually known as double or triple concertos, e.g., those by Beethoven, Schumann, Brahms, but the term sinfonia concertante is preferred for a work in which these players have a less dominating part, e.g., Mozart's beautiful sinfonia concertante for violin, viola and orchestra, K. 364) (7) the ever increasing tech;

;

nical difficulty of the solo parts.

The Concerto in the 20th Century.

—By

1900, as the result

development, the concerto had lost all contact with the form perfected by Mozart; 20th-century comSome composers have tried to posers have worked new veins. revive the ideals in style or so.und of the early 18th-century consingle instruments for every part of occasionally using certo, by the texture (Ernest Bloch, Gustav Hoist, Vincent d'Indy, Henk Badings, Goffredo Petrassi, Paul Hindemith, Igor Stravinsky, Manuel de Falla, Francis Poulenc). Others have sought to even out the disparity in technique between soloist and accompaniment by writing concertos for virtuoso orchestra (Hindemith, Bela Bartok). A third group has continued to ride the tiger of virtuosity in solo concertos, not for its own sake but as a means of of

more than

a century of

CONCESSIONS personal expression (Sergei Rachmaninoff, Edward Elgar, Sergei Prokofiev, Dimitri Shostakovich. Arnold Schonberg, Alban Berg, Michael Tippett, William Walton). A fourth group has endeav-

oured to cure the elephantiasis afflicting the late 19th-century concerto by writing much shorter works, reviving for this -purpose the diminutive term concertino, which first appeared on a title page of 1687 and already had been adopted by Weber for his clarinet concertino, opus 26; among them are John Carpenter and

Walter Leigh. Such new developments as these show that the concept of the concerto is far from outworn. Audiences will always enjoy a contest, provided its rules are comprehensible; they will always enjoy a musical debate, provided the language is neither abuse nor gibberish; and they will always enjoy observing a virtuoso in action, for it is the most exciting of all musical experiences.

—

Bibliography. A. Veinus, The Concerto (1944); C. M. GirdlePiano Concertos (1948) M. Pincherle, Vivaldi (19.S7) Geschichte der Inslrumentalkonzerts (1927) A. J. B. Hutchines, The Baroque Concerto (1961). (T. D.)

stone. Mozart's

;

;

A. Schering,

;

CONCESSIONS, a term embracing grants by a state to citianother state. A concession may signify a grant by one state to another of political rights in its territory; also a grant, franchise, contract, charter or licence by a state to an individual, a corporation or another state to carry on a specified economic enterprise in its territory. Before World War I the economic concession was used to bring economically undeveloped countries into an expanding international economy. Origin and History. In the middle ages the term "concession" apparently meant a grant, usually of land, from a ruler. After the Europeans' discovery of distant lands, concessions took the form of charters granting lands and some measure of sovereignty to companies, such as the Massachusetts company and the British and Dutch East India companies, and to individuals such as William Penn and Lord Baltimore.. The more recent history of concessions has paralleled the expansion of industry. The igth century saw the establishment both of economic concessions by agreement with the rulers of economically undevelzens, aliens or

—

oped regions and of pohtical concessions as a substitute for the outright acquisition of a colony or to provide a transportation Economic and political conlink such as a canal or a railroad. Economic concessions were not always easily differentiated. cessions sometimes served as indirect means of political control The rise of Asian and African nationalism, parof weak states. ticularly after World War II, gave a new prominence to the concession as a to

means

of

making

undeveloped states. Political Concessions.

—

capital

and technical

skills available

Political concessions, usually set forth

between governments, often embrace grants of partial commercial port or a military, naval or air base. Examples of Chinese concessions include railways and such ports as Macao (to Portugal in 1557), Kiaochow (to Germany in i8g8). Port Arthur (to Russia in i8g8), Weihai-wei (to Great Britain in 1898) and part of Tientsin (to Belgium in 1902). Similar was Cuba's concession of Guantanamo bay to the United States in 1903. Although a concession generally takes the form of a lease, the extent to which sovereignty could be effectively transferred is seen in the manner in which Port Arthur was shuttled back and forth between Russia and Japan, with China a powerless bystander. See also Imperialism. Also of a political nature were grants of sovereign rights such as that by the sultan of Borneo to Sir James Brooke (q.v.). in treaties

or total sovereignty, perhaps over a

"Concessions within concessions" occurred in the late igth century when chartered companies such as the Royal Niger company gained concessions from native chiefs and in turn granted

them

development of industries and natural resources. canal involved investment both for profit and for political purposes. The canal was constructed and operated in accordance with concession agreements made by Ferdinand de Lesseps and the khedive of Egypt in 1854 and 1856 and confirmed by the sultan of Turkey in 1S66. These agreements, together with the declaration of 1873 and the nine-power treaty of for

The Suez

1

888,

established

the

principle

of

unhampered navigation

for

257

merchantmen and warships

of

all

nations in peace and war, sub-

ject to regulations concerning tolls, pilotage dues, etc.

The con-

agreements provided that a Universal Suez Maritime

cession

Canal company should be established for a period of gg years from the opening of the canal, which occurred in 1869. This joint-stock

financed by Egypt and by private in-

company was

In 1875 for political and commercial reasons Great Britain purchased the khedive's holdings, amounting to nearly 44% of the shares. In ig49 the subvention to Egypt

vestors, chiefly French.

was increased to j% of gross profits. On July 26, 1956, Pres. Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt announced nationalization of the Western opposition and efforts by users of the canal to canal. In establish an international operating authority proved futile. 1958 the shareholders agreed to settle for retention of external and liabilities and payment by Nasser's government of £28,300.000, at least 40% in sterling and the remainder in French assets

francs,

payment

to be

completed on Jan.

1,

1964.

Amid considerable political and diplomatic maneuvering, the Panama canal concession, originally acquired by L. N. BonaparteWyse and associates from Colombia in 1878, passed to a French By the treaty of corporation and finally to the United States. United States guaranteed the independence of Panama in exchange for a grant in perpetuity of the use of a zone ten miles wide, exclusive control therein for sanitation, police, judicial and other purposes, the right to fortify and defend the canal and the right to intervene when necessary Panama to preserve order in the cities of Colon and Panama. received an immediate payment of $10,000,000 plus an annuity

Nov. the

18, 1903, the

new

republic of

In ig2i Colombia of $250,000 beginning after nine years. accorded $25,000,000 in compensation for losses suffered.

The Nature sions

fall

into

of

Economic

Concessions.

— Economic

two major categories: (i) public

utilities;

exploration for and exploitation of natural resources. public utihties

embraced have been

was

conces-

and (2)

Among

the

cables, telegraphs, shipping,

Nathave included petroleum and other hydroThe products. agricultural timber and carbons, minerals, rubber, instrument of concession is usually an agreement or contract in which both the granting state and the concessionaire accept mutual obligations toward each other. Unless economic concession agreements are between states, they are not treaties. Mining Concessions. Mining has been conducted by concession since the middle ages. Today in much of the world concession is the necessary method for mineral and oil extraction lighthouses, roads, sewers, hospitals and air transportation. ural resources exploited

—

because either constitution or statute vests the subsoil in the state. Elsewhere the concession method can serve the interests of conservation. Where the subsoil is owned by the state the government concedes the privilege of working government property. Otherwise, the privilege of mining depends upon both agreement with the surface owner and contractual permission or licence International mining concessions provide the from the state.

conceding state with both income and a basis for industrial devel-

opment, while the concessionaire's state acquires more certain access to industrial and strategical minerals, including fissionable materials, which distribution governments try to control.

—

Oil Concessions. Development of the internal-combustion engine rendered petroleum and competition for access thereto matters of increasingly vital concern both to economic and to military policy makers. Competition increased the royalties of conceding states. W'herever the concessionaire's return depends

upon finding oil. the risks may be considerable. The ig58 contract between Pan American Petroleum corporation (wholly owned by Standard Oil Company [Indiana]), Iran and the government-owned National Iranian Oil company required a bonus of $25,000,000, deductible in ten equal installments, in determining taxable net profits after the start of production. Additional requirements were an annual rental of $40o-$6oo per square kilometre, an expenditure of a minimum of $82,000,000 for exploration during the first 12 years, an income tax of 50% of net profits and an equal division of the other 50% with the National Iranian Oil company. Venezuela's petroleum mineral law of

1943,

based on state

CONCILIATION— CONCLAVE

258 owntTship of the subsoil

tract-able

to statutes of

proximately

One-half

the

1783, allowed concessions for exploration, exploitation, transportation and reAn exploration concession granted the fining of petroleum. exclusive right to explore for three years a specified area of ap-

10.000 ha.

was

exploitation; the remainder

could

plot

be sold

to revert to the state.

The

for ex-

was granted on The Venezuelan arthe basis of sealed bids for specified plots. rangements led by 1952 to foreign-exchange earnings from oil of about $500,000,000, which at that time amounted to about 50% of the country's foreign-exchange earnings and Uo'r of the govploitation concession extended for 40 years and

ernment's revenue. The Nature of Concession Contracts.

—A

concession contract is not made under legal compulsion but at the absolute discretion of the conceding state. Without the element of discretion the grant is not in the strict sense a concession. Employment of political

and other indirect pressures need not invalidate a con-

cession, provided that the requirements of the laws of the con-

The concession contract grants ceding state have been met. rights, usually short of ownership, either for a specified time or in perpetuity. The grantor may be a unitary state or a

economic

subordinate unit such as a municipality or a native chief. The rights granted need not include a monopoly. They may include auxiliary rights such as those granted by Liberia to the Firestone Tire and Rubber

company

in

1926: (1) to build and use roads,

bridges, airfields, pipelines, telephone lines, railroad stations, hydroelectric facilities lic

and power

lines; (:) to u.se public

transportation and harbour facilities;

to

(3)

highways, pubimport supplies

and equipment duty free; (4) to construct and operate

a trans-

atlantic radio transmitter.

The

concessionaire takes

itself

obligations

to

exploration expenses over 8,800 sq.mi. in Iran, subject to 50% retroactive reimbursement after commercial quantities of oil

were found, and to accord 50% of the profits to the Iranian government and 25% to the National Iranian Oil company, which shared exploitation expenses. There was no bonus as in the Pan American Petroleum corporation contract previously mentioned. In 1958 the Japanese Arabia Oil company contracted with Kuwait for exploration and development of the area in the neutral zone between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia lying between six miles beyond low-water mark and the international boundary in the Persian gulf. Kuwait was accorded a $1,500,000 annual rental, an additional $1,000,000 annually from the time oil might be struck, a bonus of $5,000,000 when production reached 50,000 bbl. daily and 57% of net profits down to the retailer. A corresponding agreement according Saudi Arabia 56% of the profits had been concluded late

in

1957.

Termination end

of Concessions.

time set

at the

Standard-Vacuum

The Burmah-Shell agreement

for the construction of a refinery at

of 1951 with India

Bombay

called

The conceding

provide

for a pay-

ment of $Soo,ooo to Bombay state for housing. Concession agreements often impose an obligation to employ citizens of the conceding state and limit the number of aliens employable. The Iranian consortium agreement of 1954 between the government

company and eight international companies, including the Anglo-Iranian Oil company, required the training and education of local personnel. The concessionaire may also undertake to promote local private enterprise in the manner of the Arabian American Oil company's industrial development division, which reported a steady increase in payments to Arab contractors. As in the 1951 agreement between StandardVacuum Oil company and India, provisions may be made for investment by citizens of the conceding state. A concession agreement may declare the company's insulation from domestic politics in return for abstention from participation in local politics. Provision is generally made for arbitration of disputes by a tribunal specified in the contract. Arbitration aids in adjusting a contract to changed conditions such as the extension of national jurisdiction over the continental shelf. The concession contract declares what law governs it. For example, under the Suez concession agreement, questions of the status and internal affairs of the company were to be governed by French law applicable to joint-stock companies and to be submitted to arbitrators in France subject to appeal "to the imperial of Iran, the National Iranian Oil oil

court in Paris."

Disputes in Egypt between the company and and those between the company and the Egyptian government were to be governed by local law applied by local tribunals. Where all parties were foreigners, litigation was to be conducted "according to established rules." Latin-American contracts regularly contain a Calvo clause impressing upon the conthird parties

cessionaire the capacity of a citizen or local corporation in respect disputes. The Iranian consortium agreement declared the

to

agreement to be 'governed by the principles of law common to Iran and the companies' home states and by "principles of law recognized by civilized nations in general." Royalties. Older royalty arrangements often required a fixed payment per barrel or ton produced or a lower percentage of profits than was customary after 1945. The Anglo-Persian Oil

—

added to fixed payments, if any. A 75-25 allocation was initiated in 1957 when Ente Nazionale Idrocarburi, an Italian government corporation, undertook to pay

— Concessions not

in the contract.

for construction

in perpetuity

India's agreement of 1951 with and operation of a Bombay re-

finery included a 25-year guarantee against nationalization.

upon

stipulated facilities such as housing or perhaps a complete village for employees.

company once paid Iran 16% of net profits plus £3,000 per annum. Fixed royalty payments often disappointed the conceding state when increased prices spelled increased corporate profits. More satisfying was the 50-50 arrangement that became common after World War II, particularly in respect to oil concessions. This arrangement allowed the state to impose a tax on the net income in such amount as would give the state 50% of the profits when

sion

may, according to the terms of the concesterminate a concession before its expiration date

state

itself, legally

under treaty obligation to the concessionaire's state, by proper exercise of the right of eminent domain involving adequate compensation. Several international arbitral decisions have declared that the arbitrary employment of sovereign power, either by legislative or executive act, to annul a concession constitutes a "denial of justice" and creates an international liability to the concessionaire's state. Refusal to submit the validity of such termination to arbitration in violation of an arbitration clause has or, unless

been held to create liability to make reparation. Failure to realize expected profits is not sufficient reason for releasing a state from Nor is the fact that a new state has its contractual obligations. succeeded the grantor of the concession sufficient ground for anThe principle of unjust enrichby the successor state. nulment ment may be pleaded against the action of a successor state that ignores an expenditure of capital and labour from which the successor derives benefits. Similarly, the principle of unjust enrichment opposes nationali-

zation of concessionary enterprises without compensation.

Na-

company included an undertaking The requirement of just compensation was also

tionalization of the Suez Canal to

compensate.

recognized

in

Mexico's settlements with the United States and

Kingdom for its expropriation of oil lands. Even such Communist countries as Czechoslovakia, Poland and Yugothe United

conceded the necessity of compensation in their agreements with such states as France, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. In short, a concession contract involves mutual obligations not to be avoided by unilateral action. Bibliography. A. Blondeau, La concession de service public slavia

—

La concession en droit international public (1936) bei Anderung der Staatshoheit G. C. Cheshire, International Contracts (1948) S. Friedman, (1948) Expropriation in International Law (1953) B. Shwadran, The Middle D. R. Shea, The Calvo Clause^ East, Oil and the Great Powers (I9,S5) D. P. O'Connell, The Law of State Succession (1956) K. S. (1955) Carlston, "International Role of Concession Agreements," Northwestern University Law Review, vol. 52, pp. 618-643 (1957), "Concession Agreements and Nationalization," The American Journal of Interna(W. L. Go.) tional Law, vol. 52, pp. 260-279 (iQ'iS). (1933)

;

P. Develle,

;

H. Mosler, Wirtschajlskonzessionen

;

;

;

;

;

;

CONCILIATION IN INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS: see Industrial Relations.

CONCLA"VE Urom originally

Lat. cum, "together," and clavis, "key"), meaning a room or apartment locked with a key, in the

CONCLAVE Roman

Catholic Church

cardinals

met

the specific

is

new pope and

to elect a

name

for the assembly of

for the system of strict se-

clusion to which they are submitted.

In early times, the

method of episcopal

election at

Rome was

the same as in other towns the Roman clergy and people and the neighbouring bishops each took part in it in their several capacities. The people would signify their approbation or disapprobation of the candidates more or less tumultuously, while the clergy were, in a strict sense, the electoral body, met to elect for themselves a new head, with the bishops acting as presidents of the assembly and judges of the election. In such an assembly, the various functions were not very distinct, and persons of importance, whether clerical or lay, were bound to influence the result, some;

Moreover, this form of election lent itself to sometimes involving bloodshed and schisms through the election of antipopes. The remedy for this abuse was found in recourse to the support of the civil power. It thus soon came to be accepted that the elected candidate should not receive episcopal consecration until he had obtained the confirmation of the emperor; and this state of affairs lasted almost without interruption till the middle of the 11th century. When the emperors were at Rome, they presided over the elections; when they were away, rival factions of barons struggled for the spiritual power as they did for the temporal. Cases were seen of popes imposed by a faction rather than elected and then deposed, poisoned or thrown into prison, sometimes to be restored by force of arms. After Clement IFs death delegates of the Roman clerg>' actually asked the emperor Henry III to give them a pope, and similar steps were taken after the death of Damasus II. Fortunately on this occasion Henry appointed a man of high character, his cousin Bruno, bishop of Toul, who presented himself in Rome in company with Hildebrand (later pope as Gregory VII). From this time began the reform. Hildebrand had the election of Victor II (loss), of Stephen X (IX) (10S7) and of Nicholas II times decisively. cabals

and

to disputes,

(10S8) carried out according to the canonical form, including the Then Nicholas issued his celebrated bull of April 13, 10S9, to determine the electoral procedure. The election was reserved to the members of the higher clergy, that imperial ratification.

is, to the cardinals (see Cardinal), among whom the cardinal bishops had the preponderating position. The consent of the rest of the clergy and the people was now only a formality, and the emperor was reckoned to have no rights save those he had received as a concession from the Holy See. Further, in the event of disturbances at Rome preventing the election from being carried out

freely there, the cardinal bishops, together with a small

and of the

number

were empowered to hold the election where they should think fit; and should difficulties of any sort prevent the enthronement of the new pope, he was empowered immediately to act as if he were actually pope. This legislation was accepted by the emperor Henry V by the concordat of Worms of the clergy

laity,

(1122).

Two other points were established by Alexander III at the Lateran council of 1179: the constitution Licet de vitanda discordia makes all the cardinals equally electors, omits to mention the lower clergy or the people, and requires a majority of twothirds of the votes to decide an election. Institution of the Conclave. Abuses nevertheless arose. An

—

numbers, which no higher power has and draw out the course of the election. When, after the death of Clement IV in 1268, the 17 cardinals assembled at Viterbo had allowed two years to pass without coming to an agreement, the local magistrates bad recourse to the method of seclusion, shutting up the electors in the episcopal palace and blocking all outlets; and when the election still delayed, the people removed the roof of the palace and allowed nothing but bread and water to be sent in. Under such pressure, the cardinals finally elected Gregory X, after an interregnum of two years, nine months and two days. Taught by experience, the new pope considered how to prevent the recurrence of such abuses. In 1274, at the council of Lyons, he promulgated the constitution Ubi periculnm, the substance of which was as follows: at the death of the pope, the cardinals present electoral college too small in

the right of forcing to haste, can prolong disagreements

259

are to await their absent colleagues for ten days.

They

are then

meet in one of the papal palaces in a closed conclave; none of them is to have more than one servant to wait on him, or two at most if he is ill. In the conclave they are to lead a life in common, not even having separate cells. They are to have no communication to

with the outer world; food is to be supplied to them through a window that must be under guard. The election is to be the sole business of the conclave, the magistrates of the town where it is held being required to see that these provisions are observed. Adrian V and John XXI were weak enough to suspend the constitution Ubi periculum, whereupon abuses at once reappeared; then Celestine V, who was elected after a vacancy of more than two years, revived it before abdicating the pontificate, and it was inserted in the decretals.

—

Later Legislation. Pius IV's bull In eligendis (Oct. 1, 1S62), signed by all the cardinals, is particularly notable for its regulation of the method of voting. Every day there is to be a scrutiny, or solemn voting, at which the cardinals are to use special papers (concealing the name of the voter, which is to be read only when some candidate has the required majority). This is to be followed by the accessit, or a second voting, at which the cardinals may transfer their suffrage to the candidates who won most votes in the scrutiny. The same bull also reaffirmed earlier measures on the question of seclusion and provided that the functionaries of the conclave were to be elected by secret ballot of the Sacred College and that the cardinals' cells were to be assigned by lot. Something must be said about the so-called right of veto or

whereby the rulers of the various Catholic countries eventually claimed to be able to exclude from eligibility to the papacy any candidate to whom they objected. It had of course long been their practice to instruct the cardinals of their nation exclusion,

do their utmost to eliminate distasteful candidatures; and they might even make public their desire to exclude certain canIn the course of the i6th century, however, they advanced a claim to an actual right of formal and direct exclusion, which should be notified in the conclave in their name by a cardinal charged with this mission and should have a decisive effect; and this was tacitly admitted by the Sacred College. It was a right based on custom and not supported by any written concession but it was straightforward and definite. During the igth century Austria exercised, or tried to exercise, the right of veto at all the conclaves, except that which elected Leo XIII (1S78). Finally, in 1903, on Aug. 2, when Cardinal Rampolla had received 29 votes, Cardinal Puzyna, bishop of Cracow, declared that Austria opposed his election; whereupon the Sacred College yielded and, on Aug. 4, elected Cardinal Sarto (Pius X). Then, by the bull Commissum nobis (Jan. 20, 1904), Pius X suppressed all right of exclusion on the part of the secular governments and forbade, under pain of excommunication reserved to the future pope, any cardinal or conclavist to accept from his government the charge of proposing a veto, or to exhibit it to the conclave under any form. Meanwhile Leo XIII's constitution Praedecessores nostri (May 24, 1882) had authorized occasional derogations from established order in circumstances of difficulty, such as the death of a pope elsewhere than in Rome or attempts to interfere with the liberty of the cardinals. This constitution was left untouched when Pius issued his constitution Vacante sede apostolica (Dec. 25, 1904), which superseded all other legislation on the conclave. Vacante sede apostolica was a codification rather than a reform, its principal innovation being the abolition of the accessit and the substitution of a second ordinary scrutiny during the same session. Pius XII's constitution Vacantis apostolicae sedis (Dec. 8, 1945) modified the effect both of Praedecessores nostri and of Vacante sede apostolica and increased the requisite majority for the election of a pope from two-thirds of the votes cast to twoto

didates.

,

X

thirds plus one.

—

Procedure. On the death of the pope, the cardinal camerlengo Holy Roman Church, who is the personal representative of the Sacred College in the ordinary administration, takes up residence in the Vatican palace; and wherever he goes in the palace he is escorted by the Swiss guards. Every morning, from the death of the pope to the beginning of the conclave, all the cardinals meet of the

CONCORD

26o

the hall of the Consistorium to hold a congregation that is to Assembled in that hall they say, to consult on current business. receive the condolences of the diiilomatic corps and of the Knights in

;

of Malta.

The

general congregation deals with the most important

business; and a special congregation (the senior cardinal bishop, the senior cardinal priest and the senior cardinal deacon, with the

meets daily to transact affairs of minor imAt the tirst general congregation the seals of the deceased pope (the Fisherman's ring and the leaden seal of the Apostolic chancellery) are handed over to the Sacred College and are at once broken. On nine consecutive days the obsequies of the pope (the novendialia) are celebrated in the Basilica of St. At the last service the funeral sermon is preached. Peter's. The cardinals used to enter into conclave one day after the novendialia. In order, however, to give the cardinals from distant cardinal camerlengo

)

portance.

parts of the world time to reach interval between the death of the to iS days.

On

Rome, Pius XI increased

the

pope and the entry into conclave

the morning of the day on which they go into con-

meet

Pauline chapel to hear the Mass of the Holy Spirit celebrated by the cardinal dean and to listen to a sermon preached by a prelate on the election of the pope. clave, the cardinals

in the

From the beginning to the end of the conclave that part of the Vatican palace which is reserved to it is closed to outsiders, and the doors giving access to it from the outside are walled up. The walls, however, are pierced by rotas or turning-boxes, through which it is possible to pass objects without seeing the recipient and to converse provided that the voice is raised. The guardianship of the rotas is entrusted to prelates, who decide in what cases persons may be authorized to converse with the cardinals, are present at such conversations and inspect all objects which it is desired to introduce into the conclave. The conclave is guarded from the outside by the marshal of the Holy Roman Church and by one of the palatine prelates. Within the palace are only the cardinals with their secretaries or "conclavists," the masters of the ceremonies, certain other ecclesiastics with definite duties, doctors and the service staff. All matters connected with the conclave are directed by the secretary of the Sacred College and the prefect of papal ceremonies. The admission of anyone who is to reside within the precincts of the conclave must be approved in advance by the general congregation of cardinals. The interior of the palace is divided into small apartments (cellae), one for each cardinal, assigned by lot. Every day the cardinals proceed to the Sistine chapel, for their double vote. Within this chapel, along the lateral walls, smaU thrones are arranged, each surmounted by a violet-coloured canopy, one for each cardinal. Each vote is immediately counted by three scrutineers, elected at each morning and each afternoon session in such a way that they are never the same, minute precautions being taken to ensure that the voting shall be secret and sincere. Immediately after the count, the voting papers are burned in a stove in a comer of the chapel, and the smoke, passing up an iron pipe through a window, enables the crowd assembleci on the piazza of St. Peter's to guess how the voting has gone: when no candidate receives the requisite majority of two-thirds plus one, the votes are burned with wet straw so that the smoke shows black when a pope is elected, the votes are mi.xed with dry straw so that the smoke is white. When one cardinal has at last obtained the requisite majority, the cardinal dean formally asks him whether he accepts his election and what name he wishes to assume. The canopies are removed from all the thrones save that of the cardinal who has been elected pope. On his accepting the pontificate, the news is announced to .the assembled populace by the senior cardinal deacon from the central balcony in the fagade of St. Peter's. Soon afterward the new pope himself, wearing the pontifical robes (for before the first vote took place three sets of robes of different sizes were placed in readiness in a cabinet adjoining the Sistine chapel), appears at the same balcony and gives his first benediction to the crowd assembled on the piazza. On the day that the election has taken place the cardinals leave the conclave, which comes to an end with the election. The coronation of the new pope takes place a few days later, the day being fixed by the pope himself. If the new pope does not ;

possess episcopal rank the privilege of consecrating him belongs to the cardinal bishop of Ostia.

CONCORD,

Contra Costa county near Mt. Diablo, Oakland and 30 mi. from San Francisco, is primarily residential. Many citizens commute to work in the industrialized cities of Antioch, Pittsburg, Martinez and a city in

California, U.S., 20 mi. E. of

Port Chicago.

Under

the Spanish Dons, cattle grazed the region.

Later, wheat, vineyards predominated in the valley. Salvio Pacheco built the first house in 1853. The city was surveyed in 1869 and incorporated in 1905. A council-manager form of city

orchards

and

government was established in 1953. For comparative population figures see table

in

California:

(R. M. W.) a town of Middlesex county, Mass., U.S., 19 mi. N.W. of Boston, was the site of the first forcible resistance of the American Revolution, immortalized as "the shot heard round Population.

CONCORD,

Situated at the confluence of two streams forming Concord river. Concord was founded in 1635, the first town above the fall line on the New England frontier. Simon Willard, one of its founders, was a fur trader and the early economy centred on fur trade and cattle raising. In 1774 the first county convention to denounce the "Coercion acts" depriving Massachusetts of its charter and the right to choose its own magistrates met in Concord. The first and second the world.

"

the

provincial congresses defied British authorities there.

To

destroy

arms and ammunition, the British army occupied the town on .\pril 19, 1775. Forewarned, citizens had removed most of the supplies. The British who crossed the river at North bridge were driven back by minute men. This action opened the military phase of the American Revolution. Nineteenth-century Concord became a cultural centre. Transcendentalist philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson, naturalist Henry Thoreau, novelist Nathaniel Hawthorne, sculptor Daniel Chester French, A. Bronson Alcott and his daughter Louisa May (author From 1879 to 1887 a of Little lVome?i) and others lived there. summer School of Philosophy begun by Bronson Alcott met. The Industrial Revolution brought the railroad, which undermined Concord as a trading centre and led to the development of dairying Around 1850 Ephraim Bull perfected the and fruit growing. Concord grape, marking the beginning of the cultivation of table grapes in the U.S. on a commercial scale. The rapid influx of commuters after 1950 necessitated the establishment of the selectmen-manager form of government in 1956. Historic sites include French's "The Minute Man" statue at North bridge, Revolutionary buildings, the homes of Emerson, Hawthorne, the Alcotts and others, Walden pond, the cemetery and the Antiquarian Society's museum. For comparative population figures see table in Massachusetts ;

Popidation. See Austin Warren, "The Concord School of Philosophy," New England Quarterly, II, pp. 199-233 (April 1929). (N. P. N.)

CONCORD,

capital of

New

Hampshire, U.S., seat of Mer-

rimack county, on the Merrimack river, is near the centre of the southern part of the state. The site was granted by the Colony of Massachusetts Bay in 1726 as Pennycook plantation. At that time the colony, which claimed rightfully to a point 3 mi. N. of the lower Merrimack river, assumed to project this line, 3 mi. from the left bank, along the north-south course of the upper Consequently the grant of 1726 river to Lake Winnipesaukee. lay astride the river, as the city does today. Settled in 1727, the community's name soon became Rumford, when Benjamin Thompson, resident of the town for a few years before the American Revolution, took the title of Count Rumford. In 1741 it w'as determined that the town was within the jurisdiction of the Province of New Hampshire, which had granted towns

whose

lines fell within the

ended

bounds of the old plantation. Bitter in London, and The town was

an appeal to the privy council there the inhabitants of Rumford were successful. litigation

named Concord

in

in 1765. New Hampshire's legislature, after 1775, moved from place to place until 1808, when, after experimental sessions at Concord,

CONCORD, BOOK OF—CONCORDAT In 1823 Merrimack county was organized from and Concord became the county seat.

settled there.

it

,

parts of other counties,

In the early 19th century the principal nonagricultural industry

was printing.

Carriage making and the Concord coach, famed for

use in cross-country stage coach travel, soon challenged the

its

older industry, as did the production of granite.

The

railroads

and car-repair shops took predominance at the end of the century. Meanwhile the manufacture of sterling silverware had become imWith the mid-20th portant, but it faded and died before 1950. century decline of railroads, printing was again the chief single industry, with tanning and leather goods in second place. The Small industries instate government was the largest employer. cluded the manufacture of electric and electronic equipment. Businesses included banks and a life and accident insurance company and a farm bureau mutual fire and casualty company. The well-known St. Paul's school for boys (Protestant Episco1853) is 2 mi. W. of the city. Chartered as a city in 1853, the government shifted from a council and weak mayor (1853-1950) to a city manager and council (1950-58), and to a strong mayor and council in 1958. For comparative population figures see table in New Hampshire: Population. (E. L. Pa.) (Lat. concordia, "agreement"), the collected doctrinal standards of the Lutheran Church. It conpal,

CONCORD, BOOK OF

,

,

of (1) a preface signed by 51 electors, bishops, princes and nobles of the Holy Roman empire and representatives of 35 free sists

cities; (2) the three Catholic Creeds (the so-called Apostles', Nicene and Athanasian ) (3 ) the "unaltered" Augsburg Confession (1530) and (4) its Apology (1531); (5) the Schmalkald articles (1536-37); (6) Philipp Melanchthon's Tractate on the Authority and Primacy of the Pope (1537); (7) Martin Luther's Small and Large Catechisms (1529) {see Catechism); (8) the Formula of Concord, consisting of an "epitome" and a "solid declaration" (1577); and the Catalogue of Testimonies (1580), an optional supplement of patristic citations. The authoritative German edition was published June 25, 1580, the 50th anniversary of the presentation of the Augsburg Confes;

sion; the authoritative Latin translation followed in

1584.

The

Book

of Concord represented the climax of 30 years of effort to heal the schisms that had broken out in the issuance of the

;

!

;

;

I

Lutheran movement after Luther's death and to keep the Lutheran churches from being absorbed into a pan-Protestant union. After two political conferences (Frankfurt am Main, 1558; Naumburg, 1561) had failed, the princes concerned entrusted the project to theologians, among them Jakob Andrea of Tiibingen, Martin Chemnitz, Nikolaus Selnecker of Wolfenbiittel, David Chytraus of Rostock and Andreas Musculus and Christoph Corner of Frankfurt an der Oder. These six theologians produced the Formula of Concord. Although the Book of Concord was not everywhere adopted in its totality (churches in the Danish-Norwegian tradition, for instance, receive only the Catholic Creeds, the Augsburg Confession and the Small Catechism), its formulations have remained the standard of orthodox Lutheran theology. In committing themselves to the Book of Concord, Lutheran churches and clergymen accept the pre-eminent authority of the Catholic Creeds and receive the Augsburg Confession as the decisive Lutheran particular creed; the remainder of the Book of Concord is regarded as an explication of the

.

der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche herausgegeben im Gedenkjahr der Augsburgischen Konfession 1930, 4th ed. (1959). modern

A

is

Theodore G. Tappert

(ed.),

The Book of Con-

See also Creed; Augsburg Confession; Confessions of Faith, Protestant: Lutheran Churches; Lutheranism. See Willard Dow Allbeck, Studies in the Lutheran Confessions (1952) J. L. Neve and George J. Fritschel, Introduction to the Symbolical Books of the Lutheran Church, 2nd ed. (1956); Edmund Schlink, Theology of the Lutheran Confessions, Eng. trans, by Paul F. Koehneke and Herbert J. A. Bouman (1961). (A. C. Pn.) Hterally, "agreement," "harmony"; hence ;

CONCORDANCE,

261 and

specifically

an

alphabetical arrangement of the words contained in a book with Concordances in citations of the passages in which they occur. this last sense were first made for the Bible, and though they also have been prepared for secular literature (particularly the works of Shakespeare), it is in connection with the Bible that the word is used most often. The original impetus to the making of concordances was due to

the conviction that the several parts of the Bible are consistent with each other, as parts of a divine revelation. To Anthony of Padua tradition ascribed the first concordance, the anonymous Concordantiae Morales, of which the basis was the Vulgate Bible. The first authentic Latin concordance to the Vulgate was due to Hugh of St. Cher, a Dominican monk (d. 1264), who, in preparing for a commentary on the Scriptures, found the need of a concordance. This, the Concordantiae Sacrorum Bibliorum (or Sancti Jacobi), in the compilation of which Hugh was assisted by others of his order, became the basis of one by Conrad of Halberstadt (c. 1290) and of another by John of Segovia in the next century. The concordance to the Vulgate in modem use is based on one by F. P. Dutripon (1838). The first Hebrew concordance was compiled in 1437-45 by Rabbi Isaac Nathan ben Kalonymus of Aries and printed at Venice in 1523. Its errors were corrected by Mario di Calasio, a Franciscan friar, who published an edition at Rome in 1621, much enlarged, with proper names included. Another concordance based on Nathan's was that of Johannes Buxtorf the elder (1632), several times revised and republished. The standard modern concordance to

Hebrew Old Testament is that by Solomon Mandelkem (1925) an excellent later one is that of Gerhard Lisowsky (1955-58). A Concordance to the Septiiagint was published at Frankfurt in 1607. The still standard Concordance to the Septiiagint and the Other Greek Versions of the Old Testament Including the Apocryphal Books, by Edwin Hatch and H. A. Redpath, assisted by other scholars, was published in 1897 and completed in 1900 by a list of proper names. A concordance to the Greek New Testament, published in 1638 by Erasmus Schmied or Schmid, has been the basis of other subsequent concordances, including a well-known edition by B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort, with readings of S. P. Tregelles, in 1888. The standard work is the Concordance to the Greek Testament, edited by W. F. Moulton and A. S. Geden (1897). The first concordance to the English New Testament was pubthe

;

London, in 1535, by Thomas Gybson, the first to the entire English Bible by John Marbeck in 1550. They were followed by many others. Then, in 1737, Alexander Cruden {q.v.) published lished in

Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of the Old and Testament, to Which Is Added a Concordance to the Books Three Called Apocrypha, which surpassed all its predecessors. editions were published during Cruden's life, and many since his death. Later concordances supersede his notably accurate work only by combining an English with a Greek and Hebrew concordance. Among late-19th- and 20th-century concordances to Enghis

New

Bible are R. Young's (1879); J. Strong's, Revised Version (1894); M. C. Hazard's, to the American Standard Version (1922) W. J. Grant's, to the Moffatt translation (1950); and that supervised by John W. Ellison, to the Revised Standard Version (1957). a term originally denoting an agreement between ecclesiastical persons or secular persons but later applied to a pact concluded between the ecclesiastical authority and the secular authority on ecclesiastical matters that concern both, and, more specially, to a pact concluded between the pope, as head of the Roman Catholic Church, and a temporal head of state for the lish translations of the

to the

;

CONCORDAT,

Augsburg Confession.

A critical German and Latin text, with extensive bibliographies, may be found in Hans Lietzmann (ed.). Die Bekenntnisschriften

English version cord (1959).

derivatively a citation of parallel passages,

regulation of ecclesiastical affairs in the territory of the latter.

It

second sense that this article refers. For the purposes of a concordat the state recognizes the official status of the church and of its ministers and tribunals, guarantees The pope on his side grants the temporal it certain privileges, etc. state certain rights, such as that of appointing or controlling the appointment of dignitaries; engages to proceed in harmony with is

to concordats in this

the government in the creation of dioceses or parishes

;

etc.

The

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CONCRETE

26+

soon as it is placed, and then allowed to stand until the film of moisture disappears from the surface. It should then be smoothed off quickly with a wood float to produce a nonslipper>' surface. When a very smooth surface is desired, the concrete may be finished with a steel trowel after the wood float has been used. The trowel should be used sparingly and only after the concrete has become quite stiff, in order to avoid bringing an excessive amount of fine particles to the surface. When exposed surfaces of the concrete have hardened

suflB-

be sprinkled with water and protected by moisture-retaining materials such as polyethylene sheets, burlap, or moist sand. Hardening of the cement paste reThe longer quires time, moisture, and favorable temperatures. concrete is kept moist, therefore, the more durable and strong it will become. Specifications governing concrete materials, proportions of concrete mi.xtures. methods of construction, and properties of hardened concrete are issued by the British Standards Institution, the American Society for Testing Materials, the .\merican Concrete Institute, and by similar organizations in most other countries. Aix-Entrained Concrete. The most destructive of natures weathering forces are rejaeated freezing and thawing when the concrete is wet. Furthermore, the action of chloride salts applied to concrete pavements to melt ice has a tendency to disintegrate

dently

to resist marring, they should

—

pavement

surface. Air-entrained concrete, which contains microscopic air cells per cubic foot. pro\ides tiny chambers for the expansion of freezing water so that internal pressure on the concrete is relieved. Air-entrained concrete is produced through the use of air-entraining portland cement tsee Cement or by adding an air-entraining resinous substance with the mixing water at the concrete mixer. The amount of entrained air is usually between 4 and 7% of the concrete volume. This results in concrete that is practically immune to frost action and highly resistant to the action of salts used to melt pavement ice. Air-entrained concrete is used widely in construction of pavements, bridges, and other ex-

the

billions of

i

posed Structures in cold climates. Entrained air also improves the workability and cohesiveness of fresh concrete. When such concrete is placed and compacted, there is less tendency for the ingredients to separate, and less water will rise to the surface of the fresh concrete. Better uniformity is thereby maintained throughout the concrete. .Accordingly, air-entrained concrete is often used even when resistance to frost action is not required. Ready-Mixed Concrete. This concrete is produced by a manufacturer and delivered by truck to the construction site. The mixing methods used vary. In some instances the concrete is mixed completely at the manufacturer's plant, and the mi.xed concrete is transported to the construction site in trucks equipped to agitate the concrete during transport. In another procedure, the dry materials are weighed and batched into a truck mixer at the central plant. Water is then added and mi.xing is completed in transit to the construction site. Truck misers consist essentially of a mixer with separate water tank mounted on a truck chassis. They are usually made with capacities of 1, H. 2. 3. 4. and 5 cu.yd. For small home repairs, mixtures of dry concrete materials are available in small bags at hardware and building supply stores. From a modest beginning in the 1920s, ready-mixed concrete

—

as a construction material in the 1940s. By the 1960s well over SO^c of the portland cement produced in the

became established

United States was shipped to the ready-mixed concrete industry. This industry produced annually in excess of 150,000,000 cu.yd. of concrete valued at more than 52,000,000,000.

STRUCTURAL CONCRETE Concrete used in buildings and bridges, known as structural concrete, is characterized by relatively thin sections as compared to the massive concrete sections used in foundations and dams. It was made possible by the development of reinforced concrete shortly before 1900, and through new techniques such as prestressing, shells, and architectural concrete its use as an architectural medium has been continuously improved and expanded. Reinforced Concrete. \\'hen steel bars are embedded in the

—

—

—

concrete, the result

is

called reinforced concrete.

Concrete

ten times stronger in compression than in tension. tural concrete stresses, steel

mesh.

is

When

about struc-

members such as floor beams must resist large tensile is embedded in the concrete in the form of bars or

Thus, the tensile strength of

steel

supplements the com-

pressive strength of concrete, forming reinforced concrete structural

members capable

of sustaining

heavy loads over considerable

spans.

•f^»

Two fundamental properties permit concrete and steel to work together as a composite material. Their coefficients of thermal expansion are approximately equal; if this were not so, reinforced concrete would tear itself apart by internal stress when subjected Secondly, the cement paste in conbonds strongly to the steel bars, transferring stress from concrete to steel and protecting the steel against corrosion. In bridge girders spaiming a single opening between two abutments, reinto wide temperature changes. crete

ht

forcing bars are placed near the lower side, as that : =

:£S SECTIONS OF

HARDENED CONCRETE

(ABove) Air-«ntrained concrete, greatly magnified, showing air bubbles (dart and pieces of sand-oarticle aggregate and gravel (large dark areas) within the cement paste; (below) concrete, in which cement paste surrounds each aggregate particle circles)

ject to tensile stress

when

the

beam

is

is the side subloaded by the weight of

the bridge itself and crossing vehicles. In some cases, such as fence posts, light poles, and chimneys, the load may come from

any

direction.

It is

then necessary to reinforce

may

all

portions that

be subject to tensile stress. Long beams such as those supporting the floor of a warehouse) extending continuously over a number of columns may be subjected to tension on the upper side near intermediate column suppwDrts. Steel bars referred to as negative reinforcement are then placed in the upper portion of the beam near columns. Between column supports, bars referred to as positive reinforcement are placed in the lower portion of the

beams

i

to resist tensile stress in a

maimer

similar to that of the

NMiere space limits the size of structural members and loads are such that concrete alone is not adequate, steel bars are used as reinforcement to increase the compressive strength Finally, steel bars are used to increase shearing of members. strength and to prevent cracking that would otherwise result from wide temperature changes. Reinforced concrete has become one of the mainstays of modem single-sp)an

beam.

CONCRETE construction.

Not only

is it

economically competitive with steel advantageous properties have had a

frame construction, but its radical effect on architectural design. The first clear record of an attempt to use reinforcement in concrete was an experimental arch built in 1832 by Sir Marc Isambard Brunei in connection with his construction of a tunnel under the Thames River at London. Other experiments soon after this time suggest that the idea of using steel or iron to withstand tension in concrete was not developed by a single mind, but was rather the product of a period marked by the use of iron as a While Joseph Louis Lambot built a small structural material. rowboat of reinforced concrete in 1849, and Frangois Coignet is believed to have obtained his first patent for reinforced concrete construction in 1855, the discovery of reinforced concrete attributed to the Parisian gardener Joseph Monier,

is

usually

who made

garden pots and tubs of concrete reinforced with iron mesh. He obtained his first patent July 16, 1867. Among many other patents that followed was one issued in 1878 to Thaddeus Hyatt, U.S. lawyer and inventor. The practical development of reinforced concrete was initiated in the 1880s primarily by G. A. Wayss of Berhn, Frangois Hennebique of France, and Johann Bauschinger of Austria. Design methods based on scientific principles of engineering mechanics were developed shortly after 1900. Since that time vast improvements in reinforced concrete design and construction practice have resulted from research and experience. Indicative of the expanded usage of reinforced concrete is the fact that the production of reinforcing steel in the United States grew from a few tons in 1900 to about 2,500,000 tons by the 1960s, as reinforced concrete became widely used, not only for building and bridge construction but for a variety of purposes ranging from fence posts to the largest and most complex civil engineering projects. Specifications governing the principles and methods of design for reinforced concrete are issued by the American Concrete Institute, by the British Standards Institution, and by standards associations or

government departments of public works in most

other countries.

Prestressed Concrete.

—Reinforced

concrete

that

has been

done by tensioning high-strength steel wire or rods used as reinforcement. Prestressing extends previous Umitations on the spans and loads for which a concrete structure can be economically designed. It permits construction of concrete bridges, roofs, floors, and other structural members of longer free spans; it enables engineers and architects to design and build lighter, shallower,

and more graceful concrete structures without sacrificing strength; and it permits construction of thin-walled concrete pipe and tanks able to resist great internal pressure without leakage. Prestressed concrete does not replace conventional reinforced concrete. When spans are so great or loads so heavy as to make the use of reinforced concrete impractical, prestressed concrete often provides an economical solution, but reinforced concrete continues to be widely used where the unique properties of prestressed concrete cannot be used to an economic advantage.

The basic principle of prestressing has been used for many years manufacture of wagon wheels. The steel rim is expanded by heating before it is placed on the wooden wheel. As the rim cools, it contracts, placing itself in tension and the wood in a state of compression. Similarly, the steel hoops of a barrel place the wooden staves in precompression. The precompression introduced by tensioned steel contributes importantly to the strength and resiliency of both wheel and barrel. This analogy is particularly

in the

striking for large prestressed concrete pressure vessels used for con-

tainment in atomic power plants. The strengthening compressive stresses are usually induced in by either pretensioning or posttensioning. In the pretensioning process, the steel is stretched between two abutments before the concrete is placed. After the concrete has hardened around the tensioned reinforcement located in the lower por-

prestressed concrete

beams and slabs, the stretching forces are released. Then, as the steel seeks to regain its original length, tensile stress in the tion of

bedded

in the concrete.

The

steel is stretched

by hydraulic rams

fastened externally by wedges or other gripping devices. In this process, the steel is tensioned against the concrete so that tension exerted on the steel corresponds to an equal compression on the concrete. Many systems of posttensioning are in use; they differ primarily in the type of

and

after the concrete has hardened

is

gripping devices employed.

The

first patent on prestressed concrete was issued in 1888 to H. Jackson of San Francisco. Prestressing was attempted with Lowhttle success both in the United States and in Europe. strength steels were used, and the prestre.ssing forces were lost by In 1928 the French gradual drying shrinkage of the concrete. engineer Eugene Freyssinet {g.v.) proved that when high-strength

P.

used for prestressing, the shrinkage losses amount to only a few percent of the tensile force in the steel. Prestressed developed in full maturity in western Europe and concrete was in England in the 1940s; it was widely used in reconstruction after World War II. The first major prestressed structure in the United steel wires are

States was a bridge completed in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1951, and by the end of the 19S0s prestressing had become an estabUshed part of the U.S. construction industry. Concrete Shells. Concrete shells are thin slabs of concrete

—

shaped as a curved surface, the thickness being small compared The tremendous carryto the lateral dimensions of the surface. ing capacity imparted by curvature is demonstrated by a tabletennis ball, which has exceptional strength and resihency compared with the thinness of its plastic shell. Indeed, a plane sheet of plastic of the same thickness as the ball's wall is almost as flexible as a sheet of paper.

According to the shape of their surface, elliptically, parabolically, or

folded plates.

shells are classified as

hyperbolically curved shells, and as

Elliptical curvature (e.g., the sphere) involves

maxiand usually requires less material than other types. Built in reinforced concrete, however, eUiptical shells require rather complex formwork, Parabolically curved shells are most frequently used, primarily because they are curved in only one direction so that the formwork can be made from straight boards or plane sheets. The simplest type is the cyhnder, which is well suited for roofing rectangular areas. Hyperbolically curved shells are practically always shaped as a warped or saddlelike surface. Straight lines contained in the warped surfaces can often be utilized to simplify construction of the formwork. Folded plates consist of a series of flat plates incUned toward each other in accordion fashion. Beyond these four basic types, more complex forms have been used to achieve added architectural grace and

mum

placed in a state of permanent precompression before service loads are apphed is called prestressed concrete. This is commonly

265

compressive stress in the concrete by bond between steel and concrete. This process is easily adaptable to mass-production methods and is widely used in large factories. In the posttensioning process, steel cables are located in ducts emsteel is translated into

rigidity

beauty;

The

e.g.,

the shape of a seashell.

basic principle of shell action

is that every portion of a supported by compressive and surrounding shell. A load apphed to a plane slab, on the other hand, is resisted only by bending forces, with the consequence that the induced stresses are proportionately much more intense. A plane reinforced concrete slab three inches thick can be used to span only some 20 ft. when used as a roof cover. Shells with a thickness of three inches have been used to span several hundred feet. AppUcation of the shell principle in reinforced concrete construction was initially developed in Germany in the 1920s under the leadership of Franz Dischinger and Ulrich Finsterwalder. Since then, design theory and construction methods have been extended and improved greatly. The practicality and economy of shell roofs have led to their ever-increasing use throughout the world in gymnasiums, hangars, auditoriums, exposition halls, and many other industrial and commercial buildings that require high ceilings and large unobstructed floor areas. Architectural Concrete. Reinforced concrete can be used for both the ornamentation and the load-carrying parts of a building, so that aesthetic values are combined with structural practicality. For several decades, concrete was used almost exclusively

shell

where a load

may

be placed

is

tensile forces in the plane of the

—

CONCRETE

266

for load-carryinp purposes, while its potential beauty remained unrecognized and undeveloped. Its emergence as an architectural material coincided with the development of the modern style of architecture characterized by clean, uncluttered lines.

An important when

first

property of architectural concrete

is its

plasticity

placed, a quality that permits molding into practically

any shape or form the architect may require. Thus, it allows almost complete freedom in architectural and functional design withConcrete's plasticity is out sacrificing strength and economy. All particularly valuable in construction of ornamental detail. elements of a concrete building ornamental as well as strength

—

producing— may be stantial cost

cast integrally in a single operation at a sub-

sa\ing.

Fluting,

rehef patterns, and

rustications,

other ornamental devices are executed easily and economically in concrete. Molds may often be reused many times to carry out a motif.

A

variety of paints, stains, coloured aggregates, and pig-

ments used

in the

cement paste are available

to increase the aes-

thetic value of architectural concrete.

Fire Protection.

— Concrete

is

widely used as a casing around

structural steelwork for protection against

Because of

fire.

its

high heat conductivity, bare steelwork soon reaches a dangerous temperature in a fire with consequent failure from softening.

Concrete is a poor conductor of heat and furnishes protection by delaying the flow of heat to the encased steelwork. A thickness of two inches of concrete well bound to the steelwork by wire mesh reinforcement meets the protection requirements of many building codes and fire associations. A combination of structural steel and reinforced concrete is also used in which structural steel members, designed to carry a principal part of the load, are encased in reinforced concrete of such quality that the concrete also carries part of the load. The concrete then serves the dual purpose of strengthening and fire protection.

Foundations.

— The

foundations, those parts of a structure

that serve exclusively to transmit the weight of the structure to the

natural ground, are usually

tum

made

of reinforced concrete.

of soil suitable for supporting a structure

is

If a stra-

located at a shal-

low depth, a single slab known as a mat or raft may be used to cover the supporting soil stratum beneath the entire area of the superstructure. Various parts of the structure may also be supported individually; a continuous footing supports a wall, a combined footing supports a group of columns, and an individual footing supports a single column. If the upper soil strata are too weak,

more suitable supmeans of piles and piers.

the superstructure's loads are transferred to

porting soils or rock at greater depth by

Concrete

piles

may

be precast and driven into the

soil,

or they are

cast in their final position in holes drilled into the soil.

CONCRETE PRODUCTS A

variety of concrete products are produced in permanent fac-

Specifications for the manufacture and performance of by standards associations in most counand production is characterized by a high degree of mechanization and standardization. Concrete Masonry. Block and brick building units molded of concrete are often used for the construction of walls and other structural members. There are three principal steps in the manufacture of concrete masonry units: the careful proportioning and mixing of portland cement, water, and aggregates; molding of the units; and curing and drying. The units are molded by: tamping, in which the concrete is mixed to a semiwet consistency and then tamped into the molds; vibrating, in which a fairly stiff mix is consoHdated in the molds by powerful vibration; or pressure, in which the concrete is placed in the molds and compacted by pressure. The units are removed from the molds on pallets immediately after compacting and placed in a curing kiln where the temperature is kept from 110° to 16S° F (about 43° to 74° C). Heat and moisture speed up the hardening process. In some factories high-pressure steam curing in autoclaves is used. Concrete masonry units are made in several sizes and shapes tories.

these products are issued tries,

—

to

fit

different construction needs.

nated by their nominal dimensions. wide, 71 in. high, and 151 in. long

The

units are usually desig-

Thus, a unit measuring 71 in. is known as an 8 X 8 X 16-in.

When

unit.

occupy

it is

laid in a wall

with

|-in.

mortar

joints, this unit

and 8 in. high. This is in accord with modular co-ordination of architectural design based on a four-inch module. In addition, there is a wide variety of nonmodular-size units. Either normal weight or lightweight aggregates are used. Normal weight units are made with sand, gravel, crushed stone, and air-cooled slag. Lightweight units are made with coal cinders, expanded shale, clay, or slag, and natural will

a space exactly 16 in. long

lightweight materials such as volcanic cinders, pumice, and scoria. Both hollow and solid units are made. Units are produced to comply with the requirements of stan-

dards associations and local building codes. Compressive strength requirements provide a measure of concrete masonry's capacity to carry loads and withstand structural stresses with an adequate margin of safety. Absorption requirements provide a measure of the density of the concrete. Moisture content requirements are intended to indicate whether the unit is sufficiently dry for use in wall construction. In common with a number of building materials, concrete block shrinks sUghtly when moisture is lost. When moist units are placed in a wall and this natural shrinkage is

restrained, as

it

often

is,

tensile

and shearing

stresses are de-

veloped which may cause cracks in the walls. Hence, it is important that the units be dried, and they must be kept dry during storage on the construction site. Particularly in western Europe, patented methods of aerating concrete for masonry units are in use. Finely divided chemicals that generate gases are added to a mixture of portland cement and very fine silica sand, causing this paste to expand so that numerous small air spaces remain after hardening. Concrete units as light as cork are made in this manner; they can be sawed and drilled by carpentry tools. Aerated concretes are also made by mixing a preformed foam and a paste of cement, sand, and water. Most aerated concrete units must be high-pressure steam cured to control drying shrinkage. Concrete units are used for all types of masonry construction, including load-bearing and non-load-bearing walls; piers; partitions; fire walls;

backup walls

for brick, stone,

and stucco facing

materials; fireproofing around steel columns, stairwells, and en-

and chimneys. Many plants also make concrete masonry and concrete floor filler units. This product is manufactured throughout the world for irrigation, drainage, sewers, culverts, and water supply mains. Pipe is made of either plain or reinforced concrete, and it can be produced to exhibit characteristics corresponding to the closures;

sills,

hntels,

Concrete Pipe.

—

intended function. Concrete pipe is made by several manufacturing methods. Cast pipe is made by placing concrete into forms of the desired sizes. In the "Packerhead" method, a very dry concrete mixture is packed into the form with such force that the freshly made pipe section can be taken to a curing shed where the form is removed immediately and the newly compacted pipe stands vertically during the curing and hardening period. Similar results are obtained by various other mechanical tamping methods. Centrifugal concrete pipe is manufactured in forms rotating at high speed so that the concrete is compacted as excess water is forced out by the centrifugal force. The pipe may be plain concrete, or it may be Curing is accomplished by reinforced or prestressed concrete. steam, water spray, saturated covers, or in water. Pipe is produced to comply with the requirements of standards associations. Structural tests indicate the abihty of the pipe to Freezing and resist the pressure of soils in which it is buried. thawing tests indicate resistance to ice pressures. Hydrostatic pressure tests reflect resistance to internal pressure. Cast Stone. Artificial building stone and even artistic sculpture are manufactured from concrete by a highly developed art that often makes use of intricate designs and patterns. By making forms of the desired shape and using coloured aggregates, colour pigments in the cement paste, and various grinding and pohshing methods, a wide variety of architectural effects can be obtained.

—

Forms

for cast stone are constructed of metal, gelatin, plaster of wood, or sand, whichever is most con-

Paris, concrete, plastics,

venient for the work involved.

CONCRETE —

Precast Structural Concrete. Large structural members are made in a mechanized central plant and erected in buildings and A partial list of precast members would inbridges by cranes. clude piles and decks for bridges, floor and roof slabs, wall panels, Members from joists, beams, girders, rigid frames, and shell units. a few pounds to over 200 tons have been precast. Precasting can be done by relatively crude methods at the building site; a mechanized temporary factory can be established at the site of extensive construction; and there are permanent factories in

many

countries.

Several European factories are out-

standing examples of highly mechanized mass production offering permanent employment for over 1,000 men. In the United States, precasting has been combined with prestressing techniques; a

group of rapidly growing factories started production in the 1950s. It is evident that economies may be realized from casting a and bridge in a yard on the river bank rather than in midstream casting a building's beams in a factory rather than several stories up in the air. The most important aspect of precasting, however, is that it permits strict production controls which in turn make safe and economical use of unusually high quality concretes and Furthermore, precasting in highly advanced design techniques. heavy rains and factory buildings is protected from the weather cold winter weather do not interrupt production. Complete buildeven large industrial structures have been factory precast ings in the winter and erected in a few weeks in the -spring. This may provide important economies by advancing the date when a new

—

—

—

—

structure begins to give economic returns.

More precast concrete factories have initiated a trend toward standardization of the cross sections of the precast beams and Some facpiles to facilitate economic and repeated use of forms. tories offer a variety of standardized sections

made

in

whatever

Such products are often offered for sale in and performance characteristics needed in architectural and engineering design of buildings and bridges assembled for each specific structure from precast units. Thus, individual members such as columns, beams, and slabs are standardized, but each building or bridge is custom designed to fit its particular function and architectural style.

lengths are needed.

catalogues, including the strength

APPLICATIONS Bridges.^

—There

are four major types of concrete bridges:

frame, slab, girder, and arch (see Bridges). Any of these may consist of a single span or a series of several spans, the latter being referred to as multispan bridges. By far the most widely rigid

used type of concrete bridge is the girder tj^je, the economical span of which was greatly increased by the introduction of prestressed concrete. Numerous single-span prestressed bridges were built In the United across European rivers following World War II. States, a notable multispan bridge was built across Lake Pontchartrain near New Orleans, La., in 1956. Its total length of 24 mi. established a

new

Most

world's record for concrete bridges.

spectacular, however, are the long-span arch bridges.

A

notable

example of the latter is Sweden's Sando Bridge with its 866-ft. This bridge, carrying a single free span across a turbulent river. 34-ft. roadway, set a new record for reinforced concrete span length when it was completed in 1943. But this record was broken in 1964 by the unique Gladesville Bridge in Australia, which has a l,000-ft.-long concrete arch.

The call for

limited access highways brought about

by modern

trafiic

bridge construction on a scale without parallel in history.

For example, the 41,000-mi. system of interstate highways begun United States in 1952 requires an estimated 27,000 bridges

in the

ranging from great river crossings to small bridges carrying secondary roads over the superhighways. Concrete bridge construction, which traditionally has concerned design and construction of a single bridge at a time, has therefore developed mass-

production procedures. Thousands of concrete bridge girders weighing up to 50 tons each are produced annually in permanent factories for shipment and erection at bridge sites throughout western Europe, Britain, and the United States. Highways. The first concrete highways were built in Inverness, Scot., in 1865, and in Edinburgh in 1866. The first concrete

—

267

pavement in the United States was built in Ohio in 1892. Concrete highway construction on an enlarging scale began about 1910, and by the mid-1960s there had been constructed almost 3,000,000,000 sq.yd. of concrete highways and streets in the U.S. Desipi Requirements. The principal requirements in concrete highway design are strength and durability. Early pavement slabs

—

were cast on the natural tice is

prepared roadbed.

soils of the

This prac-

modern traffic. Some soils are afsome swell when they come in contact with

often inadequate for

fected by frost action; water; and some are susceptible to softening in the presence of excess moisture. For satisfactory performance of a concrete pavement on these soils, a four- to six-inch layer of granular material sand, gravel, or crushed rock may be required under the pavement to provide a well-drained foundation free from frost action. Considering the nature of the soil support, the concrete

—

—

pavement

is

designed to resist the loads of moving vehicles by

theories of slab strength originated

M. Westergaard

pavement

itself in the

air-entrained concrete

by the Danish-American en-

To ensure durability of the presence of severe frost action, the use of essential; it became widely used in cold

gineer H.

in 1926.

is

its development in the late 1930s. small changes in length of concrete pavement

climates shortly after

To accommodate

caused by shrinkage or wide temperature change, longiFor unreinforced pavements, the spacing of transverse joints is usually IS to 30 ft., depending largely on the type of coarse aggregate used. Such joints are made by inserting a preformed strip or ribbon in the freshly placed concrete or by sawing narrow grooves in the hard-

slabs

tudinal and transverse joints are used.

ened concrete. In addition to strength and durability, the safety and comfort requirements of the travehng public call for additional major design considerations: First, the pavement must be smooth and have properly banked curves. By highly automated modern mechanical equipment, concrete pavements are trimmed to a precise tolerance of about g in., and smooth transitions between superelevations of curves are carefully designed to faciUtate driving.

A

pavement surface that provides uniform traction and prevents skidding even when the pavement is wet, and good visibiHty Several finishat night are the two final design considerations. ing methods have been developed to produce a granular, gritty surface dragging a coarse broom transversely across the pavement Broomed pavements are highly skid is most commonly used. resistant and provide increased visibility at night because hght from automobile headlights strikes the small transverse ridges and is reflected back to the driver. (See also Roads and Highgritty

;

ways.) Soil-Cement.

—

Soil-cement is a tightly compacted mixture of roadway material, portland cement, and water that forms a strong, durable pavement base as the cement hardens the soil. Developed in the United States in the early 1930s, soil-cement is generally built from soil on or near the paving site. Old, deteOnly cement and riorated granular materials can also be used. soil

or

water need be transported to the

The

site.

basic steps in soil-cement construction are spreading ce-

ment, mixing, and compacting. After the roadway has been shaped to grade and the soil loosened, the required amount of cement is Cement and the required amount of water are thoroughly mixed with the soil by travehng mixing machines; the mixed material is then compacted by rollers, shaped to the proper pavement contour, and rolled again to obtain a smooth finish. A bituminous material is sprayed on the soil-cement soon after finishing to seal in moisture needed for the cement to harden the natural The pavement is then comsoil into a strong, low-cost pavement. pleted by the addition of a concrete pavement or a bituminous sur-

spread.

face.

In the mid-1960s about 36,000,000 mi. of soil-cement roads and were in service in the U.S., and airports had more than 35,000,000 sq.yd. of soil-cement runways. Airport Pavements. The first concrete airport pavement in the United States was built at the Ford Airport, Dearborn, Mich., Thirty-five years later, 366,000,000 sq.yd. of concrete in 1927. runways, taxiways, and aprons were in service at civil and military streets

—

CONCRETE

268 airports in the U.S.

The John

F.

Kennedy

International Airport

New

York, one of the world's largest and most modern airports, Each has seven concrete runways totaling ten miles in length. runway is 200 ft. wide by 12 in. thick and is constructed to accomup to 300,000 lb. modate aircraft weights The design and construction methods for airport pavements are similar in nature to those used for highways, but weights of aircraft of more than 500,000 lb. are encountered, which far exin

ceed the heaviest trucks in use. Similarly, skid resistance, overpavement smoothness, and visibility at night are even more In addition to increased plane important than for highways. weights and speeds, the development of heavy jet aircraft has When these planes resulted in further design considerations. are moving slowly or standing still with engines "revving up" prior to takeoff, the pavement must withstand tremendous heat and blast. It is imperative that the pavement must not soften Particles must not tear loose, since they would or disintegrate. tend to enter air-intakes of other aircraft engines, damaging their rapidly mo\ing turbines. Concrete has an inherent resistance to Adequate strength, durabiUty, skid resistance, heat and blast. smoothness, and visibility can be provided economically. {See Airport.) all

Railways. its

—Among the

essential structures of

track, depots, freight houses, bridges, signal

any railroad are structures, and

motive power maintenance and fueling facilities. In all of these Cement grout a mixture of concrete plays an important part. Portland cement, sand, and water is forced into the ground underneath the track to stabilize troublesome pockets of water and soft Prestressed soil, thereby providing an evenly supported railbed. concrete ties (called "sleepers" in Britain) are used extensively Most tunnels are lined with reinforced concrete to in Europe. eliminate the hazards of falling rock, and reinforced concrete retaining walls are used extensively to prevent earth slides from

—

disturbing the track. Harbour Facilities.

— In

—

concrete

is

by heavy cranes; others. are made

form of large boxes, referred to as caissons, that are launched, towed into position by tugboats, and sunk into position by opening valves in the bottom. Under the code name "Phoenix," such floating concrete caissons towed from England served a vital function in the "Mulberry" harbours during the 1944 invasion of Normandy. Extensive use was made of prestressed concrete structures in the reconstruction of west European harbour facilities after World W'ar II, notably at Le Havre in France. Concrete in Small Buildings.— Though they lack the spectacular features of heavy construction, the many small uses in housing and on farms make up a large volume of concrete in in the

—

some countries this is the largest single area of concrete usage. The foundations of most homes and farm structures are concrete. There are various types of concrete buildings used, and concrete enters into sidewalks, driveways, play courts, fireplaces, lily ponds, garden walls and benches, birdbaths, flagstone walks, swimming pools,

and a variety of farm structures.

—

Foundations. Strength, durability, and watertightness have concrete ideal and widely used for construction of footings, which prolong the life of houses and farm structures by assuring uniform support on the soil. Footings for foundation walls should be built on firm soil below the lowest possible level of frost penetration, and they should be well drained. A basement constructed of ten-inch-thick concrete walls, footings, and a concrete floor can be a useful and attractive part of a home. To avoid cracking and

made

ing increasingly popular.

A major

reason

warm

that concrete offers

is

complete protection against rot and termites sideration in

— an

important con-

climates.

—

Masonry Homes. A common method of home construction is with block units made in factories, delivered to the building site, and

laid into walls by masons. Concrete masonry house walls are usually built with eight-inch-thick units, although sometimes two

walls are built of four-inch units with an air space between.

Such any type of insulation. A variety of attractive wall treatments may be produced in concrete masonry. Surfaces may be painted in any desired colour with Portland cement paint or other suitable paints, or they may walls lend them.selves to almost

be left unpainted. Paint serves not only as a decorative finish but also as weatherproofing on exterior walls. Stucco may be applied to achieve whatever special surface texture will best suit the architectural style of the house. Units of different sizes may be laid together in a wall to form patterns traditional in stone work for example random or coursed ashlar. Unusual effects may also be created with various block patterns and special treatments of mortar joints. Concrete masonry is widely used as backup inside brick and stone facings to provide added strength and improved insulation. Particularly in the Scandinavian countries, very light block units made from special foam concretes are placed as insulation on the outside of houses and other buildings and covered with a weather-

—

resisting layer of stucco.

Reinforced Coticrete Homes.

—These homes are produced by a

variety of construction methods.

Three types of walls are most

when the concrete is placed in walls located in One type is a sohd wall, four to eight inches

frequently used

their final position.

thick according to strength and other requirements, with lath and the shipping industry,

widely used in the construction of harbour facilities (see Harbours), breakwaters, piers, warehouses, docks, canals, locks, dry docks, and even in ships. In some cUmates, the seas rising and falling with tides are above freezing temperature throughout the year, while the winter air may be considerably below freezing. In the tidal zone, therefore, concrete structures are subjected to severe repeated freezing and thawing and must be protected against frost damage by air entrainment. In the construction of harbours and breakwaters, extensive use is made of huge precast concrete blocks made in a construction yard ashore. Some blocks are transported by barges and lowered into position

it is essential that a good quality concrete without excessive mixing water be used. In sections of the world where basements are not used, slab-on-ground concrete floor construction is becom-

leaks,

plaster or other insulation

ond type, known

apphed

to the interior surface.

as a cavity wall, consists of

A

sec-

two four-inch walls

with a two-inch air space between them. In a third type, a highair-content concrete is used to provide adequate thermal insulation without a cavity. The exterior concrete surface can be given a wide variety of textures and colours. Tilt-up construction is a fast, economical method in which walls are cast on a horizontal base and then tilted and Hfted into position by cranes after the concrete has hardened. It is economical because it requires a minimum use of forms and permits efficient use of modern mechanical equipment. The fact that the exterior wall

may be finished in a horizontal position facilitates inexThe pensive preparation of a variety of architectural effects. top surface of such walls is often covered by a thin layer of coloured aggregate concrete. The cement paste is removed by brushing soon after it has begun to harden so that the coloured aggregate is exposed to form an attractive exterior finish when the wall panels

surface

and

later are tilted

lifted into position.

Various methods of constructing reinforced concrete houses developed in the late 1940s involve extensive use of large sections in heavily mechanized factories and erected at the This method is particularly well developed in Denmark, the Netherlands, and the U.S.S.R. Farm Structures. Dairy barns, feeding floors, farrowing houses for hogs, poultry houses, silos, and other structures are often constructed of concrete to reduce fire losses by eliminating combustible construction materials, to curb livestock diseases by improving sanitation, and to obtain durable, warm, dry structures. Both masonry block units and reinforced concrete are used in wall Concrete-paved yards and feeding floors are genconstruction. erally four inches thick, and a. stiff broom is stroked against the surface of the fresh concrete to provide a nonslip surface. Concrete stave silos are constructed of hundreds of interfitting As the units about 10 in. wide, 30 in. long, and 2+ in. thick. factory-made staves are being fitted to form the silo wall, external steel reinforcing rods are tightened to hold firmly against internal

manufactured site.

—

—

pressure

like the

the farm site

hoops of a

barrel.

by placing concrete

Silo walls are also cast at

in circular forms,

which are

CONCRETION raised as construction progresses.

The

walls are usually 6 in. thick

Large reinforced concrete grain elevator strucConcrete is also used in struc-

and are reinforced.

tures are constructed in rural areas.

tures preventing soil erosion. Dams. Gravity, arch, and buttress

—

dams

are the three major

Gravity dams are essentially triangular The upstream face is steeply inclined, while the in cross section. downstream face slopes gradually to provide a width at the dam types of concrete dams.

dam height. The heavy dams prevents them from sliding

base equal to 0.65 to 0.8S times the gravitational weight of these

on their foundation base and from overturning under water presThe large mass of gravity dams leads to several complicaFor example, the heat developed tions in concreting operations. when Portland cement reacts with water is not a problem for thin sections, but this heat of hydration must be safely dissipated in Crushed ice large dams by elaborate systems of cooHng pipes. added to the concrete mixture as part of the mixing water and stockpiles of aggregate are also used to control the develfanning sure.

Arch dams consist of a single horizontal arch; of heat. they are suitable only for narrow gorges with sound rock at the Water pressure is sides to absorb the thrust from abutments. resisted partly by arch action, partly by cantilever action since with the bottom the and partly by dam is in contact of gorge, the

opment

the weight of the

dam.

This combined action leads to complex

design methods, in the solution of which electronic computers

model

tests are

most

helpful.

Buttress

dams

and

consist of a series

which support a series of concrete the water pressure. (See Dam.)

of triangular-shaped buttresses slabs or arches resisting

—

The extensive use of concrete in modern irrigastems from the fact that it is important to store, transport, and use the available water without undue loss through evaporaConcrete lining of canals effectively prevents tion and seepage. seepage losses, which average about 40% of the water transported Underground concrete pipelines are also used in unlined canals. extensively to transport water. Since pipe systems can operate under pressure, water can be delivered to land that could not be served by canals. Concrete is used to line tunnels and to construct siphons and flumes for carrying water over, under, and through natural and man-made barriers such as rivers, mountains, valleys, highways, and railroads. {See also Irrigation.) Water Supply. As water consumption increases, it has become necessary for many cities to transport water from distant natural sources. Others have impounded water in artificial reservoirs. To provide the source of water supply, concrete is used in the construction of dams, spillways, intakes, and pump houses. Most storage reservoirs are constructed of concrete to form an impervious barrier preventing water loss by seepage, to facilitate cleaning of the reservoir, and to protect the stored water from contamination. Finally, high-pressure concrete pipe is used extensively in the water distribution system as main lines 12 in. or more in diameter {see Water Supply and Purification). Irrigation.

tion

—

Sewage Works.

— These

installations are required

to control

rivers and lakes. Concrete has sewer construction since Roman times. In modern sewer pipe is used in sizes from 6 in. to 12 ft. in diameter. Concrete is used for large sewer tunnels which are often cast in their final position using traveling forms. See also references under "Concrete" in the Index.

disease

and prevent pollution of

been used

in

practice, concrete

—

Bibliography. E. E. Bauer, Flaw Concrete, 3rd ed. (1949) G. E. and H. E. Davis, Composition and Properties of Concrete (1956); A. L. L. Baker, Reinforced Concrete (1949); H. Sutherland and R. C. Reese, Reinforced Concrete Design, 2nd ed. (1943); L. C. Urquhart et al., Design of Concrete Structures, 5th ed. (1954); J. R. Dalzell and G. Townsend, Concrete Block Construction for Home and Farm, 2nd ed. (1957) P. W. .^beles, Principles and Practice of Prestressed Concrete (1949); T. Y. Lin, Design of Prestressed Concrete Structures (1955); K. Billip:, Precast Concrete (1955); R. D. Bradbury, Reinforced Concrete Pavements (1938); P. M. Ferguson, Reinforced Concrete Fundamentals (1958); Portland Cement .Association, Cement and Concrete Reference Book (1964). (Ed. Hd.) ;

Troxell

;

CONCRETION,

name

applied to nodular or irregularly shaped masses of various size occurring in a great variety of sedimentary rocks, differing in composition from the in petrology, a

269

main mass of the rock, and in most cases obviously formed by some process which ensued after the rock was deposited. As these bodies present so many variations in composition and structure, it will conduce to clearness if some of the commonest be In sandstones there are often hard rounded briefly described. lumps, which separate out when the rock is broken or weathered. They are mostly siUceous, but sometimes calcareous, and may differ very little in general appearance from the bulk of the sandThrough them the bedding passes uninterrupted, thus stone.' showing that they are not pebbles; often in their centres shells Argillaceous sandstones and or fragments of plants are found. flagstones very frequently contain "clay galls" or concretionary

than the remainder of the rock. Nodules of common in many clays, sandstones and marls. Their outer surfaces are tuberculate; internally they commonly have a radiate fibrous structure. Usually they are covered with a dark-brown crust of limonite produced by weathering; Freoccasionally imperfect crystalline faces may bound them. quently these pyritous nodules contain altered fossils.

lumps richer

in clay

pyrite and marcasite are

is

Another type of concretion, abundant in many clays and shales, These are usually flattened, disk-shaped

the "septarian nodule."

or ovoid, often lobulate externally like the surface of a kidney. When split open they prove to be traversed by a network of cracks, which are usually filled with calcite and other minerals. These white infiUings of the fissures resemble partitions; hence Sometimes the the name from the Latin septum, a partition. cracks are partly empty. They vary up to one-half inch in breadth, and are best seen when the nodule is cut through with a saw. These concretions may be calcareous or may consist of carbonate The former are common in some beds of the London of iron. The clayClay, and were formerly used for making cement. ironstone nodules or sphaerosiderites are very abundant in some Carboniferous shales, and have served as iron ores; some of the largest are three feet in diameter, and in the centre fossils are often found, e.g., coprolites, pieces of plants, fish teeth and scales.

Phosphatic concretions are often present clays, shelly sands,

in

certain limestones,

and marls.

Another very important series of concretionary structures are the flint nodules which occur in chalk, and the patches and bands Flints consist of darkof chert which are found in limestones. coloured cryptocrystalline silica. They weather gray or white by the removal of their more soluble portions by percolating water. Their shapes are exceedingly varied, and often they are studded with tubercules and nodosities. They sometimes have internal cavities and frequently contain shells of echinoderms, mollusks, etc., partly or entirely replaced by silica, but preserving their original forms. Chert occurs in bands and tabular masses rather than in nodules; it often replaces considerable portions of a bed Corals and in the Carboniferous Umestone). limestone (as of other fossils frequently occur in chert, and when sliced and microscopically

examined both

foraminifera, polyzoa,

etc.,

and chert often show and sponge spicules.

flint

silicified

These examples will indicate the great variety of substances which may give rise to concretions, which seem to arise from the tendency of chemical compounds to be slowly dissolved by water, either while the deposit is unconsolidated or it is highly probable that such solutions are usually in the colloidal state. Certain nuclei, present in the rock, of these solutions, and the deposit reprecipitation determine then

interstitial

at a later period;

once begun goes on until either the supply of material for growth exhausted, or the physical character of the bed is changed by pressure and consolidation until it is no longer favourable to further accretion. The process resembles the growth of a crystal in a solution by slowly attracting to itself molecules of suitable nature from the surrounding medium; but in the majority of cases it is not the crystalline forces, or hot these alone, which attract the particles. The structure of a flint, for example, shows that the material had so little tendency to crystallize that it reis

mained permanently in cryptocrystalline or subcrystalline state. That the concretions grew in the solid sediment is proved by the manner in which lines of bedding pass through them and not around them. (J. S. F.)

CONCUBINAGE— CONDE

270 CONCUBINAGE

is the state of cohabitation of a man and a woman as married persons without the full sanctions of legal marriage. The term is derived from the Latin conciibina, a concubine (from con, "with" and cubiire, "to lie"). Most societies recognize more than one kind of marital relationship, the legal status of the woman being a determinant of the legal status of her

bacy by Protestant reformers in the 16th century. It should be noted that the context of European concubinage is consistently monogamous. It is not the inferior standing of the concubine her-

The children of a full marriage are legitimate and are thereby endowed with specific rights of inheritance and succession,

woman,

offspring.

but the children of a lesser-grade marriage, though "illegitimate"

some senses, may still possess definite legal rights. The story of Hagar (Gen. xxi. 10 ff.) and the account of Abraham's gifts to in

the sons of his concubines (Gen. xxv, 6) exemplify such a dis-

Roman

law a state of fully legitimate marriage could be

established either as the result of public ceremonies {conjarreatio or coemptio) or less formally on the basis of affectio maritalis by declaring a fixed intention of taking a particular woman as a permanent spouse, as in Scottish law. The Romans were strictly monoga man legally could not maintain more than one spouse, any one time. The Roman concubina from a wife married in affectio maritalis in that ( 1 ) she brought her husband no dowry (dos); (2) she was not raised, like the wife, to the rank of her husband; and (3) her children were not legally the relatives of the father but cognates of the mother. In the 4th century a.d. Constantine the Great ruled that the marriage of a concubina should legitimate her children as heirs to her husband provided that there were no existing legitimate heirs; Justinian allowed this even if there were legitimate heirs. The concubina was usually of lower rank than her husband but the

amous and

of whatever category, at differed

relationship did not entail stigma. On the contrary, some men of high rank took respectable concubines because they were discouraged by the immorality of higher ranking Roman women with whom they could have made orthodox marriages. That concubina

continued to be recognized as a distinct but respectable status as 11th century is evident from injunctions by church councils at Rome that a layman who had a wife and a concubina at the same time should be suspended from communion. The institution of morganatic marriage (q.v.), which was widely current in diverse forms among the nobility of medieval Europe, was similar to Roman concubinage in many respects. A noble who married a commoner was deemed fully married in the eyes of the church, but the commoner wife did not assume the rank of her husband, and the children's rights (whether the wife or husband was of lower rank) to inheritance and succession in the property and titles of their parent of higher rank were severely circumlate as the

scribed.

—

unambiguous a man may have one wife only and her marriage must be explicitly established by Christian legal theory

is

quite

—

church ritual but civil practice has often been relatively flexible. For example, in the 17th century, although the only legitimate heirs of the English and French kings were the children of their properly married queens, the kings' numerous bastard offspring were regularly raised to the nobility. Moreover, the mothers of these children had an honourable public status which might fairly be described as one of concubinage. The concubinage of later medieval Europe was likewise a reflection of the divergence between the rigid requirements of canon law and the less precise conventions of practical behaviour. In 1241 the Jutland code of Valdemar II provided that a concubine kept openly for three years should thereby become a legal wife; this section of the code remained in force till 1582. A similar custom (handfasting) prevailed in Scotland. In the 13th century, the English jurist Henry de Bracton wrote of concubina legitima, a status which seems to have differed

from that of wife only as regards ceremonial and in being a less strong position from which to claim a widow's dower after her husband's death. A wife was married in church, a "legitimate concubine" was not. was the clergy themselves who benefited most from this disIn the 12th century the Roman Church declared that any marriage made after ordination was invalid, but those who were denied a wife often took a concubine instead. It is against this background that one must view the rejection of clerical celiIt

tinction.

European

institutions the emphasis is on the inferior status of the the context being that of polygyny. For example, Koranic

man to have not more than four wives at any one Where a Muslim harem contains numerous women, the excess over the Koranic four are rated as concubines or slaves. In many cases there is no discrimination between the children of wives and the children of concubines, but a wife is entitled to relaw permits a time.

ceive a widow's

tinction.

In

is stressed but the inferior legitimacy of her offspring. In contrast, where the term concubine has been applied to non-

self that

dower from her husband whereas a concubine

is

not.

The

marital customs of the Ottoman monarchs were in this respect extreme. By the 16th century the sultan very seldom took legal wife, all his women having the status of slave-concubine. concubine who bore a child was raised to the rank of haseki and the chief of these, the mother of the first male child, was second only to the sultan's mother within the harem. But in a technical legal sense even the highest haseki were slaves and not wives. In traditional China the context of concubinage was rather similar. Confucian orthodoxy combined an ideal of lifelong marital union with the obligation that all males should produce male heirs. Divorce was impossible but it was considered morally proper for the husband of a barren wife to take a concubine to raise up progeny; in practice, most concubines were taken simply for sexual pleasure. The marital status of the Chinese concubine hardly differed from that of the legitimate wife and her children were legitimate, but, whereas the wife would belong by birth to the same social class as her husband, the concubine was more likely to have been reared as a slave or in a brothel. It is important to remember that the word concubine was initially

any

A

applied to non-European institutions

by missionaries who had

a

prejudice in favour of Biblical terminology and the virtues of monogamy. Anthropology has shown that, in the world at large,

polygamy is no less admired than monogamy and in polygynous households the statuses of the different women and of their respective offspring may be differentiated in a variety of complicated ways. The ordinary English meanings of the words wife, concubine and slave are often inappropriate to such situations. A phrase such as secondary or junior wife will usually be less misleading than the term concubine with its specific Biblical and Roman law associations.

See also Marriage, Primitive. Bibliography. W. W. Buckland, A Text-book of Roman Law From Augustus to Justinian, 2nd ed., pp. 128-130 (1932) H. C. Lea, History A. D. of Sacerdotal Celibacy in the Christian Church, 4th ed. (1932) Alderson, The Structure of the Ottoman Dynasty (19S6); O. Lang, ' Chinese Family and Society (1946). (E. R. L.)

—

;

;

CONDE, PRINCES DE, the heads of an important French branch of the house of Bourbon (q.v.). The property of Conde in Hainaut (Conde-sur-l'Escaut. in the modem French departement of Nord) had passed, together with the countship of Enghien, into the possession of Francois de Bourbon, comte de Vendome, through his marriage with Marie de Luxembourg in 1487. Special Designations. As the leading adult prince of the French royal blood on the Huguenot side (apart from the king of Navarre), Louis, 1st prince de Conde (see below), came to be designated colloquially by the Huguenots as Monsieur le Prince, without any further specification. This designation was soon generally adopted and passed to his successors. The 3rd, 4th and 5th princes, however, were also premier princes of the blood (see below) from 1589. Hence in the 17th century the designation came to be regarded not as a hereditary right of the Condes but as attached to the rank of premier prince. Thus when the Condes could no longer claim that rank, the designation ceased to be theirs (with the 5th prince's death). In the 4th prince's lifetime, meanwhile, his eldest son, as due d'Enghien, had been able to assume the designation Monsieur le Due, without further specification, and this was retained, after the 5th prince's death, by his son, the due de Bourbon, who passed it also to his successor. The Huguenot Leaders.—Louis I de Bourbon (1530-69), 1st

—

—

CONDE was born at Vendome on May 7, 1530, the hunchback youngest son of Charles, due de Vendome, and Frangoise d'Alengon. Brought up among Huguenots, he was married in 1551 to fileonore de Roye, a Huguenot herself. He served in Henry IPs armies in the campaigns of 1551-57, but won no favour. On Henry II's death (1559), Conde came forward as the military leader of the Huguenots: he needed their backing to make himself at all considerable politically; they needed a princely patron more resolute than his eldest brother Antoine, king of Navarre, though Conde's licentious way of life accorded ill with their principles. On the failure of the Huguenot conspiracy of Amboise (March prince de Conde,

1560),

Conde

fled

from

court.

On

presenting himself to Francis

H

he was arrested and, on Nov. 26, sentenced king's death (Dec. 5 ) saved him, as the new regent, to death. Catherine de Medicis, needed him to counterbalance the Guises, with whom he was formally reconciled in Aug. 1561. After the massacre of the Huguenots at Vassy (March 1562), he occupied Orleans and marched on Paris, but was defeated and captured by Francois de Guise at Dreux (Dec. 19). For the three years following the peace of Amboise (March 1563) he tried to restrain the Huguenots and collaborated with the government, being preoccupied with love affairs. His first wife died in 1564, and he married Mile de Longueville (Frangoise d'Orleans) in 1565. Finally, however, disappointed in his hope of being made lieutenant general of the kingdom and alarmed at the government's dealings with Spain, he left the court again (July 1567) and led the Huguenots in another attack on Paris. Defeated in battle at St. Denis (Nov. 10) he made a skilful withdrawal and then, reinforced by German mercenaries, went to besiege Chartres (Feb. 1568). He signed the peace of Longjumeau (March 1568) against the admiral de Coligny's advice. When war broke out again in August, he found himself tied down to operations in western France. Fighting to save Coligny at Jarnac (March 13, 1569), he had to give himself up to the enemy and was shot through the head on the spot. He left three sons by his first wife, Henry (see below), Frangois, prince de Conti (1558-1614), and Charles (1562-94), cardinal de Vendome; and one by his second, Charles, comte de Soissons (1566-1612). Henry I de Bourbon (1552-88), 2nd prince de Conde, was born at La Ferte-sous-Jouarre on Dec. 29, 1552. His father's death at Orleans (Oct. 1560),

The

,

left

him and

his cousin

Henry

of

Navarre

as titular leaders of the

After the peace of St. Germain (1570) Conde retired married Marie de Cleves. She died after giving birth to his daughter Catherine 1574-93). Conde, meanwhile, caught

Huguenots. to

Beam and

(

during the massacre of St. Bartholomew's day (1572 ), had been forced to confess Catholicism. Nominally governor of Picardy, he was kept under surveillance till, in 1574, he escaped to Alsace and began raising troops for the Huguenots. Invading France with a horde of mercenaries to collaborate with the due in Paris

d'Alengon, he was disappointed at the terms which Alengon made with the government (1576). In the next civil wars (see France:

History) he became rather an embarrassment to Henry of Navarre, set himself up as chief of the most fanatical Huguenots and failed conspicuously in his travels abroad in search of foreign help (1580)

—

in his campaign of 1585 in western France when he was driven to take refuge in Guernsey. Returning to France, he mar-

and

1586, Charlotte de La Tremo'iUe (1565-1629), who renounced Catholicism for him and bore him a daughter, £leonore (1587-1619). Wounded at the battle of Coutras (Oct. 1587), Conde died suddenly at St. Jean-d'Angely on March 5, 1588. The Premier Princes of the Blood. The princesse de Conde (La Tremo'iUe) was accused of having poisoned her husband, and doubts were cast on the paternity of the son to whom she gave birth on Sept. 1, 1588, Henry II de Bourbon, 3rd prince de Conde (1588-1646). Henry IV of France, however, rejected these allegations and recognized his cousin as his heir presumptive until the birth of the dauphin, later Louis XIII. Henry IV's accession to the crown, moreover, meant that Conde became premier prince of the blood (premier prince du sang), a rank that was conventionally regarded as still his even- after the birth of Henry IV's younger sons, as they had the superior quality of fils de France (sons of an actual king). Moreover, as the new quality of petitfils de France (grandson of a sovereign, viz. of Louis XIII) was to be accorded ried, in

—

271

XrV's nephew, the future regent Philippe due d'Orleans, was allowed to the Condes for three generations in all. The 3rd prince de Conde was brought up as a Catholic by his

to Louis

the rank of premier prince, in this conventional sense,

mother, who abjured Calvinism in 1596. In 1609 he married Charlotte de Montmorency (1594-1650). The new princesse, however, attracted Henry IV so much the Conde had to send her out of the country and then to flee abroad himself to escape the king's fury. After Henry IV's assassination he returned to France (July 1610), to compete with the other princes and nobles in making demands on the regent, Marie de Medicis. When she and the marquis d'Ancre (q.v.) began to refuse his demands, he twice blackmailed them by open rebellion, obtaining not only money but the governments of important strongholds under the treaties of Ste. Menehould (May 1614) and Loudun (May 1616). Finally he was arrested (Sept. 1616).

Three years of prison (till Oct. 1619) changed Conde's mind. Thenceforth, he was the crown's obsequious servant, operating against the rebellious princes in 1620; against the Huguenots whom, in reaction from his ancestral tradition, he particularly detested

—

in

1621 and in 1627-29; and in frontier campaigns

till

when his invasion of Spain ended in disaster at Fuenterrabia. Rewards included the government of Burgundy (1631), which re1638,

mained a family perquisite, and most of the property confiscated from his brother-in-law Henry de Montmorency (executed in 1632). Part of this was Chantilly, which became the Condes' principal country seat. Under Anne of Austria's regency he supported Cardinal Mazarin. He died in Paris on Dec. 26, 1646. His children were Anne Genevieve, duchesse de Longueville {q.v.)\ the Great Cond6; and Armand, prince de Conti {see Conti, Princes de).

For the 4th prince, the Great Conde, see Conde, Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de. Henry Jules de Bourbon (1643-1709), 5th prince de Conde, was born in Paris on July 29, 1643, the eldest son of the Great Conde. Known f-rom 1646 as the due d'Enghien, he was taken to and fro by his mother during the Fronde and eventually into exile with his father, returning to France in 1659. He was married in 1663 to Anne of Bavaria, daughter of Edward, prince Palatine. At this time he was proposed as a candidate for the PoHsh throne. His father tried to embark him on a military career, but Henry Jules showed no aptitude, though he served in campaign after camOn his father's death (1686), paign between 1666 and 1693. however, he devoted himself chiefly to expanding and improving Chantilly. A little man, interested in the arts, the sciences and technology, an able courtier and a magnificent host, he was eccentric, given to mahcious practical jokes and a terror to his wife and In his last years he was mentally quite deranged. He children. died in Paris on April 1, 1709. Of his nine children by his wife, one son and three daughters survived him, the most notable being Louise Benedicte (1676-1752), duchesse du Maine. The Last Princes.—Louis III de Bourbon •(1668-1710), 6th prince de Conde, born on Oct. 10, 1668, was the 5th prince's second son and eventual successor. Almost a dwarf, with an enormous head and a yellow complexion, he was notoriously malevolent and offensive. In 1685 he was married to one of Louis XIV's bastards, Louise Frangoise de Bourbon (previously known as Mile de Nantes). As a soldier (from 1688), he showed bravery, notably On in the battles of Steinkerk (1692) and Neerwinden (1693). his father's death he was unable to assume the designation MonCondes could no longer claim above) since the sieur le Prince {see the rank of premier prince. He therefore never used his title of prince de Conde, continuing to be known as Monsieur le Due (he was due de Bourbon). He died suddenly in Paris on May 4, 1710, leaving three sons and six daughters by his wife.

For the 7th prince, see Bourbon, Louis Henri, Due de. Louis Joseph de Bourbon (1736-1818), 8th prince de Conde, was born in Paris on Aug. 9, 1736, only son of the due de Bourbon and Charlotte of Hesse. He assumed the Conde title on his father's death (1740). In 1753 he married Godefride de Rohan-Soubise Brought up for the army, he did good service in the (d. 1760). Seven Years' War. On the fall of the Bastille (1789), he was one

CONDE

272

princes to emigrate. Establishing himself at Worms in 1791, he set about raising the t'migrd "army of Conde, which took part, not very effectively, in the antirevolutionary campaigns of of the

first

"

1792-96 (see French Revolutionary Wars). After the FrancoAustrian peace of 1797, Conde went to Russia, served with the Russians in 1799, then passed to Austria in 1800 and to England in 1801. Returning to France in 1814, he died in PaVis on May 3, 1818.

Louis Henri Joseph (17S6-1830), 9th prince de Conde, bom in As due de Bourbon, he was married in 1770 to Loui.se Marie Therese d'Orleans (17S01822), who bore hira a son, Louis Antoine, due d'Enghien (g.v.), Emigrating with his in 1772, but from whom he parted in 1780. father and son in 1789, he went in 1795 to England to prepare the expedition of the comte d'Artois abortive (see Charles X, king of France to the Vendee. Thereafter he gave himself up to sordid ease in London, where he picked up Sophie Dawes, the future baronne de Feucheres (q.v.). Returning to France in 1814, he tried to organize resistance in Anjou during the Hundred Days, then escaped to Spain till the Second Restoration. On his father's death he did not assume the Conde title. As Enghien had been shot at Napoleon's behest in 1804, the due de Bourbon had no Paris on April 13, 1756, the 8th prince's son.

)

heirs, so that in 1829, to ingratiate herself

made him

leans, his mistress

with the house of Orleave the residue of the Conde inherit-

ance (after splendid bequests to herself) to Henri d'Orleans, due d'Aumale. On Aug. 27, 1830, he was found hanging from a window fastening in his

bedroom

at St. Leu, the magnificent estate that he

had bought six years earlier. This ended the great house of Conde.

Aumale in gratitude chose the title prince de Conde for his elder child, Louis (1845-66), and wrote a monumental study of the first four princes, Histoire des princes de Condi , 7 vol. plus index and maps (1863-96). .

.

.

/ T

CONDE, LOUIS

II

p R

-S

^

DE BOURBON,

Prince de (16211686), called the Great or le Grand Conde, or Monsieur le Prince le Herds, French prince and general, was born in Paris on Sept. 8, 1621, son of Henry H de Conde and his wife Charlotte de Montmorency. The sense of being a prince of the royal blood of France (see Conde, Princes de) dominated Conde's life; even in his deathbed letter to the king he mentioned his birth. From this came his contempt for the lesser princes, his indecision in opposing royal authority in the person of the queen regent and, finally, his submission to the monarchical dogma of Louis XIV. His father gave to the due d'Enghien, as he was at first called, a complete and strict education: six years with the Jesuits at Bourges, as well as mathematics and horsemanship at the Royal

Academy

at Paris. At 1 7 he was governor of Burgundy, in touch with the armies of the Thirty Years' War (q.v.). Cardinal de Richelieu and Louis XIH, visiting him at Dijon, noted his fitness for a command. His father had long intended to marry him to

the cardinal's niece, Claire

Clemence de Maille-Breze; and after Enghien had served as a volunteer with the army in Artois, working hard as a professional soldier, they were married (Feb. 1641 ). She was barely 13, and they began so badly that the cardinal sum-

moned him

to Narbonne (1642). There, during the conspiracy of Cinq-Mars, the cardinal appreciated his loyalty, and before his death the king had agreed that the young Enghien should command an army in 1643.

Less than a month after Enghien had taken command, at Amiens he heard that the Spaniards, far to the east, were attacking Rocroi and would invade Champagne; he also received news of Louis XIII's death, but from the first he acted with full professional confidence. He marched straight to the enemy, placed his army before them in battle order too rapidly for a countermove and next day (May 19, 1643) began the battle of Rocroi by breaking the opposing cavalry wing. He checked his horsemen and turned them on the rear of the Flemish infantry, moved on to rally his own defeated left wing and concentrated his troops to crush the strong core of old Spanish regiments. It was the greatest French victory for a century and due, beyond question, to his personal effort. He had the genius for direct, decided action on the military facts which faced him.

In 1644 Gaston, due d'Orleans, as Louis XIV's uncle, claimed main army command. Enghien collected troops in Champagne and was sent, not to Flanders to help Gaston but east to reinforce the marshal de Turenne. As prince he could give orders to the the

marshal, though Turenne was ten years older and had the larger army, but they were good colleagues. Their repeated attacks failed to break the lines of the Bavarian general Franz von Mercy, near Freiburg, but at last Mercy withdrew. Enghien seized Philippsburg as a base across the Rhine and occupied the Rhineland up to Mainz, an occupation which his control of his troops made tolerable to the inhabitants. In July 1645 he came again to help Turenne on the borders of Bavaria, far into Germany. Their victory at Nordlingen (Aug. 3) after costly frontal attacks on strong positions, drove the Bavarians across the Danube and completed Enghein's fame as a great commander. During the campaign of 1646 he went to serve under the ineffective Gaston d'Orleans in Flanders; then gout brought Gaston back to court, and in two months Enghien had secured the great prize of Dunkerque. His father died on Dec. 26, 1646, and Enghien became prince de Conde and premier prince of the blood. Now he had power as well as glory and so was carefully watched by Cardinal Mazarin (q.v.), chief minister of the queen regent, Anne of Austria, In 1647 he was sent to restore the defeated army in Catalonia and to strike some blow which would force Spain to accept peace on French terms, (If Masaniello's revolt in Naples and Henry de Guise's attempt to win that kingdom had been more successful, Conde might have been moved still farther from the centres of power in France.)

He

invested Lerida (with the legendary gesture of the

fiddlers leading the first trench party).

Paris, expecting Lerida's

was disappointed when Conde decided that he must be free to move against the growing Spanish army and raised the siege. He held Catalonia successfully, but Lerida was a blow to his reputation, as both he and Mazarin knew. Mazarin had to give Conde the Flanders command in 1648, but listened more to his subordinates than to him and split up the army for different objectives. Conde had only part of his army when he seized the opportunity for a battle at Lens (Aug. 20) and by his tactical mastery, a simufall,

enemy out, crushed the Spanish forces under the archduke Leopold and secured the signing of peace at lated retreat drawing the

Miinster.

With

this victory

power swung back

to

Conde on

Flanders, for Mazarin was faced by the

first

his return from emergence of the

Fronde (q.v.). Conde had his own personal grievances against Mazarin (a list of promotions and appointments not granted to and family) and did not like Mazarin's sudden coups d'etat, but he despised the house of Vendome and the due de Beaufort, its representative among the Frondeurs, and could not be courteous to the lawyers of the Paris parlement. In any case, he alone could provide and command the troops for the blockade of Paris, which began in Jan, 1649. The peace of Rueil, in the following March, left him undecided. He was not a party leader; he could not agree with his brother Armand, prince de Conti, or with his sister Anne, duchesse de Longueville, or even with the duchesse de Chatillon (Isabelle Angelique de MontmorencyBoutteville), sister of one friend and widow of another, whom he much admired. Yet all the intriguers, Mazarin, Gondi (the future cardinal de Retz), the duchesses and the other princes were bound to consider him for an alternative government. Certainly he was not a conspirator, though every violent speech of his was exploited. Mazarin resolved the case by arresting Conde, Conti and their brother-in-law, the due de Longueville (Henry d'Orleans) on Jan. 18, 1650, when they were in attendance at court. They were Their supporters began civil war. (See in prison for 13 months. Fronde.) When the queen regent had to yield in Paris, Mazarin, before leaving France, released his prisoners at Le Havre on Feb. 13, 1651. Conde was well received in Paris and for three months was almost in control of France. He gave posts to his lieutenants and governments to his friends, he secured the return of Turenne (who had rebelled on his behalf) to France, he even welcomed his wife, who had taken up arms for him at Bordeaux. But neither the his friends

CONDELL—CONDENSER ,

court nor Frondeurs accepted tions for his

own

him and he was soon taking precauHe was safe neither from arbitrary

security.

by the queen regent's guard, nor from murder, so in July he moved outside Paris. In Sept. 1651 he was in armed rebellion, and in November he signed a formal treaty which his agents had arrest

the Spaniards for common action against the French government as long as it remained under Mazarin's inliu-

negotiated with ence.

Mazarin's return to France (Dec. 1651 made Gaston d'Orleans and the Frondeurs in Paris ready to come to terms with Conde. After riding in disguise with only eight companions from Guienne to the Loire, Conde took command of the rebel princes' army that was awaiting him and fought the battle of Bleneau (April 6-7), )

was opposed by Turenne, now on He entered Paris in triumph on the side of the government. April 11. Yet he made no new friends and secured control over nobody. Indecision, violent tempers and illness exhausted him. He was nearly captured by Turenne in the astonishing battle of the Faubourg St. Antoine (July 2, 1652), in the streets outside the wall of Paris, but was at the last moment let in through the At last, in October, he left Paris with 3,000 men, without gate. money or resources to maintain independent action in Champagne. In less than a year he was only one of the king of Spain's commanders in the Netherlands, and not even the chief one. As a soldier, however, his exploits in the Spanish service were still splendid; his retreat from Arras (1654); his victory at ValenEach of these ciennes (1656): his relief of Cambrai (1657). exploits was so exact an appreciation of the facts as to be a the latter stage of which he

in

From

stroke of genius.

Dunkerque (June

14,

vised against battle

Dunes before

the final battle of the

1658

he did

I

little

more than escape; he

and the ground was

unfit

ad-

her

life,

Chateauroux

in 1671

for the rest of

when she was probably mentally disordered. His seat however, became a centre of the arts of peace, visited

at Chantilly,

Europe. He enjoyed the possibility of being elected king of Poland, but was completely submissive to the royal will, which for some years kept him from politics and war. In 1672 Louis XI\' flattered himself with the great parade of the invasion of Holland (see Dutch Wars) and with Turenne and Conde as his lieutenants, but in a skirmish near Amhem (June 12 Conde was wounded and his nephew, the young Charles Paris de Longueville, killed. Afterward Conde was appointed to real commands, but with small forces, on the Moselle and then at Utrecht. In 1674 he commanded in the Netherlands, completed the evacuation of Holland and, from his well-chosen camp near Charleroi, faced the much larger allied armies. In the battle of Seneffe (Aug. 11 he cut off their rearguard of 8,000 men, but was engaged by William of Orange with increasing numbers from which he could escape only by continuing to attack. Both armies gladly withdrew in the night. Conde, wearing slippers and stockings because of his gout, had been in the saddle for 26 hours, and three horses were killed under him.

by the most

brilliant

men

in

)

,

'

)

.

On July 31, 1675, Conde received the news that Turenne had been killed and the king's order to replace him in Alsace. He left the Netherlands at once, restored the confidence of the troops on the German front and maneuvered from one strong position to another until Raimund Montecuccoli abandoned Alsace and the Rhineland and took the imperial army back across the Rhine. This was the end of Conde's active service; he was now so move. He ceased to attend the king's

crippled that he could hardly

council, but all the soldiers and statesmen came to Chantilly. The prince died at and he enjoyed the king's full respect. Fontainebleau on Dec. 11, 1686. See Henri d'Orleans, due d'Aumale, Histoire des princes de Conde

pendant

le

XV le

et

XVI le

siedes, vol. iii-vii (1886-96).

CONDELL, HENRY

(I.

D. E.)

1627), English actor and friend of Shakespeare, may have been acting as early as 1590-91 but first appears definitely in 1598 in the cast of Every Man in His Humour. Thereafter, he was regularly with Shakespeare's company ("the (d.

CONDENSATION TRAIL of roughly tubular form,

(Contrail), an

composed of

(Fk. C. B.) artificial cloud

liquid drops or ice crystals

usually produced by the sudden condensation of water vapour

emitted in the exhaust of aircraft engines. Short-lived trails may also be formed by the rapid cooling of atmospheric water vapour subjected to expansion effects near propeller tips or near wing tips. For each gram of typical fuel burned in the engine, about 1.4 g. of water vapour and about 10,000 cal. of heat are produced

by combustion processes and are exhausted into the wake of the aircraft.

Saturation vapour pressure of water vapour depends upon temperature in such a way that the heating effect will not overcome the humidification effect if the aircraft is flying in air colder than

about —60° C. or —75° F. vapour is left behind, and in trail

Hence, a wake of supersaturated narrow wake the condensation

this

rapidly forms.

The advent of jet-powered aircraft operating in the cold upper atmosphere made this a much more commonly observed phenomenon than it was formerly, except in cold polar regions.

for his cavalry.

After the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) Conde returned to France in Jan. 1660. There followed illnesses, debts, disappointed lieutenants and his final separation from his wife, whom he and his son callously confined at

273

Lord Chamberlain's men," "the King's men"), retiring as a man of substance about 1623. His name and that of John Heminge (q.v.) were linked with Shakespeare's for 30 years: they had been associates financially and as fellow actors in the Blackfriars and the Globe theatre, and Shakespeare left each of them a token remembrance in his will. Condell and Heminge seem to have been the chief movers in sponsoring and preparing the Shakespeare First Folio of 1623, and they jointly signed the famous letters to the noble patrons and "the great variety of readers" that preface the volume.

(J. E.

McD.)

CONDENSED MILK: CONDENSER.

see Food Preservation. The term condenser is ordinarily employed

to designate a device for

condensing a gas into a

liquid.

Other

types of condensers, however, are also extensively employed. In electrical circuits condensers are used for concentrating opposite

on plates {see Capacitor) and in optics condensers are used for concentrating light in order to secure powerful illumination of a slide or other object. The term condenser is also used in the textile industry to denote an apparatus which doffs the web from carding machines and separates it into slivers electrical charges

of soft yarn.

Condensers are employed in power plants for the condensation from turbines and in refrigeration plants for the condensation of refrigerant vapours such as the Freons or ammonia. They are also employed in the petroleum and chemical industries for the condensation of hydrocarbons and other chemiof exhaust steam

cal

vapours.

Steam Condensers.

—

In a power plant steam generated in a from the turbine into a condenser where its latent heat is removed by means of water flowing inside tubes around which the steam condenses. The condenser performs two important functions: (1) it creates a low-pressure region into which the steam can exhaust; (2) it provides a means of collecting the condensed steam (condensate) so that it can be reused in the boiler boiler exhausts

without further chemical treatment. The first of the above functions is important since by exhausting steam into a condenser capable of maintaining a low back pressure, approximately 50% more power can be obtained than would otherwise be available. The second function is important since all new water fed to the boiler must be chemically treated to assure a high degree of purity. By reclaiming the condensate only sufficient raw water need be treated to make up for leaks and other steam losses from the cycle. This function means that when a condenser is employed only 1% or 2% of the water fed to the boiler needs to be treated whereas, if a condenser were not employed, all feed water would require treatment. Steam condensers may be grouped into two major classifications, surface condensers and direct-contact condensers. In surface condensers the condensing steam does not come into direct contact with the cooling water but is separated from it by the walls of the tubes through which the water flows. In direct-contact con-

:

CONDENSER eration systems the refrigerant gas, after being compressed in a refrigeration compressor, is liquefied in a refrigeration condenser.

During the liquefaction process heat

is rejected either to air passing over the condenser or to circulating water. The condensed

is then passed through an expansion valve where it enough temperature to absorb heat from the space compartment to be cooled, causing vaporization of the re-

refrigerant

cools to a low

or

frigerant liquid.

The vaporized

gas then enters the compressor to begin another may be of the shell and tube type steam similar to condensers, in which the refrigerant is condensed around tubes through which circulating water or other fluid is cycle.

Refrigeration condenser.s

may consist of a bank of finned tubes containing the refrigerant over which air circulates in order to absorb the passed, or they

Evaporative condensers consisting of banks of tubes over which water is allowed to trickle may also be employed. In the latter some of the water trickling over the tubes is vaporized, thus absorbing the heat surrendered by the warmer condensing latent heat.

rear water box condensateFig.

-TWO-PASS STEAM CONDENSER

1

refrigerant.

densers the cooling water is sprayed into the steam and intermingles with it. causing condensation. The essential features of a surface condenser are illustrated The unit shown consists of a circular or oval-shaped in fig. I. Passing cylindrical shell into which the exhaust steam flows. through the shell are many small tubes through which relatively cold water flows. Steam coming into contact with the cool surface of the tubes condenses

and

is

collected in a

chamber underneath

the tubes called the hot wdll. From there it is removed by conIn large condensers air tends to leak into the densate pumps. steam space and provisions must be made to remove this by means of special steam-operated pumps called ejectors (see Ejector). Surface condensers of many shapes and sizes have been built. The smallest will handle only a few pounds of steam per hour while the largest may handle as high as 1,000,000 or more pounds per

hour.

The

latter are

found

in large central station

power

plants.

Direct-contact steam condensers may be of either the barometric or jet type. In the barometric type the steam is directed into a chamber into which large quantities of water are sprayed. The water coming into contact with the steam condenses it and tends to create a vacuum because of the collapse of volume of the In order to maintain this vacuum the water discharged steam.

from the condenser is directed into a long vertical pipe, called the which extends downward into a lake, stream or other body of water. The low pressure in the condensing chamber causes the water level to rise in the tailpipe and to maintain a level approximately 30 ft. above that of the body of water. The tailpipe thus serves as a pressure seal between the surrounding atmosphere and the condensing steam inside the spray chamber. Jet-type condensers operate on the same principle as the barometric except that the low pressure in the mixing chamber is maintained by entraining the condensing steam in a high-velocity jet which at the outlet is reduced in velocity and increased in pressure to atmospheric by means of a divergent discharge passage. Jet and barometric condensers are no longer extensively used because the condensed steam becomes contaminated by the cooling water and thus cannot be reclaimed for further use without chemi-

In addition to steam and refrigeration condensers there are a variety of designs employed in the petroleum and chemical indus-

These are used to liquefy hydrocarbons and other chemicals. In some instances condensers are employed for the purpose of separating condensable from noncondensable gases. Heat-Transfer Characteristics.— An important consideration in the design of a surface condenser for power plants is the rate tries.

from the condensing steam to the circulating This rate depends upon three factors, namely: (i) the which the condensing steam is exposed; (2) the over-all coefficient of heat; transfer from condensing steam to circulating water; (3) the mean temperature difference between the condensing steam and the circulating water. The first item depends upon the number of tubes employed and their length. The second depends upon the resistance to the flow of heat created by the tube walls and the thin films of stagnant fluid on either side of the walls (fig. 2). The third factor depends upon the difference in temperature between the condensing steam and the water at inlet and exit to the condenser. The rise in temperature of the circulating water as it The mean temflows through the tubes is illustrated in fig. 2. perature difference between the condensing steam and the water can be shown to be given by the mathematical expression of transfer of heat

water.

total cooling surface area to

tailpipe,

cal treatment.

Refrigeration Condensers,

— In

vapour-compression

refrig-

CONDENSING STEAM FILM 1

TUBE WALL'

|

log,

M\

(i)

where A^i and A^o ^re the temperature difference between the condensing steam and circulating water at inlet and outlet of the condenser, respectively. The heat which can be transferred per hour from the condensing steam to the circulating water will be

Q = ^J7AU.n

U =

(2)

A =

outside surface area of condenser tubes in square feet; over-all coefficient of heat transfer based on the outer surface

where

area of the tubes in British Thermal Units per hour per square foot per ° F.; A^mean = logarithmic mean temperature difference between the condensing steam and the circulating water (° F.). The weight of steam which can be condensed per hour may then be computed by the expression:

CONDENSER—CONDILLAC For further information on the heat transfer characteristics of surface condensers, see Heat Exchanger. See W. H. McAdams,. /^eaf Transmission, 3rd ed. (19S4) G. A. Gaf(Rd. A. Br.) fert, Steam Power Stations, 4th ed. (1952). ;

CONDENSER (ELECTRICAL): see Capacitor. CONDER, CHARLES (1868-1909), English artist,

whose

unique and charming decorative style, in dainty pastoral scenes, won him a certain vogue. The son of a civil engineer, he was born After an English in London, and spent his early years in India. education he went into the government service in Australia, but in 1890 determined to devote himself to art, and studied for several years in Paris, where in 1893 he became an associate of the Societe About 1895 his reputation as an Nationale des Beaux- Arts. original painter, particularly of Watteaulike designs for fans, spread among a limited circle of artists in London, mainly connected first with the New English Art club, and later the International society. Conder died on Feb. 9, 1909.

CONDILLAC, ETIENNE BONNOT DE

(1715-1780),

French philosopher, important as a psychologist, as a logician, economist and as the leading systematic exponent of Locke's principles in France, was born at Grenoble on Sept. 30, 1715, His elder the third son of Gabriel Bonnot, vicomte de Mably. brothers were Jean Bonnot de Mably, privot des marichaux for the Lyonnais, and Gabriel (1709-85), abbe de Mably, the wellknown political writer. Destined for the church, Condillac was early ordained priest, and the first part of his hfe was uneventful except for his making the acquaintance of J. J. Rousseau, who in 1740 was employed as a tutor by Condillac's brother Jean. This as an

led to a lasting friendship.

In Paris, however, Condillac came into contact with Denis Diderot and the encyclopedistes. The publication of his Essai sur I'origine des connaissances kumcines (1746) and Traite des systbmes (1749) established his position in the literary salons; he was elected a member of the Berlin academy in 1752. The Traite des sensations (1754)

and the Traite des animaux (1755)

followed, and in 1758 he was appointed preceptor to the young Ferdinand of Parma (his Cours d'etudes pour I'instruction dti prince de Parme, 16 vol.,

France

in 1767,

was published in 1775). Returning to he was elected to the Academie Frangaise in 1768.

He published Le Commerce ment

et le

gouvernement consideres

relative-

I'un i I'autre in 1776; but the irreligious tone of Parisian

intellectual society

was offensive

part of his life in retirement at

and he spent the latter Flux, near Beaugency, where he to him,

had purchased a house for his niece in 1773. He died during the night of Aug. 2-3, 1780. La Logigue (1780) and La Langue des calculs (1798) appeared posthumously. Psychology. Voltaire had made Locke's philosophy fashion-

—

able in France, but

it

was Condillac who established

it

systemati-

how

275 how one sense show that all human

the senses are trained and

aids another.

The

faculty and knowlhe is confident, will edge are transformed sensation only, to the exclusion of any other principle, such as reflection. The plan of the book is that the author imagines a statue organized inwardly like a man, animated by a soul which has never received an idea, into which no sense impression has ever penetrated. He then unlocks its senses one result,

by one, beginning with

human knowledge.

smell, as the sense that contributes least

At

experience of smell the conoccupied by it; and this The statue's smell occupancy of consciousness is attention. experience will produce pleasure or pain; and pleasure and pain will thenceforward be the master principle which, determining all to

sciousness

of the

statue

its

is

first

entirely

its mind, will raise it by degrees to all the knowledge of which it is capable. The next stage is memory, which is the lingering impression of the smell experience upon

the operations of

"memory is nothing more than a mode of feeling." From memory springs comparison: the statue experiences the

the attention:

smell, say, of a rose while

remembering that of a carnation; and

nothing more than giving one's attention to two things simultaneously." And "as soon as the statue has comparison it has judgment." Comparisons and judgments become

"comparison

is

habitual and are stored in the mind and formed into series; and thus arises the powerful principle of the association of ideas.

From comparison

of past

and present experiences

their pleasure-giving quality arises desire

;

it

is

in respect of

desire that deter-

mines the operation of our faculties, stimulates the memory and imagination and gives rise to the passions. The passions, also, are nothing but sensation transformed. So runs the argument in the In the second section Condillac first informs In a very careful and it of the existence of external objects. elaborate analysis, he distinguishes the various elements in our the touching of one's own body, the touchtactile experiences ing of objects other than one's own body, the experience of movement, the exploration of surfaces by the hands; he traces the growth of the statue's perceptions of extension, distance and shape. The third section deals with the combination of touch with the other senses. The fourth section deals with the desires, activities and ideas of an isolated man who enjoys possession of all the senses; and ends with observations on a "wild boy" who was found living among bears in the forests of Lithuania. The conclusion of the whole work is that in the natural order of first

section of

the treatise.

invests his statue with the sense of touch, which

—

its source in sensation and yet that this source is not equally abundant in all men; and, finally, that man is nothing but what he has acquired: all innate faculties and ideas

things everything has

are to be swept away.

obvious enough that Condillac's naturalistic psychology, explanation of personality as an aggregate of sensations, There is, however, leads straight to atheism and determinism. no reason to question the sincerity with which he repudiates both What he says upon religion is always in these consequences. It is

In setting forth his empirical sensationism, Condillac shows many of the best qualities of his age and of his nation lucidity, brevity, moderation and an earnest striving after logical method. Nevertheless, in the analysis of the human mind

with

on which

his profession; and he vindicates the freedom of the will in a dissertation that has very little in common with the Traite des sensations to which it is appended. The common reproach of materialism should certainly not be made against him.

cally in that country.

—

fame

and spiritual His first book, the Essai stir I'origine des connaissances humaines, keeps close to his English master. He accepts with some indecision Locke's deduction of our knowledge from two sources, sensation and reflection, and, unlike Locke, uses as his main principle of explanation the association of side of

his

human

chiefly rests, he omits the active

experience.

ideas.

His next book, the TraitS des systbmes, is a vigorous criticism of metaphysical systems. His polemic, which is inspired throughout with the spirit of Locke, is directed against the innate ideas of the Cartesians, Nicolas Malebranche's faculty psychology, Leibniz'

monadism and

pre-established harmony, and, above all, against the conception of substance set forth in the first part of the Ethics of Spinoza.

The most important of

Condillac's works is the Traite des which he questions Locke's doctrine that the senses give us intuitive knowledge of objects that the eye, for example, judges naturally of shapes, sizes, positions and distances. To clear up such questions we must study our senses separately, distinguishing precisely what ideas we owe to each sense and observing sensations, in

—

its

harmony with

always asserts the substantive reality of the soul; and in the opening words of his Essai, "Whether we rise to heaven, or descend it is always our to the abyss, we never get outside ourselves own thoughts that we perceive," is found the subjectivist principle

He

—

that

had formed

the starting point of Berkeley.

Condillac did notable work in the direction of making psychology His method of imaginative reconstruction, however, in spite of his protests against abstraction, hypothesis and synthesis, is in the highest degree abstract, hypothetical and syna science.

thetic.

—

Logic. Condillac was an original logician who emphasized the dependence of reasoning on language and analyzed language as a system of signs ultimately derived from natural sounds and gestures. He stressed the importance for science of a well-made language and held that mathematical calculation is the ideal or model for all language.

CONDITION—CONDITIONING

276

—

Economics. In Le Commerce et le gouvemement Condillac came forward as an original economist, arguinp that value depends not on labour but on utility; "Our needs give rise to value, our exchanges give

Influence

rise to price,"

Condillac's

psychological

so

doctrine,

to the intellectual climate of 18th-century France,

congenial

count of volitional experience. In the 19th century, however, when German romanticism had spread to France, Condillac's sensationism was superseded by the eclecticism of Victor Cousin. Its effect on English thought is to be discerned in the works of James and John Stuart Mill, of Alexander Bain and of Herbert Spencer, in connection with the association of ideas, with the supremacy of pleasure and pain and with the general interpretation of all mental contents as sensations or transformed sensations. BiBUOGRAPHY. For Condillac's works see Ihe Oeuvres phihsophiques de Condillac, ed. by G, le Roy, 3 vol. {1947-.S1); also the Treatise on Sensations, Eng. trans, by G. Carr (1930). For letters see H. Bedarida (cd.), Condillac a Parme: qiielques lettres in^dites (1924); and G. le

—

Roy

(ed.), Condillac: lettres incites a Gabriel Cramer (1953). See further V. Cousin, Cours de I'histoire de la philosophic moderne, 1st iii (1829); J. P. Damiron. Mimoires pour servir a I'histoire de la philosophie au dix-hiiitieme siecle, vol. iii (1864) L. Dewaule, Condillac et la psychologic anglaise content poraine (1892); G. de Bacuenault de Puchesse, Condillac ; sa vie, sa philosophie, son influence (1910); R. Lenoir, Condillac (1924); Z. Schaupp, The Naturalism of Condillac (1926); G. le Roy, La Psvchologie de Condillac (1937). (H. St.; H. B. A.) series, vol.

;

a stipulation, a provision that needs to be

(from Lat. condicio, "something agreed upon or arranged"). Also, something that must exist or be the case or happen in order for something else to exist or be the case or happen satisfied

(as in "the will to live

a condition lor survival").

In a different a state or circumstance or mode of being (as in "the poor condition of the soil"). In logic, a sentence or proposition of the form "If A then 5" (or, in symbols, .-1 3 B) is called a conditional (sentence or proposition). Similarly, "Whenever A then B" [or, in symbols, (x) • A{x)^ B(x)] may be called a general conditional. In such uses, "conditional" is a synonym for "hypothetical" and is opposed is

word means

set of senses, the

common and and "necessary condition." Suppose some instance of a property, P, is always accompanied by a corresponding instance of some other property, Q, but to "categorical."

_

Closely related in meaning are the

useful e.xpressions, "sufficient condition"

not necessarily vice versa; then P is said to be a sufficient condition for Q and, equivalently, Q is said to be a necessary condition for P.

Thus

ing such)

a severed spinal

conditions.

CONDITIONING,

was the founda-

tion of the movement known as Ideologic and reigned in the French schools for more than 50 years, challenged only by a few, such as Maine de Biran, who saw that it gave no sufficient ac-

CONDITION,

derivative, i.e., cannot be treated as universal truths. Such principles hold good under present conditions, but other conditions might be imagined under which they would be invalid; they hold good only us corollaries from the laws of nature under existing

column (or the property of hav-

a sufficient, but not a necessary, condition for death; while lack of consciousness is a necessary, but not a sufficient, is

In any case where P is both a necessary and a sufficient condition for Q, the latter will also be a necessary and sufficient condition for the former, each instance of either property being regularly accompanied by a corresponding instance of the other. The terminology has no reference to the temporal relations, if any, of the corresponding instances, and is also applicable to logical or mathematical or other nontemporal properties Thus, it is proper to speak of "a necessary condition for the solution of an equation" or "a sufficient condition for the validity of a syllogism." (M. Bk.) In philosophy the above uses of the term condition have led to the contrast between "conditioned" and "absolute" being (or "dependent" versus "independent" being). Thus- all finite condition for death.

things exist in certain relations not only to all other things, but possibly also to thought; in other words, all finite existence is "conditioned." Hence Sir William Hamilton speaks of the "phi-

losophy of the unconditioned," i.e., of thought in distinction to things which are determined by thought in relation to other things (see Absolute). An analogous distinction is made (cf. H. W. B. Joseph, Introduction to Logic, p. 3S0 ff.) between the so-called universal laws of nature and conditional principles which, though they are regarded as having the force of law, are yet dependent or

a term used in the sciences of behaviour whereby a response becomes more frequent given environment as a result of reinforceThe history of this concept shows its dependence upon

to designate a process

or

more predictable

in a

ment. experimental techniques for the study of reflexes. Physiologists in Russia, England and the United States contributed the original procedures, observations and definitions. After the 1920s psychologists carried on the larger share of experimental work on the nature and prerequisites of conditioning. Conditioning is a form of learning in which either (i) a given stimulus (or signal) becomes increasingly effective in evoking a response or (2) a response occurs with increasing regularity in a well-specified and stable environment. The type of reinforcement that is used determines which of these consequences obtains. When two stimuli are presented in an appropriate time and intensity relationship, one of them will come to induce a response resembling that of the other. The process can be described as one This procedure is called classical (or of stimulus substitution. respondent) conditioning. In the traditional technique of Russian laboratories, a dog is placed in a harness within a sound-shielded room. On each conditioning trial the sound of a bell or a metronome is promptly followed by food powder blown by an air puff into the dog's mouth. Here the tone of the bell is known as the conditioned (or sometimes conditional) stimulus, abbreviated as The salivation to this sound is the conditioned response CS. (CR). The strength of conditioning is measured in terms of the number of drops of saliva secreted during test trials in which food powder is omitted. The original response of salivation to introduction of food into the mouth is called the unconditioned response (UR) to food (the US). Using a variety of stimuli and responses, psychologists in the United States have shown that in man and other mammals there is a very consistent optimum interval between the CS and the US which the experimenter may utilize. This interval is approximately half a second. For coldblooded animals, the optimum interval for conditioning is longer. In fish, for example, the CS may best precede the US by 1^ seconds. When the CS is appropriately followed by the US, reinforcement is said to occur. If the US is omitted on any trial or series of trials the procedure is referred to as extinction. Instrumental (or operant) conditioning differs from classical conditioning in that reinforcement occurs only after the organism executes a predesignated behavioural act. No US is used to initiate the specific act to be conditioned. Here the required behaviour is known as an operant or, once it occurs with regularity, also as a conditioned response, to correspond to its counterpart in classical conditioning.

—

History. The psychic reflex was observed in the i8th century by Robert Whytt, who noted that salivation was accelerated by the The fundamental sight or even by the ideational recall of food. fact of conditioning was observed in the United States by E. B. Twitmyer, who developed a knee-jerk conditioned reflex in a human subject in 1902. The modern development of conditioning in both fact and theory, however, is commonly associated with the name of I. P. Pavlov {g.v.), who devoted the last 36 years of his life to these researches. V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927), a countryman of Pavlov, also played an important role. Both acknowledged their indebtedness to Ivan Sechenov, who outlined in 1863 a comprehensive reflex theory of behaviour. The translation in 19 13 of Bekhterev's book into French and German was important in arousing the interest of U.S. psychologists, most of whom preferred his motor method to Pavlov's salivary technique. Although "it is probably more to him than to Pavlov that we owe the bold acceptance of conditioning by psychologists" (E. R. Hilgard), Pavlov's terminology and conceptual system were more widely adopted. In the United States objective psychology had already won appreciable support prior to the advent of conditioning. Backed by

CONDITIONING the concepts of association tially interested in

chology

in

1913.

and

habit, J. B.

Watson

(g.v.), ini-

animal behaviour, founded an objective psy-

He

exploited conditioning as a substitute for

introspection, using Pavlov's term (conditioned reflex) superim-

posed upon Bekhterev's type of motor-conditioning procedure. Watson was largely responsible for the incorporation of conditioning into U.S. psychology.

The

was largely During the decade beginning with 1926, conditioning role in textbooks but was given more less conspicuous

early enthusiasm for conditioning in the U.S.

verbal.

played a

serious attention in the laboratories.

The

translation of Pavlov's

major work into English in 1927 catalyzed research interest, and a mature theoretical framework was eventually constructed by C. L. Hull (g.v.) in an attempt to bridge the gap from conditioning to more complex forms of learning. After the publication of B. F. Skinner's The Behavior of Organisms in 1938, the use of operant conditioning procedures became extensive. Specific techniques have varied somewhat from organism to organism. Although more commonly applied to the experimental study of animal behaviour, the method of operant conditioning also has been applied by Skinner and others in human behavioural experimentation. A. G. Ivanov-Smolensky reported his observations with this method in 1927 as he used it in studies Chocolate candy constiof discriminatory learning in children. tuted the primary reinforcement for these experiments. Definitions and Methods. Higher-order conditioning can be If established on the basis of preceding conditioned responses. tone is combined with food, a first-order salivary CR is developed. If this tone is then combined with light, the salivary response can eventually be evoked by light alone (second-order CR). Pavlov was unable to go beyond the second order by the salivary method and the third order by the motor method. Later work employing combinations or sequences of classical and operant conditioning techniques showed that conditioning can be extended at least to the

—

fifth order.

By applying an unconditioned stimulus (food) at the end of a one-minute presentation of the conditioned stimulus (tone) a delayed CR will be developed, conditioned salivation being deferred Similarly, if the until near the time for administration of food. tone is presented for only 10 or 15 seconds, followed by food 45 seconds after cessation of tone, a trace CR will appear nearly one minute after onset of tone. This illustrates, according to Pavlov, internal inhibition, since there

must be some

internal trace inIf a distracting applied during the

hibiting salivation during the period of silence. influence, such as a loud or unusual sound,

is

interval, there will be inhibition of inhibition

and salivation

will

occur at once. If during the initial training period the conditioned stimulus is a tone of 1,000 cycles, many other tones will at first evoke the CR. This is known as sensory generalization. With continued training, specialization or differentiation will develop so that the CR is eventually evoked only by the particular tonal frequency used for conditioning. The process is more effectively developed by alternate trials with other tones which are not reinforced with food or shock. This technique is regularly used in the study of the limits of discriminative capacity in the experimental animal. When the organism is forced beyond its capabilities, experimental

may

neurosis

result (see

Neuroses, Experimental).

Virtually any response is conditionable, subject only to the experimenter's ingenuity and to the organism's repertory of reflexes. Bekhterev's method has been used with a variety of responses (eyelid and knee-jerk reflexes, withdrawal movements of various

The responses controlled by the autonomic nervous system have hkewise been explored; e.g., salivation, pulse, blood types).

pressure, tions,

skin

resistance

nausea and diuresis.

(perspiration),

Even

gastrointestinal

the conditioning of

secre-

immunity

reactions has been reported, but these data are equivocal.

human I

In

autonomic responses have been conditioned to verbal stimuli such that vasomotor and pupillary changes are produced by voluntarily thinking of the stimulus word. Experimental extinction may be induced by repeatedly applying the conditioned stimulus without reinforcement until the CR no subjects,

277

This process is analogous to negative adaptation or habituation, but the decrement is also explicable in terms of interference, in which a new response works to obliterate the old CR. Extinction suggests but may not be identical with human When the CR has just been extinguished, it verbal forgetting. can be readily reinstated with a few reinforced trials; the learned pattern was not "forgotten" but lacked motivation. The unconditioned stimulus apparently has two functions that of evoking the required response (e.g., salivation, paw flexion) and also that of offering the requisite motivation (E. A. K. Culler). One experiment will illustrate this principle. The sound of a bell followed by stimulation directly applied to the motor cortex of the brain (thereby evoking paw flexion) will not set up a CR to the bell unless the dog is motivated (e.g., sensory shock, food). Likewise the animal will seldom establish a flexion CR, however often its leg is passively flexed, unless motivation is provided (e.g., food or a pat on the head). It is also possible, however, that with sufficient overleaming the CR may be susceptible to extinction no more or less readily than human verbal forgetting. Conducive (perhaps requisite) to conditioning is a prepotent unconditioned stimulus. Although a bright light will produce sharp pupillary constriction, this stimulus can be combined with an even stronger agent (electric shock) so that the initial constriction is followed by dilation while the light is still on. This occurs because longer appears.

:

the startle reaction to shock, which includes pupillary dilation, is biologically prepotent over the pupillary reflex to light. A fear CR developed in children to the sight of a rabbit (by paired combinations with loud noise) may be extinguished by preThis senting the rabbit in conjunction with cookies or candy. of reconditioning has had application in clinical practice, for example, in curing enuresis, but requires considerable skill in manipulating the conditions. Injudicious application of the stim-

method

CR

may not only fail to eliminate CR so as to incorporate the pattern to the extent of producsight of cookies or candy into the ing nausea. Neurological Correlates. Pavlov's work was largely applied uli,

as in the fear

the fear but

may

to the rabbit,

instead expand the

—

U.S. to the development of a behavioural theory of learning, but he was himself primarily concerned with the dynamics of the cerebral processes which he inferred from his conditioning data. in the

Criticism has been directed at specific concepts such as irradiation, which was postulated as the cerebral mechanism underlying generalization. His basic presupposition that the locus of conditioning is exclusively cortical, upon which his theory of vicarious cortical

function largely depended, was proved erroneous. early report of negative results with one animal, a

Following his

number

of in-

vestigators were able to establish conditioned reflexes in totally decorticated cats and dogs. In one of these animals a simple dis-

crimination was established between two auditory stimuli. CR's have also been established in organisms lacking true neocortex, and D. P. Marquis developed a feeding response to the sound of a buzzer in human infants only ten days old, at which time the cerebral cortex is presumed to be nonfunctional. The sensory systems are synaptically integrated at several levels in the cerebrum with available associative centres and motor outIn the cat, CR to acoustic stimuli can be mediated at the lets. coUicular and bulbar levels (primitive brain centres). One group of experimenters reported that conditioning and extinction can be obtained with only spinal cord innervation in young cats and dogs. This suggests, as seems theoretically plausible, that any synaptic

apparatus can mediate simple modifications in behaviour. The role of the cerebral apparatus is being studied in connecSome mechanisms are solely a tion with a variety of functions. function of the cortex; permanent deficit follows extirpation of the appropriate cortical system. Other functions are maintained simultaneously at a subcortical level so that no appreciable loss follows cortical intervention.

In other instances, although dis-

ruption of function follows cortical ablation, restitution results In the last example it may be from postoperative training. presumed that the function is normally mediated by cortical patterns, but that it may also be established and maintained, in their absence, by subcortical mechanisms.

CONDOMINIUM—CONDOR

278 riif

shown to respond with massive pulses of when rhythmically stimulated, as with a tlicker-

brain has been

electrical potential

Using an initially neutral sound as a signal, followed

ing hght.

Traditional theories include, among others, the law of effect (E. L. Thorndike) and the drainage principle (W. McDougall). early suggestion by C. U. A. Kappers, which proposed that

An

repeatedly by llicker, F. Morrell and H. Jasper conditioned this driven brain rhythm so that it appeared a few seconds after the sound was given alone. The conditioning process was seen to develop through several intermediate stages involving both generalized and local activation within receiving areas of the brain. That

is due to actual neural growth of neuronic endings during repeated stimulations, was being revived (Hebb). Another suggestion (J. J. Katz and W. C. Halstead) made use of the well-known structural complexity and modifiability of protein molecules. Evi-

such a massive participation of neural elements should be susceptible to conditioning was evidence that a reflexive neural switching

plausibility to this proposal.

retention

dence for the central role of proteins

Evaluation

—As

in nerve-cell

method, conditioning

chemistry added

components for conditioning in the arc from sense organ In one experiment with electrodes implanted to motor response. in the animal's brain, shock stimulation of the sensory cortex (conditioned stimulus) followed by normal shock to paw resulted in a CR, indicating that the sensory component of the conditioned stimulus was dispensable. Conditioning does not occur if the unconditioned response is produced by directly stimulating the effec-

an unsurpassed technique for precise measurement of sensory capacity (absolute and differential thresholds) in animals; e.g., hearing. It has been of considerable value in the investigation of the cerebral correlates of behaviour. It has also been useful in studies of the effect of drugs, experimentally produced neurosis and even personality differences in animals. It has had some success in the study of emotional behaviour (fears) and has been clinically applied in the treatment of some specific maladjustments. The Pavlovian inferences concerning cerebral dynamics as well

Injection of pilocarpine causes increased salivation, but

as his behavioural hypotheses attracted staunch defenders as well

may be too simple. Much research has been

theory

directed to a determination of the es-

sential

tors.

paired combinations of drug injections with an indifferent stimulus will

not produce a salivary

apparatus

is

CR

affected, as with

When

(N. Kleitman).

morphine

the neural

injections, a salivary as

more general nausea CR is readily established (G. CrisWith respect to the motor component of the neurally in-

well as a ler).

nervated unconditioned response, W. H. Gantt concluded that actual limb flexion is not required in order to establish a limbflexion CR. This study was repeated and was criticized because responses during training were possible in the other, nonparalyzed limbs (W. N. Kellogg). In a different approach, all striated musculature was paralyzed with curare during training. After recovery of muscular function the CR was restricted to autonomic components such as pulse and blood pressure (E. Girden), suggesting that, at least during the initial training, some activity by the conditioning reflex is required. This is known as the response theory. These researches provided answers by no means definitive, nor did they necessarily represent the most promising avenue in the study of such problems. There are theoretical formulations, some of which are basically conditioning concepts, that emphasize not the role of the peripheral components but depend upon synaptic switching in the cerebral apparatus. In addition to the discriminative and associative mechanisms, the motivational properties of intracranial electrical stimulation also have been observed. The effort to find those brain centres

whose activation constitutes the energizing component

in

condi-

tioning has been successful (J. M. R. Delgado, J. Olds and P. Milner and others). Electrodes placed in discrete centres of the

thalamus, hypothalamus or midbrain were used in place of rewards or punishment in the reinforcement of conditioning, both classical

and instrumental.

Rats and monkeys learned to give themselves electrical stimulation in "pleasure" centres by pressing a lever. Stimuli presented in conjunction with the electrical or chemical activation of other centres were subsequently used to produce second-order escape and avoidance learning. Some aspects of the neurochemical basis for emotional behaviour were demonstrated and anatomical relations mapped in these experiments. One important contribution attempted to encompass all the psychological processes, including learning, perceiving and emotions. This theory assumed the development of a three-dimensional lattice of "cell assemblies" in the cortical association areas of the cerebrum under repeated stimulations of the organism (D. 0. Hebb). A full treatment of this proposal here would necessarily lead into a discussion of nonreflexological theories of neural integration (e.g., theory of cerebral activity as proposed by the Gestalt psy-

field

chologists),

which

is

clearly

beyond the scope of the immediate

discussion. Finally, attention should be called to the

basic problem of retention

which

somewhat

related

and

not completely, resisted understanding in the 1960s. An examination of the question of what occurs in the structure while learning takes place inevitably leads to the issue of how the organism retains, or re-

members, what

is

experienced.

still

largely,

if

a

While a number of

as severe critics.

his theories

untenable, behaviourism later evolved a

formulation (K.

W.

Even

Spence).

is

proved to be

more mature

theoretical

as an indirect influence, the

development of opposed theoretical views enriched science; extent, the history of Gestalt psychology is a reaction to

some

to re-

flexology.

Furthermore, of no small importance was the development of what is recognized as the organismic approach, in psychology, psychiatry and medicine, as contrasted with the older, primitive and even animistic mentalism. To this, objective psychology and

made their contribution. See Animal BehavBehaviourism; Learning; Psychology, Comparative; Psychology, Experimental; Reflex. See also references under

reflexology also

iour;

"Conditioning" in the Index volume. Bibliography. I. P. Pavlov, Conditioned Reflexes, Eng. trans, by F. C. Anrep (1927) B. F. Skinner, The Behavior of Organisms in "Century Psychology Series" (193S) E. R. Hilgard and D. G. Marquis, Conditioning and Learning in "Century Psychology Series" (1940) D. O. Hebb, The Organization of Behavior (1949) C. T. Morgan and E. Stellar, Physiological Psychology, 2nd ed. (1950) L. A. Jeffress (ed.), Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior (1951); S. S. Stevens (ed.), Handbook of Experimental Psychology (1951) C. L. Hull, A Behavior System (1952) K, W. Spence, Behavior Theory and Conditioning (1956); E. R. Hilgard, Theories of Learning in "Century Psychology Series," 2nd ed. (1956) F. Morrell and H. Jasper, "Electrographic Studies of the Formation of Temporary Connections in the Brain,"

—

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

&

Electroencephalog. Clin. Neurophysiol., vol. 8, pp. 201-215 (1956); K. U. and W. M. Smith, The Behavior of Man (1958). (Ed. G.; a. H. R.)

CONDOMINIUM, the joint possession by two or more states of sovereignty over a territory, with a specified division

among

them of the powers of government. An arrangement of this nature is usually set up by treaty; often, but not always, it represents a compromise solution to a dispute over a territory, agreeable to all disputants. The U.S.-British condominium over the islands of Canton and Enderbury in the Pacific ocean, for instance, was created in 1939 to terminate a diplomatic contest for exclusive title. Prominent among condominiums was that established in 1899 for the Sudan by Great Britain and Egypt, under which the flags of both were used in the territory and the governor general was appointed by the khedive with the approval of the British government; in 1956 the Sudan became independent. A list of historic condominiums would include, among others, SchleswigHolstein under Austria and Prussia (1864-66); the Samoan Islands under the United States, Great Britain and Germany (1889-99); and Egypt under Great Britain and France (1879-82). Although the occupation system for Germany after 1945 was occasionally called a condominium, strictly it was not one, for German sovereignty was understood to be only interrupted, not terminated, during the years of government by the United States, Great Britain, France and the Soviet Union. See A. A. El-Erian, Condominium and Related Situations in Inter-

national

Law

(1952).

CONDOR,

a

(N. L. Hl.)

South American vulture (Vultur gryphus), one

of the largest of existing birds of flight, about four feet in length

CONDOR—CONDORCET

279

philosopher and revolutionary, whose ideas of progress greatly influenced 19th-century philosophy and sociology, was bom He was descended at Ribemont, in Picardy, on Sept. 17, 1743. from the ancient family of Caritat, who took their title from Concian,

He was educated at the Jesuit college in dorcet in Dauphine. Reims and at the College de Navarre in Paris, where he showed his In 1769 he became a member of tirst promise as a mathematician. the Academy of Sciences, to which he contributed papers on mathematical and other subjects. He was the friend of almost all the distinguished men of his time and a zealous propagator of the religious and political views then current among French men of letters. He was induced by D'Alembert to take an active part in the preparation of the Encyclopedie.

He was

elected to the perpetual secretaryship of the

1777 and to the French Academy in 1782 and was a member of other European academies. In 1785 he published his Essai sur I'application de I'analyse a la probabilite des decisions rettdues a la pluralite des voix, a remarkable work which has a distinguished place in the history of the doctrine of probabihty; a second edition, greatly enlarged and completely recast, appeared in 1805 under the title of Elemem du calcul des probabilites et son application aux jeux de hasard, a la loterie, In 1786 he married Sophie de et aux jugemens des hommes. Grouchy (i 764-1822; a sister of Emmanuel de Grouchy, the future marshal), said to have been one of the most beautiful women Her salon at the Hotel des Monnaies, where Conof her time.

Academy

CALIFORNIA CONDOR (GYMNOGYPS CALIFORNIANUS) IN FLIGHT

of Sciences in

and nine feet between the tips of its wings, but large specimens span ten feet or more. The head, flattened above, and the neck In the male the head has a caruncle or are devoid of feathers. comb and the skin of the neck forms a wattle. The adult plumage is a uniform black, with the exception of a frill of white feathers nearly surrounding the base of the neck, and patches of white in certain wing feathers. The middle toe is greatly elongated, and the hinder one only slightly developed. The talons are compara-

dorcet lived in his capacity as inspector general of the mint, was one of the most famous of the time.

and blunt. The female, contrary to the usual rule among birds of prey, is smaller than the male. The condor is a native of the Andes, from the Strait of Magellan

elected to represent Paris in the Legislative

tively straight

to latitude 4° N.,

10,000 to 16,000

where

ft.

its

favourite haunts are at elevations of

There, during February and March, on inacit deposits two white eggs, from three to

cessible ledges of rock,

four inches in length, in a nest consisting merely of a few sticks. Incubation lasts for seven weeks, and the young are covered with a whitish

down

They do not

fly

until they are

almost as large as their parents.

well until a year old.

may

attack sheep, goats and deer. morning and evening. When gorged with food, they are sluggish and may then be more readily caught. They sleep during the greater part of the day, and hunters may climb the trees on which they roost, noosing

Condors feed on carrion, but

They

are exceedingly voracious, feeding in the

is remarkably gracefrom the ground, but after attaining a moderate elevation they seem to sail on the air with

them before they wake. ful.

The

In

flight the

condor

birds flap their wings on rising

motionless wings.

The

California condor

(Gymnogyps

California.

spread of ten feet.

It

is found from Monterey bay

calif ornianns)

the coast ranges of southern California

Lower

in

to

has white underwing coverts, with a wingIt is somewhat larger than the condor of

South America, though of less heavy build. (Ht. Fn.) See also Vulture. DEL, one of the eastern ranges about in Ecuador, mostly of the Andes, about 160 mi. long, lying 60 mi. S.E. of Cuenca city. A number of tributaries of the San-

CONDOR, CORDILLERA

and Cenepa rivers rise there. The Cordillera lies close to Ecuador-Peru boundary, a disputed area since colonial days. The Cenepa river, discovered by the U.S. army air force when it was mapping the area, played an important role in the final stages of the border issue, for the 1942 protocol drew the border between the two nations along a presumably uninterrupted water divide. The air force map divulged the interposing (L. We.) Cenepa valley.

tiago

the southeastern

CONDORCET, MARIE JEAN ANTOINE NICOLAS DE CARITAT, Marquis de (1743-1794), French mathemati-

Condorcet published his Vie de M. Turgot in 1786 and his Vie de Voltaire in 1789. Both works were widely and eagerly read and are perhaps, from a purely literary point of view, the best of Condorcet's writings. The outbreak of the Revolution, which he greeted with enthusiasm, involved him in a great deal of political activity. He was its

secretary.

He was

Assembly and became

active in the reform of the educational

He was chief author of the address to the European powers (Dec. 29, 1791); and on April 21 and 22, 1792, he presented a scheme for a system of state education, which was the basis of that ultimately adopted. Condorcet was one of the first to declare for a repuWic and drew up the declaration justifying the suspension of the king and the summoning of the National Convention (Aug. 1792). In the convention he represented the departement of Aisne and was a member of the committee on the constitution. His draft (presented Feb. 15, 1793), however, was rejected in favour of that of the Jacobins. In the trial of Louis XVI he voted against the death penalty. But his independent attitude was becoming dangerous, and his opposition to the arrest of the Girondists (June 1793) led to his condemnation and

system.

outlawry.

To occupy

his

mind while he was

in hiding,

some

of his friends

prevailed on him to engage on the work by which he is best known, the Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrds de I'esprit humain.

Other works were written at the same time, including the Avis d'un p^re proscrit a sa fille. Some of them were published by Still friends at the time and others were issued after his death. interested in public affairs and believing that the house in which he had been hiding was watched, he escaped and, after hiding in thickets and quarries for three days, entered the village of Clamart on the evening of March 27, 1794. His appearance betrayed him, and he was taken to Bourg-la-Reine and imprisoned. On the morning of March 29 he was found dead, whether from exhaustion or

by poison

is

unknown.

Mme

de Condorcet divorced her husband (having obtained his consent) during his proscription and succeeded in regaining possession of the family property, which had been confiscated by Robespierre's government. She lived for a time with J. J. Mailla Garat (nephew of Joseph Garat the ideologue) and later with

Claude Fauriel, the philologist, who outlived

Adam

her.

She translated

Smith's Theory of the Moral Sentiments into French (1798; with her own Huit lettres sur la sympathie appended) and cooperated in editing the complete works of her husband, 21 vol.

;

CONDOTTIERE

28o

meeting place of those opposed to She died in Paris on Sept. 8, Napoleon's autocratic regime.

Her

(1804).

salon was a

A. Condorcet-O'Connor's edition of Condorcet's works, 12 vol. (1847-49). See J. F. E. Robinet, Condorcet, sa vie et son oeuvre (1893) F- Vial, Condorcet et Viducalion dhnocralique (1902) L. Cahen, Condorcet et la Revolution fran^aise (1904) F. Buisson, Condorcet (1929); J. Schapiro, Condorcet and the Rise of Liberalism A. Koyr6, "Condorcet," Journal of the History of Ideas, ix, 2 (19,14) On Mme de Condorcet see A. Guillois, La Marquise de (1948). Condorcet, son salon et ses oeuvres, 2nd ed. (1897) H. Valentino, Madame de Condorcet, ses amis et ses amours (1950) Gilles-Gaston Granger, La Mathimatique sociale du Marquis de Condorcet (1956). (H. B. A.; X.) prefixed to

;

1822.

Philosophy.

— Condorcet's philosophical

the Esquisse, which was

first

;

fame rests chiefly on published posthumously in 1795

(Eng, trans, by June Barraclough, Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind, with an introduction by Its fundamental idea is that of the Stuart Hampshire, 1955). continuous progress of the human race to an ultimate perfection. man as starting from the lowest stage of barbarism represents He with no superiority over the other animals save that of bodily organization and as advancing uninterruptedly at a more or less rapid rate in the path of enlightenment, virtue and happiness. stages which the human race has already gone through, or, other words, the great epochs of history, are regarded as nine number. The first three can confessedly be described only conjecturally from general observations as to the development of

The

in

in

the

human

In the fishers,

faculties

first

and from the analogies of savage

men

epoch,

who acknowledge

in

some degree

claims of family relationship and language. In the second epoch

and along with

it

life.

are united into hordes of hunters and public authority and the

who make

— the pastoral

use of an articulate

—property

state

is

introduced

inequality of conditions and even slavery, but

some of the simpler and to acquire some of the more elementary truths of science. In the third epoch the agricultural state as leisure and wealth are greater, labour better distributed and applied and the means of communication increased and extended, progress is still more rapid. With the invention of alphabetic writing the conjectural part of also leisure to cultivate intelligence, to invent

arts

—

history closes, and the

—

more

or less authenticated part begins.

The fourth and fifth epochs are represented as corresponding to Greece and Rome. The middle ages are divided into two epochs, the former of which terminates with the crusades and the latter with the invention of printing. The eighth epoch extends from the invention of printing to the revolution in the

method

of philo-

sophic thinking accomplished by Descartes. The ninth epoch begins with that great intellectual revolution and ends with the great political and moral revolution of

1789 and is illustrious, according to Condorcet, through the discovery of the true system of the physical universe by Sir Isaac Newton, of human nature

;

;

;

CONDOTTIERE

(plural condottieri), an Italian term for the leader of the mercenary military companies, often several

thousand strong, which were hired out to carry on the wars of the Italian states. The word is often extended so as to include the soldiers as well as the leader of a

The

company.

condottieri played a very important part in Italian history

from the middle of the 13th to the middle of the 15th century. Because of the special political and military circumstances of medieval Italy, and in particular the wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. the condottieri and their leaders played a more conspicuous and important part in history than the "free companies" elsewhere. Among these circumstances the absence of a numerous feudal cavalry, the relative luxury of city life and the incapacity of city militia for wars of aggression were the most prominent. From this it resulted that war was not merely the trade of the condottiere but also his monopoly, and he was thus able to obtain whatever terms he asked, whether money payments or political concessions. These companies were recruited from wandering mercenary bands and individuals of all nations, and from the ranks of the many armies of middle Europe which from time to time overran Italy. Montreal d'Albarno, a gentleman of Provence, was the first to give them a' definite form. A severe discipline and an elaborate organization were introduced within the company itself, while in their relations with the people the most barbaric licence was permitted. Montreal himself was put to death at Rome by

and Conrad Lando succeeded to the command. The Grand Company, as it was called, soon numbered about 7,000

Rienzi,

cavalry and 1,500 select infantry, and w-as for several years the terror of Italy.

On

Its

members seem

to

have been

chiefly

Germans.

the conclusion (1360) of the peace of Bretigny between Eng-

by John Locke and the Abbe de Condillac, and of society by Turgot, Richard Price and Jean Jacques Rousseau. There is an epoch of the future a tenth epoch and the most original part of Condorcet's treatise is that which is devoted to it.

land and France, Sir John Hawkwood led an army of English mercenaries, called the White Company, into Italy, where it took a prominent part in the confused wars of the next 30 years. Toward the end of the century the Italians began to organize armies of the same description. This ended the reign of the

After insisting that general laws regulative of the past warrant general inferences as to the future, he argues that the three tend-

purely mercenary company and began that of the seminational mercenary army which endured in Europe till replaced by the

—

—

encies which the entire history of the past acteristic

features

of

the

future are:

(i)

shows the

will be chardestruction of

inequaUty between nations; (2) the destruction of inequality between classes; and (3) the improvement of individuals, the indefinite perfectibility of human nature itself intellectually, morally and physically. The equality to which he represents nations and individuals as tending is not absolute equality but equality of freedom and of rights. Nations and men, he thinks, are equal if equally free and are all tending to equality because all are tending to freedom. As to indefinite perfectibility, he nowhere denies that progress is conditioned both by the constitution of humanity and by the character of its surroundings. But he affirms that these conditions are compatible with endless progress and that the human mind can assign no fixed limits to its own advancement in knowledge and virtue or even to the prolongation of bodily life. This theory explains the importance that he attached to popular education, to which he looked for all sure progress. The book is notable for

—

intense aversion to all religion, especially Christianity, and to monarchy. Pervaded by a spirit of excessive hopefulness, it contains numerous errors of detail, due to the circumstances in which it was written. Its value lies in its general ideas. Condorcet's ethical position gives emphasis to the sympathetic impulses and social feelings and had considerable influence upon Auguste Comte. Bibliography. A Biographic de Condorcet, by M. F. Arago, is its

—

army system. company of importance raised on the new basis was by Alberigo, count of Barbiano,

national standing

The

first

that of St. George, originated

many

of

whose subordinates and pupils conquered

principalities

Shortly after, the organization of these mercenary armies was carried to the highest perfection by Muzio Attendolo Sforza, condottiere in the service of Naples, who had been a peasant of the Romagna, and by his rival Brancaccio di Montone in the service of Florence. The army and the renown of Sforza for themselves.

were inherited by his son Francesco Sforza, who became duke of Milan (1450). Less fortunate was another great condottiere, Carmagnola, who first served one of the Visconti and then conducted the wars of Venice against his former masters, but at last awoke the suspicion of the Venetian oligarchy and was put to death before the palace of St. Mark (1432). Toward the end of the 15th century, when the large cities had gradually, swallowed up the small states and Italy itself was drawn into the general current of European politics and became the battlefield of powerful armies French, Spanish and German the condottieri, who proved unequal to the gendarmery of France and the improved Italian troops, disap-

—

—

peared.

The soldiers of the condottieri were almost entirely hea\'y armoured cavalry (men-at-arms). They had, at any rate before 1400, nothing in

common

with the people

among whom

they

-

CONDUCTING fought, and their disorderly conduct and rapacity seem often to have exceeded that of other medieval armies. They were always ready to change sides at the prospect of higher pay. They were connected with each other by the interest of a common profession and by the possibility that the enemy of today might be Further, a prisoner the friend and fellow soldier of tomorrow. was always more valuable than a dead enemy. In consequence of bloodless as they were theatrical their battles were often as this all and skilful, and splendidly equipped armies were known to fight for hours with hardly the loss of a man. In the musical context, conducting is the art of controlling a group of performers in the execution and interpretation of a musical composition, principally by means of silent and partially codified gestures. These gestures indicate the rhythm and bar-shape (phrasing) of the music, the direction of the beat making immediately apparent to the musicians the number of pulses (beats) to the measure. These beats are normally given by a slender baton held in the conductor's right hand, the left being largely reserved for expres-

CONDUCTING.

nuances, entries of the different parts and other subtleties Some conductors, especially in the United States, have, however, developed a technique that dispenses with sion,

interpretation.

of

This has long been the more usual style in unaccoma baton. panied choral conducting where the fact that the number of different parts is limited (each singer, moreover, having a full score of the music) enables the conductor to dispense with many of the formalities of gesture that may be indispensable in a complicated orchestral texture.

—The

art of conducting has been pursued in a highly form only since the early 19th century, though its The earliest positive origins are undoubtedly of great antiquity. records of such external control are of the 15th-century custom within the Sistine choir in Rome of beating the pulse of the music with a roll of paper. This practice, whether with paper or with a lengthy pole or baton, seems to have continued and even to have been much abused to the point of becoming grossly audible during actual performance. By the time of Bach and Handel it had become established tradition, especially in Germany, that a composer be appointed to court or chapel who would not only write the music required but be personally in charge of all performances. The act of presiding would generally be carried out by the Kapellmeister seated at the organ or harpsichord. This custom was also widely accepted in other countries not only for resident but also for visiting musicians, and it was from the keyboard that Haydn directed the performances of his symphonies at the "Salomon" concerts in London in 1791 and 1794.

Origins.

specialized

In Paris, with its particular requirements for the Opera, the evolution of the conductor passed from the time thumpers to the concertmaster (or leader, as he has always been called in Great Britain),

who

controlled the proceedings as best he could from

This custom was also adopted in opera houses though the leader might be responsible only for the orchestra, the singers coming under the jurisdiction of the maestro al cembalo, who would probably be seated in the Such divided control led on midst of the orchestral musicians. the in

first

violin desk.

Germany and

Italy,

many

occasions to confusion and doubtless precipitated the rise of the conductor who, alone among the performers, made no sound whatever and whose direction was necessary for the more complicated scores of the middle decades of the 19th century.

The Modern Conductor.

—

Johann Stamitz and Gasparo Sponhad already been responsible for a distinct improvement in the standard of performance. With composer-conductors from Berlioz, Weber and Spohr to Mendelssohn and Wagner following closely upon their heels, the musical scene was quickly transformed. If Berlioz may be regarded as the father figure of modern conducting, it is Wagner and the school of dominating personalities who followed his inspired example of imaginative gesture and control who are the first important conductors in the 20th-century

tini

sense of the term.

Hans von

Bijlow,

Hermann

Levi,

Hans

Richter,

Felix Weingartner were the pioneers of a new tradition in the art of orchestral training to a degree of finesse and sensitivity hitherto undreamed of, and in the exercise Felix Mottl, Karl

Muck and

2»I

of comprehensive direction vested in a single controller. As the conductor found his power and prestige rising, so his opportunities grew for influencing the musical taste of the time,

and even of changing the course of musical history. position of undisputed authority at the

Mendelssohn's

Gewandhaus

in Leipzig

enabled him to inaugurate a revival of the music of Bach, and conductors were also able to play an important part in the promoIn his tion and commissioning of contemporary compositions. earlier days as a resident German conductor, Richard Strauss did admirable work in the championing of music by his younger contemporaries such as Engelbert Humperdinck and Gustav Mahler. The concerts in Berlin promoted and conducted by Ferruccio Busoni at the beginning of the 20th century were of paramount importance in their presentation for the first time of works by Debussy, Bartok, Sibelius, Elgar, Delius and Nielsen, The name of Serge Koussevitzky stands as an example of enlightened autocracy in this respect during his term as conductor of the Boston Symphony orchestra, his patronage extending at one time to the Hermann creation of a publishing house bearing his name. Scherchen similarly inaugurated an edition devoted to the publication of

contemporary music. set and made possible by the baton-wield-

As the new standards

ing conductors influenced the course of musical composition, so in

turn the new music made the tasks of the conductor enormously more varied and specialized. Moreover, apart from the already its

wide difference of organization and control required in the opera house and the concert hall (the latter now entailing expert flexibility in following the freedom of the modern virtuoso soloist), new factors arose, born of the changes in musical life all over Recording, radio technique, ballet, television opera, the world. the fitting of music to films, and above all the wide variety of styles provided by the more extreme schools of modem composition on the one hand and the music of earlier periods on the other all these and (the latter often entailing much scholarly research) other tasks of musical direction may enter the conductor's province, requiring specialized knowledge, a thorough understanding of the music and of those who are playing under him, and a highly developed stick technique. During the years immediately preceding, and between. World Wars I and II the figure of the international conductor was exalted This was in some measure due to the to a remarkable extent. dynamic personalities of many of the men who rose to unprecedented heights in this most far-reaching and demanding of musical Mahler and Arturo Toscanini, for example, became careers.

—

legends for their tyrannical demands in the relentless search for the highest artistic standards. It was Toscanini who initiated the vogue for conducting from memory, an accomplishment which poor eyesight led him to develop. The undeniably impressive feat of handling a large body of performers in an intricate work entirely without a score has, howThis is part of a ever, since been exploited for its own sake.

tendency to throw a spotlight on the conductor as a glamorous figure per se, and considerable controversy has arisen as to the visual part played by the conductor in performance that is to say, whether he should be demonstrative (thus portraying his reactions to the music to both orchestra and audience in a way which can, at best, enhance greatly the impact of the music) or extremely reserved in manner and gesture lest his antics interfere with the listener's enjoyment and reception. One thing seems certain there can be no return to a conductorThe interaction upon each other of conductor and less orchestra. composer has been so great over more than a century that it is impossible to consider performances of the majority of the reperEven if the desiratoire that are not controlled by a single mind. bility of a unifying interpreter be not accepted, it is doubtful whether a performance without a central figure who knows intimately and can control the various parts of the score would be The experiment has occasionally been a practical possibility. tried, but has resulted only in the revival of the old role of the ;

:

concertmaster. is one of the most important facets of the conducjob and, certainly as far as the performers are concerned,

Rehearsing tor's

CONDUCTIVITY—CONE

282 the one in which he

is

most

likely to reveal his true potential.

and were named "acute-,

produced. It has often been justly said that the truly great conductors have been men of wide learning and culture. Yet these qualities may not suffice to command a tough body of orchestral players unless they are accompanied by a powerful personality that arouses respect and maintains discipline. This strikes at the root of the conductor's position. Occasionally child prodigies appear and impress orchestras and public alike with their knowledge and ability. Yet this is paradoxical since to lead a body of professional musicians in a performance of great music requires a maturity that can only be acquired through many years of learning and experience of the world. It is possible that the days of the "personality" conductor are numbered; but the position itself, complicated and

tion, called also

influential as

it

is,

seems indispensable.

—

Bibliography. H. Berlioz, Le Chef d'Orchestre (1848) W. BraithThe Conductor's Art (1952); A. Carse, The Orchestra From Beethoven to Berlioz (1948); F. Goldbeck, The Perfect Conductor (1951); N. Malko, The Conductor and His Baton (1950); H. ScherR. Wagner, chen, Handbook of Conducting (1933, Eng. trans. 1953) Vber das Dirigieren (1869, Eng. trans. 1887) F. Weingartner, On Conducting (Eng. trans, by E. Newman, 1925); Henry J. Wood, About Conducting (1945); A. Boult, Handbook of Conducting (1921). (N. R. D. M.)

Menaechmus double mean

(i.e.,

an element,

(c.

350

CONDUCTIVITY,

in heat, is the

Archimedes (287-212 B.C.), who showed that a cone, hemisphere and cylinder, all of the same base and height (fig. 2) have volumes respectively as

and

it

is

the reciprocal of the resistivity (see

Electricity, Conduction of: Conduction in Solids). In sound the conductivity of the orifice or neck of a resonator is the ratio See also of the area to the length of the orifice (see Sound). references under "Conductivity" in the Index volume.

CONDUCTUS,

employed

a term

in the 12th

turies for a musical setting of a Latin metrical

and 13th cen-

poem

of the cone It 2.

OF

reproductive structure, also called strobilus, characteristic of the pines and other conifers and the club -mosses and horsetails. See Conifers; Horsetail; Lycothe

PODIUM.

CONE, in its earliest geometric use, denoted the solid space swept over by a right triangle rotating about one side (altitude or axis, a), the other side (base, r) tracing out the circular base of the cone, and the hypotenuse (slant height, s

)

its

curved surface, the vertex

of triangle and cone being the

Cones and Conies.

— At

same

first

V

(fig. 1).

the size of

the vertical angle of such a right-circular

cone (twice that of the triangle) appeared important, and hence such cones were divided into three classes according to shape,

fig.

i.

— RrGHi-ciRcuLAR

cone and

its

elements

a relation holding

is

is

is

one-third that of the cylin-

the product of base and height.

radius.

Equation.

being

clear that the curved surface of a

all

slit

AND

CYLINDER CONE. HEMISPHERE

— In

analytic geometry the equation of the rightby rotating the line y = mx around the y axis

circular cone traced is

y2

= m^(x^

+ z^).

(of the line) rotates

unchanged, as does

botany,

—

right-circular cone

— RELATION

fixed ratio of these

in

3

may be thought of as along any element and then flattened out on a plane (tangent along the opposite element) into a circular sector; hence the curved surface equals in area the sector area; i.e., the half-product of base-circumference as arc and slant height as FIG.

for one,

Ungulate.

which

der,

two or three voices. It is applied (in the form condiictum in the Codex Calixtinus, c. 1130) to pieces that accompanied the reader of a lesson as he walked to the lectern; and in liturgical plays at Sens (Conductus ad tabidam for the Carnival of the Ass) and Beauvais (e.g., Conductus Danielis venientis ad Regem), to pieces accompanying processions. In church use the term was soon transferred to the tropes of and substitutes for the Benedicavius Domino at the end of the offices, a genre of composition that flourished in the Notre Dame school of the late 12th and early 1 3th centuries. Unlike the medieval motet, which arose about 1225, the polyphonic conductus was an original composition not based on a pre-existing tenor and was composed with uniform rhvthm in the parts, all of which sang the same text. (F. L. Ha.) CONDUIT: see Aqueduct; Cable, Electric. any of several small, primitive, hoofed mammals comprising the extinct order Condylarthra. See

CONDYLARTH,

1, 2,

any type of cone and cylinder. If they have equal bases and heights, the volume for

quantity of heat passing

per second through a slab of unit cross-sectional area when the temperature gradient between the two faces is unity (see Heat: Conduction of Heat in Solids ; Conduction in Gases and Liquids). Electrical conductivity is the current or the quantity of electricity passing per second through a similar slab when the potential

CONE,

that

—

;

unity,

It is said

a:x = x:y — y.b, differentiated between three corresponding types of conic sections, afterward named, respectively, ellipse, parabola and hyperbola. It was the "great geometer," ApoUonius, born at Perga in Pamphylia (fl. c. 225 B.C.), student in the Euclid school of Alexandria, who perceived and showed that the type of cone was indifferent. Apollonius proved that any plane section of any circular cone, parallel to an element, yielded a parabola, and that other sections yielded either an ellipse or hyperbola. Volume and Area. The conception of a cone as a solid called for the measurement of its volume, a fact enunciated first by the philosopher Democritus (5th—^th century B.C.), proved by Eudoxus of Cnidus (c. 400-c. 347 B.C.), and later completed by

;

is

of the surface).

e,

B.C.), in striving to construct the so-called

proportional,

;

waite,

gradient

natural posi-

seemed to be perpendicular the hypotenuse or generatrix in any posi-

tion of a plane cutting through a cone to the slant height

The

right-, obtuse-angled."

Here he naturally does not maintain silence since he must issue instructions and explain and even imitate the effect he wishes

This simply means that, as any point P axis, its y-co-ordinate remains

around the y

its

distance

V*^

—

+ ^^

^ro"^ '^e

y

axis,

and the

m. The circular cone was

two lengths

Oblique Cone. by ApoUonius more

defined

is

generally as

the surface (or its enclosed volume) traced by a right line passing through a fixed point

(vertex) and gliding along a fixed circle. line through this vertex

The perpendicular and the centre of this axis

is

this circle

is

the axis;

at right angles to the

if

base (the

plane of the circle), the cone is right; otherwise, it is oblique, in which case the vertical angle is not of constant size. Any plane containing the axis cuts the solid in such a vertical angle, and the surface in

The sides (elements of the cone). plane that contains the axis and is perpendicular to the base of the cone forms the "principal section"; any plane perpendicits

ular to

it

FIG.

3.

—CYCLIC

and inclined equally but inversely (with the base)

PLANES to the

generator-elements is called a "subcontrary section." This section cuts the cone in a circle, as do all planes parallel to it or to the base: all such planes are called "cyclic planes" (fig. 3). The Cone as a Surface. It was natural to regard and define the solid first rather than the bounding curved surface, and hence the early Greek achievements were largely in stereometry. It was only very gradually that it came to be felt that the surface alone possessed peculiar properties, the enclosed space being indifferent. There resulted a change in definition and treatment from three to two dimensions. From this new point of view the cone concept underwent a broad generalization, the term now designating any

—

path of (or surface traced by) a straight line (the generatrix, g) that passes always through a fixed point V. This path, to be definite, is directed h\ some curve (the directrix, D), along which the Thus, in the right-circular cone of line always glides (fig. 4).

—

—

CONEFLOWER—CONEY fig.

1,

D

is

plane

the circle bounding the cone's

moving end of the In the oblique circular cone, D is still a circle, but is no longer traced by one certain point of the line g. If D is a conic (e.g., an ellipse) the siirface If a fixed direcis called a "quadric cone." base, the track of the

hypotenuse

(s).

tion (or line called the axis)

is

assumed as mo-

passing through the fixed vertex V, the

tion of the tracing line g might be directed ONE AS A SURby ordered variation in the vertical angle ""'^ FACE DESCRIPTION a between the fixed and the moving line In the most important case, the right-circular cone, this variation is the simplest possible: the vertical angle is constant; the two lines are rigidly joined at V; and the generatrix swings freely around the axis (which may be thought of as turning in itself). Tangency. Such seems to be the simplest and most vivid conception of the right-circular cone; the two halves meeting at V and extending oppositely without end are called nappes or If slit throughout along an element, and rolled out (desheets. veloped) on the plane tangent along the opposite element, the nappes would appear as centrally symmetric sectors of an infinite

—

about V as centre. Any plane tangent to a cone passes through V and touches the cone along some element throughout. All such planes would touch the whole cone surface and would envelop it completely. The tangent plane at any given point of the surface (except V) is quite definite, but at V this definiteness disappears. All tangent planes pass alike through V. Intersection. The phenomenon of the intersection of a cone circle

—

with other surfaces belongs to constructive geometry, where it is developed and applied. Its importance may be presumed from the fact that central projection is conelike, the lines of projection issuing like rays of light from a point, the vertex of the cone. An interesting special case is the spheroconic, the intersection of any quadric cone with a sphere about the vertex of the cone as centre. Truncation. In measurement, the word frustum (fig. 5) is

—

encountered, especially in connection with the right-circular cone. Frustum, meaning piece, denotes a truncated cone, or the portion

between the base and a cutting plane of computation was apparently first proposed with respect to truncated pyramids, in Egypt. Indeed, one of the earliest extant computations of volume is Egyptian and relates to such a figure. Much later, in the of a cone (viewed as a solid)

The problem

generally parallel thereto.

Stereometrica of the encyclopaedic Hero of Alexandria (c. a.d. SO? or as late as a.d. 200?), the volume is calculated for, a pyramid frustum on a square base (100), with the top section a square (4) and the oblique edge 9; the height is found to be 7, which, when multiplied by

— ) + y V -—2\2l

2\2 f/lO-l(^

1

/lO

2

/

'

^'^^^

^*^^-

This

a correct result as may be seen by the now well-known rule or formula, viz., one-third the product of height by the sum of the bases and their geometric mean. But in a second example the

is

sides of the square (base slant edge as 15,

which

is

and top) are given as 28 and 4, and the impossible, since even the projection of

any such slant on the base plane would be

\/].2'^

+

12- or \/288,

is more than 15 = ^/22S. Accordingly, the reckoner, in applying his method, of which the foregoing rule is the resultant

which

formula, meets with \/~63, which he treats as \/63. Whether or not this is the work of Hero, it is notable as the oldest-known

appearance of the so-called "imaginary," the square root of a negative number. The rule or formula used above holds for all such frustums of cones and pyramids. It was used much later by the leading Hindu /^y mathematician Brahmagupta (c. 628) in ^ The surhis Brahma-sphiita-siddhanta. face area of such a frustum is plainly the difference between the areas of two circular sectors (AVB and FVR) of the same angle and centre, into which the cone and -SURFACE OF the top could be rolled out on a tangent

^/

\

(fig.

283

Hero recommends

5).

methods for

similar practical

measuring other surfaces, such as wrapping the solid in a thin cover and then spreading this out. If the vertex of the right-circular cone retires indefinitely along the axis, the cone passes over into a cylinder {q.v.) or cylindric surface, and the frustum becomes an ordinary (right-circular) cylinder, its volume the product of base and altitude, and its curved surface area the product of the circle of the base by the altitude. This limiting case of the cone frustum is of course much simpler than the general case. See also Analytic Geometry; Conic Section; Surface. (W. B. Sm.) the popular name given in North America to species of Rudbeckia and other closely related genera of the family Compositae, many of which are cultivated as ornamen-

CONEFLOWER,

tals. The large, solitary flower heads, often four inches or more across, consist of a cone-shaped central portion of disk florets sur-

rounded by numerous brightly coloured ray

florets.

A

striking

example is the purple coneflower {Echinacea purpurea), called also red sunflower and black Sampson, native to the central United States. It is a coarse, stout perennial herb, two feet to five

feet

high,

bearing

lance-

shaped leaves and long leafless flower stalks each ending in a single head, sometimes five inches across, with a purplish centre and purple or crimson rays. Rud- purple coneflower (echinacea beckia calijornica of the western purpurea) U.S. is a rough-hairy, unbranched perennial, its solitary, yellow flower heads nearly five inches across. Cultivated species are easily grown in any garden soil in full sunlight. See Black-eyed Susan; Golden Glow. (N. Tr.) CONEGLIANO, a town in the Treviso province of the Veneto region, Italy, is near the Piave river, 26 km. (16 mi.) N. of Treviso by road. Pop. (1957 est.) 20,405 (commune). Conegliano is situated on a hillside and dominated by a large castle; there is much new building along the old perimeter of the town. It was the birthplace of the painter Giovanni Battista Cima a fine altar;

A railway runs to (1493). Treviso, Vittorio Veneto and Udine. The town is noted for its wines and for its Venetian cooking and a national school of viticulture is located there. In World War I Conegliano was in Austrian piece

by him

is

in

the cathedral

hands from Nov. 1917 to Oct. 1918. CONESTOGA, an extinct tribe of North American Indians of Iroquoian stock. Their country was Pennsylvania and Maryland on the lower Susquehanna river and at the head of Chesapeake bay. They were sometimes known as the Susquehanna. See also Iroquois. ISLAND, a popular seaside resort in the southern part of the borough of Brooklyn, New York city. It was formerly an island separated from the mainland by Gravesend bay, Sheepshead bay. Coney Island creek and a broad stretch of salt marshes much of which has been filled in, so that the area is actually no longer an island. Coney Island, about 5 mi. in length and from \ mi. to 1 mi. in width, is the westernmost of a chain of outlying sandbars that extend along the southern shore of Long Island for about 100 mi. It can be reached by subway, parkways and boat. Coney Island is one of the best known amusement resorts in the U.S. and frequently during the hot summer days over 1,000,000 people jam its sandy beaches and amusement parks. The bathing beaches stretch for 2\ mi. and are bordered by an 80-ft.-wide boardwalk. To accommodate the huge crowds large parking areas and municipally owned bathing facilities have been constructed. Several amusement centres have been developed with carousels, exhibitions, dancing, concerts, freak shows, roller coasters, penny

CONEY

arcades, assorted

game

booths, Ferris wheels, shooting galleries.

CONFECTIONERY

284

souvenir shops and hundreds of eating places. Coney Island is also a popular all-year residential community. At the extreme western end is the district known as Sea Gate, an exclusive residential section which became an all-year community with the natural influx of summer residents. A $1 23,000,000 housing project occupies the site of Luna park. In 1956 the Brooklyn Public library opened a new branch on Mermaid avenue. An aquarium, under the administration of the New York Zoological society, was built at Coney Island in the late 1950s. (D. L. D.)

CONFECTIONERY MANUFACTURE.

For centuries has devoted time and effort to perfecting the skills of confectionery manufacture, the art of properly blending various agri-

man

products into an attractive, palatable food known as candy. Written and pictorial records of candy were left by the Egyptians and from these it is learned that early candymakers used honey as a sweetener, sugar being unknown, and added figs, dates, nuts and spices. The sweets were shaped in rough, crudely shaped molds and were highly coloured to attract attention. There is little reference to the manufacturing of candy until about the middle of the 14th century, when sugar shipped into Venice was used for making confections. It was not until the cultiv.Ttion of sugar cane spread throughout the world and the refining of sugar was developed that the confectionery industry began to grow. Prior to this time, a rt)nfection was an item sold or dispensed only by pharmacists and spice stores. By the 16th century confectioners were making many kinds of sweetmeats and candy by molding sugar, nuts and fruits of various kinds into fanciful forms. In those days, only hand methods were employed. The few utensils and appliances used were primitive and crude. They were used principally in cooking or boiling the sugar and molding or shaping the candies. Not until, the latter part of the 18th century was there any notable development in the invention of candy machinery. The 20th century saw the development of confectionery manufacture to a world-wide annual production totaling thousands of millions of pounds. Candy Ingredients. More than 77 agricultural products are used in making candy; they include sugar, corn products, chocolate, eggs, fruits, nuts, butter, milk and cream. The main ingredients used for manufacturing candy are cane and beet sugars combined with other carbohydrate foods such as corn sirup, corn sugar, cornstarch, honey, molasses and maple sugar. To the sweet base are added chocolate, fruits, nuts and peanuts, eggs, milk products, flavours and colours. In food value, candy is a concentrated source of food energy; milk, fruits and nuts, where used, supply additional nutritive value. Classifications of Candy. There are more than 2,000 different kinds of candy, but these all faU into a few general classes. cultural

—

—

—

Hard Candy. The simplest forms of candy are the hard made mainly from sugar and corn sirup and characterized their hard brittle texture. The ingredients are cooked to a

candies,

by

candy sirup, which is flavoured, coloured and formed into various shapes. Typical hard candies are lemon drops and the various intricately designed solid and filled Christmas candies. After-dinner mints, peanut brittle and taffy are conpractically moisture-free

sidered hard candies.

—

Lozenges. Lozenges and pressed tablets are made from powdered sugar with flavours, colours, natural gums and gelatin added. These ingredients are kneaded into a dough that is compressed and stamped by machine.

—

Caramel and Toffee. Caramels depend on large amounts of milk for their typical texture. The other ingredients are sugar, corn sirup and fat, which are cooked until the desired degrees of caramelization and texture have been attained. The most popular flavours are vanilla and chocolate. Toffee is highly cooked or hard caramel. Cream or Fondant CaHdies and Fudges. Cream or fondant candies are made by kneading the cooled mass of a highly cooked sirup that consists principally of sugar with a small amount of corn sirup. Fruits, nuts, flavours and colours are added to make the variety of creams found in boxed chocolates. When the fondant cream has been prepared, it is extruded through a die and

—

cut to the desired size, or

it is

molded

in starch

by the following

process: trays are

filled

with food starch, then imprinted with

molds of whatever shape is desired. Fondant cream is deposited in the imprints and allowed to set. When set, the centres are taken from the trays and cleaned of any starch that might adhere.

They

are then ready for dipping, crystallizing or glazing. Candy corn seen during the Halloween season is typical of the glazed hard cream or fondant candy. Another variety is the French cream, which has a sugar-crystal jacket formed by immersing the

fondant centre in a saturated sugar solution. Fudge, which contains milk, cream and edible fats in addition to sugar and corn sirup, is characterized by its smooth creamy texture.

Flavours, colours, nuts, peanuts, fruit

are added to give variety.

Candy

Jellies or

Gums.

—Candy

jellies

or

gums

and chocolate are

made

with

and a jellying agent such as starch, pectin, natural gums or gelatin. They are characterized by their jellylike consistency, varying from a soft and tender to a hard gummy texture. Candy orange slices or soft gumdrops are typical of the softtextured starch jelly, while the familiar jujube is an example of the hard-textured gum. Marshmallows. This familiar confection is made by whipping a combination of sugar, corn sirup, gelatin or egg whites or both, and flavours. It is characterized by its light, fluffy texture. The soft tender form is the popular sugar-dusted, white marshmallow, and the grained types are the circus peanuts, marshmallow bananas and the panned marshmallow eggs seen at Eastertime. Marshmallow candies are cast in starch in the same way as creams or some varieties are extruded and cut to size. Nougats. Nougats are aerated chewy candies made by adding a highly cooked candy sirup (made with sugar and corn sirup) to a frappe or whip, which is formed by whipping a solution of egg whites or gelatin or both. Vegetable fats are added to impart chewiness, and variety is given by adding fruits, nuts, honey and sugar, corn sirup

—

—

the like.

— —

Licorice. Licorice candies are made with flour, molasses, sugar and corn sirup and flavoured with licorice extract. Chocolate. The common chocolate coatings are bittersweet chocolate, sweet chocolate, milk chocolate, skim milk and buttermilk chocolate and imitation chocolate (summer coatings). These chocolates are used for coating other candies and also for manufacturing bars, plain chocolate and with a mixture of peanuts and other nut meats. Coatings are made by grinding roasted cocoa

beans with sugars, cocoa butter, dried powdered-milk products and flavours to give the smooth texture associated with chocolates. {See Cocoa: Manufacture and Uses.) Coated Candies. Coated candies are usually a combination of one of the above basic candies and a special coating of chocolate, Packaged chocolates are comfondant, icing, coconut or nuts. posed of a variety of types of chocolate-coated candies. have hard, glossy jacket are called panned Coated candies that a candies and may be either sugar-coated or chocolate-coated. Sugar-coated panned candies, which are typified by jelly beans, Jordan almonds and French burnt peanuts, are produced by placing centres and a specific amount of sugar sirup in huge revolving pans similar in shape to barrels. Coating and polishing are accomplished by the continuous revolving action of the pans. Chocolate-panned caramels, nuts and peanuts, raisins and maltedmilk balls are coated in the same manner by substituting a chocolate coating for the sugar sirup. Candy Bars. Because of their tremendous popularity, candy bars require a separate classification and can be defined as individually wrapped candies usually selling in the U.S. for five and ten cents. The three most popular types are (1) plain chocolate with or without nuts; (2) chocolate-coated simple and compound centres such as nut rolls (fudge centre rolled in caramel and nuts, then chocolate-coated), nougat-caramel combination and hard candy-peanut butter combination and (3) nonchocolate-coated (solid nut bars, caramel, toffee, fudges, etc.). The possible com-

—

—

binations for candy bars are practically endless.

—

Specialties. These, some classifiable under headings given above, are of interest though representing a small percentage of candy manufactured. They include cotton candy or spun sugar,

CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA ),

popular with children at circuses and amusement parks; "message" candies, which are lozenges pressed in heart and flower shapes with messages printed on them; candies simulating other food items, such as bacon and eggs; in the Rocky mountain area, candies simulating pebbles; pecan pralines, common particularly in the southern U.S. and cinnamon drops or hearts, sometimes called a specialty but regarded by some as a standard household item for decorating cakes and flavouring baked apples. {See also Chewing Gum.) The Industry in the U.S. The U.S. department of commerce, with financial support from the National Confectioners association, publishes an annual report entitled "Confectionery Sales and Distribution" that gives statistics covering more than 90% of the industry excluding chewing gum. By the end of the 1950s this report showed annual sales values (at the manufacturers' level) Per of $1,150,000,000, the highest recorded up to that time. capita consumption in the U.S. reached a high of 20.5 lb. during 1944 as a result of government purchases for military rations and resale. Consumption fell to a low of 15.5 lb. in 1955 and rose ;

—

The mass continuously to 16.S lb. at the start of the 1960s. producers of candy (manufacturers-wholesalers) are concentrated weight basis Illinois produced On a 39.3%, New in five states.

New Jersey 17.7%, Pennsylvania 8.9% and California 4.8%, for a total of 70.7%. Types of candy produced on a quantity basis were chocolate-coated bars 14.8%, other bars 17.1%, other five- and ten-cent specialties 9.6%, package goods retailing above 50 cents per pound 13.4%, less than 50 cents per pound 23.1% and bulk goods 21.0%. Sales Outlets. Confectionery manufacturers in the early 1960s made their products available to the consumer in more reConfectionery tail outlets than did producers of any other food. was available through vending machines located in many convenand in several plants, newsstands, ient places including industrial hundred thousand food stores, department stores and candy An estimated 20% to 30% of sales was through grocery stores. York and

—

.

stores.

For information about

homemade

candies see Food Prepara-

tion: Confections. Bibliography. P. P. Gott and L. F. Van Houten, All About Candy and Chocolate (1958) S. I. Leon, Encyclopedia of Candy and IceCream Making (1959); E, G. Booker, Sweets That Have Tempted Me (1959) Skuse's Complete Confectioner, 13th ed. (1957) A. H. Austin, The Romance of Candy (1938); W. L. Richmond, Candy Production (P. P. Gt.; R. T. M.) Methods and Formulas (194S).

—

;

;

;

'

CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA, of the independent

government formed by the southern

the

name

states that

seceded from the Union in 1860 and the early part of 1861. {See also American Civil War; South, The; United States [of America]; History.) For a quarter of a century before 1860 there had been developing a steadily increasing bitterness between

and southern sections of the United States, growing

the northern

out of economic, social and political differences; and out of these I

'•

had arisen a disagreement on the meaning of important parts of the federal constitution. The South was largely an agricultural region producing cotton, sugar and tobacco; the North, though also an agricultural section, had developed more along industrial and commercial lines than had the South. From the settlement of the colonies, slavery had been an important factor in the development of agriculture in the South and with the increase of the Negro population it had come to be looked upon by slaveholders as well as nonslaveholders as a method of solving the race problem. After the American Revolution, the North gave up slavery as uneconomical, and by the 1830s a movement had sprung up there to abolish slavery in the South. (See Abolition Movement.) This opposition to slavery lay at the bottom of the sectional bitterness. The protective tariff also entered into the disputes, for it aided northern industries, increased the prices paid by southerners for goods they purchased and yet gave no protecdifferences there

As a move toward supNorth sought to prevent its spread into the while the South declared it had a constitutional right

tion to the South's agricultural products.

pressing slavery, the territories,

—The sectional dispute

that both Lincoln

came

to

head

in

1860 when

elected president.

285 The southern

states held

and the Republican party threatened

their con-

and way economic existence. For a decade and more, important southern leaders had argued that secession might be their only protection; and the time for it seemed to be at hand. South Carolina began the process by withdrawing from the Union on Dec. 20, 1860. The movement quickly spread to Georgia and the states bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, and before the end of Jan. 1861 all had seceded except Texas, which withdrew on Feb. 1. The other slave states in the upper South and on the border were greatly agitated but they hesitated to secede for the time. But when on April 12, 1861, the southerners fired on Ft. Sumter, in Charleston harbour, and when war seemed evident by President Lincoln's call on the states then in the Union for troops to enforce the laws of the land, another wave of secession was set going. During April and May all of the states of the upper South withdrew, Virginia (April 17), Arkansas (May 6), Tennessee (May 7) and North Carolina (May 20). The border slave states became greatly excited, and there were strong secession movements in Maryland, Kentucky and Missouri. In Kentucky a meeting of delegates declared that state out of the Union, and in Missouri a fragment of the legislature passed a secession ordinance. The Confederacy admitted Kentucky and Missouri as states to make up the magical 13, but the action of both states was irregular. The other 1 1 states that composed the Confederacy had all been carried out of the Union by conventions elected by the people, except Tennessee, where the full legislature acted. And all except Tennessee had asserted their constitutional right to secede; Tennessee based its withdrawal on the right of revolution. Confederate States Government Organized. For many years some southerners had dreamed of a southern nation, and stitutional rights in the Union, their social institutions

of life

and

their

—

with six states in secession, they decided to bind these states into new nation. It was necessary to make haste without waiting for

a

the upper South to follow, for Abraham Lincoln would be inaugurated on March 4, 1861, and it was feared that he might take stern action immediately. So it was arranged for delegates from these six states (to be joined later by those from Texas) to meet in Montgomery, Ala., on Feb. 4. This convention, presided over by Howell Cobb of Georgia, immediately began to frame a document setting up the new government. Four days later it adopted unanimously the provisional constitution of the Confederate States of America, which was to serve until a permanent constitution could be written. This document was rudimentary, and its chief purpose was to provide the framework of a central government. It called for a president and a vice-president to be elected by the states (each state having one vote) a supreme court composed of the district judges; a congress of one house (the existing convention to continue as that body) the capital to be at Montgomery until congress should change it and the government thus established to continue for only one year. The leaders were anxious that there should appear to be no factions in this convention. After various conferences they chose Jefferson Davis {g.v.} of Mississippi for president and Alexander H. Stephens {q.v.) of Georgia for vice-president. Davis, who was not a member of the convention and who had no desire for the presidency, set out immediately from his Mississippi home and was inaugurated on Feb. 18, after a grand procession with a band playing ;

;

;

"Dixie" marched up the hill to the Alabama state capitol. In selecting his cabinet. President Davis was careful to see that all of the seven states (except Mississippi, which held the presidency) were recognized. Christopher G. Memminger of South Carolina became secretary of the treasury; Robert Toombs of Georgia, secretary of state; Stephen R. Mallory of Florida, secretary of the navy; Leroy P. Walker of Alabama, secretary of war; Judah P. Benjamin of Louisiana, attorney general; and John H. Reagan of Texas, postmaster general. During the four years of the Confederacy, there were various changes in the personnel of the cabinet; but three served throughout the whole period. Benjamin, one of the ablest men in the Confederacy, was first

war department and finally to the state department Mallory, who was bitterly criticized during the war and for transferred to the

to take its slaves there.

Secession.^

Abraham Lincoln was

;

CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA

286

on Feb. 22, 1862, on a bleak, sombre occasion as the president looked out on and read his address. It was a great contrast to the balmy day in Alabama when he was first inaugurated. Already the superstitious were thinking that here was a harbinger tion took place in the Virginia capital

years afterward but came to be recognized as an able administrator, continued in the nav>' department; and Reagan, a stanch supporter of Davis, administered the post office throughout the

a sea of black umbrellas

President Davis was probably the best selection the Confederates could have made, despite the fact that he was ill much of the time, had the use of only one eye, and seemed to lack that

of dark days ahead.

war.

warmth of character and approach which would have made him much more popular. Stephens was soon to become an outspoken Davis and of many Confederate policies. The convention, which was the congress under the provisional constitution, when not busy providing for the needs of the new government, turned its attention to framing the permanent constitution. On March 1 1 its work was completed when it adopted the document by a unanimous vote. The proposed constitution was then submitted to the states that had seceded and all of them This constitution throughout its framework was a ratified it. modified copy of the constitution of the United States, for the southerners had time and again insisted that they had no quarrel with that document. Their objection was to the way the North was interpreting it. But there were important additions and clarifications that made it one of the most interesting documents in U.S. history. The president and vice-president were to serve for a term of six years and be ineligible for re-election; the president might veto separate items in appropriation bills; with the consent of congress, cabinet members might have seats on the floor of either house; a budget system was adopted, and congress was not authorized to increase items in a budget except by a twocritic of

thirds majority; after the first

ment was required

two years the post

office

depart-

be self-sustaining; the foreign slave trade was prohibited; and no law could relate to more than one subject. By way of clarification, congress was forbidden to foster any industry by a protective tariff, appropriate money for internal improvements or limit the right to take slaves into a territory. Although there was a provision for a supreme court, congress never set one up, largely through fear of the power it might assume, to

reminiscent of the record of the U.S. supreme court. The love of the old Union was reflected not only in copying The the federal constitution but also in the search for a flag. congressional committee appointed to design a flag received many suggestions for a modification of the Stars and Stripes and even The result was the Stars and Bars, to take over the flag itself. which continued the red, white and blue colours but had only three stripes; the field was blue with this

was enough

to confuse

it

7 white stars. with the United States

However, Con-

flag.

federate troops at the first battle of Bull Run had difficulty, in the heat and dust of battle, in distinguishing their own reinforcements from those of the enemy. To prevent a repetition of this

new banner, the Battle Flag was designed, its red field crossed diagonally by a blue cross with 13 white stars. Despite its wide In use, however, this famous flag was never officially adopted. a

May

1863 the Confederate congress adopted a second national as the Stainless Banner. It was pure white with the Battle Flag in the left corner. Because this flag, when hanging limp, looked too much like a flag of truce, the Confederate congress on March 4, 186S, changed it by placing a broad red bar (For across its end. This was the last flag of the Confederacy. the succession of flags, see illustration.) (See also Flag.) flag,

known

For the designs on its stamps the post office department selected national heroes, such as Jefferson, Jackson and Calhoun, but not Washington, whose portrait was at that time on a United States stamp. Very soon the Confederacy began a system that was unique in American history: it used the picture of a living person on its stamps Pres. Jefferson Davis. The letter rate soon came to be ten cents per ounce twice the rate in the North. In Nov. 1861, as provided by the permanent constitution, elections for president, vice-president and members of congress were held throughout the Confederacy. Davis and Stephens, who had been ser\-ing provisionally up to this time, were elected to full six-year terms, and a congress of two houses was chosen for the first time. In the meantime the convention had changed the capital city from Montgomery to Richmond, Va., and the government had moved there during the summer. The second inaugura-

—

—

cold, rainy

Ft.

—

day

Sumter.

a

—^On

assuming

office

President Lincoln had de-

clared that states could not secede, that the Confederate states

were not actually out of the Union and that he would enforce the laws everywhere. His first problem was to hold the forts in the Confederacy which that new government had not already seized. Ft. Sumter was the most troublesome and the most explosive, for the Confederacy held that it was unthinkable that one of its forts should be occupied by a foreign country. It immediately attempted to open negotiations in Washington but President Lincoln would not receive the Confederate emissaries. The Confederate military forces fired on the fort and after suffering a bombardment of more than a day it surrendered on April 13. This was war, and both parties began to make preparations to carry it on effectively.

Raising Troops.

—Immediately

after its organization the Conpreparations to raise, organize and equip an army, although it hoped (and many of its leaders believed) that it would not have to fight to maintain its independence. After the

federacy had

made

fall of Ft. Sumter and Lincoln's call for troops, the Confederacy speeded up its preparations for defending itself. Originally it had expected its armies to be made up of troops offered by the states, for at that time the general feeling prevailed that the Confederacy was little more than a combination of "sovereign" states; but after Ft. Sumter, congress gave President Davis the right to accept troops through direct volunteering and fixed the number at 400,000. Great enthusiasm prevailed everywhere and soon the Confederacy had more troops than it could equip; some were even sent back home. But before the end of the year 1861, the war had exploded into far-flung battlefields, from Virginia Additional laws to Missouri and along 3,500 mi. of coast line. were passed for raising troops, but less than a year after war had begun the Confederacy found that it needed more troops than were coming forward. With the passing of a law in April 1862 that established a system of conscription (q.v.), the Confederacy embarked on a policy which the United States government had not yet attempted. All male citizens between the ages of 18 and 35 were declared to be in the Confederate army unless they were exempted for physical reasons or were needed in civilian capacities to provide for the armies or maintain the general welfare. There were a great many industrial exemptions as well as the exemption of teachers, preachers, hospital workers and others in similar occupations. By later legislation the age limits were extended from

SO and the number of exemptions was greatly reduced. end of the war, the system of exemptions was abandoned, and the president was given the task of "detailing" persons for necessary civilian work. No accurate records of the total number of Confederate soldiers survived the war, but careThey fought against about ful estimates suggest about 750,000. 17

to

Finally, before the

number of Federal troops. Disappointed in their hopes of peaceable separation, the Confederates were prepared to defend themselves, despite their great disparity of men and resources. The 1 1 Confederate states had a white population of about 5,500,000. There were about 3,500,000 Remaining under the federal slaves and 130,000 free Negroes. In industrial regovernment were about 22,000,000 people. sources, the Confederacy was far inferior to the United States. It had only about 9,000 mi. of railroads as compared with 22,000 mi. But President Davis in his two inaugural addresses, in the North. in his messages to congress and in many proclamations and public addresses built up the enthusiasm of the people and steeled their The race, he asserted, was not to the hearts to win the war. swift, nor the battle to the strong the will to win would in the long run bring victory. In his second inaugural address he said: "True to our traditions of peace and our love of justice, we sent commissioners to the United States to propose a fair and amicable settlement of all questions of public debt or property twice that

;

CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA

287

(A) FIRST FLAG OF THE CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA. THE STARS AND BARS, MARCH 4. 1861. CONSISTING OF A HORIZONTAL WHITE BAR BETWEEN TWO RED BARS. AND A CANTON OF 7 WHITE STARS ON A BLUE FIELD; (B) BATTLE FLAG. A WH ITE- BORDERED RED FIELD. USUALLY SQUARE. WITH 13 WHITE STARS ON THE DIAGONAL ARMS OF A WHITE-EDGED BLUE CROSS; (C) STAINLESS BANNER. MAY 1. 1863, A PURE WHITE FIELD WITH THE BATTLE FLAG INTHE CANTON; (D) LAST FLAG. MARCH 4. 1865. THE STAINLESS BANNER WITH A BROAD RED VERTICAL BAR AT THE OUTER EDGE

—

which might be in dispute. But the government at Washington, denying our right to self-government, refused even to listen to any proposals for a peaceable separation. Nothing was then left to do but to prepare for war." President Davis, who had been an officer in the Mexican War and later U.S. secretary of war, was active in dictating military policy and major strategy of the Confederacy. With a few exceptions he tenaciously clung to a policy of defense instead of taking Failing to the offensive and carrying the war into the North. give due recognition to the importance of the military frontiers across the Appalachian mountains and beyond the Mississippi river. Confederate military policy held that Richmond must be defended to the utmost and that the war would be won or lost in Virginia. Also there was a feeling among some Confederate military leaders that early in the war not enough attention was being given to the development of the cavalry, which might have been used to invade the North and bring the war to a close. The initial strength of the Confederacy lay not only in the

Financial Affairs. The Confederacy began its existence with an empty treasury. To tide it over its first few days, the state of Alabama loaned it $500,000. It soon seized a few hundred thousand dollars in the customhouses and almost $400,000 in the New Orleans mint. But the Confederacy needed to set up a system to provide steady income. At first, thinking that there would be no war or at most a short one, the Confederate government resorted to printing money and issuing bonds. This method was less painful, more popular and even more logical than taxation, for it was argued that if a complicated system of wartime taxation were set up it might have to be abandoned very soon. An act of March 9, 1861, provided for the issuance of not more than $1,000,000 of paper money in denominations of not less than $50. This act was soon followed by other laws providing for smaller denominations and in amounts that reached almost astronomical proportions. Throughout the war about $1,500,000,000 was issued; and although at times the amount in circulation was somewhat reduced by being absorbed in payment for bonds, still Secretary

fighting qualities of

its common soldiers, who had the feeling were defending their homes from the despoilers, but of its officers, many of whom had resigned from the U.S. army to join the Confederacy. There was a tower of strength in Robert E. Lee after he became commander of the army of northern Virginia in 1862. Thomas J. ("Stonewall") Jackson was his most able lieutenant until his death the next year at the battle of Chancellorsville. James Ewell Brown ("Jeb") Stuart, mortally wounded at Yellow Tavern in 1864, was a cavalry leader par excellence. Nathan Bedford Forrest, as daring and resourceful a cavalryman as fought in the war, was discovered too late to greatly affect Confederate prospects of ultimate victory. Albert Sidney Johnston, killed early in the war at Shiloh, did not live long enough to contribute much of his ability as an outstanding soldier. Joseph E. Johnston and Pierre G. T. Beauregard were able leaders but wasted some of their time and enthusiasm in disagreements with President Davis. Losses of Confederate soldiers resulted not only from their deaths on the battlefield and in hospitals but also from desertion and capture. A system for exchanging prisoners of war was soon abandoned because of disagreement between Confederate and Federal commissioners, and it became the task of each belligerent to set up prison camps. The principal camps in the North were Elmira, Camp Chase, Johnson's Island, Camp Douglas, Point

Memminger

that they

being printed) could say at various times that the amount in circulation was five times beyond the country's needs. As the currency increased, prices became fantastic. Near the end of the war a soldier could not have bought a pair of shoes with all the pay he would have received if he had enlisted at the firing on Ft. Sumter and had remained continuously in the service thereafter. At the end of the war a soldier wrote an apostrophe to a Confederate note on the back of one, in four stanzas, of which this

also in the ability

Lookout, Delaware and Rock Island.

The Confederates, much

take care of prisoners, established camps at Richmond (Libby and Belle Island); Salisbury, N.C.; Florence and Columbia, S.C; Millen, Macon and Andersonville, Ga.; and at other places. Andersonville became notorious for the large number of less able to

deaths that took place there. The Confederate government sought frequently but unsuccessfully to reinstitute an exchange of prisoners, and offered to accept and administer any medical aid that

government might give; but this offer was rejected. The Confederacy cited these facts and also the large number of the federal

Confederate deaths in northern prisons in defending itself against northern charges of barbarous conditions in southern prisons.

is

the

(against whose recommendations

this

money was

first:

Representing nothing on God's earth now, And naught in the waters below it. As the pledge of a nation that passed away, Keep it, dear friend, and show it. Show it to those who will lend an ear To the tale this paper will tell. Of liberty born of a patriot's dream, Of a storm-cradled nation that fell.

The Confederacy's record of bond issues was as reckless as its orgy in printing notes. Its first bond issue was provided for in an act of Feb. 28, 1861, that allowed the president to borrow not more than $15,000,000 at 8%. With the beginning of fighting the floodgates for bond issues were opened and through the passing of successive acts more than $700,000,000 of bonds were issued. To speed the marketing of bonds congress passed laws in May and August 1861 providing that bonds might be paid for to the amount and This was commonly known as the cotton was generally used in paying for these bonds. Also, other issues of bonds were paid for in cotton, so that in the course of time the Confederate government came to possess almost 500,000 bales. With this cotton on hand, the Conof $100,000,000, in military supplies, manufactured articles in agricultural

products.

loan, since that product

federacy used some of it as a guarantee for the payment of a loan which it secured in Europe through the banking firm of Erlanger and Company of France. The bonds were to be issued to the amount of 70,000,000 fr. They bore 7% interest and were due in

20 years.

As

the cotton remained in the Confederacy, those

who

;

CONFEDERATE STATES bought the bonds

lost

their

money but from

the loan the Con-

federacy obtained about $2,600,000. An export tax on cotton of i cent per pound was provided in Feb. 1861, and a so-called war tax of one-half of 1% on the taxable wealth of the Confederacy was levied in the following August. Both taxes were collected only once. Apart from these

two

taxes, the

Confederacy tried

to finance itself without any inall for the first two years of its existence. In April, May and August 1861 laws were passed levying tariff duties on a long list of items; but since the blockade of southern ports greatly restricted commerce with other nations, the tariff throughout the life of the Confederacy brought in little more than $1,000,000 computed in specie. This was a tariff for revenue not a protective tariff, which was forbidden by the Confederate constitution. Not until April 1863 did congress finally pass a

ternal

taxation at

—

general tax

bill,

later

amended and made more

inclusive.

A

large

number

of licence and occupational taxes were levied against banks, bowling alleys, liquor stores, hotels and so on. Taxes were also levied on the sales of certain articles. There was an income tax ranging from 1% through 15%. A profits tax was also included, designed to work against speculators. The products

of agriculture were not included in this law, except to be taxed Thereafter there was to be a tax provided in another

only once.

law, reminiscent of tithing in biblical times, that levied a tax on farm products, to be collected in kind. There was

opposition to this tax, for

it

was

difficult to

10% much

enforce against those

living in out-of-the-way places. In supplying the sinews of war, the Confederacy resorted to almost every conceivable device. The United States had instituted a blockade of southern ports in April 1861; but the Confederate blockade-runners were able to get through frequently during the first two years, and to some extent until Feb. 1865, when Wilmington. N.C., the last of the blockade-running ports, was finally captured. Large profits were made by private blockade-runners until 1864 when the Confederate government put all blockaderunning under strict supervision. After that time fewer luxuries and more war necessities were brought in. Frantic efforts were made to set up iron foundries, armouries, arsenals and factories for the manufacture of cloth and the many other articles for which southerners before the war had depended on the North. They devised a long list of substitutes for the many drugs and medicines from which they were now cut off. To checkmate the horde of speculators who dealt in almost every necessary article, the Confederate government set up a system of impressment of farm products (in addition to the tax in kind) whereby the prices of food and feed for the armies were fixed periodically. Often these prices were about half the market price that civilians were forced to pay. Foreign Affairs. One of the reasons why southerners were so

—

confident before secession and in the early days of the Confederacy that they could succeed in setting up an independent government

—

was the power they believed rested in cotton King Cotton, as they had long been calling it. As more than half of the value of U.S. exports had been in cotton, southerners felt that by withholding it permanently they could force the United States to recognize southern independence. They also believed that by withholding it from England and France they could force these countries to recognize the independence of the Confederacy. Immediately on the organization of the Confederate States government. President Davis sent a mission to Europe to ask for recognition of Confederate independence and to induce England and France to break the blockade by sending ships for cotton and thereby involve them in the war against the United States. William L. Yancey was the principal one of these three commissioners. They visited England, France, Belgium and the pope in Rome; but nowhere did they receive recognition of Confederate independence or a promise to break the blockade, though a later commissioner offered France a large bribe in cotton to do so. After a futile few months in Europe, Yancey returned with the advice that the Confederacy would have to win its independence on the battlefields. Before the end of 1861. two additional commissioners were sent. James M. Mason and John Slidell. On the way across

OF.

AMERICA

the Atlantic, a United States warship removed them from the "Trent," a British merchantman, and nearly precipitated a war

with England. Mason and Slidell were allowed to proceed to Europe, where for the remainder of the war they sought to gain recognition of southern independence. They and other Confederate agents, chief of whom was James D. Bulloch, succeeded in buying a great deal of war material and obtaining several fast ships that were fitted out as commerce raiders after delivery. The best

known

of these were the "Alabama," the "Florida" and the Under Comdr. Raphael Semmes, the "Alabama"

"Shenandoah."

destroyed a vast amount of U.S. shipping on the high seas and almost led to war between the United States and England (see

"Alabama" Arbitration).

The Confederacy did not receive its independence from any country, although in the few months of its existence it offered to free all its slaves if England would give that recognition. The Collapse of the Confederacy. Having entered the war to defend their independence, the Confederates held the strong conviction that they would win. Although they suffered some disasters, they were greatly heartened by their military victories during the first two years and were still sure of final success. But the third year saw the defeats at Gettysburg and Vicksburg, which occurred almost simultaneously, and from then on, the wisest southerners felt that they probably could never win on the battlefield. Yet in the summer of 1864, when Gen. Ulysses S. Grant was suffering staggering losses of men in his campaign around Richmond, there was a possibility that the North would become discouraged and make peace, and especially so if, in the presidential election in November, Gen. George B. McClellan should defeat Lincoln. But Lincoln was not defeated, and from that time on, southerners became more and more war-weary and demanded that President Davis call a conference with Lincoln to make peace. Davis knew well, as Lincoln had so often said, that the North would never make peace unless the Confederacy gave up and reentered the Union. Finally, to silence the increasing spirit of defeatism in the Confederacy, in Feb. 1865 Davis sent a peace mission to talk to Lincoln on terms of a treaty. The meeting, held on a ship in Hampton Roads, was attended by Lincoln, Seward and others representing the North and by Alexander Stephens and others representing the South. The meeting was a complete failure. The will to win now sank lower in the South, The supply of soldiers had nearly run out so much so that the Confederacy was ready to make soldiers of its Negro slaves and desertion was increasing. On April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered a dwindling halfstarved army at Appomattox, and a few weeks later all the armed resistance in other parts of the Confederacy collap.sed. The war was over, and the Confederacy now became the Lost Cause. See also references under "Confederate States of America" in the Index volume. Bibliography. E. Merton Coulter, The Confederate States of America, 1S61-1865 (1950); Clement Eaton, A History of the Southern Confederacy (1954) Robert Selph Henry, The Story of the Confederacy (1931); Clifford Dowdey, The Land They Fought for: the Story of the South as the Confederacy, 1S32-1865 (1955); Burton J. Hendrick. Statesmen of the Lost Cause: Jefferson Davis and His Cabinet (1939) Hudson Strode, Jefferson Davis, Confederate President (1959) Rembert W. Patrick, Jefferson Davis and His Cabinet (1944) Avery Craven, The Coming of the Civil War, 2nd ed. (1957) John Shipley recognition of last

—

—

;

;

;

;

TUley, Lincoln Takes Command (1941); William M. Robinson, Jr., Justice in Grey: a History of the Judicial System of the Confederate States of America (1941); Richard Cecil Todd, Confederate Finance (1954) H. H. Cunningham, Doctors in Gray: the Confederate Medical Service (1958); Alfred Hoyt Bill, The Beleaguered City, Richmond, 1861-1S6S (1946) Charles W. Ramsdell, Behind the Lines in the Southern Confederacy (1944); Bell Irvin Wiley, The Plain People of the Confederacy (1943); Frank Lawrence Owsley, State Rights in the Confederacy (1925), King Cotton Diplomacy: Foreign Relations of the Confederate States of America, 2nd ed. (1959) Mary Boykin Chesnut, A Diary from Dixie, ed. by Ben'Ames Williams (1949) Walter Lord (ed.), The Fremantle Diary, Being the Journal of Lieutenant Colonel James Arthur Lyon Fremantle, Coldstream Guards, on His Three Months in the Southern States (1954); Earl Schenck Miers (ed.), When the World Ended, The Diary of Emma LeConte (1957) Janus D. Bulloch, The Secret Service of the Confederate States in Europe or. How the Confederate Cruisers Were Equipped, ed. by Philip \'.in Doren Stern, 2 vol. (1959); James D. Richardson (ed.), A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Confederacy, Including the ;

;

;

;

;

—

)

CONFEDERATION—CONFERENCE Correspondence, 1861-1865, 2 vol. (190S); Albert D. (ed.), The Confederacy, a Social and Political History in

The term congress was

Diplomatic

Kirwan Documents (1959).

(E.

M.

Co.)

CONFEDERATION,

primarily any league or union of people or bodies of people. The term in modern political use is generally confined to a permanent union of sovereign states for certain common purposes; e.g., the German confederation (Bund),

by the congress of Vienna in 1815. The distinction confederation and federation {see Federal Gon'ernment). terms synonymous in their origin, has been developed in established

between

the political terminology of the United States.

U.S. was a confederation; then the

word

Up

1789 the

to

federation, or federal re-

was introduced as implying closer union. This distinction was emphasized during the Civil War between North and South, the seceding states forming a confederation (Confederate States Confederation of America) in opposition to the Federal Union. thus came to mean a union of sovereign states in which the stress is laid on the sovereign independence of each constituent body federation implies a union of states in {cf. Ger. Staatenbund which the stress is laid on the supremacy of the common government (Ger. Biindesstaat). The distinction is, however, by no means universally observed. The variant "confederacy," derived through the Anglo-French confederacie and meaning generally a league or union, whether of states or individuals, was applied in America in the sense of confederation to the seceding southern public,

;

confederacy has generally come to mean rather a temporary league of independent states for certain purposes. As applied to individuals "confederacy" is often used to describe a secret combination, probably for illicit purposes. In trade-union terminology a federation (e.g., the Miners' Federation of Great Britain ) is an alliance of autonomous unions whereas a confederation (e.g., the Iron and Steel Trades confederation) is a body to which the constituent unions have handed over the majority of their powers; i.e., a disguised form of amalgamation, made necessary by the provisions of British law. In

states.

its

political sense

;

CONFEDERATION, ARTICLES OF:

see Articles of

CONFERENCE,

a bringing together, for purpose of discus-

and sometimes decision, of representatives of sovereign states and societies. In British constitutional history the Colonial conference was changed to that of Imperial conference in 1907, becoming the Commonwealth conference in 1949. The annual meetings of British political parties are also called conferences. In the United States national and state sion

or of delegates of all sorts of bodies

meetings of political parties are

known

as conventions.

(See Na-

tional Convention.) is

also applied to the regular assemblies for trans-

In this field the Lambeth conference, a decennial world meeting of archbishops and bishops of the Anglican communion, is one of the most important. In the Roman Catholic Church such an assembly is styled council and in the Orthodox Eastern Church, synod. Annual meetings of associations are described as conferences in Great Britain but generally as conventions acting church business.

in

the United

World War

II

See also Conference, International; Conferences, Allied.

States.

CONFERENCE, INTERNATIONAL,

in

international

Originating in the is a useful device of diplomacy. i6th century (congress of Cambrai, 1529 ), it came into prominence with the congress of Westphalia (1645-48) and into more frequent and regular use in the 19th centur>' with the congress of Vienna (1814-15). As a method of direct negotiation and consultation between states it was distinguished from negotiations Conthrough ordinary diplomatic channels and conferences. relations,

289 abandoned

in the 20th

century

favour of the term conference (e.g., conference of Algeciras, 1906; Paris peace conference, 1919; San Francisco United Nations Conference on International Organization, 1945). However, the technical meetings of the Universal Postal union held periodically in

congresses. The prevailing tendency is meetings conferences, and attempts to distinguish congresses from conferences on the ground of the rank of participants, the solemnity of the occasion or the importance of the agenda or of the results are scarcely tenable. The objective common to all of them, at whatever level, is the promotion of the

from 1863 were major

to call all

all called

official

orderly and peaceful coexistence of states.

The

multilateral approach to the solution of

major problems of

general interest brought into use the phrase "diplomacy by conference." As the great powers were responsible for developing this

method among themselves, tion of

powers of

the question arose as to the participa-

lesser rank.

In 1818 at the congress of Aix-la-

Chapelle, the great powers declared that meetings concerned with the interests of other European states would be held "under the

express reservation of their right of direct participation therein, This principle was either directly or by their Plenipotentiaries." applied, if at all, in a manner resented by the states concerned which claimed participation on a footing of equality. From 1907 participation of lesser powers in international conferences was

—

the rule. This may be attributed in part to the misplaced application of the- principle of equality of slates recognized in international law in the sense of equality of all states before the is bound by a treaty was the better part of

law, and in part to the principle that no state

without

wisdom

its

consent and that consequently

to invite

all

it

interested states to conferences, especially

those concerned with the progressive development of international law. Participation, then, is neither a right nor a duty but depends solely on convenience, power or geographic position, initiative of the inviting states or other factors, and may be unconditional or conditional regarding agenda, objectives, absence or presence of certain states.

Conferences are sometimes

Confederation.

The word

largely

nonpolitical;

classified political or bargaining

and

diplomatic and technical; and periodic Nonpolitical conferences are subdivided into adminlegislative,

and ad hoc. istrative, economic, humanitarian, social, communications, scienConferences may be called legislative tific, educational or cultural. if they result in the codification or development of international law, and diplomatic or technical depending on whether attended by diplomats or technical experts. Such classifications are merely

some conferences, notably peace conferences, embrace a wide range of objectives and include diplomatic along of relative value as

with technical representatives. Proposals to convene a conference are subject to consultation among the states concerned as to desirability, time, place, agenda, objectives and other preliminaries. There are no fixed rules regarding the place, although conferences usually meet in the territory of the inviting state. Sometimes a place in a neutral territory or one removed from the pressure of public opinion and emotions The formal opening is is prelerred (Locarno conference, 1925). usually performed by the chief delegate of the host state state

is

also a participant.

if

that

Questions of precedence related to a

doubtful hierarchy of states, once important, are largely obsolete. The first item of business is the election of a permanent president and of vice-presidents, who together with the chairmen of committees constitute the bureau which assists the president in directing the conference. No definite rules regarding the presi-

dency are recognized. the initiating country

Usually the chief delegate of the 4iost or elected. If several countries sponsor

is

may

gresses were defined in the

a conference, the chief delegates of these countries

as meetings "either

the presidency (United Nations Conference on International Organization, 1945^. The credentials of delegates are exchanged (at

Quadruple or Grand alliance (1814) under the immediate auspices of the sover-

Thus the or by their respective Ministers." congresses of Aix-la-Chapeile (1818), Troppau (1820), Laibach (1821), Verona (1822), in the "congress period," and those of eigns themselves,

Paris (1856) and Berlin (1878) were indeed attended by sovereigns or their ministers. Other 19th-century meetings attended by ministers

the

and plenipotentiaries were called conferences; these included Hague peace conference 1899).

first

(

rotate

a small conference; or examined by a credentials committee which

reports to the conference whether they have been found in "good

and due form."

They

Next, rules of procedure are drafted and adopted.

deal with such matters as secretariat, records, voting, pub-

hcity or secrecy of meetings, languages, order of speakers, resolutions

and amendments, closure of debate,

etc.

In principle these

CONFESSION

290

adopted unanimously. The secretariat is usually headed by an experienced niemher of the host country's delegation who is elected secretary-general and who selects his staff from his own foreign otiice or from the participating delegations. The business of a large conference is transacted in plenary sessions and in committees, where most of the actual work is done, although it is subThe latter offer an ject to approval by the plenary sessions. opportunity for policy statements. Each conference adopts its voting rules. The classic rule of rules are

unanimous vote for all but procedural decisions. This prmciple was much criticized after 1907 on the ground that if any participating state can veto decisions, it endangers the conierence as a method for the progressive development of international law and institutions. After World War 1 there was a trend toward majority voting; and it prevailed in organizations and conferences during and after World War IT This international law requires a

the adoption of treaties at conferences but does not ensure signature or ratification as there has been no departure from facilitates

the principle that no state can be !•

rom

the

1

7th century to

bound without its consent. World War 1, French was the diplo-

before the Lord. This avowal of guilt, at times public, at times secret, appears to be the normal preparation for the expiation of sin and its atonement. Before the destruction of the Temple (a.d. 701 the sin offerings on the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippurj were prefaced by a collective expression of sinfulness (Lev. xvi, 21), and even after the destruction of the Temple, the Day of Atone-

ment has continued as a day of prayer, fasting and confession. In the New Testament the public ministry of Jesus is prepared by the baptism of John, a baptism unto repentance, accompanied by a public confession of sins (Matt, iii, 6) and the New Testament is brought to a close by the apostle John's assurance: "If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just, and will forgive our sins and cleanse us from all unrighteousness" (I John i, 9), There is no direct evidence in the New Testament that confession had to be specific or detailed or that the confession had to be made to a priest. tice

The

scriptural foundation for subsequent Christian prac-

and teaching

usually found in the authority given by Christ

is

and

(Matt, xvi, 19; xviii, 18) and (John xx, 23). It is argued that the authority given is clearly discretionary and implies a knowledge of what to bind and what to loose, knowledge that ordinarily can be supplied only by the sinner's confession. In any event, a to the apostles to bind

to forgive

and

to

to loose

retain sins

Between igig and 1939 French and English matic language. predominated although German and Italian were also used. After World War II French, English, Spanish, Chinese and Russian were accepted as official languages at many conferences and in the United Nations; but the first two remained "working languages." This intrusion of linguistic nationalism into conference proceedings made them more protracted and more expensive. In multilingual meetings a system of simultaneous interpretation is used by means of telephone circuits running from the different interpreters

confessor or freely undertaken by the penitent, or to the whole disciphne of penance leading up to and including the sinner's reconciliation. In the early 3rd century this discipline was called

to the delegates' seats.

exomologesis

Conference proceedings are recorded either in verbatim reports The former method is used for plenary sessions and the latter for committee debates. \'erbatim and summary records are usually approved by the delegates before publication. Conference results are incorporated in treaties, conventions, declarations, recommendations or protocols. Sometimes a final act is adopted which summarizes the proceedings, lists the participating states and their representatives, as well as the treaties and other acts of the conference. Treaties and other acts imposing obUgations are usually appended to the final act and are subject to separate signature and ratification. If the final act contains obli-

known

or in summaries.

gations

it is also subject to ratification. In signing treaties any agreed order may be used, though often the alternat is adopted. According to this, each representative signs first the copy of the treaty intended for his state and other delegates sign in an agreed

alphabetical order of their states. Sometimes the order of signature is determined by lot. When signing or ratifying a treaty governments may attach a reservation, that is, a formal statement to the effect that a particular provision shall not be binding on that state.

After the establishment of the League of Nations in 1920, many conferences were convened by it, by its successor the United Nations or by other international organizations. Such conferences were usually well prepared as the convening organization attends to all preliminary and "housekeeping" functions.

See also World War II Conferences, Allied. Bibliography.— Vladimir D. Pastuhov, A Guide to the Practice of Sir Ernest Satow, A Guide to Diplomatic Practice, 2nd ed. (1922); Lord Hankey, Diplomacy by ConferInternational Conferences (1945)

;

ence (1946).

(L. Gs.)

CONFESSION.

Most reUgious groups within the Jewish-

Christian tradition regard confession or the acknowledgment of sinfulness as a necessary condition for winning divine forgiveness. In the Old Testament the Lord said to Moses: "Say to the people of Israel,

When

a

man

or

woman commits any

of the sins that

men

commit by breaking faith ^with the Lord, and that person is guilty, he shall confess his sin which he has committed" ( Num. v, 6 The mission of the prophets was to awaken in the people a sense of sinfulness and an acknowledgment of their guilt both personal and )

.

collective. The Psalter abounds with instances of such personal and corporate confession, and Ps. li is the classic expression of

the sinner's realization that he

must confess

that he has sinned

detailed confession of sins to the bishop or the priest-penitentiary appears quite early in the church's discipline of penance. Discipline of Penance. The word penance can refer to the

—

sinner's repentance, to the

("confession").

in the east

first five

works of satisfaction imposed by the

Thereafter,

and west as penance.

discipline

the

The

was

discipline for the

centuries was not everywhere uniform, but

it

followed a

general pattern that reflects the action of St. Paul in delivering

Satan "for the destruction of the flesh," pardoning him or a similar offender lest he be "overwhelmed by excessive sorrow" (I Cor. v, S; II Cor. ii, 7). Accordingly, there were two stages in the discipline of penance: excommunication, an exercise of the power of binding; and reconciliation, an exercise of the power of loosing. That this power affected the sinner's relations with God and not merely with the church is suggested by Christ's commission: "whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven" (Matt, xviii, 18). Although Christ's commission to bind and to loose is given in the most general terms, there is early evidence that not all bishops were prepared to loose or to reconcile those guilty of apostasy, adultery and murder. When, however, this policy of harshness was interpreted by the Montanists and the Novatianists of the 3rd century as an implicit denial of the .church's competence to forgive, the church intervened and at the first ecumenical Council of Nicaea (a.d. 325) condemned not only the practice but the a serious offender over to

and

later in

teaching of these early extremists.

Except in the case of the recalcitrant sinner, excommunication was medicinal and normally led to pardon through the ministry emergency cases, through the ministry of a presbyter or simple priest. Even in the case of lesser sins, excommunication entailed separation from the Eucharist; in the case of more serious crimes, such as apostasy, adultery and murder, excommunication involved enrollment in the order of penitents, an order that corresponded to the grade of catechumen (q.v.) in the discipline leading up to baptism. In the graded discipline of the east, a serious offender usually passed through four successive grades before being allowed to receive the Eucharist: (1 as a mourner, of the bishop or, in

)

the sinner prostrated himself in tears outside the doors of the

church and sought the intercession of the clergy and people as they entered; (2) as a hearer, he was allowed to enter the church and to remain for the reading of the lessons and the bishop's homily; (3) as a kneeler or penitent in the strict sense of the term, he was the object of special prayers said over penitents while prostrate, after which he was dismissed from the assembly; (4) as a bystander, he was allowed to remain for the eucharistic liturgy, but he was not privileged to make his offering or to receive Holy

CONFESSION Communion. In

the west there seems to have been but one grade,

that of kneeler or penitent.

order of penitents followed upon confession more populous churches, to the priestpenitentiary, whose office it was to assign the period of penance and to oversee its fulfillment. Whether the penitent was obliged

Enrollment

in the

to the bishop or, in the

which he was doing penance 200) seems to have public con-

to manifest publicly the sin or sins for is

not certain.

fession in

TertuUian

(c. a.d.

mind when he rebukes those who put

off

confession,

"more mindful of their embarrassment than of their salvation. As if by withdrawing anything from the knowledge of men we shall conceal it from God as well" (De Pae?utentia, x). However, the Sth-century Greek historian Socrates informs us that the priestpenitentiary was appointed from the earliest times because bishops decided that "it was too much of a burden to announce one's sins as in a theatre with the congregation of the Church as witness" .

.

.

Again, the local Italian pracvii, 16). reading from a chart the sins of the penitent is regarded by

(Ecclesiastical History, tice of

Leo

I the

Great

(c.

a.d.

450) as a "defiance of apostohc rule"

291

which an integral confession of all serious sins committed after baptism is necessary by divine precept. Although venial sins need not be confessed to the priest, confessions of devotion are encouraged and are widely practised. The doctrinal position of the Eastern Orthodox Churches on the sacramentality and necessity of confession to a priest agrees with that of the Church of Rome. Among Lutherans private confession and absolution survived the Reformation for a time. The Augsburg Confession of 1530 not only listed penance along with baptism and the Lord's Supper as sacraments of the New Law but asserted that "it is not customary to offer the Lord's body to those who have not first been examined and absolved." Luther himself was anxious that private confession be retained, and in his Short Catechism he drew up for the use of "simple folk" a method of examining their consciences and of confessing such sins "as we know and feel guilty of in our hearts." The instruction is followed by a rubric for the confessor, in

who is to the name

use the then current formula: "I forgive thee thy sins in of the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost. Amen. Go

in peace."

Calvin too recognized the value of private confession

goats' hair, sprinkled with ashes

and absolution for those troubled in conscience, but he denied that such confession was sacramental or that it was necessary for the forgiveness of sins. Although there is a small but growing movement among German Lutherans and French Calvinists to restore the practice of private confession, most Protestants regard the general confession and absolution of the communion service as a

penitents

sufficient preparation for the Lord's Supper.

(Epistles, clxviii).

In the Sth-century discipline of the Roman Church, the practice to hear confessions in the beginning of Lent and, unless sickness or some other emergency arose, to reconcile the penitents on Holy Thursday. After confession, the sinner was clothed in

was

and received into the order of by an imposition of hands. Although the evidence is not conclusive, it would appear that the penitent was excluded from the eucharistic liturgy along with the catechumens until Holy Thursday, when he was once more privileged to make his offering and to receive the Eucharist. During the period of penance, which appears to have been considerably shorter in the Western Church than in the Eastern Church, the penitent was obliged to fast and to multiply his prayers. To compensate, perhaps, for the abbreviated period of penance in the west, disabilities were introduced that affected the penitent for life. Thus, the reconciled penitent was not ordinarily permitted to marry, or, if married, to resume marital relations; he was forbidden to engage in public trade and to undertake military service. Failure to observe these penalties reduced the penitent to the status of the bystander in the graded discipline of the east. In the east, public penance did not long survive the action of Nectarius, patriarch of Constantinople, in abolishing the office of priest-penitentiary (a.d. 391). Serious sinners were no longer enrolled in

the order of penitents nor were they excluded

the eucharistic liturgy.

They were

from

forbidden, however, to receive

the Eucharist until their penance

was fulfilled, a status that rethe grade of bystander in the earlier discipline. In the east and the west, public penance, modeled as it was on

flects

the discipline of the catechumenate, could be

Whether or not there was a private penance

undergone but once. for those guilty of

were secret or that fell short of the canonical triad (apostasy, gross impurity and murder) is still debated. Most historians are of the opinion that private and repeated penance was introduced first in the churches of the Celtic lands, and that it was through the influence of Irish monks and English missionary scholars that private penance won acceptance on the continent. In any event, by the year 850 and as a result of the Carolingian reform, the principle of "public penance for public crimes, private penance for secret sins" became the established rule. Gradually, too, was introduced the practice of reconciling or absolving sinners immediately after confession and before the fulfillment of penance, sins that

so that

by the

Uth

century only public or notorious were reconciled in the solemn penance of Holy Thursday. Although the discipline of penance was regarded in the early church as a second and more laborious baptism, those guilty of serious sins usually put off penance until death approached. To correct this abuse, the fourth Lateran council (a.d. 121S) established the following rule: "Let everyone of the faithful of either sex, after having reached the age of discretion, faithfully con." fess in secret to his own priest all his sins, at least once a year Modern Teaching and Practice.—The Roman Catholic Church teaches that penance is a sacrament, instituted by Christ, close of the

sinners

.

.

.

The Church of England resisted to some extent the attempts of the Nonconformists to have all reference to private confession and absolution removed from the prayer book. Thus, in the Order for the Visitation of the Sick, the sick person "shall be moved to make a special confession of his sins, if he feels his conscience

troubled with any weighty matter." The same directive is found in the Book of Common Prayer as used in the Protestant Episcopal

Church

in the United States. The Oxford movement in the 19th century fostered a revival of private confession even in times of health, a practice that has received some acceptance among AngloCatholics. However, many Anglicans and Episcopalians look with disfavour upon "romanizing" tendencies within their churches and favour the general confession and absolution of the communion

service.

Confession of a generic nature plays an important role in most fundamentalist and Pentecostal churches, and the 1920s witnessed

new religious group, the Buchmanites, among whom and detailed confession of sins is regarded as the first step toward a sincere conversion (see Moral Rearmament). Nor has the strictly therapeutic value of confession been overlooked by the psychiatrist, whose demands upon the sincerity and frankness of his patient are no less exacting than those made of the penitent in the early church. (See also Absolution.) The term confession is used also to designate the tomb of a martyr and the building erected over the tomb (see Crypt). the rise of a a public

—

Bibliography. O. D. Watkins, A History of Penance, 2 vol. (1920), the best-documented study in English for the first 12 centuries; De Paenitentia, editio nova (1950), is a historical-dogmatic presentation of Roman Catholic teaching. See also B. Poschmann, Die abendlandische Kirchenbusse im friihen Mittelalter (1930) R. C. Mortimer, The Origins of Private Penance in the Western Church (1939) J. T. McNeill and H. M. Gamer, Medieval Handbooks of Penance (1938), a translation of principal penitentials with selections from related documents; P. F. Palmer, Sacraments and Forgiveness: History and Doctrinal Development of Penance, Extreme Unction and Indulgences, vol, ii in series Sources of Christian Theology (1960). is

P. Galtier,

;

;

(P. F, P.)

CONFESSION,

in the

criminal law,

ment acknowledging

is

an extrajudicial stateBoth the common law

guilt of an offense. and U.S. constitutional law require that coerced or involuntary confessions be excluded from the evidence admitted in a criminal trial (see Third Degree). While a voluntary confession is com-

petent evidence of guilt,

it is not ordinarily regarded as sufficient evidence of guilt. Thus, in most jurisdictions the confession must be corroborated by other evidence before a defendant may be convicted. Ordinarily the corroborating evidence must relate to the corpus delicti; that is, it must establish that a crime was committed by someone. See Criminal Law Evidence. (F, A, A.) ;

—

CONFESSIONAL— CONFESSIONS OF FAITH

292 CONFESSIONAL,

Roman

it was even followed by the Council of Trent (1545whose decrees and canons, together with the Projessio fidei Tridentina of 1564, were a codification of Roman Catholic doc-

Catholic churches, is a box, sits to hear the confessions of penitents. The confessional is usually a wooden structure, with through a door or curtain in which the (entered a compartment priest sits, and on one or both sides another compartment or com-

churches, and

partments for penitents; this is separated from the priest's compartment by a partition, with a latticed opening for the penitent to speak through, and contains a step on which he kneels. By this arrangement the priest is hidden; the penitent may or may not be visible to others. Confessionals usually form part of the architectural scheme of the church, but sometimes they are movable

A

cabinet or

stall

in

in

which the priest

)

pieces of furniture.

In its present form the confessional dates no farther back than Previous to that time, the priest normally the 16th century. administered the sacrament in its private form while seated on a chair in some part of church; the penitent stood or sat beside Since the prevailing rite of him, and knelt for the absolution. absolution demanded that the priest lay his hand on the penitent's head, there could be no separating wall or curtain. From the 11th century, the chair was placed "in front of the altar," probably within the chancel. St. Carlo Borromeo in 1565 ordered that a metal grill separate priest from penitent in his archdiocese of Milan. This practice spread rapidly, and, after adoption into the Roman Ritual under Pope Paul V in 1614, soon became universal. Thus the essentially public nature of the sacrament was safeguarded, and a reasonable privacy assured. In baroque churches the confessional often developed into a highly ornate structure. According to modern canon law, women's confessions may be heard only in a confessional in church; men may go to confession outside church, but when confession is heard in church, the confessional should be used. In Eastern Orthodox churches BAROQUE CONFESSIONAL O THE the confessional is unknown, but CHURCH OF S. BERNARDO. PIEDit is becoming customary in some MONT. ITALY; 1692 of the churches of oriental rite united to Rome. With the revival of auricular confession in some Anglican and Lutheran churches, a confessional chair, with or with-

out separating grill, is finding gradual acceptance. Bibliography. A. Villien, The History and Liturgy of the Sacraments (1932); J. Jungraann, S.J., Die lateinischen Bussriten in ihrer geschichtlicken Entwicklung (1932) V. Golzio, "Confessionale," in Enciclopedia Caltolica. vol. iv (1950) E. Jombart, "Confessional," in Dictionnaire de droit canonique, vol. iv (1949). (G. L. D.)

—

;

;

CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, PROTESTANT.

The me-

dieval Christian church did not attempt an official codification of doctrine.

its

The creeds

inherited

from antiquity (Nicene Creed)

63),

trinal tenets.

Motives Underlying Protestant Declarations of Faith. variety of motives underlay the elaboration of Protestant in the Reformation era as well as in postReformation times. Their obvious purpose is to give expression to convictions held by groups claiming to be the legitimate Christian Church. "We believe" are the opening words of most of the articles of the French Huguenot confession of 1559. "We believe, confess and teach" is a wording which constantly recurs in the Lutheran Formula of Concord. Such declarations frequently contain arguments in support of the tenets confessed. Accordingly they serve also an apologetic purpose when they intend to prove the orthodoxy of the doctrines professed by Protestant

confessions of faith

churches.

Augsburg Confesand repeatedly quotes the Fathers from Scripture. It is said expressly that the Lutheran teaching does not differ from the Scriptures or from the Catholic Church "or from the Roman Church, as it is known from the (ancient) authors." The whole controversy with the contemporary Roman Church is here reduced This motive

sion,

Formula of Concord

The

titles

But there was cal

still

movements

no codification of doctrine. Nor did the heretimiddle ages produce comprehensive declara-

in the

tions of faith.

The Reformation in the 16th century led to the formulation of declarations aiming at a definition of all the main points of the doctrinal system. Most of these documents were compiled with the purpose of expressing the Church's doctrine; a few of them originally served other purposes

{e.g., Luther's catechisms) but were soon given the rank of doctrinal standards. The first confessional documents of the Reformation were the drafts preceding the Augsburg Confession of 1530. This example set by the Lutherans was followed by the other Reformation

a large

book containing theological reason-

given to the various Protestant confessions reflect motives: "confession" {e.g., the Augsburg Confes-

sion, the

Certain doctrinal points were defined by counA decree on the seven sacraments issued by the Council of Ferrara-Florence in 1439 was a statement concerning one important part of the doctrinal system.

Creed).

is

occasioned by internal dissensions in the separate churches. The Formula of Concord was a successful attempt to restore unity within the Lutheran Church after three decades of internal struggle over doctrinal questions. The Canons of Dort served a similar purpose in the Dutch Reformed Church. Documents of the last type aim expressly at establishing a norm for the teaching of the church. The same use, however, had been made of the older confessional documents from an early date. The Wittenberg oath required of a doctor of theology included from 1533 onward allegiance to the doctrines of the Augsburg Confession, and so did also the ordination vow in Saxony from 1535.

sian Creed) were used in liturgical worship to confess the Christian as a result of doctrinal controversies.

to the creeds

ing. Whereas the Lutheran documents, in spite of their emphasis on the Scriptures as their sole authority, argue from the early Fathers as well as from Scripture, the corresponding Reformed confessions argue from Scripture alone. The purpose of some documents from the 16th century was to create unity between various Protestant parties. The Marburg Articles of 1529 were an attempt to unite Luther and Zwingli. The Wittenberg Concord of 1536 aimed at the formulation of a eucharistic doctrine acceptable to Lutherans and the Swiss Reformers alike. The purpose of the Ten Articles compiled at the order of Henry VIII of England was to facilitate his approach to the Lutheran princes in Germany. When such attempts had proved abortive and the schism between the Protestant churches was an irreparable fact, confessional documents of a similar type were

this variety of

faith (see

particularly conspicuous in the

to a dissension over "certain abuses." The sequel to this document, the Apology for the Augsburg Confession, contains an elaborate theological motivation of the tenets held by Lutherans. The

or formulated in the early middle ages (Apostles' Creed, Athana-

cils

is

which refers

of the early church besides recurring to arguments

French Confession de Foi, Confessio Belgica, the Scottish Confession of Faith, the Westminster Confession ), "articles" {e.g.,

Marburg

Articles,

Schwabach

Articles,

the various versions of

England), "declaration" {e.g., the Savoy Declaration), "consensus" {e.g., Consensus Tigurinus), "concord" {e.g., Wittenberg Concord, the Formula of Concord, the Book of Concord). A few of them bear the name of "catechism," first introduced as a book title by Luther and adopted by Calvin {e.g., Le Catechisme de I'eglise de Geneve) and his followers (e.g., Heidelberg Catechism, the two Westminster catechisms) and even by the Roman Catholic Church {e.g., Catechismiis Romaniis, 1566); before Luther, "catechism" meant oral catechetical instruction. In the Lutheran Church there was a tendency to attribute to the confessional writings (Beken7it7t!sscltr!ften) of the 16th century an articles of religion in

authority similar to that possessed by the creeds, and accordingly to call them "symbols" of the church, a name which in earlier times

had been reserved for the creeds.

It

even became customary

to

CONFESSIONS OF FAITH speak of these lengthy theological treatises as the "symbolical books" of the Lutheran Church. Lutheran Churches. The Augsburg Confession (Confessio This declaration, signed by the Lutheran princes Augiistana). and independent cities in Germany, was presented to the emperor Charles V on June 25, 1530, during the diet of Augsburg. As the emperor needed the support of the Lutheran territories in his war against the Turks, he had decided to overcome the religious schism He now wanted to in Germany through peaceful deliberations. hear both parties. Before the diet the Lutheran elector of Saxony had asked his theologians to prepare a memorandum on the changes introduced in his church, known as the Torgau Articles. In Augsburg, however, the Lutherans were confronted with an accusation of heresy from the Roman Catholic side which compelled them to As Luther was an outrewrite and expand their short apology. lawed person who could not make his appearance at Augsburg, this Philipp Melanchthon. Melanchthon included matter task fell to from the Marburg Articles of 1529 and from the Schwabach Articles, drawn up in 1529 as a basis for a defense union of the Evangelical princes. But to a large extent he had to formulate independently. The draft was sent to Luther and received his full

'

—

—

approval.

The Augsburg Confession version, both

handed over

scripts are lost.

is

to the

German and a Latin The two original manuthe German and one of

extant in a

emperor.

Six printed editions of

the Latin text appeared while the diet

was

in session.

As these

were inaccurate, an official editio princeps was published by the author himself in 1531. The confession bears the stamp of Melanchthon's moderation and caution and reveals the threatening situation in which it was compiled. The emphasis is laid on the catholicity and orthodoxy of the Lutheran interpretation of Christianity, especially in the first 21 articles dealing with doctrine. The central ideas of the Lutheran Reformation, however, have received a classic formulation: the doctrine of salvation by faith alone, its relation to good works, the doctrine of the church and the sacraments, the new evaluation of matrimony and of secular society and its laws. In the second part, comprising seven articles on abuses which had been abolished, certain customs and doctrines of Roman Catholicism are criticized in strong terms. No recognition of the Lutherans by the emperor was attained at Augsburg. The Evangelicals left the diet and had to prepare themselves for the civil war which seemed to be inevitable. In this situation, the Augsburg Confession became the rallying banner of the Lutheran princes and the norm for doctrine in their churches. Melanchthon, however, introduced minor alterations in the new editions of the confession which appeared after 1531, treating the book as his private work. In the edition of 1540 he went so far as to redraft article 10 in order to approximate to Calvin's doctrine of the Eucharist. When the south Germans who had Calvinistic leanings began to quote this edition as authoritative, it was

.

I

•

'

are given the status of confessional standards. Schmalkaldic Articles (1537). These derive their

—

name from by the Lutheran princes at Schmalpresentation to Luther for kalden in 1531. They were written by a projected council Pope Paul III had summoned to Mantua in 1537. The elector of Saxony did not approve the idea of the Evangelicals' appearing at the council, and to clarify their position the defensive league formed

he commissioned Luther to compile the articles of faith from which he would in no circumstances depart. The tone of the document therefore became particularly anti-Roman. It was subscribed by the Wittenberg theologians. Melanchthon, however, accompanied his signature with a reservation, and he also prevented the document from being signed by the princes as their official declaration. The more militant Lutherans valued the Articles highly and they were included in the Book of Concord.

—

Formula of Concord (1577). The Formula was the result of protracted theological discussion arising out of the controversies which rent the Lutheran Church after Luther's death in 1546. The chief authors were Jacob Andreae and Martin Chemnitz, who combined a central position in the internal controversies with a marked hostility toward Calvinism and Roman Catholicism. The Formula is an extensive book which inaugurates the era of Lutheran orthodoxism.

Book

of Concord (1580).

— In

the years of struggle over doc-

trinal issues the idea of a codification of the authoritative

—

to the position of "subordinate standards,"

Augsburg Confession," Augustana invariata, was enjoined. The Lutheran Reformation was at last recognized by the German Reich in the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, which acknowledged the coexistence of "the religion of the Augsburg Confession" and "the old religion." Protestant movements which did not conform to this confession were not allowed, but as the peace treaty did not expressly mention the "unaltered" confession there was room for the Calvinizing party, which could make claims to legitimacy by

torical fact that the

invoking the authority of the variata. Thus historical events gave a unique importance to the Augsburg Confession. It was recognized also in the Lutheran churches

Germany as an authoritative standard of doctrine (Denmark and Norway, 1574; Sweden and Finland, 1593) and in the 20th century is the doctrinal standard of all Lutheran churches and the unifying bond of Lutheranism. (See also Augsburg

outside

Confession.) Luther's Shorter and Longer Catechisms (1529). Both these catechisms, written in the spring of 1529, were produced in order to teach children and adults the elements of Christian faith. For more than two centuries the Shorter Catechism was used as the

—

con-

from the Lutheran theologians and princes. The most extensive of these collections was the Book of Concord, published in 1580 and adopted by 51 princes and 35 cities in central and south Germany as the norm for teaching in their churches. The book contains the three creeds (the Apostles', the Nicene and the Athanasian) together with the documents listed above and Melanchthon's Apology for the Augsburg Confession, written during the diet of 1530 and published in 1531. The Book of Concord was never recognized in Denmark and Norway. When the legislation of these countries was codified in the late 17th century under Christian V only the three creeds, the Augsburg Confession and the Shorter Catechism were declared to be the standards of doctrine. In Sweden, the Synod of Uppsala in 1593 proclaimed the Augsburg Confession to be authoritative, whereas the whole Book of Concord was enjoined by the church law of 1686. (See also Concord, Book of.) Reformed Churches. Within the churches that have received their stamp from Calvin's Reformation a large number In these churches, howof confessions have been promulgated. ever, confessional documents have not played the same part as the "symbolical books" of Lutheranism. This is partly due to their view of the authority of Scripture, which relegates articles of faith fessions gained support

stigmatized in Lutheran circles as the Augustana variata, and the use of the "unaltered

-

293

and even frequently formed the basis for sermons. In the Formula of Concord the two catechisms are called "the layman's Bible" and in the Book of Concord they chief reader in primary schools

in accepting a

The

and partly to the

his-

Reformed churches have never been united

common

confessional document.

First Helvetic Confession of 1536,

approved by

all

Evan-

cantons in Switzerland, bears the stamp of a moderate Zwinglianism. Calvin's Geneva Catechism of 1542 is a short summary of his teaching in questions and answers (see Catechism: Reformed). The most important Swiss confessions are the Consensus Tigurinus of 1549, whereby Calvin and the followers of Zwingli entered on a union, and the Second Helvetic Confession, compiled by Heinrich Bullinger as a private work, but recognized in 1566 by all the Reformed cantons as well as by the elector Frederick of This confession was for some time regarded as the Palatinate. authoritative also in France, Scotland and Poland. Here the Zwinglian doctrine of the Eucharist has been superseded by Calvin's teaching. (See also Helvetic Confessions.) In France the Reformed Church formulated its confession of

gelical

faith at a general

at St. Germain in 1559. The draft came from Calvin's hand. It is diselegance and clarity. The doctrine of predestina-

synod held

of this Confessio Gallicana

tinguished for tion

is

its

lucidly expounded.

CONFESSIONS OF FAITH

294

The Confessio Scoticana of 1560 was compiled in English in four days with John Knox as its principal author. The document was approved by the Scottish parliament. A special feature is the emphasis on church discipline and on the theocratic ideal. The Heidelberg Catechism of 1563 was due to the initiative of the elector Frederick III of the Palatinate. He had become convinced that the Lutheran eucharistic doctrine was "papistic," went over to the Reformed standpoint and transferred the ecclesiastical allegiance of his territory, in accordance with the generally acknowledged principle of his time that the subjects should follow He their prince in religious matters (cuius regio, eius religio). commissioned Zacharias Ursinus, a Melanchthonian, Caspar Olevianus, a moderate Calvinist, and others to compile a confession which received the form of a catechism. The tone is conciliatory toward Lutheranism but polemical toward Roman Catholicism. No express mention is made of predestination. The Heidelberg Catechism was accepted in Switzerland, Hungary and Scotland and is one of the very few Reformed confessions to which reference is made today. (See also Heidelberg Catechism.) In the Netherlands, a Reformed confession of faith was adopted by a synod held at Antwerp in 1566. The Confessio Belgica is the continental confession of this type. In the 17th century it fell to the Dutch Reformed Church to formulate the doctrine of Calvinist orthodoxy in the Canons of Dort (Dordrecht). This document was occasioned by a doctrinal controversy over predestination. A liberal minority, named Arminians after their leader Jacobus Arminius, rejected the doctrine of absolute predestination and taught that Christ had died last

for the whole

human

race, that the possibility of salvation

men, that man was

was

need of God's regenerative grace, but could resist the grace of God, and that he could fall from grace. The majority of theologians and pastors in the Netherlands kept to the strict doctrine of predestination, which declared God's grace to be irresistible and left no room for human liberty in the process of salvation. In 1618 the state authorities summoned a national synod to Dordrecht. It was attended also by theologians from Switzerland and Germany and even by five official representatives from the Anglican Church, at that period reckoned among the Reformed churches. The synod declared the Arminians to be heretics, and in 1619 it formulated the strict doctrine of predestination in 93 canons. The primary religious concern of the Canons of Dort was to proclaim the majesty of God and to safeguard the assurance of salvation. Outside Holland, the canons were formally adopted by the French Reformed Church and received for information only by the other Reformed churches. (See also Dort, Synod of.) The Westminster Confession was compiled during the English Civil War, In 1643 parliament appointed a commission of 121 divines and 30 members of parliament, with the purpose of giving a Presbyterian constitution to the Church of England and of introducing uniformity in doctrine, worship and order throughout the British Isles. The commission held its meetings in Westminster abbey and was therefore known as the Westminster Assembly. The large majority of its members were Presbyterians, Calvinist in doctrinal matters. In 1646 a draft version of a confession of faith was completed and printed privately. It was studied by parliament in detail and published under the title of Articles of Christian Religion approved and passed by both Houses of Parli&ment after advice had with the Assembly of Divines by authority of Parliament sitting at Westminster. In Scotland the Westminster Confession was readily approved by the general assembly in 1647 and by the Scottish parliament in 1649. In England events followed another course. After the ecclesiastical chaos under the Commonwealth, Anglicanism was reinstated in 1660. The Westminster Confession did not become a doctrinal standard in the Church of England. In addition to the confession, the Westminster Assembly issued two catechisms, the Shorter and the Longer, which are assigned the same degree of authority as the Westminster Confession in the Reformed Churches of Scotland and America. All three documents are remarkable theological works, lucid, precise and dignified in offered to

tone.

all

in

Other Protestant Bodies.

—Congregationalism,

according to

fundamental principles,

its

doctrinal

norm

is averse to the idea of establishing a or of binding consciences to a confession. Such

use of confessions "causeth them to degenerate from the name and nature of confessions, and turneth them into Exactions and Impositions of Faith," it was expressly stated when a "meeting of Elders and Messengers," held in 1658 at the Savoy, London, pro-

duced their classical Declaration of the Faith and Order ovmed and practised in the Congregational Churches in England. In doctrinal matters, the Savoy Declaration differs only slightly from the Westminster Confession. When the British Congregationalists formed the Congregational union, a new declaration was issued (1833). For the first time it is stated in a document of this official character that the Scriptures "consulted with the aid of sound criticism" should be the final court of appeal in doctrinal questions.

On

the rare occasions when Congregationalists have published statements on their tenets, they have pointed out that such statements are only a presentation of what is commonly believed in their churches, not a doctrinal law. The Baptist churches share this attitude to human standards of doctrine. Attacked by their adversaries, however, they felt compelled to produce official statements on doctrine. In 1644 those English Baptists who adhered to the Calvinist doctrine of predestination issued a confession of faith, followed by a similar document in 1677, which was approved by the Federation of American Baptists at Philadelphia in 1742. In 1660 the Arminian wing of the English Baptists produced their own declaration of faith. The unwillingness to invest such declarations with the authority of articles of faith has always been alive in Baptist circles. In the controversy over liberal theology which broke out among British Baptists in 1887, their great preacher, C. H. Spurgeon, urged the Baptist union to adopt a declaration of faith in the basic truths of evangelical Christianity. His proposal was rejected as being incompatible with the Baptist attitude toward binding articles of faith.

display the same aversion to In addition to the Scriptures, they acknowledge the creeds and certain other "standards of doctrine" which These are regarded as containing the doctrine of the church. documents are not, however, articles of faith in the juridical sense.

The Methodist churches do not

credal statements.

In the detailed legislation of the Methodist Church in America the The questions put to confessional standards are never defined. the candidates for the ministry at their ordination only refer to "the doctrines of the Methodist Church" without further specification. The documents considered as normative are; John Wesley's Notes on the New Testament (1755); a collection of 44 of his

sermons, called the Standard Sermons; and (in American Methodism) Wesley's 25 articles of 1784, an abridgement of the Anglican 39 Articles, which through omissions and the rephrasing of certain expressions have been made more Protestant and at the same time less Calvinist (admitting of Arminianism) and purged

from references to general councils or to the establishment. The two of the above documents differ in literary form and in preciseness from what are traditionally called confessions of faith. The Quakers refuse to subscribe to articles of faith. When the Society of Friends in England published a statement on their beliefs in 1920, occasioned by the necessity of defining their attitude to the ecumenical movement, it was meant only to be a description of views commonly held by Quakers, not a norm for doctrine. The same character attaches to the three small volumes of representative pronouncements of leading Quakers covering the whole period of their history, which were published by the English Society of Friends (Christian Life, Faith and Thought in the Society of first

Friends, 1921-31).

Attitude of Protestant Churches Toward Their ConfesEven in churches which in principle are opposed to con-

sions.

—

fessional obligation the necessity of formulating doctrinal state-

ments has been made, however,

felt

on certain occasions; the attempt has been

to formulate guiding principles without

such statements a binding law. their

confessions

caused some

as

doctrinal

difficulties in

making

In the churches which consider standards the confessions have

modem

times.

CONFESSOR— CONFIRMATION

295

The juxtaposition of Holy Scripture and confessional documents implies a theological problem which was discussed in the 17th century but could not become acute so long as the two authorities were felt to be concordant. Orthodox Lutheran theology maintained that Holy Scripture was the supreme authority (norma

E. Schlink, Augsburgischen Glaubensbekenntnisses, 3 vol. (1911-30) Theologie der lutherischen Bekenntnisschriften (1940); K. Barth, The Knowledge of God and the Service of God According to the Teaching of (E. Mo.) the Reformation (1938).

normans), while the confessions derived their authority from their concordance with Scripture and were a secondary norm (norma normata). This doctrine could not create difficulties to churchmen who were convinced that their own church possessed the only right understanding of the Bible. In the 18th century, pietism and the enlightenment were both averse to a confessionalism requiring the acceptance of every It became customary to disarticle of the confessional standards. tinguish between fundamental and nonfundamental doctrmes and to practise a large amount of individual liberty with regard to confessional documents. Critical exegesis, acquaintance with

saints;

other Christian traditions and studies in the history of

nate any canonized male saint who is not a martyr (see also Saint). For confessor in the second sense, see Confession.

dogma

created a spirit of confessional relativism. Toward 1800 there was a considerable liberty of interpretation without formal aboli-

and teachers. After 1800, and especially after 1830, a wave of confessionalism the Lutheran and Reformed churches re-established the ideal

tion of confessional obligation for pastors

in

of loyalty to the church's confession.

Representatives of this

school tried to check rationalism and liberalism

by requiring submission to the confessional standards. On the other hand, biblical scholarship and historical studies revealed the differences between biblical theology and the doctrines of the confessional documents. Theology became to a large extent permeated by a nondenominational spirit, and many churchmen felt difficulties in subscribing In the Swiss Reformed to creeds and confessional documents. churches the problem received a radical solution between 1870 and 1880 when a new ordination vow was introduced, without any reference to the creeds or to the confessional documents. In other churches it was generally accepted that confessional loyalty means loyalty to "the idea and spirit" of the doctrinal standards. In many Lutheran churches the ordination vow was rephrased to the effect that the ordination candidates should promise to teach the Word of God "as it is revealed in Holy Scripture, and as it is witnessed to by our Church in its Confession." In all Lutheran and Reformed churches, there was also a party which required an unconditional acceptance of the doctrines contained in the confessions.

After World War I a renascence of confessionalism could be observed in both Lutheran and Reformed churches, and accord-

new interest in the classical confessions. The fight of these churches against Nazi dictatorship in Germany strengthened this confessionalism. Loyalty to the church's confession became a catchword and a rallying banner. The fight also occasioned new ingly a

declarations of a type similar to those of the Reformation era.

The German Confessional Church {bekennende Kirche) issued a

known

statement

as the

Barmen Declaration

of 1934, containing

message of the Church (see Barmen, Synod of). In Norway, a document entitled Kirkens grunn ("The Church's Foundation") was read from the pulpits in 1942 and was signed by all pastors who were on the church's side in its conflict with the Nazi regime. Such documents were considered as having the authority of confessional standards. But when normal conditions were reintroduced after the end of World War II, subscription to these documents was no longer required. No expansion of the traditional collections of confessional standards took place. See also Catechism. Bibliography. P. Schaff, The Creeds of Christendom, 3 vol., 4th ed. theses on the

—

(1905); Die Bekennlnisschriften der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche Gedenkjahr der Augsburgischen Konfession (1930, 2nd ed. 1952) E. F. Karl Mijller, Die Bekenntnisschrijlen der reformierten Kirche (1903): W. Walker, The Creeds and Platforms of Congregationalism (1893); W. J. McGlothlin, Baptist Confessions of Faith (1911); "Confessions," by W. A. C,urtis, A History of Creeds and Confessions of Faith (1911); C. A. Briggs, Theological Symbolics (1914); A. Stewart, Creeds and Churches (1916); J. L. Neve, Churches and Sects of Christendom, 3rd ed. (1952); E. MoUand, Christendom: the Christian Churches, Their Doctrines, Constitutional Forms and Ways of Worship (1959) G. L. Plitt, Einleitung in die Augustana, 2 vol. (1867-68) W. Gussmann, Quellen und Forschungen sur Geschichle des in

;

;

;

;

CONFESSOR, (Da title of honour given and (2j

a

member

to certain Christian

of the Christian clergy

who

receives the

confession of a penitent's sins and imparts absolution. During the persecutions of the 2nd century the title of confessor was given to those Christians who had declared their faith before the

Roman

tribunals but had not suffered

martyrdom.

When

the

persecutions ceased in the 4th century the title and veneration given to confessors were extended first to bishops who had defended the faith of the church against heresy and then to Christians

who were judged

to

have given extraordinary evidence of

Christian virtue and thus to have "confessed Christ." Since the middle ages "confessor" has been used in this last sense to desig-

(J.

CONFIDENCE GAME,

W. He.)

the term popularly applied to any

elaborate swindle, particularly one that exploits the cupidity of the victim. Some U.S. jurisdictions have created a statutory Although the elements of the offense are offense of this name.

not clearly defined by this legislation, the offense may be regarded form of the misdemeanour known as false pretenses. The essential element of the crime of confidence game is the betrayal of the trust and confidence deliberately induced in the victim by the offender with fraudulent purpose. See Fraud.

as an aggravated

(F. A. A.)

CONFIRMATION,

a Christian rite

by which the

relation

between man and God established in baptism (g.v.) is said to be confirmed. During the first several centuries of Christian history, when most of the accessions to the church were adult converts from paganism, the baptism of these adults and the ceremony admitting them to the full rights of membership (equivalent to, but not yet called, confirmation) probably coincided. Early Christian theologians, therefore, do not accord much special treatment to the rite of confirmation, but closely connect its meaning and effects with those of baptism. But as the baptism of infants rather than of adults came to be customary, a sharper distinction between baptism and confirmation became necessary; and in all those Christian denominations where some sort of confirmation is still observed, its connection with baptism and its distinction from baptism shape both the practice of the rite and the theological interpretation placed upon it. In the Roman Catholic Church confirmation must be at the hands of a bishop, except in certain exceptional cases where a priest is granted permission to perform the rite. A baptized person who has come to the age of reason (at least 7, though in practice not until age 11 or 12) receives the laying on of hands from the bishop and is anointed with the sacred chrism on his forehead. The bishop pronounces the formula: "I sign you with the sign of the cross and confirm you with the chrism of salvation, in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit," and he gently strikes the cheek of the candidate as a sign of the spiritual warfare in which he is now to engage as a knight of Christ. According to Roman Catholic doctrine, confirmation is a sacrament instituted by Jesus Christ, and it confers the gifts of the Holy Spirit, grace, strength and courage upon the recipient. The Eastern Orthodox churches, as well as some of those eastern churches in communion with Rome, permit an ordinary priest to administer confirmation, but with a chrism consecrated by a patriarch or bishop. As a rule, confirmation in Eastern Orthodoxy follows immediately upon baptism, as part of the same service, and is followed in turn by the first communion of the child, who thus receives all three sacraments together. Controversy between east and west over confirmation dealt principally with the question of

who may

ordinarily administer

the sacrament. The paucity of references to confirmation in the early Christian tradition has aroused controversies also among Roman Catholic theologians as to whether Christ determined in detail the

"matter" of confirmation (see Sacrament), or whether

CONFISCATION—CONFLICT OF LAWS

296 the apostles or the church

added the

rite

of anointing to the laying

on of hands.

Of the communions to emerge from the Reformation, Anglicanism and Lutheranism retained a form of confirmation, but with notable divergences from the early and Roman Catholic rite. The Anglican practice is to restrict the right of administering confirmation to the bishop, who lays hands upon the candidate and says: "Defend, O Lord, this thy child with thy heavenly grace, that he may continue thine forever; and daily increase in thy Holy Spirit more and more, until he come unto thy everlasting kingdom."' The problem of the connection between baptism and confirmation and the inconclusive evidence about the early Christian practice of confirmation have been the occasion for theological controversy within Anglicanism over the independent sacramental status of confirmation as "the seal of the Spirit." Lutheranism, in general, restricts the term "sacrament" to baptism and the Eucharist, and therefore rejects the sacramental making of it instead the public proby the candidate of the faith into which he was baptized Confirmation in Lutheran usage, as in Anglican as an infant. usage, is therefore preceded by instruction in the catechism (q.v.). Other Protestant bodies sometimes use the term "confirmation" for their acceptance of baptized members into the duties and privileges of full membership, including the right to receive the definition of confirmation,

fession

Eucharist. Bibliography. "Confirmation," Dictionnaire de thiologie catholigue, iii, pp. 975-1103 (1908), with detailed bibliography; Theodore M. Hesburgh, The Relation of the Sacramental Characters of Baptism and Confirmation to the Lay Apostolate (1946) Lionel S. Thornton, Confirmation: Its Place in the Baptismal Mystery (19S4) Geoffrey W. Lampe, The Seal of the Spirit (1951) Lukas Vischer, Die Geschichte der Konfirmation (1958). (J. J. Pn.)

—

S.V., vol.

;

;

;

CONFISCATION AND EXPROPRIATION,

in law, are

terms applied to the compulsory transfer of private property to public ownership. Broadly speaking, the distinction between them consists in whether or not compensation is paid to the private owner. Confiscation involves taking without the payment of compensation; expropriation, on the other hand, normally implies such payment. Confiscation. The word confiscation derives from the Latin fiscus and means literally the adding of private property to the The term originated in Roman law; and the public treasury. practice gained in use as central political organizations acquired strength. The common-law concept of confiscation included three

—

aspects; as a punishment for great crimes, as an act of the sovereign,

and

as a belligerent right against the property of enemies in

war.

In the middle ages, confiscation developed into an important enforcement of the criminal law; since the criminal was seen as an enemy of society, his goods could rightly be appropriated to the common store. Forfeiture to the crown of the lands of persons attainted {i.e., convicted and sentenced to death) of high treason thus gave rise to this, form of confiscation {see Attainder) Another example of confiscation in the medieval period was escheat Whenever a tenant of land was attainted of felony, his {q.v.). land was said to "escheat" {i.e., fall back) to the feudal lord from whom he held. The doctrine of escheat was founded on the general principle of the feudal system that land should always be in the possession of someone; and an escheat occurred whenever a tenancy came to an end for whatever reason; e.g., on the death of the tenant without heirs. There was a presumption that in the absence of proof to the contrary, the crown was the feudal lord and thus entitled to any land which escheated. With the decay of the feudal system and the disappearance of feudal lordships, this presumption operated more and more frequently, so that the crown became the chief recipient of escheated land. Escheat for felony, together with forfeiture to the crown, was finally abohshed in England in 1870. However, although escheat for failure of heirs was also abolished in 1925, an escheat is still possible in certain circumstances. In the early middle ages, property of subjects of an enemy nation was freely confiscated at the inception of warfare, but this practice declined with the rise of trade and commerce. Magna Carta tool in the

.

provided for immunity of property of merchants of enemy nations for a certain period following the beginning of the war, a practice which increased in scope. This concept has since widened to include almost all of society, and international law recognizes ex-

upon confiscation by belligerents. Confiscation deemed permissible only in the case of goods especially of use war materials or subsidiary activities. While this standard is seldom met in full, the trend in this direction is evident in the modem practice of seizing private enemy holdings only for the duration of the hostilities. {See Laws of War.) The use of confiscation as an instrument of government power tensive restrictions

is

for

reached

its

declined.

zenith in the 16th and 17th centuries and has since Its present use

is

ordinarily limited to the lawful use

An example

is the seizure from private citizens of objects deemed obnoxious to public safety or unable to be put to a lawful use, such as gaming tables, fishing nets being il-

of the police power.

legally used, etc.

—

Expropriation. Expropriation, unlike confiscation, is a flourand indeed expanding tool of modern government. The origin of the word expropriation is in the Spanish expropriacion, which originally constituted the taking of private land for public use in any fashion. While the term is sometimes applied to the transfer of property from one private individual to another, expropriation is properly only the transfer from private to public ishing

hands and, under later usage, is specifically the acquisition of private property under the right of eminent domain {q.v.). As such, expropriation implies legal process and just compensation for goods or property taken for public use, with judicial redress as a remedy for inadequate compensation. Expropriation is not ordinarily a method of supplying the common needs of the government but is directed toward the satisfaction of specific government objectives.

The right of the property owner to be adequately compensated for losses incurred by expropriation is recognized in international law and finds constitutional protection in many western nations. In the United States, the Sth amendment to the constitution provides that "no person shall be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation." While this only limits the power of the federal government {Barron v. Baltimore, 7 Pet. 243), the U.S. supreme court has held that the 14th amendment imposes a similar limit on the power of state governments {Chicago B. Q. Ry. Co. v. Chicago, 166 U.S. 226). In England, where there is no written constitution and hence no special safeguard against governmental power, there is a strong presumption of law that when an act of parliament authorizes the compulsory acquisition of private property, it is intended that adequate compensation shall be payable. This presumption, however, has not been called into operation, since in practice parliament has invariably provided for compensation in such statutes. The question of what constitutes just and adequate compensation is determined by a variety of factors, but the most common standard in both England and the United States is the monetary equivalent of the owner's loss. (F. H. He.; T. S. Le.) (Private International Law). The law of conflict of laws has to do with the resolution of problems which result from the fact that there exists in the world a multiplicity of different sets of courts and of different systems .

.

.

&

CONFLICT OF LAWS

of private law.

As the earth

is

presently organized,

its

surface

among

nations that are independent of each other and that have no world government above them. Each of these nations maintains its own set of courts in complete indep>endence of every is

divided

other nation, and each nation has

its

own

set of laws, written or

unwritten.

While in such countries as France, Sweden, Peru or Japan one system of law obtains for the whole country, diversity exists many others, especially nations organized upon a federal pattern, such as the United States of America, or Canada or, to a minor degree, Germany, Switzerland, Mexico or the Soviet Union. The law of Illinois is not the same as that of New York, Louisiana or Indiana; that of Quebec differs from that of Ontario or Newfoundland; that of Chihuahua is not quite the same as that of single

in

—

CONFLICT OF LAWS Michoacan. In Germany and Switzerland the systems of private law are by and large uniform, but minor differences still exist between the Latider or the cantons.

Even

in

countries whose political structure

is

of the unitary

rather than the federal pattern, differences can be found.

In the

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland considerable differences exist between the laws of England, Scotland, the

Man, the Channel Islands and Northern Ireland. Diversity of laws also exists frequently between a country and The laws of Mauritius or Malta, for instance, are its colonies. different from any of the laws prevailing in the United Kingdom, Isle of

most other British colonies the laws are more or patterned upon the model of the common law of England, they

among countries of Latin America and of The United States is a party to numerous mutually secure the right of citizens of the United States, on the one part, and of citizens of the other contracting country, on the other, freely to dispose of property owned in the territory of the country of which the owner is not a citizen, and to take such property as legatees, devisees, heirs or next of kin on the death of a citizen of the other country. A treaty providing that the citizens of each contracting country shall, in the courts of the other, be treated in their family affairs and other matters of personal status in accordance with the rules of their own law was concluded by the United States and Iran. United States treaties dealing with other problems of private international law are rare. No treaties at all have been made by the United States on enforcement and recognition of judgments or on jurisdiction

and, while in

merous

less

continental Europe.

are not always exactly the same.

France

same in

there for

is

divided, such as

new country

is formed, or annexed, legal unity may not be brought about After the reannexation of Alsace-Lorraine by 1920, for example, German private law remained in effect

where territory at the

Where

a

is

time.

many years; and when Poland was formed out of parts Germany and Austria, legal uniformity was not brought

of Russia,

about until after the end of World War II. Diversities of law within one country may also exist on an ethnic

Such a situation commonly existed in most and middle east; the laws concerning matters of the family, including succession upon death, remain different in India for Hindus, Muslims, Parsees and Buddhists, and in Lebanon or Israel for Muslims, Jews and the various groups of Christians. In the United States and Canada, American Indians or religious basis.

countries of the near

are in several respects subject to their

own

tribal laws.

Because of the spread of western civilization over the entire modern nations, at least as they are concerned

planet, the laws of

with relations between private individuals, present a considerable

measure of uniformity. They are sufficiently different, however, to make it important to know to what situations one ought to apply the law of one country, state, region or group rather than that of another, especially when dealings are carried on between persons of different law units. This question of determining which of the world's numerous laws is the proper one to apply in a particular situation is in itself a legal question. Those rules of law by which such questions of choice of law are determined constitute a major part of that field of the law which is known as private international law or, as it is usually called in the United States, the law of conflict of laws. Other parts of this field of the law are concerned with the problem of jurisdiction i.e., the problem of determining in what cases the courts of a particular country or state are, or are not, to go into action and, furthermore, with the problem of stating what weight, if any, is to be given in one country or state to the judgments and other decisions of the courts or other agencies of other countries or states. In countries of the French legal tradition it is customary to regard as parts of private international law also those rules that deal with nationality and with the legal position of aliens and nonresidents. In accordance with Anglo-U.S. usage, however, the present article will be limited to jurisdiction, foreign judgments and choice of law. Sources of Private International Law in General. The name private international law seems to indicate that it is a part of international law; i.e., that system of law that is superior to all sovereign states and that, at least in theory, is uniform throughout the world. This view was commonly held for many centuries, and when the name "private international law" was coined in the

—

—

19th century

it

was meant

states, especially

treaties that

Diversity of laws develops where a country

Germany, Korea or Vietnam.

297

has been considered an ideal rather than a true description of reality. Today, it is generally recognized that each nation not only determines what its substantive law {i.e., its law of property, contracts, torts, family relations, succession, corporations, etc.) is to be, but also in what cases its courts are to have jurisdiction, under what conditions foreign judgments are to be recognized, and which country's law is to be applied in any particular case. As on other matters, nations may, of course, conclude treaties, bilateral or multilateral, in which they assume in relations with each other the duty to deal with certain problems in an agreed way. Treaties of such a kind have been concluded between nu-

to signify that the supranational

body

two parts, public and private international law. While the former would determine the proper conduct of sovereign nations toward each other in both peace and war, the latter would, in a uniform way, tell all nations in what cases their courts ought or ought not take jurisdiction, under what conditions foreign judgments were to be enforced or otherwise recognized, and in what cases the laws of one nation were to of international law consisted of

be applied rather than those of another. Since the latter part of the 19th century, however, such a view

of courts.

The United Kingdom and the other countries of the Commonwealth of Nations are parties to numerous treaties among each other and with other nations, concerning foreign judgments and mutual rights of owning, disposing and taking of property, but British treaties on other matters are. as rare as United States

Where a practical problem is to be handled, however, nevertheless advisable always to ascertain whether or not

treaties. it

is

by which the problem may be affected. such as France, Germany or Latin America, in which the bulk of private law is contained in codes and other statutes, the statutory provisions on private international law are fragmentary, and for large parts of the field the law must be sought in the decisions of the courts. In all countries the writings of scholars have been of considerable influence. there

is

Even

in effect a treaty

in those areas,

norms of private law bealmost exclusively to the domain of the several states. Consequently, conflicts law, too, is by and large state law rather than federal law. While there might exist as many different bodies of U.S. private international law as there are separate states, territories and possessions of the United States, all these state and territorial laws greatly resemble each other. Differences exist, however, in many questions of detail, which are due to divergent judicial decisions or to the enactment of different statutes. In those matters which, as patents or shipping, are regulated by In the United States the creation of

longs

federal substantive law, the pertinent conflicts rules are also fed-

Federal law also obtains insofar as a matter of conflicts law is dealt w'ith in a treaty of the United States. The power of each state freely to shape its private international law by its own statutory enactments and judicial decisions is limited in the constitution of the United States by the "full faith and credit" clause of art. iv, sec. i, and the "due process" clause of the 14th eral law.

amendment,

sec. i.

In spite of the loosening of the legal nations, conflicts law in the

ties

between the member

commonwealth has preserved

a re-

markable measure of uniformity. Those rules of private international law that have been and are being developed by the courts and legal scholars of England constitute a common fund of all parts not only of the United Kingdom and its dependencies but Divergencies have begun to also of the entire commonwealth. develop, however, through the conclusion of treaties by the several sovereign nations of the commonwealth and by the enactment of statutes by them as well as by their self-governing dependencies. In

all

those

commonwealth nations

upon the federal pattern, such

as

that are politically organized

Canada, Australia and India,

questions arise as to whether a certain problem of conflicts law

CONFLICT OF LAWS

298

belongs to the legislative sphere of the central government or of the states or provinces. Jurisdiction. 11 a person wishes to bring a civil lawsuit against another person against whom he believes he has a claim, he might conceivably bring the action in any country of the world.

—

If, however, a citizen and resident of the United States (for e.\and resident of Canada in Panama, a judgment obtained in P'anama would be of no use to him unless the Canadian owned in Panama property which, if he did not pay, the U.S. citizen might attach there, or if the Panaman judgment could be enforced in such other country or countries in which he happened to hold property. For this practical reason the problem of where to bring suit is thus tied up wuth that of the enforceability of foreign judgments. However, even if a judgment might be of

aniple) were to sue a citizen

practical value to the plaintiff, he might find that the courts of

the country in which he wished to bring his action receive

it.

limited

As a matter of

their jurisdiction;

fact, all countries of

would not

the earth have

the scope of actions

i.e.,

that

they

Countries do not wish their courts allow their courts to handle. to deal with lawsuits with which they have no proper contact,

which might clog the calendars of their courts, or against which it would be unfair to compel a person to enter a defense on pain of having judgment by default rendered against him. Opinions differ, however, as to when it is regarded proper for a country to hear and decide a civil lawsuit. This question is determined by each country for itself. In composite countries, such as the United States of America, the United Kingdom, Canada, Switzerland or the U.S.S.R., rules are also necessary to determine in which of the several constituent states, provinces or other parts a civil lawsuit may be brought. In some states (for instance, the Federal Republic of Germany) this determination is made by the national law. It may be left, however, to each of the constituent states to determine for itself the scope of litigation which it will allow its courts to decide. Such, at least on general principle, is the situation in the United States, where the states' freedom of determination is limited, however, by the "due process" clause of the 14th amendment to the federal constitution, which in effect prohibits the state from exercising civil jurisdiction where it would be grossly unfair to do so. In the United Kingdom and the other countries of the commonwealth, the jurisdiction of its courts is also determined for each constituent part by its own law, but the principles of such determination do not differ widely from each other. As a general principle, most countries or states agree that a case may be tried in their courts if both parties have consented to their jurisdiction. The plaintiff's consent simply appears from .

commencing his action in the state in question; that of the defendant is presumed when, rather than objecting to the jurisdiction, he confesses judgment or begins to litigate on the merits

his

the controversy. Some countries, courts to a litigant whose case has no

of

tion with

them than the

nevertheless,

more

parties' consent.

close

their

substantial connec-

French courts, for

in-

between foreigners unless it arises out of controversy that has some real connection with France, such as the allegation of a breach of a contract to be performed in France, or a tort committed in France, or title to land situated in France. As another example, the courts of New York regard stance, will not try a lawsuit

themselves as an "inconvenient forum" for suits between nonresidents concerning a tort committed outside New York. With few exceptions Anglo-U.S. courts will not try controversies concerning title to, or trespass upon, land situated outside the state. Generally, however, the problem of jurisdiction does not become acute unless the defendant objects to the case's being tried in the country or state of the plaintiff's choosing, or unless he fails to appear. Different approaches to this problem of jurisdiction are followed in the countries of the civil-law tradition and in those of the Anglo-U.S. common-law tradition. The former start

from the idea that the proper place for

a person to be sued is In civil-law systems, in general, a peralways be sued at his residence and must not be sued in any other place. Many exceptions to the latter principle exist, however. An adjudication of the title to a piece of land, for his domicile or residence.

son

may

must be brought where the land

instance,

is

A

situated.

suit aris-

may be brought in the place where the alleged to have been committed, and a suit based upon an

ing out of an alleged tort tort

is

may

alleged breach of contract

be brought in the place in which was to be performed. Some countries, for instance Germany, allow an absent defendant to be sued in their courts if he owns within the country any property. France keeps its courts open for suits of any kind brought by a French national against 3 foreigner. A large number it

is

alleged that the alleged contract

of states, including those adhering to the Anglo-U.S. tradition, allow a civil suit to be

of property fault

owned within

commenced by

common-law

the attachment

the territory, the enforcement of a de-

judgment obtained being

limited, however, to the assets thus

attached.

In their general approach to the problem of jurisdiction, the

common-law

proceed from the long-obsolete notion in any way other than by the defendant's arrest by the sheriff. Consequently, an action can still be brought in any place in which the defendant is personally served with process, even though he may be there only for a few minutes to change airplanes. In modern times it has come to be widely held, however, that personal service upon the defendant is no longer an indispensable requirement of jurisdiction and that an individual may be sued in the state of his residence, even if the summons is not personally pressed upon him. A corporation can always be sued in the state in which it has been countries

still

that no civil suit could be

commenced

incorporated.

In the United Kingdom and other units of the commonwealth, may allow the defendant to be served outside the juris-

the court

diction in a suit is

number

of special situations, especially

when

the

based upon a breach of contract performable within the

upon a tort committed within the jurisdiction. Using the "due process" clause of the 14th amendment to the U.S. constitution, which forbids the states to "deprive any person of life, liberty or property without due process of law," the supreme court has held that a state may not exercise jurisdiction jurisdiction, or

against an absent defendant unless the case has such

minimum

contact with the state that the maintenance of the suit does not offend traditional notions of fair play and substantial justice (United Shoe Company v. State of Washington, 326 U.S. 310; 66 S.Ct. 154 [194S]). It

is

thus required

that

an honest

against him.

The mere publication of

be made to give about to be brought in a news-

effort

the defendant actual notice that a lawsuit

is

the

summons

paper or at the bulletin board of the court is not sufficient unless the address or identity of the defendant cannot be ascertained

upon a reasonable effort. Quite generally, states of the United States are now coming to allow their courts to exercise jurisdiction in suits arising out of breach of contract to be performed within the state, or out of a tort, especially an automobile accident, that occurred within the In many states a corporation may be sued if it is simply "doing business" there, even though the suit in question is totally unconnected with the state. In both civil- and common-law countries special rules apply for suits in which the plaintiff aims at a judgment in rem; i.e., a judgment which, rather than adjudging a defendant indebted to pay a certain sum of money or ordering him to do, or not to do, a certain act {e.g., deliver a deed to a piece of land, or refrain from using a trade-mark), produces by its own effect a change of the legal situation (for instance, the foreclosure of a mortgage, the removal of a cloud on a title to land, the dissolution of a marstate.

riage, the creation of an adoptive parent-child relationship, etc.). Lawsuits aiming at the court's changing the title to a piece of land can universally be brought nowhere but in the state in which Actions arising out of transactions conthe land is situated. nected with shipping can generally be brought in the port in which the ship in question happens to find itself. For actions for divorce, civil-law countries generally keep their courts open to their nationals even if they reside abroad. Foreign Judgments. If a creditor has obtained against his debtor a judgment for $1,000 in Mexico or in Michigan, and his

—

CONFLICT OF LAWS li

!

I

I

debtor does not have sufficient property in that country or state, can he enforce it in Illinois, where the debtor owns land, keeps a bank account or owns other assets? If someone has brought and lost a lawsuit in New York, can he start it all over again in CaliIf the marriage of Mr. and Mrs. Smith has fornia or in Peru? been terminated by a decree of divorce of a court in Nevada, or by an act of the parliament of Canada, or by the order of a district governor in Norway, and Mr. Smith wishes to remarry in Wyoming or in South Africa, will he be given a licence? If he remarries will his new marriage be valid or does he have to go

United States parents residing in Wisconsin many and the adoption has been confirmed by a court of sin, will the child inherit on the adopter's death a piece to jail as a

If a citizen of the

bigamist?

adopts a child of

German

situated in Indiana or an account in a

bank

in

residing in

Ger-

Wisconof land

Germany

or in

Unless countries have bound each other by treaty mutually to enforce their civil judgments, each country is free as to whether or not, and, if at all, under what conditions, it wishes to enforce or otherwise recognize foreign judgments.

The

attitudes of the

]

and the treatment of the enforcement of money judgments is not the same as bar to the starting of a judgment as a of a recognition the that of

)

new

several countries vary considerably in this respect,

over again {res judicata effect), or the recognition

suit all

of the termination of a marriage by a decree of divorce or of other changes of private legal relationships brought about by judicial act.

judgment for money is not promptly paid by the debtor, it enforced by the attachment and sale of his property, the proceeds being turned over to the creditor. Such enforcement is generally the task of a public officer, such as the sheriff, who is empowered, where necessary, to break resistance with physical force. While a sheriff knows well enough the looks of a judgment of his own state, he cannot be expected, or even allowed, to go If a

is

;

judgment of

basis of a paper purporting to be

upon the

into action simply

the

a foreign state with

whose

judicial system, lan-

guage or even script he cannot be expected to be familiar. For the protection of the citizen as well as of himself, it is indispensable that, before the sheriff or other enforcement officer goes into action, the foreign judgment be transformed into a domestic one. Some countries, such as the Netherlands or Sweden, simply Even if the creditor limit enforcement to domestic judgments. has obtained a judgment abroad, he must start regular proceedings foreign judgment proall over again, and the only advantage the vides for

him

lies in

Dutch or Swedish court will way conclusive, In most other domestic judgment will be supplied by a

the fact that the

be inchned to regard it as good, although in no evidence of the well-foundedness of his claim. countries, however, a !

domestic court without a reopening of the dispute about the merits of the creditor's claim. All the domestic court will inquire into

I

is 1

;

if it is

a

jority of the civil-law countries provide a kind of special pro-

ceeding (exequatur) which

obliged mutually to enforce their

supposed to be, but

is

is

not always,

money judgments and

to recog-

nize the res judicata and law-changing effects of their judicial acts,

provided the state by which the judgment was rendered was

its jurisdiction as defined by the suof the United States. The only other defenses that might be raised are grave irregularity of the proceedings in which the judgment was obtained and, in certain cases, lack of

acting within the scope of

preme court

finality.

the judgment in question

is

that of a foreign country,

common law under which a foreign judgment is willingly enforced and otherwise recognized unless (i) the country by which it was rendered a U.S. court will follow the general principles of the

lacked jurisdiction according to the notions prevailing in the place where recognition is sought, or {2) the proceedings in which the judgment was obtained were tainted with fraud or were otherwise grossly unfair, or (3) the recognition or enforcement of the foreign judgment would seriously interfere with an important public policy of the state where recognition or enforcement is sought. In addition to these requirements, most civil-law countries (except, of course, those few in

not enforced at

allj also

which foreign judgments

demand

as such are

that reciprocity with the country

whose judgment is sought be recognized. In many civil-law countries a foreign judgment concerning a matter of personal status of a citizen also will not be recognized unless the foreign court

has observed certain rules of the substantive law of the country where recognition is sought. Nowhere will a foreign judgment be enforced or recognized un-

by which it was rendered had jurisdiction to do so under the notions obtaining where recognition is sought. These limits are sometimes wider, however, than those which a country will concede to others for the exercise of their jurisdictions. While France, for instance, holds its courts open for all suits of a less the state

Frenchman against a foreigner, a U.S. or English court will not recognize a default judgment obtained in such an action unless the defendant was served w'ith process in France, or was a resident of France or had some other contact with that country which being sued in France. In matters affecting personal status, especially divorce, civillaw countries generally recognize judgments rendered by the courts of the country of which the parties are nationals. Under the common law of England a decree of divorce will not be recognized unless it was rendered by the state of the domicile of the husband. After World War II, however, there were enacted in some parts of the commonwealth statutes under which a wife living separately from her husband might also sue for divorce in the state of her residence, and a decree thus obtained is likely to be recognized

justifies his

in the other parts of the

commonwealth.

simpler and less expensive than an ordinary civil lawsuit. In the common-law countries it is necessary to bring upon the foreign

In the United States the supreme tourt has determined that a divorce granted in one state must be recognized in all others if

outward form is a regular civil lawsuit normal case, simple and speedy. In

the state by which it was granted was the state of the true residence of the plaintiff (Williams v. North Carolina, 317 U.S. 287; 63 S.Ct. 207 [1943]) or if the defendant actually participated in the proceedings without contesting the plaintiff's allegation of residence (Sherrer V. Sherrer, 334 U.S. 343; 68 S.Ct. 1087 [1948]; Johnsonv. Muelberger, 340\j.S. SSI; 71 S.Ct. 5S1 [1951]). Since the courts of certain states (for instance, Nevada) tend to take as true the unproved and uncontested allegations of the plaintiff as to cruelty or other grounds for divorce, the supreme court of the United States has thus rendered it possible for the residents of all states of the union to obtain a divorce by mutual consent, although that kind of divorce is not provided in the official law of any of the states. Where a divorce has been obtained by one spouse without the co-operation of the other, recognition may still be denied upon the ground that the state by which it was granted was not that of the true residence of the plaintiff (i.e., the state in which he in-

judgment an action that but that

is,

the United

in

at least in the

Kingdom and

of domestication •

which the foreign judgment judgment by default. For this a domestic judgment, the ma-

the regularity of the proceedings in

was obtained, especially

transformation of a foreign into '

that "full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records and judicial proceedings of every other state." Under this clause the states, and by statute the territories, are

Where

Switzerland?

299

and, to a more limited extent, France) nevertheless require such formal domestication for decrees of divorce and other judgments purporting to affect the personal status of their nationals. In the United States the constitution (art. iv, sec. i) provides

is

the

commonwealth

a simplified

mode

furnished by agreements and statutes providthe simple registration in one law unit

ing, in certain cases, for

In the United States a similar between those states that have

of judgments rendered in another.

method

exists

in

the

relations

adopted the Uniform Enforcement of Foreign Judgments act. Where a foreign judgment is not sought to be enforced by attachment of the debtor's property or similar measures, but where its res judicata effect is simply raised as a defense in a domestic lawsuit, or where the question is simply that of recognition of its law-changing effects, such as the termination of a marriage by a decree of divorce, it would seem to be unnecessary to require the formal transformation of the foreign into a domestic judgment

by any special proceedings.

Some

countries (for instance, Italy

CONFLICT OF LAWS

300

tends to live indefinitely), even though he actually may have been within it for six weeks or longer (Williams v. North Carolina, 325 U.S. 226; 65 S.Ct. 1092 [1945]). Even though a state may have jurisdiction to terminate a marriage, it does not necessarily also have jurisdiction to order the

would be decided by the English court, which, of course, applied the common law of England. Injustice was, however, to arise until, in the middle of the i8th century, the English judges discovered that on the continent suits having supraterritorial contacts had for centuries been handled in a different method; i.e., that of

defendant to p.ny alimony or child support, or to terminate a husband's duty to pay separate maintenance. In order to have jurisdiction in such latter respects, the party adversely affected must either have participated in the proceedings or must have been a resident of the state or must have been personally served with process within it.

choice of law.

Choice of Law: General Problems and History.

—Ordinarily

the courts of Illinois decide the civil cases coming before

them

under the law of Illinois, those of Scotland under the law of Scotland and those of Belgium under the law of Belgium. Occasionally it happens, however, that a court of New York decides a problem in accordance with the norms of the law of Illinois, Quebec or Thailand, or a court of the Philippines under the law of Indonesia, Victoria or Massachusetts. Those rules that tell the court of a country or state under what circumstances it ought to decide a problem not under the law of its own state or country but under that of another and, if so, of which other, constitute the choice of law part of that state or country's law of conflict of laws or private international law.

This method is generally said to have been developed in the northern Italy, when, from the nth century on, trade considerable proportions and the common law of the Holy Roman empire was altered and supplemented by numerous local statutes. Which statute was to apply to a contract made between citizens of different cities or to other intercity cities of

among them assumed

transactions?

The problem

attracted the attention of the students

of the newly revived science of law, especially at the central seat

The most celebrated of these was Bartolus de Sassoferrato (1314-57 ), whose

of medieval legal learning, Bologna. "statutist" scholars

influence

remained considerable into the igth century.

From

Italy, the centre of conflict of laws learning shifted in the 15th

century to France (D'Argentre, 1519-go; Dumoulin |Molinaeus], 1500-66) and in the 17th to Holland, A short article of the Dutch jurist Ulrich Huber, entitled De conflictu legum diversarum in diversis imperiis ("On the conflict of the different laws of different empires," 1700), which may have become known in England

problems coming before them under the law of their own state by no means self-evident. It has its rationale mainly in the thought that it would be unjust to the parties concerned if a problem were decided under a law of which they had not thought at the time of entering the transaction out of which their litigation

through Lord Mansfield, came to be enormously influential on the lawyers and judges of England as well as upon Joseph Story, an associate justice of the supreme court of the United States, who wrote the first major treatise on the subject in English (1834J. Story's work was of far-reaching influence not only in the commonlaw countries but, through the German jurist Friedrich Karl von Savigny, also in the countries of the civil law (the latter's treatise. System des heittigen romischen Rechts, vol. 8, was pub-

arises.

lished in 1849).

The notion

that the courts of a state should ever have to de-

cide problems under foreign law rather than invariably deciding all is

However, the necessity

to apply the law of a foreign state or

country constitutes an inconvenience to the court and the parties. While judges are familiar with the law of their own state, they cannot be expected to be familiar with that of the whole world. Foreign law must therefore be specially pleaded and proved, often at considerable inconvenience and expense.

The problem

of the choice of law, of course, arises only where

the laws of the states in question are different.

In the

Roman

was avoided, although the laws of its numerous commuit seems, widely different from the law of the city of Rome as well as among themselves. Side by side with the law of the city of Rome (which, as the jus civile or jus quiritium, was the privilege of the citizens of the dominant city), the jurists of the late republic and the early empire synthesized another body of empire

it

nities were,

law. which they believed to constitute an

of

all

amalgam

of the laws

nations and which, as the jus gentium, was applied by the

Roman

authorities in litigations between citizens of different

com-

In the later empire this jus gentium practically came to swallow up the jus civile and thus to be, at least officially, the uniform law of the empire. (See Roman Law.) Problems of choice of law also do not arise where courts, while applying no law other than that of their own state, refuse to take jurisdiction in cases in which decision under that law would be inappropriate. For many centuries this approach was followed by the common-law courts of England, which could assemble a jury from no county other than that within which there had occurred the events out of which the cause of action Had arisen. Cases arising out of transactions of international trade were decided by such bodies as the courts merchant, the admiralty or the council, which, looking to the law merchant, applied a law that was more or less uniform throughout Christendom. In consequence of the Revolution of the 17th century, the judicial activities of these bodies were curtailed and, if serious denials of justice were to be avoided, the common-law courts had to assume jurisdiction in supra-English cases. They did so in a typical common-law munities.

The plaintiff would allege that Honfleur, Hamburg, Calcutta or any other foreign place where a contract was made or fashion:

a tort had occurred

was situated

The defendant was not allowed

in the

county of Middlesex. Eng.

to "traverse" this strange geog-

raphy, a jury was then convened from Middlesex and the case

Building upon the foundation laid by Story. Anglo-U.S. courts decided a vast variety of cases in typical case law fashion, while the civil-law countries the field was dominated by scholars whose fertile thoughts greatly helped to develop the field but whose exaggerated conceptualism sometimes created unnecessary difficulties and inappropriate rules. Their doctrines were discovered in the common-law countries just when they had spent their force and the continental European scholars, especially of Germany, had begun to develop a new, vigorously realistic method. In the United States, conceptualism was carried to an extreme by Joseph Henry Beale in the American Law institute's Restatement of the Law of Conflict of Laws (1934). This work, which was intended to be an authoritative guide to a field in which U.S. lawyers still do not feel fully at home, was so severely criticized that in 1954 a complete revision of the Restatement was undertaken by the American Law institute so as to bring it into better in

accord with practical needs. As is the case with the law on jurisdiction and on foreign judgments, the law of choice of law is a part of the national law of each country and, in the United States, of state law. Efforts of the supreme court of the United States through the "due process" or the "full faith and credit" clauses of the constitution to control the states in their choice-of-law rules have been sporadic and inconsistent.

The nature of the problems and the common origin of the field have led to the result that the choice-of-law rules of the earth's several law units do not differ very much from one another. The choice-of-law rules of the

common-law

countries present a par-

measure of uniformity. Enough differences exist, however, to disturb international and interstate relations. Its Several Rules. The impracticability of much of the effort of the scholars of the late 19th and early 20th centuries was caused by their attempt to reduce the whole field of choice of law to a few principles that could be expressed in a small number of highly generalized maxims. Since the problems of choice of law are almost as manifold as those of substantive private law, Midthese efforts turned out to constitute oversimplifications. 20th century writers and courts regarded it as their task patiently to elaborate those detailed rules of narrow application that are necessary to do justice to the infinite variety of actual life. The ticular

—

CONFLICT OF LAWS can be found in the works listed in the bibHere no more can be done than state some over-all liography. approaches; these must not be regarded, however, as rules of immediate applicability. As to problems concerning an individual's personal status (e.g., results of these efforts

I

I

'

•

whether or not he has capacity to marry; what are the mutual rights between a husband and his wife, or between parent and child; or whether or not one individual is the legitimate child of another), it is universally held that they are to be decided under the law of that unit to which the individual in question "belongs." Under the view prevailing in most, but not all, civil-law countries, a person "belongs" to that country of which he is a national. This approach is of little help where a person is a national of a country, such as the United Kingdom or the United States, that does not have a uniform system of private law. In the commonlaw countries "belonging" is thus expressed in terms of either "domicile" (United Kingdom) or "residence" (United States). Ditiicult choices or combinations have to be worked out for cases involving relations between persons "belonging" to different law units. As to the formalities required for the conclusion of a marriage, observance of those of the place of celebration is widely held sufficient and in many laws is even required. Legal problems concerning title to land are universally held to be determinable under the law of the place where the land is situated. The application of the situs principle to movables meets In common-law with difficulties because of their movability. countries, problems of succession to property upon death are also In referred to the law of the situs insofar as land is concerned. civil-law countries a tendency exists, however, to decide such questions under the law of the country of which the decedent was That law is also applied in civil-law countries to a national. problems concerning succession to movables, while common-law countries in this respect look to the law of the decedent's domicile Special rules apply, however, to the making of a or residence. will. As to the formalities required, it is widely held to be sufficient that the testator has observed those that are stated in the law of the place where he executed the instrument. As to interpretation and construction of a last will, detailed choice-of-law rules are

necessary to take care of the great variety of possible

carry

some weight,

301

especially in the United States.

ticular law can be discovered as the

Where no

par-

one upon the basis of which

the parties transacted their business, detailed ' development was the acceptance after World War II of responsibility for a guaranteed minimum stipend for ministers and the raising of the necessary means through the Home Churches fund. This led to the adoption of an over-all budget scheme for all the work of the union by the voluntary decision of the churches to provide funds. In mid-century consideration was given to finding the means whereby the union and the London Missionary society might be integrated and thus organically express the unity of church and mission. The fact that the society served more than one Congregational union made the working out of such an arrangement difficult.

In 1945 the Presbyterian Church of England

made

proposals

Union of England and Wales. the churches was rejected by the Congrega-

for union with the Congregational

A

plan submitted to assembly of 1949. Nevertheless in 1951 the assemblies of met together and pledged themselves to close cooperation in terms of a covenant. As a result there was co-operation both at home and overseas and agreement was reached as to tional

the two bodies

the recognition of each other's ministries and faith. Though a small denomination, English have contributed largely to ecumenical work in of Churches and the International Missionarj' leaders out of proportion to their numbers.

as to standards of

Congregationalists the

World Council

council, providing

Scotland, having by

members.

It

I960 a total of 150 churches and 34,500 remains separate from, though in close fellowship

with, the Congregational Union of England and Wales,

and shares

support of the London Missionary society. Wales. While the Engli.sh-spcaking Congregationalists in Wales are included in the Congregational Union of England and Wales, those who originally spoke (and in many cases still speak) their native tongue are united as the Welsh Independents. Historically they trace themselves back to a revival which formed a church in 1639 in the village of Llanvaches in Monmouthshire. The flame of revival spread over the country and each centre became the home of an Independent church. In time the churches tended to group together for conference and preaching festivals. The first gymanja, or festival, was held Regular associations were also built up and attempts in 1778. were made to form a union of all the churches. At last in 1871, when the Congregational Union of England and Wales was holding in

—

an autumnal assembly in Swansea, the Welsh delegates met separately, and with the approval of the English union formed the Union of Welsh Independents. There were then in Wales 897 churches, and gradually, according to their choice, they found their place in the new union or the English one. The two unions have maintained close contact and by constitution send official representatives to each other's assemblies and co-operate in certain matters. The independence of the local churches in Wales has always been jealously preserved, and the union has been given little authority and has not developed any considerable organization. There is only one full-time officer, much of the work of the committees and of the council (the executive body) being done on a voluntary basis. A bookroom and publishing department was begun in 1907, and a weekly organ, Y Tyst ("The Witness"), is published. In 1911 a sustentation fund was started to help to maintain a minimum stipend for ministers.

Scotland and Wales

The Welsh churches maintain two

—

Scotland. Scottish Congregationalism owes its beginnings to two laymen, the brothers Robert and James Haldane. In the period of political and social unrest at the close of the 18th century they sought to arouse the Church of Scotland to the need for missionary effort at home and abroad by making preaching journeys up and down the country and by establishing Sunday schools. Their failure forced the Haldanes and their associates to found a

new denomination. The real architect

was Church of Scotland who left that church to assist the Haldanes and who became convinced of the scriptural authority for the Congregational polity. As minister of the mother church of the denomination in Glasgow (now Hillhead church) he was an unwearied itinerant in the cause of Congregationalism, a founder of its Ministerial Training college and of the Congregational Union of Scotland (1812). Alongside and succeeding him as leaders were such gifted men as Ralph Wardlaw of Glasgow and William Lindsay Alexander of Edinburgh. In the first century of the union's history outstanding names are George Macdonald, David Livingstone, Robert Moffat, James Chalmers and P. T. Forsyth. But also the little denomination of Scottish Congregationalism, however,

Greville Ewing, minister of the

made

a valuable witness in terms of its evangelical spirit, liberal outlook and encouragement of Christian democracy. In 1896 the Congregationalists were united with the Evangelical union, formed in 1843 by three ministers of the United Secession Church (James Morison, A. C. Rutherford and John Guthrie), who had been expelled for preaching a gospel which conflicted with the prevailing Calvinism of the day. The Evangelical union that expressed its faith in terms of the "three universalities'' God loves all men, that Christ died for all men and that the Holy Spirit strives with all men. In the 50 years of its separate existence it produced among others the theologian Andrew Martin Fairbairn and the Labour leader James Keir Hardie. The teachings and outlook of the Evangelical union were close enough to those of the Congregationalists to suggest amalgamation as early :

as 1867.

Congregationalism has never grown to any considerable

size in

theological colleges, but dur-

half of the 20th century one-third of

ing the

first

settled

down

in or

moved

all

the students

into English churches, leaving a short-

In 1960. 975 churches with age of ministers in Wales itself. Many of the 1 18.000 members were served by only 350 ministers. churches rely, therefore, on lay preachers. (R. F. G. C.)

United States

—

Beginnings. Congregational churches in the L'nited States derive from two sources the Separatists of Plymouth and the Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay colony. The former had taken refuge from persecution at Leiden in the Netherlands in 1608, but in 1620 a vanguard consisting of the younger members was sent to found a colony in the new world. They arrived on the "Mayflower" and settled at Plymouth. The greater portion of the Leiden congregation, including their pastor, John Robinson, remained in the Netherlands. The Puritans, who did not separate themselves from the Church of England but wished only to reform it, decided to leave England because of the persecutions under Archbishop Laud. They secured a charter for their colony from Charles I, and beginning in 1629 established settlements in considerable numbers in and around :

In organizing their churches they ordained their ministers when the latter had already been ordained The introduction of the congregational polity into their churches becomes understandable when one realizes that these Puritans belonged to the nonseparatist Congregational party in the English Church. Accordingly, both Plymouth and Massachusetts were congregational in polity. (See also Puritanism.) When presbyterianism became dominant in. England, the reliBoston.

congregationally, even episcopally.

New

England were summoned to a synod at Cam1648 to consider the implicit dangers of this event to their ecclesiastical structure. They decided to accept the Westminster Confession of Faith as their doctrinal statement, but they adopted the thoroughly congregational Platjorme of Church Discipline (the so-called Cambridge Platform) for their polity. The Halfway covenant adopted in 1662 greatly affected the requirements foi church membership, which originally depended gious leaders of

bridge, Mass., in

CONGREGATIONALISM '

upon a profession of

religious experience.

Members had

the right

be baptized and thus secured for them This system gave rise to an unforeseen diffiupon growing up, did not profess religious conversion. It was decided that those who had acquired membership by virtue of baptism alone could not be regarded as They retained all the privileges of church in full communion. members except that they could not partake of the Lord's Supper and could not vote in church elections. But they could bring their children to baptism and pass to them the degree of membership to present their children to

church membership. culty:

I

some

of these children,

the parents possessed.

Since a considerable group

among

the bay settlers consisted of

university-trained men, interest in education was keen.

i

This was evidenced in 1636 when the general court of Massachusetts voted funds for a college, to which the name of a minister, John Harvard, was given in 1639 {see Harvard University j. Thus began the continuous program of organizing and sustaining colleges by the Congregational

:

upon from the

churches,

an educated ministry being insisted

earliest days.

Great Awakening and After

—The

that occurred during the colonial period

;

'

I

1

loss in religious fervour

was

a source of profound the ministers of the Congregational churches. The general tendency of the time was to lay stress upon good works distress to

as the effective means of producing a religious experience, and preaching therefore was concerned largely with ethical idealism. It was not until about 1 734 that a widespread and profound move-

ment :

'

i

of religious revival began, which came to be known as the Great Awakening. Its origin was in the preaching of Jonathan Edwards iq.v.) of Northampton, Mass., a theologian and a preacher of unique power who ranks as perhaps the greatest intellectual leader produced in the Congregational churches. In 1740 George Whitefield came to America from England to help in the Awakening, news concerning which had produced a profound impression in the mother country. The movement then

Many

'

:

human

will in the process of

Out of

came at last the only distinctive system of divinity contributed by the United States to the history of doctrine. It

the discussions

was a form of modified Calvinism which is known as the New England theology, of which Jonathan Edwards and his followers were the principal exponents. Its basic tenet was emphasis upon the love of God in relation to men and the power of man in responding

But as was developments issuing from the Great Awakening swung to the left, and a strong Unitarian movement was incipient even when the Awakening was at its height. This did not come to full strength, however, until about 1800. Then to the divine influence in the experiences of religion.

inevitable, the theological

'

became aggressive. In 1805 they secured the their number to the Hollis professorship of

the anti-Trinitarians

one of Harvard, thus entrenching themselves in the oldest college of Congregational heritage. Within ten years the Unitarian movement assumed such strength that it was able to carry a majority in many of the oldest and strongest of the New England Congregational churches, and, as a result of a favourable court decision, to maintain possession of the records and property of the organizations. In Boston, for example, out of 14 Congregational election of divinity at

'.

;

I

the Presbyterians split in 1837 over the theological consequences of the Plan of Union, the Old School Presbyterian Church repudiated the plan. The New School continued the co-operation with the Congregationalists until the latter repealed the agreement at the Albany convention of 1852. Theological Development.— Despite the Unitarian defection from Congregationalism, the theological trends within the latter were toward liberalism. This showed itself, first of all, in the system of Nathaniel W. Taylor of the Yale divinity school, who taught a doctrine of free will that modified the older Calvinistic view. He asserted that even though God made the choice of evil possible, it was left to man's free will whether or not he would choose it. But even more important for this liberalizing tendency was the influence of Horace Bushnell (q.v.), the inspirer of the "New Theology." In his Christian Nurture (1847) he argued in

opposition to the

commonly accepted assumption

that every child

must pass through a religious crisis of conversion, that a child is to grow up as a Christian and never know himself as being otherwise. In his most radical book, God in Christ (1849), he sharply rejected the traditional "substitutionary" theory of atonement for one essentially consonant with the liberal interpretation of that doctrine.

in

salvation and the doctrines of foreordination and election.

I

When

and religion became a vital factor in human experience such as had not been before. A conservative estimate of the number added to the churches as a result of the revival is 25,000 out of a population of perhaps 300,000 in New England at that time. The differences in opinion brought out by the Great Awakening, however, quickly deepened and soon the churches were torn by controversy. The old, stable Calvinism, which had been generally dominant, was sharply assailed by those who were not satisfied with its affirmations of the absolute sovereignty of God, the total depravity of man, the inability of the

>

religious ministration, it was natural that the Congregationalists and Presbyterians should seek to work together. In 1801 they adopted the Plan of Union, and in 1808 the Accommodation Plan for Western New York, for the purpose of missionary expansion.

These liberal views became widely disseminated among the Congregational churches and resulted in a theological cleavage between the Congregationalists and the more conservative-minded Presby-

it

:

(See Unitasianism.) The period from 1800 to 1850 was marked by close union in missionary work with the Presbyterians, who had little strength in New England but possessed larger resources in New York and Pennsylvania. In doctrine the two bodies were in practical agreement, both being Calvinists in their earlier history. In church government they were not sharply separated. When the westward emigration demanded organized agencies to follow the settlers with

physical expressions of excitement accompanied the revival and created sharp divisions among the leaders. The good results of the Great Awakening are unquestioned, however. The moral standards of communities were lifted

swept rapidly on.

;

325

the Congregational organization.

churches all but 2 became Unitarian, involving immense loss in members and money to the orthodox group, as they were currently known. In Massachusetts alone, 96 churches thus separated from

When the Congregationalists met at the national council Boston (1865), they adopted after much discussion the so-called Burial Hill confession (at Plymouth) in which they practically broke with their theological past and would no longer use the term "Calvinist" for themselves. The most popular of the exponents of this evangelical liberal point of view were Henry Ward Beecher terians.

and Washington Gladden (gg.v.).

The so-called "Kansas City creed" of 1913 bore testimony to this liberal tendency. Organizational Developments. In 1810 the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions was organized. While entirely Congregational in origin, it included in its member-

—

ship, at first, representatives of the Presbyterian

formed churches;

later

the board extended

and Dutch ReAfter 1840

both these bodies withdrew.

work widely, and

it came to play a part missionary work in foreign lands, especially Turkey, quite out numbers and wealth of its supporting churches. During the same time the boards established for home missions and education set vigorously to work. The contribution of the American Missionary association to the education of Negroes was conspicuous, particularly after the close of the Civil War in 1865. In 1871 was organized the national council, the functions and

its

in

of proportion to the

powers of which were carefully defined and delimited. It was not to possess autonomous powers but to serve the interests of the churches in national, international and other delegated tasks. Another step was taken at Kansas City in 1913. The national council was given larger functions in the work of the church, still safeguarding the autonomy of the individual congregation. A general secretary was chosen to represent the churches of the nation in their relations with small congregational groups, other denominations

and internationally.

United Church of Christ.

—

The inherent ecumenicity of the Congregational churches was manifested in 1931, when the merger with the small body known as the Christian Church was consummated

;

the

name

of the fellowship

tional Christian Churches.

was changed

to the Congrega-

—

CONGREGATIONALISM

326

In 1938 union of the Congregational Christian Churches with Reformed Church (for the history of which see Reformed Churches; United States) into a new denomina-

brought changes. Protestation is no longer a primary necessity. Co-operation among churches has become vital to their administra-

Church of Christ, was proposed. The first draft of the Basis of Union was issued in March 1943 and Since the Evangelical and Rethe final version in Jan. 1947. formed Church was a Presbyterian body, the principal difference concerned the polity of the new denomination. The two polities were combined into a new pattern, neither presbyterian nor congregational. The merger of the two bodies was to be effected first and the constitution worked out afterward. When the Basis of Union was submitted to the churches, associations and state conferences for voting, the norm of 75*7^ set by the executive committee was not reached. Nevertheless, the general council of the Congregational Christian Churches held at Oberlin, O. (1948), declared the Basis of Union approved for itself (not for the

gregation are

churches). This decision was repeated next year at Cleveland, 0., after the period of voting was extended, although the 75% goal had not been reached. Negotiations were terminated by the Omaha council

with the minister in the spiritual care of the congregation, in the distribution of the elements at the Lord's Supper and in the general administration of the church and its organizations. Deacons are usually elected for an agreed number of years only.

(1956), which, by a vote of 1,310 to 179 (with 11 abstentions), authorized "the holding of the General Synod of the United Church of Christ." This body, composed of delegates from the two denominations, met in June 1957 at Cleveland, 0., and elected a

Ordination to the Congregational ministry is by the call of God and the call of the local church. Whereas in earlier days that might be sufficient, now the denomination is involved in the standards of training (though the theological colleges are independent), in recognition of status and by representative participation in ordination itself. John Owen, in his Discourses Concerning the Holy Spirit (1693), maintained that while the ministry is necessary to render a church "completely organical." yet men may "become a church essentially before they have any pastor or teacher." This view was confirmed in 1929 by the assembly of the Congregational Union of England and Wales. Nearly all Congregational churches are now involved together in associations or unions which cover district, county or state areas. In England and Wales these county unions are themselves represented in a council of 300. To this body all the committees or organizations of the union are appointed and to it they are

the Evangelical and tion, to be

known

as the United

constitutional committee. stitution

Church

In July 1961 at Philadelphia a con-

was adopted, the union was consummated and the United (0. S. D.;

of Christ established.

M.

Spi.)

International Congregationalism as it is found in the United States. Australia, Zealand, South Africa, British Guiana and Jamaica can be

New

traced back directly to England

—

in

many

cases (including

Canada

and Newfoundland before the union of 1925) through the work of the Colonial (later the Commonwealth) Missionary society. Irish Congregationalism grew largely out of the work of the Irish Evangelical society. Congregationalism in Argentina and some of the Congregational churches in Brazil was sponsored by German Congregationalists in the United States. Congregationalism, however, exists in other lands where it has grown spontaneously, though not always using the name. The Remonstrant Brotherhood in the Netherlands was formed in 1619, as a result of the teaching of Jacobus Arminius. The union of Evangelical Congregational and Christian churches of Brazil formed in 1942 traces its origin to an Englishman who began work there in 1855. The Free Church of Finland for political reasons could not be officially registered until 1922, but churches had then existed for more than 30 years. The Swedish Mission Covenant Church was formed in 1878 as an evangelical movement within the state Lutheran Church. Representatives of Congregational churches from all parts of the world first met in an International Congregational council in London in 1891. They continued to meet alternately in England and the United States at approximately ten-year intervals for fellowship and the exchange of views and experiences. At the meeting held in the United States in 1949 the council was provided with a constitution, a permanent secretariat and an office in London. Later meetings were held every five years. The council has no delegated or other authority and its purpose is still generally conceived in terms of fellowship and service between its constituent members.

POLITY, WORSHIP Polity.

—From

AND DOCTRINE

the 16th century there have been differences

of understanding as to the extent of the local autonomy and independence implied in the Congregationalist conception of the local church as the basic unit of Christian fellowship, worship and experience. It was necessary for the early churches to assert these rights against the authority claimed by the Episcopal Church in its orders, its creeds, its relation to the state, and against the authority of Presbyterian courts. The independence of the local congregations was also most suitable at a time when communications were difficult for a small scattered body. But time has

and

As

a result, while the rights of the local conmaintained, insistence on independence has Councils and assemblies have been given considerable powers, if not considerable authority.

tion

survival.

still

largely disappeared.

The

local congregation,

of faith and

membership

is still deemed the vital unit, committed Christians. Confession

however,

as a covenanted fellowship of

of the local church are undertaken to-

In the church all members are deemed to be equal and have equal responsibility exercised through the church meeting. These meetings are normally held once a month, less frequently in the United States. The ideal of participation by all. or even by most, church members, however, is rarely achieved. The general care of the church is in the hands of the deacons men and women elected by members to represent them in sharing gether. to

responsible.

however,

is

The council in turn reports to an assembly, which, constituted by direct representation of the ministers

and

laity of every church. over local congregations.

them

all

The assembly has no binding authority does represent the collective mind of

It

or of the majority, however, and

cisions generally,

its judgments or dethough not of necessity, are accepted. Increas-

ingly the churches have accepted the value as well as the necessity

of co-operation through an approved

and have recognized that the

and controlled organization,

Spirit of

God may move

in large

as well as small associations.

—

Worship.- The central feature of Puritan worship was the sermon, the declaration and exposition of God's Word and the apit to the hearts of the congregation. This has remained characteristic of Congregationalism. Its ministers are "of the Word and Sacraments" in that order. The church service is in large measure designed to promote the sermon as its plication of

—

climax.

The

central

and focal point of a Congregational church

A

is

tradi-

20th-century tendency to place the pulpit to one side of centre has been mainly for aesthetic reasons, though it does indicate some appreciation of the importance of features of the service other than the sermon. The Puritans accepted only two sacraments, baptism and the Lord's Supper, as of dominical institution, and these are still the only two sacraments recognized. Baptism is normally infant baptism, though there are differences in the interpretation of the significance of the act. Believer's baptism is not uncommon. Baptism is not considered a prerequisite to acceptance into church membership but is normally deemed desirable. The Lord's Supper or Communion is observed in most Congregational churches once a month, or sometimes twice (in the morning on one Sunday and in the evening on another). It normally follows a preaching service, sometimes after a brief interval so that those who do not wish to partake may retire. The service usually is conducted by a minister assisted by deacons, but the church may approve administration by d layman. Both the bread and wine are partaken tionally the pulpit.

CONGRESS ^

and are taken round to the congregation by the deacons. Nowadays the bread is almost always cut beforehand and the wine served in small glasses and not from a chalice. The wine, however, is drunk by all the congregation simultaneously. New church members are received at a Communion service and participation in the service is esteemed a mark and obligation of membership. An invitation is usually given, however, to "all who love the Lord Jesus Christ" to share in the service, which is thus open to all believers, whether members or not, and of any church. It once was customary to judge sincerity of faith by attendance at Communion and to remove from the membership roll those who without adequate explanation did not attend over a period of time;

by

all

this is a

dying custom.

The Puritans objected to set forms of prayer, or liturgies, as they did to set forms of preaching, or homilies. It was not until the end of the 19th century that experiments were made in the realm of ordered worship. Service books are now widely used, and various forms of liturgy, the use of

set

forms of prayer and

unison reading of the Scriptures are often practised.

The

first

book was A Book of Congregational Worship (1921); a later one is A Book of Service and Prayers (1959). Their use, however, is not compulsory and each church is free to By the early 1960s there had been three devise its own forms. Congregational hymnbooks, the one in general use being Congregaofficial

service

office of the

church and from the performance of no

service or sacrament are

woman

women

excluded.

Congregational ministry

The

first

ordination

Great Britain occurred in 1917. and there are women ministers and deacons in all countries except Finland and those of South America. Doctrine. Congregationalists have always held that faith must be personal and direct. It is to be tested against the Holy Scriptures and no other formulation. There is, therefore, no creed or other statement of faith to which all do give, or any individual must give, assent. Church membership is entered into on a simple affirmation of personal acceptance of Jesus Christ as Lord and Saviour with such understanding of the implications of this as may be made known in the Scriptures, through the church and by experience. Nor does ordination to the ministry require assent to any creed. This is not to say that the classic formulations of the faith are denied. They are extensively used as a help to belief and are sometimes repeated in church. Nor does this mean that Congregationalists have not formulated the faith which is generally believed among them. The Savoy Declaration of the Faith and Order ... of 1658, in very large measure a duplicate of the Westof a

to a

in

—

,

minster Confession, set out the faith of Congregationalists of the

I

!

form but as

terms of communion. In America this formulation was preceded by the Cambridge Platform of 1648. Both were expressive of the Calvinistic views of the time. Soon after the Congregational union was formed a formulation of 20 Principles of Religion was devised, and accepted in May 1833 as "the Declaration of the Congregational Body, with the distinct understanding, that it is not intended as a test or creed for subscription." In like manner U.S. Congregationalists expressed themselves in 1S65, 1871 and 1883. In 1959 the Congregational Christian Churches of the United States as part of the United Church of Christ formulated a Statement of Faith which was adopted by the second general synod of that church as "a testimony and not a test." In the same year the Congregational Union of England and Wales set up a commission to devise a statement. There cannot be said to be a Congregational theology. The teachings of John Calvin were strongly influential in earlier times. A reactionary movement toward Unitarianism in the United States at the beginning of the 19th century is described above. In Great Britain evangelical influences prevailed. Adventures in so-called liberalism in the early 20th century did not last. A middle-of-theway evangelical orthodoxy would describe the present-day theological position of Congregationalism almost everywhere. See also references under "Congregationalism" in the Index volume. (R. F. G. C.) period, not as prescribed

'

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

a statement of

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

CONGRESS, INTERNATIONAL:

tional Praise (1951).

From no

327

—

Bibliography. Great Britain and Other Countries: R. W. Dale, History oj English Congregationalism, ed. by A. W. W. Dale (1907) H. M. Dexter, The Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years, as Seen in Its Literature (1880) I. Parker, Dissenting Academies in England (1914) Albert Peel, The First Congregational Churches (1920), These Hundred Years (1931), (ed.). Essays Congregational and Catholic (1931) and, with Douglas Horton, International Congregationalism (1949) G. F. Nuttall, Visible Saints (1957) W. B. Sejbie, Congregationalism (1927); D. Jenkins, Congregationalism: a Restatement (1954) J. W. Grant, Free Churchmanship in England, 1S70-1940 (1955) R. F. G. Calder (ed.), To Introduce the Family (1953); Congregational Quarterly (1922-58) Congregationalism (1951 a statement to the Faith and Order Commission of the World Council of Churches) World Congregationalism (1959). (R. F. G. C.) United Stales: Williston Walker, The Creeds and Platforms of Congregationalism (1893); Frank Hugh Foster, A Genetic History of the New England Theology (1907) William E. Strong, The Story of the American Board (1910) William E. Barton, The Law of Congregational Usage (1916) Ozora S. Davis, The Pilgrim Faith (1918) G. G. Atkins and F. L. Fagley, History of American Congregationalism R. P. Stearns, Congregationalism in the Dutch Netherlands (1942) (1940); W. W. Sweet, Religion in Colonial America (1942), (ed.), Religion on the American Frontier, The Congregationalist, vol. iii, (1939, 1940); Perrv Miller, Orthodoxy in Massachusetts 1630-1650 (1933), The New England Mind (1939); Perry Miller and T. H. Johnson (eds.). The Puritans (1938); O. E. Winslow, Jonathan Edwards, 1703-1758 (1940); S. E. Mead, Nathaniel William Taylor (1942); Walter M. Horton, Our Christian Faith (1945). (O. S. D.; M. Spi.) see

Conference, In-

The

historical roots of

ternational.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

the United States congress are found in the parliamentary as-

semblies of the middle ages. Since that period there has developed in western society the concept of representation based on elections, with broad suffrage, and an expanded legislative function that includes the general control of the national government. The

formal structure of congress, the legal powers embodied in a written constitution and the relationship between congress and the president, however, are reflections of the political ideas current in the iSth century. (See Constitution and Constitutional Law; Legislature; Representation; Separation of Powers.) The basic theory under which congress operates is that all of-

governmental action must have a legal base. This means must have continuing relations with the rest of the government and with society as a whole, to see to it that the existing law is adequate and to create new law. Congress has become ficial

that congress

a great political regulator for adjusting conflict in U.S. society

and an agency for controlling the government departments iq.v.) through law, personnel standards, appropriations and criticism.

The United

States constitution of 1789 created a congress with

two houses, having

specific but restricted legal authority and separated structurally from the executive department (under the president) and the judicial system (coming to a head in the su-

preme court). [See United States [of America]; Administration and Social Conditions ; President; Supreme Court of the United States, The.) The two chambers have similar functions to perform, and they have adopted similar procedures for performing them. There are, however, certain differences, which will be developed below. The business of congress has increased manyfold since the 18th century, but congress has proved remarkably itself to the changing demands of a changing policy adopted by congress during its history is, of course, reflected in public law, and to this extent the political controversies in congress and the legal solutions proffered are an

resilient in

society.

adapting

The

intrinsic part of

Structure.

United States history.

—House

of Representatives.

— The

house of repre-

grown considerably since the first congress of 1789, In the mid-i9Sos congress had 435 which had 65 members. members, and that figure had remained constant since igi2. In addition to the members, there was one delegate each from Alaska and Hawaii and a resident commissioner from Puerto Rico. These territorial representatives had the privilege of speaking but not of voting. On admission of Alaska and Hawaii as states in 1959, two additional representatives were automatically provided for sentatives has

at the next apportionment the membership returned to 435, the total authorized by statute law.

under the constitution, but

CONGRESS

328

Membership of the house is reapportioned among the states every ten years, following the decennial census (U.S. constitution, i, sec. 2), under a plan known as the method of equal proj^rtions. The procedure for allocation is prescribed in the Apportionment act of iQJy, which, with amendments, is the governing statute. Aiier receiving their quota of scats, the states determine the size and boundaries of the congressional districts. The national law does not require a state to create single-member districts, nor does it specify standards of compactness, uniformity or contiguity that must be followed. However, in 1964 the U.S. supreme court ruled that congressional districts within each state must be substantially equal in population. [See Apportionment, Legislative.) The biennial elections for the house of representatives are held in the various states on the Tuesday next after the first Monday in November, the elections being customarily organized and contested by the Democratic and Republican political parties (qq.v.). National laws regulating elections are found in the corrupt practice legislation {see Corrupt Practices), but for the most part art.

the elections are regulated

Inasmuch

by the

states.

may

result

house

may differ from that of the president, a situawhere the president's party, although victorious

in the presidential election,

does not control congress, or loses

midterm

members

of congress

from heading the great governmental departments. This is one between parliamentary and congressional forms of government. If a member of congress accepts the offer, say, of the secretaryship of a department, he must perforce resign of the chief differences

his seat.

Once

member

has certain constitutional privileges in carrying out his duties. all cases except treason, felony and breach of the peace) during attendance at the sessions of congress or in going to and returning from the same. He cannot be questioned in a court of law "for any speech or debate" in either house, and he has certain prerogatives in the form of travel allowance, administrative and secretarial assistance, the use of the mailing frank, office space and, in the early 1960s, an annual (i,

6

He

)

is

elected, a

to protect

him against interference

privileged from arrest (in

salary of $22,500. In its internal organization, the house of representatives

re-

tains certain ancient parliamentary offices, including the speaker

of the house (see Speaker), the clerk of the house, the sergeant arms and the doorkeeper. The historically ambivalent position of the speaker of the house is revealed in the several functions the speaker is required to perform, for he is at once the servant of the house in presiding over its deliberations, in the performance at

as the political strength of candidates for the

of representatives tion

either house" has the effect of preventing

The

of which he should be impartial, and the leader of his

own

party.

disparity in rela-

In presiding over the house of representatives, the speaker has

subsequent repercussions in the relationship between the president and congress. Disputed election contests are referred to a court or to a house committee; but the final decision on eligibility rests with the house of representatives, the constitution stating (i, 5 ) that "each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of

the assistance of a skilled parliamentarian, who is a permanent employee of the house. The clerk of the house has general charge

control of congress in a tive electoral strength

its (i,

election.

may have

own members," The constitutional provisions for eligibility minimum age of 25', United States citizenship for

2) specify a

seven years and habitation in the state. Residence in a congressional district is not a constitutional requirement for eligibility, but candidates by custom reside in the district from which they are elected. The constitutional proviso (i, 6) that "no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of

of the records, but his jurisdiction does not extend to the

the enactment of the Legislative Reorganization act of 1946. Political parties {see Party, Political) have developed within legislatures as a

Offic

for controlling the proceedings

and mo-

In establishing the authority

and the structure of a partisan organization, the general problem

may

The Speaker

Majority whip

method

bilizing the necessary majorities.

be stated to be that of providing sufficient control over the

HOUSE OF Representatives

majority leader

staff

members' offices. There is no central recruiting agency for the employees of congress. Although some appointments are made on political grounds, there was an increase in the professional competence of the congressional staff after of the committees or of

CONGRESS the house of representatives

jgeneral legislative process so that

be able to act affirmatively and at the same time to permit a measure of freedom in debate and in voting, consistent with the heterogeneous nature of United States parties and the legal equality of elected representatives. The party structure is now quite diffuse, earlier attempts to centralize control in the 'speaker of the house or in the rules committee or in a caucus The recognized party having been found to be unsatisfactory. leaders are (in addition to the speaker) the majority and minority 'floor leaders and the party whips; the chairmen of committees also have considerable partisan influence. For the purpose of showing the true lines of influence and authority, however, the organizational charts of congressional parties may be more impressive than accurate. It may not be too much of an exaggeration to say that, in addition to the recognized party leaders, a specific pattern of power develops for the consideration of every major policy 'will

members

the

issue.

The

central unit of the party

main function of which

is

the conference or caucus, the

to develop a skeleton party organiza-

is

on the day-to-day funcThe party leaders are selected; the committees In general, the parties attempt to secure party representation at all the points in the political process where significant They provide the initiative in selecting the decisions are made. agenda, in developing the debate and in mobilizing support for tion that will be responsible for carrying

tions of the house.

are organized.

particular decisions, although they do not e.xercise exclusive authority in these areas.

Party control over

own membership

its

not strong, and considerable latitude of action

is

is

permitted

party members.

an important adjunct to the work of The committees play a significant 'the house of representatives. part in selecting and preparing bills for the further consideration of the parent chamber, and their choice of bills may be influenced by the advice of the bureau of the budget, the interested governmental departments or the attitude of the president. It is customary, but not mandatory, for the committees to hold hearings on legislation at which interested parties are invited to give testimony. The committees also play a significant role in the control' exercised by congress over the governmental agencies; departmental heads and other responsible officials frequently are called ibefore committees to explain or justify policy. The committees have considerable autonomy and are not required to report back to the house all bills referred to them. Howlever, a committee may be discharged from considering a bill

The committee system

is

'further; this process requires a petition carrying the signatures of

a simple majority of the

members.

Legislation reported

by a

committee is placed on a calendar to await its turn, but if it is of importance it will be taken from the calendar and brought

isufiicient

by means of a special rule reported by The function of this latter committee is

the floor

;to

mittee. |flow

com-

to control the

by the house and the amount of debate. On the floor of the house, the committhe leadership in developing the debate on legis-

of legislation considered

consumed in members take

time tee

the rules

the committee. There were in the 87th congress 20 committees in the house, Iwhich for the most part were organized around major policy areas. With the exception of some of the political leaders, all members are assigned to committees and are expected to participate fully. [Each committee has a limited membership, and members belong to only one major committee. In view of the fact that membership is more desirable on some committees than on others, members do not necessarily get the assignment of their choice when they first enter the house of representatives. Members advance on the committee through the seniority system, the chairmanship normally going to the member of the majority party who has served longest on the committee. The Legislative Reorganization act of 1946 'made provisions for each of the standing committees to acquire a professional start' that assists the committee in acquiring and lation previously considered in

processing information. The members may receive additional research assistance from the legislative reference service of the [Library of Congress. I

Senate.

—The organization of the senate

is

in

many ways

similar

329

to that of the house of representatives, although

somewhat

simpler.

There

litical control,

and, with

its

to take action

on many

are

With

is

its

procedures

a less elaborate structure of po-

smaller membership, the senate is able items by unanimous consent agreements.

and Hawaii as states in 1959, there were 100 members of the senate, two from each of the states. The 17th amendment to the constitution (adopted in 1913) provides for the popular election of senators, whereas the constitution (i, 3) initially specified that senators were to be elected by state legislatures. In most states, vacancies may be filled by temporary appointments made by the governor.

The

the admission of Alaska

basic constitutional qualifications

(i,

3) require a senator

have been a citizen of the United States for nine years, to be an inhabitant of the state for which chosen and to have attained to the age of 30 years. The full term of office is six years, the terms of one-third of the senate membership ending every two years. The popular election of senators on a state-wide basis may require a considerable fiscal outlay (and this possibly in addition to the cost of conducting a primary campaign). Normally, the senate appoints a special committee to investigate and supervise elections, the conduct of and complaints of unfair tactics or violation of law may be referred to this committee. The compensation of senators is the same as that of representatives, but appropriato

tions for clerical assistance are

The senate

is

served by a

to those of the staff of the

somewhat

larger.

on functions similar house of representatives. In particular, staff that carries

the secretary of the senate has custody of the records and exercises

general supervision of other employees, and the sergeant at arms

has responsibility for security measures. The presiding officer is the vice-president of the United States, who is assisted by the president pro tempore of the senate, an honorific, elected office (i, 3). Each committee has its own staff, and so too do the individual senators. As in the house, the administration of senate

personnel

is

highly decentralized.

Although partisanship and party organization are significant factors in senatorial behaviour, the party structure of the senate cannot readily be described by reference to an organizational chart. There are several political units, including for each party a conference, a policy committee, a steering committee and a committee on committees. However, the position taken by influential senators may be more significant than the action (if any) taken by a formal party structure. Each party elects a leader, generally a senator of considerable influence in his own right, who is in general charge of co-ordinating senate activities, making arrangements with his opposite number for the consideration of legislation and defending party interests on the floor. This somewhat loose party organization is responsible for organizing the senate, including the important function of naming senators to committees. Each party also selects a committee to give assistance in senatorial campaigns, such as fund raising. The congressional parties co-operate with the national political organization while retaining a degree of independence and freedom of action. The senate in the early 1 960s had 1 6 standing committees. These

play a significant role in preparing legislation for consideration by the senate, and they also exercise control over governmental departments. The seniority rule is normally followed in the selection of a chairman, senators advancing in rank according to the length of their service on the committee. Because of the strategic nature of their position, the chairmen of the important senate committees often exert considerable influence over public policy. House and Senate. There are several aspects of the business

—

and house share in com.mon and that One item of common concern is the date convening and for adjourning congress. Congress begins its annual session in January (20th amendment), although the president may also convene either house on extraordinary occasions (ii, 3 ). The two houses customarily agree on a date for adjournment (i, 5), although the president has authority (ii, 3), which he has never used, to adjourn congress in the event the senate and house cannot agree on a date. Another item of common concern is the joint session, which may occur when the president or other dignitary addresses both houses of congress that the senate

require for

common

action.

CONGRESS

330 or

when

the electoral votes for the president and vice-president A third item relates to certain subjects (ii, i).

are to be counted

of concern to both houses.

To meet

mittees having membership drawn

this

common

need, com-

from both houses

may

be

created, examples being the joint conference committees (for adjusting disputes between different versions of legislation i, the joint

atomic energy committee and the joint committee on printing. The common interests of the houses of congress also are served by several agencies that in a very particular sense are responsible to congress or to joint committees of congress. These agencies include the government printing office, the general accounting ofiice, the Botanic garden and the Library of Congress. The independent commissions have an indeterminate status in the governmental structure; they are charged with carrying out the law of congress, but they are not directly responsible to the president. Process: House and Senate. The house and senate have

—

functions to [)erform, and they have developed similar techniques and procedures for performing them. In considering similar

committees take up the proposed bills, selecting for which there is some political support and perhaps holding hearings on them. The public hearing, with testimony given by government othcials and representatives of special groups, has become an accepted adjunct of the congressional process. Many of the hearings before congressional committees are published by the government printing othce and contain a considerable amount of information on public policy. The house and senate follow slightly different procedures in reaching agreement on the legislation to be considered, but the process normally includes negotiation between the committees concerned and the leaders of the parties. Debate is controlled more strictly in the house than in the senate; a specific amount of time (several hours) is allotted in the house for considering the more important legislation, the time being controlled by committee leaders and reallocated to members who wish to participate in the debate. In considering legislation, the house may normally propose amendments, and on the demand of one-fifth of those present the yeas and nays are taken. A detailed account of the debate in congress is recorded in the Congressional Record, which has a daily edition as well as a permanent edition. Congress also publishes the Congressional Daily Digest and the Congressio?ial Directory, and each house publishes its own Journal (i, 5), which legislation, the

special attention those for

contains a technical record of the proceedings. Senate debate is considerably freer than house debate and less subject to rules and restrictions. In general, the practice is for the senate to debate a measure until everyone has expressed his view, although occasionally the senate will require all debate to terminate at a specified time. The unanimous consent agreement is one of the factors that enables the senate to complete action

on minor business

in a limited

amount of

time, leaving

more time

it is considered on the floor, the legislative output of congress may be rather small in the early weeks of a session; the legislative calendars tend to be crowded in the closing weeks of a session. Legislation not enacted at the end of a session retains its status in the following session of the same two-year congress. Meetings of the house and the senate are customarily open to the public (a card from a member's office is ordinarily required);

secret sessions

(i,

S)

are rare.

made

Position of the President and External Groups.

for ad-

— For some

purposes, the president may be considered to be a functioning part of the congressional process; congress also has constant and continuous relations with the various governmental agencies, either in

making new policy or

ing policy.

in determining the effectiveness of exist-

If the electoral college

fails to produce a majority of electoral votes for any one person, the house may select a president (each state delegation having one vote) and the senate may select a vice-president 12th amendment). Congress also (ii, (

"may by Law provide

Case of Removal, Death, Resigna." and Vice President The president is expected to keep congress constantly informed of the need for new legislation (ii, 3), and the various departments and agencies are required to send congress periodic reports of their activities. The president submits certain types of treaties and nominations for the approval of the senate (ii, 2). One of the most important of the legislative functions of the president, however, is that of signing or vetoing proposed legislation (i, 7). The president's power to veto legislation is not absolute and may be overridden by two-thirds vote of each chamber. Nevertheless, 1

)

for the

tion or Inability, both of the President

.

.

the influence of the president's potential power may extend to the procedures of congress; the possibility that a bill may be vetoed gives the president some influence in determining what legislation congress will consider initially and what amendments will be ac-

In addition to these legal and constitutional powers, the president has influence as leader of his party; he is in a posiceptable.

mold party policy and

to mobilize support for the pohcy and among the electorate. The supreme court (iii, i has no direct relations with congress and does not give advisory opinions on the constitutionality of legislation. However, decisions on the constitutionality of legislation by the supreme court, and by other federal courts prescribe the constitutional orbit within which congress can act.

tion to

both

in congress

)

The

representatives of interest groups are not part of the formal

structure of congress, but they

may

testifying before congressional hearings

on

play a significant role in and in mobilizing opinion

The Congressional Reorganization registration of lobbyists who attempt

select issues.

the passage of legislation.

by which a member or members will talk on interminably in the hope that the item will not be voted on. However, the rules pro-

ficial

method

press gallery provides ac-

either over radio or television but exceptions are dresses to joint sessions.

available for subjects of greater importance. The freedom of debate in the senate may be abused by a filibuster (q.v.), a device

vide for a

The

commodations for representatives of various communications media. The sessions of congress, however, are not broadcast

required the

—

act of 1946 to influence

—

Functions. Legislation. The basic assumption underlying ofgovernmental action is that all acts of authority must have

of terminating debate by the application of cloture, which in the early 1960s required the support of two-thirds of the members who were present and voting.

a legal base. In actual fact, many of the activities of congress are not directly concerned with enacting law, but the ability of

For an act of congress to be valid, both the house and senate must approve an identical document. Differences may be adjusted if one or the other of the two chambers gives way, but in some cases a joint conference committee is appointed to negotiate an

general legal theory under which congress operates is that legal authority is "delegated" to the president or departments or agencies, and that the latter, in turn, are legally responsible for their actions. In some areas of delegated legisla-

adjustment of difference. In its annual sessions, congress has developed a routine for

gress

considering the various items of business that regularly arise. session, the president delivers his state

At the beginning of a of the union address

(ii, 3), which describes in broad terms the program the president would like congress to consider. Later in January the president submits his annual budget message and the report on the economy prepared by the president's council of economic advisers. During the subsequent months, the president submits nominations and treaties for which the advice and consent of the senate are requested (ii, 2). Inasmuch as the com-

legislative

mittees require a period of time for preparing legislation before

congress to enact law action effective.

is

often the sanction that

makes

its

other

The

such as in proposals for governmental reorganization, conmust indicate approval of specific plans before they go into effect. Congress may also retain the right to terminate legislation by joint action of both houses. The annual output of congressional legislation is found in the United States Statutes at Large, which are in turn codified in the United States Code. Rules and regulations (the terminology varies widely) based on legislation are found' in the Federal Register, and this in turn is codified in the Code of Federal Regulations. tion,

—

Person?iel. Congress exercises general legal control over the basic policy being contained in the Classification act of 1923, as amended. Political

employment of government personnel, the

;

CONGRESS—CONGREVE may

be exercised, the chief vehicle being the senpower to advise and consent to nominations. This control,

control ate's

also

331

committee special authority to investigate a particular subject, special power being authorized to compel attendance witnesses the of and the production of papers. The cedure

is

to grant a

in the broadest sense, enables the senate to set standards of policy The and competence for appointments to high public office. control may also act as a check on the personnel policy of the service departments. The senate's authority over personnel may enable individual

gress in this field have been upheld

senators to exercise considerable influence in the selection of fed-

cases have emphasized the importance of meticulous procedures.

eral officers

whose jurisdiction

wholly within a state.

lies

the senate nor the house, however, has

power

to

nominate or otherwise

Neither

any direct constitutional

select executive or judicial per-

sonnel (although in the unusual event that the electoral college fails to

select a president

and

a vice-president, the

two houses,

do sol. Nor does congress customarily remove officials, although sustained criticism of personnel may lead to their resignation or removal by the president. Congress may have recourse, however, to the seldom-used power of impeachment. In such proceedings, the impeachment is made by and the case tried before the the house of representatives (i, 2 senate, a vote of two-thirds of the senators present being rerespectively, are expected

to

)

quired for conviction in

3).

(i,

the senate in 1936; in

all,

The

impeachment trial was held there have been 12 impeachment trials last

and four convictions. Fiscal.

funds

—The power

(i,

to levy

and

collect taxes

and

to appropriate

8) gives congress considerable authority in fiscal mat-

The basic law outlining the broad procedures to be followed ters. by the government in spending money and raising revenue is found in the Budget and Accounting act of 1931, and to this may be added certain congressional rules and procedures. The president has the initial responsibility for determining the proposed level of appropriations (a function performed with the assistance of the bureau of the budget), the estimates for the next fiscal year being submitted to congress in January. At the same time, the president submits his budget message. Congress does not enact a single budget bill but. rather, considers various departmental and other appropriation bills during the first six or seven months of each session. The house and senate appropriation committees hold hearings on the appropriation bills, taking advantage of the opportunity to review past policy of the departments and agencies.

exercise of this authority, in turn, has led to considerable adjudi-

cation in which the courts have been asked to determine the extent of congress's

and

is

exercised by the general accounting

congressional agency which audits governmental spending

settles accounts, reports of its action

—

president's budget message includes references to anticipated revenue and, possibly, recommendations for changing the tax laws. However, congress considers revenue measures independently; they are not an integral part of the process for appropriating monies. In either case, however, the house of representatives assumes the initiative. Bills for raising revenue must originate in the house of representatives, according to the constitution (i, 7), and by custom appropriation bills originate there also. Proposals for changes in the tax structure are made by the treasury department and are considered by the ways and means committee in the house and by the finance committee in the senate. The revenue committees are assisted in their work, such as estimating tax yield or the effect of tax change, joint

own

by the professional

committee on internal revenue taxation,

staff of the

in addition to their

staffs.

—

Criticism and Investigations. The critical function of congress has developed from its concern with the effectiveness of existing legislation and the necessity for new legislation. The expression of criticism takes several forms, ranging from debate to special inquiry. The custom has developed of inviting department heads and subordinates to testify before committees on matters of controversial public policy. The interrogation of department heads never takes place on the floor of the house or senate, although very occasionally the president or a departmental secretary will formally address one or both houses. The most formal type of interrogation occurs when a committee or subcommittee conducts a special investigation, the object of the inquiry being set forth in a resolution passed by the parent body. In preparation for such an investigation, the general pro-

v.

—

said that "the

.

.

.

rights of individuals."

See also references under "Congress, United States" in the Index volume.

—

Bibliography. Stephen K. Bailey, Congress Makes a Law (1950) Stephen K. Bailey and Howard D. Samuel, Congress at Work (1952) Ernest S. Griffith, Congress: Its Contemporary Role, 2nd ed. (1956); George B. Galloway, The Legislative Process in (Congress (1953); Bertram Gross, The Legislative Struggle: a Study in Social Combat (1953); Asher C. Hinds and Clarence Cannon, Precedents of the House of Representatives, 11 vol. (1907-08; rev. ed., 1936); Floyd Riddick, The United States Congress, Organization and Procedure 1949) William S. White, Citadel: the Story oj the U.S. Senate (1957) Roland Young, Congressional Politics in the Second World War (1956), The American Congress (1958). (R. Yo.) ;

;

;

CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS: see

The

McGrain

The broad powers of conby the courts, although some

sequent judicial rulings. One of the most contentious phases of investigations is, and has been, the refusal of witnesses to testify. In its early history, congress itself punished contumacious witnesses, but subsequently it empowered the federal courts to try cases of contempt. The most effective claim for refusing to testify has been the protection offered by the 5th amendment to the U.S. constitution, which provides, among other things, that "no person shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself." However, special legislation also provides that, under certain judicial conditions, committees may compel testimony by guaranteeing that the witness will be immune from prosecution arising from his testimony. In the important case of Watki?is v. United States (354 U.S. 178 [1957]),thecourt held that the 1st amendment protects a witness from identifying former Communist associates. Congress, the court said, has no "general power to expose where the predominant result can only be an invasion of the private

being submitted to ap-

propriate congressional committees.

to investigate.

Daugherty (273 U.S. 135 [1926]), the power of inquiry with process to enforce it is an essential and appropriate auxiliary to the legislative function." This general principle was not changed in subIn the case of

supreme court

(

Additional fiscal control office, a

power

American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial

Organizations.

CONGREVE, RICHARD

(1818-1899), English philoso-

Comtian positivist, was born at Leamington on Sept. 4, 1818, and educated at Rugby and at Wadham college, Oxford, Inspired by a meeting with where he obtained a fellowship. Auguste Comte {q.v.; see also Positivism) he became a convinced positivist, resigned his Wadham fellowship (1855) and founded the positivist Church of Humanity in Chapel street, pher, a

Holborn.

In 1878, however, he caused a schism

among

positivists

by repudiating the authority of Comte's successor, Pierre Laffitte. Afterward Congreve concerned himself especially with the ceremonial elaboration of the positivist religion. He died in Hampstead on July 5, 1899. Congreve's positivist writings include The New Religion in Its Attitude Towards the Old ( 1859 ), Essays, Political, Social and Religious, 3 vol. (1874-1900), Human Catholicism (1876-77) and translations from Comte. He also published some historical works (collected ed.. Historical Lectures, 1900), a translation of Aris-

(1855 and occasional notes on current affairs, such pamphlets urging the British to evacuate Gibraltar and India. (1670-1729), EngHsh dramatist, CONGREVE, the most brilliant of the writers of Restoration comedy, was born In 1674 his father was at Bardsey, near Leeds, on Jan. 24, 1670. granted a commission in the army to join the garrison at Youghal, in Ireland, being moved later to Carrickfergus, whence, in 1681, Congreve was sent to school at Kilkenny, the Eton of Ireland. In April 1686 he entered Trinity college, Dublin (of which he became M.A. in 1696), under the famous St. George Ashe, who also tutored his elder schoolfellow, Jonathan Swift. It was probtotle's Politics

)

as

WILLIAM

— 332

ably at the revolution of 1688 that the family moved to the Congreve home at Stretton in Staffordshire, Congreve's father being made estate agent to the earl of Cork in 1690. In 1691 he was entered as a law student at the Middle Temple. Never a serious reader in law, in \692 he published a light but delightfully skilful near-parody of fashionable romance, possibly drafted when he was 17, hicogtiitii, or Love and Duty RcconcH'd, which he issued over the name of Cleophil. He quickly became known among men of letters, had some verses printed in Charles Gildon's 1692 Miscellany, and was favoured by Dryden, who in that year published his translation of the satires of Juvenal and Persius (dated 1693), in which Congreve collaborated, contributing also the complimentary

"To Mr. Dryden." was in March 1693 that he leaped into fame with the production at Drury Lane of The Old Bachelor, written, he said, in 1690, to amuse himself during convalescence. Warmly heralded by the ever-generous Dryden, who declared that he had never read so brilliant a first play, though it needed to be given "the fashionable Cutt of the Town," it was an enormous success, running for the then unprecedented length of a fortnight. But his ne.xt play. The Double Dealer, played in November or December at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, though far better, and introduced when printed by some over-panegyrical lines from Dryden, did not meet with the same applause. Love jar Love, however, his best acting play, almost repeated the success of his first. Acted in April 1695, it was the first performance staged for the new theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields, which was opened after protracted crises in the old Theatre Royal, complicated by quarrels among the actors, which had induced the lord chamberlain to issue a new licence to run lines It

•

I

CONGREVE

concurrently with that of the old patentees at Drury Lane. Congreve became one of the managers of the new theatre, promising to provide a new play every year. In 1695 he began to write his more public occasional verse,

such as his pastoral on the death of Queen Mary, and his ode "To the King, on the taking of Namur"; and John Dennis, then a young, unsoured critic, collecting his Letters upon Several Occasions (published 1696), extracted from Congreve his Letter Concerning Humour in Comedy. By this time Congreve's position

among men of letters was so well established that he was considered worthy of one of those posts by which in those happy days men of power in government rewarded literary merit: he was made one of the five commissioners for licensing hackney coaches, though at a reduced salary of £100 per annum. Though Congreve signally failed to carry out his promise of writing a play a year for Lincoln's Inn, he showed his good intentions by giving into their hands The Mourning Bride. Improbable as it may seem to modern readers, this tragedy, produced early in 1697, enormously swelled his reputation and was his most popular play. No further dramatic work appeared for three years. In April 1698 appeared Jeremy Collier's famous attack, A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage

cumstances, thanks to his private income, the royalties on his plays and his not very exacting posts in the civil service, though

they were by no means sinecures. In 1 705 he was made a commissioner for wines, a post that he retained by virtue of Swift's good change of government in 1710 but which he relinquished in 1714 when he became an undersearcher in the customs; this latter post was bettered at the end of 1714 with the addition of the secretaryship of the island of Jamaica. He wrote a conoffices at the

number of poems, some of the light social variety, some soundly scholarly translations from Homer, Juvenal, Ovid and Horace, and some Pindaric odes. In these odes he indited his timely Discourse on the Pindarique Ode ( 1 706 which brought some order into the wildly unrestrained form which poets since Abraham Cowley, forgetting Ben Jonson's example and ignoring the remarks of Edward Phillips (Milton's nephew), had indiscriminately proliferated. His friendships were numerous, warm and constant, as much with insignificant people, such as his early companions in Ireland, as with the literary figures of his time. No quarrels are attributed to him, except for a very brief one with Jacob Tonson the publisher. Swift, whose friendship with him had begun in early days in Ireland, was unvarying in his affection; for Gay he was the "unreproachful man"; Pope dedicated his Iliad to him and Steele his edition of Addison's The Drummer. As to his relations with the other sex, his tendre for Mrs. Bracegirdle who acted most of his female leads is well known; they were always close friends, but whether the intimacy was of a deeper nature is undetermined. In his later years he was devotedly attached to the second duchess of Marlborough, and it is almost certain that he was the father of her second daughter Lady Mary Godolphin, later duchess of Leeds. This would account for the large legacy, of almost all his fortune, to the duchess of Marlborough. He died in London on Jan. 19, 1729. Character and Literary Achievement. Congreve's character was praised in Giles Jacob's Poetical Register (1719), where he is described as being "so far from being puff'd up with Vanity that he abounds with Humility and good Nature. He does not shew so much the Poet as the Gentleman." The last phrase will serve as a gloss on the notorious meeting with Voltaire, who in 1726 had come tufthunting in England, and wished to extract what he could from the great English writer of comedy. Congreve, failing, fatigued, attacked by gout and half-blind, "retired without regret, ... In easy contemplation soothing time" ("Letter to Lord Cobham"), did not feel equal to discussing the minutiae of comic writing, or a play he had written some 30 years earlier. He told Voltaire that he would be delighted to talk on general subjects, "on the footing of a gentleman" as he phrased it, but not on subjects of which he would be e.xpected to display expert siderable

)

,

;

—

—

.

.

.

Inn Fields produced Congreve's masterpiece. The Way of the World, with a brilliant cast, which, though it is now his only frequently revived piece, was a failure with the audience. This was Congreve's last attempt to write a play, though he did not entirely desert the theatre. He wrote libretti for The Judgment of Paris, performed in 1701, and for Semele, printed in 1710. In 1 704 he collaborated with William Walsh and Sir John Vanbrugh in translating Moliere's Monsieur de Pourceaugnac for Lincoln's Inn Fields as Squire Trelooby (not the version now printed, which is by Ozell), and in 1705 associated himself for a short time with Vanbrugh in the Queen's theatre, or Italian Opera house, writing an

critical knowledge and affect the pundit. Congreve is the outstanding writer of the English comedy of manners, markedly different in many respects from others of this sparkling period of the drama. This comedy was a development, shaped by the political and social conditions of the time, from late Stuart comedy, and really owed little to the French. Taking as its main theme the manners and behaviour of the class to which it was addressed, that is, the antipuritanical theatre audience drawn largely from the court, ft dealt with fops, fanatics, fools, excited amateur scientists, imitators of French customs, conceited wits, fantastics of all kinds; but its main theme was above all the sexual life led by a large number of courtiers, not to mention Charles II, with their philosophy of freedom and experimentation. The dramatists dealt with it variously: Sir George Etherege a little flippantly, finding the whole scene in the main vastly enjoyable; William Wycherley with a deep, savagely satirical revulsion against the whole scene; Colley Cibber with a clumsy sentimentality, which expressed rather the indignant rebellion of the rising middle-class citizenry than any thought-out attitude. Yet it was all, without exception, critical comedy, aiming to "cure excess," bringing "the sword of common sense" to bear upon the extravagant assumptions of the age. Where Congreve rises almost immeasurably above them is in both the delicacy of his feeling and

epilogue to

the perfection of his phrasing.

.

.

.

,

a vigorous

document composed partly

of fantastic

argument and

absurd statement, and on the other hand of shrewd, common-sense observations which had a great deal of validity. Congreve was not the sort of man to enter into this kind of literary fisticuffs, but, under pressure and on his behalf alone, he replied with his Amendments of Mr. Collier's False and Imperfect Citatio?is (July) which, though not so poor as is usually taken for granted, was as little effective as

most of the other answers.

Then

in

March

1700, Lin-

coln's

The

its first

production.

rest of his life

he passed quietly enough, being

in easy cir-

The

latter

is

strikingly exhibited in the opening speeches of

The

CONGRUENCE— CONIC SECTION )

>

Old Bachelor, a play which no doubt appealed to the audiences because it handled with a new brilliance themes they were familiar with. If some of the repartee seems cheap and schoolboyish, that was the manner of the time. As Congreve progressed his speeches became more modulated, more musical, but always sure in their cadence. "Every sentence is replete with sense and satire," Hazlitt wrote, "conveyed in the most polished and pointed terms." As Meredith stated, "He is at once precise and voluble ... in this he is a classic, and is worthy of treading a measure with Moliere." He did not, however, achieve perfection until his last play, for he was not quite certain of himself, confusing a realistic presentation with an atmosphere of fantasy. It was perhaps this confusion which puzzled the audiences at his second play. The Double Dealer, which is in part clearly satirical and in part more purely comic. But he was not naturally satirical, being loath to portray "fools they should rather disturb than divert the wellso gross, that natured and reflecting part of an audience"; and Pope was to ask, "Tell me if Congreve's fools are fools indeed." His real contribution begins to be felt in Love for Love, where the lovers express .

.

.

that fear of disillusion that

comes with too easy

fruition.

What

he had to say comes out clearly in The Way of the World, a play marred by the artificial contrivances of the plot. Here he is doing

assumptions that governed the He could not regard love merely as the society of his time. gratification of lust or as a battle of the sexes, a matter of wit rather than of feeling. He was averse from "rationalizing" love. The famous "bargaining scene" between Mirabel and Millamant is a plea for maintaining the valuable elements in sexual affection, a defense against the cynicism that pervaded, if not society, at There is something tragic, too, about Lady Wishleast the stage. Congreve fort in her desperate attempt to preserve her youth. goes deeper than any of his contemporaries, has more feeling for The equal of Moliere? No. the individual, and is far subtler. But the nearest English approach to him. The Mourning Bride deserves better than the contempt which has been bestowed upon it for so long. Though the plot is outrageously fantastic, the poetic force behind it is not to be despised, and it has contributed two famous quotations to the common stock. Nor is Congreve's poetry negligible, though very minor. His lovepieces reveal that delicacy and respect for personality that charHis final poem, posthumously acterize his two last comedies.

more than hold up

to ridicule the

the "Letter to Lord Cobham" (his old friend Sir Richard Temple), is a fine example of the "retirement" poetry sporadic at that period, and his libretti are beautifully phrased for setting to music. Congreve was not a great poet, but he was a sensitive craftsman and nothing came from his hand that was not published,

thoughtfully conceived and expertly contrived. Bibliography. Works: The Works of William Congreve, 3 vol., appeared in 1710. Leigh Hunt's ed. The Dramatic Works of Wycherley, Congreve (1849) contains a biographical and critical notice, as does The Comedies of William Congreve, 2 vol., ed. by G. S. Street (l895). Semele was ed. by D. D. Arundell (1925), and Incognita by H. F. B. Brett-Smith (1922) and again by the Folio society (1951). The Complete Works of William Congreve, 4 vol., ed. by M. Summers (1923), contains the letters and Squire Trelooby, and stage histories of the plays. The "World's Classics" edition, 2 vol. (1925, 1929) ed. by B. Dobree, omits Squire Trelooby. Both have biographical and critical introductions. Some unedited fragments appear in A Sheaf of Poetical Scraps ed. by D. Protopopesco (1925), and some letters in Hodges (see below). Biography: Early lives are valueless. Edmund Gosse's Life of William Congreve (1888; rev. ed. 1924) was the first full biography, succeeded by D. Protopopesco, Un Classique Moderne, William Con-

—

.

.

greve (1924).

By

far the fullest

and most accurate

is

that

by John C.

CONGRUENCE, in

mathematics, is a term employed in sevsenses, each connoting harmonious relation, agreement or

correspondence.

Two

if it is

333

possible to superpose one of

geometric figures are said to be congruent, or to be in the

them

on the other so that they shall coincide throughout. Thus two triangles are congruent if two sides and their included angle in the one are equal to two sides and their included angle in the other. This idea of congruence seems to be founded on that of a "rigid body," which may be moved from place to place without change in the internal relations of its parts. But it must rest on a previous concept of metrical relations among the parts of the body, since otherwise there would be no basis on which to determine whether the body had changed in shape and size.

The

position of a (straight) line (of infinite extent) in space

be specified by assigning four suitably chosen co-ordinates. A congruence of lines in space is the set of lines obtained when the four co-ordinates of each line satisfy two given conditions. For example, all the lines cutting each of two given curves form a congruence. The co-ordinates of a line in a congruence may be expressed as functions of two independent parameters; from this it follows that the theory of congruences is analogous to that of surfaces in space of three dimensions. An important problem for a given congruence is that of determining the simplest surface

may

into

which

it

may

be transformed.

and b are said to be congruent modulo m if It is then said is divisible by the integer m. that a is congruent to b modulo m, and this statement is written relation is called a m. Such a mod. in the symbolic form

Two

integers o

their difference a-b

a^b

Congruences, particularly those involving a variable X, such as xp^^x mod. p, p being a prime number, have many properties analogous to those of algebraic equations. They are of great importance in the theory of numbers. congruence.

See

Diophantine Equations; One Unknown; Triangle:

Geometry;

Differential

Numbers, Theory

of: Congruences in

Congruence Theorems. a warlike tribe of Panoan {q.v.) Hnguistic stock living in Peru on the Ucayali river in the vicinity of the Pachitea. They live in palm houses sheltering about ten persons each, grouped

CONIBO,

communities of three or four houses. They welcomed and Franciscan missions in the late 17th century in order to

in small

Jesuit

obtain iron, but soon revolted.

were conducted in order to obtain slaves from weaker Formerly, dugout canoes were made up to 60 ft. in They manufactured fine pottery decorated in red, black length. and cream designs, wove cotton textiles, and practised tropical For hunting, spear throwers, long palmwood bows agriculture. and arrows and, later, the blowgun were used. Shamans were inthey diagnosed and cured sickness and foretold the fufluential Elaborate puberty ceremonies for girls were practised. ture. Formerly, urn burial was practised at death; later, cremation. When parents became old, they were killed and eaten. In the early 1960s the estimated population of the Conibo was 3,000.

War

raids

neighbours.

;

.

Hodges, William Congreve, the Man (1941). A brief account is given by Kathleen M. Lynch in A Congreve Gallery (1951), which contains an admirable bibliography. Contemporary references are to be found in the letters of Swift, Pope and Gay, and in Swift's Journal to Stella. Criticism: Besides that included in the introductions mentioned above, detailed criticism is to be found in John Palmer, The Comedy of Manners (1913); B. Dobree, Restoration Comedy (1924); Henry Ten Eyck Perrv, The Comic Spirit in Restoration Drama (1925); Norman N. Holland, The First Modern Comedies (1959). (B. Do.) eral

relation of congruence,

CONIC SECTION.

If a right circular cone

is

(M. W. St.) cut by a plane,

boundary curve of the intersection is more briefly, According to the angle of interconic.

the

said to be a conic section or, a

section the conic

is

a parabola, ellipse, cir-

hyperbola. The ellipse, like the cirIn the cle, is a closed curve {see fig. 1). case of the parabola the cutting plane is the parallel to an element {see Cone) parabola is therefore an open curve {see cle or

;

two open 1. FIG. ELLIPSE (UPbranches lying on the two symmetrical PER CURVE) AND CIRCLE fig.

2).

The hyperbola

consists of

sheets (nappes) of the cone {see

—

fig.

3).

(LOWER CURVE)

Greek Mathematicians; the GeometViewpoint. The description of conies given above is due to Menaechmus of Greece (c. 350 B.C.), the first man known to have considered the

—

rical

,

conic

from a geometrical point of view.

Menaechmus was

a pupil of both Plato and,

Eudoxus of Cnidus.

None

of his writings

are extant, but information about

contained

in

works

of

other

him

is

authors.

CONIC SECTION

334

— HYPERBOLA

ume, as a given cube (the so-called Delian problem). Euclid wrote four books on conic sections, but his work is completely lost. Archimedes succeeded in finding the area of the ellipse and of a sector of the parab-

plane point

by a method

closely akin to that of

integral calculus, although calculus

was not

developed until the 17th century. pinnacle of Greek geometry, and perhaps of Greek mathematics in general, was reached in the eight books on conic sections by Apollonius of Perga (q.v.). Only the first seven have survived.

The

Apollonius was the

first to

show

circular cone, right or oblique.

lonius treats

them

that

But

all

in

conies are sections of any

studying these curves Apol-

as plane curves, without regard to their spatial

origin. The terms ellipse, hyperbola and parabola were introduced by Apollonius. His books contain the elementary theory of conies

complete form. Succeeding generations of Greek mathematicians added but litto the admirable treatise of the "Great Geometer," as Apollonius was called. However, an important contribution by Pappus of Alexandria should be mentioned. Pappus, who flourished about A.D. 320. showed that the ratio of the distances of any point on in a

tle

any conic from

(the focus) and a fixed line (the (This statement gives the analytical definition of a conic section.) The constant ratio is called the eccentricity and is denoted by e. The conic is an ellipse if e < 1, a parabola if e = 1 and a hyperbola if e > 1 for a circle, e = 0. With the close of the Greek period interest in conic sections waned, and these curves were largely neglected until the first half of the 17th century. Desargues; Conies as Projections of a Circle. Like the directrix)

is

a fixed point

constant.

P, Q, R, S will

—

whose works he was thoroughly familiar, Gerard Desargues approached the study of the conic by considering it as a section of a circular cone cut by a plane. But Desargues soon parted company with his predecessors and mentors by adopting a "ancients," with

He

different point of view.

observed that the conic

may

be con-

(P')

ABC lying in a is projected from a not in (P), upon a plane

(P) S',

into

(see

the

''"^

s.— projection of triangle

ter triangle meet the line of inter- *°^

m

section

for

same three points as do proposition remains valid

of the planes (P), (P') in the

the corresponding sides of

two eoplanar

The

ABC.

triangles:

If

the three lines joining the cor-

responding vertices of the two triangles are concurrent, the three points of intersection of the corresponding sides are collinear.

Desargues was the first mathematician of modern times who showed marked originality in the treatment of conic sections, and was easily the greatest geometer of the 1 7th century. Descartes; the Analytical Viewpoint. The Greeks never referred to their geometry as being "pure" or "synthetic," for they

—

knew

Desargues

of no other kind.

in this respect

adhered to the

was familiar with the work of Rene Descartes. The latter was the first to point out, in his Geometry (1637), that the resources of algebra (q.v.) may be brought to bear upon the study of geometrical figures in gen-

ways

of the Greeks, although he

his friend

and conic sections in particular. He is thus the father of Cartesian or analytic geometry (q.v.). From the analytical point of view a conic section is the graph of an equation of the second degree in two variables, x and y, eral,

namely, ax'

at

+

by'

+

2cxy

+ dx + ey + t =

0,

and vary from This algebraic definition of a conic reveals once the interesting fact that a conic is, in general, determined

where the one conic

coefficients are constants for a given conic to another.

points of that conic are given.

if five

Indeed,

if

the co-ordinates

of the five points are substituted, in turn, into this equation, five

homogeneous equations in the coefficients are obtained. solved simultaneously they yield, in general, the values of the coefficients in the above equation of a conic, and the conic may be graphed. linear

When

By

a conic

proper choice of co-ordinate axes the general equation of be reduced to one of the three standard forms

a

may

+

x'/a' y'/b' x'/a' y'/b' y' 2px

if that conic in turn is projected the same way from another point upon a third plane, the image obtained is a conic. This con-

more,

-

= =

1

(1) (2)

1

=

(3)

parallel lines

common

point "at infinity," and, further, to conclude that the points at infinity of all the lines in the plane lie on a straight line,

"the line at infinity," thus adjoining the infinite domain to geometry.

which represent an ellipse, hyperbola and parabola, respectively. Equation (1) shows immediately that if a point of the ellipse has for its co-ordinates (xq, y^), then the co-ordinates ( —Xq, — yo) also satisfy equation (1) this shows that the origin is a centre of symmetry of the curve. If one of the two points (xo, yo), (xo, —yo) lies on the ellipse, the other does also, and the *-axis is thus an axis of symmetry of the curve (that is, the lower part of the curve is the reflection of the upper part, the «-axis acting as a ;

Any

figure in the plane of the initial circle gives rise,

by the

projection, to a corresponding figure in the new Desargues noticed that some of the properties of the circle, and of the other figures in its plane, are reproduced in the new plane in a distorted way, while other properties are preserved and are identifiable in the new figure. He was thus the first geometer to draw a sharp distinction between the two kinds of geometrical properties, the "metrical" and the "projective." Given a line m and a point O on it, the points of may be paired off in such a way that the product of the distances, from any points given constant, pair of is equal to a say K. 0, of Desargues said that the points of m paired off in this fashion are "in involution," and that the point O is the centre of the involu-

same operation of plane.

m

tion (q.v.).

He showed

that

if

a quadrilateral

PQRS

{see

fig.

4)

is

m

inscribed in a conic (C), and if does not pass through any of the

m

points P, Q, R, S the line meets the two pairs of sides (PQ, RS),

(PS,

"

A'B'C

triangle

S), the sides of the lat-

fig.

the cone or, in other words, that the conic is the projection of that circle from the vertex of the cone upon a second plane. Further-

two

in

triangle

If a

sidered as an image, in the plane of section, of the basic circle of

cept of projection led Desargues to attribute to

line

involution (Desargues's theorem on pencils of conies).

;

a

m

a pair of points belonging to the

ola FIO. S.

meet the

Menaechmus was led to the study of conby his efforts to solve the problem of constructing a cube twice as large, by vol-

ies

QR) and

mirror).

Similar reasoning holds true for the

ji-axis.

^te.

conic passing through the points

in

4.—quadrilateral inscribed conic section

seg-

the vertices of the ellipse.

Analogous results for the hyperbola are readily obtained from equation (2). The parabola (3) has no centre of symmetry. The is an axis of symmetry. The origin is the vertex of the curve and the y-axis is tangent to the curve at the vertex. Equa«-axis

is the focus of a point whose distances from a fixed point (focus) and a fixed line (directrix) are equal. The above discussion illustrates the new point of view which Descartes revealed to his contemporaries through his analytical

tion (3

)

methods in geometry. Projective Description of Conies. The third phase in the study of conic sections came with the development of projective geometry. If A, A' are two fixed points of a circle and a variable point of that circle, the lines AM, A'M describe two pencils of lines

—

(C) in three pairs of points which are in involution. Moreover, any other the conic

The

ments which (1) determines on these two axes are respectively equal to 2a and 2b. These segments are said to be the major and minor axes of the ellipse. The ends of the major axis of ( 1 ) are

M

;

CONIFERS (A), (A') such that to every line of (A) there corresponds a definite line of (A'), and vice versa (see c, a',

fig.

Moreover,

6).

if a,

timber species. The wood of all conifers is classed as softwood, in contrast to the hardwood lumber obtained from broad-leaved angiosperms such as oak, walnut, birch, poplar, gum, elm, ash, maple, hickory, mahogany, etc.

b,

d are any four lines of (\) and b', c', d' the corresponding

The pines also yield resin, pitch, turpentine and various oils. Important resins are obtained from Araucaria and Agathis in the southern hemisphere. A large amount of coniferous wood from both hemispheres enters into the manufacture of paper as pulp. Many of the species not sufficiently abundant for lumbering, as well as the economically important species, are planted for orna-

lines of (A'), the angles a'c', c'b', a'd', d'b'

are equal to the angles

and There-

ac, cb, ad, db, respectively,

thus their sines are equal.

fore, the anharmonic ratios (see Projective Geometry of those two tetrads of lines are equal, and thus the two pencils of lines

ment

)

(A), (A') are projective. this circle is projected

Now

FIG.

6.

— PROJECTIVE

PENCILS

OF

LINES

from a point S not in its plane and the projecting figure (which is a circular cone is cut by another plane not passing through S, the circle will be projected into a conic and the two pencils of lines into two other pencils of lines projective to each other. Corresponding lines

if

)

of those pencils will intersect on the conic. Thus the following important proposition is obtained; If two pencils of rays in the same plane are projective, their corresponding rays intersect in points lying on a conic which passes through the centres of the two pencils.

There is thus a projective mode of generation of a conic section. Bibliography. General: Thomas L. Heath (ed.), ApoUonius, a Treaon Conic Sections (1896) Les Coniques d' ApoHonius de Perge, trans, by Paul Ver Ecke (1925) H. F. Baker, Principles of Geometrv, vol. ii, 2nd cd. (1929) L. P. Eisenhart, Coordinate Geometry (1939'); R. R. Middlemiss, Analytic Geometry (1945). History: Florian Cajori, A History of Mathematics, 2nd ed. (1919) Julian L. CoolidKC, .1 History of Conic Sections and Quadric Surfaces (1945); Thomas L. Heath, .1 History of Greek Mathematics, 2 vol. (1921); David Eupenc Smith, History of Mathematics, 2 vol. (1923Pappus, La Collection Mathematique, trans, by Paul Ver Ecke 25) (1933). (N. A. Ct.)

—

tise

;

;

;

;

CONIFERS

(CoNiFERALEs). This is a large group of usually fir, hemredwood and cedar are familiar examples. Coniferous forests are the major plant resource of North America, because of their value in furnishing building materials, pulpwood and many other lesser-known products. In addition to their economic im-

evergreen, cone-bearing trees, of which the pine, Douglas lock, spruce,

portance, they are of great interest to the evolutionary biologist

because they combine a nearly unbroken record of the past with a fascinating variety of types in existence today.

The order Coniferales

is

the largest order of the

gymnosperms

and includes about 48 genera with approximately 520 species which are found in all parts of the world. Usually they are trees of good size with profusely branched stems, in contrast to many other gymnosperms. There is a lateral growth zone or cambium which gives rise to a large amount of wood surrounded by a thin cortex and enclosing only a small amount of pith. Conifers also lack the ciliated swimming male gametes found in the cycads and ginkgo, having instead essentially naked male nuclei. The leaves of conifers also differ from those of other gymnosperms for they are never compound, but usually small and simple, needlelike leaves that persist for about three to ten years. In the larch (Larix) and the golden larch (Pseitdolarix), however, the leaves are shed individually every fall; and the bald cypress (Taxodium) and the dawn redwood (Metaseguoia) cast off small leaf-bearing twigs every season to remain leafless during the winter. Conifers have cones but these are never terminal on the main stem of the plant. The seed cones may be large and made up of dozens of cone scales. In a few genera, the seed-bearing scales are reduced to single ovules and they appear as if terminal on the secondary branches that bear them. However, with respect to pollen-bearing cones conifers are less diverse. All conifers have pollen borne in

cones which are usually quite small. Uses. Conifers include some of the

—

most useful plants aside

from food plants. More than three-fourths of commercial lumber is obtained from species of pine (Pinus), Douglas fir (Pseudofsiiga ), spruce (Picea ), bald cypress (Taxodium ), redwood {Sequoia and arborvitae (Thuja). In the south temperate zone. )

335

Araucaria, Agathis, Podocarpus and Dacrydiiim are very important

in landscaping.

The

pines of the Mediterranean region and

the cryptomerias of Japan are justly famous examples. The seeds of some species of pine furnish food for man and the seeds of all conifers are eaten by animals. Seeds of the Italian stone pine

have long been esteemed as a delicacy and are exported to other countries. In the southwestern United States, the Indians regularly harvest seeds of the piiion pine for food and for sale. Distribution. Conifers are most often found in more or less moist habitats in hilly or mountainous areas. They frequently occur at high altitudes extending up to timberline where they form the characteristic krummholz {i.e., a belt of stunted tree growth). Four genera {Taxodium, Glyptostrobus, Metaseguoia and Pherosphaera) occur in very wet places: lowlands, swamps, borders of lakes and rivers, etc. Another group includes those, such as Juniperus, Cupressus, Abies, Pinus and Podocarpus, which are large, wide-ranging genera. Their species occur in wet situations, mesic habitats and even extend into semidesert areas. The general restriction of the conifers to moist places may be brought about by their relatively poor (in comparison with the angiosperms water-conducting systems. If the distribution of the various genera is plotted on a map of the world it can be seen that they are strikingly concentrated in the mountainous areas around the Pacific basin and in the islands They are rare as a group on the Atlantic and of the Pacific. Indian ocean coasts. About 30 genera are confined to the northern hemisphere and about 20 rarely get out of the southern hemisphere. Only three or four genera cross the equator with some of their species inhabiting both hemispheres. There is thus a distinct differentiation Paleointo a southern group and a northern group of genera.

—

)

botanical evidence indicates that this distinction has existed since the late Paleozoic era. It also appears that the association of the conifers with mountainous areas

and the Pacific basin

is

an old

one as well. Families. -Six families of Coniferales are usually recognized, although some botanists feel that there should be more or fewer. Some of the subfamilies are sometimes given family rank. Similarly some of the genera have been or may be subdivided as more evidence concerning their anatomy, embryology and chemistry becomes available. With this in mind, the numbers given for genera and species must be considered as tentative and dependent upon

—

The families considered here are: Pinaceae with 9 genera in two subfamilies, Araucariaceae with 2 genera, Taxodiaceae with 9 genera in two subfamilies, Cupressaceae with 18 genera in three subfamilies, Podocarpaceae with 7 genera in three subfamilies and Cephalotaxaceae with 1 genus (or 2 genera, the authority consulted.

one problematical genus, Amentotaxus is included in the famIn older works only two families were recognized: Pinaceae and Taxaceae. The proper disposition of the yews, Taxaceae, is a particular problem. Investigations have indicated that the Taxaceae probably never had ovule-bearing appendages aggregated into cones. In this way they differ from the conifers. Those Coniferales, which produce one or a few seeds (e.g., Podocarpaceae) often have the cones so reduced as to be unrecognizable as such. Anatomical studies show that these are cones and logically these plants are grouped with those from which they were probably derived rather than with those they superficially resemble. Stem Anatomy and Physiology. The stem of conifers follows the same structural plan as the dicotyledonous angiosperms. The embryo produces a small amount of primary tissue and continues to grow from the shoot tip upward and from the root tip

if

,

ily).

—

CONIFERS

336 downward.

by a circle of vascular bundles with xylcm toward the inside and phloem toward the outside. Superimposed on this primary growth is growth in diameter the result of the activity of a lateral meristem or cambium which arises between the xylem and phloem. This cambium produces secondary xylem toward the inside and secondary phloem toward the outside, with the result that the primary tissues are separated, the phloem crushed, the xylem buried within the ever increasing mass of secondary wood. A second cambium, the cork cambium, produces the bark, a secondary tissue which replaces the epidermis of the root and stem. This cambium is frequently renewed and, arising each time farther into the secondary phloem, it eventually abuts upon the active phloem. The living part of the tree then consists of a hollow shell composed of the two cambia, the active phloem transporting food and the active xylem conducting water with its dissolved minerals. Annual growth rings are produced in the secondary wood deposited by the cambium. Coniferous wood differs from the wood There

is

a

central pith surrounded

—

of angiosperms in the absence of vessels.

Vessels are cells of the

xylem which have lost their end walls. Arranged end to end they form what are functionally long pipes. Only in the Gnetales among the gymnosperms are vessels developed. In the conifers water is conducted through long tracheids which communicate through bordered pits, each closed by a delicate membrane through which the water must pass. In addition to the tracheids there are wood rays composed of living cells, usually only one or a few cell layers thick, and these are bordered by ray tracheids in many Pinaceae. The wood rays also communicate with the tracheids by means of The size, shape and arrangement of the bordered pits, pits. whether they are in one or several rows, whether or not they are accompanied by thickenings of the wall called crassulae, and especially the character of the pitting in the cross fields where ray cells border on tracheids, are criteria that enter into the study of wood anatomy. The wood of some genera of Pinaceae has resin canals which are ducts lined with resin-producing cells. In other families there are only resin cells, or cells containing other oils, and many types have resin passages in the cortex. Pseiidotsiiga has spiral thicken-

seen in cultivation and often are termed retinospora, though this term does not denote a true genus, but merely the persistence of the juvenile form of a species belonging to any of several genera; Thuja, Junipcrus, Cupressus, Chamaecyparis and other trees

e.g.,

of the

same

type.

In trees with resting winter buds the difference between the bud and the foliage leaves is always pronounced. When the winter buds have broken, the scars or the dried bud scales remain around the twigs and mark the growth of successive seasons. Some of those with naked buds also may show seasonal differences in the length of leaves produced along the shoots; e.g., Araucaria. scales

The genera with

have longer leaves on the In the southern hemisphere there are many conifers of the genera Dacrydium, Podocarpus (section Dacrycarpus), Acmopyle, etc., in which the green foliage leaves are dimorphic and even trimorphic so that when judged by the shape of the leaves alone, they are not always recognized as flattened twigs usually

edges of the twigs

th.in

on the

sides.

belonging to the s.nme species. The occurrence of long and short shoots is a characteristic feature of Pinus, Cedrus, Larix and Pseudolarix. In Pinus the needles occur in pairs, or in clusters of three to five (rarely only one, or up to eight) at the apex of small and inconspicuous short shoots of limited growth (spurs). The spur is enclosed at its base by several scale leaves and

is borne, upon a branch of unlimited growth, in the axil of a scale leaf. The short shoots of the other three genera are stout spurs bearing an indefinite number of

needles and they are not shed "*"^ ^"'^ AXIS OF SHORT SHOOT

to apparent with regions of the twigs bearing only scale leaves. They are grooved and AXIS OF have two separate veins, suggestSHORT SHOOT ing an origin from a pair of BRACT needle leaves. A peculiarity of the

--

OVULE

,

j^^,Q

PHLOEM the

—

AXIS OF

their small size; e.g., the needle

may

be seven inches in length and nearly two inches broad; but with this exception, and the long needles of several of the pines, the leaves of conifers are relatively small. The leaves of most conifers show adaptations which reduce water loss, such as thick

and few and modified stomata. The latter may be rebands which are often visible

stricted to one or several lengthwise

as gray or white lines.

Many conifers have leaves that are polymorphic. The leaves of seedlings usually differ from the leaves of the mature tree. In some junipers, cypresses, etc., in which small leaves appressed stem are normal

leaves

the

leaves found in the conifers are those of Podocarpiis blumei, which

in adult plants,

examples occur

in

which

these leaves are replaced by longer, slender, needlelike leaves standing out almost at right angles to the branch. This condition is usually typical of the seedling stage. Such examples are often

gjg

restricted

alternating

the inverse orientation

is

,

,

.

of the vascular tissue LEAF

relationships.

to the

the axils of the scale leaves,

]3jjf

PHLOEM whorls

of the resins also can be used to identify some conifers as well. Studies of the chemistry of the various products secreted by these plants have added materially to our understanding of their inter-

Leaves. The simple leaves of conifers are characterized by form represented by Pinus, Cedrus, Tsuga, Picea. The needlelike leaves are fitted by nature to prevent escape of water from the plant. Thus, these trees can retain their leaves in the winter, hence their common name of evergreens. The flat or angular linear leaves of Thuja, Cupressus and Libocedrus are appressed to the branches and have a single midvein. Leaves of the latter genera often have a prominent resin gland. The flat and comparatively broad leaves of some species of Araucaria, the leaves of Agathis and the leaves of the section Nageia of Podocarpiis have several parallel veins. The largest

in

.

in LEAF

ings in its tracheids in addition to the thick secondary cell wall. These and other anatomical features of coniferous woods have been studied extensively and have been organized into keys for the identification of species by wood alone. The chemical nature

cuticle

with the leaves as are the spurs

pmes. ^ remarkable and unique leaf PHLOEM found in the umbrella pine is -XYLEM (^Sciadopitys vcrticillata). These BRACT leaves are actually borne spirally

SHORT SHOOT C

BRACT

r

:

I

each of the

phloem next upper, and its xylem next vgjns has

its

lower, surface

the

of

to to

leaf.

This unusual position of the xylem and phloem is explained by regarding the needle of Sciadopitys

as

composed

of

a

pair of

FIG. 1. CROSS SECTIONS OF SHOOTS OF CERTAIN CONIFERS: (A) NOR- leaves on a short shoot, fused by MAL" SHORT SHOOT OF PINUS; (B) their upper margins (fig. 1). •DOUBLE NEEDLE' OF SCIADOPIn the genus Phyllocladus of ITYS *'^*^^ ""^ New Zealand there are no green LARIX AND °^.",';r"°"^ PINUS foliage leaves. In their place, and resembling leaves, are flattened branches (phylloclades) which

are borne in the axil of small-scale leaves.

The tire

leaves of

most conifers are arranged

spirally,

but in one en-

family, the Cupressaceae, they are always opposite, in pairs, or

in threes. This applies also to the monotypic genus Microcachrys and to a few species of Podocarpus, but not to other conifers. While the vegetative structures alone are not considered dependable as a basis for the classification of conifers, they may be very useful diagnostically. A special example is provided by the stomatal structures, including the number and arrangement ot It is possible to subsidiary cells and other cuticular features. place all or nearly all living conifers into their families and genera on the basis of cuticular structures. In many fossils, the outward size and form and the details of cuticular structures are all

that remain.

The

true classification of these fossils without

productive parts may thus be determined and they pared with the living genera.

may

re-

be com-

CONIFERS Reproductive System.

337

—The basis for classifying the conifers

however, is the reproductive system. Thus in order understand the relationship of one plant to another, the must know the structure of the cones as well as details of the development of the male and female reproductive organs and of the embryo. The conifers, like other gymnosperms, have an alternation of generations, and the dominant generation that is seen, say, in a pine or a spruce, is the sporophyte. Sporophytes of conifers have unisporangiate cones; that is, one kind of cone will produce spores that develop into the male gametophyte (male gamete-producing plant), while another will produce spores that give rise to the female gametophyte. These are the staminate or pollen-bearing cones, and the ovulate, or seed-producing cones, respectively. The male gametophyte is the pollen grain, while the female gametophyte is produced inside the ovule and never escapes from the as a group, to fully

'

botanist

Monoecious conifers have both kinds of cones on the same plant; dioecious conifers have the two kinds of cones on difsporophyte.

ferent plants.

A

staminate cone consists of a central axis, bearing scalelike appendages. These are arranged as the leaves; i.e., they are spirally arranged except in the Cupressaceae where they are opposite or whorled. The scale is composed of a slender stalk terminating in an upturned blade and bearing from 2 to 15 pollen sacs or sporangia on its lower surface. The larger number of sporangia (6 to IS) is characteristic of Araitcaria and Agathis in which the sporangia are also peculiar in their large size and in being long, slender and freely pendent. In the pine and podocarp families, there are always only two sporangia attached lengthwise along the stalk and usually a small pointed or rounded blade at the tip. Taxodiaceae and Cupressaceae have typical

from

six to

many

numbers of pollen sacs, usually in excess of two. The sporangia are opened by longitudinal, occasionally by oblique or transverse, slits. An assortment of pollen-bearing scales of various types from different genera is shown in fig. 2.

.various

;

;

.

I

:

I

I

In the origin of sporogenous or spore-producing tissue which gives rise to the tapetum (nutritive cell layers for the spores)

and the pollen mother cells, the conifers agree with the cycads and ginkgo. Pollen mother cells undergo meiosis, a special type of cell division which results in four cells, each with half the number of chromosomes in the mother cell. Such a reduction division must always occur prior to the formation of gametes, since the fusion of gametes doubles the chromosome number. The sporophytic and gametophytic number of chromosomes are symbolized by and n, respectively. After the spores in a quartet have become separated from one another, they develop a double

m

spore coat consisting of the exine and intine.

The outer

layer or

Podocarpaceae (except Saxegothaea) and in most of the Pinaceae, a pair of bladderlike appendages which dry out as wings. The shape and structure of the exine often are suffi-

exine includes, in

all

—

DEVELOPMENT OF MALE GAMETOPHYTE (MICROGAMETOPHYTE) OF PINUS NIGRA FROM (A) AFTER MEIOSIS THROUGH (G) GERMINATION TO (H) JUST BEFORE FERTILIZATION {see TEXT)

FIG. 3.

cient to permit identification of the plant

on

this basis alone.

Division of the spore nucleus begins the formation of the male gametophyte or pollen grain and its mode of development is an indication of evolutionary advancement. It is believed that those with a large number of sterile cells, or prothallial cells, are more primitive in this respect (that is, more like the ferns and club-

mosses). in

Stages in the development of pollen grains in pines are shown fig. 3. Here the spore divides twice to form two abortive

which become flattened against the wall while forming. Pollen that has not matured to this stage within the pollen sac will not germinate normally. The cell that remains (D) is an antheridial intial, which forms, when it divides again, a tube nucleus and a generative cell. The pollen of pine is shed in this condition and is carried to the ovulate

prothallial

the intine

cells

still

is

cones by wind.

In several genera of Pinaceae, the generative cell body cell before pollination, but otherwise all subsequent development takes place after the pollen nucellus grain becomes lodged on the of an ovule. In Araucariaceae there are many more prothallial cells and divides to form a stalk cell and

these usually persist. cells,

In Araucaria there are about IS prothallial

the nuclei of which persist after the walls between

them

disappear; subsequent divisions of these result in 20 to 44 free nuclei which are present in later stages in the pollen tube.

The Podocarpaceae include several genera in which more than two or three prothallial cells are formed and these cells or their Pherosphaera appears exceptional for no nuclei may persist. traces

of prothallial cells

have been found.

In

several

other

genera, where only two prothallial cells are formed, at least one of these persists.

No

prothallial cells are

Most

aceae.

produced

in

Taxodiaceae and Cupresstwo nuclei

of these shed their pollen with only

formed the tube nucleus and the generative nucleus or generative cell. Only a single nucleus is found at the time of pollination in nine species representing five genera of Cupressaceae. In 11 species belonging to other genera in this family, as well as in all :

Taxodiaceae, the pollen grain contains two nuclei at the time of pollination.

TORREYA riG.

2.

— SCALES

CEPHALOTAXUS

FROM THE POLLEN CONES OF VARIOUS CONIFERS

The pollen grain is to be regarded as a separate, individual, though very small, plant which will produce the male gametes. After it has arrived at the nucellus of the ovule, it produces a pollen tube through which the various nuclei and cells are carried toward the female gametophyte. In the events that take place in the nucellus, those that follow the formation of the tube nucleus are uniform in all conifers. The generative cell usually gives rise to the stalk and body cells (fig. 3[G]). The body cell divides to form two male gametes or only the nuclei of the two male gametes;

CONIFERS

338 shortly before fertilization

(fig.

3[H]).

Where both male nuclei may function in the fertilization of eggs of neighbouring archegonia, the male cells are equal in size. In the remaining genera of conifers, in which only one of the pair of male cells or nuclei is functional, the second male cell or nucleus is frequently much smaller than the functional one.

A

large number of cells and nuclei formed in the pollen grains considered a primitive condition, characteristic of the more primitive families, while few cells or nuclei in the pollen grains Since all conifers form the stalk cell, is considered advanced. they have at least four nuclei formed in the pollen grain, while is

angiosperms commonly omit the stalk

cell

and have only

three.

The seed cones of pines are among the most familiar conifer cones. They have numerous scales firmly attached to an axis and is formed. A mature cone appears simple enough, but when cones are examined at the time of pollination, they are found to be much more complicated than the pollen cones. The scales which bear the ovules appear inserted in the axil of

on each a pair of seeds

a bract which

young.

is

when the cone is of the pine family including spruces, firs,

as long as the scale or longer

members

All

larches, etc.,

have

this

peculiar structure.

In

many

firs,

and

notably in Pseiidotsuga (Douglas fir), the bracts are long and project between the scales at maturity. In all pines, and in most of the other genera, the bracts remain rudimentary or are short

and sometimes difficult or impossible to find in a mature cone. Fig. 4 shows an assortment of ovuliferous scales with subtending bracts, representing different genera of Pinaceae.

The

ovuliferous scale has

its

vascular bundles in an inverted

phloem above the xylem. There is also a quesas to whether this structure, if in any way comparable to a represents a single unit or is composed of several fused parts. like the leaf of a fern bearing several sporangia on its sur-

position with the tion leaf,

Is

it

it represent as many sporophylls as there are ovules surface? The morphological nature of the ovuliferous

face, or does

found on

its

been discussed by botanists for more than a century, during which proponents of one hypothesis or another have called scale has

it a carpel, a placenta, a flattened axillary shoot, a ligule, an outgrowth from the chalazal end of the ovule, etc. There has long been general agreement that the bract is homologous with a leaf, but leaves do not bear other leaves in their axil without the forma-

tion of at least

some

axis.

CRYPTOMERIA

— LONGITUDINAL

SECTIONS OF CONE SCALES OF VARIOUS GENERA AND SPECIES OF CONIFERS FIG.

5.

The question appears

to

have been resolved satisfactorily

as

morphology and anatomy of recent and fossil members of the Coniferales and of the now extinct Cordaitales {see Paleobotany). E\adence shows that the ovuliferous scale is an axillary shoot, highly modified and bearing sterile scalelike appendages and fertile ovule-bearing appendages. The latter were never in their evolutionary history leaflike. Each ovule represents such an appendage and the remainder of the scale is coma result of research on the

posed of fused

sterile

in the axil of a bract

appendages.

The whole

and thus the cone

is

structure is borne seen to be a compound

structure in contrast to the pollen cone. In the Pinaceae the ovuliferous scale and the bract are always

In nearly all other families the scale is united with the In some bract along its entire length to form the cone scale. genera the scale becomes longer than the bract, in others the bract is the longer element. The two component structures may be recognized by the position and the orientation of the vascular bundles which are inverted in the ovuliferous scale. Fig. 5 shows diagrams of the fused cone scales in Araucaria, various genera of Taxodiaceae and Cupressaceae, with their opposed vascular bunseparate.

dles. In the Araucariaceae the scale and bract are fused into a single member and this double structure bears only a single seed. The so-called ligule of the scale in Araucaria is the tip of the ovuliferous scale while the longer tip is the end of the bract. In the Scales of two species of Araucaria are shown in fig. 5.

Araucarias (Proaraucaria) the scale and bract are not comshown in fig. 6(C). In the seed cone of Sciadopitys (fig. 5) the bract and scale are fused nearly to the exposed end of the scale, where these members, both of them greatly thickened, are distinct and may be recognized externally. Here the bract has only a single vascular fossil

pletely fused as FIG.

4.— OVULFFEROUS SCALES WITH BRACTS

(B)

LARIX

(E)

PSEUDOTSUGA TAXIFOLIA;

AMABILIS;

IN PINACEAE: (A) ABIES ALBA; PINUS SYLVESTRIS; (D) TSUGA CANADENSIS; (F) ABIES VENUSTA; (G) PSEUDOLARIX (H) PICEA EXCELSA; (I) KETELEERIA DAVIDIANA

DECIDUA;

(C)

,

CONIFERS

339

bundle while the scale has a bundle system that is branched, with strands leading off to the five or nine or more ovules borne on this structure.

In other members of the Taxodiaceae with which Sciadopitys is usually included, there is a more complete fusion of the bract and scale. In Cuniiinghamia the ovuliferous scale is only half as long as the bract, its tip forming a small thin ligule above the attachment of the seeds. The opposed bundles appear fused at the base, but diverge distally, in Cupressaceae.

In those genera with

woody cones the compound nature of the cone scale may be recognized, as is shown by the selection represented in fig. 5. In the Podocarpaceae the ovuliferous scale usually becomes fleshy and is known as an epimatium. It may surround the ovule only at its base, or partially cover the seed. In most species the epimatium completely surrounds the seed, forming an outer integument as shown in fig. 7 (A) and (B). However, the vascular bundles of this outer member have the orientation that would be expected in the ovuliferous scale. Here the cone itself is reduced to an axis bearing several sterile bracts and ending in the ovule. The axis and its scales also become fleshy and swollen forming a receptacle on which the seed is borne. The ovule, in the seed plants, is the structure in which the female gametophyte is produced by the germination of a spore which arises by meiosis of certain specialized cells in the nucellus, The nucellus is open to a tissue equivalent to a sporangium. the outside only through a narrow canal called the micropyle. The ovules of conifers are borne on the tip of their stalks, but since the appendages are inverted and frequently fused with the bract, the ovules and seeds appear on the upper surface of the cone scale. As stated before, this interpretation is supported by the inverse orientation of the vascular bundles in the ovuliferous The Pinaceae always have scale as well as by the fossil evidence. two ovules per

some

In

scale.

many

families there are as

as

eight or nine, in others the ovules occur singly.

The micropyle

is

ceae, Araucariaceae,

directed toward the main cone axis in Pinamost Podocarpaceae and in some genera of the

Taxodiaceae. In the remaining Taxodiaceae, in the genera Dacrydium, Phyllocladus, Acmopyle and Pherosphaera (all belong to the Podocarpaceae) and in the Cupressaceae and Cephalotaxaceae, the ovules and seeds are erect.

In the earliest stages of evolution the

ovules were erect, but there

is

in

'

many

abundant evidence

to indicate that

of the fossils, even in the Paleozoic, inversion of the ovules

had occurred {see fig. 6| A] and [B] ). Furthermore, the families of hving conifers that have erect ovules and seeds are represented by fossil ancestors only in more recent geological rocks. It is reasonable to suppose, therefore, that the erect ovules in living forms developed from the inverted types. The erection of the ovule was accompanied by a great reduction in the seed cone. The cones having the largest number of scales always have inverted seeds; it is only among those with few scales per cone or with the cone reduced that erect seeds are found.

The young ovulate cones ap-

;

!

is

They

are

small and loose and, with their

transfer of pollen

by wind.

;

is

the

within

nucellus

their

the

way

;

within the nucellus. The pollen '^, , tube of the male gametophyte .

;

I

,

.

,

must then grow through the nucellar tissue to bring the gametes

surface.

fig.

5

)

and germinates

there,

growing for a

After pollination the micropyle usually closes; the ovuliferous

mains shut

ovule.

male gametes brought to the vicinity of the female gametophyte

its

scales thicken slightly so that the entire cone

to

Thus we have the male gametophyte which will produce the

on

nucellus.

accomplished

find

together. Entrance to the ovule is gained through the micropyle and accomplished by a pollination drop mechanism essentially like that in cycads. However, the droplet method of gaining entrance For example, in Larix and Pseudotsuga, the lips is not universal. of the integument become stigmatic on the inner surface and catch the pollen of the exposed surface spread apart at this time. In a few days the stigmatic lips roll inward to close the micropyle and In Saxegothaea the nucelthis transfers the pollen to the inside. lus enlarges and protrudes from the micropyle and the pollen then

considerable distance before reaching the ovule. However the details differ in the various genera, the pollen tube always approaches the egg by digesting its way through the

Ultimately some of the

pollen grains

PODOCARPUS TOTARRA AFTER FERTILIZATION. SHOW-

ovuliferous scale {see

spread apart so that the pollen may lodge on any part of the cone including the ovules, have a bristly appearance. The scales

'

—OVULES OF

The greatest departure from the usual pollination mechanism is shown by Araucaria, which varies in the direction of angiosperms, for here the pollen falls on the ligule formed by the tip of the

ready to be shed

from the pollen cones.

7.

ING DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO (see TEXT)

falls directly

pear on the plant at the time that the pollen

FIG.

until the seeds are

matured.

pollinated, along with the cones, enlarge FIG.

6.

— CONE

SCALES;

VOLTZIA

tion

{i.e.,

closed and re-

fully before

that

were

fertiliza-

and several a year or two after

the fusion of gametes), but in the pine

LIEBEANA:

other genera, this growth does not begin until

*xis.

pollination.

(A) SIDE FACING CONE with central seed at scar; showing oppos.te side, ' until 1816. after the death of his father had assured him a measure of financial security and nullified the Bicknell family's objections. By 1819 two legacies each of £4,000 alleviated domestic anxieties, and his genius was at least acknowledged by his election in November to the associateship of the academy. During the years 1811-26 Constable unwaveringly pursued a lonely road of experiment and discovery, against the accepted teaching of his day, in the means of rendering the observed tains the almost fully

appearance of landscape. The evidence of this search lies in the series of over 300 drawings and oil studies which in 1888 were bequeathed to the Victoria and .Mbert museum, London, by the painter's daughter Miss Isabel Constable. These studies show the artist steadily

cord,

within

acquiring a bolder, freer handhng of paint, to reschemes of composition, the fleeting

traditional

aspects of landscape as perceived under varying conditions of light and weather. The disparity between Constable's oil sketches

and

—

pictures which

occurs so frequently the nervous, trembling brushstroke and emotional tension on the one hand, as opposed to the calm, reflective quality on the other may best be explained as the artist's recreation of a mood, of a his

big

remembered

finished

A

comparison between the study for "The Hay Wain." c. 1821 (Victoria and Albert museum) and the finished composition in the National gallery, London, with its additions and alterations, shows the working out of this double creative process, which is also described in Wordsworth's poetry and is typical of the Romantic revival in art and literature as a whole. Notable works of this period are "Boat-building" (Royal .'\cademy, 1815; Victoria and Albert museum), painted entirely in the open air, near Flatford mill; "Flatford Mill" (Royal Academy, 1817; Tate gallery, London); "The White Horse" (Royal Academy, 1819; Frick collection. New York), his first six-foot canvas; "The Hay Wain" (Royal Academy, 1812; National gallery); "Salisbury Cathedral From the Bishop's Grounds" (Royal Academy, 1823; Victoria and Albert museum), the first of several versions; and "The Leaping Horse" (Royal Academy, 1825; Diploma gallery. Royal Academy), for which a grand, unified, full-scale study exists in the "Victoria and Albert museum. The "Salisbury Cathedral" of 1823 is painted in a new technique of blobs and pure colour, with scumblings and vision, in the tranquillity of his studio.

heavy impasto, and contains those elements so prized by Con"my light my dews my breezes my bloom and my freshness" qualities as yet absent from landscape painting. During 1821-22, Constable painted a series of cloud studies remarkable for their close accuracy of observation and sustained quality. This intensive study of the atmosphere was inspired by the researches of Luke Howard, fellow of the Royal society, whose standard classification of cloud structure provided Constable with a scientific framework to serve his pictorial ends. Constable's admiration for the older masters of landscape Rubens, Ruisdael, Titian and above all Claude steadily increased, and in 1823 he spent six weeks copying landscapes in Beaumont's collection. The French were the first to acclaim Constable publicly, when

—

stable:

—

—

—

—

—

at

the Paris Salon of 1824 he

showed three paintings,

including

"The Hay Wain,'' and again at Lille in 1825, where he exhibited "The White Horse." On both occasions he was awarded a gold medal. "The Hay Wain" had been purchased by John Arrowsmith, an Anglo-French dealer who, with the print seller Schroth,

imported many Constables into France. Not until 1829 did the Royal Academy grudgingly admit Constable as a full academician, by which time it came as a hollow honour. Although early in 1828 he had inherited £20,000 from his father-in-law, this new-found security was soon blighted by the death of his wife later that year.

The work

of the last

ten years of Constable's career shows

greater diversity of development, and he attempted to infuse more of the spontaneity of his sketches into the larger compositions,

such as the windswept, impressionistic "Hadleigh Castle" of i82g (large study in the Tate gallery). Alternating with these broadly treated atmospheric works are carefully detailed paintings as "The Valley Farm" (1835; Tate gallery), or "The Cornfield" (1826), purchased by private subscription and presented to the National

The most ambitious achieveFrom Whitehall

gallery soon after Constable's death.

ment

of this period was the "Waterloo Bridge

(Royal Academy, 1832; Lord Glenconner), projected about 1819 (in 1824 he exhibited a smaller "Waterloo"), a sparkling, light-filled composition in which the distant vista of the bridge is framed by a foreground of trees, boats and buildings in the manner of Claude. As in many works of this date. Constable made extensive use of a palette-knife technique, notably in "The Cenotaph" (Royal Academy, 1836; Tate gallery), with which he pays tribute to Reynolds, to whose memory the cenotaph had been erected at Coleorton (Beaumont's house), and reflects in its In 1833 David Lucas gentle melancholy his own sombre mood. had published a splendid series of mezzotints after Constable's paintings entitled English Latidscape. Constable's sudden death on March 31, 1837, could be attributed to no discoverable disease. Constable's importance lies in his having brought to the art Stairs"

of landscape painting a highly original creative vision of such as to convey to the spectator his own direct passion. Apparently mundane, trivial objects were seen afresh and paintec' with the devoted concern of a naturalist's observation. Naturalism for Constable meant indeed an aversion to the ideal landscape

power

and to borrowed ideas. He may truly be considered the fathei of modern landscape painting and a liberating force on mid-igtt century French landscape tradition. See also Painting; Landscape Painting. Bibliography. C. R. Leslie (ed.), Memoirs of the Life of Joht.

—

Constable, rev. ed. (1951)

;

.\.

Shirley (ed.). Published Mezzotints

0,

David Lucas After John Constable (igjo) C. J. Holmes, Constabh and His Influence on Landscape Painting, containing catalogue (1902) Lord Windsor, John Constable, R.A. (1903); Peter Leslie (ed.), Tht Letters of John Constable, R.A. to C. R. Leslie, R.A. (1932); Kur Badt, John Constable's Clouds (1950) R. B. Beckett, John Constabh and the Fishers (1952) R. B. Beckett's typescript annotated transcrip;

;

;

tions of the Constable correspondence, 15 vol. (Reference library, Vic toria and .Albert museum) and for note on contents see R. B. Beckett The Burlington Magazine, p. 417 (Nov. 1956). (D. L. Fr.) ;

CONSTABLE,

the

title

of a great officer of state in westen

European countries from medieval times, and of certain executiv legal officials in Great Britain and the United States. Officers of State. The title of comes stabidi (see Count) i found in the Roman and particularly in the East Roman or Byzan tine empire from the Sth century a.d. as that of the head of th stables at the imperial court. The Franks borrowed the titk

—

—

CONSTANCE and under the Merovingian and Carolingian kings of western Europe the comes stabuli was in charge of the royal stud, with the marshal (marescalliis) as his subordinate officer. Both these important palace officials sometimes deputized for the king in command of the army. In the 11th century the constable (connetable) of France became one of the five great officers of state, with certain limited powers of jurisdiction and with command of the cavalry.

With the decline

constable's military duties

of the office of seneschal

and

judicial

(g.v.)

powers increased

till

the

by

mid-14th century he held supreme military command of the army: at the height of his power, he possessed the right to be addressed as "cousin" by the king and took precedence immediately after him. After the treason of constable due de Bourbon (1523), however, the kings distrusted the office, and for many years in the 16th century it was allowed to remain vacant. Suppressed in 1627, after the death of Frangois de Bonne, due de Lesdiguieres, it was revived by Napoleon I, who appointed his brother Louis BonaIt was finally abolished on the restoration of parte constable. the Bourbons. The constable and marshal in France both held courts to implement their judicial powers. Having similar duties, they fused into one body (connetablie et marechaussee) during Louis XI's reign. Until the middle of the 14th century the constable and the marshal personally presided over their courts, but as military operations increased a lieutenant conducted duties in their name. Early in the 15th century he assumed the title of lieutetiant general. In addition to civil and criminal jurisdiction, which included all military persons and causes, the court's jurisdiction extended to include persons with no legal domicile, previously convicted criminals, murder, robbery and other acts of violence. This often resulted in disputes with the ordinary courts. After the 15th century the court's power declined, and

its

duties were principally

it survived until the Revolution. The kings of Castile, of Navarre, of Naples and of Portugal also The hereditary title of constable (conhad their constables. destable) of Castile belongs to the house of Velasco, that of grand constable of Navarre to the dukes of Berwick and Alba. The Colonna family became hereditary grand constables of Naples in In Portugal, Nuno Alvares Pereira (1360-1431) was ap1450. pointed constable in 1385, His daughter's marriage to King John I's bastard son Afonso gave rise to the ducal line of Braganza, who were hereditary grand constables until the 8th duke succeeded to the throne in 1640. In Scotland the office of constable, introduced in the 12th century, became hereditary in the Comyn family in the 13th century and in the Hay family (later earls of ErroU) from 1314. Their status was fixed by an act of parliament in 1681, when the lord high constable was given precedence before every other hereditary honour after the blood royal and rank in all royal armies next to

administrative, but

the king. His judicial powers extend to all disorders committed within four miles of the sovereign's person or of the parliament or

and he has the charge and guarding of on ceremonial occasions. In England the office of constable, which was similar to that of the pre-Conquest staller, was in existence in Henry I's reign. The constable and marshal were principally in command of the army, though they had duties at the king's court. The office was hereditary in the family of ]\Iilo of Gloucester (earls of Hereford from 1141), then in the Bohun family (earls of Hereford from 1199 to 1373). Edward Stafford, 3rd duke of Buckingham, claimed the office of lord high constable as heir of the Bohuns, but after his attainder (1521) it was revived only occasionally. Lord high constables are now appointed only for coronations. council representing him, the king

The constable and marshal's court, also known as the court of chivalry, came into existence at least as early as the reign of Edward I. Local Officers. Officers with important military commands and in control of garrisons and castles were also known as constables; e.g., the constables of Windsor, Dover, Caernarvon, Conway, Harlech and Flint castles and of the Tower of London, still existing in the 20th century. Sometimes the appointment was

—

coupled with that of conservator (later justice) of the peace,

who

381

assisted the sheriff in enforcing the law. stables exercising civil jurisdiction.

This gave

Under

rise to con-

the Statute of

Win-

chester (1285) the civil and military organizations were Unked. A chief or high constable was appointed in every hundred or franchise, who was responsible for suppressing riots and violent crimes

and for arming the militia to enable him to do so. Under him were petty constables in each tithing or village. The high and petty or parish constables remained the executive legal officers in counties until the County Police acts of 1839 and 1840 allowed justices in quarter sessions to establish a paid police force.

The

high constable, which latterly had chiefly been concerned with inspecting weights and measures, suppressing cattle disease and levying and collecting the county rate, was abolished in 1869. In Scotland, bodies of high constables, formed to curb riots, etc., still exist at Edinburgh, Leith, Perth and Holyroodhouse, the lastnamed being prominent on state occasions. By the Parish Constables act of 1842, constables were to be concerned only with the security of persons and property and no longer with the keeping of the peace. Vestries (later parish councils) were allowed to decide if one or more of these should be paid. office of

Parish Constables act of 1872 appointments were no made unless required by a resolution of general or quarter sessions or requested by the resolution of a vestry. {See further Police.) Special constables are peace officers appointed to act on emergencies when the ordinary police force is thought insufficient. In the rural districts of the United States the constable had the same status as in England before the act of 1842, but during

By

the

longer to be

the 20th century gradually lost most of his power in criminal matters to the uniformed poUce, being thereafter chiefly concerned

with the issuing of writs, processes and election notices. Virginia totally abolished the office, as also did many counties in other states. Candidates for election were often not forthcoming. The office of high constable existed in Philadelphia and New York (P. W, M,-S,) in the latter city until 1830.

CONSTANCE

(Konstanz), a town of Germany which after World War II was in the Land

partition of the nation following

Baden-Wiirttemberg in the Federal Republic of Ger1,312 ft, above sea level at the point where the Rhine Lake Constance. Pop. (1959 est.) 51,666, Of the fortifications of the medieval town, on the left bank of the Rhine, only the Schnetz gate, two towers and a part of the town wall remain. The modern residential and industrial areas, recreation grounds and barracks are all north of the river in the district of Petershausen (state) of

many,

It lies

flows out of

and the adjacent suburbs. By the harbour of the old town is the Kaufhaus (warehouse) built in 1388 and, across the wide market place, stands the Renaissance-style town hall (1585), Near the Upper market is the Gothic Rosgarten museum, once the guild house of the butchers, and between these and the Rhine stands the 11th-century minster which was the cathedral until 1821, the diocese of Constance having once been the greatest in Germany, Among medieval houses are the city library and picture gallery and a house with frescoes In Niederburg (c, 1300) showing the history of linen weaving. is the unchanged medieval Dominican monastery of Zoffingen, The modern state technical college stands on the banks of the Rhine,

Constance

is

about 40 mi, from the Black Forest and at the end and upper Rhine railways and is connected to

of the Black Forest

The shipping routes of the lake converge on Constance harbour and the airfield is used by small aircraft. There are textile concerns, engineering works and electrical the Swiss railway network.

and chemical works. Because of its beautiful setting Constance the most popular tourist resort on the lake,

A Roman

fort, established there in the reign of

is

Claudius (a,d.

41-54), was invaded in the 3rd century by the Alamanni who, in about 600, founded a bishop's see. The emperor Frederick I Barbarossa made peace there with the Lombard states in 1183, In the 13th century the export of linen brought great prosperity and in the 14th century the townspeople freed themselves from episcoConstance, then a cultural centre, became an impal rule, The perial city and head of a powerful confederacy of towns.

CONSTANCE

^,82

14th-century mystic Heinrich Suso entered a monastery there. During the council of Constance (see Constance, Council of) John Huss was tried and burned. In 1417 at Constance Fredericlc I of Hohenzollern was enfeoffed with the electorate of Brandenburg (^.r.) by King Sigismund. During the Reformation Constance became Protestant under the influence of Zwingli his see to Meersburg on the north After the defeat of the Protestants in 1547 Constance lost its rights as an imperial city, became Catholic again and fell under .Austrian rule, until it became part of the then newly formed grand duchy of Baden in 1S05. In 1633 the Swedes During the 19th century many collections laid siege to the city. and archives were removed, churches and monasteries suppressed and most of the city fortifications pulled down. Nevertheless, Constance remains the cultural and economic centre of the dis-

and the bishop transferred coast of the lake.

(0. F.)

trict.

CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF,

a church council convoked,

under pressure from the emperor Sigismund. by John XXIII (1410-15). one of the three popes who divided the allegiance of Christendom at the time and generally considered to have been an antipope (an opinion shared by the pope who ascended the throne in 195S. also as John XXIII ). The two other papal claimants were Gregory XII. third successor of Urban VI and now commonly considered the legitimate pope, and Benedict XIII. successor of the schismatic Clement VII, also generally regarded as an antipope. The principal task of the council, which opened on Nov. 5. 1414. at Constance in Baden, and closed on April 22. 1418. was to put an end to the great schism of the west. In this task it was successful. Other objects were the reform of the church and the examination of the teachings of John Wycliffe and John Huss. Sigismund had persuaded John XXIII to call the council in a German city and had won for it the support of central Europe, England and most of Italy. The majority of the French episcopate and the University of Paris also favoured the council but the French government stood aloof. Scotland and the parts of Spain that remained true to Benedict XIII at first took no part in it. The Council of Constance was a brilliant gathering. Thousands of persons, representing the intellect, learning and power of the age. thronged the streets of the little city on the Lake of Constance. At the time of its greatest numbers, it counted three patriarchs. 29 cardinals, 33 archbishops, 150 bishops, 100 abbots and 300 doctors of theology and canon law. If the staffs of the emperor and nobles, the retinues of the prelates and the merchants whom the council attracted are included, about 70.000 people attended,

among them

to the council's

a large

number who

did not contribute

good name.

The majority of the council's members acknowledged the Counof Pisa 1409 as ecumenical and considered John XXIII to be the legitimate pope. But when it was proposed that the decrees cil

)

(

of Pisa, and implicitly the validity of John XXIII's election, be approved, the French cardinal Pierre d'Ailly intervened and maintained that all three contestants were obliged to obey the Coun-

which w-ould decide who was the legitimate pope. three rivals should abdicate gained ground steadily. John XXIII hoped to maintain himself because he could count on the votes of the Italian bishops and prelates, who formed cil

of Constance,

The

thesis that all

the majority of those with the traditional right of suffrage in ecclesiastical assemblies. The German members, however, were

able to win the right of voting for the representatives of absent prelates, for doctors of theology and canon law and even for am-

bassadors of princes.

This measure, which was against conciliar power of John XXIII. To decrease still further the influence of the Italians, it was decided that differences were to be settled not by the majority of those ha\ang right to vote

usage, broke the

but by nations, of which there were at

first

four: English. French.

German and

Italian. Later, the cardinals present were given a vote as a group, and stiU later, after the deposition of Benedict XIII. the Spanish nation was empowered to vote. This di\'ision according to nations, copied from the organization of the Uni-

versity of Paris, gave England, with a handful of representatives. as much power as Italy, with its great numbers.

John XXIII

at first

would not hear

of abdicating, but

under

threat

of

(March

an investigation of his

life,

he promised on oath

1415) to resign if his rivals would do the same. Three weeks later, however, he fled in disguise from Constance, hoping that this act would deprive the council of its authority and lead to its dissolution. The emperor, however, insisted that the council continue. D'Ailly and other leaders maintained that the popes were subject to the council. The consequence was that in the third session (March 29, 1415) and the fifth (April 6) the famous decrees on the church were passed. It was asserted that the council had its authority immediately from God and could not be dissolved or transferred by the pope without its consent; that everyone including the pope must obey the council in matters concerning the faith; the ending of the schism and the reformation of the church in head and members; and that the council 2,

had power

to coerce

and punish

all

the recalcitrants, even the head

of the church.

appears that these decrees, in the minds of those who voted them, applied not only to the Council of Constance, held in exceptional circumstances, but to all future councils. No pope and relatively few cardinals or bishops accepted this revolutionary inIt

terpretation of the church's fundamental law. Four sessions of the council were devoted to an examination of

John XXIII, who had been brought back as a prisoner Constance and who was deposed. Although he accepted the sentence, he was kept in captivity till 1418 by Sigismund and released only on the payment of a heavy ransom. He died in 1419. In the 14th session (July 4. 1415), through a cardinal legate, Gregory XII convoked the council and ordered his adherents to join it. Then his free and unconditional abdication was announced. The council acknowledged this convocation and acthe life of to

cepted the resignation. In gratitude for his resignation the council conferred on him the bishopric of Porto, the legation of Ancona and rank second only to that of the pope. He died in 1417. The council, after the convocation by Gregory XII, is regarded as a

by Roman Catholic theologians. Benedict XIII refused to resign, although Sigismund went personally to his residence at Perpignan in France to persuade him. Sigismund. however, was able to induce the Spanish princes to abandon Benedict, who on July 26, 1417, was deposed by the council. He still refused to submit and remained in the castle of Peniscola near Valencia till his death. After the deposition of Benedict, the council decided that general councils were to be held frequently. One was to be held five years after the end of Constance, a second seven years later, and thereafter one was to be held every ten years. A disagreement about the order of procedure led to debate. Sigismund and the German nation wanted to proceed to a reform of the church before the new pope was elected. On Oct. 30, 1417, a decree was published binding the future pope to a reform. In electing the new pope, the council decided that for this time 30 other prelates representing the different nations should be associated w'ith the cardinals present at Constance. This conclave on Nov. 11, 1417, elected Oddone Colonna, who became pope as Martin V. The council also dealt with the teachings of John Wycliffe, John Huss and Jerome of Prague. Forty-five propositions of Wycliffe and 30 of Huss were condemned. Huss and Jerome were declared true general council

obstinate heretics, delivered to the secular stake,

The

arm and burned

at the

Jerome of Prague.) summoned to bring about a

(See further Huss. John; council had also been

reform of the church in head and members. Seven reform decrees were adopted and Martin V concluded concordats on other points, chiefly methods of taxation, with the various nations. To the

any real reform the Reformation may be attributed. The Holy See never approved of the decrees of the council as a whole, and specifically reprobated those on the supremacy of the council. Others e.g., the condemnations of Wyclifiite and Hussite doctrines were accepted. See Papacy: The Great Schism, 1378-1417: The Council of Constance; Council. See also references under "Constance. Council of" in the Index volume. council's failure to effect

in large part

—

—

CONSTANCE—CONSTANT DE REBECQUE "^

—H.

Finke and J. HoUnsteiner, Acta concilii Constantiensis, 4 vol. (1896-1928); Hefele-Leclercq, Histoire des conciles, "Constance" in the Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. vii, pp. 108-584 (1916) L. Christiana in Dictionnaire de Droit Canonique, vol. vol. iv (1908) Bibliography.

;

;

(E. A. R.)

iv (1949).

CONSTANCE, LAKE OF

(Bodensee), after the lake of

Geneva, the largest lake in the region of the Alps, lies along the northeast frontier of Switzerland with Germany and Austria. It is entered by the Rhine near Bregenz and the river leaves the lake

am

Rhein. The lower end of the lake is divided into two arms, the Untersee, below Constance, and the Uberlingersee, extending to Ludwigshafen am Rhein. Lake Constance has an exGlacial in origin tent of 46^ mi. from southeast to northwest. and hemmed in by moraines at its lower end, the lake lies 1.299 level, with maximum width a of 10^ mi. and a maxift. above sea mum depth of 827 ft. The area of the lake is 207 sq.mi., divided between Switzerland (cantons Thurgau and Sankt Ciallen), AusBronze tria (Vorarlberg) and the Federal Republic of Germany. at Stein

Age

pile dwellings

burg, Ger.

The

monastery of

have been found and reconstructed

island of Reichenau

is

at

Meers-

the site of the medieval

CONSTANS, FLAVIUS JULIUS

(Constans

(1930-45). (A. F. A. M.) I)

(c. a.d.

Roman

emperor, was the fourth or fifth son of ConProclaimed Caesar in 333, he became ruler stantine the Great, of Italy, Africa and Illyricum on the death of his father (337). His brother Constantine II iq.v.) invaded northern Italy in 340, but was defeated and killed at Aquileia by the troops of Constans, who then became ruler of the western empire, Italy, Spain, Gaul He defended his realm successfully against the and Britain. Franks in 341, and in 343 visited Britain. He was an ardent Catholic, vigorously opposing Arianism (g.v.) and paganism. He was overthrown and killed in Gaul in 350 by Magnentius. (E. A. T.) PoGONATUS (630-668), Byzantine emperor from 641 to 668, became sole ruler in 641 after the death of his father, Constantine III, and the downfall of his uncle Heradeonas. He had to face the early onslaughts of Islam. Alexandria was finally lost in 646, and Egypt fell into Muslim hands. The Arabs, becoming powerful at sea, attacked Cyprus (649) and Rhodes In 655 Constans was defeated at sea, and only internal (654). dissensions prevented the Arabs from attacking Constantinople. They continually harried Asia Minor and gained a footing in Armenia. Constans ensured the defense of the eastern provinces by strengthening their military organization and was thus free to turn to the Balkans and the west. In 658 he campaigned against the Slavs who were settling in the Balkans. In 662 he took an

CONSTANS n

army

to Italy, visited

Rome

briefly in 663,

and

finally settled at

make it his capital. He evidently hoped Lombards and had some success against them,

Syracuse, intending to to drive

out the

but he then concentrated on consolidating the southern imperial

provinces as a bulwark for protecting North Africa and Sicily against the Arabs.

His heavy exactions led to an African revolt,

but at least he contributed to the long persistence of Byzantine

power in southern Italy and Sicily. He was assassinated at Syracuse on Sept. 15, 668. Constans tried to impose unity on the church by an edict, the Typus, forbidding discussion of the monothelite question (648) and by the arrest, trial and exile of Pope Martin I (653). Both his foreign and his ecclesiastical policy show Constans to have been dominated by the old conception of a single universal empire comprising both east and west. See G. Ostrogorsky, History of the Byzantine State (1956); E. in Cambridge Medieval History, vol. ii, ch. 13 (1913).

W.

Brooks

(J.

M. Hy.)

CONSTANT, BENJAMIN JEAN JOSEPH

'

(1845and etcher who gained particular fame for his portraits of the English aristocracy, was born in Paris on June 10, 1845. He studied under Alexandre Cabanel and greatly admired the work of Eugene Delacroix. In 1871 Constant traveled through Spain and Morocco, and the oriental subjects which this 1902), French painter

trip

variable but not with respect to another. Many so-called physical constants are constant under certain conditions only; e.g., the boiling point of a pure substance is constant only if the atmosOn the other pheric pressure is constant {see Vaporization). hand there are constants which express invariable ratios, such as the gas constant R {see Thermodynamics), the gravitational con-

G

{see Gravitation) and Avogadro's constant {q.v.) N. electric charge e {see Electron) is an example of the invariable measure of a physical property. Planck's constant h, the elementary quantum of action, is probably the most im-

stant

The elementary

portant constant in quantum theory {see Quantum Mechanics). Another famous physical constant is the velocity of light, approximately 3 X lO^" cm. per second {see Light, Velocity of; see also

Physical Units). See also references under "Constant"

vol.

323-350),

CONSTANT,

Zell.

See J. Friih, Geographic der Sckweiz, 3

inspired established his reputation as a painter.

Later he

383

turned toward more decorative painting for public buildings, and portraiture. He exhibited frequently in the Paris salons. As an occasional etcher, he is accredited with three plates. In mathea quantity which does not vary. matics and physics a quantity may be constant with respect to one

CONSTANTA, tre

in the Index.

town of Rumania and administrative cenof the Dobruja region, is located on the Black sea, 201 km. a

(about 125 mi.) E. of Bucharest. It is the principal seaport of and, like Bucharest, has the status of a reguinea (region). Pop. (1960 est.) 112,993. The first settlement on the site was the ancient city of Tomis, founded in the 6th century B.C. by Greek colonists. It was the place of exile of the Roman poet Ovid, and numerous remains testify to the existence of a flourishing GrecoRoman settlement of considerable military importance. In the 4th century the town was largely rebuilt by Constantine the Great

Rumania

and renamed Constantiana,

Its

modem

development dates from

the late 19th century.

The by

oil

port and

and modernized, are connected Air service is from Hellenie. There are

dockyards, rebuilt

pipeline to Ploe?ti,

and edible-oil factories, slaughterhouses, flour mills and rice-husking plants. Constanta contains several theatres and a regional archaeological museum. The marine zoological station, directed by laji university, carries on research on the marine biology of the Black sea. An aquarium is connected with it. Conbrick, textile

stanta

is

a popular seaside resort.

Dobruja (formerly Constanta) Administrative and Economic Region is situated in the southeastern part of Rumania between the Danube and the Black sea, covering part of the historic territory of

Dobruja

Pop. (1960

est.)

{q.v.).

502,674.

Area 15,460 sq.km. (5,969 sq.mi.).

It is divided into nine districts.

The relief of the region is formed of the Danube delta, the Macin mountains, the Babadag and Dobruja plateaus and the Black sea coast. The climate is continental-temperate. The hydrographic network consists of lakes and rivers with a small and variable flow. A steppe vegetation prevails. Minerals include copper, barite, iron ores, marble, limestone and chalk. Industry is concentrated in Constanta, Medgidia,

Navodari and Tulcea and includes metallurgical, chemical, food-processing and thermal power plants. Agriculture, which is important in the region's economy, is completely collecWheat, maize, barley, oats and fruits are grown, and tivized. Cernavoda,

Constanta is the home of the Murfatlar wine. Merino sheep are bred on the Dobruja plaieau. The region produces 70% of Rumania's fish catch, including both fresh- and salt-water varieties. There are a number of resort towns on the shore of the Black sea.

CONSTANT DE REBECQUE, HENRI BENJAMIN (Benjamin Constant) (1767-1830), Franco-Swiss

novelist

and

author of Adolphe (1816), a forerunner of the novel, was born at Lausanne, Switz., on Oct. 25, 1767, the son of a Swiss officer in the Dutch service, whose family was of French origin. The very type of the cosmopolitan European of the Napoleonic generation, he studied at Erlangen, In 1787 he formed, in Ger., briefly at Oxford, and at Edinburgh. Paris, his first liaison, with Madame de Charriere {q.v.), 27 years his senior. His republican opinions in no way suited him to the ofl5ce of chamberlain to the duke of Brunswick, which he held for several years, marrying in 1789 a lady of the court, Baroness political writer, the

modern psychological

CONST ANTIA—CONSTANTINE

:M

Benjamin Constant a Madame de Ricamier, 1807-1830 (1882); A. and S. Roulin (eds.), Benjamin et Rosalie de Constant, Correspondanct (1955) J. Declareuil, De I'esprit de conquete ou Benjamin Constant

In 1794 he chose the side of the French Revolution

Chramm.

Europe, abandoning both his office and his wife, whom he divorced. The influence of Madame de Stael (^.t'.) had a good deal to do with his decision. He had met her at Lausanne earlier in 1794 and he accompanied her on her return to Paris in 1795 Their tumultuous and passionate relationship after the Terror. was to last until 1806. It corresponds with the tirst part of the political life of Constant who, throughout the period of the DiAfter the coup rectory, remained a faithful supporter of Barras. d'etat of IS Brumaire (1799) he was nominated a member of the tribunate, but he quickly became, like Madame de Stael, an opponent of the Bonapartist regime and, expelled from the tribunate During the sucin 1S02, followed her into exile the year after. ceeding years he spent his time either at Madame de Stael's saloti at Coppet. near Geneva, or in Germany, chiefly at Weimar, where he met Goethe and Schiller. Constant, among the most talented of those who transmitted German literary influence to France, was the associate, both at Coppet and in Germany, of the brothers Friedrich and August Wilhelm von Schlegel, the pioneers of the romantic idea, and with them he inspired Madame de Stael's book, in a divided

De

I'Allemagne.

This period of exile was the most productive in Constant's life. For many years he had been collecting material for the book on which he was now engaged, which w-as to be his life's work, De la religion considdree da7is sa source, ses formes et ses developpements (S vol., 1824-31). It is a historical analysis of religious

;

cosmopolite, Pacifiste el anlimililarisle (1920) (various authors), Centeiiaire de Benjamin Constant (1930); C. Du Bos, Grandeur et misere de Benjamin Constant (1946) H. G. Nicholson, Benjamin Constant (1949) A. de Kerchove, B. Constant ou le Libertin sentimental (1950) H. Guillemin, B. Constant, muscadin (1958) de Stael, B. Constant et NapoUon (1959) M. Levaillant, Les amours de B. Constant (1958). (R. Es.) a valley and residential town on the Cape ;

;

;

;

Mme

;

;

CONSTANTIA,

peninsula. Republic of South Africa,

lies

about 10 mi.

S.

of Cape

Town by

road. Pop. (1960) 15,556. The valley is famous for its wines, the finest of which are produced by the government wine

farm of Groot Constantia and the adjacent farm of High Constantia.

produces especially the best light-bodied red

It

The

wines.

table

renowned for its excellent fruits. Groot example of a Dutch colonial manor house,

district is also

Constantia house, has been restored Cape furniture of ernor Simon Van

a fine

and turned into a museum containing antique stinkwood. It was built (c. 1685) by the govder Stel and named after his wife, Constance. Van der Stel also laid out the vineyard. In earlier times shipmasters and others visiting Cape Town would visit Groot Constantia where, after lavish entertainment by the proprietor, they frequently placed orders for wine.

CONSTANTINE

(Constantinus), the name of

a

pope and

an antipope.

CoNSTANTiNE (d. 715), pope from 708 to 715, upheld Roman supremacy against Ravenna's claim to independence. Summoned

feeling in all its varied forms and also the argument of a positive, even a skeptical, nature confronting the threat of death. In it he revealed his inner self, as he also did in his intimate diaries, which for long remained unknown, in his correspondence particularly with his cousin Rosalie and not least in Adolphe, the barely disguised account of his break with Madame de Stael in

After Justinian's murder (711), Constantine's conflict with the usurper Philippicus, a monothelite heretic, foreshadowed the iconoclast controversy.

1806.

He

Nearly a century and a half after the appearance of Adolphe, another novel, Cicile, dealing with events between 1793 and 1808. was discovered. Constant has been compared as a novelist with Stendhal, and, in fact, beneath the romantic trappings and rapturous emotion, there is to be found the sure and easy artistry of a masterly prose writer, and the objective observation which belongs to a true storyteller and which makes him a pioneer of the

II, antipope from 767 to 768, was a soldier and brother of Toto, duke of Nepi, through whom, on the death of Paul I. he was elected pope on July 5, 767. His opponents, led by the powerful primicerius Christopher, fled to the Lombards, Constantine failed to win support from Pepin and the Franks. His deposition in 768 by a Lombard army was canonically ratified by a council of Italian and Frankish bishops; after 769 no more is heard of him.

—

—

psychological novel. In 1808 Constant secretly married Charlotte von Hardenberg, whom he had known at Brunswick. But his intellectual relationship with

Madame

de Stael and the group at Coppet remained unbroken. This is confirmed in the preface (1809) to his mediocre adaptation greatly admired by Madame de Stael of Schiller's Wallenstein.

—

—

Nevertheless, Constant's principal ambitions were political. He 1813, in Hanover, De I' esprit de co?iquete et de I'usurpation dans leurs rapports avec la civilisation europeenne, in which he surveyed the decadence of the Napoleonic regime. As

published in

liberal he was. like Madame de Stael, disappointed by the Restoration, and he reconciled himself with the Empire of the Hundred Days under the influence of Madame Recamier. the other great love of his life. On his return to Paris after a short exile, Constant, through the Minerve fran^aise (1818) and La Renom-

a

mee (18201, became one was elected

of the leaders of liberal journalism.

He

1819 and advocated the liberty of the and speeches and published them as a sort of political testament. He died in Paris on Dec. 8, 1830, having seen the realization of the Staelian political ideal: the

He

press.

monarchy

a

deputy

in

collected his articles

of Louis Philippe brought about

by the revolution of the same year he had been appointed

July 1830. On Aug. 27 of president of the council of state. Constant's complete works were published in 1957, edited by A. Roulin. who also edited the first edition of Cecile (1951; Eng. trans, by N. Cameron, 1952). There are numerous translations of Adolphe and of Le Cahier rouge, Constant's autobiography until 1787, which describes his travels in Britain.

—

BiBLioGR.\PHY. A. Roulin and C. Roth (eds.), Journaux intimes D. Melegary (ed.), Journal intime de Benjamin Constant et lettres a sa jamille et a ses amis (1895); A. Lenormant, Lettres de (1952)

;

to Constantinople,

probably

lan council of 692, he

who "renewed

died April

all

9,

was

to obtain his ratification of the Trul-

flatteringly received

by Justinian

II,

the privileges of his church."

715.

CoNSTANTiN'E

See. for Constantine I, E. Caspar, Geschichte des Papsttums, vol. ii, pp. 637-642 (1933); for Constantine II, L. Duchesne, Les Premiers Temps de I'Hat pontifical, new ed. (1912). (Hy. C.)

CONSTANTINE,

the

name

of a

number

of

Roman

and

Byzantine emperors.

Co.\sTANTiNE I. Called the Great (Flavius Valerius Constantinus) (d. A.D. 337), was the first Roman emperor attested to have become a Christian. He was born at Naissus (Nis) in Moesia, south of the lower Danube, on Feb. 17 of an unknown year, probably in the 280s, the eldest son of Constantius I {q.v.) by his When his father was given the title of Caesar first wife, Helena. in 293 Constantine was attached to the court of the emperor Diocletian, where he became tribune. He was present when Diocletian received an oracular response about the Christians, and must have witnessed the great persecution of 303. When his father received the title of Augustus for the western provinces of the Roman empire in 305, Constantine sought leave to join him. but Galerius, the eastern Augustus, would not let him go. He succeeded however in making his way to Gaul, and accompanied his (

father

York

306.

to

Britain.

When

Constantius

died

at

Eboracum

the troops proclaimed Constantine as Augustus on July 25, Galerius grudgingly acknowledged him as Caesar, but when )

,

Maxentius. son of Maximian ((jg.i). ), revolted in Italy (306). Constantine accepted his overtures, and Maximian, who had resumed the throne, granted him the title of Augustus and gave him his daughter Fausta in marriage on March 31, 307. Maximian soon quarreled with his son and sought refuge with his son-in-law: in 310, however, while Constantine was away on the Rhine. Maximian revolted at Arelate (Aries) but was quickly defeated and compelled to commit suicide. Constantine, whose claim to legitimate rule had been based on Maximian's recognition, now announced

CONSTANTINE was descended from the emperor Claudius II Gothicus and therefore claimed to rule by hereditary right, a claim going back beyond the emperor Diocletian and the rulers appointed by that he

him. Constantine's ambition was not satisfied with being emperor of Gaul, and in 312 he invaded Italy, defeated Maxentius' generals near Augusta Taurinorum (Turin) and at Verona, and moving southward won the final victory over Maxentius in the battle of the Milvian bridge, where Maxentius was killed during the rout.

Before this battle Constantine had a device representing the chirho monogram of Christ painted on his soldiers' shields, the first This monoof his actions indicating conversion to Christianity. gram was later incorporated in the imperial standard, called the labarum. Constantine was acknowledged by the senate as senior Augustus Next spring Licinius ;and accepted by all the western provinces. (q.v.). who ruled the dioceses of Moesia, Pannonia and Thrace, I

Constantine at Milan and married his sister Constantia. During the meeting Galerius Valerius Maximinus (q.v.). who ruled Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt, invaded Thrace, but Licinius hastened back and completely defeated him, thus becoming the On June 15, 313, he issued sole ruler of the eastern provinces. at Nicomedia (Tzmit) an edict (often misleadingly called the edict proclaiming the common policy, agreed between the of Milan two emperors at Milan, of full toleration for all religions and resConstantine himself titution of wrongs done to the Christians. went further, making lavish donations to the churches and granting immunities to the clergy. Conversion. The reasons for Constantine's conversion to Christianity have been much debated. Some believe that it was an astute stroke of policy, designed to win the support of the Christians, or a wise act of statesmanship aimed at buttressing the decaying fabric of the empire with the strength of the Christian church. Neither view is very likely, for the Christians, especially in the west, were a small and unimportant minority and the churches weak and divided. Constantine's motives can be best divined from his voluminous letters and edicts on religion, whose authenticity has been proved. From these it appears that from 313 he regarded himself as the chosen servant of the "Highest Divinity" (whom he identified with the God of the Christians), who had given him victory over his enemies and raised him to supreme power, and believed that the prosperity of the empire and of himself, to whose care it had been committed, would be increased by God if his worship were properly conducted, and would be endangered if God were moved to wrath visited

)

—

I

•

by

its

neglect.

This belief

'

i

is

most simply explained by the story Constantine

many

years later told his biographer Eusebius of Caesarea and confirmed upon oath. When he was contemplating his attack on Maxentius and considering whence he should obtain divine aid, himself

he saw a cross of light superimposed upon the sun. This vision, whatever its nature, was decisive in his conversion, evinced in the favours he henceforth showered on the Christian church. During the decade following his conversion Constantine's legisFor example, he lation shows many signs of Christian influence. repealed the legislation of Augustus that penalized celibates, le-

church and gave

galized bequests to the

'

full validity to

performed

in a

Christian practice, although he emphasized sun.

It

was probably

dowed the '

'

manumis-

church. He even gave powers of jurisdiction to bishops, allowing either party to transfer a suit to the cognizance of a bishop, whose verdict should be final and executed by the civil authority. He also made Sunday a public holiday according to sion

at this period that

Basilica Constantiniana

and

its

Constantini, in the palace of the Laterani in

Religious Policy.

—

its

sacredness to the

he built and lavishly enbaptistery, the

Fons

Rome.

Constantine was soon involved in ecclesiastical controversy, in particular that associated with Donatus (see DoNATisTS ). In 313 a group of African bishops led by Majorinus, who claimed to be bishop of Carthage, submitted to him charges against Caecilian, the rival bishop of Carthage, and asked him to appoint judges to decide the dispute. Constantine was already aware of the schism and on the suggestion of his ecclesiastical

385

adviser, Ossius, bishop of Cordoba, he

had confined

his benefac-

tions to Caecilian's party, but he accepted the petition of the other group and appointed as judges the bishops of Rome, Arelate The (Aries), Augustodunum (Autun) and Colonia (Cologne). bishop of Rome, having called in 15 Italian bishops in addition, pronounced in favour of Caecilian, but the defeated party, now led by Donatus, Majorinus' successor, appealed. Constantine sum-

moned

a larger council of bishops at Aries (314), and they again decided in Caecihan's favour. The Donatist party now appealed to Constantine himself. He eventually agreed to hear the case, and again condemned the Donatists. When they remained recalcitrant he endeavoured to suppress them by force, but they wel-

In 321 he ended the persecution, announcing judgment of God. Constantine was convinced, doubtless by Ossius, that dissension in his church was deeply displeasing to God. It was the traditional duty of the emperor to maintain the pax deonim, and Constantine assumed that he had to win and retain for the empire the favour of God. He used the bishops as experts to pronounce on the religious issue, as his pagan predecessors had used the pontifices or the augurs, but he himself selected and summoned the bishops, received appeals on their decision and took what executive action he thought fit. Victory over Licinius and Foundation of Constantino-

comed martyrdom.

that he would leave the dissidents to the

—

Constantine and Licinius were soon at variance. In 314315 there was a war in Pannonia in which Constantine on the whole gained the upper hand Licinius had to cede to him the two dioceses of Pannonia and Moesia as the price of peace. In 317 Constantine's two elder sons, Crispus and Constantine, were jointly given the title of Caesar with Licinius' son Licinius, but relations gradually deteriorated. Licinius, uncertain of the loyalty of his Christian subjects, began to persecute them, and Constantine in a war against the Goths violated Licinius' territory in Thrace. In 324 Constantine attacked, and, fighting under the protection of the labarum, his armies were victorious at Adrianople (modern Edirne) in Thrace (July 3) and on Sept. 18 at Chrysopolis (Uskiidar), situated opposite Byzantium across the Bosporus. Licinius surrendered and in 325 he was executed for an alleged ple.

:

attempt at revolt.

Soon after his victory Constantine began to rebuild Byzantium on a magnificent scale, renaming it Constantinople (q.v.). He spent great wealth on his new foundation, and to adorn it robbed many pagan shrines of their statues and columns; the city was formally dedicated on May 11, 330. It symbolized a break with the pagan past which was identified with Rome, and heralded the beginning of a new Christian empire. Constantine states in one

new city "by the command of God," and he doubtless conceived it as a memorial and thank offering for the final victory whereby God had granted him rule over the whole empire. As such it was from the start a Christian city, unsullied by pagan sacrifice and amply endowed with magCoin types suggest that it was regarded as a nificent churches. sister to Rome, and it may have been called New Rome from the beginning. But it did not share Rome's constitutional privileges under Constantine. It had no prefect of the city until 359 and no senate, but was primarily an imperial residence. Arianism: Council of Nicaea and its Consequences. Immediately after his victory over Licinius Constantine had redressed the wrongs inflicted on the Christians during the recent persecutions and supplied funds for enlarging and rebuilding the churches in all the eastern provinces. He remembered from his youth that the church was far larger and more flourishing in the east than in the west, and he had hopes that the eastern bishops would be able to resolve the intractable Donatist problem. It was therefore with dismay that he discovered that the eastern churches were divided by a much more widespread dispute, the doctrinal controversy between Alexander, bishop of Alexandria, and one Not understandof his priests, Arius (see Arius; Arianism). of his laws that he founded the

—

ing the theological points at issue Constantine first sent a let-

the two parties rebuking them for quarreling about minute distinctions, as he believed them to be, about the nature of Christ, and urging them to agree to differ, as did pagan philoso-

ter to

CONSTANTINE

:86

carried this letter to Alexandria, soon discovered that the dispute was too serious to be thus resolved, and sununoned a large council of Syrian bishops at Antioch (325). They condemned Arius, but before they had concluded their de-

who

Ossius,

phers.

liberations, Constantine decided to

convoke

a

still

larger council

Shortly afterward he resolved in Galatia. (ecumenical) council of all the churches at Nicaea in Bithynia: this city was chosen as being more convenient for the bishops of Italy and the west who had been summoned, and for the emperor himself, who intended to be present. The Council of Nicaea met on May 20, 325. Constantine himself presided, actively guiding the discussions, and personally proposed (no doubt on Ossius' prompting) the crucial formula expressing the relation of Christ to God in the creed issued by the council, "of one substance with the Father" {see Creed). Overawed by the emperor, the bishops, with two exceptions only, signed the at

Ancyra (Ankara)

to hold a universal

many

creed,

of

them much against their inclination. The council number of lesser schisms and heresies, laying

mand from the civil administration, which the emperor Diocletian had begun, was thus completed. Unlike Diocletian, Constantine favoured the senate, appointing senators freely to provincial governorships and other administrative posts. He was also lavish in grants of senatorial rank, and initiated a great expansion of the

pomp and ceremony, and revived the ancient patriciate in a new form as a very select personal honour {see Patricians), and in the order of the imperial "companions" {see Count) he created a new aristocracy of service, open to senators and nonsenatorial order.

revived or created

He had a taste many titles: he

Constantine was of a lavish disposition, distributand land on a vast scale to his favourites, and spending huge sums on his new capital and on benefactions to the churches. As a result of his extravagance he had to institute new taxes, the collatio glebalis or follis, a surtax on senators, and the oppressive collatio lustralis, a levy of gold and silver on traders and craftsmen. senators alike. ing gold

The

confiscation of the temples eased the financial strain at the end

him to mint large quantities of gold and His gold coin, the solidus, which he minted from

also dealt with a

of his reign, enabling

down

silver coins.

the conditions on which their adherents might be readmitted

church; endeavoured to settle the date of Easter; and regulated various questions of ecclesiastical precedence and organizaConstantine banished Arius and his partisans, confiscated tion. the Arian churches and banned the cult of recusant schismatics to the

and

heretics.

Constantine regarded the decisions of Nicaea as divinely inAs long as he lived no one dared openly to challenge the creed of Nicaea, but the expected concord did not follow. Those who disliked the Nicene formula took every opportunity of attacking its principal adherents and succeeded in condemning several of them on charges of doctrinal error or uncanonical conduct. Their chief victim was Athanasius, who became bishop of Alexandria in 328 (see Athanasius, Saint). At first Constantine supported him, acquitting him of several charges, but he eventually lost patience. The emperor's cherished aim was to reconcile Arius with the church, but Athanasius stubbornly refused to accept Arius' vaguely worded submission. At last, in 335, Constantine summoned a council of bishops at Tyre to investigate various charges against Athanasius and ordered him to appear. The council condemned him; he appealed to Constantine himself, who banished him to Gaul. In the same year at a council at Jerusalem Arius was readmitted to communion. During the last decade of his reign Constantine became increasingly pious. He devoted more and more of his time to completing his religious education, reading the scriptures and theological works supplied by Eusebius of Caesarea, listening to sermons and himself delivering homilies to his court. He continued to spend lavishly on building churches, at Rome, Constantinople, Antioch and the holy places in Palestine. He showed marked favour to Christians, thereby causing a flood of interested conversions. At the same time his attitude to his pagan subjects became more severe. Shortly after his victory over Licinius he issued an edict urging all his subjects to adopt the Christian faith, but at the same time he confirmed his policy of toleration to paganism (although in contemptuous language) and forbade overzealous Christians to disturb the pagan cult. He nevertheless destroyed three famous temples, at Aegae in Cilicia and at Apheca and Heliopolis in Phoenicia, and in 331 confiscated all the temple treasures, even stripping the cult statues of their gold; he probably also seized the temple endowments. Before the end of his reign he may even have spired.

banned sacrifice. Secular Policy.

— Much

less is

known

of Constantine's secular

than of his religious policy. He made an important change in the military organization of the empire, building up the comitatus (the imperial escort) into a large field army, partly by raising

new regiments and

partly

by transferring

to

it

the best units of the

The comitatenses were accorded a privileged and henceforth received the best recruits, and the frontier armies {limitanei or ripenses) thus sank in efificiency and morale. To command the comitatenses Constantine appointed two new officers, one in charge of infantry {maglster pedituni) and the frontier armies.

status

other of cavalry (magister equitiim). The praetorian prefects lost their military functions, and the separation of the military com-

for

the beginning of his reign at 72 to the pound, was maintained for many centuries at its original weight and purity.

Constantine was a firm believer in the principle of hereditary title of Caesar (Crispus and Constantine in 317, Constantius in 324 and Constans in 333, as well as a nephew, Dalmatius, in 335) and allotted them parts of Crispus (see Crispus Caesar) was exethe empire to govern. cuted in mysterious circumstances in 326. The others at the end of the reign shared the government of the whole empire between them, the young Constantine ruling Britain, Gaul and Spain, Constans Italy, Africa and western Illyricum, Dalmatius Thrace, Dacia and Macedonia, and Constantius the eastern provinces Constantine could thus concentrate on his (Asia and Egypt). In the spring of 337 he fell seriously ill at religious duties. Nicomedia and received baptism from Eusebius, bishop of NiceA few days later, on May 22, he died at media, an Arian. Ancyrona, near Nicomedia. Constantine hardly deserves the title of "the Great" he was an able general but lacked other qualities of a good emperor. succession, and gave his sons the

:

He was

extravagant, susceptible to flattery, and capricious. His violent, but he was easily mollified and he lacked firm-

temper was

ness and steadiness of purpose. Still less does he deserve the title of saint, which he holds in the Orthodox Church. His dominating

passion was ambition, and he was unscrupulous and ruthless to his rivals. His rehgious beliefs, though sincere, were perhaps vague. For instance, for some years after his conversion he con-

tinued to issue coins in honour of "the Unconquered Sun." He may at first have believed, as his vision might suggest, that Christ and the sun were both aspects of "the Highest Divinity." Nevertheless his reign was of immense importance for the future of the empire, of the church and of Europe. Constantinople, which he probably founded as a memorial of his final victory, sustained and inspired the empire for more than a millennium. The manner of his conversion influenced the

centuries to come.

relations of church

and state

for

Believing that he was God's chosen servant he

regarded himself as responsible to God for the good government of his church. Above all his conversion assured the future of Christianity. From a minority sect Christianity became the official religion of the empire and was stimulated by the imperial patronage of Constantine and his sons. The church so grew in wealth and numbers that its position could not be shaken by the apostate emperor Julian. (See also references under "Constan-

Index volume.) (A. H. M. J.) (317-340), Roman emperor, second son of Constantine the Great, was born at Arelate (Aries) in Feb. 317' and on March 1, 317, was given the title of Caesar. After the death of his father in 337 he became ruler of Britain, Gaul and Spain. At first he tried to control his brother Constans (g.f.), who soon objected. Constantine claimed Italy and Africa from him, and early in 340 unexpectedly attacked Italy and penetrated There he was met by the vanguard of the army of to Aquileia. Constans, who was then at Naissus (Nis) in Moesia, and was killed. tine I [the

Great]"

Constantine

in the

II

(E. A. T.)

'

CONSTANTINE Byzantine emperor in 641, son of he emperor Heraclius by his first wife, Fabia-Eudocia, succeeded emperor with Heracleonas, the son of Heraclius by his IS joint Court intrigues nearly led to a civil war, lecond wife, Martina. ,vhich was prevented by the death of Constantine (May 641 ). It A'as rumoured that he was poisoned by order of his stepmother, )ut he probably died of tuberculosis. Constantine IV, Byzantine emperor from 668 to 68S, was the He took a decisive stand against the eldest son of Constans II. From 674 onward they be\rabs under the caliph Mu'awiya. ;ieged Constantinople until their decisive defeat in 678, which ;reatly enhanced Byzantine prestige and indeed marked a turning In the Balkans Constantine camjoint in European history. )aigned against the Slavs and Avars and repulsed their attack on rhessalonica. but he could not prevent the Bulgars from crossing he t)anube and establishing their kingdom in the district where He had to recognize them and pay anheir name still survives. Constantine summoned the sixth ecumenical Council lual tribute. (680-681). which condemned monotheletism )f Constantinople ind recognized the orthodox christological doctrine as laid down )y the Council of Chalcedon (451). Constantine V Copronymus (718-775), son of Leo III the 'xonoclast, of the "Isaurian" or North Syrian dynasty, was Byzanine emperor from 741 to 775. Soon after his accession, while he vas fighting against the Arabs, his brother-in-law Artabasdus, the :ount of the Opsikion theme, who opposed iconoclasm, set up as It was not till toward the end of 743 that Conival emperor. 'tantine finally defeated Artabasdus and re-entered ConstantiWhen he felt his position secure, he determined to settle lople. he religious controversy. In 754 he called a synod of 338 bishops t the palace of Hieria across the Bosporus from Constantinople, ,nd the veneration of icons was forbidden. But resistance to conoclasm continued, partly owing to the influence of the monks, gainst whom a vigorous campaign was undertaken. Constantine vas an able military commander. He invaded northern Syria, and von a naval victory against the Arabs (747). He then advanced nto Armenia and Mesopotamia. He did not succeed in holding hese areas, but he had checked the Arabs and prepared the way or the Byzantine offensive in the following century. In the Bal;ans he warred continually against the powerful Bulgarian kinglom, finally dying on campaign, Sept. 14, 775. These life and death problems had given Constantine little lime for Italy, where the Byzantine position was being undermined 'ly the Lombards; the pope (who had hitherto maintained his byalty to Constantinople while protesting vigorously against :onoclasm) turned to the Frankish rulers for help. Henceforth he hnks between Italy and Constantinople were weakened and iyzantine authority confined to its provinces in south Italy. Contantine was blackened by the Orthodox historians of his time, »ut modern scholars have recognized that he was one of the most apable of the Byzantine rulers. Constantine VI (770-after 797), grandson of Constantine V, '/as Byzantine emperor from 780 to 797. At ten years of age he 'ucceeded his father, Leo IV, under the guardianship of his mother, rene (g.v. ). It was during her regency that the seventh ecumenial Council of Nicaea (787) re-established the veneration of icons. iVhen Constantine came of age Irene attempted to retain supreme ''Ower, but in 790 the army proclaimed Constantine VI as sole uler and she was arrested. Constantine foolishly pardoned her in i92. In 796 Constantine roused public opinion by divorcing his Wfe in order to marry his mistress, Theodote. Irene cleverly tilized this situation and in Aug. 797 had Constantine blinded, ie was the last of the "Isaurian," or North Syrian, dynasty, Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus ("born in the purple") 905-959), Byzantine emperor, author and patron of literature, i/as the son of Leo VI the Wise. Though nominally emperor from 13 to 959, he was in practice excluded from all real share in the 'overnment until 945, after his father-in-law, Romanus I Lecape'us, had been exiled in 944. He continued the latter's policy of [upporting the small farmer and safeguarding the soldiers' holdigs, and of waging war against the Arabs in the east Meditermean. He also maintained diplomatic relations with foreign

CoNSTANTiNE

III (612-641

),

387

957 received a state visit from the Russian princess Olga who had recently been converted to Christianity. Constantine is best known for his patronage of art and literature, and he was well versed in the traditions of classical antiquity. Valuable information about the Byzantine empire is supplied by His own the works written by him or directly inspired by him. works are: De thetnatibus, a geographical and historical account a handimperio, admitiistrando of the Byzantine provinces; De countries,

and

in

for the foreign office, written for his son, Romanus II; De cerimoniis aulae byzantinae, on customs and ceremonial of the Byzantine church and court with much historical and archaeological material; a life of Basil I, his grandfather, forming book v of the history known as Theophmies Continatus. Under his aus-

book

works of an encyclopaedic nature were comexcerpts from classical and later authors. A number of manuscripts of the more complete works of classical authors date from this period. Constantine VIII (958-1028), Byzantine emperor, the younger brother of Basil II and coemperor 976-1025, sole ruler 1025-28. He was a pleasure-loving man who allowed the administration to He had no male heir and on his fall into the hands of others. deathbed he arranged that his second daughter, Zoe, should suceparch of Constantinople, Romanus HI ceed him and marry the pices a numljer of piled,

consisting

of

Argyrus.

Constantine IX Monomachus (c. 980-1055), Byzantine emowed his elevation to Zoe, the empress of the Macedonian dynasty who took him as her third husband. peror from 1042 to 1055,

Constantine belonged to the civil party, the opponents of the military magnates, and he neglected the defenses of the empire and reduced the army. He spent extravagant sums on luxuries

and magnificent buildings and seriously debased the coinage. RebeUions broke out at home and abroad; the Normans were overrunning the Byzantine possessions in south Italy; the Pechenegs (Patzinaks) crossed the Danube and attacked Thrace and Macedonia; and the Seljuk Turks made their appearance on the Armenian frontier which was directly exposed to attack, as the Armenian kingdom of Ani lapsed to Constantinople during this Constantine attempted to ally with the papacy against reign. the Normans, but relations between the churches of Rome and Constantinople deteriorated, and in 1054 the visit of the papal Though he was not outstanding for legates resulted in schism. his statesmanship, it was under his auspices that the university reorganized, and there was a marked efConstantinople was of florescence of learning and letters: Constantine X Ducas, Byzantine emperor from 1059 to 1067, succeeded Isaac I Comnenus. His accession was a triumph for the civil aristocracy but was unfortunate in that he proved an incapable emperor. He reduced the army and neglected the frontier defenses at a time when the Seljuk Turks were pressing into the eastern provinces and the sultan Alp Arslan overran Armenia In 1064 the Hun(1064-65) and attacked Caesarea (1067). garians occupied Belgrade, and the Pechenegs (Patzinaks) and Danube and ravaged the Balkan the (Kumans) crossed Uzes In Italy the Normans were provinces, penetrating into Greece. rapidly conquering the last remnants of the Byzantine possessions. (J. M. Hy.) Constantine XI (Constantine Dragases Palaeologus) (1404was the fourth son Byzantine emperor (1449-53), the last 1453), of the emperor Manuel II and his Serbian wife, Helen, of the dynasty of Dragas in Macedonia. He spent his early career with his brothers Theodore and Thomas governing the Byzantine despotate of the Morea (Peloponnese) and completing its recovery from the Franks; and when his brother John VIII died childless in 1448 he was proclaimed emperor at Mistra (Jan. 1449). He was a man of courage and energy, but he succeeded to a ;

damnosa

hereditas.

Mohammed

II,

who became Ottoman

sultan

capture of Constantinople. Constantine did everything within his power to organize the defense of the city and to enlist the support of the west by acknowledging the obedience of the Greek church to Rome, but in vain. He was killed fighting at the walls when the Turks finally broke through on May 29, 1453. (D. M. N.) in 1451, directed all his resources to the

—

CONST ANTINE

y


an index k such that

exists

+

I

•

^

Bl, k

is

0,

6j._^i 5 J, then the value of the sima transcendental number. For example, 2,

1,

;

.

Analytic Theory, Applications

i.e.,

frj

=

2,

—The most

=

6^

3,

ftg

=

important con-

tinued fractions in the analytic theory are

and (D)

(C)

bi+z-

sider, for

form

/+

k2

bi+z-

Con-

"!/z''+i.

j>=0

This has the S-fraction expansion (D) in which k-i = \, k2 =^ \, This S-fraction con^3 = 1. ^^4 = 1/2, /^5 = 1/3, Jfeo = 1/4, verges, and its value is j'§e~"du/{z u), a function which may be regarded as the ".sum" of the divergent series. The continued fraction can be used in this way to connect divergent series with Continued fracdefinite integrals in a wide variety of problems. tions are used to construct electrical networks having preassigned If this function is exproperties embodied in a given function. panded into a continued fraction the characteristics of the required network can be read off immediately. In certain problems of stability of dynamical systems it is important to have a simple algorithm for deciding whether or not a2Z"~^ all the zeros of a polynomial P(z) = z" aiZ"~^ have negative real parts. In case the coefficients Op are real, it is only necessary to expand Q(z)/P(z), where ()(z) = aiZ"~'+JaZ"~' -j-4,t (1947), vol. 10, The Atlantic Baltic Won, May i94j-May ig4s (iq,s6) S. W. Roskill, The War at Sea 1939-194; (1954) W. K. Hancock and M. M. Gowing, British War Economy (1949) Depart(1954)

;

in


oloiiist,\o\ 5.- (January-March 1950). (R. Fv.) See also R. Fl.innery,

COOPER, PETER

(1791-1883), U.S. manufacturer, inven-

and philanthropist, probably best known as the founder of the Cooper union (q.v.), was born in New York city on Feb. 12, 1791. He entered into various industrial activities early in life and in about 1S2S built the Canton ironworks in Baltimore, Md., the In 1S30 Cooper designed and foundation of his great fortune. constructed the first steam locomotive built in the U.S., "Tom Thumb," which was about the size of a modern handcar. Cooper's other notable accomplishments in the industrial world included first construction of iron structural beams (IS54), first U.S. use of the Bessemer process (1856), and construction of the largest tor

blast furnace in the country at that time.

Cyrus Field

in

Actively interested with

the Atlantic cable. Cooper was president of the

New

York, Newfoundland and London Telegraph company and the North .\merican Telegraph company. He took a prominent part in educational affairs and conducted the campaign of the Free School society to its successful issue in 1842, w'hen a New York state law was passed forbidding the support from public funds of any "religious sectarian doctrine." Previously a hardmoney Democrat. Cooper joined the Greenback party after the Civil War and in 1876 was its presidential candidate. He died in New York city on April 4, 1883. He published The Political atid Financial Opinions of Peter Cooper, With an Autobiography of His Early Life (1877) and Ideas for a Science of Good Government in Addresses, Letters and Articles on a Strictly National Currency, (W. H. D.) Tariff and Civil Service ( 1883 ) (1609-1672). English miniaturist, was. COOPER, perhaps the most celebrated of all English artists in his own day, enjoying a European reputation as a portraitist. He was the younger brother of AIe.xander Cooper (q.v.) and. like him, a pupil Cooper worked for Oliver Cromof their uncle. John Hoskins. ,

SAMUEL

making the most celebrated likeness of the lord protector, and also for the restored monarchy and court and is mentioned several times in the diaries of both John Evelyn and Samuel Pepys. The latter paid £30 for a miniature of Mrs. Pepys. Cooper, who may have been of Dutch refugee descent, was widely traveled and an excellent linguist. He died in London on May 5. 1672. There are examples of his work in the British royal collection, in the Victoria and Albert museum, London, and at Oxford and Camwell,

bridge.

See B. S. Long, British Miniaturists (1929); G. Reynolds, English Portrait Miniatures (1952). (P. J. My.)

COOPER

THOMAS

(CoupER), (c. 151 7-1594), English bishop and author of a famous dictionary, was born in Oxford, where he was educated. He became master of Magdalen College school, and afterward practised as a physician in Oxford. In 1565 appeared the first edition of his most notable work. Thesaurus Linguae Romanae et Britannicae. Three other editions followed:

vania in 1806. Thomas Jefferson secured for him the appointment as first professor of natural science and law in the University of Virginia, a position that Cooper was forced to resign under the fierce attack made upon him by the Virginia clergy. In 1819 he went to South Carolina college, Columbia, where he taught chemistry and political economy, and in 1821 became president of the college. He resigned his presidency in 1833 and, following year, his professorship, because of the opposition within the state to his liberal religious views. A born agitator, he constantly preached the doctrine of free trade and tried to show in the

that the protective system was especially

burdensome

to the south.

His remedy was state action against the tyrannical acts of the federal government, and he exercised considerable influence in preparing the people of South Carolina for nullification and secession. Cooper died in Columbia on May 11, 1839. As a philosopher he was a physiological materiahst and a severe critic of Scottish metaphysics. Among his publications in various fields were Some Information Respecting America 1794) Political Essays ( 1800) Lectures on the Elements of Political Economy (1826 A Treatise on the Law of Libel and the Liberty of the Press (1830); Statutes at Large of South Carolina, S vol. (1836-39); Introductory Lecture on chemistry (1812); and a translation of Broussais' On Irritation and Insanity (1831), with which were printed several of his own (

;

;

)

;

essays.

COOPER, THOMAS writer whose political epic. the Chartist principles for

(1805-1892), English Chartist and

The Purgatory of Suicides, versified which he worked and suffered im-

prisonment, was born at Leicester, March 20, 1805. He had a passion for knowledge, and studied extensively while working as In 1827 he became a schoolmaster and in 1829 a a shoemaker. Methodist lay preacher, but he held few positions long. His conversion to Chartism {q.v.) led to his dismissal from the Leicestershire Mercury (1841), and he became editor of the Midland Counties Illuminator and other Chartist weeklies. He organized the Leicester hosier>' knitters into an "army" to study Chartism and literature, and in 1842 toured the Potteries urging support of the general strike.

Convicted of sedition in 1843, he spent two years in Stafford where he wrote his verse epic, in Spenserian stanzas, and a collection of tales, both published in 1845. After his release he became a lecturer, but he quarreled with the Chartist leader Fergus O'Connor and gradually his political enthusiasm declined. After 1856 most of his writings and lectures were in defense of Christianity, He died at Lincoln. July 15, 1892. He also wrote Poetical Works (1877) ^"d the Life of Thomas Cooper, Written by Himself (1872). jail,

Thomas Cooper. Chartist (1936). the trade of making barrels from staves and commonly used for the staves and steel for the

See R. J. Conklin,

COOPERAGE, hoops.

Wood

is

In the packaging trade, cooperage refers to barrels themmanufacture of them. Cooperage is of great antiquity; Pliny ascribes its invention to the inhabitants of the

hoops.

selves as well as the

1573. 1578 and 1584.

Alpine valleys.

Queen Elizabeth I w-as greatly pleased with the Thesaurus, which became known as Cooper's Dictionary. Cooper, who had been ordained about 1559, was made dean of Christ Church, Oxford, in Two years later he became dean of Gloucester, in 1571 1567. bishop of Lincoln and in 1584 bishop of Winchester. Cooper defended the practice and precept of the Church of England against the Roman Catholics on the one hand and against the Martin

they can be made of soft woods and do not require precise workmanship. Tight barrels are made to hold liquids and must be constructed very carefully Another difference is that the tight barrel of high-grade woods. has a bunghole for filling and emptying; the slack barrel does

Marprelate writings and the Puritans on the other. Winchester, April 29, 1594.

He

died at

—

Bibliography. Cooper's An Admonition to the People of England (1589) was reprinted in 1882 and his .inswer in Dejeiice of the Truth Against the Apology of Private Mass (1562) in 1850.

COOPER, THOMAS

(1759-1839), U.S. educator, chemist, expert on jurisprudence and political philosopher described by John Adams as "a learned, ingenious, scientific, and talented madcap," in London, Oct. 22, 1759, and studied at Oxford. He emigrated to the United States about 1793 and began the practice of law. becoming president-judge of the 4th district of Pennsyl-

was born

There are two types of cooperage, slack and rels are

made

tight.

Slack bar-

to hold dry products;

not.

Slack barrels usually are made of pine, although hardwoods are used for some relatively high-value products. Tight barrels are The highest grades of sap-free usually made from white oak. white oak that are quarter-sawed with the grain from straightTight barrels grain timber are used for making whisky barrels. also may be made of red oak, gum, ash and Douglas fir. The type of wood that is used depends to a large extent on the material that In .any case, the wood must not will be packaged in the barrel. produce undesirable characteristics, such as odours, in the product.

Tight barrels are frequently lined or sized.

Lining consists of

CO-OPERATIVES coating the interior of the barrel with such materials as glue, sodium silicate or paraffin. Slack barrels are sometimes lined with

paper or plastic bags to

make them

suitable for packaging dusty

products.

Some automatic operations are used in most barrel plants and many are used in the manufacture of whisky barrels. Only a few In a typical opbarrels were made by hand in the early 1960s. eration, the wood for staves and headings is air-dried for at least then kiln-dried for 10-20 days to reduce the mois10%-12%. The wood is then cut and planed to the proper size and finish. A most crucial operation is the jointing of the edges of the staves and giving them the proper bilge (middle bulge) and taper so that when the barrel is completed the joints will be tight and the circumference of the bilge uniform. a year

and

is

ture content to

The most complex part

of the operation

is

"raising" the barrel.

Staves are set vertically into a head truss ring, and a temporary hoop is placed over the other end. In this arrangement, the staves are passed through a steam tunnel to soften them while soft, they

451

sumers' co-operative, the Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers. The society created a set of organizational and working rules, popularly known as the Rochdale principles, that have been adopted, with modifications, in most countries and used for a

wide variety of co-operative activities. Briefly, these principles call for democratic control, open membership, no religious or political discrimination, service at cost and education of the members. Members have a dual relationship to their association. They contribute its capital and are also customers or patrons. In many countries governmental or co-operative banks aid in financing new and old associations. Credit societies developed in Germany between 1860 and 1875 under the leadership of F. H. Schulze-Delitzsch and F. W. Raiffeisen. Modern credit unions (For (g.v.) are patterned largely on the German experience. agricultural co-operation see tural Co-operation.)

Agricultural Economics: Agricul(J. M. Ti.)

GREAT BRITAIN

;

drawn

are

into their Ijnal shape

and dried again.

Whisky

barrels

are charred at this point to increase their ability to develop flavour

whisky while it is being aged. The barrel is then automatically conveyed to a crozer, a machine that trims the ends of the staves and cuts the croze, the groove near the end of the stave into which The temporary end rings are the head pieces will be fitted. pulled off, the head pieces fitted and the permanent head hoops put in place. Head pieces usually are made of two or more pieces jointed by wooden dowel pins. Finally, the temporary bilge hoops are removed and the rest of the permanent hoops, usually a quarter hoop and a bilge hoop on each end, are driven into place. The bunghole is bored and the barrel is tested for leaks with water under pressure. Both slack and tight barrels are shipped with the heads in place. Tight barrels are, of course, filled through the bunghole, but the heads must be removed from slack barrels for in

Barrels are generally made near their point of use to avoid the expense of shipping empty barrels long distances. Barrels are durable and relatively easy to handle because of their shape. However, they are heavy, are difficult to open without destroying the head pieces and are relatively expensive because of the time and labour required to make them. As a result, the use filling.

of

wooden

By

barrels declined substantially after

far the

major use

for

wooden

World War

II.

barrels in the U.S. in the early

1960s was for aging whisky. When barrels are used for this purpose they may be used only once, according to U.S. law. Some tight wooden barrels are still used for shipping animal and vegetable oils and liquid chemical products, but they have been largely superseded by metal drums and by bulk tank transportation on special railroad cars and truck trailers. Slack barrels have been used in the past for packaging cement, dry chemical products, china, fresh and dried fruit, fish and numerous other products; this type of barrel has suffered from competition principally from multi-wall paper shipping sacks and corrugated paperboard cartons, ,which are not as durable as wood barrels but cost considerably less. Fibre drums made from multiple layers of paperboard, usually with a vapour barrier, also have competed effectively with wooden barrels. The outlook in the early 1960s regarding the future use of barrels was for a continuing decline except for the iging of whisky. (P. B. Ba.) CO-OPERATIVES. Co-operative organizations founded for Dutual economic aid exist in most countries of the world in idvanced as well as in underdeveloped countries and colonial pos-

—

,

sessions,

and

in

urban as well as

in rural areas.

The co-operative

many forms, ranging from and federated organizations, and from highly

;vay of doing business takes

local to

,:entralized

special-

zed to multipurpose societies. Since earliest times people have worked together in large or mall groups to attain social, religious, or economic objectives, )ut

modern co-operative movement is not much more than The underlying social philosophy was formulated the first half of the 19th century by writers such as Robert

the

00 years old. luring

)wen (q.v.) in Great Britain and Charles Fourier (g.v.) in France. ]?he basic organizational structure can be said to date from 1844 nth the establishment in England of the first successful con-

—

Pre-Rochdale Co-operation. As noted above, the British co-operative movement had its origins in the Owenite movements of the early 19th century. joint purchase, production

There were many earlier instances of and sale, but these never constituted

Owen regarded the formation of hucharacter as being of prime importance, for the happiness of each would depend upon the characters of all. Under the existing system, he observed, bad characters were formed because avarice was encouraged. All were trained to seek pecuniary gain and the best feelings of human nature were sacrificed to the love of accumulation. Competition and the pursuit of profit resulted or originated a

movement.

man

in the exploitation of labour,

unemployment, increasing poverty,

misery and crime. He advocated as a remedy the establishment of co-operative communities. None that he founded was successful but the idea had a powerful appeal and generated a movement: in 1821 George Mudie founded the Co-operative and Economical society and published The Economist, which propagated Owenite views. Both the society and the journal came to an end in 1823. The London Co-operative society (1824) then became the main propagandist body, issuing The Co-operative Magazine (1826-30) and concentrating upon the desirability of mutual aid and equal distribution. It carried co-operative ideas into such working-class organizations as branches of trade unions, friendly societies and mechanics' institutes. A branch of the latter in Brighton, Sussex, attracted the attention of Dr. WilUam King and aroused his interest. Under his guidance two co-operative organizations were founded in Brighton in 1827, one to raise a fund by small weekly subscriptions to enable members to join co-operative communities, the other to accumulate profits out of co-operative trading to finance the establishment of a co-operative community. Between 1828 and 1830 he published a monthly magazine The Co-operator, which had a wide circulation and was keenly studied by working-class Owenites, who regarded it as something of a textbook on co-operation. It explained how workers could develop co-operative communities through co-operative trading and production. According to the theory, a small amount of capital could be raised by subscriptions and a store opened, the management of which would provide the experience and knowledge to engage in larger ventures. If credit were neither given nor taken and speculative ventures avoided, little risk would be involved. Profits were not to be divided but were to accumulate in a capital fund to finance further co-openterprise, thereby enabling erative the co-operators to build their own houses, provide their own schools, educate their children on co-operative lines, acquire their own fields and workshops, employ themselves and evolve a community. The practice of cooperation during this evolution would educate the members in co-operative living: "the very act of co-operation would improve the character and change the nature of man the greatest and most beneficial effects of co-operation will be upon the moral character this is the final end and consummation of the cause." The formation of producers' societies was also advocated; trade unions were advised to invest their funds in co-operative enterprises and to start enterprises of their own. Advice on the con.

.

.

.

.

.

CO-OPERATIVES

+52

—

duct of co-operative business was given credit must be avoided, there must be accurate booickeeping and members must be educated in the art of co-operation and democratic administration. A vigorous movement cjuickiy developed. King claimed in 1830 that over 300 societies had been established as a result of his Co-operator. Co-operative congresses were held in the early 1830s and a co-operative wholesale company was established. Model rules were drawn up and approved which not only revealed the influence of King's Co-operator, but had a resemblance to some This movement, of the later rules of the Rochdale Pioneers. however, was almost extinct by 183S. Its collapse was bound up with the failure of Owen's National Equitable Labour exchange involved in the crash of the Grand National Consolidated Trades' union of 1834. This was a catastrophe for the co-operative movement, for it discredited Owen and Owenism with the working classes, but Owenism continued, although its national organiza-

changed

tion

its

name

several times.

Its activities

were mainly

propagandist and educational, still directed toward the establishment of communities. By 1840 there were 62 branches and it was claimed that 50,000 persons attended its lectures each SunTheir activities were carried on in buildings that were day. acquired in some towns and named Halls of Science or Social institutions.

The Rochdale Pioneers. formed having

in 1837, its

was

in

—One

Rochdale.

of

these

branches, no. 24, It was a very active branch,

Social institution, holding lectures

by prominent Owen-

Owen

including

himself), running a day school and an evening school, engaging in public debates with the rival Chartist moveites

(

ment on

subject of socialism versus Chartism and raising

the

Queenwood community. group of Owenites who founded

funds for the It

was

this

pioneer

in adult

education

in

conjunction with the universities.

development of the society 25 years it assisted or took part in other cooperative enterprises in the town, e.g., a co-operative corn mill, a sick and burial society, a building society and a cotton-manufacturing society, and had the leading part in establishing the Activities were not confined to the

In the

alone.

first

Co-operative Wholesale society and the Co-operative Insurance company. The place of the Rochdale Pioneers in co-operative history does not rest alone upon the famous Rochdale principles, for there was actually little that was original in these, but also upon their work in founding the movement. They were active in developing co-operation outside their own society; many retail societies were inspired and advised by the Rochdale men. They drew up and published model rules to guide societies, convened conferences on matters of general concern, pioneered co-operative whole.saling and supplied some of the great leaders of the national movement, notably Abraham Greenwood and J. T. W. Mitchell. The Christian Socialists. In the 1850s a group of profes-

—

sional

men known

as the Christian Socialists (see

cialism; attempted

to

establish

Equitable Pioneers, 1844, generally regarded as the beginning of the modern co-operative movement. The leading figures and 16 of the original 28 Pioneers were members of this branch. Most were not weavers, although the defeat of a weavers' strike and the subsequent intention to start a weavers' productive society provided the opportunity for the Owenites to persuade the weavers

of

Christian societies

solution to the conflict between capital and labour.

So-

as

a

Their ven-

tures failed but some of them, notably E. V. Neale, Thomas Hughes and J. M. Ludlow, were drawn into the co-operative movement and continued to play leading parts in it during the 19th century. They were instrumental in obtaining more satisfactory laws relating to co-operative societies, especially the Industrial and Provident Societies act (1852). Hughes and Neale wrote a Manual for Co-operators (1881). Neale suggested several fruitful ideas of national development and eventually became general secre-

tary of the co-operative union;

the Rochdale Society

self-governing

of friendly societies.

National Organizations.

Ludlow became

the chief registrar

—

The need for a co-operative wholehad been realized in the 1850s and both the Rochdale group and Neale had made unsuccessful efforts to meet it. A change in the law which permitted societies to hold shares sale organization

them in establishing a society on similar lines and with same objective as that advocated by King. They had studied King's writings and one of the leaders of the branch, James Smithies, had all the issues of The Co-operator bound in one vol-

each other's enterprises made possible a federal organization and in 1863 the North of England Wholesale Industrial and Provident society, later known as Co-operative Wholesale society (C.W.S.), was established. Only 50 of the 454 societies then existing joined it at first, the membership of the Rochdale Pioneers constituting about one-quarter of the aggre-

ume.

gate

to join

the

From

and practices what came to be known as the Rochdale principles were culled. There are differences in the lists of these principles given by various writers because the original Pioneers did not draw up a statement of principles. The principles were: open, voluntary membership; democratic control; limited interest; dividend on purchases; education; trade only in pure goods; true weight and measure; religious and political neutrality. The society overcame initial difficulties, including the severe depression of 1847, and achieved such success that it came to be regarded as the model for other societies not only in Great Britain but in other parts of the world. G. J. Holyoake's Selj-Help by the People: History oj Co-operation in Rochdale (18S8) was translated into many languages and made the Rochdale system known their rules

the world over.

The of

success of the society is often ascribed to the attraction dividend on purchases, which provided quick and tangible

from co-operation. Although undoubtedly important, it was by no means the sole rea.son for success. Dividend was not regarded as the end or purpose of the society and there was a grasp and understanding of its social ideals which promoted loyalty and secured a ready adherence to its principles. The early members were enthusiasts for education. As Owenites the formation of human character was more important to them than trading, and they engaged in educational activities, using the society's premises and making grants for education even when these were illegal. benefits

They

desired a rule allocating 10% of profits to be used for educational purposes, but the registrar would not agree to more than

2i%. A fine library with news room was acquired, classes were held and lectures given. The society was the principal educational body in the town for many years and was something of a

in

for the purpose,

membership

society.

of the societies first affiliated to the wholesale In 1868 Lloyd Jones and William Pare, both leading

figures in the

Owenite movement, were

ment and desired

to

still active in the moverevive the Co-operative congress. Their

efforts, together with the support of H.

Pitman's Co-operator (1860-71), brought about the Co-operative congress in 1869, the first of a series. Out of these congresses was developed the Cooperative union, an organization open to all co-operative societies, undertaking propaganda, educational, research and advisory work for them and representing them in dealings with the government and with trade unions. During the 1870s the movement was shaken by the failure of a number of productive societies, mainly in textiles, coal mining and engineering. The C.W.S. had opened a banking department ( 1872) and commenced production in 1873. These steps were strongly opposed by Hughes and Neale and gave rise to great consumerversus-producer debates in the 1870s and 1880s. Producer cooperation, however, revived in the 1880s partly because of recovery from the slump of the 1870s and of the efforts of the Co-operative Productive federation, set up in 1882. The trades entered were mainly printing, clothing and footwear. These had the advantage of co-operative markets and retail societies also invested in them. The strength of the case for producer cooperation was, however, largely destroyed by the publication of Beatrice Potter's (later Mrs. Sidney Webbi The Co-operative Movement in Great Britain 1891 ). She and Webb carried on a life-long attack on producers' co-operation and were strong and effective advocates of consumer co-operation. The wholesale societies continued to extend their activities in the range of trade and production, uniting for joint enterprises in the English and Scottish Joint Co-operative Wholesale society (

CO-OPERATIVES and the Co-operative Insurance society. Co-operative congresses generated various developments, among these being the formation of the North of England Co-operative Newspaper company (1870) which began to publish the Co-operative News in 1871, the oldest working-class newspaper in existence. Developments of the cooperative press continued, both in organization and in number and

The Co-operative union and the wholesale books and periodicals, but the Co-operative News, Scottish Co-operator and Reynolds News (a Sunday paper) with various weekhes and quarterlies are published by the Cooperative Press, Ltd. This is an independent body, although its range of publications.

societies published

shareholders are co-operative societies.

Suggestions were made shortly after the passage of the Reform (1867) that the co-operative movement should have some parliamentary representation, and efforts were made between 1892 and 1914 to persuade the Co-operative congresses to agree to take

act

steps to that end and to form an alliance with the Labour party and the trade unions. These efforts were unsuccessful, until annoyance with government indifference to co-operative grievances

during

!

World War

I

resulted in a decision to seek political rep-

Resulting from this was formed and this found that, for practical purposes, an alliance with the Labour party was Agreements were made (1927, 1946, 1958) which necessary. made co-operative members of parliament and candidates subject to control by the Labour party. The Co-operative party, however, is subject to the Co-operative congress and is financed by resentation at a special congress in 1917. decision, the Co-operative party

I

'

the fees of societies affiliated to

Societies are free to affiliate

it.

and every society affiliated with the Co-operative party has decided to do so by vote of its own members. Retail Society Developments. Steady although unspectacular growth was made by the consumer movement in the 20th century. Individual membership of retail societies more than doubled every 25 years between 1875 and 1950, and amounted to more :than 12,500,000 in 1960. From 1938 to 1958 the volume of trade increased from £263.000,000 to £997,000,000, share and loan capital from £183,000,000 to £356,000.000 and reserves from £15,000,000 to £37,000,000. The greatest growth of membership occurred in the midlands and the south, although the northern parts of Eng!land and Scotland continued to grow faster in trade and capital per member. Co-operative growth after 1920 was also mainly in large towns and cities, in which it was generally weak before 1914. The combined membership of the metropolitan societies increased from 270,000 in 1920 to 2,148,000 in 1958. Societies also grew in isize: whereas in 1920 no society had a membership of 100,000, in '1958 there were 18 such societies, with an aggregate membership amounting to ii% of the movement's total. In 1958 more than half the total membership was in societies with a membership of more than 50,000 each. Much of the increase in size was due to amalgamations which reduced the number of societies from 1,455 societies in 1903, 1,379 in 1920 to 918 in 1958. The increase in size presented problems of management, democratic control and the maintenance of the average member's interest and loyalty. The general pattern of co-operative trade changed little: foodstuffs amounted to 75% of the total in 1958, almost the same proportion as in 1938. New methods of retailing were introduced and developed by co-operative societies in the 1940s and 1950s, mainly self-service shops, supermarkets and mobile shops. In 1950, 90% of self-service shops were co-operative and in 1958 there were still more co-operative self-service shops than any other (4,500 co-operative, 1,350 multiple, 550 other), and more 'than half the number of mobile shops were co-operative in 1957. 'The movement, however, was not engaged in mail-order trading 'Or in that of the variety chain store. Although credit trading was icommon in co-operative societies before World War II, its trade was and is predominantly a cash trade: the proportion of memoers' indebtedness to its total trade in 1938 was 2.7%, in 1958 it .vas 2.5%. The wholesale societies, dependent for capital, trade and diectorial control upon the retail societies, have naturally a similar Mttern of development. The business of the C.W.S. increased rom £205,000,000 in 1946 to £463,000,000 in 1958, that of the or not

I

—

;

,

453 The C.W.S. was

S.C.W.S. from £44,000,000 to £90,000,000.

some nationahzed inIt had more than 200 factories and farms, 50,000 emand depots in many parts of the world. It was one of the largest farmers, with farms and estates amounting to 34,000 ac, an agricultural department with a trade of £34,000,000 and agricultural co-operatives from which it bought large quantities of produce. Current account turnover of its banking department increased from £1,334,595,000 in 1946 to £5,042,323,000 in 1958, that of the S.C.W.S. from £102,925,000 to £507,963,000. The Cooperative Insurance society, a joint venture of the C.W.S. and the S.C.W.S., increased its premium income from £9,058,000 in 1938 Britain's largest business in 1958, excepting

dustries.

ployees,

Exclusive of overseas workers, the comovement employed 395,657 workers in 1958. Co-operative workers' productive societies remained mainly engaged in the printing, clothing and footwear industries. As these did not enjoy the general expansion of the 1950s, they did not grow at the rate of the co-operative movement in general. But little advance was made generally by this type of co-operation during the 1920-60 period. The number of societies changed little during this time, 44 societies being affiliated to the Co-operative Productive federation in 1923, 46 in 1955 and 41 in 1958. The number of employees is a fair measure of their growth: there were 5,217 employees of these societies in 1923, 5,481 in 1955 and to £47,702,000 in 1958.

operative

4,898 in 1958.

—

Organization. The co-operative movement is organized from bottom upward. At the base are the individual members of

the

the primary societies,

Members to

whom

retail

interests they exist to serve

These societies associate in and national, yet the same relations exist.

federal societies exist to serve the purposes of the

societies, to

societies.

they are responsible.

federal societies, local

The

Great Britain mainly

subject to their societies but the societies

members, whose

are subject to the

and

in

way

are in no

whom

they are responsible, but the

member

member societies

surrender none of their independence and are autonomous bodies. Each higher organization is created by and controlled by those below it, not by those above it. If there is any sovereign authority in the co-operative movement, it is to be found in the basic units, the individual

The

members

of the primary societies.

principal national organizations are those

mentioned above

—the

C.W.S., the S.C.W.S., the C.P.F., the Co-operative press, the Co-operative party and the Co-operative union. This latter includes most co-operative societies and is generally regarded as representing the co-operative movement as a whole. It is organized on sectional lines, Great Britain being divided into eight secEach tions for the purpose and there is also an Irish section. section has a board elected by the societies in its section, which concerned with the affairs of the movement in its section but which also expresses the voice of the section in national affairs and also exercises some control over them. The central executive of the Co-operative union consists of two representatives of each sectional board, except the Irish, which has one, and representatives of the C.W.S., the S.C.W.S., C.P.F., Co-operative press and is

Co-operative party.

number

Sectional representatives

of the national organizations

number

10.

The

17,

those

central executive

responsible for managing the affairs of the Co-operative union

determining co-operative policy between congresses.

is

and

Although the

management and work through four main subcommittees. General Purposes (concerned with finances and management of the C.U.), Parliamentary, National Pohcy and Economic. Each ultimately responsible for

central executive

is

policy decisions

effects its

section

the

is

it

represented on the General Purposes committee which is so is each national organization with A similar pattern exists

main committee, and

the exception of the Co-operative party.

with other C.U. organizations: the National Wages board (which negotiates on a national level with the trade unions) has two representatives from each section and two from the central execuThe trade associations have generally one from each section tive. and representatives of the central executive and the wholesale societies. By this organizational structure each sectional board and national organization is kept well informed of the conduct of all affairs by the Co-operative union and is able to voice its opin-

CO-OPERATIVES

+5+ A

Co-operative congress is held anions and nually, attended by delegates from all Co-operative union member societies. Its principal business is consideration of the report of the central executive, which is a statement of all the work of the Co-operative union in the preceding year. Resolutions on matters of the Co-operative union, on those of the retail societies, the national organizations and international questions are moved and discussed. But the only effective resolutions are those Congress has no conreferring to the Co-operative union itself. stitutional power over the individual societies or the national organizations excepting the Co-operative union and the Co-operative party. Nevertheless resolutions which refer to co-operative affairs ha\e often given a lead and exercised considerable inlluence. share in control.

Agricultural Co-operation.

— The agricultural

societies

have

not been willing to enter into the main stream of the British cooperative movement, although most are members of the C.W.S. and relations are amicable. Circumstances and the inspiration and leadership of Sir Horace Plunkett (q.v.) enabled a successful agri-

movement

develop earlier and more rapThe English movement grew slowly and almost suffered catastrophe in 1924 with the collapse of the Agricultural Organization society (established 1901) and the Agricultural Wholesale society (established 1918), victims of the postwar slump. The C.W.S. did much to keep some of the societies alive, but although the National Farmers' union took the affairs of the movement into its hands, agricultural co-operation was handicapped by lack of zealous organization to further it. The formation of the Agricultural Co-operative Managers' association in 1936. the Agricultural Co-operative association in 194S and the Agricultural Central Co-operative association in 1956 helped to remove this handicap. There are separate agricultural cultural co-operative

idly in Ireland than in

to

Great Britain.

organizations in Wales and Scotland.

During and after World

War

II, agricultural co-operation grew rapidly. Membership in England increased from 108,000 in 1946 to 230,687 in 1958, trade from £25,000.000 in 1946 to £129,189,000 in 1958. Requisite societies have always been and are the strongest, accounting for

£80,000,000 of this turnover.

(A. Bo.)

UNITED STATES Co-operatives in the United States may be classified by specific function as: (1) farmer-owned marketing, processing and purchasing associations; (2) retailer-owned wholesale co-operatives; (3) credit and banking co-operatives (including credit unions and the nationwide farm credit system); (4) mutual insurance com(5) rural electric co-operatives; (6) consumer goods

panies;

stores; (7) group health and medical plans. In addition, there are co-operatives performing miscellaneous farm services (e.g., artificial breeding, cotton-ginning), housing co-operatives, stu-

dent co-operatives (dwellings, bookstores and other facilities), rural telephone co-operatives and burial associations. The first seven types are listed in the approximate declining order of their annual business volume. Of an estimated annual

farmer-owned marand service associations accounted for nearly volume in the early 1960s. History. Co-operative endeavour in the United States was started by workers' groups. An early example was the establishment of a short-lived co-operative boot and shoe factory by the Journeymen Cordwainers' union of Baltimore, Md., in 1794. Two total co-operative business of $24,000,000,000,

keting, purchasing

half the dollar

—

groups of workers launched co-operative stores in 1829, one in Philadelphia and the other in New York. Two years later, cooperative trading was discussed at the first annual convention of the New England Association of Farmers, Mechanics and other Workingmen, and co-operative stores were soon established. A member of this association took a leading part in organizing the Workingmen's Protective union, which sought to accomplish "broad social amelioration" through "cooperation, mercantile and fraternal." By 1857 membership in the union extended to the six New England states and New York. Distrust and dissatisfaction caused some members to break away and form the American Protective union in 1S53, which did not share the social aims of the original union. Both agencies were weakened by internal

They were and suffered from the economic dislocations. problems.

also the targets of

competing merchants, and pre-Civil War

financial panic of 1857

The majority of local stores disbanded without loss to their members; some distributed sizable accumulated earnings. Their experience illustrated elements of weakness and strength in co-operative endeavour. The first recorded co-operative effort among farmers in the U.S. was a "dairy" (presumably a creamery) established at Goshen, Conn., in 1810. By 1867, there were over 400 co-operatives processing dairy products in the eastern United States. In 1820 a group of Welsh farmers at Granville, 0., began marketing hogs co-operatively. Wool pools were established during the 1840s and Wisconsin grain farmers erected an elevator at Madison in 1857. Co-operative purchasing of farm supplies began on Long Island in 1863 with the formation of an association to buy fertilizer in wholesale lots. Meanwhile the success of the Rochdale Pioneers in England in the middle of the 19th century (see above) was widely publicized. More than a century later, true co-operatives throughout the world still acknowledged and respected the Rochdale principles, regardless of their degree of adherence to them. Although they were promulgated for consumer co-operative stores, they were also applied to agricultural producers' co-operatives. The founding of the National Grange in 1867 gave impetus to co-operative activity in the U.S. (see Grange, The). A sponsor of "cooperation in all things," the Grange declared that its objective was to bring "producers and consumers, farmers and manufacturers, into the It It

most direct and friendly

relations possible."

grew slowly

at first but later had 24,000 local organizations. exerted political influence at the national level and empha-

sized economic activities locally. It established state and county agencies for marketing farm commodities, purchasing farm supplies, operating stores, manufacturing farm equipment, and for banking and insurance. Without co-ordination at the national level, the state and local operating methods were divergent and not conservative. In 1874 the Grange sent a representative to England to study the Rochdale system and soon thereafter operating rules and directions for organizing co-operatives on Rochdale principles

were developed and distributed by the National Grange headquarters. Although the Grange movement was largely spent by 1885, Grange-sponsored or Grange-organized co-operatives continued to function throughout the nation. In later decades, Farmers union and Farm Bureau organizations in many states encouraged and assisted in the formation of co-operatives principally farmers' marketing and purchasing associations some of which attained imposing size. This glimpse of co-operative history reveals two streams of endeavour one directed toward savings in cost of consumer goods, the other directed toward higher net farm incomes through increased returns and stabilized markets or savings in costs of production. Both are stronger in rural areas than in urban communities, although co-operative supermarkets and co-operative apartments are found in and near metropolitan centres. There has been no confluence of these streams because of strong and basic differences in viewpoint. Proponents of across-the-board co-operative effort, with emphasis on consumer services, have been more zealous in their adherence to a co-operative philosophy and ideology. They stress the high motives and ethical values of mutual endeavour. Farmer co-operatives, on the other hand, underscore business objectives: higher prices for their commodities when marketed, increased savings on co-operative purchases and interest on invested capital. Although these differences are only in degree, and monetary savings gained through patronage of consumer stores and services are a prime determinant of their longevity and success, the differences are evident in the teachings and publications of the two types of organizations and there is a lack of rapport between the two groups in some areas of the United States. Characteristics of Co-operatives. In their operating tech-l '-lid nique and organizational structure, co-operatives closely resembleMji, other types of business, and have similar motives. Distinguishing^

—

—

—

—

f

CO-OPERATIVES characteristics of co-operatives are their ownership

(rather than

by patrons

by investors who may or may not be patrons),

their

all net earnings annually among memproportion to their patronage, and their control by directors who are themselves members, owners and patrons. Moreover, co-operatives stress service to members to a degree

distribution or allocation of

ber-owners

in

that shapes their policies.

Because co-operatives are voluntary associations of patrons who in any year, they are peculiarly dependent upon members' active participation and loyalty. Some

may withdraw from membership

sums of capital for plant and equipment which must be provided by memThis capital may be obbers in proportion to their patronage. co-operatives {e.g., processing associations) require large

tained through revolving capital funds derived

from the proceeds

added to the cost of supplies purchased, through a capital allowance in service fees or through stock subscriptions. Although this capital is seldom retained for a period in excess of 10 years (since it is accumulated annually and rotated accordingly), it often involves large investments by member-patrons at a given time. Thus, member relations are a of marketing, through a surcharge

vital

Research studies disclose a between members' knowledge of their co-

aspect of co-operative affairs.

positive

correlation

operative and their loyalty and patronage.

In those co-operatives with membership numbering tens of thousands, information and education become massive responsibilities. In general, co-operatives in the U.S. are decreasing in numbers and increasing in size and membership. In the face of powerful

some co-operatives have been eliminated and others have merged. Some local associations are part of nationwide organizations such as the Farm Credit system and the Rural Electrification administration. Many regional and federated associations have members in several states. A common ethnic background, similarity of interests and emiployment, and comparable income levels all contribute to harmony In predominantly Scandinavian of interests among members. communities, support and patronage of co-operatives are firmly established. This is probably the principal reason why the greatest concentration of co-operative organizations and membership in the United States is in the north central region lying west and south of the Great Lakes, where the large Scandinavian population favoured the formation and early growth of co-operatives with success that has been sfelf-perpetuating. For quite different reasons, California is the state in which annual dollar volume of business through farmer co-operatives is greatest. California cooperatives, primarily engaged in processing, packing and marketing farm commodities, were organized in the early decades of the 20th century and gained national recognition for their rigid standardization of product grade and quality, their promotion of brand names and their consistent efforts toward orderly marketing. These organizations are constantly exposed to keen business comcompetition,

i

and the critical appraisal of their members. With the growth of chain stores in the retail grocery and drug business there has been a marked expansion of wholesale buying co-operatives. These are owned and patronized by supermarkets and proprietary grocery stores seeking bargaining power commensurate with their chain store competitors and savings derived

petition

from quantity purchases. In contrast to those of many other countries, co-operatives in have been encouraged, but not financially supported, by the federal government. In general, farmer co-operatives have received more assistance than those of other types. Marketing associations organized and operating in accordance with the provisions of the Capper-Volstead act of 1922 receive specific consideration under antitrust laws; the Co-operative Marketing act of 1926 established a division under the U.S. department of agricul-

the U.S.

;ure to render services to associations of agricultural producers engaged in co-operative activities. Those co-operatives which dis'.ribute all net earnings among their patrons annually and adhere .0 special stipulations of the internal revenue code (relative to he identity and equitable treatment of patrons, rate of returns )n invested capital, accumulation of reserves and record-keeping)

nay qualify for a "letter of exemption" from federal income

455

Since the co-operative thus retains no net income, its earnings are taxed as income to the individual patrons who receive it. Other types of co-operatives pay federal income taxes. All cooperatives are subject to all other types of taxation. The federal government has faciUtated the growth of two major tj-pes of co-operatives through loans: (1) rural electric associations, which may borrow from the Rural Electrification administration; (2) land bank and production credit associations, which taxes.

were

initially

of the

Farm

provided with funds through the component banks Credit administration.

The

latter include district

federal land banks, intermediate credit banks

and banks for co-

operatives, which lend directly to farmer co-operatives.

The

fed-

funds that originally implemented this nationwide farm credit system were gradually replaced by borrower stock subscriptions. By the early 1960s all three types of lending institutions under the Farm Credit administration were approaching borrower ownereral

The 1,000 rural electric cooperatives that function in 45 states have played a major role in electrification of more than 90% of all farms in the U.S. Several national organizations serve co-operatives. The Ameri-

ship in the co-operative tradition.

can Institute of Cooperation in Washington, D.C. promotes cooperative research and serves as a source and clearinghouse for co-operative information. The Cooperative League of the U.S.A. in Chicago, 111., a federation of co-operatives dealing with consumer goods and farm supplies and services, functions as an educational and training agency and as a spokesman for co-operative principles. The National Council of Farmer Cooperatives in Washington, D.C.

co-operatives before congress and before executive agencies of the federal government and assists in co-ordinating co-operative views on matters of national policy. State corepresents

operative councils perform parallel functions within their respective boundaries. In addition, there are several nationwide associations that follow specific commodity or service lines, including the National Milk Producers federation, the National

Federation of Grain Cooperatives and the National Rural Electric Cooperative association. (A. W. L.)

OTHER COUNTRIES

—

Africa and Near East. The co-operative movement grew rapidly in Africa after World War II, aiding the technical advancement of primitive agricultural economies by making available farm machinery, credit, a marketing system and training in

new methods.

The

co-operatives generally followed the pattern

established by the mother country. In the British territories the government actively encouraged the co-operative movement and appointed registrars to assist in organizing and supervising the new co-operatives. In Nigeria, cocoa marketing co-operatives began in 1922 and were followed by other marketing, credit and consumer co-operatives. In other sections of British West Africa produce-marketing co-operatives were introduced. After World War II membership in co-operatives in British East and Central Africa was extended from Europeans to the African population. Marketing societies added processing functions and began to operate cotton gins and coffee-processing plants. In Kenya, new African co-operatives were patterned after the existing European and Asian societies. In French West Africa the government's attempt to convert native provident societies into co-operatives resulted in some failThe authorities then set up pilot marketing co-operatives ures. and rural producers' mutual societies to promote co-operative development. In Belgian territories there was a slower development Ghana had and some failures due to inadequate preparation. an early history of co-operatives in the production and marketing of cocoa, but consumer co-operatives declined because of the competition of credit stores. South Africa had the most advanced development of co-operatives on the continent, chiefly in consumer and agricultural marketing co-operatives for Europeans. The Cooperative Winegrowers' Association of South Africa controlled the entire wine industry. In north Africa many societies were founded by Europeans and were later extended to include Africans. The Algerian agricultural co-operatives included wine cellars and agricultural equipment

CO-OPERATIVES

+56

Morocco's co-operatives were primarily in agricultural In Tunisia, marketing, production and handicraft societies. craftsmen were encouraged to pool their effort in co-operative workshops and marketing societies. In the .Arab League countries consumer co-operatives were weak because people preferred to shop in the bazaars, .Agricultural co-operatives were developed through government action to improve land utilization and reduce the traditional indebtedness of farmers. Credit and housing co-operatives appeared in Turkey, Jordan, Egypt and Iraq, Government co-operative departments were established in most of these countries to encourage the growth of the movement. In Israel co-operatives flourished under a distinctive association with the labour movement. "Hevrat Ovdim," the General Cooperative of Jewish Labor, was a subsidiary of "Histadrut," the General Federation of Labor, Co-operative agricultural communities accounting for SO'^r of the total rural population, were of the following types: the "Kibbutz" and "Kvutza," where all property is collectively owned and work is organized collectively; the "Moshav" and "Moshav Ovdim," co-operative settlements where all farms are of equal size; and "Moshav Shitufi," a cooperative settlement where all property, except individual farms, societies.

owned collectively. Canada. The earliest co-operative developments in Canada were in agricultural marketing. The United Grain Growers', Ltd. was founded in 1906, the United Fruit Companies of Nova Scotia in 1912, and the Associated Growers of British Columbia in 1923. The Canadian Cooperative Wheat Producers, Ltd. was organized is

—

in 1924 as the central selling agency important marketing societies were livestock, poultry and maple sugar. of all Canadian farm products were

tives in the late

1950s.

wheat pools. Other honey products, forage, Altogether more than 30% marketed through co-operafor the

for

Consumer co-operatives

in

retail

trade

were organized chiefly in rural areas and mining towns. Canada had a strong credit movement, serving chiefly the rural areas and filling gaps in the banking system. The 5,000 co-operative credit unions were grouped into 26 central banks, which were affiliated with the National Federation of Cooperative Credit, which was in turn afiiliated with the corresponding organization in the United States. The French-speaking area was represented by Le Conseil Canadian de la cooperation, which comprised 6 provincial unions, including the Federation of Quebec with million members. Australia and New Zealand The first co-operatives in Australia were organized in 1868. By the time the Cooperative Federation of Australia was founded in 1943 the membership of individual societies had reached 500,000, mainly in New South Wales. Among the most important organizations were the Cooperative Dairy association of New South Wales, the Poultry Farmers' Cooperative society of Queensland and the Trustees of the Wheat Pool of Western Australia. In New Zealand more than 300 co-operative cheese and butter factories dominated the

—

co-operative

U

movement.

—

Latin America. The co-operative movement in Latin America was launched by European immigrants as early as 1900, and was later fostered by state action in connection with agrarian reform. The chief co-operatives are agricultural, credit, housing and consumer types. By the early 1960s there were about 15,000 cooperatives with about 5,000,000 members. The Union of Argentine Cooperative societies was founded in 1922, and in Brazil the Central Cooperative of Rural People's Banks of Rio Grande do Sul was established in 1925. Consumer co-operatives were strong in Argentina, Brazil and Chile. Many were established by business firms or government departments for their own employees, and usually received tax exemptions. Agricultural cooperatives were established in every Latin-American country. By the middle of the 20th century Argentina had six federations of general agricultural marketing co-operatives, including the "Sancor" Butter factories founded in 1938. Brazil had 1,300 agricultural production co-operatives for such products as sugar cane,

cocoa, bananas,

coft'ee,

mate, timber, wine and

rice.

Chile had

agricultural co-operatives for dairy products, poultry, fruit, cattle

and forestry.

Among

the agricultural co-operatives in

Uruguay

were those for livestock, cereals and rice, dairies, fruit and flowers. Credit and insurance co-operatives were also firmly established.

The

Association of Argentine Mutual Insurance cooperatives was in 1940, and had 88,000 members by 1960, The Federation of Argentine Credit cooperatives, founded in 1950, included

founded

50 societies and 35,000 members. Brazil had 444 credit unions. of Savings cooperatives, founded in 1951, included 98 credit co-operatives. The Cooperative Union of the Dominican Republic functioned mainly in credit, and represented 100 credit and insurance societies. In Mexico the ejidos (land-owning villages) provided a system of co-operative farming and community improvement. There were also production co-operatives in forestry, fishing, transportation, mining and services. A major consumer co-operative was organ-

The Chilean Federation

and managed by the trade unions. The Mexican National for the Development of Cooperation was founded in 1944 and small businesses. Asia. In Communist China co-operatives are defined as a form of collective ownership by the workers. The first-five year plan called for the collectivization of agriculture through the ized

Bank

to provide credit to co-operatives

—

intermediate stages associated with the Communist bloc in eastern Europe, and for the gradual organization of individual handicraft

workers and private merchants into co-operatives. Wholesale trade in industrial products was to be handled by state trading companies; handicraft products and other retail trade were to be handled by the co-operatives. By the end of 1956, 92% of all handicraftsmen had been drawn into co-operatives; most of the operators of wagons, wheelbarrows and junks became members of transport co-operatives; and the majority of fishermen, salt miners, peddlers and human carriers were organized into other co-operatives. By the end of 1958 the socialization of agriculture was declared to be complete, without having gone through the scheduled intermediate stages. Communist party workers were in charge of co-operatives and collectives. The co-operative movement in Indonesia had advanced steadily before World War II, but lost ground under Japanese occupation. The first constitution of the republic in 1945 specifically provided for co-operative organization. With the authoritarian government established in 1960, it was anticipated that the co-operatives would become subservient to a state-controlled economic plan.

In India the plan to establish a co-operative in every village embodied the national policy to assign a major role to co-operatives in achieving economic development. The second five-year plan called for an expansion of the multipurpose village societies from 5,000,000 to 15.000,000 members. A government training program was established with a staff of technical advisers to work through the local co-operatives and the village schoolmasters. The Reserve Bank of India was instrumental in distributing agricultural credit, organizing training programs, and otherwise assisting co-operative development. Short-term credit was available through 180,000 credit societies. Production and marketing co-operatives were widely organized for handloom weavers, sugar cane growers, spinners and cottage industries.

In Pakistan at the end of 1957 there were 21,000 co-operatives with a membership of 1,000,000, chiefly in agricultural credit societies. The co-operative movement was also actively promoted in Ceylon, Burma, Malaya and the Philippines. Consumer cooperatives were particularly active in Ceylon, in addition to agricultural credit societies.

In Japan, co-operatives were first established in the 1870s and by the end of the century had 65,000 members, chiefly in the farm villages. With government encouragement the number increased to 380,000 by 1909. After World War I the farm co-operatives were used to carry out the government's economic recovery plan. Fishermen's and workers' production co-operatives also developed rapidly in this period. By World War 11, all of these co-operatives had become state agencies and had lost their independence. After the war, co-operatives were reorganized under new laws. Agriculture and fishing were almost completely organized into cooperatives by the early 1960s. Industrial, commercial and consumer co-operatives were growing less rapidly. U.S.S.R. Consumer co-operation began in Russia with the

—

CO-OPERATIVES serfdom in 1865, and by the end of the century total membership was about 250,000. The revolution of 1905 resulted in the promotion of co-operatives as a means of social improvement, and by 1914 membership had grown to over 1,000,000. During World War II the government controlled distribution through co-operatives, and in the postwar era their scope was determined by political exigencies. In 1958 the Central Union of Consumer cooperatives had a membership of 34,000,000 and abolition of

accounted for 29% of the total retail trade of the U.S.S.R. When producer co-operatives were included in the state planning system most private handicraft workers were induced to join by means of discriminatory taxes or benefits. The "artel" was the main type of co-operative; under this arrangement the shop and equipment were communally owned, each member received a wage, and the annual surplus was distributed in proportion to individual output. The formation of farm co-operatives was advocated by Lenin as a practical method of introducing agricultural collectiThe complete collectivization drive of the 1930s was vization. later modified because of peasant resistance, and each family was permitted to have a farmstead for its personal use, consisting of about half an acre, a few livestock and some tools. Eastern Europe. Co-operatives had attained a considerable growth in this area before World War II; at least 15% of the population belonged to some type of co-operative. As the Soviet Union gained control of each country the basic pattern of socialization was to estabhsh direct state control of large industries and to promote gradual collectivization of the rest of the economy. Collectives were represented as an advanced form of the traditional co-operative. Agriculture was to be reorganized in four stages: (1) machinery was to be used collectively; (2) fields were to be worked in common but still owned individually; (3) all property was to be pooled except the small private farmstead; (4) all land was to be pooled and all income was to be distributed After fulfilling the quota in proportion to the work performed. set for each collective according to its fertility, making deposits in established funds, and paying other expenses, the surplus was distributed in proportion to the number of workday units contributed. Any surplus from the farmstead could be sold in a free market. State farms were directly owned and managed by the state, and the employees were paid regular wages. The typical organization of trade was through a pattern of state stores in urban centres and co-operatives in rural areas. In either case, the operation was in the hands of the political party, which determined quotas and prices in consonance with the national economic plan. Distribution of the surplus was made according to labour contribution rather than to sales and purchases. Producer co-operatives in the cottage or handicraft industries were additional consumer goods encouraged because they could provide at low cost by using local raw materials and local markets, and because skilled workers were thus gradually brought under social-

\

.

—

.

,

,

,

.

..

;

,

,

j

.

.:

:

I

I

rism.

In Albania, the government

was reported

;be relying heavily on the co-operatives in

1960s to attempt to develop

in the early

its

In Bulgaria many of the economic functions carried out by co-operatives were assigned to state organizations, especially the distribution of food products, the sale of agricultural supplies, agricultural marketing, credit and

commerce and '

,

agriculture.

457

retained private ownership of property.

Producer co-operatives

provided 11% of total production; in retail trade 64% of the stores were co-operatives and 30% were state stores. When industries were nationalized in Rumania in 1948, individual producers were organized into state-controlled cooperatives affiliated with a federation under close government supervision. In the late 1950s they accounted for the production of 30% of clothing, 34% of furniture and a high proportion of small metal goods. In Yugoslavia the government liberalized its policy of agricultural collectivization and encouraged the spread of privatelyowned co-operatives. Individual holdings were limited to 25 ac. each and personal control was maintained. Western Europe. The co-operative movement in western Europe underwent major changes after World War II. Consumer co-operatives introduced self-service stores and merged some of their units to reduce costs. Agricultural co-operatives developed marketing and processing facilities to provide more complete ver-

—

tical integration.

Co-operatives had been formed 19th century.

The system

in

Germany

middle of the by F. W. Raif-

in the

of rural credit originated

throughout the world. At the same time, F. H. SchuLze-Delitzsch pioneered in establishing banks for small business loans. These were revived in the Federal Republic of Germany after World War II, and within a decade claimed 5,000,000 members. Consumer co-operatives also recovered quickly after the war, claiming over 2,000,000 members. In France the first consumers' store was founded in 1835, but the main early development was in producers' societies. By 1960 consumer co-operatives had 3,000,000 members and agricultural co-operatives had more than 1.000,000 members. It was estimated that 82% of all grain and 60% of all oil-producing crops were marketed through co-operatives. The 600 workers' production cooperative societies were found mostly in building, quarrying, books, paper, metallurgy and electricity. The Scandinavian countries are strongly organized for both consumers' and agricultural co-operation. In rural areas purchasing and marketing co-operatives are common; in urban areas the consumer co-operatives have food stores, department stores, bakeries and apartments. A Cooperative Union and Wholesale society in each country provides goods and miscellaneous services to the affiliated consumer co-operatives, and may also operate productive enterprises. By 1960 the percentage of the population belonging to co-operatives was 24% in Finland, 21% in Iceland, 14% in Sweden, 11% in Denmark and 8% in Norway. In Sweden there were over 1,000,000 members of farm cooperatives in 1960. Consumer co-operatives handled 12% of all retail trade; housing co-operatives represented 100,000 members and worked with municipal authorities to build low-cost housing. In Norway the sale of fish is handled exclusively by the cooperatives. Dairying co-operatives are also particularly strong. Denmark has a long record of agricultural and consumer cooperatives, including a co-operative theatre with 115 affiliated feisen

was

later copied

societies.

insurance.

In Italy, the co-operative movement lost its freedom with the Mussolini in the early 1920s. In the expansion that followed World War II the co-operatives split into two major federations, each representing 10,000 co-operatives and more than

In Czechoslovakia, both consumer and agricultural co-operatives were strong before the German invasion of 1938. There was a

Agricultural and consumers' co-operatives 2,000,000 members. were the most numerous.

rise of

I '

[

;

rapid revival after

World War

II,

when many

private businesses

were transformed into co-operatives. Retail trade was socialized .between 1946 and 1952. The consumer co-operatives during the |Iate 1950s operated 42,000 stores, 15,000 restaurants and 282

I

j

training schools.

In Hungary, the government established a close relationship with co-operatives under the Horthy regime. After the war, cooperatives were extended but were dominated by the state and linked with state-owned businesses.

The

was revived in Poland as an alternative farm; it provided for co-operative use of new machinery, irrigation systems and local processing plants, but agricultural circle

to the collective

Among

the 5,000 agricultural co-operatives in Spain, the

most

important groups were wine cellars, oil factories, mills, dairies and rural credit banks. Austrian co-operatives lost their autonomy during the German occupation but were re-established in 1947. By 1957, agricultural marketing co-operatives had 1,000,000 members. In urban areas, credit co-operatives claimed 750,000 members and consumer cooperatives had 355,000 members. Before World War II, consumer co-operatives in Belgium handled 10% of all retail trade and served 25% of the population. The postwar revival retained the compartmentalized organization which had developed. The Belgian Farmers' league represented

COOPERSTOWN— CO-OPTATION

+58

payment

marketing and credit co-operatives, with a membership of 250,000.

of selling land outright and accepting mortgages in

of Christian cooperatives operated 1,200 "L'£conomie populaire" op145.000 members. stores erated 320 stores for 60.000 members. The Federal Cooperative society had 217.000 members, and the General Cooperative society served 340.000. In the Netherlands agricultural marketing and supply co-

of Swiss families were members of conThese were extended after the war to the production of flour, furniture, shoes and miscellaneous consumer goods. Agricultural co-operatives came to be particularly active

and probably inlluenced other great landIncorporated in 1807, Cooperstown became a thriving commercial and transportation centre. J.imes Fenimore Cooper spent his boyhood in his father's mansion which overlooked Otsego lake. The scenes and stories of his childhood are reflected in his Leatherstocking Tales. Otsego lake is the Glimmerglass of his novels. Cooperstown was the home of Erastus F. Beadle, who originated the dime novel, and of Samuel Nelson, a justice of the U.S. supreme court. Abner Doubleday (later a general in the U.S. army) was said to have devised the modern game of baseball in Cooperstown in 1839 and the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum are located there. (See Baseball; History of Baseball.) Cooperstown is the headquarters of the New York State Historical association which operates Fenimore house and the Farmer's

in the dairy industry.

museum

tracted

The National Federation for

operatives

were divided along religious

operatives serve about

15%

Consumer

lines.

co-

of the population, chiefly in urban

areas.

the end of 1946,

most important wholesale co-operative

the

Switzerland,

In

movement

started a wartime

to intensify land cultivation.

By

42%

sumer co-operatives.

See also references under "Co-operatives"

in the (J.

—

at-

settlers

in

the village.

The

Historical association has one of

American folk

Index volume.

the nation's best collections of

M. McCr.)

Bassett hospital in Cooperstown

Bibliography. General: Margaret Digby, The World Co-operative International Labor Office, Bibliography rev. ed. (1960) on Cooperation (1958); International Directory of Cooperative Organizations (1958); International Cooperative Alliance, Review of International Cooperation (monthly) "Trends Within the World Co-

Movement,

many

holders to follow his example.

its

;

;

operative Movement," International Labour Review, vol. Ixxix, pp. 537-549, 643-661 (May, June 1959). United States: Jerry X'oorhis, American Co-operatives (1961). Great Britain: S. and B. Webb, The Consumers' Co-operative Movement (1921); G. D. H. Cole, Century of Co-operation (1947); Cooperative Union, Co-operative Statistics (annual); Report of the Cooperative Union (annual); Co-operative Independent Commission Report (1958); A. Bonner, British Co-operation (1961). Africa, Arab League, Israel: Sheila Gorst, Cooperative Organization in Tropical Countries (1959) International Labour Office, African Labour Survey, New Series, no. 48 (1958) N. Malkosh, Cooperation in Israel (1954) Thorsten Odhe, Israel and Its Cooperative Movement (1960).

research. its

Every summer

museums and

art.

beautiful scenery.

COOPER UNION,

Mary Imogene

a notable centre of medical thousands visit Cooperstown to enjoy is

(J. A. Fr.)

educational institution at Cooper In square, New York city, founded by Peter Cooper in 1859. endowing the school. Cooper stipulated that it be "forever devoted to the advancement of science and art." The Hewitt and

an

Carnegie families and others later increased the Union's financial resources.

Green Camp, a 1.000-ac. tract from the ancestral estate Ringwood, N.J., given by Norvin H. Green, Cooper's greatwas opened in 1941 as a year-round educational In 1955 the institution acquired and recreational facility.

at

grandson,

;

;

;

Canada, Oceania and Latin America: Bureau of Census and nual) Canada, (annual) South Technical Paper ;

;

Statistics,

Book

of the Common-wealth of Australia (anDepartment of Agriculture, Cooperation in Canada Pacific Commission, Cooperatives in the South Pacific, no. 123, p. 9 (1959) Pan .-Vmerican Union, Desarrollo

Australia, Official Year

;

movimiento cooperativo en America (1954). Asia: Mohammad Hatta, The Cooperative Movement in Indonesia Yoshio Hoynden, Cooperative Movement in Japan (1958) (1957) ChohE. M. Hough, Cooperative Movement in India, 4th ed. (1959) Ming Li, Economic Development of Communist China (1959) Yuan-Li Wu, An Economic Survey of Communist China (1956). Eastern Europe: N. Baron, Cooperatives in the Soviet Union (1946) Robert F. Byrnes (ed.). East Central Europe Under the Communists del

;

its original site and 1960 a new school of engineering building was constructed

the historic Bible house property adjacent to in

there.

All instruction is tuition-free and open to all who meet the enDay trance requirements, regardless of race, creed or colour. and evening students are selected from among many applicants

on the basis of rigorous intelligence and aptitude

The

tests.

school

of engineering confers the degrees of bachelor of chemical, civil, electrical and mechanical engineering; the art school awards

J

;

;

;

;

(1957), the Series includes the following volumes: Albania, Stavro Skendi (ed.), Bulgaria, L. A. D. Dellin (ed.), Czechoslovakia, Vratislav Busek and Nicolas Spulber (eds.), Hungary, Ernest Helmreich (ed.), Poland, Oscar Halecki (ed.), Romania, Stephen Fischer-Galati (ed.), Yugoslavia, with an Introduction by Robert F. Byrnes; Central Cooperative Council, The Cooperative Movement in Czechoslovakia Central Union of Consumer Societies, Cooperatives in the (1959) U.S.S.R., trans, by D. Myshive (1959) Frederick A. Leedy, "Producers' Cooperatives in the Soviet Union," Monthly Labor Review, vol. Ixxx, William N. Loucks, Comparative Economic pp. 1064-68 (Sept. 1957) Systems, 5th ed. (1957) M. Vuckovic, "Recent Trends in the Yugoslav Cooperative Movement," International Labour Review, vol. Ixxvi, pp. 467^78 (Nov. 1957). ;

;

degrees and certificates in the fine and graphic arts and in architecture. In 1939 a department of humanities and social studies was established to function as an integral part of undergraduate professional education. The adult education division conducts evening courses. Free lectures and programs of music, dance and drama are given in the hall, where on Feb. 27, 1S60. Abraham Lincoln gave his famous Cooper Union address in which he championed the right of the federal government to prohibit slavery in the territories. Many national agencies for social uplift and welfare were founded there, and a number of United States presidents have spoken in

Great

i

the hall.

;

;

Western Europe (see also General) J. W. Ames, Cooperative Sweden Today, rev. ed. (1956) F. Ray Marshall, "The Finnish Cooperative vol. xxxiv, pp. 227-235 (Aug. 1958) Liv Ovesen, Consumers' Cooperation in Norway (1958) U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin no. 1211, Consumer Cooperatives (1957), Cooperatives in Postwar Europe, Bulletin no. 942 (1948); Thorsten Odhe, Scandinavian Cooperative Wholesale Society: 1918-1959 (1960). :

The Museum for the Arts of Decoration, opened in 1897, provides important resources for designers in the decorative arts. Its collections include original drawings and designs, textiles, woodwork, furniture, metalwork, glass, ceramics and wallpaper.

;

Movement," Land Economics,

Free exhibitions are offered frequently.

;

The

;

COOPERSTOWN,

a village of eastern

of Otsego county, about 60 mi.

W.

of

Albany

New

York, U.S., seat

at the foot of Otsego

lake where the Susquehanna river emerges.

army

American patriots under Gen. James Clinton assembled at the present site of Cooperstown where a dam had been built to raise the level of the lake. Breaking the dam, Clinton floated his supplies down the swollen Susquehanna as he moved his force to join Gen. John Sullivan for their successful campaign against the Iroquois and their Loyalist allies. Judge William Cooper of Burlington, N.J., the father of the novelist James Fenimore Cooper, founded the village in the spring of 1 786. His policy In

1

779 an

of

nearly

library, first free public reading

room

in

New

York, has

100.000 volumes, as well as extensive holdings of cur-

The reference magazines and trade catalogues. supplemented by an encyclopaedic picture reference clippings. and photographs collection of classified (E. S. Bl.; F. a. Cu.) CO-OPTATION, the election to vacancies on a legislative,

rent

journals,

library

is

administrative or other body by the votes of the existing members of the body, as opposed to election by an outside constituency. Such bodies may be purely co-optative, like the governing boards

most private U.S. universities, or elective with power to add numbers by co-optation. An example of the latter is the municipal corporations in England, which have statutory authority of

to the

persons who are not elected serve on certain of their committees. to co-opt

members

of the councils to

(C. H. P.)

I

:

CO-ORDINATES— CO-ORDINATION COMPOUNDS CO-ORDINATES,

numerical quantities, specified with respect to some frame of reference, that determine the position To each set of co-ordinates of a point on a plane or in space. in a given co-ordinate system there corresponds one and only one For a detailed discussion of the important types of copoint. ordinate systems used by mathematicians, see Analytic Geomereal

459

clear complex.

There are often two or three "brid

(NH3)iCo

je

groups

Co(NHi,)4

--O:

•o-.

try.

See also references under "Co-ordinates"

Index volume. chemical compounds the atoms or groups of which are united by bonds or valences supplementary to those assigned by the classical theory of valence to the substances of which they are composed. The term was coined by Alfred Werner, who announced the Co-ordination Theory in i8g3 in order to explain the existence of addition compounds and double salts, such as ammines, hydrates and the double cyanides. The classical theory of valence i,q.v.) did not explain, for example, the fact that copper chloride, CuClo, combines with ammonia, NH3. Werner postulated that the ions of metals such as copper have not only the usual or "primary" valence bonds, which hold the atoms of chlorine in CuClo. but also "secondary" or "co-ordinate" valence bonds, by which they may attach themselves to other molecules or negative ions, Werner called the resulting substances "compounds of the higher order" Werner's theory, restated in or "co-ordination compounds." electronic terms by both Nevil V, Sidgwick and Thomas M, Lowry in the 1920s, has become one of the foundation stones of the knowledge of molecular structure. Positive ions, especially those which are small and highly charged, share electrons from adjacent negative ions or neutral molecules which have unshared electrons. The metal ion is referred to as the "acceptor" and the other group Thus, when platinic chloride is the "donor" of electron pairs. treated with an excess of ammonia, the hexammine platinic ion is in the

CO-ORDINATION COMPOUNDS

are

formed

PtCL,

:

:N:H

:

:

:

H, organic amines,

R

:

N

CI

sulfides,

R

:

S

R,

:

two donor atoms are present in the same molecule, but sepaby at least one other atom, they may both co-ordinate with same metallic ion, forming a "chelate" ring. The stability of co-ordination is greatly enhanced by this chelation effect if the ring is of suitable size; five-membered rings are the most stable, If

the

if only single bonds are present in the ring structure. In rings containing double bonds, six members give the greatest stability, but those containing four or six members are easily prepared. This effect may be illustrated by the organic amines. Monoamines

many

Similarly, negative ions such as chloride,

others.

and cyanide,

:

C

:

:

'chloroplatinic acid

is

:

N

:,

:

CI

is

PtCU-f 2HC1

>-H2[Pt

C\ :)6]

or simply HoPtClo.

Two

donor groups may be present in the comBetween the hexammine and the hexachloroions there are the chloropentammine ion, [PtCNHs^jCl]-''"'",

or

more

different

plex simultaneously. platinic

dichlorotetrammine ion, [Pt(NH;jj)4Cl2]-''', the trichlorotriammine ion, [PtlNHgjgCls] + tetrachlorodiammine platithe

,

[Pt(NH3)2Cl4], [Pt(XH3)Cl5]-.

and

'aum,

the

Chloro-aquotetrammine cobaltic

pentachloromonoammine ion,

ion,

[Co(NH3)4(H20)Cl]^"'',

s a more complex type, in which three different donor groups are :o-ordinated to the central ion.

The number of donor groups with which the central is more or less fixed for each metallic ion, and

3ine

ion can is

Simple secondary organic amines

:he element; for hydrogen, it is 2; for elements 3 to Elements 11 to 35, it is 6 for the heavier elements, it

9, it is is 8.

4: for

all,

stable double chelate rings:

M

NH, C0H4 NH >C2H4 NHo

Donor groups which attach themselves to a single metal ion through two atoms (e.g., ethylenediamine) are referred to as bidentate, those which attach themselves through three atoms, as tridentate, and so on. The number of atoms in a chelate ring is most important in determining its stability. Thus, the cupric complexes of a-amino acids ffive-membered rings) are extremely stable, those of j3-amino acids (six-membered rings) are much less stable, and those of 7, 3, and e amino acids show no tendency to ring formation at all. They are simple salts. Among the important bidentate groups are ethylenediamine, Since ethyl1, 3 diketones, and the anions of a-amino acids. enediamine is a neutral molecule, compounds formed with salts have saltlike character:

com-

Usually hese maxima are not reached, but in a few examples, such as raCl2.8NH3, they appear to be exceeded. .\ donor atom having more than one pair of unshared electrons nay combine with two metallic ions, thus binding them into a dinu;

co-ordinate scarcely at

will

but diethylenetriamine, NH2CH2CH2NHCH2CH2NH2, attaches itself to cobaltic, platinum and other heavy metal ions through all three of its nitrogen atoms because of the formation of very

MCI2

-f

Ml

NH^CHjCH.NHo-)-

L

called the

:o-ordination number. According to Sidgwack, the maximum coordination number of any ion depends upon the atomic number of

forming com-

stability.

acid.

;,

compound: (:

co-ordinate poorly, but ethyl-

does so readily,

The tris-ethylenediamine cobaltic ion, not decomposed by hot concentrated hydrochloric

often enter the co-ordination sphere;

a typical co-ordination

CH3NH2,

NH2CH2CH2NH2,

ii

and

^Ptpt'mnasium. was destroyed in World War II, together with many of Corfu's other buildings. The former university, inauRurated in 1S24 through the efforts of Frederick North, 5th earl of Guilford, was disestablished when the British protectorate ceased. The site of the ancient city is about mi, to the southeast of Corfu, between the lagoon of Calichiopulo and the bay of Castrades, the ancient Hylleic port and the port of Alcinous. the

century only

was

built

H

legendary king of the Phaeacians. The circular tomb of Menecrafes (discovered in 1843) and the remains of the archaic Doric temple of Artemis (of which the famous Gorgon pediment was placed in the museum) are noteworthy. Of ancient Cassiope, the name is preserved by the village of Cassopo, but the temple of Zeus Cassius has disappeared. There are numerous monas-

on the island. History. In local tradition Corcyra was the Homeric island

teries

—

of Scheria, the

home

of the Phaeacians,

The Corinthian colony

was established about 734 b.c, supplanting a previous settlement of Eretrians. The position of Corcyra on the highway between Greece and the west favoured rapid growth and freedom of action, and its people, contrary to the usual practice of Corinthian colonies, maintained an independent and even hostile attitude toward the mother city. About 664 B.C. their fleets fought the first naval battle recorded in Greek history. The Corinthian tyrant Periander (c. 600) temporarily reduced Corcyra, installed a viceroy and induced the island to join in the colonization of Apollonia and Anactorium, However, it regained its independence and devoted itself to purely mercantile policy. During the Persian invasion of 480 it manned 60 ships but took no active part. In 43S, in a quarrel with Corinth, it sought assistance from Athens, This was one of the immediate causes of the Peloponnesian War (g.v.), in which Corcyra was a useful naval station and supply base for the Athenians though it was twice nearly lost by internal feuds. On each occasion, 427 and 425, the popular party ultimately won. After a third rising in 410 it quit the war. A fresh Athenian alliance (375) resulted in hostilities with Sparta. Within the 25 years following 303, the island changed hands among Cleonymus the Spartan, Cassander, Agathocles of Syracuse, Pyrrhus of Epirus, Demetrius Poliorcetes and Pyrrhus again. Seized by the lUyrians in 229, Corcyra was delivered by the Romans, who retained it as a naval station and made it a "free state." In 31 B.C. Octavian used it as a base against Antony, but his victory foundation, Nicopolis, soon outrivaled it and Corcyra lost its prestige.

With

the rise of the

Norman kingdom

in Sicily

and the Italian

naval powers, Corcyra again became a frequent object of attack. The Byzantines lost it successively to Robert Guiscard (108185), to Roger II of Sicily (1147-54) and to Genoese privateers

These last were expelled by the Venetians after the (1197), establishment of the Latin empire in Constantinople, but in 1214 the island was annexed to the Greek despotate of Epirus.

Thence

passed to Manfred of Sicily (1259) and subsequently to the Angevins of Naples (1267). From these the Venetians acquired a form of protectorate over Corcyra in 1386 and full sovereignty it

in 1401.

Though they encouraged the Corfiots to cultivate the olive, the Venetians prevented them from competing with Venice commerand the island suffered occasionally in the republic's wars The Greek population meanwhile was increased by refugees from the mainland and in 1732 the first modem Greek academy was founded in Corfu. On the dismemberment of the Venetian republic under the treaty of Campo Formio (1797), Corfu was assigned to France, but the French garrison was expelled by a Russo-Turkish armament in 1799. Then, for a short time, Corfu was the capital of cially,

with the Turks.

the ephemeral Septinsular republic. Incorporated in the French empire under the treaty of Tilsit (1807), it was attacked by a British fleet in 1809, When the Ionian Islands were placed under a British protectorate by the treaty of Nov, 5, 1815, Corfu became the seat of the British high commissioner. Though the local senate and assembly were retained, British administration, although it improved conditions, displeased the inhabitants by its strictness and in 1864 Corfu was ceded with the other Ionian Islands to the kingdom of Greece, in accordance with the wishes of the populace, '(See Ionian Islands.)

The

neutral status of Corfu, stipulated in the treaty of cession Greece, was maintained throughout the Balkan Wars. In I, however, as the Serbian resistance was collapsing on the Balkan mainland, French troops landed in Corfu in Jan. 1916, and within a month about 80,000 Serbs had joined them, with a number of Montenegrins, Corfu then became the seat of to

World War

the Serbian government in exile. The pact of Corfu, which proclaimed the union of the South Slavs or Yugoslavs, was signed on July 20, 1917 (see Serbia), In 1923 Corfu was the scene of an incident which first tested the strength of the League of Nations. On Aug, 2 7 Gen, Enrico Tellini. the Italian member of the delegation appointed to settle the Greek-Albanian frontier under the auspices of the conference of ambassadors in Paris, was murdered on Greek soil, together with members of his staff. On Aug, 29 the Italian government sent the Greek government a humiliating ultimatum and on Aug. 31 Italian forces bombarded and seized the town of Corfu. The Greek government, though willing to accept several clauses of the ultimatum, appealed to the League of Nations on Sept, 1. The League referred the dispute to the conference of ambassadors, which decided (Sept, 7-13) substantially in favour of Italy, although there was as yet no evidence that the assassins were Greeks, still less that their crime was officially condoned, Greece accepted the decision, and the Italian occupation of Corfu ended

on Sept.

27.

The peace of the island was next disturbed in World War II, when the town was bombed by the Italians and later occupied (1941^4) by the Italians and Germans in succession. After the liberation of the Greek mainland in the autumn of 1944, Corfu received a large number of refugees from Epirus w-hen the Communist-controlled army of E,L,A,S. (see Greece: Moder?i History) swept the loyal Greek forces of Gen. Napoleon Zervas o2

mainland

the

in

the last

Most

week of December.

of

these

returned to their homes when E.L.A.S, was defeated by British intervention. In 1946 the Corfu strait, which narrowly separates Greek from Albanian territory, was the scene of more than one attack by the Albanian Communist regime (using coastal artillery and mines on British naval vessels, Corfu was not, however, directly involved in the series of guerrilla operations along the Greek-Albanian frontier during the Communist rebellion in Greece (1947-49). The island escaped the earthquakes which destroyed large parts of the southern Ionian Islands in Aug, 1953, The text of most documents relevant to the crisis of 1923 is printed Europe nouvelle (Oct. 6, 1923). For incidents of 1946-49 see the in judgments of the International Court of Justice, Corfu Channel Case, )

V

5 vol.

(1949-50).

ch.

pp. 422

ii,

CORI,

ff.

See also A. Philippson, Die gr. Landschajten, vol (1959). (J. L. My.; C. M. We.; W, G. F.)

CARL FERDINAND

(1896-

),

ii,

biochemist and

Nobel prize winner, was born in Prague, Czech,, on Dec, 5, 1896, His scientific training was received in Europe (M.D., German University of Prague, 1920) but he emigrated to the United States soon after his graduation and became a naturalized citizen in 1928. After nine years as a biochemist at the Institute for the Study of Malignant Disease in Buffalo, N.Y,, he became professor of pharmacology and biochemistry at the Washington university school of medicine, St. Louis, Mo,, in 1931, and was appointed chairman of the biochemistry department of that institution in 1947. His investigations have been of fundamental value in biochemistry and medicine. Most of his scientific work has been carried out in collaboration with his wife, Gerty Theresa (Radnitz) Cori, and they were jointly awarded the Nobel prize in medicine and physiology in 1947 for their studies in carbohydrate metabolism; they shared the award with Bernardo A. Houssay (q.v.) of Argentina.

CORI—CORINTH The Coris have been concerned with the study of the detailed chemistry of the enzymic reactions involved in the conversion of glycogen to lactic acid. Noteworthy have been the isolation of the "Cori ester," glucose-1-phosphate; demonstration of the in vitro enzymic synthesis of glycogen from this intermediate; the in

vitro, effects

of

hormones on enzymic

activity;

and studies

on the mode of action of the individual enzymes involved in lactic acid formation. (E. A. Es.) CORI, a town and episcopal see of the province of Latina, Lazio region, Italy, 45 km. (28 mi.) S.E. of Rome, lies on the lower slopes of the \'olscian hills (Monti Lepini overlooking the coastal plain. Pop. (1957) 9,470 (commune). The ancient Cora, traditionally a Latin foundation, played an active part in Rome's early wars with the Volsci and the Aurunci, but the site lost much of its importance when the Appian Way was built in 312 B.C.. 10 km. (6j mi. to the southwest. Sacked by the partisans of Marius and restored by Sulla, its later classical history was uneventful. In the 15th century, under the church, it enjoyed a further period of relative prosperity, but by 1811 its population had dwindled It was badly damaged in World War II. to 3,800. On the summit of the upper town stands the little Doric tetrastyle temple of Hercules (89-80 B.C.). Below, terraced down the hillside, are three concentric enceintes of Cyclopean masonry, established almost certainly on a single occasion, although containing work of three distinct qualities and, presumably, dates, of which the latest may be attributed to the years following the final recapture of the place by Rome from the Volsci, about 330 B.C. Below the town there is a tine single-arched bridge of republican date, the Ponte della Catena. The church of Sta. Oliva has an elegant twostory cloister (1466-80), and there are 15th-century frescoes of the Roman school in the chapel of the Annunziata outside the i

)

town.

(J. B.

W.-P.)

CORIANDER,

the fruit, improperly called seed, of an umbeliCoriandnim sativum), a native of the south of Europe and Asia Minor, but cultivated in Europe, w'here it is also found as an escape from cultivation, as it is in many parts

liferous plant

United States, The plant produces a slender, erect, hollow one to two feet in height, with bipinnate leaves and pink or whitish umbels. The fruit, globular and externally smooth, having five indistinct ridges, is scarcely separaof the

ptem

rising

.small flowers in

ble into its sections (mericarps).

Coriander

is

one of the few umbelliferous plants producing

and as a flavouring ingredient in liqueurs. ;hoots are frequently used in soups.

fruit

The young

leaves and

(N. Tr.) (date uncertain), lyric poet of Tanagra in BoeDtia. is the only writer in the Boeotian dialect of Greek of ^-hose work any distinct idea can be formed. A number of anecdotes preserved by later writers make her out to have been a contemporary, a competitor and even a teacher of Pindar, in which :ase she must have been active about 500 B.C.. but there is nothing n the fragments of her poetry or in any even approximately conemporary source to confirm this inference. The fragments, to vhich 20th-century papyrological discoveries made considerable .dditions, are written in an orthography which seems to have leen current in Boeotia in the 2nd century B.C.; and though it is possible that the texts have been transcribed from an older orthogaphy, such as is known to have been current in Boeotia in the :th century, there is no conclusive evidence of this. The metrical vidence is as inconclusive as that of the orthography; on the one land it is clear that Corinna's metrical ideas were strongly inluenced by Anacreon, but on the other it has been argued that :he was also influenced by Euripides. Her style is so simple as to le all but timeless, and her chief subjects are the local legends f her native Boeotia (her self-satisfied provincialism according to he anecdotists exasperated Pindar to such a pitch that he called |.er a sow; i.e., a Boeotian). Poems in a manner very like hers, but iealing with non-Boeotian legends, were found among papyri in

'

CORINNA

whether she wrote them. Further evidence was still needed to settle this problem; and also to decide the fascinating question of Corinna's date: certainty on this point would assist in the solution of several other problems, literary and metrical,

—

BiBLiOGR.'\PHY. D. L. Page, Corinna, Hellenic Society Supplementary Paper No. 6 (1953); E. Lobel (ed), Oxyrhynchus Papyri, xxiii, nos. Sir Maurice Bowra, Problems in Greek Poetry, pp. 2370-74 (1956) ;

54-65 (1953) M. F. Galiano, "La lirica griega a la luz de los descubrimientos papirologicos," Adas del I Congreso Espahol de Estudios Cldskos, pp. 120-126 (1958). (Jn. a. D.) ;

CORINTH, LOVIS

(1858-1925), German painter, a leader

of the Sezcssion group and a great influence on

modern German

art

through his teaching and writing, was born at Tapiau, East Prussia, on July 21. 185S. His training was academic and taken after 1884 in Paris under .\. W. Bouguereau. There, however, he was influenced both by the French Impressionists and by the work of Rubens, and after he settled in Berlin in igoo his pictures, sombre at first, gained brilliance from the former and vitality from the latter. Thus equipped he led the Sezession movement against the academic school in Berlin, with the collaboration of M. Slevogt and M. Liebermann. Though best known for his landscapes of the Walchensee area and for his portraits, he also painted religious scenes, often violent ones such as the "Golgotha" altarpiece (1909-11, Tapiau) and a "Deposition" at Leipzig (1907). He also painted themes from antiquity and studies from the nude and made etchings and lithographs. He died on July 17, 1925, at Zandvoort. Neth. See also Painting: Expressionism and the

German

School.

See .\. Kuhn, Lovis Corinth (1926) L. Corinth, Selbstbiographie (1926) Gert von der Osten, Lovis Corinth (1955). (D. C.T. T.; X.) ;

;

CORINTH

(Gr. KoRiNTHos), a city of Greece. The ancient Hellenic city (see History, below) grew (after c. 1100 B.C.) from settlements round the citadel or Acrocorinthus, 2,5 km, (1^ mi,) of the isthmus which connects the Peloponnese and central Greece and separates the Saronic and the Corinthian gulfs (see Corinth, Isthmus of). The citadel rises precipitously above the old city to a height of 1,886 ft. and commands all routes into the Peloponnese. S,

Modern Town. nomas

—The modern town

of Corinth, the chief

town

Corinth (Korinthia) and an episcopal see, is situated on the western side of the isthmus, 5,6 km, (3i mi,) N.E. of the Hellenic city. Pop. (1951) 17,728. It was refounded in 1858 when old Corinth {i.e., the post-Justinian city) was destroyed by earthquake, and was itself almost wholly destroyed by earthquake in 1928. It is connected by railway with Athens (92 km.; 57 mi. I. with Patras (140 km.; 87 mi. and with Xauplia 64 km. 40 mi. the capital of Argolis. and also by main roads. After the opening of the ship canal in 1893 Corinth had sea communication with Patras, the Ionian Islands and the west coast as well as with Athens. It has few local resources. Its chief exports are currants (which have their name from the town), olive oil, silk and cereals from the northeast Peloponnese. Corinth nomas includes the resorts of Loutraki (hot springs) and Xilokastron, the ruins of Sicyon (g.v.) and Stymphale and the currant-packing station and port of Sikionia, the

of

with a concave face. It was once used in medicine as an aromatic :jnd carminative, but its only modern use is to mask the unpleasant The active principle of its volatile I'.aste or odour of other drugs. oil (coriandrol) is highly aromatic and a favourite ingredient in aot curries and sauces. The fruit is also used in confectionery

495

the 1950s; the papyri do not explicitly ascribe these poems to Corinna, and some scholars have therefore been inclined to doubt

of

)

;

)

Archaeology. at

(

,

—

The ancient city occupies two natural terraces the northern foot of Acrocorinthus to which it is joined in

about 6 mi. in circumference. With its principal Lechaeum, on the Corinthian gulf (near the earlier site of Korakou), the city was connected by two parallel walls and a paved highway which led past the large public baths of Eurycles (2nd century a,d. to the propylaea, the entrance to the agora. This propylaea was in its earlier form a long shallow building with five arches but was replaced after the refoundation of 46 B.C. by a single entrance in the form of a Roman triumphal arch. Immediately to the east lay the famous fountain house of Peirene which owed the most splendid of its many remodelings to the generosity of Herodes Atticus (c. 175 a.d. ). Most of the substana circuit wall

port,

)

tial

remains in the agora, including the artificial terracing, the row of shops and the bema or rostrum, scene of St. Paul's before Gallio, are also works of the Roman period, but it

central trial

CORINTH

+96

present extent in the 4th century B.C. with the construction of the enormous portico, 525 ft. in length, whiqh closes Immediately behind the south stoa beRins the road its south side. to the city's other port on the Saronic gulf, Ceiichreae, about 13 km. (S mi. to the east. On a small rise northwest of the agora stand seven Doric columns, the remains of the magnificent perip-

acquired

its

>

planted a settlement in Ithaca c. 800 B.C. and exported their Geometric pottery east and west of the isthmus. In the period 750700 B.C. Corinth annexed the southern Megarid, securing control

narrow neck of the isthmus; possession of Perachora safeguarded the port of Lechaeum. The tradition of epic poetry which had probably been maintained by the Aeolic-speaking population culminated in the poetry of Eumelus. Potters began to develop the Protocorinthian style, inspired by contact with the near east, and Corinthian wares were to be supreme down to 550 B.C. of the

The Corinthians planted colonies at Corcyra and Syracuse, destined to assure them a dominant position in western trade. The expansion of Dorian Corinth was led by a capable clan of the Bacchiadae. The Bacchiadae were overthrown by Cypselus (q.v.) and his family who ruled as tyrants c. 657-582 B.C. and probably came to terms with exiled Bacchiadae in the colonies, in Lyncus (west-

nobles,

ern Macedonia)

and

in

colonies in the northwest

and

Etruria.

The

tyrants planted

further

—on the coasts of Greece and Albania—

Thermaic gulf at Potidaea; they tapped the overland Epidamnus and the Thermaic gulf, and the CorinBut the chief source of Corinth's wealth was its control of the isthmus. Periander (q.v.) facilitated transit of ships and cargoes, which were hauled across from gulf to gulf, by building a stone carriageway diolin the

trade between

thian wares have been found far inland.

(

His fleets sailed both seas; diplomatic contacts were maintained with Miletus, Lydia and Egj'pt; and the fine silver coinage, carrying the winged Pegasus of Bellerophon, was a strong currency throughout the Mediterranean. The tyranny was followed by an oligarchy with a board of executive magistrates (probouloi) and a powerful council. The franchise was probably limited to members of the propertied class. The aristocratic Pindar praised the Corinthians for their orderly constitution, promotion of the arts and prowess in war. In the following period of interstate competition Corinth was outstripped by Athens in seamanship and commerce. The Corinthians sought outside support by entering the Spartan alliance which involved them in warfare by land. Although Corinth rendered good service in the Greco-Persian Wars (q.v.), it was the Athenians who founded the Confederacy of Delos and controlled the Aegean sea. In 460 b.c. Athens enticed Megara into alliance, defeated Corinth by land and sea, and delivered a successful offensive in the Corinthian gulf. In 446 B.C. Corinth gained a The Corinthians tried respite under the Thirty Years' treaty. to win Athens' favour by refusing to help Samos but in vain; for Athens supported Acarnania against Corinth's colony Ambracia and then Corcyra against Corinth. In 433 B.C. the Corinthians fought and lost their last sea battle as a great power. The Peloponnesian War (q.v.) ended in the overthrow of Athens but kos).

-^

ROAD TO CENCHREAE

PLAN OF ANCIENT CORINTH. GREECE

temple of Apollo (c. 540 B.C.). Approximately 250 yd. due west was an odeum and immediately north of it a theatre rebuilt in the Roman period. Farther north against the city wall were the sanctuar>' of Aesculapius and the fountain of Lerna, the former containing a small prostyle temple of the 4th century B.C. About 0.8 km. (^ mi.) W. of the agora a Roman villa containing notable mosaics was excavated, while still farther to the southwest can be seen the remains of the ceramicus, centre of Corinth's noted pottery industry (see Greek Art). On the citadel the sur\-iving fortifications are principally of the Venetian period but much earlier material has been found. After 1896 the site was extensively excavated by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. History. The site of Corinth on the lower slopes of the hill teral

—

Acrocorinthus was occupied by Neolithic and Early Bronze Age settlers, but their successors moved to the coast at Korakou whence they traded overseas. In the Late Bronze Age (c. 1600c. 1100 B.C.) Korakou was a prosperous port whereas the site of Corinth has yielded only a small amount of fine pottery of this period; therefore it is likely that the "wealthy Corinth" of the Achaean catalogue in the Iliad should be identified with Korakou, whether named Corinth or Ephyra. Corinthia at that time was in the realm of the kings of Mycenae. Its wealth was probably gained from the transit trade by land between Boeotia and Argolis and by sea between the Corinthian gulf and the eastern Mediterranean; indeed mythology associated with Ephyra the names of Sisyphus, Bellerophon and Melicertes who were connected with Lycia and Phoenicia. When in the 12th century Mycenaean civilization began to collapse, the isthmus was firmly held at first by its Aeolic-speaking inhabitants, and the Dorians came probably from Argos to conquer and occupy Corinthia early in the Iron Age (after 1100 B.C.). The Dorians abandoned the Mycenaean sites and settled in hamlets inland, three of them being on the site of classical Corinth. Their choice shows a lack of interest in trade by sea, but they were only a dominant minority and the older inhabitants of Corinthia retained their seafaring tradition. Corinth played a leading part in the renaissance of civilization after the Dorian migrations. By 800 B.C. the city-state of Corinth had probably been formed as a political union of eight villages the Corinthians ;

not in the revival of Corinth. Its strategic position was coveted now by stronger states which one after another forced their alli-

—

—

ance upon it Athens, Argos, Sparta, Thebes and the constitution seesawed between oligarchy and democracy with outbreaks of revolutionary violence. Yet Corinth struck a blow for Greek independence in 343-342 B.C. when it brought Athens into alliance and saved Ambracia and Leucas from the onslaught of Philip II of Macedonia. Corinth's freedom ended in 338 B.C. when Philip garrisoned Acrocorinthus and used the city as the centre of the Greek league or League of Corinth. It became the puppet of Macedonia and the Achaean league until the latter involved it in a fatal conflict with Rome. The city was destroyed in 146 B.C. A century later The new Julius Caesar founded a Roman colony on the site. Corinth became a centre of commerce and the administrative capital of Achaea. It was destroyed by the Goths in a.d. 521, but See also references refounded under the emperor Justinian. under "Corinth" in the Index volume.

—

Bibliography. Pausanias, ii American School of Classical Studies C. W. Athens, Corinth: Results of Excavations (1929 et seq.) Blegen, Korakou (1921) J. G. O'NeiH, Ancient Corinth (1930) H. G. Payne, Necrocorinthia (1931); Perachora (1940); Corinth: a Report on the Excavations (1932 et seg.) T. J. Dunbabin, "The Early History of Corinth," Journal of Hellenic Studies, 68 (1948); N. G. L. Ham;

at

;

;

;

;

CORINTH— CORINTHIANS mond, "The Heraeum at Perachora and Corinthian Encroachment," Annual of the British School at Athens, 49 (1954) E. Will, KorinIhiaka, with full bibliography (19SS). (W. G. F.; N. G. L. H.) ;

CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF

(Gr.

Isthmos Korinthou),

Greece, dividing the Gulf of Corinth from the Saronic gulf. composed of heavily faulted limestone rocks, which rise from

in

It is

the south in terraces to a central plateau a little under 300 ft. above sea level. Its thin limestone soils are very parched and afford little opportunity for agriculture, which is generally limited to poor crops of wheat and barley, though here and there, on the upper edges of the terraces and along the stream banks, vineyards Away from the fields the land carries only a light will thrive. vegetation of stunted shrubs and occasional open woods of dwarf Aleppo pine. Ships were dragged across the isthmus in ancient Nero, in a.d. 67, began a canal through it. A ship canal times. begun in 1881 was opened in 1893 with its western entrance about It is 3.9 mi. long, 69 ft. broad at 1;^ mi. N.E. of New Corinth. It shortens the journey from the the bottom and 26 ft. deep. Adriatic to Piraeus by 202 mi. for such vessels as can navigate it. Traces of an ancient wall may still be seen parallel to the canal. Just to the south of it lies the fortified sanctuary of Poseidon, where the Isthmian games were celebrated. The Gulf of Corinth is an inlet of the Ionian sea, separating Peloponnesus from mainland Greece. It is 80 mi. long and between 3 and 20 mi. wide.

(Wm.

CORINTHIAN ORDER:

C. B.)

see Order.

CORINTHIANS, EPISTLES TO THE,

two books of the

New Testament

addressed by Paul the apostle to the Christian more than 18 months after his apparently not very successful stay in Athens. By supplementing the connected report of Paul's activities at Corinth in Acts xviii with the incidental information in the two congregation in Corinth, Greece, where he worked for

Epistles to the Corinthians, a

more

detailed picture of the histori-

background to these Epistles can be obtained. Historical Background. Paul arrived alone in Corinth Thess. iii, 1) and lived in the house of Aquila and Priscilla, a Jewish couple who may have been Christians before they were driven out of Rome by the emperor Claudius' decree. Paul taught first in the synagogue and then in the private house of a gentile "worshipper of God" nearby. His teaching seems to have been very successful mainly with the lower classes of the pagan population (c/. I Cor. i, 26-28; xii, 2), but a few Jews, including Crispus, the ruler of the synagogue, joined the Christian congrecal

—

1(1

gation.

When cused

Paul had been in Corinth for 18 months he was acby the Jews before Gallio (a brother of the philosopher

Seneca), the himself at

Roman

all

ifterward felt

proconsul of Achaea, who refused to concern with a purely Jewish affair. Paul however shortly that he should leave Corinth, together with Priscilla

|ind Aquila.

and then for three years to Epheius, where Priscilla and Aquila had gone directly from Corinth. They had found there an Alexandrian Jew called ApoUos who had earned "the way of the Lord" but knew only the baptism of John, j^fter receiving their further instruction Apollos went with an 'ntroduction from them to Corinth, where he continued Paul's AJork ("I planted, Apollos watered," I Cor. iii, 6). While at Ephesus Paul must have sent to Corinth a letter which is no longer ;xtant (c/. I Cor. v, 9) and the Corinthian reply must have posed various moral and doctrinal questions (c/. I Cor. vii, 1; viii, 1; 'di, 1). This letter may have been brought personally by Chris'.ians from Corinth (perhaps by "Chloe's people," I Cor. i, 11, ')r by Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus, I Cor. xvi, 17); in iny case Paul was informed by Corinthian visitors about the af'airs of their congregation (I Cor. i, ii; v, i; xi, 2, 18). This etter from Corinth and the news brought verbally led Paul to Paul went

!

first to

vrite the first

Palestine,

extant Epistle to the Corinthians before Pentecost

n the year of his departure from Ephesus {i.e., probably a.d. 56). Jefore writing Paul had apparently sent to Corinth his close

Timothy, who had previously been his companion there, order to remind them what they had learned from him as Paul Timothy will arrive after the letter, it must have

;riend !n

xpects that

;

been written

497

in response to

sudden need and sent by the quickest

route to Corinth. After sending this letter Paul must have received bad news from Corinth, perhaps when Timothy returned to him, so he

decided to pay another

visit to the city

(II Cor.

ii,

1;

xii,

14;

must have caused him grief (II Cor. ii, 1), for a member of the church wronged him, or rather the whole congregation, in some way which is not made explicit (II Cor. ii, 5; vii, 12). After departing earlier than he had intended

xiii,

But

2).

this short stay

many

Paul wrote a letter "with

tears" (II Cor.

ii,

4;

vii,

8) asking

punishment of the wrongdoer, and at the same time sent his disciple Titus to Corinth. As a result the majority of the Corinthians excluded the wrongdoer from the congregation (II Cor. vii, 6 ff., 14). But Paul was so eager to get fuller news that he left his preaching in Troas and went into Macedonia, where he met Titus and heard from him that the situation in Corinth was much improved. Paul then wrote the second extant Epistle for the

(i.e., about six months not known how the second epistle was received by the Corinthians, but at least there is no

to the Corinthians in the

autumn

after writing the first Epistle).

mention of any to the

Romans

difficulties at

six

First Epistle. of

Paul,

months

—This

is

of a.d. 56

It is

Corinth when Paul wrote his Epistle

later during a stay in Corinth.

probably the fourth of the extant letters

coming chronologically after the two Epistles

to

the

It differs in Thessalonians and the Epistle to the Galatians. structure from his other letters in that there is no real sequence of thought, several unconnected subjects being treated in succession. This is due to the fact that he is answering the miscellany of questions which had been put to him by the Corinthians in their letter or through the members of their congregation who had visThe Epistle however is ruled by one central theme. ited him.

The newly converted pagans were still strongly influenced by the conviction that man must be delivered from his material existence by receiving some supernatural saving quality, while his moral behaviour was unimportant to his salvation. tries to

combat

In his Epistle Paul

this "gnostic" attitude still lingering in the

minds

Corinthian converts who had not really understood his message of the saving action of God through the historical Jesus Christ at the end of this transitory evil age, and had not been of the

convinced that man could be renewed by this eschatological action of God and thereby enabled to lead a new life. Summary. Paul puts in the foreground the "word of the cross" (I Cor. i, 18"), the "gospel ... by which you are saved" (xv, 1 ff.), which is his central proclamation in dealing with the single problems that have arisen in the life of the newly converted congregation. The Corinthians were divided into several groups,

—

respectively called after Paul, Apollos. Cephas and Christ (i, 12), the first three being the baptizers of each group, though the special character of the last group

is

not clear.

Paul condemns

this splitting up of the one body of Christ, and points out that the identity of the person who preached them the gospel or bapMarriage with tized them is quite irrelevant (i, 12-iv, 21).

(v, 1-13), going to law before pagan judges 1-11) and sexual intercourse with a prostitute (vi, 15-20) are all said to be out of the question for members of the body Against the inclination of some Corinof the crucified Christ. thian Christians to reject marriage entirely Paul claims that marriage is necessary and indissoluble for those who have not the gift of continence, but as the end of the world is very near

one's stepmother (vi,

it

would be better not

to

marry

if

possible (vii,

1^0).

Joining

meals with pagans is not in itself harmful to Christaking part in such meals offends the conscience of the weak who cannot convince themselves that sacrificial meat has no connection with demons, then these meals should be in sacrificial tians,

but

if

avoided (viii, 1-xi, 1). Paul then turns to three questions concerning the assemblies of the congregation. He defends the oriental custom of praying with the head covered against the desire of women members of the church to appear bareheaded in the assembly (though his reasoning here is hardly convincing to the modern mind ) and he stresses the necessity of courtesy and respect when they come together for "the Lord's Supper" by reminding them of the con!

CORIOLANUS

+98

nection between this communal meal and the death of Christ (xi. 2-34). As the Corinthians have a high regard for ecstatic speech in their assemblies, Paul, who himself has the gift of speaking with tongues, points out that such speech is not to be encouraged because it is unintelligible to the congregation as a whole, which is thus not edified by it (xii-xiv). It is in connection with edification that the famous chapter in praise of love (or charity) is inserted (xiii). Finally, as some of the Corinthians were denying the resurrection of the dead, including the resurrection of Christ, Paul stresses the historical fact of Christ's resurrection as accepted by all the apostles and argues from it that the future resurrection of all Christians is a certain hope (ch. xv). The final chapter concludes the letter with personal news and greetings (ch. xvi).

—

Unity of the Epistle. The apparent contradictions in Paul's advice about the eating of sacrificial meat, which is both forbidden in some circumstances and permitted in others, has led some scholars to suppose that this Epistle is a combination of two or three separate letters. This hypothesis is strengthened by the fact that there is little connection between the different sections of the Epistle and the fact that a lost letter did precede this "first" Epistle. But the difficulties raised by this theory are greater than the seeming inconsistencies which it is supposed to explain, and no one has been able to give a satisfactory reason why two or three separate letters should have been dovetailed together to make a new one. It is more probable therefore that the first Epistle to the Corinthians has survived in its original form. Second Epistle. This letter is quite different in character from the other, for in it Paul does not deal with a series of independent subjects. Instead, the whole Epistle is a discussion with the congregation to strengthen them in their new enthusiasm for the gospel Paul had preached to them and to warn them against the opposition to him which still remains in the congregation. Suvivmry. The first and longer part of the Epistle (II Cor. i, 1-ii, 1.^ and vii, S-16) discusses the situation that has developed between the congregation and Paul. He defends his past actions, speaks of the joy the news brought by Titus gave him and explains why he has not yet paid another visit to Corinth. This argument is broken by a long defense of his own apostolic office (ii, 14-vii, 4), at the end of which he warns against co-operation with unbelievers (vi, 14-vii, 1). Again and again Paul defends himself against attacks on his behaviour in general and to the Corinthians in particular, and against criticism of his apostolic office. He con-

—

—

trasts the

human

frailty

and transitoriness of the Christian teacher

with the glory of his commission to preach the gospel The next two chapters, which follow without any clear connection, contain two parallel summons to collect money for the poor of the Jerusalem church Cviii-ix). Paul says he will send Titus with two others to Corinth for this purpose, and praises the congregation for their enthusiasm in the matThen follows a severe warning to those in the congregation ter. who attack Paul and doubt his apostolic office (x-xiii) Paul calls (iv, 7-v, 10)

of reconciUation (v, 11-21).

;

them "superlative apostles'' (xi, 5), and threatens to take strong measures against them as soon as he comes to Corinth. He warns congregation of the danger of listening to such persons. Against these attacks Paul defends himself by pointing to his unselfishness and asserting that he can boast of all the distinctions which his opponents also possess, though such distinctions are quite irrelevant (hence he admits to speaking "as a fool," II Cor. xi, 17). It is in this context that Paul lays claim to ecstatic experiences (xii, 1-4) and gives a sober list of his apostolic sufferings (xi, 23-28). The Epistle ends with the well-known triadic formula: "The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ and the love of God and the partaking in the Holy Spirit be with you all" (xiii, 14). Composition of the Epistle. As the connections of thought are not always clear, in spite of the all-pervading theme, it has been suggested that this Epistle too is composed of two or three original letters. In particular some scholars maintain that II Cor. vi, 14vii, 1 either could not have been written by Paul or must be inserted from another context. It is still more strongly maintained that II Cor. x-xiii cannot have belonged originally to this Epistle but must be part either of the letter Paul wrote between his first the

—

and second Epistles to the Corinthians (the "hypothesis of the four chapters") or of a letter written after the second Epistle. But here too the difficulties raised by these hypotheses are greater than the problems they are supposed to solve, so it seems wiser to regard the traditional form of the text as original, although some ditliculties

Paul's

remain puzzling.

Opponents.— Tht much-discussed

problem

historical

of

the second Epistle to the Corinthians is the identity of the opponents whose attacks Paul criticizes in the first part of his letter and whom he assails personally in the three final chapters. It does not appear that they were "Judaizers," for they did not demand the fulfillment of the whole law like the "Judaizers" condemned in the Epistle to the Galatians. Nor does it seem that they were only the "gnostics" whose misinterpretation of the Christian message is corrected in the first Epistle to the Corinthians. Their fierce polemic against the apostolic office of Paul, their pride in their own Jewish privileges and their personal knowledge of Jesus (II Cor. xi, 22 ff. xii, 11 ff.; v, 16) show that these opponents must have been connected with the Jerusalem church. It is likely that after Paul's first visit to Corinth Jerusalem Christians had come to Corinth and attacked Paul's apostolic position from the ;

stronghold of their own connections with Jesus and their irreproachable Jewish behaviour. On this hypothesis Paul is defending himself in the second Epistle to the Corinthians against both gnostic and Jerusalem Christian opponents. Importance of the Epistles. The Epistles to the Corinthians

—

In them Paul provides chronologically the earliest information about Jesus and the beginnings of the church when he quotes from the oldest tradition about the Last Supper (I Cor. xi, 23 ff.) and about the first appearances of the risen Christ to the disciples (I Cor. xv, 3 ff. ). Both Epistles show the difficulties caused in an early pagan-Christian congregation by the necessity of combining the implications of a religion that proclaims both a historic revelation and the imminent end of the world with the traditions of naturalistic piety inherited by the pagans. The consequence of this difficulty is seen in the abuses and exaggerations that occur in the life of the congregation or of the individual Christian not only in their dealings with sexual relationships, law suits and congregational assemblies but also in their inability to understand the proclamation of the resurrection of Christians, in their unwillingness to accept Paul as he is and in their underrating of those functions in the life of the congregation that are not ecstatic. Still more important is the assurance with which Paul distinguishes between the Christian belief in God's salvation through a historic act of reconciliation and deliverance and the naturalistic

have

a fourfold importance.

aim of self-redemption

in the Hellenistic religions.

It is especially

how he masters the difficulties arising from the completely new approach to nearly all the moral

instructive to see

necessity for a

problems that beset the

The second

life

of the

young Christian community.

Epistle reveals details of Paul's missionary methods,

his biography, his character, his personal difficulties

Thus these two

and the deep

an important source both for the history of early Christianity and the life of Paul on the one hand and for the essence of the Christian faith on the

power of

his faith.

letters are

other.

—

Bibliography. Greek text with French trans., introduction and commentary by E. B. Alio, 2 vol. (1934-37) in Etudes bibliques; introduction and commentary on the Greek text of I Cor. by A. Robertson and A. Plummer (1911) and of 11 Cor. by A. Plummer (1915), in International Critical Commentary ; introduction and commentary on the Greek text of 1 Cor. by J. Weiss (1910) and of 11 Cor. by H. Windisch (1924), in Meyers Kommentar; Eng. trans, of 1 Cor. with introduction and commentary by F. W. Grosheide (1953) Eng. trans, of 1 Cor. with introduction and commentary by J. Moffatt (193S) and of II Cor. of R. H. Strachan (1935), in Moffatt New Testament Commentary; French trans, with introduction and commentary by J. Hering, 2 vol. (1949-58), in Commenlaire du Nouveau Testament; German trans, with commentary by H. Lietzmann, 4th ed. by W. G. Kummel (1949) in Handbuch ztim Neuen Testament. See also A. H. ;

McNeile, .An Introduction to the Study of the New Testament, 2nd ed. by C. S. C. Williams (1953) T. W. Manson "The Corinthian Correspondence," Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, vol. 26 (1941-42). (W. G. Ku.) ;

COBIOLANUS, GAIUS

(Gnaeus)

MARCIUS

(5th cen-

CORIOLIS—CORK Roman

hero of patrician descent. According to tradition, his surname was due to his bravery at the siege of In 491, when Corioli (493 B.C.) in the war against the Volsci. there was a famine in Rome, he advised that the people should not share the corn obtained from Sicily unless they would consent to For this he was accused by the the abolition of their tribunes. tribunes and, being condemned to exile, took refuge with the king In vain of the Volsci and led the Volscian army against Rome. At last, however, perthe Romans prayed for moderate terms. suaded by his mother, Veturia, and his wife, Volumnia, he led back He either died at an advanced age in exile the Volscian army. among the Volsci or was put to death by them as a traitor or took tury

B.C."),

legendary

own life. The legend

his

is open to serious criticism. At the traditional date (493 B.C.) Corioli was not a Volscian possession but a Latin city with Rome, while it is improbable that the Volscians would have succeeded in reaching the gates of Rome immediately

in alliance

after

Rome and

the Latins had strengthened their powers of re-

Further, Livy himself knew nothing of a campaign -against the which Coriolanus is said to have served. The conquest of Corioli by Coriolanus seems to have been invented to explain the surname. Many details of the story are suspect {e.g., the flight sistance through the Cassian treaty of 493. states that the chroniclers

Volsci in

of Coriolanus to the Volscian king bears a suspicious likeness to

the story of Themistocles. while his clash with the tribunes

2nd than of the 5th century

is

See Plutarch's Lije; Livy, ii, 34-40; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, vi, The story is the subject of Shakevii, viii; Cicero, Brutus, x-xi. Coriolanus. For a critical examination of the story see T. Mommsen, Rbmische Forschungen, ii, pp. 113 £f. (1864-79) W. Schur, in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encydopddie der Classischen Altertumswissenschajt, supplement v., pp. 653-660 (1931); E. T. Salmon, Classical Quarterly, for 1930, pp. 96 £f. (H. H. So.) 92-4,

;

GASPARD GUSTAVE DE

(1792-1843), CORIOLIS, French engineer and mathematician, who described the inertia force called after him the Coriolis force, was born in Paris on May 21, 1792. In 1808 he entered the £cole Polytechnique and continued his studies at the fecoles des Fonts et Chaussees, graduating in highway engineering. Shortly thereafter (1816) he joined the staff of the ficole Polytechnique as assistant professor of analysis and mechanics, a position he held until 1838, when he studies.

He was

member of the in 1836. He died

elected a

mechanics section of the Academy of Sciences in Paris on Sept. 19, 1843. Coriolis was prevented by ill health from realizing his full potentialities as a scientist. Despite this handicap, he made a number of significant contributions in his field. -The one for which he is best known is described in the Journal de I'Ecoh Polytechnique, vol. XV (1835), under the title "Sur les equations du mouvement relatif des systemes de corps." In this paper he showed that the ordinary laws of motion of bodies may be used in a rotating frame of reference if an inertia force, acting to the right of the direction of motion of the body for counterclockwise rotation of the frame, or to the left for clockwise rotation, is included in the equations of motion. This result is of great significance, particularly in meteorology and oceanography, for motions over the earth's surface are studied relative to the earth, which is a rotating frame of reference. The Coriolis force appears prominently in practically all studies of the dynamics of the atmosphere and oceans; it is also an important factor in ballistics. See Motion, Principles and Laws of. Coriolis' works include two substantial treatises: Calcul de I'effet des machines (1829), republished posthumously under the title Traiti de la mecanique des corps solides, etc. (1844) Theorie mathematique des effets du jeu de billiard (183S). (E. W. He.) ;

CORIPPUS, FLAVIUS CRESCONIUS

(6th century important Latin epic poet and panegyrist. Of African oriCorippus later migrated to Constantinople: he was for a time a grammaticus and may subsequently have been a civil servant. His literary reputation is based on two poems. The Johannis, an epic hexameter poem in eight books, treats the campaign conA.D.), gin,

M onumenta Germaniae historica.

Auctores (D. R. Br.)

(1879).

CORISCO: see Spanish Guinea. CORK, RICHARD BOYLE, 1st

B.C.),

speare's

became director of

:

See edition by J. Partsch, antiquissimi. vol. 3, part 2

more

but the legend at century Rome suffered from Volscian pressure and from a shortage of corn. typical of the

least testifies to the fact that in the early 5th

499

ducted against the insurgent Mauretanians by John Troglita, the Byzantine commander, and is the principal source for these events. The poem, written about 550, also shows the tenacity of the classical tradition in Africa, and the continuance of the poetic revival which took place under Vandal rule. Corippus succeeds in achieving a pleasing fluency of style: he closely models his epic on the Aeneid of Virgil; while some modifications are imposed by his Christian viewpoint, he introduces many traditional features of the epic such as the catalogue and the embodied narration of events prior to the poem's commencement. Claudian's influence is also apparent, and there are echoes of Ovid, Lucan and Statius and some imitation of Dracontius. Corippus' other poem. In laudem Justini, the four books of which eulogize Justinian I's successor Justin II, was written after the arrival of Corippus in Constantinople when he found himself in straits. This rhetorical poem contains elaborate description and excessive detail: it is interesting for the account which it gives of the death of Justinian and his successor's accession and of the embassy of the Avars. Corippus' hexameters show considerable knowledge of classical standards, and in this he may be compared with the grammarian-poet Priscian there is however some neglect of the caesura, and quantities are sometimes distorted.

Earl of (1566-1643^

English colonizer of Ireland whose singular capacity for lining his pocket brought himself and his children land, power and titles, was born at Canterbury on Oct. 13, 1566. He was educated at King's school and at Bennet (Corpus Christi) college, Cambridge, and studied law at the Middle Temple. Seeing no prospect of acquiring wealth in England, he went to Ireland in June 1588, possessing only £27 3^., a diamond ring and a bracelet. He became subescheator to John Crofton, the escheator general, and grew so prosperous that accusations of embezzlement were soon being made against him. However, the Munster rebellion (1598) temporarily ruined him he returned to England and was employed by the earl of Essex. Charges were again brought against him, but after two months' imprisonment he cleared himself before the Star Chamber and Queen Elizabeth I appointed him clerk of the coun;

cil

of

Munster

in

May

1600.

Boyle bought in 1602 the whole of Sir Walter Raleigh's estates in Cork, VVaterford and Tipperary. He encouraged settlers from England, started manufactures and industries and used much of his profits for improving the towns, building bridges and castles and for maintaining free schools and almshouses. Meanwhile, his advancement was rapid. Knighted in 1603, he became a privy councilor for Munster (1606) and for Ireland (1613), and was created Lord Boyle, baron of Youghal, County Cork (1616), and earl of Cork (1620). He was appointed a lord justice in 1629 and lord high treasurer in 1631.

ward

earl of Strafford)

When Thomas Wentworth

became

(after-

lord deputy in Ireland in 1633,

Cork's power and wealth declined; he steadily, albeit quietly, op-

posed Wentworth but remained loyal to the English crown and inHe died at terest and fought against the Irish rebels of 1641. Youghal on Sept. 15, 1643. By his second wife, Catherine, daughter of Sir Geoffrey Fenton, Boyle had eight daughters and seven sons, four of whom received independent peerages. Richard (d. 1698), as well as inheriting his father's titles, was, by virtue of his marriage (1628) with Elizabeth, Baroness Clifford in her own right, created Baron Clifford (1644) and was made earl of Burlington in 1664. Lewis (d. 1642) was created Viscount Boyle of Kinalmeaky (1628) he was In 1660 killed fighting the Irish rebels at the battle of Liscarrol. two other sons, Roger (d. 1679), baron Boyle of Broghill (1628), and Francis (d. 1699), were created respectively earl of Orrery and Viscount Shannon. Another son was Robert Boyle {q.v.), the natural philosopher and chemist. ;

—

Bibliography. Earl of Cork, "True Remembrances" in T. Birch A. B. Grosart (ed.), (ed.). The Works of Robert Boyle, vol. i (1744) The Lismore Papers (1886-87); D. Townshend, The Life and Letters of the Great Earl of Cork (1904). ;

CORK

500 CORK

(Chorcaighe), a county in the province of Munster, is bounded on the south by the Atlantic ocean, by counties Waterford and Tipperary, north by County Limerick and west by Kerry. With a land area of 2,880.1 sq.mi., it is the largest county in Ireland. Physical Features. The county has long east-west ridges forming uplands and, in some places, hills over 2,000 ft.; e.g., in the Bogra, Derrynasaggart and Caha mountains. However, less than three-tenths of its area is .rough pasture, while farmlands climb over the ridges to as much as 800 ft. and fill the valleys of Republic of Ireland,

cast

—

eastward-flowing rivers, such as the great Blackwater, the Brfde, the Lee. the Bandon and many tributaries and lesser rivers. The hills

are mainly

formed of Devonian (Old Red) sandstones and

the valleys of Carboniferous limestones.

In the south there are

and shales of the Carboniferous period which stand up in ridges, though many of the lesser ridges, such as those of Cork harbour and the area immediately east of it, are formed of Devoalso slates

nian sandstones. The hills are anticlinal ridges, but the beds dip more steeply than the relatively gentle slopes of the valley sides. The Carboniferous rocks preserved in the valleys are generally covered with drift or alluvium, but in places appear at the surface.

The broad

valleys and lowlands of east and central Cork give way west to narrower valleys with coastal lowlands backed by high mountains. Around Bantry bay and Dunmanus bay the long in the

peninsulas have some scenery of great fame, e.g., near Glengariff. In this area the exceptionally mild winters allow a subtropical vegetation to survive, and the woods have a richness of moss and plant growth that

resembles that of the famous woods in the sheltered valleys near Killarney. (T. W. Fr.) History. The city of Cork was of Norse foundation and, with

—

immediate hinterland, remained for centuries virtually an independent entity. Outside that small area the Irish followed their traditional way of life. In 1127 Tordelbach O'Connor divided the kingdom of Munster (g.v.) between an O'Brien and a MacCarthy, the latter receiving the Kingdom of Desmond iq.v.). In its

Anglo-Norman

in-

submission to Henry

II.

the later 12th century, after the arrival of the

vaders,

Dermot MacCarthy made

his

The crown reserved the city of Cork, and Dermot was the last king of Desmond. Most of Desmond fell to the FitzGeralds who, as earls of Desmond, became increasingly Irish in their ways. Their descendants came to grief in Tudor times, when a new type of adventurer sought to possess their lands, for their revolt in the time of Gerald, 14th earl, brought about their final ruin (see

Fitzgerald). In 1586, under the scheme for the plantation of Munster, large estates were allocated to English "undertakers" among whom Sir Walter Raleigh, associated with Youghal, was prominent. Edmund Spenser completed the first three books of the Faerie Qiieene while leasing Kilcolman castle near Buttevant. The scheme was destroyed by Hugh O'Neill's forces in 1598 in the course of the Ulster war. A turning point of this war was marked by the failure of the Irish to relieve their Spanish allies who oc-

cupied Kinsale in 1601. Afterward the rising power was that of Richard Boyle, created earl of Cork in 1620, who had bought up ruined estates of the old Munster plantation (see Cork, Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of). The Boyle family supported Cromwell but made advantageous terms with the restored Stuarts. Cork was the scene of much disturbance during the later ISth century and also during "the Troubles" and the Civil War in the 20th century.

—

(Hu.

S.)

Population and Administration. In 1961 the population County Cork was 330,106, less than half the 854,118 of 1841. More than one-third of the people live in the city and county town

of

Cork (77,860) and

Another 79,583 live in the 15 country towns or in villages, the chief towns being Cobh Mallow Youghal (5,266), (5,520), (5,043) and Fermoy (3,427). Administration is by county manager and elected county council, Cork county borough having its own city manager. The county is divided by both the Church of Ireland and the Roman Catholic Church into three diocesan units, Cork, Cloyne and Ross, the Church of Ireland having one bishop for the three. Apart from the city of Cork, the county town, there are four electoral areas, North, South, East and West Cork, each returning three of

its

suburbs (37,648).

BLARNEY CASTLE, 1446, LOCAT[0N OF THE CORK. REPUBLIC OF IRELAND

members

BLARNEY STONE," COUNTY

to dail eireann (house of representatives).

Industries.

—

In the east and centre the county has good farms, them 70 ac. or more, with such crops as oats, potatoes, even wheat (though this is not prominent), and roots such as turnips and mangels and sugar beets for the factory at Mallow. The farmers' main cash resource is livestock, either for meat, or for milk sold to the creameries which are numerous in the north and west of the county. Pig rearing is traditional, though less

many

of

now than formerly because of feeding difficulties. In the extreme southwest the farms are far smaller than in the richer lowlands to the east, but around Skibbereen, and all along the south coast, there are good agricultural lands with well-tended farms of 50 ac. and more. The fishing, so prosperous at the beginning of the 20th century, has now almost disappeared, though there is salmon fishing in the rivers. Kinsale has been spoken of as a town "so depopulated, so stagnant as to be almost dead," though it now has some small factories. In the city of Cork (q.v.), agricultural industries such as brewing, bacon curing and flour milling are prominent, but there are also a car and tractor assembly plant, a rubber works, clothing factories, woolen mills and a large fertilizer industry. Cobh, on Cork harbour, was formerly general

Mallow is the railway junction for Killarney with a lively market trade and some small industries. Kanturk has a large hosiery works and Mitchelstown a cheese and bacon a British naval base.

Some

factory.

tweed

fine

is

still

made

near Cork, while a recent development

in several rural factories

an earthenware factory Another economic advance is the refinery at Whitegate, on Cork harbour. So is

at the village of Carrigaline.

opening of a large oil far tourism brings only a limited profit to the county, though

Youghal and Blarney have many summer visitors. The county has railway lines from Cork through Mallow to Dublin and Limerick: at Mallow lines run east to Waterford and west to Killarney and Tralee. (T. W. Fr.)

— C.

B. Gibson, The History of the County and City W. O'Sullivan, The Economic History of Cork Times to the Act of Union (1937) M. Robertson, County Borough of Cork and Neighbourhood, Town Planning Report (1941) W. Holland, The History of West Cork and the Diocese of Ross, 2nd ed. (1950).

Bibliography.

of Cork,

City

2

From

vol. (1S61);

the Earliest

;

;

CORK

(Corcaigh), a county borough, seaport and county town of County Cork, Republic of Ireland, at the head of the inlet of Cork harbour, on the Lee river, 159 mi. S.W. of Dublin by road.

Pop. (1961) 77,860 excluding North City and South City suburbs (37,648). It ranks as the second largest city (after Dublin) in the republic. The nucleus of the city occupies an island formed by the

North and South channels, two arms of the Lee river. The name Corcaigh signifies a swamp and its original site seems to have been

)

CORK

County Cork, built on the disused racecourse Europe for producing agricultural tractors. His enterprise gave

821; in 846 marauding Danes appeared to have been in possession of the town, for a force was collected to demolish their fortress; and in 1012 Cork again fell in flames. The Danes eventually settled and founded a trading centre on the banks of the It was anciently surrounded with a wall, an order for the Lee. repair of which is found as late as 1748 in the city council books (which date from 1610). The town under Dermot MacCarthy,

rubber factory

in

Desmond, submitted to Henry II in 1172, and was granted It was subsequently held by the Engits first charter by the king. Cork showed favour to Perkin Warbeck. lish for a long period. pretender to the English throne, when he visited Cork in 1492, a gesture resulting in the hanging of the mayor and conspirators Lord of

at its

Tyburn, and the town being deprived of its charter. In 1649 garrison revolted in favour of Cromwell and in 1690 it sur-

rendered to the earl of Marlborough. Cork has often been a principal focus of nationalist politics, and during the upheaval of 1919-20 it became the main centre of

In the bitter conflict which followed the murder by a constabulary band of Lord Mayor MacCurtain and the death by a 75-day hunger strike in Brixton prison

resistance to military repression.

(in hall

the

London of his successor, Terence MacSwiney. the Cork city and most of the main shopping centre were burned down by British in retaliation for the ambush of a military convoy. )

After the Anglo-Irish treaty had been concluded in Dec. 1921, the city was for a time held by the Republican forces, who would not

Much devastation followed. Conand national authorities resulted in the temporary supersession of local councils by city and county managers. This was first tried in Cork city with such success that the Cork City Management act was passed in 1929. which restored the city The county borough of Cork recouncil with modified powers. turns five members to dail eireann (house of representatives). Natives of Cork include William Maginn, the poet; Thomas Crof ton Croker q.v. the antiquary Francis S. Mahony, "Father Prout"; and the painters James Barry and Daniel Maclise

accept the treaty settlement. flict

between

local

(

;

,

The Protestant '(pointed)

style.

is in the Early French Fin Barre or Finbarr, who

cathedral, built 1865-69,

Dedicated to

founded the original cathedral

St.

in the 7th century,

it

replaced a

structure erected in 1735 on the site of the ancient cathedral.

The

Catholic cathedral, dedicated to St. Mary and conspicuous on the north side of the city, dates from 1808. Large Roman Catholic churches were built in various districts of Cork after the Catholic Emancipation act of 1829. About the same period there was agitation for a university college in Cork, and the Queen's college was opened in 1849. As University college, Cork, it became a constituent college of the new National University of Ireland in 1908. Built in Tudor style, it stands near the river where Gill abbey (12th to 16th centuries) formerly stood, and in its grounds are the Honan Collegiate chapel and the Institute of Dairy Science. Cork city has the Crawford school of art with

and sculptures. The city museum was established in the garden of Fitzgerald park. Cork harbour, behind a narrow entrance sheltered by islands, The is considered one of the finest natural harbours in Europe. entry is about 1 mi. wide, increasing within to about 3 mi. with a length of about 10 mi. The port of Cobh {q.vMs on Great IsDirect trade to and from land, at the head of the outer harbour. Cork is chiefly with ports in England. Wales and Scotland; but public galleries of paintings

also regular trade with the Netherlands, France, ScandiImports include Spain and other European countries. wheat and maize (corn), timber and building requisites and raw provisions, butter and materials. Exports are chiefly of cattle, fish. The Cork butter market has been famous since the early 17th century. The present market was built in 1769. Established industries include distilleries, breweries, tanneries, 'iron foundries; the manufacture of woolen and leather goods, is

navia,

'

Itweeds, gloves, hats

iDuring

new

rise to a

industrial area in Cork, in Ireland, grain silos

power

electric

nylons, carpets,

which includes the principal and oil storage depots and an

Other flourishing industries, including and paints, have arisen on the western and

station. tiles

(D. G.)

southern outskirts of the city.

CORK.

Cork

thin-walled,

consists of the irregular-shaped,

waxy-coated (suberized) cells that make up the bark of many Although the winged ridges along a hackberry trunk or trees. the peeling bark of the birch are by this definition cork, in its restricted commercial sense only bark of the cork oak (Querctis suber and its varieties) merits the designation. Small amounts of commercial cork are harvested in Brazil from the "Pau Santo," Kielmeyera coriacea, and a little in Japan from a native oak, Quercus variabilis. Distribution. The cork oak is native to the Mediterranean region, where it grows abundantly in Portugal, Spain, parts of southern France and Italy, and in north Africa. Spain alone has It has been introduced into over 2,000,000 ac. of cork forest. the southern United States, the more important plantings being in

—

Trees scarcely yield significantly for at least 20 years, SO years produce only about 100 lb,, as compared with 500 Hence it is not surprising that chief lb. or more for octogenarians. production comes from extensive natural and a few cultivated stands in southern Europe and north Africa. In general, continued exploitation, and some use for wood and charcoal, with only little reforestation, has gradually diminished stands and supply. The custom of letting hogs and cattle run in California.

and

at

the cork forest, to feed on acorns, plus in

many

cases cultivation

prevent establishment of new seedlings. World production averages close to 300,000 tons annually, some 50% or 60% exported to the U.S. Description and Properties. The inner bark of the cork oak develops an especially uniform and continuous regenerative tissue. After the outer bark is peeled this tissue proliferates sufficient cork cells to the outside that, in a healthy tree, one to two inches of a

between

trees, tends to

—

uniform new cork sheathing (new bark) forms anew

from three

in

Stripping this regenerated layer yields commercial cork slabs. The original bark or first stripping is rough and uneven, fit only for grinding. Even the second stripping may not be

top quality, with third and subsequent strippings producing cork

World War

I,

and chemical

fertilizers,

and bacon curing.

Henry Ford, who had family connections

in

fit

for bottle stoppers.

The uniqueness of cork stems from the impervious

Roman

there

factory in

his first

to ten years.

(.qq-v.).

'

501

cathedral of St. Finbarr, whose 7th-century ecclesiastical foundation attracted many students and votaries. According to the Annals of the Four Masters, a fleet burned Cork in the vicinity of the

cells,

as

much

as

35%

fatty acid; each

is

air-filled

a watertight, flexible

En masse

they are a remarkably effective insulating medium, impervious to liquids. This is undoubtedly an adaptive response to the harsh natural environment, where the cork oak trunk needs protection from heat and drying winds in summer. When cork is cut, the cut surface presents a myriad of closely packed half spheres each analogous to a rubber suction disk such

compartment.

often used to hold against glass or other smooth surfaces. or dry, clean or greasy, these miniature suction cups adhere upon slight pressure. This attribute, combined with excellent insulating and wear-resistant qualities, makes cork a favourite me-

as

is

Wet

dium

for nonslip handles, catwalk flooring, bobbins

Constructed as pockets, as

it is

it

is

among

and

rollers.

of thin-walled cells forming a matrix of air the lighter substances in weight, only one-fifth

heavy as water.

An

obvious use

is

by the Ro-

for floats, indeed reportedly used

Life preservers of cork were an almost inevitable adaptation of a later age. Since the tiny cells act like balloons, compressing with pressure, then expanding back to original size upon release, cork shows excellent resiliency with-

mans

as early as the ist century.

It has been extensively used to cushion heavy machinery, set. and for gaskets sealing machine parts and pipe joinings. Cork cells are chemically inert, deteriorated little or not at all by the weaker acids and bases or most organic solvents thus cork's traditional importance as bungs and stoppers, including the familiar bottle corks, Cork suffers no breakdown with age, nor will It is tasteless, odourless, and of pleasant it support combustion. "feel" and colour.

out

;

CORK AND ORRERY^CORMORANT

502

—

Harvesting. Regulation has been imposed upon harvest of cork in most production areas, in order to preserve and protect

much

from wine stitute,

in

bottles.

The Wine

California,

in-

variously

generally illegal to strip

tested 23 corkscrews and the best

bark from trees of less than a prescribed diameter, or more frequently than at 8 to 1 1 year intervals. One tree in California, however, recouped and was ready for another stripping in three There is 3% to S% mortality among trees at first years' time.

more than twice the gripping power of the poorest. It was

existing stands as

as possible.

It is

specimens were

Stripping

is

done by hand,

in

summer, and has changed

little

Girdling cuts ring the trunk or branch at con-

venient distances, after which a longitudinal slit is made with a specially designed ax or curved saw. Starting at this cut the outer

bark

carefully pried loose

is

away with

from the inner

and peeled Care is taken

tissues,

the help of various levers and wedges.

othernot to injure the deeper regenerative layer (cork cambium Strippers can wise new cork will be warty and of little value. harvest 1,200 lb, in a day. The removed peel is usually like a hollow cylinder cleft on one )

;

steamed or boiled and pressed fiat, alhave shown that the boiling step Boiling or steaming removes soluble tanis not really necessary. nins, while the rough "woody" surface is scraped clean by hand. Marketing and Uses. In Algeria, one of the leading cork producers, cork auctions proceed much as w'ith tobacco in the United States, a novel twist being that prices start at the "top" and come progressively downward until a bid is made, A buyer must anticipate when a competitor is likely to bid, while maintaining an unside.

It

is

traditionally

though experiments

in California

—

Whether purchased

at auction or

THREE CORKSCREW SHAPES: (A) AUGER TYPE WITH METAL CORE; (B) WIRE TYPE, BENT AROUND HOL-

LOW CENTRE;

under contract, cork

is

usually

shipped without further processing to industrial centres throughout the world. There superior sheets may be used for stamping out bottle corks, always cut in the long direction, from the end rather than across the sheet, so that the natural pores (lenticels of bark run crossways, not through the closure (which might permit some leakage). Although the bottle stopper has been the most familiar use of cork since the invention of the glass bottle in Germany during the seventh century, biggest modern uses are for insulating sheet and Insulating sheet and cork "board" may be made floor coverings. by compressing ground cork or cork trimmings at elevated temperatures, or mixing it with adhesive binders. Linoleum utilizes pulverized cork flour mixed with drying oils, which is bound to a burlap backing. Essentially a mass of air bubbles, cork has excellent insulating and soundproofing qualities, for such uses as refrigeration chambers; with suitable binder cork makes an attractive and resilient Colour and texture make it appropriate for floor and wall tile. )

decorative purposes. Other familiar uses are for gaskets, floats, handles, beverage cap liners, buffers and various small pads as in(R. W. Sv.) sulators.

CORK AND ORRERY, MARY MONCKTON,

Count-

ess OF (1740-1840). whose witty conversation and infectious enthusiasm made first her mother's house and later her own a meeting place for the great men of the day, was born on May 21, 1746, daughter of the 1st Viscount Galway. Samuel Johnson, Sheridan, Joshua Reynolds. Edmund Burke and Horace Walpole constantly visited her at her mother's London house, and Mrs. Siddons was her closest friend. In 1786 she married Edmund Boyle. 7th earl of Cork and Orrery (d. 1798), and continued to hold "conversation parties" at which Canning and Castlereagh, Lord Byron, Sir 'W'alter Scott, Lord

John Russell, Sir Robert Peel, Theodore Hook and Sydney Smith were regular guests. She is supposed to have been the original of Lady Bellair in Benjamin Disraeli's Henrietta Temple (1837) and of Mrs. Leo Hunter in Charles Dickens' Pickwick Papers (1837), She died in London on May 30, 1840. CORKSCREW, an instrument for boring into a cork and extracting it from a bottle on exertion of a pull, which is found in many forms throughout the world. Corkscrews have an endless variety in screw shapes and handle styles. Studies in the U.S. indicated that relatively few corkscrews could be relied upon invariably to remove tightly seated corks

have

(C)

WEB TYPE

that a corkscrew be long enough to penetrate fully through a long wine cork and also to provide a lifting surface beow it; that the point be so situated as to make a path through the cork that the centre of the

threads would

follow:

that

the

distance between threads be uniform; that the edges of threads

be not sharp. Best results were observed with corkscrews having a diameter of .35 in. or slightly more, a distance between threads (measured along the axis) of .40 in. and a point tapered down for a distance (measured along the axis) of not more than .40 in.

Screws formed by rigid wire spirals performed at least as well as the steel-web types; auger types with thick central shafts, which apparently weakened the cork centres, pulled out through the corks too easily. The tests showed that it was sometimes necessary to exert as much as 300 lb. of force to extract a cork from a wine bottle in a straight pull, and that therefore a leverage device

revealing stoic attitude himself.

to

recommended

stripping.

through the ages.

found

that

was desirable. Leverage devices recommended were those drew the cork without the need of a continued turning of the

screw.

The kind most popular with restaurant and

hotel personnel was

a folding jackknife or boot-lever type equipped with a hinged

boot, which stood on the bottle rim and provided a fulcrum while the other end of the lever was pulled upward. (L. B. L.; X.)

CORKWOOD,

the name given to several tropical American and shrubs with light porous wood, especially to the alligator apple or pond apple (Annona glabra), found in the Everglades of Florida and widely in the tropics; the magaguabush trees

{Hibiscus tiliaceus) of the Florida keys, the West Indies and other warm regions; and the balsa {Ochroma lagopns), widespread in tropical America. The North American corkwood (Leitneria floridan-a), a small tree with pale-yellow wood, is confined to semitropical swamps in Florida and Texas and to muddy sloughs in southeastern Missouri. In New South Wales, Austr., a

Duboisia myoporoides, of the nightshade family (Solanaceae), The buoyant wood of these trees is utilized for floats and numerous other purposes, especially that of the balsa

tree, is

called corkwood.

{q.v.).

CORMORANT,

a long-billed sea bird, larger than the duck,

of the genus Phalacrocorax and the

The cormorant

(P.

carbo)

and

its

family Phalacrocoracidae. subspecies

are

distributed

throughout the world. They frequent rocky ledges of cliffs along sea coasts, estuaries and coastal lakes and sometimes inhabit inland lake islands and trees. The cliff nests consist of a large mass of seaweed and guano, and the tree nests consist of twigs. The eggs, from four to six in number, are small and have a thick, soft, calcareous shell, bluish white when first laid, but soon becoming discoloured. The young are hatched blind and covered with an inky black skin. As squabs they are highly esteemed Their first plumfor food by the northern islanders of Europe. age is of a sombre brownish black above and more or less white beneath. They take two or three years to assume the fully adult dress, which is deep black, glossed above with bronze, and varied in the breeding season with white on the cheeks and flanks, besides being adorned by filamentary feathers on the head and a bright yellow gape. The brilliant gape is displayed in courtship.

The flesh of the adult is uneatable. Taken from the nest, this bird is easily tamed and can be trained to fish for its keeper, as was in former times commonly done in England, where the master of the cormorants was one of the ofiiThe practice is obsolete in Europe, cers of the royal household. though still common in China and other areas of the far east, where

•

CORN fishing

cormorant

night, the scene

A

strap

that the oldest

is

fastened round the bird's neck so as, without impeding its breath, to

prevent

its

The

catch.

swallowing

activity the bird dis-

City.

The modern

under water is almost inBeing propelled chiefly credible. webbed feet, the cormorant by its wheels and turns with ease in allied to the

much

the

cormorant, same hab-

much more

glossy in plumage, NORTH AMERICAN CORMORANT and its nuptial embellishment is a (PHALACROCORAX AURITUS) nodding plume. Its tail feathers number 12 instead of 14. In the south of Europe a much smaller This is a fresh-water bird. species {P. pygmaeus) is found. Further species, to the number of more than 30, have been recorded from other parts of the world, but all have a great similarity; New Zealand and the west coast of northern America are particularly rich, and the species found there are the most beautifully decorated of any.

remarkable for their curiously formed feet with all four toes connected by a web, for their long, stiff tails and for the absence in the adult of any e.\terior nostrils. Their voracity is proverbial when gorged they are fond of sitting on an elevated perch, with partially extended wings. In this attitude they will remain motionless for a considerable time. Besides the common cormorant, the crested cormorant {P. •auriiits) is found in the eastern United States, with a more southerly distribution. Brandt's cormorant (P. penicillatus) inhabits the North Pacific; the pelagic cormorant {P. pelagicus ) the North ,Pacilic and the coasts to western Mexico. The white-breasted ^guanay or Peruvian cormorant {P. bougainvillei) is one of the .chief producers of guano fertilizer {see Guano; Peru). All are

;

,

CORN

(

Maize

or Indian Corn [Zea mays'] ) The word meaning a small, hard particle or grain as of

gunpowder, or salt (for example: "corned" beef, i.e., preserved by salting), came to be applied to the small, hard seed of In agriculture

cereal plants; e.g.,

Corn which

is

is

1492,

when two Span-

dians in both North and South America augmented their diet of fish and game with corn from cultivated fields. The more advanced mound builders of the Mississippi valley and the cliff dwellers of The the southwest were corn-growing and corn-eating people. highly civilized Maya of Central America, the warlike and enerand Bolivia Peru Incas of getic Aztecs of Mexico and the fabulous The abundant harvest all looked to corn for their daily bread. that this cereal yielded gave these ancient people leisure for weaving beautiful fabrics, molding exquisite pottery, building magnificent highways and towering pyramids, inventing a system of arithmetic and perfecting a calendar more accurate than the old world calendar for the same period. Corn was indeed "the grain that built a hemisphere." Spread of a Cultural Complex.

—

Later com became the bridge over which European civilization traveled to a foothold in the new world. To many of the early colonists, who learned its culture from the Indians, it became the daily bread by which they were nourished. Modern American corn growing is founded to a large extent upon an elaborate cultural complex taken from the American Indians, for not only did the European colonist adopt the corn plant but he also embraced the methods of culture, harvesting and utilization which the Indian had developed through generations of trial

and

error.

of corn in hills, its interplanting with beans and squashes, the use of husking pegs in harvesting, the storing of the ears in ventilated cribs, the use of green corn for roasting ears, the removal of the hull with lye to make hominy are only a part of the

The planting

.

sand,

plants.

5,

Christopher Columbus had delegated to explore the interior of Cuba returned with a report of "a sort of grain they call maize which was well tasted, bak'd, dry'd and made into flour." Later explorers to the new world found corn being grown by the Indians in all parts of America where agriculture was practised from Canada to Chile. The seminomadic hunting and fishing In-

its, is the shag or green cormoThe shag rant (P. aristotelis). one-fourth smaller, is is about

"corn," originally

history of corn begins Nov.

whom

iards

pursuit of its prey.

Nearly

in

1954, identified fossil pollen grains of corn in a drill core taken from a depth of more than 200 ft. below the present site of Mexico

its

plays

and having

503 com found

South America by the middle of the 20th century went back to about 1000 B.C. and the oldest in North America to at least 2000 B.C. Wild com probably occurred much earlier than this, for E. S. Barghoorn of Harvard university, in

at

being lighted by

torches.

colourful

done

is

com

it

generally referred to the seed of the

laws.

often locally understood to

mean

that kind of cereal

the leading crop of the district; thus, in

England

it

refers

wheat, in Scotland and Ireland to oats. "Corn in Egypt," a world-wide expression for plenty, when first used probably meant wheat, but may have meant barley as well, these being the only Maize, 'two cereals in cultivation in contemporary civilizations. the principal cereal of the new world, was first known as "Indian |to

and later as "corn." This article discusses corn in terms of its history, botany and development of hybrid corn, and distribution, uses and Droduction. For information on various insects and other pests hat may damage corn see Corn Borer; Entomology: Principles \if Insect Control; Fungi; Smut and Bunt. Origin and History. Corn, a plant of the tribe Maydeae of ithe grass family (Gramineae) is undoubtedly a plant of American archaeological, linorigin, since there is no evidence of any kind guistic, pictorial or historical of the existence of corn in any part 3f the old world before 1492. In contrast, cobs and ears of corn, as iwell as funerary vases and other objects ornamented with figures i)f corn are frequently encountered among archaeological remains

|:orn"

Indian inventions adopted with slight changes by the settlers. Introduced into Europe by Columbus and into Africa by the Portuguese, corn spread rapidly throughout the old world. Within one generation after the discovery of the new world it was known Within two generations it had spread over most of Europe. through Africa, India, Tibet and China, and when European ships began to reach the Chinese coast corn was already being extensively grown there and was being taxed by the emperor. The first references to corn in literature appear early in the i6th The first botanical illustration of the plant occurs in century. the herbal of Leonard Fuchs, in 1542. The earliest Chinese illustration is found in the Pen Ts'ao Kang Mu of Li Shih-chen, which is dated at 1578. Of aU the manifold products of the new world, corn spread the most rapidly, even more rapidly than to-

I

types, the

—

;

—

—

n both North and South America. Through an ingenious method developed by W. F. Libby of ifhe University of Chicago, it became possible to estimate the age i)f ancient vegetal remains by measuring the decay of radioactive |;arbon which the original plants had absorbed from the atmosjihere (see Radiocarbon Dating). Such measurements showed

;

bacco. Botanical Origin. The botanical origin of com is less clear Earlier botanists were virtually than its geographical origin. unanimous in the opinion that corn had originated from pod com, a primitive type in which the grains are enclosed individually

—

in chaff.

A

plant called

second principal theory has corn originating from a by the Aztecs teocentli, now anglicized to teosinte

iq.v.).

Teosinte is undoubtedly the closest wild relative of cultivated maize. Like corn it has tassels and ears borne separately, although its "ears" contain only five or six seeds, each enclosed in a hard

bony

shell

—

characteristics that

ing food plant.

Also like corn,

of heredity, indicating that

it is

it

make

teosinte a

most unpromis-

has 10 chromosomes, the bearers Teosinte

a closely related species.

can readily be crossed with corn to produce hybrids that are comStill another theory postulates that corn, teosinte and Tripsacum, a third American genus of the tribe

pletely fertile or almost so.

CORN

50+

which maize belongs, have originated along independent and diverging lines of descent from a remote common ancestor now to

extinct.

After 1940 evidence from genetic experiments and archaeologiremains accumulated to show that none of these theories was completely correct and none wholly wrong. Archaeological specimens of corn in the early stages of domestication, discovered in Bat Cave in New Mexico in 1948 by Herbert Dick of the Peabody museum of Har\-ard university, proved that the ancestor of corn was not teosinte but a form of pod corn. The small cobs of this corn, scarcely longer than the diameter of a one-cent piece, once bore about 50 tiny kernels partly enclosed in chaff. Teosinte, however, played an important role in the evolution of corn under domestication, for genetic experiments demonstrated that characteristics of teosinte can be introduced into corn through hybridization, and archaeological material from other caves in New Mexico and Arizona showed that sometime in its history corn hybridized with teosinte to produce radically new types which comprise the majority of modern corn varieties of North America. When crossed with corn, teosinte contributed to the progeny some of its own hardness and toughness and provided the strength necessary for the evolution of greatly enlarged ears. Botanical Characteristics. The corn plant is a tall, annual, grass with a stout, erect, solid stem, a fibrous root system, large narrow leaves with wavy margins, spaced alternately on opposite sides of the stem, and male and female flowers borne on separate cal

—

inflorescences

The male

(fig.

1).

or staminate flowers are borne on the tassel which

terminates the main axis of the stem (fig. I[C] ). As in all grasses, the flowers occur in small clusters called spikelets, usually arranged

one borne on a short stem, the other not (fig. 1[D]). Each floret contains three anthers (fig. 1[D]); each anther, approximately 2,500 pollen grains. A single tassel may shed several in

pairs,

These are barely visible to the naked eye, approximately 1/250 inch in length and are ovoid in shape. They are light and easily carried by the wind and this accounts for the million pollen grains.

fact that corn

The female

is

naturally cross-pollinated.

or pistillate inflorescence, which is

—

Principal Types. The diversity in corn is enormous and probably exceeds that of any other cultivated plant. There are early maturing varieties, Gaspe Flint from the Gaspe peninsula of Canada and Cinquantino from the Pyrenees mountains of Spain, which mature in 60-70 days; there are very late varieties in Colombia which require 11 months to reach maturity. The number of leaves on a single plant varies from 8 to 48; the number of tillers or suckers from none to 12. The height of the stalk may vary from less than 2 ft. to more than 20 ft. The number of rows of grain on the ear may range from 4 to 36, and the size of the ear varies from the diminutive ears of popcorn varieties, some of which are smaller than a man's thumb, to the gigantic corn grown in the Jala valley of Mexico which produces ears up to 2 ft. in length.

Accompanying the variation in vegetative characteristics is a corresponding array of distinct colours. Stalks, leaves and shucks may be green, red, purple, brown, golden or striped. The silks may be green, salmon or various shades of red. The grain may be yellow, white, various shades of red, blue and brown or variegated. Because of the great diversity of form and colour, the botanical classification of corn has presented unusual difficulties to the systematist. But beginning in 1951 substantial progress has been made in classifying the corn of the world into races which correspond approximately to breeds of livestock. Thirty more or less distinct races were recognized in Mexico, approximately the same number in Peru, and it was estimated that there are between 100 and 150 races of been 1.

in

—

A

the' texture

commercial of

the

classification

kernels

has long use and five principal types have usually been recognized

2):

Dent corn

is

characterized

by

a depression or indentation in

may vary from a dimple to a rough and which is caused by the unequal drying of the hard and soft starch of which the kernel is composed. Dent corn is the principal type grown commercially in the United States, especially in the corn belt. Although dent corn may occur in any of the known grain colours, the majority of commercial varieties are either yellow or white. Before 1920, yellow corn was preferred in the north, crease,

white corn in the south, but with the discovery that yellow corn is richer than white in carotin, a precursor of vitamin A (that is, the carotin can be converted to vitamin A in the body) and hence fre-' quently more valuable as a feed, there was a decided trend toward yellow varieties. White dent is still preferred for many industrial purposes, especially the manufacture of hominy. 2. Flint corn differs from dent corn in containing little soft starch, hence it does not become indented upon drying. The earlymaturing flints are extensively grown in the northern United States and Canada, since they germinate more readily in cold soils than dent corn. The tropical flints, which because their hard seeds resist damage by weevils, are the preferred type in tropical lowlands. 3. Flour corn, also known as "soft" or "squaw" corn, is usually similar to flint corn in vegetative characteristics, but differs from

which are composed largely of soft Because of its soft and mealy kernels, which are easily ground or chewed, flour corn is preferred by Indian tribes wherever it can be grown. It is of little commercial importance in the United States, but is the predominating type in the Andean region of Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, where many large-seeded varieties, some with kernels an inch in length and almost equally broad, are known, 4. Sweet corn is distinguished by its wrinkled, translucent seeds, a condition resulting from the fact that the sugar manufactured by the plant is not converted to starch as it is in other types. Sweet corn is used almost exclusively for human consumption as green corn or roasting ears and as canned or frozen corn, 5. Popcorn is actually an extreme type of flint corn, and is init

1. (A) ENTIRE CORN PLANT; (B) STALK SHOWING FEMALE OR PISTILLATE INFLORESCENCES: (C) THE MALE OR STAMINATE INFLORESCENCE: (D) STAMINATE SPIKELET. SHOWING ANTHERS: (E) PORTION OF STYLE OR SILK MAGNIFIED SHOWING DIVIDED END AND POLLEN GRAINS CAUGHT IN HAIRS

in the world.

the crown of the kernel, which

in the texture of the kernels,

starch.

FIG.

com

of corn based largely on

is

a

in a

tissues of the long styles.

(fig.

when mature

unique structure among the grasses. Botanically, it is a spike with a thickened axis, the "cob." on which the paired spikelets are borne in longitudinal rows. Each row of paired spikelets normally gives rise to two rows of grain; hence the number of rows of grain on the ear is always an even number: 8, 10, 12 and higher, up to 3o. The pistillate inflorescence is enclosed by "shucks" or "husks" which are modified leaves (fig. 1 [B] ). The familiar "silks" which called the "ear,"

pendulous mass from the end of the ear shoot are the 1 [E] ). There is a single silk for each potential seed, and the number of seeds on the ear may equal but can never exceed the number of silks which have emerged. Pollination occurs when wind-borne pollen falling upon the fine hairs of the silks germinates and sends its pollen tube down the

emerge

styles attached to the ovaries (fig.

j

[

:

CORN

50s

by growing two stocks in alternate strips in the same field and removing all tassels from the plants of one before pollen is shed. Hybrid corn proved so productive that by the second half of the 20th century, m spite of strains.

Crossing

is

readily accomplished

the expense involved in producing the seed, almost go% of the U.S. corn acreage was being planted annually to hybrid com, and this type of corn had also become important in Italy, France, Spain and the countries of Latin .-Xmerica. World Distribution. Although pre-eminently an American crop, corn is one of the most widely distributed of the world's food plants. It is grown from 58° N. lat. in Canada and U.S.S.R. to 40° S. lat. in South America. It is cultivated below sea level in the

—

FIG. 2.

—THE PRINCIPAL COMMERCIAL TYPES OF CORN

FROM LEFT TO RIGHT:

SWEET AND POPCORN

DENT, FLINT, FLOUR,

Caspian plain, and at altitudes exceeding 12,000 ft. in the Peruvian Andes. It thrives almost equally well in the short summer of Canada and the perpetual summer of tropical Colombia. A crop of corn matures somewhere in the world every month of the year. From the standpoint of acreage planted, corn ranks second among the world's crop plants, being exceeded only by wheat. In the United States, which produces more than half the world's crop, it is by all odds the most important crop, being grown in every state and on approximately three-fourths of all farms. It reaches its maximum importance in the corn belt, a region of fertile, welldrained soils comprising Iowa and parts of Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, In Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota and Minnesota. this feed-grains and livestock region, corn occupies approximately one-half the cultivated land.

eluded with the latter by

some

authorities.

It is

characterized by

hard kernels, completely devoid of soft starch. When heated, the moisture in the cells expands, finally causing the kernels Popcorn is used extensively in the U,S. conto explode or pop. small

fectionery industry. eral

Most

of the commercial crop

is

grown

in sev-

counties in Iowa and Nebraska.

Hybrid Corn.

—An important

factor in the evolution

and im-

iiprovement of corn under domestication has been hybridization be-

tween distinct races.

The American Indian through

trade and

migration created numerous opportunities for hybridization and for the development of new hybrid races. The white man contiiMied the process,

An efficient corn-belt farmer with the help of one man can grow the corn to produce enough meat and livestock products to feed three or four hundred people in town. Brazil ranks second and Argentina usually third to the United States in corn production. In Europe, corn is of greatest importance in the Danube basin and of considerable secondary importance in Italy, Spain and southern France. Egypt, India and South Africa produce considerable quantities of corn, largely for domestic consumption.

often unconsciously.

The world's most widely grown

In the com belt a combination of fertile soils, agricultural technology, progressive farmers, and improved corn has created the most productive agricultural civilization the world has ever seen.

corn, the corn-belt dent of the

United States, is the product of hybridization which occurred in the 19th century between the late, long-grained, many-rowed, "gourd seed" corn of Virginia carried into Ohio and Illinois and the early, eight-rowed flint corn of the northeast brought into the

—Com

Utilization of Corn.

is

utilized in three principal

(i) as a feed for livestock; (2) as a material in industry.

human

ways

food; (3) as a raw

In the United States, about 80% of the corn produced is fed to approximately half of this amount to hogs, the re-

livestock;

same region by settlers from New England. Beginning about 1920 a new method of improving com through hybridization (fig. 3) and the controlled utilization of hybrid vigThe our was widely adopted and became extremely effective. method is based upon discoveries in genetics made by G. H. Shull 'of the Carnegie institution, E. M. East of Harvard university and iD. F. Jones of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment station ,{see Plant Breeding). The first step in the production of hybrid corn is the isolation of superior inbred strains. This is accomplished by artificial self.oollination under bags, which represents a form of inbreeding aporoximately three times as intense as brother and sister mating In livestock. Inbreeding reduces vigour and productiveness, but esults in great uniformity within the strain. The second step I

involves the crossing of inbred strains ':tc.)

to

produce single crosses.

by

pairs

(A

X

B,

C X D,

Single crosses are exactly as uni-

DoUBLE Cross abxCD

'orm as the parental inbred strains, but because of the phenomenon i)f hybrid vigour (see Hybridism), much more productive. Singleis extensively used in the production green corn for commercial canneries where uniformity in size Single-crossed seed is usually |.nd shape of the ears is important. A third step is 00 expensive, however, for general farm use.

:rossed seed of sweet corn if

lecessary to reduce seed costs.

This third step, the production of

ilouble-crossed seed, involves the crossing of

AB X CD). Double rosses,

two

single crosses

crosses are slightly less uniform than single

but almost equally productive.

Hybrid corn does not breed true; but once a satisfactory combi'ation of inbred strains has been identified the hybrid seed can e produced anew each year from the true-breeding parental inbred '

Inbred D hybrid corn: inbred strains a and b are crossed to produce fig. 3. a single cross. inbreds c and d are crossed to produce a second single crosses ab and cd are crossed to produce single cross.

the commercial double cross

CORN— CORN BORER

5o6

nuiindcr to beef and dairy cattle, horses and mules and |)oultry. It requires lo-i: lbs. of corn to produce i lb. of beef. 6-S lbs. to produce i lb. of pork. Tor feeding cattle, the entire plant is fre-

quently harvested and used as ensilage (q.v.), the product of bacterial fermentation. As a human food, corn is inferior to other cereals. Its gluten It is is of poor quality and it makes a heavy, crumbly bread. deficient in niacin, and diets containing excessive amounts of corn exclusively Nevertheless, corn was used pellagra. result in often for human food in prehistoric times, and is still used extensively

purpose in Latin-American countries, in parts of Europe and the United States and in South Africa and India. The tortilla, a thin tlat cake of corn, is the daily bread of Mexico, and corn constitutes IS'' t" 85';; of the diet of the Maya Indians of Guatemala. In the United States, corn is of greatest importance as a human food in the south, but is used to some extent in all parts of the country in the form of corn bread, hominy, mush or polenta, griddlecakes, scrapple, popcorn, confections and numerous manufactured cereal preparations. Sweet corn, harvested when the grain is in the "milk" stage, is an important American vegetable, consumed fresh, canned or frozen. All parts of the corn plant are used as raw materials in industry. The stalk may be manufactured into paper and wallboard. Husks are used as filling material. Cobs are used for fuel, for making charcoal and for the preparation of industrial solvents. Corncob pipes are manufactured from a large-cobbed variety grown in Missouri. The most extensive industrial uses, however, are concerned with the grain. These consume about 9% of the annual U.S. corn crop and comprise three principal processes; wet milling, dry milling and fermentation. In the wet milling process the grain is first soaked for 40-60 for this

Through progressive hr. in a dilute solution of sulfurous acid. grinding and manipulation the germ and hulls are then separated from the remainder of the grain. Further treatment yields numerous products including starches, dextrins and "British gums" used adhesives and sizing agents, syrup, dextrose, oil and gluten. In dry milling the corn is briefly exposed to water spray or steam. This results in marked differences in the moisture content in various parts of the kernels and makes possible the physical

in

separation of the kernel into its component parts. The principal products of dry milling are hominy, grits, meal, tlour, oil and

spheres,

the

dogwood family

of dicotyledonous plants

genus

is

temperate, others in tropical regions. The largest Corniis, with about 45 species in North America, Europe

some

in

Various species are known as dogwood; the first sylname, a modification of the old English dagge, alludes to the fact that the wood of European species was used for making skewers. Various species are cultivated for ornamental purposes, especially the Eurasian Cornelian cherry and the North E. D. Ml.; X.) American llowering dogwood. See Dogwood. (1454-1510), queen of Cyprus, was born at Venice, the daughter of Marco Cornaro, a Venetian noble, and Fiorenza, daughter of the duke of Naxos.

and Asia.

lable of this

(

CORNARO, CATERINA

When King John II of Cyprus died, his succession was disputed; James de Lusignan, his natural son and a close friend of Marco's brother Andrea, seized the island and sought Venetian support for his claim to the crown, as James II, by marrying Caterina. The contract was signed in 1468. Adopted as a "daughter of the republic" by the doge and backed with the title of queen of Cyprus, Jerusalem and Armenia, Caterina, in 1472, sailed for Cyprus where the formal marriage ceremony took place.

In 1473 James died, leaving his kingdom to his queen and their child. When after James Ill's birth the Venetian fleet sailed away a plot broke out in favour of Zarla, an illegitimate

unborn

daughter of James II. The Venetians returned and soon restored order, but began themselves to contemplate the seizure of Cyprus. Fearing an attack by Sultan Bayazid II and having discovered a conspiracy to marry Caterina to Alfonso II of Naples, Venice formally annexed Cyprus and recalled Caterina, who reluctantly abdicated in favour of the republic in 1489.

At Venice the government conferred on her for life the castle and town of Asolo, where she held court until her death on July 10, 1510. See H. Brown, Studies in the History of Venice, vol. bibliography.

i

(1907), with

CORN BELT, the popular name of the area in the midwestem part of the United States in which corn (maize) and soybetns are the dominant crops. The region is one of considerable diversity,

however, and an alternative name, feed-grains and livestock See Agriculture: United it more accurately.

region, describes

States: Corn Belt.

feed.

The fermentation industry

first

Production

Statistics.

—The estimated average annual produc-

mid-1950s compared with an average of 2,300,000.000 in 1935-39; Brazil 240,000,000 and 215,000,000, respectively; Argentina 190,000,000 and 300,000,000; and Mexico 140,000,000 and 68,000,000. tion of corn in the principal producing countries in the

was as follows: United States 3.000.000,000

bu.,

In the 1960s United States production exceeded 3,500,000,000 Production in Brazil exceeded 300,000,000; in Arbu. annually. gentina, 200,000,000; and in Mexico increased to 2 50,000,000. Corn production in the U.S.S.R. averaged 170,000,000 bu. in the

1935-39 period, almost doubled with an average of 320,000,000 1955-59, and exceeded 400,000.000 in the 1960s. Among other leading corn producing countries in the 1960s, Rumania, Yugoslavia and South Africa each averaged more than 200,000,000 bu., and India, Italy and Hungary each averaged more than 100,000,000 bu. See Agriculture (Articles on) and articles on individual states and countries. See also references under "Corn" in the

in

Index.

—

Bibliography. Henry A. Wallace and Ear) N. Bressman, Corn and Gro-innng, Sth ed. (1949) Paul C. Mangelsdorf, "The Mystery of Corn," Scientific American, 183:20-24 (July 1950), "Hybrid Corn," Scientific American, 185:39-47 (.\ug. 1951) Paul Weatherwax, Indian Corn in Old America (1954) George F. Sprague, Corn and Corn Improvement (1955) Henry A. Wallace and William L. Brown, Corn and Its Early Fathers (1956). (P. C. Mf.)

Corn

;

;

;

;

(Clavus)

:

CORN BORER.

changes corn starches into sugars

and then employs yeast to convert the sugars into beverage alcohol in the form of beer and bourbon whiskey or into industrial alcohol. Other microorganisms are employed to convert starches and sugars into a wide variety of chemical products.

CORN

CORNACEAE,

consisting of 10-15 genera and about 100 species, in both hemi-

see Skin, Diseases of.

Foremost among insects attacking com

(Zea mays) throughout its world distribution is the European corn borer, the larval stage of a pyralid moth iPyrausta nubilalis). This borer, with a wide geographic range in the northern hemisphere, occurs all over Europe as far north as latitude 58° N. Its It occurs also in many parts of Asia and in the south Pacific. climatic range varies from the dry steppes of southeastern Russia to the moist tropical conditions of Guam and the Philippines. It is known in Europe as an enemy of maize, hops, millet, hemp and

many

other food plants.

In the United States the European corn borer is one of the most devastating insect pests of American agriculture of record. Originally introduced into the country from Europe some time prior to 1912, it was first observed to be damaging corn in New England in

1916-17

in areas

where the manufacture of brooms from broom-

corn imported from Europe was a principal industry. Presumably, the broomcorn was the vehicle of importation of the borer. Since the enactment of the U.S. Plant Quarantine act of 1912, further importation of the pest has been checked. However, the borer has spread westward and southward to blanket the entire "corn belt" It is found in varying degrees of abunof the midwestem U.S. dance in all states east of the Rocky mountains, except Florida. This spread is of varying magnitude from year to year, depending

upon prevailing climatic conditions and the increase in numbers of borers that produce two or more broods in a growing

principally

season (the earlier strain of borers in the corn belt chietly produced one generation per growing season). Of aid in the borers' rapid spread are the strong flight capabilities of the moths; the use of more than 200 species of grains, weeds, vegetables and flowers as alternate hosts or sheltering

:

CORN CRAKE—CORNEILLE the tenacity of borer survival in com plants; and nonoccurrence of mountain barriers in the lake and plains states. In spring full-grown, inch-long larval and pupating caterpillars, pinkish with dark heads, may be found in the stalks of the host plant. They emerge during the summer as yellowish-brown moths with a wingspread of about one inch. The female lays her eggs on the underside of the leaves (especially the lower ones') of the In about a week the eggs hatch and the tiny caterhost plant. When they are half-grown, pillars feed e.xternally on the plant. the larvae bore into the stalks and feed there until the cold weather. They overwinter as larvae. places;

(j

'

I

[

!

'

i

Annual losses due to this pest in the United States range widely, but a particularly heavy infestation in 1949 was responsible for the loss of more than 315,000,000 bu. of field corn. Also consid-

'

and other vegetables; and the associated losses due to contamination of infested canning crops, such as sweet corn and peppers, and ornamentals, particuControl measures have not resolved the larly dahlias and gladioli. problem completely, but they have resulted in the ability of the live with the borer with a minimum impact on corn U.S. farmer to culture economy. The use of effective insecticides is complicated by the necessity to insure the noncontamination of food or feed crops with hazardous chemical residues. Of particular interest is the use of insect parasites of the borer, all originating from foreign sources; the development of strains of corn resistant to the borer; and the increasing promise of pathogens as practical arable are the direct losses to sweet corn

who

performance of Le Cid cannot be fixed; most probable. The famous "Querelle," or

fact that the date of first

early in 1637 seems

quarrel, which followed

is

now thought

to

be due not so

to the novelty of the play as to the author's

demand

much

for an in-

creased share of the takings and to his tactless poem. Excuse i After hard-hitting pamphlets on both sides, Ariste (1637). Richelieu seems to have ordered the closure with the appearance of the Sentiments de I'Academie jran(;aise sur le Cid in Dec. 1637.

The

lapse of three years before Corneille's next play, the

tragedy Horace

famous

1640). has been explained partly as pique, partly by a lawsuit disputing the creation of a second legal office on a par with his own. He continued to write tragedies: Cinna (1641), Polyeucte (1643), Pompee (1644), Rodogune (1645), Theodore In 1639 he produced a successful (1646), Heraclius (1647). (

comedy, Le Menteur, and

a first collected edition of plays.

As

southern Georgia.

(1674).

control agents.

In addition to the European corn borer, a

known much more

number

of other

United States, although limited range of distribution. Foremost among with a these are the southwestern corn borer (Zeadiairaea gratidiosella), occurring from Mississippi to Arizona and from Kansas to the Gulf of Mexico; and the sugarcane borer (Diatraea saccharalis), occurring on sugarcane, corn, rice, sorghums and wild grasses in the Gulf coast regions from Texas to southern Florida, and in borers are

to attack corn in the

As with the European corn borer, the use of and the development of strains of corn resistant

by these borers afford some prospect for their control, but effective and economical measures are not currently available for general grower use. Other borers attacking corn in the United States, although of minor economic importance, are the stalk borer {Papaipema nebris), the southern cornstalk borer (Diatraea crambidoides and the lesser cornstalk borer {Elasmopalpus lignoselto

attack

I

-lus).

—

Bibliography. U.S. Department of .Agriculture, The European Corn 'Borer and Its Control, Farmers Bulletin 2084 (1955) U.S. Department of Agriculture, Estimates of Damage by the European Corn Borer to Grain Corn in the United Stales in 19?S, Cooperative Economic Insect Report, vol. ix, no. 17 (1959); U.S. Department of Agriculture, The Southwestern Corn Borer, Tech. Bull. 388 (1953) U.S. Department of Agriculture, The Sugarcane Borer and Its Control, Leaflet no. 479 (I960) U.S. Department of Agriculture, "Insects," 1952 Yearbook of Agriculture (1952). (W. A. Ba.) ;

;

;

CORN CRAKE: 5ee Rail. CORN CRIB: see Farm Buildings. CORNEILLE, PIERRE

(1606-1684), leading French dramatic poet, the creator of French classical tragedy. He was 'born in Rouen on June 6, 1606, and came of a well-to-do middleclass Norman family: his grandfather, father and uncle were 'lawyers; another uncle and a brother took holy orders; a younger brother was a well-known poet, Thomas Corneille (q.v.). The family house, in which he lived until past 50, still stands in the rue de la Pie in Rouen. He was educated by the Jesuits in the building which still serves as the town lycee, won two prizes 'for Latin verse, became a licentiate in law and wrote his first play ^before he was 20. From 1628 to 1650 he seems to have worked is crown counsel in the local ofifice of the department of waterways 'md forests, and to have spent increasing leisure on writing plays. jHe said of his Melite (performed 1629; publication, as usual with 'lis plays, a year later) that its success surprised him and estabished a new company of actors in Paris. For about six years he ,wote comedies: Clitandre (1631), La Veuve and La Galerie du 'jalais (1632;, La Suivante and La Place royale (1634), La Come-

'

Tuileries

insecticides

'

!

U

Noticed by and Illusion comique (1635). attached him to his team of authors, Corneille seems to have enjoyed a cardinal's pension of 1,500 livres. After the success of Jean de Mairet's Sophonisbe in 1634 he wrote a tragedy, Medee (1635), but he returned to experiment with a tragicomedy which has proved his most famous play. It is an odd die des

Richelieu,

soon as the troubles of the Fronde permitted, he started again with AndromMe (1650), a play in which stage machinery was very important, and Don Sanche d'Aragon (1649), which he called a comedie heroique. This last play, like Clitatidre, had clear politIn the next ical allusions, as had the next, Nicomede (1651). year a tragedy, Pertharite, seems to have had a poor reception, and for the next eight years his only writing was a translation He returned to the of the Imitatio Christi (4 parts, 1652-56). theatre, apparently on Nicolas Fouquet's invitation, with an Oedipe in 1659 and another collected edition in 1660, prefaced by three essays on dramatic theory, and for the next 14 years produced almost a play a year: La Toison d'or (1661), Sertorius (1662), Sophonisbe (1663), Othon (1664), Agesilas (1666), Attila (1667). Tite et Berenice (1670), Psyche (in collaboration with Moliere and Philippe Quinault, 1671), Pulcherie (1672), Siirena

,

'

507

—

Thus for nearly 40 years in all continuously for 20 years from 1630 and for nearly 15 years after 1660 this astonishing production of elegant drama had provided the main entertainment of the French court and of the Parisian middle class and in so doing had created a new art form, with a European reputation (of which Dryden's Essay of Dramatick Poesy, 1665, is but one witness) and had won for its author an immense personal prestige. If modern research shows Corneille as grasping in the "Querelle" and ungenerous toward his younger rival, it should be remembered that the whole story is not known and that what is known is insignificant beside the fact that he perfected and created a dramatic instrument which could be used, ready-made so to speak, by one of the great tragic poets of modern times, Jean Racine {q.v.). Corneille died in Paris, Oct.

1,

1684.

Corneille's theory of drama, as is

disappointing, since

—

found

in the essays of

1660,

gives contemporary polemic rather than

it

own real principles. But it is fairly clear from his practice what those principles were. Time after time he would take a subject which would provide him with a minimum of physical action and almost a maximum of moral or mental conflict. These subjects he found chiefly in Roman and Byzantine history (which was not so unknown to his public as to most modern persons, as the history taught in French schools in his day was ancient history, not French history). All his plays move around a single central In all of them crucial point, usually of rivalry in love or war. the action is conveyed within a strict form; nothing is left to music his

action, everything is said, elegantly, rhetorically, grand style and in Alexandrine verse. This last feature is used with amazing dexterity as an instrument to convey all shades of expression: irony, anger, soliloquy, repartee, epigram. Such a play as Polyeucte has lovely lines ("Honteux attachements .") and equally impressive stichomythy de la chair et du monde "Imaginations. Celestes verites. Etrange aveuglement. Eter." which convey a clash, not so much between nelles clartes actors as between concepts. Action in this drama is reaction. It

or

physical

in the

.

—

.

.

.

—

—

—

CORNEILLE— CORNELIUS

5o8

concerns not what is done, but what is resolved, felt, suffered. Its formal principle might be said to be symmetry: presentation, by a poet who was also a lawyer, of one side of the case, then In play of the other, of one position followed by its opposite. after play Corneille uses a dramatic situation leading to a discussion of controversial issues; and it was more than anything else perhaps the skill with w-hich he gave expression to contemporary problems that made so many of his hearers think with Saint£vremond that "dans la tragedie Corneille ne souffre point d'egal" ("in tragedy Corneille has no equal") and with Voltaire that he was called "le grand Corneille" not so much to distinguish him from his brother as from all other men. Seen from a 20th-century vantage point he appears as a master of drama rather than in particular of tragedy. He excels in showing personal and moral forces in conflict rather than in calling up visions of the limits of human endurance. Only in one or two of his masterpieces can he be said to have evoked the real atmosphere of tragedy. But his greater plays are so famous with his own people that some account of their themes should be given here. Le Cid has been called an exciting overture to his work, but it is classical in that it presents not the adventures of the young Cid as in the Spanish source but a single situation created by

young man's duty

the

to

avenge

his father against

the father of his beloved Chimene.

Hence

an insult by

the "wit," in the 17th-

century sense, in lines that point the claims of honour and of love.

Chimene's father; Chimene demands his life in of pursuing what one loves best is put in lines that have not yet lost their hold on French audiences. Horace presents the combat of the Horatii and the Curiatii as told by Livy (book i, ch. 24) but without the combat. The champions are reduced from six to two, and the father and two women Rodrigue

kills

The paradox

return.

are included to allow a sort of crescendo of possible reactions

After the patriot has murdered his pacifist sister, the whole case is argued before the king. Voltaire said that never before had convictions been expressed with such sublimity on the to war.

stage.

Cimw. has been called Corneille's most perfect dramatic machine; it centres around a conspiracy against Augustus. Cinna himself is a reluctant conspirator, dominated by his violent lover fimilie who is seeking revenge for a murdered father. Augustus checkmates the plotters by granting a political pardon instead of violence. The boast of the emperor that he is strong enough to is

be merciful ("Je suis maitre de moi

comme

de I'univers")

a dramatic climax rather than a clue to Corneille's view of

character.

In Polyeucte the Christian convert welcomes a martyr's death ("Je consens ou plutot j'aspire a ma ruine") but his wife Pauline, pressed by a former pagan lover Severe, insists that marriage makes claims as important as those of religion. The two are as as patriotism and pacifism, and the fanatical Polyeucte echoes the fanatical Horace: "Je ne vous connais plus si vous n'etes chretienne."

irreconcilable

Rodogune shows crime.

the steps

She poisons

whereby ambition brings Cleopatre to claimants to power and finally her-

all rival

defait d'un pere, et d'un frere, et de moi." Corneille's favourite play, it became a storm centre in the 1 8th century

self:

"Je

t'ai

and was attacked by Lessing, who tried to show that its counterRichard III, was morally less objectionable. In Nicomede, a drama of dynastic succession, the forthright prince Nicomede fights for the throne and the lady against his weak father Prusaias, a mother-in-law and a half-brother. These contrasts have certain features of comedy and the play was acted by Moliere. In 1959 it was thought to suggest the atmosphere of the German occupation, as in 1651 it had been taken as referring to Louis II de Bourbon, prince of Conde. part, Shakespeare's

Bibliography.

—Editions:

Oettvres,

"Grands ecrivains"

series, 3 vol.

"Pleiade"

vol,

series,

2

ed.

by C. Marty-Laveaux,

in

(1862); Theatre, ed. by P. Lievre in (1934); separate plays in Hachette "Textes e.g. Horace, ed. by W. G. Moore (1934),

modernes" Nicomede, ed. by R. C. Knight (1960). Many of Corneille's plays have been translated: for some of his work in a 20th-century Eng. trans, see L. Lockert, The Chief Plays of Corneille (1952). See also H. C. Lancaster, History of French Dramatic Literature in the XVIIth frangais

Century, part ii, "The Period of Corneille" (1932); V. Vedel, Deux classiques fran(ais (1935); O. Nadal, Le Sentiment de I'amour dans Voeuvre de Pierre Corneille (1948) L. Rivaille, Les Debuts de Pierre Corneille (1936); G. Couton, La Vieillesse de Corneille (1949); A. Adam, Histoire de la littfrature fran^aise an XVll siicle, vol. ii and iii (1952, 1953) Martin Turnell, "The Great and Good Corneille," The Classical Moment, pp. 18-43 (1948). (W. G. Me.) ;

;

THOMAS

(1625-1709), French dramatist, CORNEILLE, at Rouen on Aug. 20, 1625, being nearly 20 years younger than his famous brother, with whom he was always and inevitably compared. For over 40 years he was one of the most prolific and practised artisans of the French theatre, constantly experimenting and showing great knowledge of public taste. His first plays were comedies, in many cases adaptations from Calderon (q.v.) or Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla (Les Engagements dii hazard, 1649, Le Feint Astrologue, 1650, Dom Bertran de Cigarral and L' Amour a la mode, 1651. Les Illustres Ennemis and Le Geolier de soy mesme, 1655-56, and Le Charme de la voix, 1656-57). In 1653 he adapted the novel Le Berger extravagant (1627) by Charles Sorel (q.v.) as a "pastorale burlesque" and scored his first big success with a tragedy, Timocrate, in 1656, the subject of which was taken from La Calprenede. Until 1674 he produced a tragedy nearly every year, including his most famous play Ariane (1672), which Mme de Sevigne went to see for the acting of La Champmesle. His chief success in comedy was probably Le Baron d'Albikrach (1688). After 1674 he experimented with plays and operas with much stage machinery, in collaboration with Donneau de Vise, Bernard de Fontenelle and Jean-Baptiste LuUi himself. He wrote for all the theatres of Paris Timocrate for the Marais, Dom Bertran for Moliere's company at the Palais Royal, Ariane and Le Comte d'Essex (1678) for the Hotel de Bourgogne, CircS (1675) and La Devineresse (1679) for the Guenegaud, L'Usttrier 16S5) for the Comedie Franqaise. His technique was admired by Philippe Destouches (q.v.). He died ("pauvre comme Job," says a correspondent) at Les Andelys (Eure) on Dec. 8, 1709. Bibliography. G. Reynier, Thomas Corneille, sa vie et son thiatre (1892); for revised dating of plays see H. C. Lancaster, History of French Dramatic Literature in the XVIIth Century, part 2, vol. ii, pp. 748-761 (1932). There is a critical ed. of Le Berger extravagant by F. Bar (1960). (W. G. Me.) (2nd century B.C.), second daughter of Scipio Africanus the elder, mother of Tiberius and Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (qq.v.) and of Sempronia, wife of Scipio Aemilianus Africanus the younger. On the death of her husband, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (154 B.C.). by whom she had 12 children, she remained unmarried, even refusing the hand of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes of Egypt. She gave her time to the education of her surviving sons. Tiberius ( 1 63-133) and Gaius ( 1 54-1 2 1 ) to whom

was born

:

(

—

CORNELIA

,

she was devoted: when asked to show her jewels she presented her sons. Although hostile propaganda later suggested that she had encouraged her sons' more revolutionary policy, she seems she rather to have restrained them. After Gaius' murder (121 retired to Misenum (Miseno), where she devoted herself to Greek and Latin literature. She was highly educated, and her letters were celebrated for their beauty of style. Reputed fragments of them preserved in the manuscripts of Cornelius Nepos (1st century B.C.) may not be genuine. (H. H. So.) CORNELIUS, SAINT (d. 253), pope from 251 to 253, was elected during the lull in the persecution by the emperor Decius. In 253, under the emperor Gallus, he was exiled to Centumcellae (Civitavecchia), where he died in the same year. Several of his His letters, including some to his friend St. Cyprian, survive. feast is kept with that of St. Cyprian, on Sept. 16. (1824-1874 ), German composer and CORNELIUS, author best-known for his opera The Barber of Bagdad, was bom The son of an actor and actress, he at Mainz on Dec. 24, 1824. played in the theatre himself in his youth, at Mainz and at Wiesbaden. In 1844 he studied composition with Siegfried Dehn and )

PETER

was later music critic for two Berlin journals. From 1853 to 1858 he lived at Weimar in the circle of Liszt and the Princess SaynWittgenstein and translated articles by Berlioz and Liszt for the Neue Zeitschrift fiir Musik. In 1857 he began his comic opera Der Barbier von Bagdad, on a libretto of his own based on A Thousatid and One Nights, which was conducted by Liszt at Wei-

CORNELIUS— CORNERSTONE mar

'

'resignation from the

'

'

in a

The opera was a failure and led to Liszt's Weimar opera. It was successfully revived

the following year.

reorchestrated version by Felix Mottl after the composer's

Vienna where he From death. became a friend of Wagner. His opera Der Cid, on a libretto adapted by Cornelius from the play by Corneille, was successfully produced at Weimar in 1S65. In the same year he accompanied Wagner to Munich where he was reader to Ludwig II and professor at the royal school of music. His last opera Gunlod (libretto adapted from the Edda) was completed by C. Hoffbauer and E. La^sfH and produced at Weimar in 1891. He died at Mainz on 1859 to 1864 Cornelius lived in

Oct .\

his

j6, 1874.

versatile nriginal

and sensitive musician, Cornelius hardly

among them

gifts,

He wrote many

settings of his

a gift

for writing lyric

own poems, notably

fulfilled

poetry.

the Wcih-

which includes the well-known "Three Kings from Per.Nian Lands Afar," and the Brautlieder, and of poems by Heine, Among his postHolderlin and Annette von Droste-Hiilshoff, humously published works revealing his lyrical gifts is Die VdterCornelius' Litcrarischc Wrrke %ruft for baritone and orchestra, rta> published in four volumes (1904-05) and his Ausgewahlte Schiiiten und Brieje was edited by P. Egert (1938). iiachtsliedcr,

— C.

M. Cornelius, Peter Cornelius, 2 vol. (1925); \. F, Cherbuliez, Peter Cornelius (1925) H, Pricken, Peter Cornelius ih Dii liter und Musiker (iqsi). Riiii.ior.RAPHY,

;

CORNELIUS, PETER

VON

(1783-1867), German painter notable for his part in the revival of fresco painting, was born in Diisseldorf on Sept. 23 (?), 1783, His early works are unremark^jble examples of the neoclassicism current in German academies during his youth, but his style gradually changed after his meeting 'in 1803 with the brothers S. and M. Boisseree collectors of Ger'man Gothic art and under the influence of the romantic authors More 'W. H. Wackenroder. Ludwig Tieck and A. W. Schlegel. important still were Diirer's marginal drawings for the prayer book af the emperor Maximilian, published in lithographic facsimile in Hence in his illustrations to Goethe's Faust (1816) CoriSo>;. nelius retains from the days of his academic training an insistence 3n line and clear design, while introducing medieval subject matter lind imitating the idiom of Dijrer's graphic art. In 181 1 Cornelius went to Rome where he joined a group of young German painters, the "Lukasbrijder" or "Nazarenes," led by Franz Pforr and J. F. Overbeck. Their intentions were antiacaJcniic: they wished to create a monumental religious art, based on hr -tudy of Italian and Flemish primitives, on Diirer and the early Raphael, and they expressed these ideals in the biblical fres':oes painted in the house of the Prussian consul J. S. Bartholdy. 'In 1S19 Cornelius was invited to Munich by the Bavarian crown irinre. later King Ludwig I. For his first task, the new museum of :la.-^^ical sculpture (Glyptothek ), Cornelius himself suggested a ;eries of frescoes from Greek mythology which were to be underBy ';tood as allegories of nature and of man's strife and passions. liow his style had come under the influence of Raphael's later jworks in the Stanze of the Vatican and his approach was governed py Friedrich Schelling's aesthetics: painting was to give form to Tietaphysical ideas. During this period Cornelius was also head )f the Diisseldorf academy but resigned on becoming director of .he Munich academy in 1825. Between 1839 and 1840 he and his iupils decorated the new Ludwigskirche in Munich. "The Last 'ludgment," filling the whole east wall, is his most remarkable design for clarity and didactic purpose. He wished to embody here ;he essence of a Christianity freed from all sectarian bias. Hence 'lis picture is a lesson in theology rather than a dramatic event, '

—

•ike

—

Michelangelo's.

In 1841 Cornelius was called to Berlin by Frederick William I\', Whose first commission was a christening present for the prince )f Wales. Cornelius designed a large decorative metal shield, ';mbodying the basic tenets of the Christian faith, with allusions ^o the happy event: the king of Prussia as godfather is received m the shore of England by St. George, Prince Albert and the duke ')f Wellington. Cornelius' main occupation in Berlin was the ^)lanning of a vast cycle of frescoes (never executed) to decorate he walls of a cemetery, modeled on the Campo Santo in Pisa, I

509

which the king wished to build beside the Protestant cathedral. In spite of his desire to revive fresco as a national art in order restore painting to its rightful place in public buildings. Cornelius never developed any real sense of colour and his works look like tinted cartoons. At heart he always remained an acato

outlook was shaped by romantic philosby his penetrating intellect which gives substance to his large dogmatic pictures and order to their composition. Cornelius died in Berlin on March 6. 1S67. His influence both in Germany and abroad was considerable. When he visited London in 1841 his advice was sought for the frescoes of the houses of parliament, and his pupil J. Goetzenberger decorated Bridgewater house.

demic ophy.

artist,

even

Today we

if his

are impressed only

See A. Kuhn, Peter Cornelius und die geistigen Strdmungen seiner (iq2i). (L. b. Er.)

Zeit

CORNELL, EZRA

(1807-1874), U.S. businessman, a founder of the Western Union Telegraph company and a leader in the founding of Cornell university, was born at Westchester Landing, N.Y,, on Jan, 11, 1S07, and was educated in the public schools. In 1828 he settled at Ithaca, N.Y., where he later served In 1842 he became associated with as manager of flour mills.

Samuel Morse in the early development of the electric telegraph and superintended the construction of the first telegraph line in America, opened between Baltimore, Md., and Washington, D.C., in 1844. He then became one of the most active pioneers in the establishment of telegraph lines throughout the country, in which he accumulated a substantial fortune: he was for some time the largest stockholder in the Western Union Telegraph company, organized in 1855. Settling on a farm near Ithaca, he became especially interested Following the passage in 1862 in the development of agriculture. of the Morrill act providing national support for agricultural colleges, he took steps which led to the founding at Ithaca of Cornell university, which

was formally opened

in

His original en-

1868,

dowment

of $500,000, given in 1865, was increased by further contributions of about $400,000 and by more than $3,000,000 realized as profits from his operations in purchasing and

personal

allocating public lands for the benefit of the

rose to front rank

among

new

institution,

He

U,S. universities.

which

also established

the Cornell library at Ithaca and built railway lines facilitating

access to the town.

He

died in Ithaca on Dec.

9,

1874.

His son, Alonzo B. Cornel], wrote True and Firm: A Biography of Ezra Cornell (18S4). See also the biography by Philip Dorf, The Builder (1952).

CORNELL UNIVERSITY,

a

U.S.

institution

of higher

education founded under the Morrill act (see Land-Gr.\nt Colleges AND Universities) at Ithaca. N.Y., in 1865. See Ithaca. BROOK, a city of Newfoundland, Can., is located on the west coast of the island at the head of the Bay of Islands, about 130 mi. N. of Port aux Basques; the Humber river, one of Newfoundland's best salmon rivers, flows through the city from the east. The main industry is wood pulp and newsprint, with one Other of the biggest paper mills in the world located there. Corner Brook industries include cement and gypsum plants, became a city in 1956 with the amalgamation of Town Site, Corner Brook West, Curling and Humbermouth. Newfoundland's second largest city, the population rose from 10,276 in 1951 to 25,185 in It is the site of the annual west coast agricultural and 1961. (R. G. Ha.) industrial fair.

CORNER

CORNERSTONE, a ceremonial building block, usually placed ritually in the outer wall of a building to

commemorate

dedication.

with date or other inscription. More typically, it is hollowed out to contain metal receptacles for newspapers, photographs, currency, books or other documents reflecting current customs, with a view to their historical use when the building is remodeled or demolished. Until the development of modern construction, the stone was usually at a corner, possibly as the first of the foundation stones, and a real support. From this practice arose figures of speech in many languages referring to cornerstones or foundation stones of Today the stone character, faith, liberty or other excellences. need not be a support, nor at a corner, nor even in the foundation.

Sometimes

it is

solid,

CORNET—CORNISH

5IO Often

it

is

placed ornamentally in the facade or in an interior

from the orchestra save for parts specifically intended for modern dance music and in has diminished the it was preceded by the cornet

wall or floor.

the use of the trumpet in

Early customs connected with cornerstones were related to study of the stars and their religious significance. Buildings were laid out with astronomical precision in relation to points of the Cornerstones symbolized compass, with emphasis on corners. "seeds" from which buildings would germinate and rise. Various religious rituals and Bible references spread and perpetuated the cornerstone custom. Ceremonies have been marked with processions, sacrifices, sprinklings of blood and water and wide participation by rulers, priests and other dignitaries who used the mason's (H. B. Md. H. Mn.) trowel, often made of gold or silver. the name of two wind instruments, one obsolete, the other modern, both sounded by lip vibration against a cup mouthpiece. 1. CoRNETT (an old spelling that has been revived to reduce confusion with 2; Fr. conu't[-a-bouquin}\ Ital. cornctto, Ger. Zhik). a conical wooden pipe, 24 in. long, curved, with octagonal It has fingerholes like those cross section and leather covering. on a recorder, and a small cup mouthpiece of horn or ivory. With a compass of over two octaves from the G below the treble stave

which

)

CORNFLOWER

iCenlaurca cyaniis), a well-known plant of

the family Compositae iq.v.), called also bluebottle and bachelor's button. A native of Europe, the national flower of Germany, it

has become widely naturalized throughout North America. It is a slender, branching annual, from one to two feet high, with narrow, more or less toothed or di-

;

music of many kinds over the period 1500-1670. while with trombones, to which it supplied the treble voice, it is one of the first wind instruments to be specifically scored for, by G. Gabrieli. Other sizes of cornett, the descant and the S-shaped tenor, were of smaller importance, as were also straight-built forms, including the "mute cornett" with mouthpiece cut in the head of the pipe itself. By 1700 the cornett was obsolescent, though it continued to be played locally in Germany to support choir trebles until about 1750, and with trombones in "tower music" (i.e., the religious music played in the it

towers of

was a leading wind instrument

German churches)

until

the

1830s.

Its

clear tone-

the

for

essential

W

2.

W.

Cornet

Galpin, Old English Instruments of Music (1910).

(Fr.

cornet-a-pistons, or piston), a valved brass

1820s from the continental post horn (cornet-de-poste, which is circular in shape like a small French horn), one of the first makers being the Parisian Halary (Jean The tube is conical except through the three Aste), in 1828. valves, tapering gently to a narrow detachable shank into which The taper, coupled with the the brass mouthpiece is placed. fairly deep mouthpiece, imparts a mellowness to the tone and a flexibility to the technique that quickly established the cornet in a leading position in brass and military bands, especially in England

instrument evolved

in the

and America, which

it

retains.

It

is

built in

B

flat,

its

music

written a tone above the actual sound. Brass bands also employ an E flat soprano cornet, a fourth higher than the B flat instrument. Some older B flat cornets built for use in theatres can be

changed

to the

key of

The cornet became

A by

In the United States popular for garden planting, being one of the "old-fashioned less stalks. it

turning a rotary valve.

a popular solo instrument.

Many

of the

were horn players and employed different crooks for different tonalities or musical moods, the longer crooks, down Celebrated Victorian flat, giving a darker tone-quality. to E In English soloists included Hermann Koenig and Isaac Levy. and American symphony orchestras cornets were frequently used for all trumpet parts, as well as for genuine cornet parts (common During the 20th in French orchestration from Berlioz onward). century, however, the revival of the trumpet ousted the cornet earliest virtuosi

is

flowers."

In England

tion, often

from self-sown

its

cultiva-

seed,

is

common that breeders have developed many colour varieties,

so

notably white, pale blue, pink and

CORNFLOWER (CENTAUREA CYANUS)

deep rose. There are also over genus Centatirea cultivated in England. (N. Tr.) CORNICE, in architecture, the decorated projection at the top of a wall provided to protect the wall face or to ornament and finish the eaves. The term is used as well for any projecting element which crowns an architectural feature, such as a doorway. A

20 related plants See Centaurea.

cornice

is

in the

member

of the entablature (q.v.)

in this case

divided into three parts,

also specifically the top

of a classic order (q.v.)

;

it

is

a bed mold, corona and cymatium.

—

;

ed. (1954); F.

vided leaves and brilliant, usually blue, flowers, in heads an inch or more across, borne on long leaf-

in

works of Monteverdi and others, is matched by no other instrument, and its revival was tentatively begun about the middle of the 20th century. BiBLioc.R.'^PHY. A. Baines, Woodwind Instruments and Their History (1957) the article in Grove's Dictionary oj Music and Musicians, 5th quality,

while

cornet's

popularity as a solo instrument except with brass bands. For technique and valves, see Wind Instruments, Wind Instruments See A. Carse, Musical (A. C. Ba.) (1939).

CORNET,

(staff),

it,

jazz (in

CORNICHE, THE,

the

name

of a carriage road built by

Napoleon I along the Mediterranean slopes of the Maritime Alps, between Nice and Genoa. It is famous for its sea and alpine

The name

is applied today to the three roads known rethe Grand, the Middle and the Little Corniche (Grande, Moyenne and Petite Corniche), of which the first, ascending directly from Nice, reaches within a few miles a height of more than 1,700 ft., and passing via the Col d'Eze descends via La Turbie to Menton, while the Little Corniche follows the coast route through Beaulieu-sur-Mer, Monte Carlo and Roque-

views.

spectively as

brune.

CORNING,

a city in Steuben county in southern New York, on the Chemung river, 17 mi. N.W. of Elmira. Settlement of the area began in 1789. Named in 1837 for Erastus Corning, an early promoter, the village was incorporated in 1848 and was char-

U.S.,

is

Manufactured products include fibre boxes but the industrial life of Corning, called the "Crystal city," centres about the Corning Glass works. There many forms of artistic and commercial glass are produced, including Steuben glass, flat glass, bulbs, tubing and glass fibres. In 1951, tered as a city in 1890.

and pneumatic

mark

to

the

tools,

100th anniversary of the founding of the works, Visitors

may

20-ton, imperfect telescope disk,

cast

Corning Glass centre was constructed. nal

200-in.,

see the origiin

1934

for

Palomar observatory in California, where the second casting is now in use; a comprehensive historical collection of glass, dating back more than 3,000 years; and an extensive library dealing with glassmaking. For comparative population figures see table in New York: Population. (C. C. Ma.) see Celtic Languages. CORNISH the

LANGUAGE:

CORNISH LITERATURE.

The earliest remains in the Old Cornish language are nonliterary proper names in the Bodmin Gospels and in Domesday Book, 10th-century glosses on Latin texts and a 12th-century vocabulary (British Museum manuscript Cotton Vespasian A XIV .based on Aelf ric's Latin-AngloSaxon glossary. The forms in the latter, although generally called Old Cornish, correspond to those of Middle Welsh and Middle Breton. The first literary text is a Middle Cornish frag:

)

GERMAN KRUMMER 2INK (CURVED CORNETT). WITH ORIGINAL MOUTHPIECE; 16TH CENTURY. IN KUNSTHISTORISCHES MUSEUM, VIENNA. AUS.

—

CORN ISLANDS—CORN LAWS ment of 41

dramatic nature, written about 1400 (British Museum Additional Charter No. 19, folio 491), in which a girl is offered as wife, praised for her virtues and counseled on behaviour fitting to a husband. The long poem Pascon Agan ArUith ("The Passion of our Lord," reprinted with Eng. trans., appendix to Transactions of the Philological Society, 1S60-61) belongs to the 15th century. The matter of its 259 stanzas of eight trochaic heptasyllabic lines with alternate rhymes is based on the Gospels, with additions from the Apocrypha, especially the pseudo-Gospel of Nicodemus, but its literary merit is slight. The most important Cornish literary remains are a series of long dramatic compositions related to the miracle and morality plays. The earliest and most important is the 15th-century trilogy The first part, Origo Mundi (2,846 lines) called the Ordinalia. relates the main events of biblical history down to the building of Solomon's temple, where St. Maximilla anachronistically suffers

!

i

i

I

I

,

;

i

I

martyrdom.

I

lines of a

The second, Passio Domini

from the temptation to the crucifixion. The third, Domini (2,646 hnes), follows on and ends with the and the ascension. The dialogue is generally dull

S

story of Christ

]

Ressurectio resurrection

(3,242 lines), tells the

is hardly any dramatic invention except in the scenes The Ordinalia is greater in bulk than all the other remains of Cornish. Similar in form and technique is a play the unique text of which is in the National Library of Wales (Peniarth ms. no. 105, Beiinans Meriasek (rewritten in 1504 by "Dominus Hadton") printed with Eng. trans. Life of Meriasek, ed. by W, Stokes, probably composed for performance in Camborne, where 1872), Meriasek was the patron saint. Its 4,568 lines show a greater variety of metres and rhyme-schemes than the Ordinalia. The material is drawn from Latin and English sources. The last play, Gwreans an Bys ("The Creation of the World," reprinted with Eng. trans., Transactions of the Philological Society, no. iv, 1864), 2,548 lines in length, owes much in metre and substance to the first act of the Origo Mundi, from which The earliest extant ms. of certain passages have been borrowed. it was written by William Jordan of Helston in 1611, but certain references suggest a pre-Reformation date of composition, Later minor literary remains a folktale, a few songs, translations of passages of scripture and several versions of the Apostles' Creed we owe to antiquaries like William Gwavas, Dr. William Borlase and Edward Lhuyd.

and there

I

of ribaldry.

;

r

I

•

.

'

.

,

:

,

I

—

1

'

I

CORN ISLANDS

.

(Islas del Maiz).

Great and Little

Com

between 50 and 59 mi, E.N.E. of Bluefields. Pop. (1959 They were leased to the United States by Nicaragua under the Bryan-Chamorro treaty, signed in 1914 and ratified by

'ragua,

1,579.

!the U.S. senate in 1916, for use as a

naval base to protect the

proposed Nicaraguan interoceanic canal. Except for buildon Little Corn Island, the United States has not taken over the land covered by the lease. Principal products of the islands are copra and coconut oil shipped by boat and barge to vegetable oil plants near the north end of Lake Nicaragua.

'then

'ing a lighthouse

(C. F. J.)

CORN LA'WS.

'

lations ,tory

it

The term corn laws commonly refers to regugoverning the import and export of grain. In English hisis often applied specifically to the series of laws regulating

"the grain 'in

1846,

trade which were repealed, after considerable agitation, The term corn, used in this sense, is a generic term for '-

'grain,

the very earliest times, states which had attained to any 'degree of civilization found it necessary to take measures to enIn comjsure a sufficient supply of cereals for the population.

'

From

Imunities

which were wholly or mainly agricultural, such measures temporary nature, resorted to in times of crop

'were only of a

Egypt

tithes similarly arose

from the need for supplying the clergy from

the produce of the land cultivated by those to

whom

they minis-

tered.

In primarily agricultural societies the problem was mainly one of providing for the

members

of a self-supporting

community who

produce their own food. With the rise of industrial and commercial classes, the production of the agricultural section was not sufficient to supply the needs of all, at any rate in years when the yield was in any way below normal, and supplies had to be sought elsewhere. From this arose the need for state intervention. It took the form of regulations controlling the domestic marketing of grain to alleviate local shortages and control of the foreign grain trade. Export was prohibited in years of bad harvest or permitted by licence when prices were sufficiently low to indicate sufficiency, if not saturation, in the home market; imports were permitted when high domestic prices gave evidence of a grain scarcity. This arrangement guaranteed a market to the home producer in good seasons but eliminated the risk of famine by allowing imports in times of dearth. Before the emergence of nation-states in Europe, principalities and city-states had their own corn laws, based on the same principles of safeguarding domestic supplies and allowing exports only

were not

in a position to

In modern times, instead of actual it became the practice to impose duties .so high as to be prohibitive, sometimes in conjunction with specified price limits or with a sliding scale dependent on prices in the home market. With the rise of intensive cereal culture in the

when

there was a surplus.

prohibition of import or export,

United States, Canada, Rumania and elsewhere, protective import duties were levied in certain countries to prevent the flooding of the home market with cheap grain to the detriment of the domestic

English Corn Laws Before 1500.

—The

earliest evidence of is

of penalties

1180 and 1183 on persons exporting grain without licence. This prohibition on export, which was reaffirmed in the Great Winchester Assize of Customs in 1204, remained in force until 1394, although licences to export were granted to in-

imposed

in 1177, 1178,

.

Islands are small Caribbean islands in Zelaya department, Nica-

•est.)

in

describes steps taken to store grain in years of plenty against the prospect of lean years to come (Gen. xli, 46-57). Similar measures were taken in China at an equally early date. When, however, populations became divided into agricultural and nonagricultural, by the institution of, for example, sacerdotal or military castes, it became necessary to make permanent provision for the feeding of this nonagricultural element. Thus in imperial Rome the tribute payable by conquered races frequently took the form of grain to ensure supplies for Rome itself and for the army. The system of

regulations governing the export and import of grain

.

f

Joseph

—

;

I

511 biblical story of

producer.

cient

:

Thus the

—

Bibliography. H. Jenner, "The History and Literature of the AnCornish Language," Journal of the British Archaeological Association, vol. xxxiii, pp. 134-157 (1877) E. Norris, The Ancient Cornish Drama, 2 vol. (1859); W. Stokes, "Cornica," Revue cellique, vol. iv, pp. 25S-264 (1877-80); E. Lhuvd, Archaeologia Britannica (1707); ," P.M.L.A., vol. Ixi., J. J. Parry, "The Revival of Cornish Inc. 1, pp. 258-268 (1946); W. LI. Davies, Cornish Manuscripts in the ^National Library of Wales (1939). (T. Js.)

'

failure or of war.

war or harvest failure. Imports of grain were permitted throughout the period, although the customs accounts suggest that the amount involved was negligible In 1394 the grain policy of the realm was in all but scarce years. dividuals and suspended in times of

reversed and exports were permitted freely so long as the customs and subsidies were paid. The king's council retained the right to prohibit export in times of emergency. The act became inoperaIn 1437 a new tive before 1426, but was reaffirmed in that year. statute was passed permitting export on three conditions; grain

was not to be exported to enemy countries; customs were to be paid; and the price at the port of shipment was not to exceed specified amounts, for instance, ts. 8d. a quarter for wheat.

The

was renewed in 1442 and made permanent in 1445, although from time to time thereafter it was suspended by

act lapsed in 1439,

royal proclamation, usually in the interests of London's food supA complementary import policy was put into operation in

ply.

1463 when imports of grain from abroad were prohibited except the home price exceeded 6s. &d. a quarter. Some historians have held the view that the corn laws for the period before 1500 lacked any consistent purpose. Others have offered explanations set within the framework of constitutional

when

and economic development, though

these, for

want of

sufficient

evidence, cannot be finally proved. The changes of policy have been described as a political struggle between the crown and parliament, in which the crown favoured the system of special licences

CORN LAWS

SI2 own

advantage while the commons opposed them on the grounds that they resulted in dearth. They have been explained in terms of a struggle between consumers and producers, the consumers demanding a regular supply of grain at low prices and therefore favouring free imports and a prohibition on exports, the producers anxious to ensure a market and a fair price in good as well as bad years by securing restrictions on imports and freedom of export. The heightening of the conflict between consumers and producers has been attributed to marketing developments in the 12th and 1 3th centuries. Hitherto, the bulk of the traffic in grain had been confined to groups of manors managed as one organization under a common lord. With the growth of centres of consumption in the towns a local marketing system took shape, serving urban communities with the food surpluses from surrounding districts. Against this background of marketing history, the policy of the 14th and 15th centuries can be understood as an attempt by parliament to reconcile the opposing claims of manorial producers, the crown and the newly risen and influential class of town consumers. How far the policy was adjusted to the total grain yield of the kingdom or to population needs is a question not adequately answered. The freer policy of the ISth century prevailed at a time of agricultural stagnation, not of rapid advance. It did not effect an increase in the volume of exported grain. Yet the continuance of the pohcy throughout the 15th century suggests that it was rooted in economic realities. It presupposed the ability of home producers to feed the population and leave a surplus of grain for export in all but scarce years. Such an assumption did not necessarily follow from any spectacular increase in yield. Yields per acre seem to have altered little in the 14th and 15th centuries, while the cultivated area as a whole diminished. But in view of the decline of population between about 1320 and 1470, a policy that presupposed a new relation between the needs of the population and the yield of the harvest may not have corresponded ill with the facts. for

its

financial

Tudor and Early Stuart Policy.—A rise in prices at the beginning of the 16th century, though modest compared with that which followed in the 1 540s, was accompanied by the rapid advance of enclosure in the midlands and a consequent increase of pasture in these counties at the expense of tillage. Fears were aroused concerning the adequacy of the domestic grain supply. Following several royal proclamations in which the 1445 act had been temporarily suspended, parliament decided in 1534 to prohibit entirely the export of grain in the hope of keeping food prices down. Other measures were taken to restore the arable area by prohibiting enclosure and the conversion of tillage to pasture. Modern historians differ on whether the aggregate yield of the kingdom was reduced by the spread of pasture farming in the midlands or whether the shortages were principally the result of the disorganization of the internal marketing system. The growth of London and other industrial centres imposed a strain on local supplies, which were further taxed by occasional bulk purchases of food by the government for the armed forces. To contemporaries, however, it was enclosure and the conversion of arable land to pasture which threatened the food supply and bred the twin evils of unemployment and social unrest. The solution put forward by John Hales, one of the economic reformers of Edward VI's reign, was to permit the export of grain and prohibit that of wool, in order "to

make

the profit of the plough to be as good, rate for rate, as the profit of the graziers and sheepmasters." When the immediate crisis had passed, the export ban

was gradually

lifted.

In 1555 export was permitted under licence,

or without licence when prices did not exceed 65. &d. a quarter for wheat, 4^. for rye and is. for barley. That the original intention of the act was to tighten the regulations against export was evident in the preamble containing complaints against merchants

who

in spite of the 1534 act had exported grain and had thereby caused dearth and high prices. Severe penalties were laid down for the future. The clause allowing exports at certain price levels

was appended ciples {see

from the East Anglian In 1563 an act, based on mercantile printhe export of grain

later as a result of protests

grain-growing districts.

Mercantile System), authorized

it was carried in ships belonging to English-born suband so long as prices did not exceed ICr. per quarter for wheat, is. for rye, peas and beans and bs. Sd. for malt and barley. It was designed not only to promote the grain trade but to foster the development of the navy, the shipping industry and the fish

so long as jects

trade. It was superseded in 1571 by an act expressly in the interests of tillage, in which the grain supply was viewed realistically as

a series of regional problems rather than a national one. Export was allowed at the discretion of the local justices of the peace according to the current price of grain in the district. Two further clauses provided that grain must be exported to friendly nations

and that

it must be carried in ships belonging to Englishmen. The policy of local regulation led to the abuses of price manipula-

tion and was abandoned in 1593 in favour of central control and one price standard for the whole kingdom. Export was allowed when prices were not more than 20s. a quarter for wheat and for other grains correspondingly. In later acts the customs rates and price limits were revised to take account of the general price rise, but the principles of the policy remained unaltered until the Restoration. In 1604 the price limit for wheat was fixed at 26^. 8d., in 1624 at S2s., in 1656 at 40^., in 1660 at 40s. and in 1663 at 48s.

Although the grain export laws after the middle of the 16th century were couched in terms encouraging to the producer, their practical consequences were otherwise, since the price did not often fall below the statutory limit. Between 1554 and 1563, and again between 1593 and 1600, grain was never cheap enough to be exported, while in 1563-71 and 1600-60 low prices prevailed in only seven years. Moreover, the crown continued to exercise the right to suspend and override the laws whenever it deemed it desirable in the interests of the consumer. Nevertheless, the producer was not entirely frustrated by the statutes, since a certain amount of grain was sent abroad whatever the laws in operation. The contemporary historian William Camden held the view that the laws permitting export greatly accelerated agricultural development, while the customs accounts show a doubling of exports in the years 1500-34 and another period of rapid increase from about 1563 until the end of the century. The decline in exports in the early 17th century can be accounted for by the steady inThe port of King's Lynn, for crease in the supply to London. example, which sent only 6% of its coastwise shipments to London in the mid-16th century, sent nearly 40% by 1600 and about 50% in the second half of the 17th century. Import regulations between 1500 and 1660 were neglected. The 1463 act prohibiting imports except when grain prices were high had lost all meaning by the mid- 16th century because of inflation. In any case, imports had come to play a vital role in supplying London in years of scarcity. Any attempt to enforce the ban on imports would have injured that section of the community which virtually controlled the grain policy of the kingdom. The 1463 act was formally repealed in 1624, but nothing took its place until 1663.

—In

Corn Laws, 1660-1791.

i

satisfying the

demand

for corn in

London, the grain trade of the kingdom came to be focused inAt the Restoration, when the export creasingly on the capital. surplus assumed substantial proportions, London kept its place as the principal clearinghouse for the foreign grain trade.

A new

by an act imposing from abroad when Correspondingly heavy rates were laid down to control the import of other kinds of grain. The duty was arranged on a sliding scale in 1670, making it The home farmer thus enprohibitive in all but scarce years. joyed a virtual monopoly of the domestic market, except when famine threatened. By the same act he was allowed to export grain whenever wheat prices did not exceed 48i. a quarter. The express purpose of the policy was to encourage tillage as a means of promoting trade and bringing waste lands into cultivation. In 1670 it was carried a stage further by allowing the export of graia. regardless of price, provided that the customs rates laid down in 1660 were paid. There followed in 1673 the grant of a bounty of policy of plenty was initiated in 1663

a duty of Si. 4d. a quarter on wheat imported

the

home

price did not exceed 485.

I

CORN LAWS on wheat exported when the home price did not exceed 405., of 3s. 6d. on rye when it did not exceed i2s. a quarter and of 2s. 6d. on malt and barley when they did not exceed 24s. a quarter. Because of a bad season the act did not come into effect for a year or more, but there is evidence that it was in force from Michaelmas 1674 to 1675 and again between 16S0 and 1681. About £150,000 was paid out in bounties during the period. The Bounty act of 1673 has been interpreted as a political triumph for the gentry over the policy of paternalism to which the early Stuart governments adhered. It was also a sound economic measure adapted to a greatly improved level of agricultural production. Whereas in the 15th century England had been

^ Ss. '

'

a quarter

obliged to import considerable quantities of grain in scarce years, a century later it had plenty and to spare. Such a transformation

can only be explained as a consequence of technical improvements in farming, of land reclamation and of increasing specialization in land use. The commons, which in 1621 argued that grain imports should be prohibited because England could now feed itself, argued prematurely, but their opinion was more than substantiated a century later when Daniel Defoe described England as the supplier of Europe. By that time the value of grain dispatched

abroad from London had risen from £4,315 in 1663 to an averannum between 1699 and 1710. It rose to

lage of £274.141 per

£835,394 between 1 746 and 1 765. A second Corn Bounty act was passed in 1689, allowing 5s. on 'every quarter of wheat exported when the home price did not exceed 4&s. Beyond a statement in the preamble of the act that ex;

,

;

when prices were low, the reason it was not made clear. Arthur Young deemed it a reward landed classes for their part in establishing William III on Sir John Dalrymple regarded it as a gift to the the throne. Tories for accepting the land tax. Price tables suggest that the preamble of the act should be taken at its face value, that the bounty was due to the low prices then prevailing. Seeking a remedy for the depression, parliament understandably reverted to the precedent of 1673. The effect of the bounty was not imimediately reflected in increasing exports, for poor harvests kept prices high between 16S9 and 1714, while in 1698 and 1709 exports were prohibited entirely. However, they expanded rapidly .between 1715 and 1750 except for three years between 1727 and ,1729, and 1739 and 1740, when home crops were poor. After 1750 (Successive years of bad harvests brought scarcity and high prices in their wake. This aggravated a problem which was already present in the growth of population and the development of industry. A ban on exports operated between 1757 and 1 759 and almost continuously after 1765. Finally, in 1773 the government passed an act forbidding exports except when wheat prices fell below 445. a quarter. It continued in force until 1791. The fact that English farmers were no longer able to meet the home demand was reflected also in increasing imports from abroad from 1773 onward. Although the bounty system was an innovation in 1673, it was not until after 1750 that public interest was aroused by the growing cost of bounties to the taxpayer. Economic arguments against the preferential treatment of farmers were coupled with allegations of fraudulent practices in the distribution of payment. The bounties were attacked by Adam Smith on the grounds that they interfered with the natural course of trade and led to high prices at home. They were defended by Arthur Young because they had eliminated sudden price fluctuations and, by encouraging farmers to expand production, had brought about a steady fall in prices. It is nowadays generally agreed that prices were stabilized by the bounties, that farmers enjoyed a security unknown before and that the export trade grew in consequence. The opposition developed out of a changed situation, when industry began to perience had justified the bounty

behind to the

challenge the

primacy of agriculture

in the national

economy. (I. J.

The 1791 Act and the French Wars.

T.)

—There were weaknesses

machinery for administering the 1773 act, but it was not until 1790 that efforts were made to secure new legislation. The 'landed interest feared substantial imports and agitated for additional protection, but counterpetitions were sent from the manufacturing and commercial centres attacking export bounties and in

the

513

demanding cheap food. This clash between different interests dominated much of the politics of the subsequent 60 years. In parliament there was a majority of landlords and effective political power was used to support what came to be a clearly sectional interest.

Despite urban complaints the 1791 act introduced changes which favoured agriculture. The price at which imports were allowed at a nominal figure of 6rf. was raised to 545.; a duty of 25. 6d. was levied from 545. to 505., while at 505. and under a prohibitory duty of 245. id. was imposed. Colonial preference was introduced for Ireland and North America, a feature which was maintained in every subsequent corn law until 1846. Wheat exports were permitted when the price was less than 465. and a bounty of 55. was paid when the price was less than 445. A warehouse duty of 2s. 6d. was imposed on foreign wheat imported for re-export. The 1791 act was followed two years later by a long period of war. Customary commercial relations were violently disturbed and freight, insurance and other charges on imports and exports were multiplied fivefold. War conditions as much as corn laws gave a "natural protection" to English farmers and landlords; at the same time population growth increased the seriousness of the food problem. Bad harvests produced political discontent as well as hunger and the government had to resort to special measures in crisis years. After the bad harvest of 1795 the price of wheat rose to above IOO5., the highest since the late 16th century. Food riots forced the government to pass scarcity laws and to pay bounties on imported grain, including rye. In the towns there was popular outcry against forestallers, engrossers and regraters, while in many parts of the countryside local magistrates copied the Speenhamland example and fixed poor relief in terms of bread prices. The crisis of 1799-1801 was even more severe: there were demands for peace, the extension of government controls and an increase in enclosure, as well as rioting against grain dealers. Prices continued

high until 1801, when in March the average was 1545. 2d. Relief came not from government policy but from the moderately abundant harvests of 1801, 1802 and 1803. As grain prices fell there were cries, this time, of agricultural distress and an 1804 act actually increased the protection granted in 1791. The provisions of the act were inoperative, however, for between 1805 and 1813 there was a sequence of bad harvests and high prices. There was little outcry against the corn laws until 1811, for it was recognized that Napoleon's blockade and not parliament was preventing the import of foreign grain. In the meantime landlords and farmers prospered. Rents and profits rose

and there was a great increase in the extent of arable cultivation and an improvement in agricultural methods. Protection in the 19th Century. After the enormous harvest in 1 S 1 3 there was a rapid fall in wheat prices June 1813, 1 1 75. \0d.; May 1814, 695. Id.) and farmers and landlords realized that Even before the bad the golden age could not last indefinitely. harvests a select committee, appointed in March 1813, had demanded additional protection. After the price fall there was a crop of protective resolutions. The first idea broached in parliament was an increase in the duty on foreign imports along with the prices at which it was levied, and freedom of export, without bounty, whatever the home price might be. The latter suggestion was passed into law in June 1814, but there was great popular clamour in the cities and manufacturing districts against substantial duties on imports. Although the outcry persisted, in 1815 the government carried its important new corn law, fixing 8O5. (145. more than during the wars) as the price at which imports of wheat were allowed duty free. Manchester was as ineffective against the landed interest represented at Westminster as was In the London mob, which rioted near the house of commons. 1815, however, the manufacturers themselves were for the most part unwilling to give up protection on manufactured goods and were consequently compelled to talk in crude terms about com-

—

(

parative costs of production. The 1815 act was designed to maintain the price of wheat in peacetime at 8O5., but, as William Cobbett correctly predicted, far

from producing the expected result it merely provoked a sense Between 1815 and 1822 grain prices fluctuated vio-

of injustice.

CORN LAWS

5^^

Changes in currency legislation were often blamed for During the wars suspension of cash payments (from 17Q7) and liberal use of paper money in loans and discounts maintained high prices. In 1819 it was decided to resume cash payments. The general price level had already begun to fall when payments were resumed in 1821 and the nation was beginning to feel the naked weight of war debt. Some spokesmen of lently.

the difficulties.

the agricultural interest claimed that 1819 canceled out the bene-

of ISIS. Others blamed high taxation for their distress and pressed for the setting up of select committees in 1821 and 1822. Although the prime minister, Lord Liverpool, pointed out that it was beyond the scope of parliament to legislate a market for agricultural produce, a modilication of the 1815 act was evenfits

made

Foreign wheat was to be excluded completely until the price reached 70s.: above that figure it was to be admitted only after duty had been paid according to a tually

in

1822.

scale.

The

act of 1822 never operated, except occasionally in the case

The

of barley, for wheat prices never reached &0s. interest,

in

short,

was unable by

economic tendencies leading the time

it

realized

to a

legislation

to

in prices

fall

agricultural

counterbalance

and

rents.

By

that the tendencies could not be checked,

manufacturers and town labourers had already begun a drive to reduce protection still further and even to abolish it altogether. Agitation against the corn laws increased particularly after 1825 when William Huskisson substantially reduced duties on manufactured articles and raw materials. Violent attacks were made on the landlords as a social class in widely read pamphlets, such as Thompson's Catechism on the Corn Laws. Two new government measures in 1827 and 1828 did little to In 1827 satisfy the most determined advocates of either side. George Canning introduced a new system of duties, abandoning the principle of protection by absolute exclusion of wheat up to a certain price and employing a sliding scale of duties. His death and the consequent change of ministers involved the failure of his project, but in 1828 Charles Grant introduced a new sliding scale with more abrupt leaps in the amount of duties levied at particular price points. A duty of iAs. M., for instance, was levied when the price of wheat was S2s., but fell to \s. when the price was lis. Similar scales were applied to other kinds of grain and colonial preference was increased. The 1828 act assisted the speculator as much as the farmer and it did little to improve the prospects of English agriculture. Repeal of the Corn Laws.

—

Because of preoccupation with parliamentary reform there was little direct pressure for a smaller fixed duty on grain or total repeal of the corn laws until the issue was raised again in 1838. A powerful new organization, the AntiCorn Law league, operating from Manchester, mobilized the new Its leader, Richard Cobden, was wealth of industrial Britain. successful not only in stirring opinion in the country but also in influencing the Conservative prime minister, Sir Robert Peel. On his own initiative Peel introduced and carried in 1842 a new sliding scale of duties, better adjusted to current values, and The inaugurated a program of fiscal reform and freer trade. league claimed that only total repeal would settle at the same time the grievances of the manufacturers, hard hit by industrial depression, and the poor, burdened with the high cost of living. Although it was a self-proclaimed middle-class organization, it adjusted its economic arguments to suit its audiences and carried its campaign to tenant farmers in the countryside, attempting to differentiate their interests from those of the landlords.

The landlord was depicted as the villain of society; he took the place of Adam Smith's middleman as the target of social criticism.

The propaganda

of the league was so successful that Peel himalthough not a doctrinaire free trader, began to waver. He was always open to argument and by 1844 he found the main arguself,

ment

of the league incontrovertible.

Finally, influenced

failure of the potato crop in Ireland, he put

history of the corn laws

mum

by

his

famous

an effectual end

act of 1846.

by the to the

The maxi-

duty on foreign wheat, when the price was under 48.?., was immediately reduced to lOi., with lower duties as prices rose

scale. From Feb. 1849 all duties on grain were to cease, except for a nominal impost of \s. In 1869 even this nominal duty was abolished by Robert Lowe. Repeal in 1846 split Peel's Conservative party, but it did not

above the

The middle years of the 19th century were the golden age of English farming, and it was improvement in international transport and the sharp increase in the imports of American wheat in the 1870s which effectively challenged Britain's cereal farming and destroyed the natural spell the ruin of British agriculture.

the

protection afforded not by legislation but by geography. 20th-century Policies.— There was a late-century revival of protectionism. In 1902, for revenue-raising purposes, a registration

duty of

and

Sd. per

3rf. per hundredweight was imposed on imported grain hundredweight on imported flour, and although these duties were repealed a year later, Joseph Chamberlain, who became the leader of a tariff reform movement in 1903, considered them a desirable basis for increased protection of home-grown grain and preference for grain grown in the empire. He hoped, as did the prime minister of Canada, largest grain-growing country in the empire, that new corn laws would lead to increased reciprocal preferential trade between empire countries. "Free trade within the empire" was the new objective. A closer union of the empire depended upon a fiscal revolution at home. The revolution was not forthcoming before 1914. Although the Unionist party split as Peel's party had split in 1846, loyalty to free trade principles proved strong. Measures of protection were given a greater stimulus by exigencies of 20thcentury war and depression than by efforts of politicians. Between 1914 and 1918 imports and exports were under strict government control and farmers' prices were guaranteed. This policy ended in 1920, for despite agricultural pressure politicians were still afraid to violate free-trade traditions and to tax foodstuffs. It was not until after the slump in wheat prices and world economic collapse that the National government, unwilling to give direct protection to wheat farmers, passed the Wheat act of 1932. By this time home wheat production represented only a small part of the total British demand and combination of producers could never have been effective in influencing the level

of

home

prices.

The Wheat

act stabilized sharply fluctuating

by imposing a virtual tax upon the consumer. All wheat growers had to inform the wheat commissioner of their sales and prices. If at the end of the year the average sales price on all transactions was less than a standard price of \0s. per hundredweight, each grower received the difference between his average and 105., multiplied by the quantity of his sales. The sums thus distributed were derived from a processing tax on all In con; flour delivered for consumption in the United Kingdom. sequence bread prices rose by as much as ^d. on the 2d. loaf. A great expansion in wheat acreage was achieved only at the expense prices

In 1937 the principle of price guarantee was of dearer bread. extended on slightly different lines to oats and barley growers, the subsidies being paid not directly by the consumer but by exchequer grants. The return to producers' protection in 1932 was not reversed. After 1939, in war conditions, tight import restrictions were imposed, farmers' guarantees were given and strenuous efforts were| made to increase the acreage of cereal production. Balance payments difficulties after 1945 made the continuation of wa policy imperative, and the Agriculture act of 1947 emphasized the need for developing "a stable and efficient agricultural industry capable of producing such part of the nation's food as in the national interest it is desirable to produce." The phrase "national interest," which would have left Cobden and John Bright unmoved, recalled mercantilist arguments about the corn laws, but policy after 1945 was different both from that of the 18th century and from that of 1932 and 1937. Dependence upon foreign imports had to be acknowledged, though the imports were restricted and directed by long-term bulk-buying contracts. The price-insurance schemes themselves were designed not so much to save the farmer from keeping pace with the steady growth of technical progress overseas as finally to exorcise his fear of being squeezed by a slump in world prices. Protection was related to

CORN PICKER—CORNWALL national planning rather than to the interest pressure of a par-

group of producers.

ticular

(A. Bri.)

—

Bibliography. W. Naude, Die Getreidehandelspolitik der europdischen Staaten vom 13. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert (1896); R. Faber, Die Entstehung des Agrarschutzes in England (1888); N. S. B. Gras, The Evolution of the English Corn Market From the Twelfth to the Eighteenth Century (1915); D. G. Barnes, A History of the English Corn Laws From 1660-1846 (1930); E. Lipson, The Age of Mercantilism, vol. ii of The Economic History of England, 6th ed. (1956) T. Tooke, History of Prices (1838); A. Prentice, History of the Anti^ Corn Law League, 2 vol. (1853) N. McCord, Anti-Corn-Law League, 1838-1846 (1958) C. R. Fay, The Corn Laws and Social England (1933) W. A. Aster, 2nd Viscount, and B. S. Rowntree, British Agri;

;

;

;

culture (1938).

CORN PICKER: see Harvesting Machinery. CORN PLANTER: see Planting Machinery. CORN SALAD or Lamb's Lettuce, Valerianella

olitoria

(family Valerianaceae), a weedy annual, native of southern Europe but naturalized in cornfields in central Europe and in various parts ;

United States and Canada, and not uncommon in Britain. it is used in salads during winter and spring as a substitute for lettuce, but it is less esteemed in England. Principally grown are a round-leaved variety of V. olitoria and Italian corn of the

In France

salad, a distinct species, V. eriocarpa.

CORNUS

is

the genus

name

of about 45 species of shrubs

small trees of the family Cornaceae {q.v.) to which the

wood

is

applied.

name

and dog-

See Dogwood.

CORNUTUS, LUCIUS ANNAEUS, flourished in the reign of Nero.

He was

Stoic philosopher, a native of Leptis in

most part in Rome. He is best known and friend of Persius, whose satires he revised for publication after the poet's death, but handed them over to Caesius Bassus to edit, at the special request of the latter. He was banished by Nero (in 66 or 68) for having indirectly disparaged Libya, but resided for the as the teacher

the emperor's projected history of the Romans in heroic verse (Dio Cassius, Ixii, 29), and disappears from history. He was the author of various rhetorical works in both Greek and Latin (Rhetorlkai technai, De figuris sentetitiarum) His philosophical .

Theotogiae Graecae compendium, is still extant; it is a manual of Stoic etymological interpretation of popular mythology (ed. by C. Lang, 1881). Simplicius and Porphyry refer to his icommentary on the Categories of Aristotle, whose philosophy he treatise,

have defended against an opponent Athenodorus in a Antigraphe pros Athenodoron. Excerpts from his treatise De enimtiatione vel orthographia are preserved in Cassiodorus. In the middle ages several critical works were falsely attributed ,to him; e.g., the so-called Disticha Cornuti (ed. by Hans Liebl, is

said to

treatise

Straubing, 1888).

—

Bibliography. G. Martini, De L. Annaeo Cornuto (1825) O. Jahn, prolegomena to Persius, Satirae, 4th ed. (1910) H. von Arnim, article t.v. "Annaeus," Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopddie, i, 2 (1894); A. and M. Croiset, Histoire de la litlirature grecque (1901) M. Schanz and C. Hosius, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur, 4th ed., ii, p. 676 (1935) W. S. Teuffel, Geschichte der romischen Literatur, ii, new ed. ;i913-20) Bruno Schmidt, De Cornuti theologiae Graecae compendia, /ol. xxi of the Dissertationes philologicae Halenses (1913). ;

;

;

;

;

CORNWALL,

the southwestemmost county of England, is bounded on the northwest and west by the Atlantic ocean, on the south by the English channel and on the east by Devon. The area s

1,357 sq.mi., including the Scilly Isles

(g.v.),

which are ad-

ninistered separately.

Physical Features.— The form of Cornwall is that of a peninsula, 75 mi. long and 45 mi. broad across the base. Lizard point jeing the most southerly extension and Land's End (q.v.) the Host westerly point of the mainland. It owes its main features .0 the folding movement of the Armorican system complicated The latter form moorland i)y a series of granite intrusions. )osses (small batholiths) decreasing in height from east to west. Dartmoor (g.v.) in Devon is the largest and highest; Bodmin noor reaches 1,375 ft. in Brown Willy; Hensbarrow Beacon is ,026 ft.; CarnmeneUis and the St. Just boss are lower; a further ;ranite mass, now largely submerged, forms the Scilly Isles. The ower-lying regions are mainly of folded slaty rock of Devonian i.ge, striking largely east to west, with some limestone; in the exreme northeast there are Carboniferous grits and shales. From

LAND'S END, CORNWALL. SHOWING UNUSUAL CLIFF FORMATIONS

Tintagel head northward to Hartland point in Devon the distorted strata form steep cliffs because of the rapid maritime erosion that goes on. The veins of ore are chiefly in the slaty rock near the granite masses which themselves give kaolin by decomposition of feldspar. A Tertiary, supposedly Pliocene, uplift and tilt apparently gave especially the south-flowing streams an additional

impetus and led to the cutting of deep valleys in what the uplift had converted from a peneplain into a plateau or a succession of plateaus. Post-Pleistocene sinking gave rise to the sunken estuaries of south Cornwall, and the drainage lines are chiefly those between the granite bosses. The Tamar, which forms most of the boundary between Devon and Cornwall, drains between Dartmoor and Bodmin moor into its great southern estuary; between Bodmin moor and Hensbarrow Beacon the Camel drains northward to Padstow bay, and the Fowey southward into a long estuary; the Fal estuary is placed between the Hensbarrow and the CarnmeneUis bosses; and there is a low line across from Mount's bay to St. Ives bay between CarnmeneUis and the St. Just boss. In Mount's bay is St. Michael's Mount (q.v.), a precipitous granite island joined to the mainland at low tide by a causeway, the slaty rocks (called killas) having been washed away on all sides but the north. The climate is mild and moderately sunny. High winds are common in autumn and winter and sea mists in spring and autumn. The average temperature for January is 43.4° F. at Bude and 44.5° Rainfall is heavy and, though only 33.4 in. per at Falmouth. annum at Bude, it reaches 43.6 in. at Falmouth and 49.4 in. at Bodmin. The vegetation in shelter is luxuriant and southern in type, and in some places along the southern coast, known as the Cornish Riviera, subtropical plants are grown. About 360 sq.mi. of the county have been designated as Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty; with the exception of Bodmin moor, these areas are located along the coast. The beauty of the coast line, especially Land's End and the Lizard, and the little fishing towns such as St. Ives, Looe, Fowey, Polperro, Newlyn and Mousehole, attract many artists. The National trust owns 9,395 ac, with 1,742 ac. under restrictive covenant. History. The wind-swept moorlands and cliffs gave opportunities for early settlement, and when the use of metal was beginning to spread, or just prior to this, western Cornwall became important, as its wealth of megalithic monuments shows. They include dolmens such as those of Lanyon, Mulfra, Chun and Zennor. Monoliths have a wider distribution, those in the parish

—

Buryan being well known. The principal circles are the Hurlers, near Liskeard, the Boskednan, Boscawen-un and Tregeseal of St.

and the Merry Maidens near Lamorna. All these, except End district. There are also alignments on the moors near Rough Tor and Brown Willy. This culture formed part of a movement from the Mediterranean which brought Cornwall and the southwest into touch with Brittany. A few Early Bronze implements have been found. The coastal circles,

the Hurlers, are in the Land's

,

CORNWALL

5i6

promontories and river estuaries are protected by clusters of earthworks of presumed Iron Age dtite. but mining operations have destroyed so many that it is impossible to arjcuc from their type and distribution. Roman occupation and Saxon colonization of the lands farther east caused westward pressure, and it is to these influences that must be assigned the emigration of Brythonicspeaking people into southwest England and from there to Brittany. Remains of Celtic Christianity in Cornwall include crosses dating from the 6th century onward, inscribed sepulchral stones, generally of the 7th and 8th centuries, and oratories. These have their parallels in Ireland, as the prehistoric contacts with Ireland and Wales and Brittany were maintained in early Christian times. In all these regions dedications to local saints are a feature. The oratory buildings are very small and rude, always placed near a spring. The best example is St. Piran's near Perranzabuloe, which lay buried in sand dunes until 1835. St. Piran, a missionary sent

by

St,

of

the

Patrick in the 5th or 6th century, tin

miners.

Cornwall has

became the patron

many

saint

associations with the

Arthurian legend.

Cornwall was the last portion of British territory in the south submit to the Saxon invader. In 815 Ecgbert directed his efforts toward the subjugation of the West Welsh of Cornwall, and after eight years' fighting compelled the whole of Dyvnaint (west Wales, Cornwall) to acknowledge his supremacy. Assisted by the Danes, the Cornish revolted, but were again defeated in 838 at the battle of Hengestesdun ('Kingston Down in Stoke ClimsNinety years later Aethelstan banished the West Welsh land). from Exeter and made the Tamar the boundary of their territory. of Edward the Confessor nearly all the land in Cornthe time By As the result of wall was held by men bearing English names. the Norman Conquest less than one-twelfth of the land (exclusive of that held by the church) remained in English hands. Most (248) of the manors were assigned to Robert of Mortain and became the foundation of the earldom. Since a charter of 1337 the eldest son of the sovereign has been duke of Cornwall, this being the oldest dukedom in the kingdom. In the 15th century Cornwall strongly supported the Lancastrian cause, and its remoteness from the capital made it a potential field for revolt. This is seen in the support given to the Thomas Flammock (or Flamank) rebellion in 1497, to Perkin Warbeck in the same year and to the Humphry Arundell rebellion over the religious question in 1549. The king's Cornish troops led by Sir Bevil Grenville (g.v.) defeated Col. Ruthin on Bradock down, while Sir Ralph Hopton (g.v., later Baron) triumphed over the parliamentarians at Stratton. The whole county was thereby secured to the king, but dissensions hastened the overthrow of the royalists. The 18th century was remarkable for the fervour shown by Comishmen in the Methodist movement. The old Cornish language survives in a few words still in use in fishing and mining communities, as well as in names of persons and places (e.g., names with the prefixes Tre, Pol, Pen meaning "dwelling," "pool," and "summit or headland" respectively), but the last persons who spoke it died toward the end of the 18th century. The language belonged to the Cymric or Brythonic division of Celtic, in which Welsh and Breton are also included. Three miracle plays in Cornish are important relics of the lan(See Celtic Languages; Cornish Literature.) guage. to

Cornish wrestling is confined to Cornwall and Brittany, where was introduced from Cornwall in the 5th and 6th centuries a.d. It has been played in Cornwall since remote times, and there is a legendary account of a contest between a Cornish giant, Goemor, and a Trojan warrior, Corineus, said to have taken place about 1000 B.C. Cornish wrestlers fought at Agincourt under a banner that is still the symbol of the Cornish Wrestling association. The wrestlers wear special canvas jackets, fastened in front by cords, and no shoes. (See Wrestling.) A full description of the sport is given in Richard Carew's The Survey of Cornwall (1602) and details of its history in the Journal of the Royal Institution ). of Cornwall, new series, vol. ii, part 2 (1864Population and Administration. The population at the 1961 census (including the Scilly Isles) was 341,746. In 1861 the population was 369,390 and had shown an increase up to that it

—

There are 12 municipal boroughs: Penzance (19,433), Falmouth (15,427), Truro (13,328), St. Ives (9,337), Saltash (7,420), Bodmin (6,209), Helston (7,085), Launceston (4,518), Liskeard (4,490), Penryn (4,448), Fowey (2,237) and Lostwithiel (1,954). Bodmin is the county town and the assizes and quarter date.

but the county offices are in the cathedral There are eight urban districts of which the largest are Camborne-Redruth (36,090), St. Austell (25,027) and Newquay (11,877), and ten rural districts, excluding the Scilly Isles which are under a separate council. The islands form one of the 22 petty sessional divisions. In addition, Penzance has a separate commission of the peace and court of quarter sessions. The county court was held at Lostwithiel and the assizes at Launceston in the 13th and 14th centuries. In 1716 the summer assize was transferred to Bodmin and after 1836 both assizes were held there. Cornwall had its own bishop from the 7th century until 1018. In 1049 the see of the united dioceses of Devon and Cornwall was fixed at Exeter. Cornwall became an archdeaconry soon after and was reconstituted a diocese with its see at Truro ses.sions are held there,

city of Truro.

in 1877.

Two members for the county were summoned by Edward I to the parliament of 1295, and two continued to be the number of county members until 1832. Six boroughs were granted the like privilege by the same sovereign. Between 1547 and 1584, 15 additional towns and villages received the franchise, with the result that, between the latter date and 1821, Cornwall sent no fewer than 44 members to parliament and became notorious for the number of its rotten boroughs (see Borough). The allocation of members proportionately to the population continued irregular until 1885. There are now five parliamentary divisions, Bodmin, Falmouth and Camborne, St. Ives, North Cornwall and Truro, each returning one member. Industries and Communications. The main sources of in-

-^

H

—

come

in

Cornwall are agriculture, the tourist trade, quarrying,

engineering, ship repairing, mining and fishing.

,

There are pasture and arable farms, and in the valleys the soil Oats and mixed grain form the main is frequently rich and deep. cereal crops; green fodder crops, turnips and swedes, potatoes and mangolds make up the bulk of the root crops. Cattle, chiefly of the Devon breed, sheep, pigs and poultry are reared. Excluding rough grazings, about three-quarters of the total area of the county is under crops and grass. Because of the favourable climate, fruit, flowers and vegetables are cultivated in the vicinity of Mount's bay (flowers, broccoli, early potatoes), the Fal valley (flowers, broccoli, early potatoes, vegetables) and the Tamar valley (top and soft fruit, flowers, vegetables). The Scilly Isles also share in the market gardening industry, notably for flowers. The care of woodlands and the planting of new areas are largely undertaken by the Forestry commission. The fisheries of Cornwall and Devon are the most important on the southwestern coasts. The pilchard is in great measure confined to Cornwall and the neighbourhood of the Scilly Isles. Apart from a short interval in the spring, pilchards are caught They all the year round by drift nets off the southern coast. are mainly disposed of by canning, and surplus catches are cured and packed locally for export to Italy. Ray, skate, turbot, cod, conger and dogfish are caught by long lines, and sole, plaice, skate and whiting by trawls. The principal fishing stations are Newlyn, Mevagissey and Looe, but boats are employed all along the coast.

An

important source of income, comparable with agriculture, is Many of the small seaside towns, such as BudeNewquay, St. Ives, Falmouth and Looe, have become holiday resorts. Falmouth is the yachting centre, but Fowey and Penzance are among the many safe harbours. The principal ports Falmouth is a shipare Hayle, Penzance, Truro and Penryn. repairing centre. A main railway line passes through the county of trunk roads in Penzance and there are 150 mi. terminate at to Cornwall. There is a civil airport at St. Just and another on the tourist trade. Stratton,

Mary's, Scilly Isles. Mining. The tin of Cornwall has been known and worked from By ancient charters the tinners were exempt the Bronze Age St.

—

•

;

CORNWALL—CORNWALLIS from

all

and limb)

jurisdiction (save in cases affecting land, life

other than that of the stannary (tin mine) courts. A tax on the tin, after smelting, was paid to the earls and dukes of Cornwall.

'

The smelted blocks had

to be

—

coined— that

is,

stamped with the

duchy mark before they could be sold. In IS3S the dues on coinage were abolished and a compensation awarded to the duchy Cornish miners directed successful developments of instead. mining in

many

parts of the world,

and much emigration took

place in the middle of the 19th century.

The industry

suffered

from periods of depression (for example, before the accession of Elizabeth I, who introduced miners from Germany to resuscitate it), and in modern times the shallow workings, from which tin could be easily "streamed, ".became practically exhausted. The deeper workings are more costly and foreign competition is

There was a slight revival during World War I, but later A rise in the price of tin during mining greatly diminished. 1926-28 caused renewed activity especially in the CamborneRedruth district, but production of tin ore has continued to dechne, the surviving mines of importance being at Pool (Camborne) and Pendeen (St. Just), producing tin and arsenic. There was also No a small wolfram mine at Castle-an-Dinas, near St. Columb. mine seems to have been worked exclusively for copper before 1770. In 1718 John Coster drained the deeper mines and introduced an improved method of dressing ore. In 1851 the mines of Devon and Cornwall were estimated to furnish one-third of the copper raised in Europe. Iron (brown hematite) has been worked near Lostwithiel and elsewhere. The St. Austell district produces [China clay (kaolin), and after its extended use for paper filling and the textile trade it became an important commodity. China Production after World stone is also quarried near St. Austell. War II exceeded 60.000 tons a year. mainly for road and metamorphic rocks are quarried Igneous The largest groups of quarries are Penlee (Penzance), stone. St. Keverne (Lizard), Clicker Tor and Kingston Down (southProduction of granite for monumental and eastern Cornwall). constructional work accounts for less than 1% of total igneous rock production. Fine slate is quarried and largely exported, as from the Delabole quarries near Tintagel (worked since Tudor [times I, and serpentine is quarried in the Lizard district. Camborne-Redruth, formerly the principal mining area, manu,factures mining equipment and has a civil engineering plant. greater.

I

After

World War

II

it

attracted a greater variety of industries,

important service of a long and distinguished career was his term was born in London on Dec. 31, 1738, the eldest son of the 1st Earl Cornwallis (1700-62). He entered the army in 1757, serving in Germany during the Seven Years' War. After 1765 he took some part in politics, and was a firm opponent of the policy of taxation of the American colonies; despite this he went to America as major general in 1776, beas governor general of India (1786-93),

coming second-in-command the next year.

known as the Cornwallis code (see Indu-Pakistan, Subcontinent or; History). His reforms were mainly based on the work of others, but their comprehensiveness and the smoothness with which they were effected were due to his tact and determination.

The changes in the administration of justice and of the revenue have been criticized, especially the permanent revenue- settlement for Bengal which Cornwallis recommended against the advice of experts. But his reform of the civil service introduced a spirit of disinterested administration in India, and the connection between commerce and government was finally broken. The aggression of Tipu Sahib forced Cornwallis to contravene the official policy of nonintervention in native states, and make an alliance with the Marathas and the nizam of the Deccan. In 1791 Cornwallis personally took command of the forces against Tipu, and by a successful campaign in which Bangalore was captured and Seringapatam beseiged, he forced Tipu to make peace. Cornwallis returned to England in 1793, received a marquessate and was made master general of the ordnance with cabinet rank. He was viceroy of Ireland from 1798 to 1801, and ended the serious rebellion of 1798, proclaiming a general amnesty and defeating He strongly supported William the French army of invasion. Pitt's policy of union, and his popularity with both Roman CathoWhen George III lics and Orangemen helped carry it in Ireland. refused to grant Roman Catholic emancipation in 1801, Cornwallis resigned. He was appointed plenipotentiary to negotiate the peace Amiens in 1801. In 1805 he reluctantly returned to India Lord Wellesley, but he died at Ghazipur on Oct. 5, 1805.

of

to replace

.

;

.

.

.

.

.

;

4 vol. (18,?8); J. Polsue, Lake's Parochial History of Cornwall, J. Bannister, A Glossary of Cornish Names (1871) C. Borlase, Naenia Cornubiae (1872), The Age of the Saints (1893) J. L. Boase and W. P. Courtney, Bibliotheca Cornubiensis, i vol. (1874-82); W. P. Courtney, The Parliamentary Representation of Cornwall to 1832 (1SS9, only 75 copies); G. C. Boase, Collectanea Cornubiensia (1890) Victoria County History of Cornwall (1906) f. H. Collins, Observations on the West of England Mining Region J912); M. Coate, Cornwall in the Great Civil War and Interregnum, .'642-1660 (1933); B. S. Roberson, Cornwall, The Land of Britain, )t. 91 (1941) A. L. Rowse, Tudor Cornwall (1941) C. Berry, Corn-

'wall,

4 vol. (1868-72)

;

;

vV.

;

;

;

;

;

(1949); N. Pevsner, Cornwall (1951) W. J. Rowe, Cornwall in \he Age of the Industrial Revolution (1953); W. G. V. Balchin, Cornfall (1954) ; L. E. ElUott-Binns, Medieval Cornwall (1955). (E. T. V.) wall

;

;

CORNWALL,

a city of Ontario, Can., seat

:ounties of Stormont,

Dundas and Glengarry, on

of the united

the left (north)

Lawrence river, about 70 mi. S.W. of Montreal, from the United States via the Roosevelt bridge headquarters of the Canadian St. Lawrence Seaway authority, "ounded as New Johnstown by United Empire Loyalists in 1784,

,5ank of the St. ,s

a port of entry

iind

>pposite the Indian village of St. Regis, in 1797

lonour of the duke of Cornwall,

it

was renamed in IV. It was

who became George

incorporated as a town in 1834 and as a city in 1945. Pop. (1961) 3,639. Manufactured products include paper, textiles, chemicals,

umber, furniture and castings.

(F. G. R.)

CORNWALLIS, CHARLES CORNWALLIS, I'UEss

1st

Mar-

(1738-1805), British general and statesman, whose most

the best of the

1786 on condition that the powers of the office were enlarged. Cornwallis' government in India was notable for a series of administrative reforms, culminating in the set of regulations of 1793

See also references under "Cornwall"' in the Index. Bibliography. Richard Carew, The Survey of Cornwall (1602; new ed. by F. E. Halliday, 1953) \V. Borlase, Antiquities of Cornii'all (1754 and 1769) D. Gilbert, The Parochial History of Corn-

—

He was

English generals in America, gaining some victories against the colonists. His southern expedition of 1780-81 began successfully, but on Oct. 19, 1781, he was forced to surrender at Yorktown, and The defeat did little the English cause was irretrievably lost. damage to his reputation in England; he was several times offered the post of governor general in India, and finally accepted it in

lincluding several textile firms. ,

517

See also references under "Cornwallis, Charles Cornwallis,

Marquess"

1st

in the Index.

—

Bibliography. W. S. Seton-Karr, The Marquess Cornwallis (1890) A. Aspinall, Cornwallis in Bengal (1931); C. Ross (ed.), Cornwallis Correspondence (1859).

CORNWALLIS, SIR WILLIAM

(1744-1819), British ad-

miral who, as commander of the channel fleet, 1803-06, maintained the vital blockade of Brest against Napoleon, was born in Suffolk on Feb. 25, 1744, son of the 1st Earl Cornwallis. He entered the navy at the age of 11 and was promoted captain at 22.

During the American Revolution he served in the West Indies, taking part in the battles of Grenada (1779) and St. Kitts (1782). At the victory of the Saints off Dominica in 1782 he was In 1788 Corncritical of the conduct of Adm. George Rodney. wallis was sent as commodore to India, where his brother was governor general, and took part in the war against Tipu Sahib, being promoted admiral in 1793. Two years later he conducted a withdrawing action off Brest, in the face of a superior force, with the greatest skill, his 4 ships of the line being attacked by 12 under Adm. L. T. Villaret de Joyeuse. His most important service was when he succeeded Lord St. Vincent in command of the channel fleet blockading Brest in 1801, and again from 1803 to 1806, when he retired. These were the years of peril from the threat of Napoleon's invasion, and upon the close blockade of Brest in all weathers depended the safety of Great Britain. Cornwallis carried out his duty with great resolution, using Ushant as his rendezvous and keeping an inshore squadron to watch the French fleet under Comte Ganteaume. After Sir Robert Calder's action with

CORNYSHE— CORONA

5i8

common

Adm. P. C. de Villeneuve on July 22, 1805, the former fell back on Cornwailis' fleet, but when this was reinforced by Nelson's ships after the chase was given up, Cornwailis sent Calder south again in order to prevent Villeneuve coming out of Corunna. Napoleon criticized this division of the main fleet as foolish, but \'iileneuve never dared attack the fleet to the north of him and reBecause of this, the invasion scheme collapsed. tired to Cadiz. Cornwailis retired in 1S06 and died in Hampshire on July 5, 1819. Nelson, who was his lifelong friend, called Cornwailis "a gallant and good otTicer." He was re.served in manner, but popular with his men who invented many nicknames for him such as "Billy Go-tight" and "Billy Blue," because of his persistence in flying the Blue Peter flag to make sail, and "Coachee" or "Mr. Whip," from his florid complexion.

The word

See G. Comwajiis-West, The Life and Letters of Admiral Cornwailis (1927); The Blockade of Brest, ed. by J. Leyland, Navy Records So(C. C. L.) ciety (1899).

of corollaries of Euclidean propositions have been added by edi-

CORNYSHE, WILLIAM

composer, actor and favourite court musician of Henry VIH, came from a family closely connected with the Chapel Royal an older William Cornyshe (d. 1502), possibly his father, was the first master of the choristers at Westminster abbey (147')-91 ). The younger William was actively associated with the production of court pageants, in which the boy choristers took part, from at least 1501, and in 1509 he succeeded William Newark as master of the children of the Chapel Royal. Under the young and pleasure-loving Henry VHI he continued to devise and perform in plays, masques and pageants. He accompanied the court to the continent on at least two occasions, being responsible for the English performances He died in Oct. 1523. at the Field of Cloth of Gold (1520). Cornyshe's compositions show an outstanding lyrical gift allied (d.

1523),

English

;

versatility, equally at home in the elaborate counterMass and votive antiphon and in the more pithy but no subtle style in which he set the poems of John Skelton and

corollary

is

in

use in English with approxi-

mately this latter meaning. In mathematics, a corollary in the strict sense is a proposition which was incidentally proved in the course of proving another proposition, and for which therefore no separate proof is required. However, mathematical writers now generally use the term more loosely to denote any consequence of an existing theorem (or existing proof) which is sufficiently obvious that in practice no proof need be stated for it, or at most a very brief proof. For example, in elementary geometry, after it has been shown that when two sides of a triangle are el-lKili)

theory was more soundly established through thv

recognition ol the predominance of diffraction over relkction in

(H. C. van de Hulst, C. VV. conclusions regarding the size of the

this particular case of lipht scattering

Allen).

The theory pemiits

and the average density of matter in interplanetary space consistent with the observed Irecjuency of meteorites and seems to particles

explain the zodiacal light as an extension of the

same

diffraction

phenomenon. The main part

of the light from the inner corona, showing a strong polarization and a continuous spectrum with the same

colour distribution as the sun, has long been recognized as solar light scattered by free electrons (K. Schwarzschild, iqo6). The electrons, because of their small masses, will have great thermal

about 50 times greater than hydrogen atoms at the same temperature, and the Doppler effect caused by these high random velocities would cause a considerable widening of the Fraunhofer lines in the scattering process. The lines would be smoothed out and eventually vanish completely at a high enough velocities,

temperature, as observed.

According to this interpretation nearly g()% of the coronal light directly borrowed from the sun, one part being scattered by interplanetary dust and the other part, the main constituent of the

is

inner corona, being scattered by the free electrons in a gaseous envelope, a coronal atmosphere of the sun.

Density.

— That

early concluded

the coronal gas must be extremely thin was from the observation of comets passing at high

speed through large distances in the inner corona without suffering any change or retardation. From the observed intensity of the corona and the known scattering coefficient of the electron it is

compute the number of electrons per cubic centimetre. As the negative charge of the electrons must be compensated by an equal amount of positive charge, the coronal gas must contain nearly the same number of protons, hydrogen being certainly the possible to

most abundant element and completely ionized

at the coronal

tem-

perature.

In this

way

the sun's limb

the density of the corona in its densest parts near is

found

to

be approximately one-million-millionth

that of air at atmospheric pressure.

With regard to the finer structures of the corona, the arches and streamers and the large-scale motions, one must remember that the coronal matter, as consisting exclusively of electrically charged particles,

is

strictly

guided

in its

motions by the

lines of

magnetic

any appreciable strength is detailed coronal structures are therefore likely to reproduce the structures of the magnetic field around the sun. force as soon as a magnetic field of

present.

The

Conclusions regarding the chemical composition can be drawn from the relative intensities of the bright coronal lines, giving the abundances of various metals, and from the intensity of the lines as compared with the intensity of the electron scattering, giving essentially the ratio of metals to hydrogen. There is no indication of any striking dift'erence in composition between the coronal gas and the chromosphere. Temperature. The physical explanation of the coronal atmosphere presents unsurmountable difficulties if as was long assumed as a matter of course the temperature of the gas were of the same order as the surface temperature of the sun, about 6.000° C. Obrelative

—

—

—

served facts require for a logical explanation a much higher temperature. In the first place, the enormous extension of the corona can be understood only if the gravitational forces are balanced by great thermal velocities of the gas particles, corresponding to a temperature between 1,000,000° C. and 2,000,000° C. Contrary to older belief, the radiation pressure role in this

problem since the free

is

not likely to play any

which are the main constituents of the coronal gas, do not absorb light. A similar temperature is derived from the observed profiles of the bright coronal lines, which are about one angstrom wide, and from a particles,

quantitative discussion of the disappearance of the Fraunhofer lines in the electron-scattering process. The high ionization of the metal atoms, as well as the remarkable fact that no hydrogen

observed in the coronal spectrum, also finds a plausible explanation at a temperature of the order of 1,000,000° C. The lines are

observed intensity of solar radio noise, which has been shown to

originate in the corona, permits of similar conclusions regarding the coronal temperature.

Though the discovery of the high temperature of the coronal gas provides a consistent physical picture of the phenomenon, the mechanism by which the corona is heated remains a subject for Because of the low density the quantity of energy required to maintain the temperature is only a small fraction of the total solar radiation, the difficulty being to find a mechanism speculation.

producing the required quality of energy. Particles of interstellar matter would be accelerated in the sun's gravitational field to velocities high enough to produce the observed high temperature, but it is questionable whether the density of interstellar matter is high enough to cover the thermal losses of the corona. Furthermore, the shape and detailed structure of the corona, being directly associated with the solar activity, would rather point to an energy source in the sun itself, It has been suggested that mechanical energy of the turbulent motions in the photosphere, which show as granulation, could be transformed into a special kind of wave motion, transported upward and absorbed in the corona by a mechanism which ultimately is a Joule heating through electric currents (Hannes Alfven ). Extreme Ultraviolet Radiation. As already mentioned, the main part of the light from the corona is scattered sunlight, while

—

the specific radiation of the coronal gas, the bright lines, contribute

1% or 2%. In the visible wave-length region the specific coronal radiation thus amounts only to about one-hundred-millionth of the radiation from the sun. Because of the great difference in temperature between the corona and the photosphere, only

however, the ratio of coronal to solar radiation

will increase enor-

mously as the wave length of the radiation decreases. For a rough calculation one may assume that the coronal gas radiates, with a certain dilution factor, as a "black body" at a temperature of 1,000,000° C. On this assumption one finds that the amounts of radiation emitted from the sun and from the coronal gas become equal in the wave-length region around 1000 A, and that for still shorter wave lengths the photospheric intensity soon drops to a negligible amount in comparison with the coronal intensity. Spectra of the integrated sunlight taken from above the earth's atmosphere by means of rocket-borne spectrographs actually show, in consistency with this picture, that the continuous light from the sun's disk fades away below 2000 A and gradually gives place to a bright-line spectrum characteristic of highly ionized matter. The extreme ultraviolet radiation is completely absorbed in the earth's upper atmosphere, producing ionization.

It

is

likely that

the ionized layers, which reflect radio waves, are at least partly

caused by coronal radiation. therefore

become

Coronagraphic observations have

of interest as a

means

of predicting conditions

for radio communications.

BiBLioGKAPHY. the

— F. W. Dyson and R. van der R. WooUey, Eclipses oj

Sun and Moon (1937)

;

S.

A. Mitchell, Eclipses oj the Sun, sth

ed.

M. Waldmeier, Die Sonnenkorona, vol. i (1951), vol. ii (igs?) (1951 H. C. van de Hulst, "The Chromosphere and the Corona" in The Sun, ed. by G. P. Kuiper (1953) C. W. Allen, "The Physical Condition of the Solar Corona," Rep. Progr. Phys., vol. xvii (1954). (B. E.) )

;

;

CORONADO, FRANCISCO VAZQUEZ DE

(15101554). Spanish explorer of the American southwest. He accompanied Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza to New Spain in 1535 as friend and protege and soon gained distinction in subduing rebel-

He was made a member of the town council of Mexico City, June 1538, and in August became acting governor New Galicia, an appointment which was confirmed the next year. Fray Marcos de Niza's e.xploration of 1539 into the northern interior, telling of the rich Seven Cities of lious Indians.

of the province of

—

—

Cibola the present Zuni, N.M. led Mendoza to send a great expedition under Coronado to conquer them. Accompanied by tnore than 300 Spanish cavalry and 1.000 Indian allies, plus Fray

Marcos. Coronado conquered the Seven Cities in July 1540, but found no riches. He sent Pedro de Tovar to explore the Hopi villages. Garcia Lopez de Cardenas the Grand canyon country, and Hernando de Alvarado the Rio Grande, where Coronado followed and set up headquarters at Tiguex, the centre of a populated area north of modern Albuquerque. Here the army spent the winter of 1540-41. conquered some rebellious pueblos and reconnoitered the

CORONARY— CORONATION surrounding country. At Pecos the Spaniards found an Indian who told of a country farther east more wonderful than the Seven

'

News

Cities.

of this land, called Quivira, led

plore the Great Plains in the

Palo Duro canyon

summer

of 1541.

in Texas, bewildered

Coronado

When

to ex-

he reached

by the vastness of the

main force back to Tiguex, while he led 30 horsemen to the great bend of the Arkansas river in Kansas in But Quivira, inhabited by search of the mythical kingdom. Wichita Indians, was not rich in gold or silver, and Coronado country, he sent the

returned to Tiguex dispirited. The following winter he suffered a blow on the head while jousting. When he recovered, the expedi-

For

!

'

New

Mexico, returning the way it had come. conduct of the expedition, Coronado underwent an official inspection, as the law required, and was indicted, but the audiencia of Mexico, in Feb. 1546, declared him innocent. He was tion left

his

not so fortunate in the official residencia of his governorship, for which he was indicted and fined on several charges, and lost some of the Indians he held in encomienda. But he continued to serve as a member of the council of Mexico City and retained the friendship of Viceroy Mendoza, being one of the chief witnesses for his defense in the official residencia. Coronado died on Sept. 22,

:

:1554. See Herbert E. Bolton, Coronado, Knight >(1949).

CORONARY THROMBOSIS

and Plains (G. P. Hd.)

of Pueblos

(Coronary Occlusion

or

Myocardial Infarction),

a condition in which a plug or clot branch of the coronary arteries, which supply blood to the heart muscle itself. See Arteries, Diseases or; Heart, Diseases and Defects of. CORONATION, a solemnity whereby sovereigns are inau-

forms

'

in a

gurated in

their

office.

From

the earliest historical times in

Europe the king or chieftain, on his election, was inaugurated by some public ceremony. He might be raised upon a shield, placed upon a sacred stone, presented with a spear, or invested with a distinctive robe or headdress. Whatever the particular ceremony might be, however, it was essential that it should take place in the sight of the assembled people. When Europe became Christian, though some of the older customs lingered on, they were grafted onto a religious service derived from the biblical accounts of the anointing of Saul and David by Samuel. Once the biblical precedent of anointing with oil had been introduced into western Europe the whole idea of kingship was altered. The ruler attained 'a new status. Whatever might be its exact significance and this 'was disputed throughout the middle ages it could not be denied that the anointed person was a man in some sense set apart with a special relationship both to God and to his people. By virtue of the unction he was peculiarly fitted to receive the crown and other insignia, and it was almost inevitable that he should receive them from the clergy by whom he had been anointed. In western Europe the first king specifically recorded as having been 'anointed was Vamba, the Visigothic king of Toledo, in 672.

—

—

England.

—The

English coronation service traces

its

descent

from the ordo drawn up by Archbishop Dunstan for the coronation of King Edgar at Bath in 973. This was based on two earlier models, known as the Leofric and Egbert services, which appear to iate from the early 10th century. Neither of them seems to have 3riginated in England, but they were used by Dunstan, who added nany of the coronation ceremonies in use on the continent at the :ime. In the Edgar ordo all the essential features of a modern :oronation appear in a primitive form the oath, the anointing,

—

:he investiture,

the enthronement and the homage.

It

was subse-

notably in the 12th century under Archbishop Anselm and again in the 14th (the Liber Regalis). English ook the place of Latin after the Reformation, but the coronation "emained a service of election, of confirmation of the people's :hoice, of self-dedication and of consecration. There is no doubt, 00, that it was deliberately molded on the service for the conse-

'quently often revised,

:ration of a bishop.

Also, after 16S9, reverting to

much

older

both the coronation service and the service for the consehration of a bishop were incorporated in the communion service. The English coronation service now consists of four distinct 'larts, one leading on to the other and forming a coherent whole: isage,

521

(1) the introduction, consisting of the entry, the recognition and the oath; (2) the consecration of the sovereign by anointing; (3) the investiture of the anointed sovereign with the royal robes

and insignia culminating with the crown; and (4) the enthronization and homage followed by the communion service. The recognition is historically the ratification by the people of the former ceremony of election in Westminster hall, when the sovereign was placed on the king's bench in the sight of all. At the recognition the people are asked if they wish the service to proceed, and it is made clear that the monarchy is based upon the people's will and consent. Assured of this, the archbishop can proceed to administer the oath, which ensures that the sovereign will respect and govern according to the laws and will uphold the Protestant Reformed religion of England and Scotland and preserve the Church of England. The recognition and the oath form the contract between the sovereign and the people and are the foundations of the whole service. The archbishop can now consecrate the sovereign, who is thereupon anointed on the palms of both hands, the breast and the crown of the head. This is the central moment of the service, for it is only when the sovereign has been anointed that investiture with the royal robes and insignia can follow. Finally the crown of St. Edward is placed on the head of the sovereign, who then moves from the coronation chair to the throne and is lifted up into it by the archbishop, bishops and other peers.

Historically, this

is

the

moment when

the sovereign enters

and for the first time is clearly seen by all to have been duly anointed, invested and crowned. The homage of his subjects naturally follows. When the lords spiritual and lords temporal have paid their homage there is a threefold acclamation by which the people present, representing the third estate, complete the act of homage and thus end the solemnity of the sovereign's coronation. If there is a queen consort, her coronation follows at this point. Otherwise the communion service is resumed at the offertory and proceeds to its close. For many centuries the English coronation service was followed by a banquet in Westminster hall. During the course of this the king's champion in full armour entered the hall on horseback and, throwing down his gauntlet, three times challenged anyone to deny the sovereign's right to the crown. The office of king's champion is attached to the manor of Scrivelsby, and has been held since the 14th century by the Dymoke family as owners of the manor. The challenge was the most picturesque of several personal services, of which some are still performed during the coronation ceremonies. The banquet was last held, and the challenge made, at the coronation of George IV in 1821. The king's champion, however, now has the duty of bearing the standard of England during the coronation service. France. The Prankish kings originally began their reign by being raised on a shield and acclaimed. The legend of the anointing of Clovis {see below) refers to his baptism, not to his accesinto his inheritance,

—

sion.

Pepin,

first

king of the Carolingian dynasty, partly in order

superseding the Merovingian kings, was twice anointed, first possibly by St. Boniface, then by Pope Stephen III (II). With his successors in the 9th century unction became an established part of the ceremonial. Eventually the form of coro-

to

sanctify his

nation in France, in its general features, closely resembled the English coronation service on which, it is believed, it was originally based. From the 11th century onward it customarily took place at Reims. The unction was given, first on the top of the head in the form of a cross, on the breast, between the shoulders and at the bending and joints of both arms. Then, standing up, the king was vested in the dalmatic, tunic and royal robe, all of purple velvet, sprinkled with fleurs-de-lis of gold, and representing, it was said, the three orders of subdeacon, deacon and priest. Kneeling again, the king was anointed in the palms of the hands,

which the gloves, ring and sceptre were delivered. The summoned by name to come near and assist, and the archbishop of Reims, taking the so-called crown of Charlemagne from the altar, set it on the king's head. After this the enthronement and the showing of the king to the people took Mass was then said, and at its conclusion the king complace. municated in both kinds. after

peers were then

CORONEA— CORONEL

522

In connection with the anointing of the kings of France there

was a legend that the Holy Dove had descended from heaven, bearing a vessel (afterward called the Sainte Ampoule), containing holy oil, and had placed it on the altar for the coronation of Clovis. A drop of oil from the Sainte Ampoule mixed with chrism was afterward used for anointing the kings of France. Similarly, the chrism was introduced into English coronations, for the first time probably at the coronation of Edward II. To rival the French story another miracle was related that the Virgin Mary had appeared to Thomas Becket and had given him a vessel with holy oil, which at some future period was to be used for the sacring of the English king, A full account of this miracle, and the subsequent finding of the vessel, is contained in a letter written in 13 IS by Pope John XXII to Edward II. The chrism was used in addition to the holy oil. The king was first anointed with the oil and then signed on the head with the chrism. In consequence of the use of chrism the kings of England and France were thought to be able to cure scrofula, hence called king's evil (g-v.), by the imposition of their hands.

Napoleon I in 1804, having brought Pope Pius VII to Paris to him in the cathedral of Notre Dame as emperor of the French, placed the new imperial crown on his own head. The Holy Roman Emperors and the German Kings. ^The custom whereby the Holy Roman emperors were crowned by the popes dates from the coronation of Charlemagne on Christmas Day 800 (see Holy Roman Empire for this controversial incident). The anointing of the emperor by the pope was instituted at the coronation of Louis I the Pious in 816. The last Holy Roman emperor to go to Rome for coronation was Frederick III in 1452; Charles V, however, was crowned by the pope but at anoint'

—

Bologna, not

in

Rome.

Otto I, Otto II and Otto III were crowned as German kings at Aachen (where Charlemagne had been crowned king of the Franks), and from Henry Ill's to Ferdinand I's time Aachen was the customary place for the German coronation, being recognized as such by the Golden Bull (13S6). Charles V's successor Ferdinand I, however, who had been crowned German king at Aachen in 1531, was crowned as Holy Roman "emperor elect'' in 1558 at Frankfurt am Main, and thenceforward Frankfurt was the place of coronation for the emperors till the dissolution of the Holy Roman empire. After preparatory ceremonies and prayers the emperor was consecrated and anointed, then clothed in the imperial and pontifical robes and presented with the regalia and the sword of Charlemagne and finally crowned by the three archbishop-electors jointly.

After the dissolution of the Holy Roman empire, the later Habsburg emperors of Austria were crowned only as kings of Hungary in Buda. Hungary. The crown of St. Stephen was first used for the coronation of Stephen I (q.v.) of Hungary in a.d. 1000 or 1001. Thenceforward the place of coronation varied, the chief places being Szekesfehervar. the oldest royal residence; the coronation church in Buda; and, during the Turkish occupation of central Hungary, Pozsony (Bratislava). The crown was always placed on the king's head by the archbishop of Esztergom, the primate of Hungary.

—

—

Poland. The first Polish coronation took place in 1025, at the Gniezno cathedral, when Boleslaw I was crowned king of Poland. From 1320 to 1734, all coronations were held at the Wawel cathedral in Cracow, except that of Stanislav I Leszezynski in '\\''arsaw in 1705. The bishop of Cracow had the right of placing the crown on the king's head. The last king of Poland, Stanislav II Poniatowski, was crowned in Warsaw in 1764. Russia. The first coronation of a Russian tsar (venchanie na tsarstvo) took place in Moscow in 1547, when Ivan TV the Terrible was crowned in the Kremlin, at the Uspenski cathedral, with the so-called "Monomakh hat," alleged to have been sent by a Byzantine emperor to 'Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125), grand prince of Kiev (this hat is still in the Kremlin, and the workmanship of the original part of the crown appears to be of the 12th or 13th century). The hat was placed on the tsar's head by the

—

patriarch of

Moscow,

after the anointing.

Peter

I the

Great, how-

ever,

assumed the

title of emperor (imperator) and abolished the Thereafter the coronation ceremony was known as Koronovame imperatorskoe and was conducted, still at the Uspenski cathedral, by the four Russian metropolitans, those of Moscow, Kiev, Novgorod and St. Petersburg. Unction remained, but the emperor put the new imperial crown on his own head and also crowned his empress. The first coronation according to the new ceremonial took place in 1 724 when Peter I crowned his consort, who as Catherine I succeeded him in 1725. Spain. During the middle ages in Spain the kings of Asturias, Leon and Castile were anointed and crowned by a bishop (though .Mfonso XI put the crown on his own head). After John I of Castile, however, the ceremony died out and the accession of the Castilian kings was marked simply by an act of acclamation or proclamation in all the cities and towns of the kingdom. In Aragon kings were always anointed and crowned until, with the union of the Spanish kingdoms, the ceremony was replaced by a solemn entry into Madrid, Sweden and Norway The kings of Sweden used to be anointed and crowned originally at Uppsala, later by the archbishop of Uppsala in the Storkyrka in Stockholm, those of Norway at Trondheim by the bishop. Gustav 'V of Sweden, however, and Olaf VI of Norway, dispensed with these ceremonies. See Crown and Regalia. See also references under "Coronation" in the Index volume.

patriarchate.

—

—

—

BrpLiooRAPHY. F. Sandford, The History of the Coronation of // and Queen Mary (1687) N. Menin, The Form, Order and Ceremonies of Coronations, trans, from the French (1727); L. G. Wickham Lepg, Ens.lish Coronation Record'; fl?01): P. E. Schramm, A History of the English Coronation (1937) E. Eichmann, Die Kaiserkronnn^ im Ahendlande, 7 vol. (1942); L. E. Tanner. The History of the Coronation (1952); Lord Twining, A History of the Crown Jewell

James

;

;

Europe (1960).

of

CORONEA

(L. E. Ta.)

(Coroneia),

BATTLE OF

(394 b.c). In this battle of the Corinthian War (see Greece; History) the Sparta king Agesilaus II was checked by the combined forces of th Thebans, Athenians, Argives and Corinthians, although he wa

While the offensive by the coalition wa" stemmed at the battle of Nemea (q.v.). Agesilaus was on way back overland from Asia Minor to the defense of the

technically victorious.

being his

homeland, having broken off his campaign against the Persian power on the urgent summons of the ephors. After passing safely through Thessaly and gathering reinforcements, he was faced at the gap of Coronea in Boeotia by the main forces of the coalition. As before at Nemea each right wing overlapped and smashed the opposing left. Agesilaus. however, while the victorious Theban on to attack the Spartan camp, wheeled his victorious inward against the Theban centre. Nonetheless the Thebans succeeded in forming a new front to meet this menace and eventually forced their way through to join the rest of their army. See Xenophon, Hellenica, iv, 3, 16 et seq. CORONEL, Chilean coal mining and shipping centre on the Gulf of Arauco, and seat of Coronel department in Concepcion province. The city, pop. (1960) 60,234 (mun.), is located about 18 mi. S. of Concepcion, to which it is linked by rail and surfaced highway. The community was founded in 1851 and received city status in 1875. Its growth has reflected the development of coal mines in the vicinity, for Coronel functions as a shipping as well Local soft coal production represents as a commercial centre. about 30% of Chile's output and modern methods of mining and loading coal are employed. The operations extend under the floor Company-owned pine and eucalyptus plantations of the gulf. supply mine and construction timber and some lumber for commerce. There are foundries and shops and planned company housing areas. The city of Coronel has a congested and spontaneous right pressed

right

appearance.

(J.

CORONEL, BATTLE OF, of

World War

I,

a notable

was fought on Nov.

1,

German naval 1914.

T.)

victory

Evidence had

reached the British admiralty early in Oct. 1914 that the East .\siatic squadron of the German naw. under Vice-.\dm. Graf Maximilian von Spee. was moving toward the west coast of South America, where its presence would threaten vital supply-lines from Chile to Great Britain. Rear-Adm. Sir Christopher Cradock, with

'

CORONER— COROT assembled squadron consisting of the outdated cruisers "liocid Hope" and "Monmouth," the light cruiser "Glasgow" and the armed merchantman "Otranto," was instructed to "search and protect trade" along the Chilean coast. With the exception of "Glasgow," these ships were manned largely by old reservists and partly trained boys. At 4:25 p.m. on Nov. 1, the British met the German squadron, consisting of the first-class cruisers "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau." and the light cruisers "Leipzig," "Dresden" and "Niirnberg," all manned by long-service complements. Cradock signaled the attack two hours later, but his situation was already hopeless, for in addition to superior strength, range and speed, von Spec had secured the shoreward position, so that twilight cloaked the German ships while the British were silhouetted against the setting sun. Within an hour the flagship "Good Hope" blew up with the loss of her entire complement, "Monmouth" w'as burning fiercely, "Otranto" had withdrawn and only "Glasgow" could continue the battle. "Monmouth's" captain ordered "Glasn

,

I

!

;

I

I

to make her escape, and just before 9 p.m. "Monmouth," having refused to surrender, was sunk with all hands by "Niirn-

gow"

iberg."

revenged

fully

were the battle of the Falkland

his victory at negligible cost, but the British five

weeks

in

later,

—

Bibliography. Sir Julian Corbett, Naval Operations of the Great War, vol. i (1920); L. Hirst, Coronel and After (1934); E. Raeder, Off Krieg zur Zee, 2 vol. (1922-23); B. Pitt, Coronel and Falkland

.(I960).

(B.

CORONER,

a public official

W.

whose principal duty

in

E. P.)

modern

times is to inquire, with the help of a jury, into the cause of (death that appears to be due to unnatural causes. I

The

office

originated in England and was

custos placitorum ("keeper of pleas") in

first

any

referred to as

20 of the Articles of .Eyre (1194). It is believed by some, however, that the ofiice was .first mentioned in the Charts of Privilege, granted by King Aethel:Stan to St. John of Beverly in the year 925. The name was originally known as "crowner" or "coronator," derived from corona, meaning crown. The coroner's dignity and power were second only to the king. He was originally charged with the duty of safeguarding the king's property and served as a check on the sheriff lin the royal interest. Other powers already obsolescent were expressly taken away by s. 44 of the Coroner's act of 1887, which, linterestingly enough, re-enacted the provision of Magna Carta (1215) that prohibited both sheriff and coroner from holding pleas ;of the crown. The medieval coroner was no longer a militant s.

figure.

was always elective, the appointment being made by county assembled in the county court. The Statute of Westminster (1275) enacted that none but lawful

The

office

the freeholders of the first

of Middlesex.

by an

In Scotland, the duties of a coroner are performed procurator fiscal. In Canada, all coroners

officer called a

by order in council, signed by the lieutenant governor of the province. As a judge of a court of record, he is not liable to civil action for anything done by him in his judicial

are appointed

if he acts indiscretely or erroneously. States. In the United States the ofiice is usually elecbut in some states it may be appointive. In a few states the coroner's staff is composed of a number of employees representing varied scientific departments of medicine, such as pathology, toxicology and chemistry. In some jurisdictions, the coroner has police power equal to that of the sheriff in all cases where the latter is incapacitated or has a personal interest in the case before him. The coroner of a county may issue a warrant for the arrest of persons who have caused the death of another by criminal means, and

capacity

—

United

tive,

the warrant

may

be executed

and discrete knights should be chosen as coroners. Afterward, lands of the value of £20 (the qualification of knighthood) were :considered sufficient. act,

1926, requires that a coroner

be a barrister, solicitor or legally qualified medical practitioner of not less than five years standing in his profession, no property qualification being required. The practice of the London county council is to appoint persons possessing both legal and shall

imedical qualifications.

The judges tion in

layman may be authorized as coroner, with the power employ a physician to conduct the autopsy. The only person

in others, a to

of the high court of justice are ex officio sovereign

may

definitely give the cause of death is the coroner or one deputized to perform the duties of his office. Unless this is the case, it is usually impossible to establish the corpus dehcti, i.e., the basic facts necessary for the commission of the crime. The coroner's office is operated differently in many states.

About

(but, in fact, do not) exercise their jurisdicUnder the 1926 act, the duties of a

any part of the realm.

coroner are limited to an inquest into the cause of all deaths occurring within his district by violent or unnatural means or from •some unknown cause, or of the death of anyone who has died in iprison or under such circumstances as to require an inquest in

The coroner must view

the body, but the jury need not. If any person is found guilty of murder, manslaughter or infanticide, the coroner commits him to trial, ibut in practice he seldom has to do this, since s. 20(1) of the act provides that if the coroner is informed before the jury has given its verdict that some person has been charged with any of these crimes, he shall adjourn the inquest until after the conclusion of

accord with other legislation.

the criminal proceedings.

half of the states

have a coroner's system

;

in

some

of the

others the sheriff or the justice of the peace takes over, while in

others the coroner's office has been replaced by a medical examiner. There are also other arrangements, including a combination system with both a coroner and a justice of the peace having jurisdiction. In most states, the power to issue warrants is confined to homicide cases, but in such cases the coroner possesses all the powers of a magistrate to take testimony and issue warrants. (J. L. Do.)

COROT, JEAN BAPTISTE CAMILLE (1796-1875 ). one of the most notable French landscape painters of the igth century, was born in Paris on July 16, 1796. His father was a draper, his mother a very successful milliner of Swiss origin. Educated at the Lycee at Rouen, Corot dutifully followed his father's trade for some years, but in 1822 was allowed to leave commercial life and study painting. He rewarded the financial support that his parents gave him with complete dedication to his art. As a young man Corot sought to establish himself in the tradition of neo-classical landscape painting exemplified by P. H. de Valenciennes (1750-1819). He had met and had lessons from two of Valenciennes' disciples, A. E. Michallon (1796-1822) and J. V. Bertin (1775-1842), but it was the actual experience of going to Rome in the autumn of 1825 that was decisive in the formation of Corot's city

The Coroners Amendment

icoroners; they

any part of the state. In some and must be graduate physicians;

in

who can

Islands (q.v.).

I

the fire

523

London Fire Inquests act, 1888, the coroner for city of London holds inquests in cases of loss or injury by in the city of London and its liberties situated in the county the City of

states, pathologists are coroners

Von Spee won

•

By

lustily

style.

He

stayed until 1829, painting the

and the Campagna, and also making excursions

to

Naples

and Venice. Following the custom of his day, Corot spent these years making small oil sketches which he planned to use later in large landscapes painted in the studio according to classical rules of composition. He was building up a repertory of forms, and regarded these sketches as documents, not as finished works of art, never exhibiting them. They are among the first French paintings done entirely out-of-doors, and are the most personal (and now the most admired) part of Corot's work; they show an immediate response to nature, a readiness to experiment with the oil medium and a sensuality in the handling of paint that he was soon to lose entirely.

On

his

return to Paris in 1829 Corot set about painting in

earnest the large landscape compositions that he regularly showed Most of them included small figures, which someat the Salon.

—

"Hagar in the Desert" (Salon, times give a flavour of the Bible 1835), "Christ in the Garden of Olives" (Salon, 1849), "Saint Sebastian" (Salon, 1853); of literature "Homer and the Shepherds" (Salon, 184s), "Macbeth and the Witches" (Salon, 1859;

—

Wallace collection, London), "Dante and Virgil" (Salon, 1859; Boston, Mass.j "Diana Surprised by Actaeon" of antiquity

—

;

—

CORPORATE INCOME- CORPORATE STATE (1924); G. Bazin, Corot, with bibliography (1942), (A. Bs.) see Corporation Tax.

CORPORATE INCOME TAX: CORPORATE STATE. Corporativism

state

is

or the corporate view of society that sees the community as composed

a

of diverse economic or functional groups rather than of discrete

would make the basic governmental unit mil body rather than the individual. Members lers of the central governing body would represent specific function^ n^ groups (estates) rather than localities. In actual practice, how* 3W4 rver, as put into effect by various fascist regimes between Worl^ Wars I and II, the so-called corporate state usually reflected th individuals; in theory

it

the group or corporate

i

will of a dictator rather than the adjusted interests of groups, provided an ideological cloak for a policy of comprehensive control of all industry and labour by the government and ruling party,' Corporativism was an important feature of Italian Fascism (see. Fascism) and continued to play a role in the dictatorship of Sa-

In Germany's national socialism {q.v.) th^ corresponding pattern of bureaucratic centralism was embodied i% the German Labour Front, set up under the slogan of "coordinai tion' (Gleickschdtung). The idea also played a considerable rol^ in the Fascist ideology of .Austria and its Hcimwelir. Theory. Historically, the ideology of the corporate state harki back to ideas developed by Christian conservatives in reaction t« what they considered the e.xcessive individualism of the French revolutionary ideology. To the allegedly mechanistic notions the Industrial Revolution they would oppose the organic concept! of what they maintained was the corporate character of medievd society. These ideas found authoritative e.xpression in an encyclij

lazar in Portugal,

—

Leo XIII, Rerum Novarum (1891), and were reaffirmed Quadragesima A?ino (1931) by Pius XI. It deserves attention, however, that much of this thought was cal of

:

radically at variance with actual Fascist practice, because of the

bureaucratic centralism, for medieval corporativism was upon the autonomy of the constituent corporate bodies, K constructed a multicentred organic whole in terms of the self-

latter's

"CHARTRES CATHEDRAL" BY COROT,

1830.

IN

THE LOUVRE

(Salon, 1836), "Biblis"' (Salon, 1875); or of an ideal rustic life 'Souvenir de Mortefontaine'' (Salon, 1864; Louvre, Paris). Corot traveled widely in search of landscape material, returning to Italy in 1834 and in 1843, visiting Avignon and the south of France in 1S36, Switzerland in 1842, Holland in 1854 and London in 1862.

He made

regular

summer

tours, collecting material that

built

sufficiency

{Eigettstdndigkeit

the medieval town was seen

)

Thus

of the constituent groups.

by

its

latter-day admirers and theo

a co-operative union of guilds, whereas the Fascist corpcf autonomy by the radica extension of governmental control and direction to all spheres of

rists as

rate state entailed the total eclipse of such social life

and

activity,

— Behind

he worked up in his studio in Paris during the winter. Among his favourite regions were the forest of Fontainebleau, Brittany, the Normandy coast, the family property at Ville d'Avry near Paris, and, later in life. Arras and Douai in the north of France, Corot also painted straightforward, almost topographical landscapes, like the "Chartres Cathedral" (1830), the "Chateau de Rosny" (1840), or the "Belfry at Douai" (1871), all of which are in the Louvre. There is little development, but the particular quality of sweet romantic melancholy that he cultivated in the Salon pictures soon permeated his work. His self-consciously poetic and idyllic landscapes with their sensitive tonal effects and delicate range of silvery colours won Corot great popularity, but these pearly gray mist-enveloped twilight scenes now appear exceedingly artificial and formula-built by the side of Impressionist landscape painting. The portraits and figure pieces of the last 20 years of Corot's life, as "L'Atelier" (several versions, c. 1865) and "La Perle" (1868-70, Louvre), are much less artiticial, and

this murky facade of ideology, the Fascists an< National Socialists erected their ruthlessly totalitarian apparatui of economic controls. Indeed, the corporate organization evolva out of the peculiar Fascist unions, or syndicates, unions whic were actually developed in competition with the free sociali^ unions and gained ascendancy after the Fascists had seized powef* Their original socialist syndicalism (q.v.) was soon superseded. It was replaced by corporations which comprised both employers and employees who would, for the sake of "unity," operate under the direction and control of the state, i.e., the bureaucracy. The corporative system was initiated in Italy by the Charter of Labour, on April 21, 1927, adopted by the Grand Council of Fascism as a party measure. It was afterward transformed into a governmental system. Under it, workers lost all rights and privileges for which their unions had fought. The key passages of the charter asserted that "since the private organization of production is a function of national concern, the organizer of the enterprise is

witness to Corot's iimate classicism and his absolute mastery of tonal painting. Corot never lacked admirers and his work was well received in the salons. He was rewarded with medals, purchases by the state and by the emperor, and with membership in the Legion of Honour.

responsible to the state for the direction of production.

He was

friendly with the slightly younger painters of the Barbizon school, and his intiuence can be seen in the painting of A, Chintreuil, S, Lepine and Camille Pissarro, A dedicated man with

simple tastes, he never married; he had a reputation for saintliness and great charity when he died in Paris on Feb. 22, 1875. See also Painting: Baroque Through Impressionist Painting: France: 19th Century.

—A.

Bibliography. (iqos);

raisonne

E.

Robaut, L'Oeuvre de Corot, with catalogue Moreau-Nelaton, Corot raconte par lui-meme

Italy.

The employee is ... an active collaborator in the enterprise, the direction of which belongs to the employer who bears responsibility .

.

.

for it."

The charter contained some commendable

social welfare fe* and insurance against disability, illness and old age, as well as governmental control of minimum wages, holidays and vocational education. But these provisions ought not to deceive anyone about the basic totalitarian concept strikes, it was asserted, "are criminal offenses," and both labour and management were placed at the dictator's bidding. However, as a result of the partnership of tures, such as health protection, scholarships for the children

;

government and industry, organized through the Institution for Reconstruction, management was recompensed for its loss of effec-

™

ll

CORPORATION scheme which guaranteed profits and thus eliminated risk, whereas free labour was turned into industrial serfdom. Germany. The German copy of this scheme, adorned by some turgid metaphysics about the "community" of the factory, also was embodied in a Charter of Labour, Jan. 20, 1934. It went further than its Italian prototype in sanctioning compulsory work assignments, and outdid it by describing the control of leisure time tive control

by

8.

a

—

II.

Officers 4.

through joy"' rather than merely prosaic By applying the "leaderdopolavoro ("after work") activities. ship principle" throughout the organization, it revealed the true nature of the corporate state: the total bureaucratization of the entire economy under one-party government. See also National

5.

6. 7.

8.

9.

10.

— Gaetano

Salvemini, Under the Axe of Fascism Mussolini's Italy (193S) Franz Neumann, Behemoth (1942) Ralph H. Bowen, German Theories of the Corporative Slate (1947); Carl J. Friedrich and Zbigniew Brzczinski, Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (1956); Carl T. Schmidt, The G. Bottai, Vent' anni e tin giorno Corporate State in Action (1939) (C. J. Fh.) (1949). (1936)

Herman

;

9. Conglomerate Mergers 10. Pros and Cons of Antitrust Laws Corporation Law 1. Organization of Stock Corporations 2. Powers of the Corporation; Shareholders; Directors and

3.

activities as "strength

Socialism. Bibliography.

Finer,

525

Antitrust Enforcement

11. 12.

;

13.

;

14.

Voting Rights and Voting Control Fiduciary Obligations of Directors and Officers Legal Obligations of Promoters and Controlling Shareholders Shareholders' Suits Types of Corporate Securities New Issues of Shares Shareholders' Individual Liability

Dividends and Other Distributions Amendment of Corporate Charters

Merger and Consolidation Dissolution, Bankruptcy and Reorganization Other Types of Business and Private Corporations

L HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

;

CORPORATION, act as a unit.

It

may

group of persons authorized by law to be a public body, as is commonly the case a

Great Britain, or a business enterprise, as is usually the case It may also be an educational institution the United States. such as a college or university, a labour union or a charitable foundation. A public corporation is an agency of government established to carry on certain functions of a business nature, such as The present the Reconstruction Finance corporation in the U.S. article deals with the business corporation in the U.S., first discusshistory and then its legal aspects. For coverage ing its of related in in

British practice see

A

corporation

is

Company. and as such has a corword "Incorporated" or the abbre-

In this name the corporation may sue and be sued, hold and transfer property. In the eyes of the law,

viation "Inc."

and

may

therefore, the group has an existence independent of its individual

members.

may

long outlive any one of them.

This continuity corporate form of business enterprise a clear advantage over a partnership (q.v.), which comes to an end with the death of a partner. Business corporations divide their capital stock into shares. Shares are often purchased by a large number of investors, each It

of e.xistence gives the

subscribing a relatively small sum.

This divisibility of the cor-

poration's capital facilitates the accumulation of the large

required

by modern industry.

accumulation

is

Another factor

sums

facilitating capital

the limited liability of shareholders for the debts

In the event of bankruptcy they may lose their investments but all their other property is safe from attachment. Such advantages go far to explain the predominance of the corof the corporation.

iporate

form

modern American economic

in

Ufe, particularly in

manufacturing.

But they have little relevance to the period of its Europe or the United States. Indeed, to understand how the business corporation came to be used in the United States, and the purposes it served, requires some attention to its European background.

lOrigins in either

This article I.

Historical

is

divided into the following sections:

Development

A. Early History 1.

European Background

Colonial Period Early Years of Independence 4. Internal Improvements 5. Opposition to Privileged Corporations B. Emergence of the Business Corporation 2.

3.

2.

G'rowth of Urban Markets The Corporation and the 14th Amendment

3.

Advances

1.

4. 5.

in Technology Competitive Position

Business Combinations and .Antitrust Legislation

C. Trusts 1.

2.

3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

Early History

European Background.

—

Corporations e.xisted long before they were used for business purposes. Some scholars trace their origins to such groups as the family, clan or tribe, which are found in the most primitive societies. The more complex societies of the ancient world developed towns, guilds and colonies; churches and The notion that the universities appeared in medieval Europe. legal authority of the state is necessary for the formation of corporate bodies is also very old. For cases where the state did not create the corporate group, or no record of its origins could be found, there arose the theory that some associations might come by prescription derived from custom. Both Roman

into existence

a fictitious legal person

porate name, followed by the

A. 1.

Holding Company Form of Corporate Organization Sherman Antitrust Act Merger Movement Policies of Theodore Roosevelt FTC and Clayton Acts Mergers in the 1920s

and English law made use of

It is safe to say, howwere confined to forms of as-

this theory.

ever, that prescriptive corporations

sociation older than the business corporation. In England, the authority of the crown was essential

from the

formation of the business corporation. After the revolution of 1688 the authority of parliament was necessary in first

for the

any case involving a grant of monopoly or other special privilege. In the 16th and 17th centuries it was business corporations in the form of great trading companies that made possible the English voyages of discovery, commerce and colonization. These culminated in the early 17th century in the first permanent English settlements in Virginia and New England. To suggest that the Virginia company or Massachusetts Bay company was created primarily as a profit-making association would be highly misleading. It is true that the great trading and It is also true that they colonizing companies did seek profits. divided their capital into transferable shares to ease the problem of raising capital. But the achievement of neither of these objecThese ends might tives required that a corporation be formed. have been realized by utilizing the unincorporated joint stock company, a form of enterprise that was currently in use in some branches of English overseas trade. In the eyes of the law these unincorporated companies were large partnerships, but this fact did not prevent them from amassing and managing large capital sums. The basic reason the government granted charters of incorporation to some joint stock companies was to encourage private capital to promote ends that were regarded as public or semipublic in nature.

The public policies of many European governments between the 16th and later ISth centuries were often those of mercantilistic writers, advisers and officials who sought by means of vigorous governmental action to promote the internal unity, power and selfCharters of sufficiency of the state (see Mercantile System). incorporation that bestowed exclusive privileges upon a group of joint-stock investors were looked upon as means to these ends. Within spheres of operation defined by their charters the great trading corporations of the 16th and 17th centuries were usually

granted a commercial monopoly and the power to enforce it by means of regulations bearing the force of law. These businesscorporations of the early modern period were far more than mere The charters they received instrumentalities of private profit. bestowed upon them a semi-public status.

CORPORATION

526

—

2. Colonial Period. These conclusions, as we shall see, are fundamental to an understanding of the nature of most of the corporations created during the long colonial period of American history (1607-1783) and for nearly SO years thereafter. As the colonies increased in population corporations sprang up in the form of towns, boroughs and cities. Before the end of the colonial period a large number of corporations had also been created for ecclesiastical, educational and charitable purposes. But business

corporations were few in number and relatively unimportant. In the 1 7th century these included the water company of Boston and William Penn's Free Society of Traders in Pennsylvania. During the 18th century there appeared the New London trading society,

two groups of wharf proprietors (in New Haven and Boston), three small water companies in Rhode Island, and a mutual fire insurance society in Philadelphia. The local and public service character of these corporations

is

self-evident.

One main reason colonial

America

so few business corporations developed in was that the spheres of activity in which they

were required were subject to the disposition of crown and parliament rather than of local colonial governments. Under the unwritten British constitution, the terms of which were to be vigorously debated during the years of crisis between 1764 and 1776, internal matters alone were subject to the control of colonial governments; imperial concerns belonged to the jurisdiction of London. Colonists had therefore nothing to do with those larger interests of empire which required for their development both large sums of capital and a delegation of governmental powers. England looked to the East India company and other chartered joint-stock companies for the development of imperial commercial interests. Prevailing mercantilist doctrines did not favour encouraging colonists to be self-sufficient. Colonies were looked upon as sources of supply for raw materials to be manufactured in the mother country and as markets for manufactured goods. The objects of concern on the part of the colonial governments were therefore small and local in nature, seldom requiring serv-

beyond the tax-yielding capacities of local comWhile the size of both foreign and domestic markets

ices or facilities

munities.

expanded during the 18th century the capital required for their supply was easily amassed by individual proprietors or partnerships. Unincorporated joint-stock companies raised by transferable shares the capital required for mining, manufacturing and land speculation. Commercial banks did not exist in the colonies, although merchants performed some banking functions. Marine insurance was almost always obtained from English underwriters. Travel and shipping by sea reduced the need for north-south roads, while the existence of east-west rivers that were navigable to the fall line, together with British discouragement of settlement west of the Appalachians, narrowed the need for improved east-west routes of travel. 3.

Early Years of Independence.

—Many

elements of this

pendence. Between 1776 and 1800 about 250,000 migrants settled west of the mountains, or in the mountain valleys, thus increasing sharply the need for improved routes. State governments created more than 300 business corporations between the end of the American Revolution and 1801, and the provision of inland navigation, turnpikes and toll bridges was the purpose of two-thirds of them. No longer debarred from trade with the far east, American merchants expanded both the geographic area and volume of their foreign commerce, particularly after the outbreak of European war in 1793 opened up the commercial world to their neutral vessels. Risks of loss increased correspondingly and Eng-

underwriters were usually not disposed to be generous with the claims of American neutrals. To meet this problem the states chartered a number of American insurance companies between 1786 and 1800. lish

The expanded volume

of trade created at the same time a need commercial banks, with the no fewer than 34 were incorporated between 1781 and 1801 (27 of them between 1790 and 1801). Commercial expansion increased the size of cities and increased their needs for public services. Thirty-two corporations for the supply of water for the short-term credit facilities of

for the erection of docks

The need

were created between 1795

of cities for protection against fire losses was

reflected in the organization of nearly a

dozen mutual fire insurance companies between 1786 and 1800. The large majority of the 32 insurance companies chartered during this same period, moreover, were privileged to write either fire or marine insurance.

The predominance of highway and other public-service associations among the joint-stock companies chartered in the early national period points clearly to the expanded sphere of responsibility on the part of American political communities following the Revolution.

These business corporations were no more

ex-

clusively profit-seeking associations than were the chartered joint-

stock companies with which the English had pioneered in the settlement of America. They were, in fact, quasi-public agencies of the state. "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in General Court assembled," reads a Massachusetts statute of 1818, that the following named individuals "hereby are constituted a corporation and body politic" for the purpose of erecting a flour mill. As "bodies politic" these corporations, like

were accorded certain exclusive privileges in order to encourage the devotion of scarce private capital to public ends. Among these privileges were monopoly rights of way, tax exemption, the right of eminent domain and the right, granted their predecessors,

to many nonbanking corporations, to facilitate the raising of needed capital by engaging in banking operations and holding lotteries.

At the same time banks and insurance companies were incorporated to meet the needs created by the growth of American business enterprise. Except for fire insurance, these institutions served the business component of the community chiefly, although by no means exclusively. One bank, it should be noted, received its charter from the national government rather than from the states. The Bank of the United States, chartered by congress in 1791 for a period of 20 years, was a notable public-service institution. While four-fifths of its capital stock of $10,000,000 was subscribed by private sources, and only one-fifth by the federal government, the institution served important public purposes by acting as a depository for federal funds, making short-term loans to the federal government, transferring federal funds from one part of the country to another and helping maintain a sound and uniform banknote currency. The bank owed much to Alexander Hamilton's view that public fiscal ends could best be

On

promoted by

enlisting private

capital in their support.

the whole, however, the character of

most early American

corporations reflected the very old view that charters should be issued only to those associations formed to serve the public interest.

During approximately the

first

third of the 19th century public

service continued to dominate the purposes for which business

situation began to change soon after the achievement of inde-

result that

and four and 1801.

corporations were chartered. This is evident both from the economic and other circumstances of the time and from the kinds of corporations that received charters. Capital was scarce in relation to the needs of a population that was growing rapidly, settling increasingly in cities and moving westward. The American people had numbered only about 4,000,000 when the first census was taken in 1790; by 1830 the total was nearly 13,000,000. Urban centres had totaled 24 to 1790; by 1830 their number was 90.

Corporations to supply water,

construct

bridges,

operate

and steamboats and provide insurance and banking facilireceived charters in increasing numbers from state govern-

ferries ties

ments.

It is difficult, moreover, to exclude from the category of public service the manufacturing corporations chartered in the early years of the century. During the troubled years preceding

and during the War of 1812 the stream of imports of manufactured goods decHned to a trickle. In this situation some state governments appear to have adopted the view that the chartering of domestic manufacturing associations was a matter of patriotism. Between 1808 and 181S New York issued more charters (16S) to joint-stock companies engaged in manufacturing than to all public utilities combined (164). This phenomenon appears not to have reoccurred in any other period before the American Civil War. 4. Internal improvements. The most enduring and costly

—

CORPORATION requirement

in

the

first

half of the 19th century lay in the field

[known to contemporaries as that of "internal improvements." These were turnpikes, canals, railroads and other transportation 'facilities, required in both the settled areas of the east and in the Lured by cheap land and constantly expanding growing west. 'urban markets for agricultural produce, settlers poured westward The resulting need to |in a torrent following the War of 1812. |bind the newly settled areas of the west to the economy of the 'seaboard states became the nation's primary economic problem. Two main obstacles impeded the development of transportation Despite the fact that foreign trade had made possible routes. important accumulations of commercial capital, serving for example as the chief means of producing about a half-dozen millionaires by 1>15. over-all supplies of capital were scarce. Perhaps equally important was the fact that local supplies of capital were meagre along the lines where turnpikes, canals and railroads were projected The second main impediment lay in the developmental to run. Few could promise nature of internal-improvements projects. quick returns on investment capital. Indeed, almost all projects looked for most of their returns to the settlement and economic activity that their own construction was designed to promote. Profits would necessarily be deferred and widely diffused. The chartering of public-service corporations was one answer ;o these obstacles and to an extraordinarily keen public interest ;n internal improvements. State governments granted tax exemp.ions and other privileges to corporations engaged in improving j

I

'

-.ransportation facilities.

They

also floated

bond

issues to raise

funds to subscribe to the stocks of the enterprises and in

many

with local governments in granting outright gifts of iioney. Not private capital alone but public as well federal, state and local joined hands in a characteristically mixed enter;ases joined

—

—

overhead capital" that was so essential development of the nation's resources, 5. Opposition to Privileged Corporations. These halcyon days were not destined to endure. As capital accumulated, the ine between public interest and private advantage became more .harply visible to critics of the privileges enjoyed by corporations. was certainly true that abuse crept easily into the prevailing :t y^tem of obtaining charters. With a few exceptions, such as New lurk and Connecticut, which in 1811 and 1817 respectively passed prise to create the "social

the

—

tP.Lral laws permitting qualified incorporators of certain kinds of nanufacturing concerns to apply to the secretary of state for a

barter, incorporation

by

special act of the state legislature

was

\erywhere the rule before the late 1830s, Lobbying expenses, lelay and bribery often attended appeals to state legislatures for ct; of incorporation. It was to the advantages which incorporaors under this system were often able to wring from lawmakers hat .\ndrew Jackson referred when he complained in a presidential ne-sage of the multitudes of corporations with exclusive privileges .hich businessmen had succeeded in obtaining in the different tates. Jackson, like Jefferson before him, was a man of fundalentally agrarian temperament who deplored the rapid economic nd social changes which were subordinating older and simpler lodes of life to urban business values. .Agrarian critics were not alone among the opponents of speially privileged corporations, particularly banking corporations, he supporters of President Jackson included businessmen as well s farmers. These business critics of existing modes of procuring barters wished to put an end to special privilege; they wanted he profit-making opportunities presented by the burgeoning conomy opened on equal terms to all, Jackson's secretary of he treasury, Roger B, Taney, well typifies this attitude in his lemark: "There is perhaps no business which yields a profit so ertain and liberal as the business of banking and exchange; and is proper that it should be open, as far as practicable, to the lost free competition and its advantages shared by all classes of 3ciety," Under President Jackson's leadership in the early 1830s len of agrarian and entrepreneurial persuasion joined in a sucisssful assault on the second Bank of the United States, Suc;ssor to the first bank, which had passed out of existence in ?11. the second bank ("1816-1836) had affronted both rural phiisophies and the urban economic interests of state banks in its

527

management under Nicholas Biddle of the nation's currency and credit. By curtailing loan expansion on the part of successful

state-chartered

institutions

Biddle had restricted their profits. after 1834 (when the

With the central regulatory agency gone federal government ceased making deposits

in the bank 1, the number of state-chartered banks rose from 506 in 1834 to 901 in 1840.

At the outbreak of the Civil War they numbered 1,601. It was Taney who. as treasury secretary, had presided over the beginning of the bank's end by removing federal deposits

Four years later, as chief justice of the U,S, supreme an even more telling blow in favour of free, comIn the Charles River Bridge case (1837) Taney severely modified an earlier ruling by chief Justice John from

it.

court, he struck

petitive enterprise.

Marshall concerning the sanctity of contracts. The issue involved was the claim by a Massachusetts bridge company that its corporate charter gave it exclusive, monopolistic business rights by implication, Taney rejected the contention, holding that no corporate charter could confer implied powers beyond the specific terms of the grant. His decision thus freed new businesses from the fear of claims of monopoly on the part of older corporations with ambiguously phrased charters. These attacks upon enterprise restrictions had two important consequences. First was Michigan's passage of a free banking act in 1837 that served as an important precedent for similar laws in other states. More than a half-dozen states, moreover, passed But while an general incorporation laws before the Civil War, increasing number of charters were taken out under general laws the lure of special advantages from special acts led most incorpo-

method until about 1875, The second important consequence was a tendency to seek charters of inParalleling this corporation in expanding fields of enterprise. development was a shift of emphasis in the business corporation rators to prefer the older

from public service to private profit. The attacks upon enterprise restrictions coincided with the gathering strength of forces pushing the nation's economy to new At the centre of these forces were conlevels of achievement. tinued population growth together with increases in national income which more than kept pace with the expanding population. In consequence, an American nation whose numbers rose from 17,000,000 in 1840 to 23,000,000 in 1850 and to 31,500,000 in 1860 constituted an effective domestic market for both agricul-

New miles of railroad track knit totural and industrial goods. gether the producing and consuming centres of expanding rerising demand required a gradual the markets. To meet gional abandonment of older methods of production. Farmers first worked longer hours, then added to their output by using such mechanical aids as threshers, mowers and reapers. Industrial output was increasingly expanded by means of the factory system of production. Appearing first in cotton textiles, then spreading to carpet manufacture and to the making of arms, clocks, watches and sewing machines, factory methods developed rapidly after 1840, The clearest indication of the rise of factories is the great increase in the rate of urban growth in the two decades before the Civil War, The number of cities rose from 131 in 1840 to 236 in 1850 and to 392 in 1860. By 1860 the factory system was

rapidly

becoming important everywhere

in industry.

Emergence of the Business Corporation

B.

A

rapid increase in charters granted in the 1850s heralded the Yet it was only of the age of the business corporation. Inciustrial techniques that required large capital inthe dawn, vestment were of recent origin in important fields and made their way but slowly among constituent firms. Not until after 1835

dawn

did e.xpensive metallic textile

Not

until

1839 were the

first

machinery come into general

use.

successful coke-smelting furnaces

United States, As late as 1869 nearly half the mechanical power used in manufacturing came from water wheels and But it is not so much turbines rather than from steam engines. the first appearance of new techniques as their spread that matImitation is more important than inters in economic growth. Among the important explanations of imitative lag novation. must be set not only the inertia of traditional and less-costly built in the

CORPORATION

528 methods. technical

Ignorance also counted for much, as did the scarcity of journals,

trained engineers

and cost-accounting tech-

The gradual overcoming

niques.

in the post-Civil

War

of these obstacles contributed years to a wider dissemination of mechanized

But on the eve of that conflict individual production methods. proprietorships and partnerships rather than corporations were able to amass the capital required for the control of most of the resources devoted to manufacturing.

The second cipal

half of the 19th century

developments

there was a

is

marked by

three prin-

the business corporation.

in the life of

phenomenal expansion

First,

most states of the union. Since the new system opened incorporation on equal terms to all, it was considered more democratic than the old. Incorporation was no longer looked upon as a privilege but as a right. Symptomatic of the change in the climate of values, and itself a great spur to incorporation, was the U.S. supreme court's decision in the case of Santa Clara County V. Southern Pacific Railroad (1886) stating for the first time that the word "person" in the 14th amendment included enterprise in

corporations

in

some

instances.

Since the 14th

no "person" might be deprived of

fied that

amendment

life,

speci-

liberty or prop-

the use of the corporate

erty without "due process of law" this and subsequent decisions

form, especially in such fields as iron and steel, nonferrous metals, chemicals and liquor. Indeed, manufacturing corporations constituted a large percentage of all charters granted each year after 1875. Second, there was a notable growth in size of

protected corporations from discriminatory taxation by the states. Not surprisingly, the corporation developed a personality. Ac-

in

textiles,

Finally, during the 18SOs there

the individual unit of enterprise.

began such remarkable changes

administrative organization as

in

to justify the conclusion of a leading student of these develop-

ments, Alfred D. Chandler, of the

Jr.,

that the decade

saw the emergence

modern corporation.

In the forefront of industrial e.xpanslon stood such (iron and steel), Gustavus Swift (meat packing), John D. Rockefeller (oil), James J. Hill (railroads) and J. P. Morgan (investment banking), men whose business organizations during at least the first flush of their rapid growth often took the form of partnerships. Called variously "roljber barons" these years. as

Andrew Carnegie

and "giants in the earth" their exploits make up the last great saga of economic individualism in the U.S. In the main their later careers and those of their successors were engulfed by the collectivism of the corporate age. 1.

Growth

of

Urban Markets.

the expanded use of the corporate

—

What mainly accounted for form was the rise of a national

urban market. Railroads forged the transcontinental links of this market. In 1869 the first transcontinental line was completed, and from 1870 to 1914 railroad builders laid an astounding total of 200,000 mi. of track, nearly half of it west of the Mississippi river.

The spreading

railroad net

made

possible the settlement of

During the half-century following the Civil War farmers occupied more land than in all the previous years of American history. The agricultural output of new and fertile lands, increased by wider use of machinery and scientific techniques, quickened the growth of such older cities as New York, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, Cleveland and St. Louis and helped create such new ones as Chicago, Indianapolis, Atlanta, Kansas City, Dallas, Minneapolis and St. Paul. Between 1840 and 1880 the urban proportion of the total population rose from 11% to 28%; between 1880 and 1900, from 28% to 40%. This rapid urban growth intensified the demand for the products of industries manufacturing consumer goods. Between 1880 and 1907 incorporation for the manufacture of food and kindred products, textile mill products and other consumer goods bulked large among total incorporations. Indeed, it was the consumer-goods industries, the researches of Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., show, that were the first to become dominated by great business enterprises. the farmer's last frontier.

By

the beginning of the 20th century, however, a swelling

number

of companies were engaged in the manufacture of machinery for the use of producers rather than of goods for consumers or farmers. 2.

The Corporation and the 14th Amendment

Parallel-

market were noneconomic forces which both paved the way for corporate expansion and augmented its scale. Following the Jacksonian attack on privileged corporations several states, as noted above, had in the lS40s adopted constitutional provisions requiring incorporation under general laws. By 1875 these provisions had become so common that special charters were virtually a thing of the past for most fields of ing the rise of a national urban

Thomas

C. Cochran the great

company came

to be

corporation executive a symbol of American achievement. Incorporation came to be used in large numbers of cases

which

would be

it

capital needs.

difficult to justify resort to

Indeed, since about 1875

it

it

in

in

terms of large

has generally been

true that small incorporations (less than $100,000) have consti-

While these three major developments point to marked growth in the economic role of the corporation it should be made plain that partnerships and sole proprietorships continued to play important roles in economic life. Paralleling the growth of corporations were the towering figures of individual businessmen, and it is they, rather than the corporation, who left their stamp upon

men

cording to

personified as a kind of frontier folk hero, with the successful

tuted a large percentage of total charters granted, medium-sized incorporations (less than $1,000,000) a much smaller percentage, and large incorporations the smallest of all. A major exception to this generalization is supplied by periods of intense incorporating activity, such, for example, as Colorado experienced during a mining boom in 1895-96. The predominance of incorporation among firms of relatively small authorized capital stock can often be explained on the ground that many small companies have grown big without abandoning their original charters. panies, that

is

to say,

were

first

Many

large com-

incorporated as small ones.

But

whether or not originally incorporated as a large firm, the great modern corporation dominates the field of American industry, and justifies emphasis upon the reasons for its rise. 3. Advances in Technology. The spread of a changing technology is one of the chief factors in the rise of big business. The use of heavy machinery and larger plants required firms of Despite the fact that the number of manufacturing larger size. establishments remained virtually unchanged during the 1870s the amount of capital invested in them rose by two-thirds and the value of industrial output by more than half. And since these increased capital costs could most conveniently be raised by divid-

—

ing the total

sums

into small shares

technological

vestors,

change

also

for sale to

abetted

the

numerous rise

of

in-

the

corporation.

Technological change, however,

is

not self-generating.

Given

a

society possessing the necessary knowledge and skills, and with no legal or entrepreneurial obstacles to innovation, technological

advance depends primarily upon two conditions. The first of these, scarcity of labour, has been a perennial, if sometimes overstated, factor in American economic growth. The second is an increased

demand

for goods.

Substantial gains in the real earnings of

la-

incomes per person indicate that both factors were operative during the second half of the 19th century. Increased mechanization and an enlarged scale of production were in the nature of responses to them. What happened was that the mass demand of a national urban market called forth mass production, together with the technological and other means necessary to its

bour and

in

achievement.

—

4. Competitive Position. Turning out large quantities of standardized goods, the large firm achieved efficiencies that lowered In competition with small firms, the It could hire a more large corporation had many advantages.

the unit cost of production.

its goods more effectively and could finance itself more cheaply by using profits retained in the business. At the same time, the large firm also had to bear high overhead costs on its fixed capital investment in plant and

highly skilled management, could market

This erosion of capital by depreciation, interest machinery. and obsolescence charges helped create a portentous situation, for In times of fallrailroads as well as large-scale manufacturers. ing prices business managers tended to maintain production and to allowpreference any price in vigorously for sales at compete Sales at low ing their heavily burdened plants to remain idle.

CORPORATION prices provided some income, which was better than none at all. Given a long period of falling prices, this was a situation in which not only smaller firms but also larger ones of lesser efficiency could have little hope for survival. The years from 1873 to 1896 constitute precisely such a period of long-term falling prices. In this setting the American business arena became a jungle in which many failed to survive the bitterly competitive price wars and ruthlessly sharp business pracWith prices (and railroad rates) being forced down close tices. to cost, it became evident that two paths to survival might be Ways would have to be found to (1) keep prices up open. and (2) keep costs down. Both involved some form of combinaTo keep prices up businessmen entered into "horizontal" tion. combinations of varying kinds with their competitors in the same "Combinations, syndicates, stage of production or distribution. ," Andrew Carnegie frankly admitted, "They are willing trusts to try anything." Vertical combination (integration), on the other hand, did not Indeed, the firm involve direct restrictions upon competition. that practised vertical combination, by bringing under its control production successive stages of from raw materials to end the product, was enabled to compete more vigorously, because the practice lowered marketing and other costs and assured supplies of raw materials. 5. Business Combinations. The first attempt at combination among competitors usually took the form of a "gentlemen's agreement." In the main, this was a verbal agreement to set and maintain prices, although it sometimes also included common policies regarding cash discounts and other trade practices. When the object of combination could not readily be agreed upon in an informal manner business managers favoured a written contractual agreement known as the "pool." Pools were formed for various purposes. Sometimes, as in a patent pool, the use of a new device or process was thereby confined to a restricted group. Sometimes, .as in a profits pool, profits were paid into a central fund and then divided up on the basis of the percentage of total sales in a given Probably the main use of the pool was as a device to reperiod. .strict output. This was effected by dividing the total market and lassigning each producer a portion of it. Sometimes division was made on the basis of output, with each producer being assigned the sale of a given number of units; sometimes a territorial divi,sion was made, in which case each was assigned a designated sales .area. While pools had not been unknown even before the Civil War, they were comparatively httle used until after 1875. In the ISSOs and 1890s they were to be found in such important indus-

—

—

,

I

idea

was the

529

The device of trusteeship Standard Oil company put it to

trust..

Rockefeller's

is

a very old one, but

a

new

use.

Employ-

ing ruthlessly competitive business practices, Rockefeller and his associates

had succeeded during the 1870s

more than 90%

in

gaining control of

of the oil-refining capacity of the country.

In

1882, three years after they had formed the Standard Oil trust

under the laws of Ohio, they induced the stockholders of 40 oil companies to turn their shares over to nine trustees. The trustees thus acquired voting control of the 40 companies. In place of the stock, its former owners received "trust certificates" entitling them to dividends. So profitable did this device prove, and so successful as a that

it

formed ton

oil,

The

means

of centralizing control of an entire industry,

was soon widely imitated. production

to control

During the 1880s

in the

trusts

were

tobacco, sugar, whiskey, cot-

linseed oil and lead industries. fatal

defect of the trust form of combination was that

the agreements were a matter of public record.

Since, in the eyes of common law, conspiracies in restraint of trade or attempts to gain a monopoly were illegal, the prospects of longevity for trusts would not be good once suits were brought against them in

A number of suits were begun in the 1880s, and in consequence of one of them the supreme court of Ohio ordered the Standard Oil company to withdraw from the trust on the ground that it was attempting to create a monopoly. It was clear that some other form of combination would have to be used in place of the trust. The solution to this problem was a form of business organization which some states had previously created by special act. 1. Holding Company. In 1888-89 the state of New Jersey state courts.

—

general incorporation laws to allow corporations to purchase and hold the securities of one or more subsidiary corporations. It proved relatively easy for the resulting "holding comrevised

pany"

its

number

to bring a

of previously independent firms under

was not necessary even to consult the nonvoting preferred stockholders and bondholders. Indeed, voting common stock often was so widely distributed that it was possible to exercise eft'ective control by purchasing less than 50% of it. New Jersey's Holding Company act proved so successful in bolstering that state's finances with revenues from incorporation fees that unified control.

It

.tries

other states soon "liberalized" their corporation laws in an effort Few state laws to induce businesses to seek charters from them. at that time required corporations to divulge significant information to the investing public, and it was only after much mulcting of unprotected investors, stock watering and other abuses by large corporations that the states, at about the turn of the century, abandoned their liberal attitudes and began requiring increased

.steel

publicity.

as those making whiskey, salt, meat products, explosives, rails, structural steel, cast-iron pipe and tobacco products. Comparable to the European cartel (g.v.), the pool differed ^rom its counterpart in this key respect: under the English ;;ommon law, recognized in every U.S. state except Louisiana, 't was regarded as an illegal, and hence unenforceable, re,itraint

of trade.

may be said to have only temporarily. Indeed, there can be no doubt ,.hat both forms of combination continue in use in the United ?tates. But these relatively loose forms of collusion had serious lisadvantages. For one thing, to the degree that they were successful in raising prices and achieving a "monopoly" profit, they Furthermore, one of ,:ncouraged new firms to enter the field. ,he main aims of collusion was the maintenance of prices during periods of deflation. But it was precisely at such times that the

,

Both gentlemen's agreements and pools

('worked,"

if

A firm might .emptation to violate agreements was strongest. aceed its assigned output or sell in forbidden territory, in w-hich ;ase other pool members had no legal way of compelling it to .dhere to its |iusiness

C.

Some

agreement.

managers found

it

better system

was required, and

in various closer-knit

arrangements.

Trusts and Antitrust Legislation

and most famous of these was worked out in the by C. T. Dodd, a business associate of a iian who was perhaps the shrewdest business manager in a genera'on of shrewd men. The man was John D. Rockefeller and the

The

first

epression-ridden 1870s

The widespread

legalization of the holding

company

did

more

than provide a device enabling competitors to form horizontal combinations (at least until the U.S. supreme court's decision in the Northern Securities Company case in 1904); it also gave firms a means of integrating vertically. The nature of the need for some such legal device can more clearly be seen by considering

consumer goods industries. Prior to the market the individual firm in these industries generally relied upon commission agents for the procurement of its materials, as well as for the sale of finished products whenever markets were located more than a few miles from the factory. Their first reaction to the emergence of a national market was to enter into agreements with firms performing one specific funcAs in the case of early tion, such as marketing or distribution. forms of horizontal combination (gentlemen's agreements and pools) these agreements proved hard to enforce, and resources were not effectively utilized. What was needed was a tighter control of the stream of resources than could be provided by a mere federation of firms, as well as a legal form of business organization that would permit operations on a national scale. Men like Gustavus Swift in meat packing, and others with relatively new products, moved toward vertical integration by creating nationwide sales and distributing systems, enlarging their processing facilities, and then building their own purchasing organizations. The holding company provided the necessary legal form, and in the specific case of the rise of a national

CORPORATION

530

other enterprises this kind of vertical integration followed its adoption. No matter what the sequence, however, the arrangement of all operations under the control of a single, centralized management

problem of how to make that control as efThis was a problem in business administraficient as possible. tion, and the successful solution of it produced the modem corporation. The problem had two parts: first, the need for methods to manage operations that were geographically dispersed; second, the need for co-ordination of all operations to the optimum advantage of the firm as a whole. The fulfilling of these needs required not only a clear distinction between functions of the field and headquarters oflSces but also a careful allocation of responsiraised, in turn, the

bilities at 2.

both levels. of Corporate Organization.

Form

—The headquarters of

business enterprises had been slow in developing.

In the early 19th century the typical business figure had been the merchant in foreign trade. His headquarters was his countinghouse, and there he supervised the routine tasks of a bookkeeper and a clerk or two. besides giving thought to investment opportunities by his house might prosper. Needing no large force of perma-

which

nent employees, he relied mainly on the services of commission agents. Early 19th-century industrial enterprises similarly pur-

chased their raw materials and sold their finished goods through commission agents, although sometimes they utilized the selling ser\'ices of wholesalers. Their headquarters, too, were small. Many large textile mills employing hundreds of workers were run with practically no ofiice force at all. As markets expanded from local to regional dimensions, however, some pre-Civil War firms, particularly in the railroad industry, began to departmentalize their headquarters. The vertical integration movement, which was so accentuated by competition in postwar national markets, not only accelerated this process of departmentalization but also obliged businessmen to work out problems of co-ordination between headquarters and field. This the modem corporation proceeded to do by providing a separate administrative department for each major activity: production or purchasing of raw materials, manufacturing, marketing and finance. At the head of each department was placed a specialist in the activity for which that department was given responsibility. Normally a vice-president, and supreme in his own sphere, he was given a managing director to handle departmental routine. Each vice-president fulfilled two main duties: he had the responsibility for the broader development of his department and he had to co-operate as a member of an executive committee composed of all department heads, together with the president and the chairman of the board of directors. The executive committee, in turn, had three functions. enterprise, both

and

It co-ordinated the various activities of the interdepartmentally and between headquarters

field offices, for the purpose of assuring a steady flow of product from raw materials to ultimate consumer. It made plans for the maintenance and expansion of the enterprise as a whole. And it appraised the performance of the entire organization. In doing these things, the executive committee came more and more to rely on accounting and statistical information in regard to costs, output, purchases and sales. The extensive operations of the modern corporation thus permitted specialization in the performance of various managerial functions, and specialization usually meant greater proficiency in each of them. Only from such specialization could there have emerged expert accounting techniques that permitted the substitution of scientific procedures for rule-of-thumb methods of operation. The work of Frederick W. Taylor in scientific management, which a number of modem corporations were soon to make use of in their continued drive for cost-reducing efficiencies, was a natural by-product of the trend toward specialization and cost accounting. The modern corporation, appearing first in the railroad industry in the 1850s and in the consumer goods industries in the 18SOs, transformed the leading firms in those industries by the early years of the 20th century. Its first major appearance in industries making goods for producers dates from the 1890s. Combining functional specialization with administrative centralization, it gave

to firms adopting its procedures such competitive advantages as to compel their adoption by other leading firms in the same in-

dustry. Smaller companies, unable to compete except in small and specialized markets, tended to be absorbed or forced into bankruptcy. Competitive pressures in national markets thus served as an important factor in company growth, sometimes in conjunction with technological compulsions making for the same end, sometimes independently of them. The upshot was an even greater tendency for national markets to be dominated by a less-

ening number of large firms. 3.

Sherman Antitrust Act.—These

developments by no

means escaped

the notice of the general public. Indeed, court actions against trusts, together with newspaper attacks upon them, whipped public opinion to a high pitch of resentment. The very

word trust became a synonym for monopoly, and by the mid- 1890s about 17 states had passed antitrust laws. Antitrust sentiment was probably strongest in the middle west, with its hard core of embittered farmers, but it was found throughout the country, especially among small businessmen who had been bankrupted by the harsh methods of the trust-builders. Huge increases in agricultural production, without accompanying increases in foreign and domestic demand, had brought low prices to farmers ever since 1869. The prices that farmers had to pay for goods and services, however, did not undergo a comparable decline. In this bleak age for agriculture (it lasted till 1896) high interest charges, high freight and grain storage rates, and high prices for industrial goods induced farmers and their editorial and political spokesmen to lash out against railroads, banks and other middlemen, and against industry generally. Evidence of collusion in the form of trust agreements only increased their buming anger. In this situation, a congress alert

to the political strength of agri-

culture passed, with almost no debate and even less opposition, a law destined to become one of the most controversial in U.S. history, the

Sherman Antitrust act of in the Sherman

The key sentence

"Every contract, combination

in

1890. act

was the declaration

that,

the form of trust or otherwise,

or conspiracy in restraint of trade among the several states, or with foreign nations" was illegal. The act went on to say that, "Every person who shall monopolize, or attempt to monopolize, or combine or conspire with any other person or persons to

monopolize any part of the trade or commerce among the several states, or with foreign nations, shall be deemed guilty of a mis." demeanor What the sweeping and undefined terms of the act would mean would depend upon their application to specific cases by the federal courts. The act had elevated to statutory form ancient rules of common law against acts in restraint of trade and attempts to monopolize. For example, common law had prohibited forestalling (buying goods outside of town in order to resell them at a higher price) and engrossing (buying large quantities of goods in an effort to establish monopoly control of the market). During the colonial period courts had declared unlawful agreements between associations of employers and employees to restrict output or raise prices. It was dear enough, then, that certain kinds of restraints of trade were harmful to the public interest and hence unlawful. One major common law Untradition held that only the injurious kind were unlawful. fortunately, from the point of view of clarity, a second major tradition maintained that restraints were unlawful whether inSenator Sherman himself referred to this dual jurious or not. tradition and also to an expectation shared by some of the lead.

.

ing sponsors of the Sherman act, when he said that the courts must distinguish between "lawful combinations in aid of produc-| tion and unlawful combinations to prevent competition and in. restraint of trade ...

the rules of

by

this bill."

It is the

unlawful combinations, tested by experience, that is aimed at to have been more than

common law and human

Most congressmen appear

willing to leave the imprecision of the act to the courts.

wanted

They had

law so sweeping in its provisions as to render it unenforceable, and hence harmless. What really concerned them w-as not antitrust legislation at all but a protective tariff, whicl: the farmers opposed. They regarded the Sherman act as a minoi to enact a

measure of appeasement

to the

farm group.

CORPORATION Despite the hue and cry against the trusts congress probably

predominant mood of laissez-faire. Until 1903 it was neither willing nor compelled by public opinion to vote the extra funds that would have eased the tasks of antitrust enforcement. National administrations read the times in the same way, for the government brought only 23 cases under the act beOne attorney general, Richard Olney (1893-95), fore 1903. frankly said he had taken the responsibility of not prosecuting because he believed the Sherman act "no good." The U.S. sureflected the nation's

preme court all but made Knight case (1895) that

it it

by ruling in the E. C. was inapplicable to manufacturing

a dead letter

because that process was antecedent to commerce and only inciIn the Addyston Pipe and Steel Comdentally involved in it. pany case of 1899, however, it unanimously ruled that it was the sale and delivery of a product rather than its manufacture that was the material portion of a commercial contract, and that a sale

beyond the state made the transaction a part of intercommerce. 4. Merger Movement. The Addyston decision was also important for other reasons. The case involved price and marketing agreements between the members of a pool of cast-iron pipe manuWhen the court declared such agreements void, busifacturers. ness managers correctly took this to mean that pools and other forms of loose-knit combinations would be held illegal under the Sherman act. They then proceeded incorrectly to assume the obverse, namely that close-knit combinations would be considered legal. Acting on this assumption they turned with enhanced enthusiasm to a merger movement that was already under way. Probably the Addyston decision, therefore, elevated the peak of a giant wave of mergers which came at the turn of the century. When that wave receded it left in its wake the United States Steel company, American Tobacco company. International Harvester company, Du Pont company and other giants of the 20th century. Its effects on the U.S. economy were therefore widespread and for delivery

state

—

enduring.

A merger is a combination into a single firm of two or more previously independent enterprises. There are two ways in which mergers may occur: via consolidation and via acquisition. In the wave

the consoHdation process brought into existence new firms, but the acquisition process did so only Consolidation was resorted to when large capital sums ap'rarely. great tum-of-the-century

peared to be required, as for example, in the case of U.S. Steel, capitalized at $1,400,000,000, the first billion-dollar corporation Acquisition sufficed when the sum needed in American history. 'was not beyond the capital sources of an already extant firm. Most of the mergers in the great wave of 1898-1902 were accomplished by consolidation, and the effect of the Addyston de'cision (1899) may be seen in the number occurring in different

According to Ralph L. Nelson, in 1895 and 1896, five were consummated each year; the numbers rose to 10 and 26 in 1897 and 1898. Then in 1899 the greatest number in any single year in years.

— —

106 took place. In that year 1,028 previously history independent firms disappeared into mergers. The New York Stock exchange played an important part in The new firms brought into being for facilitating these mergers.

'U.S.

purpose of effecting the mergers had been incorporated as Often the technique for gaining control of pre\'iously independent firms was to exchange holding company stock for a controlling number of shares in operating companies. Promoters were most likely to initiate consolidations when stock market values were rising, for the prospects of profitable stock sales served as an important inducement to the stockholders in

the

holding companies.

firms to

3f

The state of the stock market was the technique of control involved the purchase new capital issues were often required to

be merged.

important

when

also

firms for cash, for

raise

the cash.

The need to raise gigantic sums brought to the foreground of American business men who specialized in the marketing of securities. Unlike the first two post-Civil War decades of manufacturng growth, in which the financing of firm expansion had largely )een carried out by industrialists themselves, investment bankers ike J. P. Morgan had the leading parts in the merger movement

531 Investment bankers had gained valuable experi-

of the 1890s.

ence in huge reorganizations of railroad corporations in the 1880s and early 1890s reorganizations of capital structures which sought the easing of burdens of fixed charges by such devices as increasing the proportion of stocks, which required no interest payments, to bonds, which regularly required them. Indeed, the marketing of railroad stocks in connection with these reorganizations had developed the New York capital market to a point where it could play an important role in the financing of industrial mergers in the late 1890s. The prominence of the New York Stock exchange, of invest-

—

of promoters in the great merger movement lent strong support to the hypothesis that the desire for profits from sales of stocks on a rising market had much to do with producing that movement. The desire for scale economies apparently had little to do with it: except in the primary metals industries the overwhelming number of mergers was horizontal in nature rather than vertical. Some of these mergers, however, were followed by the achievement of scale economies from administrative reorgani-

ment bankers and

zation.

Profits

from

motives and enhance market

sales of stocks did not exhaust the

of participants, however. profits from sales of goods

The desire by achieving

to protect

a higher degree of

by weakening competition was also important. One ways to eliminate competition is to buy out comCertainly a substantial number of mergers enabled sur-

control and

of the easiest petitors.

viving corporations to enjoy a leading and often dominant position The degree in which control was in their respective markets. concentrated rose markedly. In 1905 the census reported a total of about 216.000 industrial establishments in the United States. About 24,000 of these, or approximately 11%, controlled 81% of the capital, employed 72% of the for 79% of the value" of the product.

output

wage earners, and accounted Between 1870 and 1905 the

of the steel industry increased tenfold in

volume, but the

of establishments declined from 1,808 to 606. The average capital investment in an iron and steel plant amounted to only $150,000 during the 1870s. Thirty years later the average

number

was $1,500,000. Investment bankers as well as industrialists wished to protect Excessive competition profit margins by narrowing competition. among the railroads had led to their financial intervention in that field.

When

they turned in the 1890s to industrial firms they

saw the same threat of small returns and of bankruptcy from Unless purchasers of industrial securicut-throat competition. ties were protected from this threat their own profits from securities sales would be placed in jeopardy. As in the case of railroads, therefore, an investment banking house insisted that one of its representatives have a seat on the board of direcand that the house act as fiscal agent for the corporations whose securities it handled. In a position to veto costly and un-

or

more

tors,

wise plans, these representatives gave to investment bankers a potentially high degree of control over the operations of indusUsually the only positive aspect of that control, trial firms. however, was a frequent selection of the firm's chief executive

and perhaps other leading officers. What investment bankers wished to be sure of was that the "right" men were in, men who were willing and able to run the business in line with an understood over-all policy and with profit. Investment banking control was nevertheless of high significance and during this brief era of "finance capitahsm" it ramified to By acting as fiscal the outer edges of the American economy. agents for industrial firms investment bankers became their desums deposited to invest in their securities business generally. To serve the capital needs of the largest corporations they acquired control of insurance companies and other positaries, using the

main customers for securities, as well as sources of credit. By purchasing controlling shares of stock or forming interlocking directorates with insurance companies and commercial banks with funds to invest, investment bankers became the pivot wheel for

Morgan was said to have exa large area of economic activity. erted a powerful influence upon banks and trust companies whose

The colourful but exagresources amounted to $723,000,000. gerated report in 1912 of the Pujo committee of the house of

CORPORATION

532 representatives, which followed

its

investigation of the

"money

disclosed that IS financial institutions had interlocking directorates with banks, railroads, industrial corporations and trust."

They

utilities.

controlled 746 directorships in

KM

corporations

This approximately $25,000,000,000. revelation of concentrated financial control not only led to the enactment of the Federal Reserve act in 1913 but also to the prohibition of interlocking directorates by the Clayton Antitrust with

total

resources

of

act of the next year.

—

The great merger wave 5. Policies of Theodore Roosevelt. ebbed during 1903 and 1904. In the latter year the U.S. supreme court handed down another major antitrust decision in the Northern Securities Company case. The Northern Securities company had been incorporated as a holding company for the purpose of To uniting the Northern Pacific and Great Northern railroads. the great surprise of the business community, which had believed close-knit combinations "safe" under the Sherman act, the court ruled that the acquisition by a holding company of stock control of competing carriers constituted an illegal monopoly. The case had been dramatically pushed forward by Pres. Theodore Roosevelt,

whose best-known sobriquet, perhaps, was "trust-buster,"

if it were achieved by fair means, by it could hardly be This was a viewpoint which logic required on the part of anyone who believed in competitive free enterprise. But logic was not enough. For President Wilson, as well as for increasing numbers of other Americans, it was difficult to believe as a matter of conviction that the path to bigness was typically marked by the pursuance of competitively fair business practices. During the opening decade of the 20th century the "muckrakers" had filled the pages of popular magazines with

itself

restrained trade, but

the practice of superior competitive efficiency,

condemned

as illegal.

exposures of the malefactions of big business. Then the findings of the court in the Standard Oil and American Tobacco company cases had been made public. The truth seemed to be that compe* tition was threatened by unfair business practices, and that it was these that led to monopoly, or near monopoly. The way to preserve competition, therefore, was to nip monopoly in the bud by outlawing unfair practices. A deep sense of public misgiving

made

major issue in the presidential campaign Under the leadership of the victorious President Wil-

antitrust policy a

of 1912.

son, congress in

passing two

1914 responded to this view of the matter by in an attempt to strengthen and clarity the

new laws

though his ambivalent role in antitrust matters hardly qualifies

Sherman

him

6. FTC and Clayton Acts. Declaring that "unfair methods of competition in commerce" were illegal, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) act set up a five-man commission to maintain a vigilant watch over the American economy (sec Federal Trade Commission). The act vested power in the commission to investigate the organization, business conduct and management of

for the title.

Roosevelt did not believe uncontrolled competition either posModern technology had created big business, sible or desirable.

and any

effort

to

restore

competitive conditions as they had

existed in the early 19th century

was "just

as foolish as

if

we

should go back to the flintlocks of Washington's Continentals as Distinguishing a substitute for modern weapons of precision." between "good" and "bad" trusts, Roosevelt favoured setting up a (1903') which would investigate and give committed by bad ones. Yet he appears to have had little intention of permitting anyone in government other than himself to designate the "bad" trusts, and he seems chiefly to have been motivated by a desire, as he expressed it, "to

Bureau of Corporations publicity to the abuses

teach the masters of the biggest corporations in the land that they were not, and would not be permitted to regard themselves as,

above the law."

Those masters who,

like

Morgan and George

Perkins, agreed with his regulatory approach, he refused to allow the government to molest. Thus the International Harvester

W.

company,

in

which Morgan interests were prominent, was not

prosecuted, while Standard Oil, which "antagonized me before my election," became the subject of one of the most notable of In its 1911 decision in this case (and in antitrust prosecutions. that of the American Tobacco company the same year), the su-

famous "rule of reason." Converting the Rooseveltian distinction between "good" and "bad" trusts into a distinction between behaviour that was "reasonable" and "unreasonable," the court inquired into the business behaviour of both firms and ordered them dissolved. That the court had made use of governmental power under antitrust legislaIn tion to dissolve two industrial giants was significant enough. 1906 the Bureau of Corporations had reported that about 91% of the refining industry of the country was directly or indirectly unBy 1900 American Tobacco produced der Standard's control. from 50% to 90% of every type of tobacco product except cigars. Even more significant was the fact that the court had not based its dissolution order upon the size of the firms in relation to their respective markets. What concerned the court was not the fact of near monopoly control but the question of whether monopoly had been the intent of the companies. Evidence as to intent it had found in such Standard business practices as the compelling of railway rate discrimination, local price-cutting, and territorial These, the court allocation of markets to member companies. said, were unreasonable practices; they constituted undue restraints of trade, and the purpose of the Sherman act was to protect the public from their consequences.

preme court adopted

Support for

its

it will be recalled, lay in that tralaw which distinguished between harmful and reasonable restraints of trade. Senator Sherman and others of his colleagues had had this distinction in mind in 1S90; it was one which Theodore Roosevelt approved. To be sure, bigness

dition of

this viewpoint,

common

H

act.

—

any corporation engaged in interstate or foreign commerce, except banks and common carriers. In addition, its other duties included The that of assisting in the enforcement of the Clayton act. Clayton act outlawed specific business practices when their "ef-

may

be to substantially lessen competition or tend to In an effort to prohibit large firms from by selling below cost the act declared price discrimination illegal. It prohibited the use of tying contracts by which firms required their customers to purchase certain commodities as a prerequisite to being supplied the goods they desired. It forbade interlocking directorates among competing firms. Finally, it forbade firms to buy stock in other corporations where fect

.

.

.

create a monopoly."

bankrupting small ones

the effect might be a lessening of competition. For all its specificity, the Clayton act added

little to

the gov-

ernment's power to enforce competition. In part, this was due to the fact that all laws must be applied to specific cases by the courts.

Once the existence

of listed illegal practices had been

determined, the courts still had to decide whether their effect was to lessen competition. The definition of competition and of the relevant market in which to measure it is difficult, and congress provided no guidance in the matter. Perhaps the most notable development in recent years has been the increasing reliance of the courts upon the concepts and measurements provided by economists. In part, also, the language of the act was insufficiently Firms forbidden to buy stock in competing corporations precise.

soon discovered they could accomplish the same purpose of reCourt striding competition by purchasing their assets instead. interpretations of the act legalized this practice and it was not until 1950 that the Celler amendment plugged up the loophole. The Clayton act, therefore, did not provide an effective means

,

',

It was a giant of stopping monopolization at an incipient stage. who was hauled before the courts, when any hauling was done,

and until 1945 the courts took no notice of his size. In 1920 the supreme court resoundingly affirmed the rule of reason in the U.S. Steel case: "The law does not make mere size an offense," In short, the or the "existence of unexerted power an offense." position of the court by 1920 was that such loose-knit combinations as price agreements we're illegal per se, but that a merger, regardless of its size in relation to the market, was permissible so long as its actions were reasonable. Encouraged by judicial doctrine 7. Mergers in the 1920s. and by lax enforcement of the antitrust laws during the prosperous 1920s a second merger wave swept over the U.S. economy between the end of Worid War I and 1929. In the latter year,

—

CORPORATION consummated. Unlike the first great merger wave, in which combinations had attained very high seldom less than percentages of the output of their industries merged firms during the 1920s generally secured much SQ^c alone approximately 1.200 were

—

—

The

smaller percentages.

explanation

is

that mergers generally

took place among firms which were smaller than the dominant one in the industry. The effect was a gradual lessening of the Steel, pedominant firm's share of an industry's production. troleum, agricultural implements and automobiles were among industries in which the structure of the market changed from near-

monopoly

to oligopoly

(few

sellers).

Some

industries which

had

enjoyed a notable degree of competition, such as dairy products and packaged foods, also emerged with oligopolistic markets. By 1932 the 200 largest nonfinancial corporations controlled nearly 50% of total corporate wealth, and received nearly 50% Since corporations produced in 1929 of total corporate income. more than 90% of all manufactured goods, the leading 200 dominated U.S. industry. Mining and transportation also made wide use of the corporate form, but it was rare in agriculture, service,

and

'finance

22%

trade.

Consequently, the 200 largest received only

of the total national income, a substantial proportion never-

theless.

—

Antitrust Enforcement. After a period of virtual susSherman act under the National Industrial Recovery ;act (1933-35), a vigorous program of antitrust enforcement was ibegun in 1937 by Thurman W. Arnold, head of the antitrust diviMore prosecutions were besion of the department of justice. gun between 1937 and 1948 than in the entire history of the Sherman act before 1937. Actions were brought mainly against lestablished oligopolies, but although the government won most ,of the major cases, the courts as a rule imposed only mild penalties. The issuance of drastic dissolution orders would have made for firms of uneconomic size, and the courts were reluctant to The aftermath of a circuit court ruling in the take this step. Alcoa case of 1945 illustrates the modern problem of antitrust: ensure the largest number of sellers in industrial markets how to In this case consistent with the economies of mass production. fudge Learned Hand rejected both the rule of reason and the It distinction between loose-knit and close-knit combinations. 8.

pension of the

not matter that the recent history of Alcoa disclosed no eviEvidence of intent to dence of predatory business practices. nonopolize was to be sought not in predatory practices but in lormal business activity which culminated in monopoly power. lid

But although Alcoa made over 90% of the virgin aluminum manufactured in the United States the court refused to order either iissolution or divestiture of assets. 9.

,

Conglomerate Mergers.

—After

II

a

third

wave occurred. In the 1951-55 period the total number mergers was substantially higher than for any other five-year Many of these mergers ijeriod in the preceding quarter century. rvere of a type known as "conglomerate," the acquisition by one nterprise of another engaged in a noncompetitive field, as a nerger

i)f

ineans of diversifying its interests.

The

diversification

movement

probably been the outstanding corporate development of the Beginning about 1904, it gathered momentum following World War I and became widespread after World War II. This development, together with the very important administraive changes to which it has given rise, is of such significance that :t seems hardly too much to say that they are the main characteristics by which the contemporary corporation may be distinguished iias

'0th century.

from

its

"modern" predecessor.

many

products instead of only one, the to work out a more complex Idministrative structure to replace the simple one used by its ecent predecessors. As Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.. has shown, the :lder functional departments proved unable to handle problems

Because

it

turns out

ypical large corporation has

rising

had

from the engineering, production and marketing of entirely

ifferent goods.

In consequence, as the corporation

moved

into

lew lines of products, a multifunctional unit called a division was Each j5t up for each major product line or large geographic area. livision 'lents,

has a central office that administers a

responsible for the administration of a

number

of depart-

major function, such

sales,

finance or research and

Field units are at the lowest administrative level of the corporation, each of them running a plant or works, a district sales ofiice, a purchasing ofiice, an accounting oflace or some other field units.

similar unit.

Over

all

of these administrative levels, at the top of the cor-

porate pyramid,

the general

is

office,

where executives and and policies, and

specialists co-ordinate, appraise, plan goals

cate resources divisions.

(funds, equipment or personnel)

Each

division

fairly self-contained.

tends

to

Because of

staff

allo-

to the various

quasi-autonomous and and because it is the products the corporation

be

this fact,

that handle the various turns out, the contemporary corporation is decentralized in its Nevertheless, the power of final deadministrative structure. divisions

cision-making rests with the executives in the general office. Their fact that it is they who define the strategic, long-term goals of the enterprise and decide the purposes for which As Fritz Redlich and Alfred D. its resources are to be used.

power derives from the

Chandler, Jr., have pointed out, these executives are the key men, the entrepreneurs of the enterprise. Those whose decisions must be made within the confines of the executives' over-all policies and allocations of resources are managers.

The men at the top who determine the goals of corporate enare professional entrepreneurs, who have only a very small ownership interest in their enterprises. Ownership of voting stock is so widely scattered among tens of thousands of shareterprise

that it is extremely difficult for a dissident minority to dislodge a management in power. The effort is not often made, partly for this reason and partly because the great majority of stockholders are indifferent to management decisions so long as dividends on their stock are paid regularly and without diminution. Forming a cohesive group, these top executives seek

holders, however,

themselves indefinitely by moving into new and Ohgopolistic market power provides product lines.

to perpetuate

profitable

substantial insurance against loss from declining prices or uncontrolled production, and management's control of dividend policy

provides ample funds for expansion into new areas, into which the corporation may move either via internal research and development or via the acquisition of other firms. While the latter process seems to have won favour in recent years it is improbable that the degree of concentration in industry has thereby increased. The number of mergers has increased but so too has the number

economy. Pros and Cons of Antitrust

of enterprises in a growing

—

Laws This fact helps observers do not regard the large size of They do the contemporary corporation as a major problem. not consider the antitrust laws to be of great importance, especially because congress from time to time has specifically exempted from their operation agricultural co-operatives, export 10.

World War

533

development. Each of the departments, in turn, has a departmental headquarters that co-ordinates, appraises and makes plans for a number of as manufacturing,

explain

why some

trade associations, labour unions and other groups. The Robinson-Patman act (1936) put a greater emphasis upon preserving small-business competitors than upon preserving competition.

Some point to the new products and fosters

consumer

tion failed to do.

existence of a processes, interests in

"new competition"

in service, in

and in advertising, and urge that it ways which the old price competi-

Some argue

that the old competition

among

on the same side of the market has given way to a "countervailing power" from the other side of the market, with mass buyers and large trade-unions arising to share the gains of Others point to the existence of interinoligopolistic sellers. dustry competition, arguing, for example, that competition from television, sporting events and other forms of entertainment sellers

would make it impossible for a monopoly in the motion-picture industry to exploit the public. Still others, finally, pwint to the emergence of a sense of social responsibility on the part of corporate managers, and depict their contemporary role in terms of efforts to effect a just balance between the claims on corporate earnings of workers, investors, consumers, suppliers, the local community and the nation. On the other side of the question are those who value the an-

CORPORATION

534 titrust laws.

Many

view them as a "big stick," the occasional

Few

exercise of which will deter excessive concentration.

are

sure where to draw the line between bip and bicKcr. but most believe that one must be drawn somewhere, and that the govern-

ment must draw it. For one thing, they fear the great economic power of the giant corporation. Excessive concentration inhibits efficient allocation of resources and impedes economic growth. The separation of ownership from control they acknowledge to be as old as the use of the corporate form in business, but such is the contemporary prestige of large size that they fear pro-

partnership name, to make agreements for the disposal of partnership interests on the death of any partner so as to preserve the continuity of the business in the survivors, and even to elect under certain circumstances to be taxed as a corporation for

of bureaucratic processes.

federal income-tax purposes. These statutes have tended to reduce most differences, except the difference of limited liability of shareholders and unlimited liability of partners, between the two forms of association and to make such differences depend more upon the particular provisions of the articles or bylaws of the corporation or the partnership agreement of the partnership. 1. Organization of Stock Corporations. Most business corporations in the United States are organized under a general corporation act of some state which provides that the interests of the members shall be represented by transferable shares of stock. Such statutes usually authorize a group of three or more persons to form such a corporation by signing and filing in one or more public offices a document, officially called by some such

sions also have social

name

fessional entrepreneurs to

keep earnings

in the

may

use their control of dividend policy

business for the purpose of financing un-

Decisions to move a huge plant wise expansion. for the sake of tax or other cost advantages

area in

They

the deterioration of older communities.

to

another

may

result

fear, too. that

the edge of entrepreneurship will be dulled in the soft routine

Obviously, some of these apprehenand political overtones. Some men are concerned over the power of great corporations to mold the Perhaps their most tastes and shape the values of Americans. fundamental concern is the extent to which American democracy, which evolved in a society made up of comparatively small and competing enterprises, is threatened by bigness and by agreement. In some, no doubt, there is nostalgia for an older and simpler age, a nostalgia which is reminiscent of the Jacksonian mood when Many now as industries and cities first began to grow rapidly. many then find themselves pulled in two directions. On the one hand they applaud the high standards of living which big business has done much to bring about. On the other, they feel some or all of the anxieties mentioned. The ambivalence of the American people themselves in regard to antitrust legislation goes far to explain the ambivalence of their government.

H.

(S.

By.)

CORPORATION LAW

The major innovations

in corporation statutes since the start

of the 20th century have been:

(1) the authorization of shares without par value; (2) the adoption of more detailed and specific provisions with regard to the funds legally available for distributions to shareholders either by way of dividends or of purchase by a corporation of its own shares; {i) the broadening of directors' powers, particularly in connection with the issue of shares; (4) the imposition of restrictions on shareholders' suits in a number of important jurisdictions; (5) the inclusion in the statutes of broader provisions for the amendment of certificates of incorporation by majority vote of the shareholders; (6) some further catering to the desires of promoters of combinations of corporations by permitting corporations to merge even if they have widely different powers or are organized under the laws of different states; and (7), largely since 1950, the validating of provisions inserted in articles of incorporation and bylaws for

restricting share transfers

and requiring unanimous, or more than

the normal statutory percentage of, shareholder or director votes

quorum or for action at meetings of close corporations or "incorporated partnerships." More important in their aggregate effect than these changes in for a

the statutes under which corporations are organized was the invasion of the field of corporation law by other statutes, both state

and

federal,

which regulate

a variety of

matters including

public offerings of corporate securities, solicitation of proxies in

and conand public utilities, and which establish a national statutory system for the reorganization of insolvent corporations. There were also important developments in that part of business-corporation law which is not of legislative origin but has been evolved by the courts. Such judge-made businesscorporation law, which was in a rather embryonic state in 1S50, had attained a considerable degree of maturity by 1900, but it was modified and amplified in many important respects during the suc-

large corporations, accounting methods, security issues

solidations of railroads

ceeding 60 years,

A

further legislative development of indirect bearing on the law

of corporations has been the enactment of statutes permitting

partners to sue and be sued and to hold

title to

property in the

—

as "certificate of incorporation" or "articles of incorpora-

commonly referred to The Delaware act. typical of many tion," but

as the corporation's charter."

of these statutes, specifies that

the certificate of incorporation state the corporate name, the place in the state of

Delaware

at

which the corporation

is

to

have an

agent on whom legal process may be served, the nature of business to be carried on, the number of shares which are authorized, the amount of capital ("not less than $1,000) with which the corporation will begin business, the names and residences of the incorporators, and the limit, if any, on the duration of the corporation (which is now almost invariably organized for a "perpetual" The liability, if any, of shareholders for corporate duration"). debts may be set forth, but it is rarely, if ever, provided for. If there are to be several classes of shares, with different dividend or other rights, these rights must be stated in the certificate of incorporation unless that document authorizes the directors to determine them from time to time as the shares are issued, A large measure of freedom of contract is provided by authorizing the insertion of additional provisions relating to such matters as

the powers of the directors and shareholders and the extent which shareholders shall have pre-emptive rights to subscribe

new exist

to

to

In some states, such pre-emptive rights law unless expressly limited or denied in the

issues of shares. at

common

certificate.

not infrequently happens that, through carelessness or otheris transacted in a corporate name without complete compliance with the statutory conditions precedent to incorporaAlthough the statutes of several states contain some protion. It

wise, business

visions

relating

to

this

situation,

such statutes rarely indicate

whether the shareholders of such "corporations" incur full individual liability for the debts of the enterprise. Generally speaking, the courts have relieved them from such liability where the failure to comply with the statute has been unintentional and not of a flagrant character. It is implicit in

the statutes that no one can effectively act But these it has been legally organized.

for a corporation before

it possible for any person who can pay a small organization tax to form a corporation by getting two other perIt often sons besides himself to sign the incorporation papers. happens that such a person, knowing that he can at any time cre-

same

statutes

make

and provide it with a board of directors who do as he wishes, makes promises about what the corporation will do when it has been formed or obtains from other persons what purport to be subscriptions for the proposed corporation's Confronted with situations of this sort, the courts have shares. evolved a theory by which, if the corporation accepts the benefits of the promoter's agreement with knowledge of its terms, it will be held to have "adopted" that agreement as a corporate contract. Conflicting answers have been given in different states to the question whether a preincorporation subscription can be effectively revoked by the subscriber before the corporation has been formed and is in a position to accept it. 2. Powers of the Corporation; Shareholders; Directors and Officers.' -The legal powers of a corporation are those given it, expressly or by implication, either by the corporation law or by. ate a corporation

will

—

CORPORATION its

charter, which, in order to

be

valid,

must be drafted

in con-

formity with the corporation law. In exercising these powers the business corporation functions, to use political terminology, like a representative government rather than a pure democracy. The shareholders elect a board of directors, on which the statutes of virtually all states confer the power to "manage" the business. Under the Delaware statute, typical of many, the only powers expressly given to the shareholders are powers to elect directors, to enact bylaws (although the certificate of incorporation may

535

either inconsistent with

some provision

the certificate of incorporation or is not reasonably related to the purpose of the corporation as stated therein. Even in this area, the doctrine is

in

confer that power on the directors) and to approve or disapprove directors' resolutions proposing charter amendments, re-

most of the older cases that an ultra vires contract cannot under any circumstances be treated as a corporate act has been rejected by the courts of many states, which will not allow a corporation to repudiate such a contract if the corporation has received substantial benefits as a result of its performance by the other contracting party or if there has been part performance of the contract by either party. This modification of the more rigorous doctrine fails to prevent a corporation from engaging

duction of capital, merger, consolidation, sale or lease of

in a business not authorized

Additional powers

corporate property, or dissolution.

all

may

the

be

conferred on the shareholders by the certificate of incorporation, and the shareholders have implied power to ratify certain

of

making contracts

by

its

certificate of incorporation,

for future delivery or purchase of goods in con-

to appoint

nection with that business and then repudiating those contracts if the price level changes, leaving the other contracting party, who was probably justifiably ignorant of the provisions of the certificate, entirely without remedy. Consequently, the statutes of

if,

many

They

voidable acts of the board.

usually also have implied power

an auditor and power to remove a director if, but only he has been guilty of misconduct. In corporations whose boards of directors are composed of a large number of persons it is usual to delegate broad powers to executive or other committees, and many statutes expressly authorize such delegation. On the other hand, although it is impractical to carry on business effectively without delegating broad powers to individual officers, the statutes are usually silent as to

.the extent to

may

Most statutes merely prohave at least three officers, a presiand secretary, without stating the functions of

which

this

be done.

ivide that corporations shall

dent, treasurer

such officers except so far as these

may

be implied by the

titles

of their offices.

Unfortunately, the word president is ambiguous. When it is used to describe an officer of a business corporation, the word might mean a mere presiding officer or might mean the chief it does in the case of the president of the United Although some courts do not agree, there has been a tendency in the 20th century to hold that a person who deals

executive, as States.

;With the president

of a business corporation

is

entitled,

in

the

absence of contrary information, to assume that the president is the chief executive and has rather broad power to bind the corporation by contracts and other business transactions entered

on its behalf. Furthermore, there is no doubt that broad powers may in all states be conferred on the president or any other into

officer,

either

by

expressly,

by bylaw or

directors'

resolution,

or

acquiescence by the board in the officer's exercise of such powers. That authority may thus be created by acquiescence is well settled, although it seems somewhat difficult to reconcile that result with another well-established principle, |ihat directors cannot usually act except by formal resolution at a 'board meeting. Even with regard to directors' acts, however, there has been a ;;ecent trend in the decisions to validate informal action not '.aken at formally convoked meetings, especially where all directors oiow of the action, the shareholders have acquiesced in such informality by directors, and no minority interests are adversely iffected. This trend is an indication of the gradual cleavage be|:ween two branches of the law which were at one time substan,.ially identical the law of public corporations, such as cities, and he law of incorporated business enterprises. Generally speaking, •he acts of a city official are not binding on the city unless his luthority has been conferred upon him with proper formality and ,inless, in exercising that authority, he observes all the formalities Movided for by law. In the 18th and early 19th centuries most :ourts were no less insistent on the necessity of strict observance )f the rules if acts done in the name of a business corporation were be treated as legally binding. But U.S. businessmen are nooriously impatient of formalities, which they tend to regard as mnecessary "red tape," and the courts have become increasingly eluctant to permit business corporations to repudiate obligations ncurred in their name because of informalities in the authoriation or execution of the instrument in which the obligation is imbodied. Judicial tolerance for irregularities does not extend, to the ame extent, to action which is tiltra vires in the sense that it implied,

tacit

'

—

1

have now been changed to abolish the defense of between the corporation and out-

states

ultra vires altogether in actions siders. 3.

Voting Rights and Voting Control.

holders have

little

agement

the

authority.

of

business,

Most

—Although

the share-

or nothing to do with the day-to-day

they

are

the

ultimate

man-

source

of

statutes require an annual meeting of share-

holders to be held, at a time usually provided for by the bylaws, and special meetings may be held on such call and notice as the bylaws prescribe. The shareholders, or those of them who have

voting shares, elect the directors, and the consent of the holders of at least a majority of shares is necessary in order to liquidate a solvent corporation, merge it with another enterprise or amend certificate of incorporation. Although the statutes make it impossible to divest the entire body of shareholders of voting

its

power with respect

to these matters, most state statutes do permit the creation of classes of shares which can be largely in

some in

states entirely

— stripped of

—

all

voting rights by the insertion

the certificate of incorporation of provisions to that effect.

In this area, however, the freedom of contract permitted by state corporation laws is greatly curtailed for some important types of corporations by a series of federal statutes. Some of these statutes forbid investment corporations and corporations which are being reorganized pursuant to the federal Bankruptcy act to issue any nonvoting shares. Others give supervision over the issue of shares by certain types of corporations to federal commissions, which are unlikely to approve the issue of nonvoting shares.

In corporations which have only one class of shares, voting is ordinarily proportional to share ownership, each shareholder being entitled to cast one vote for each share held, but statutes or corporate charters frequently provide methods by which minority groups may obtain some representation on the

power

The most usual method is that of cumulative there are five directors to be elected, a holder of a voting share may, if he chooses, cumulate his votes by casting five votes for one director instead of one vote each for five. Directors cannot vote unless they attend meetings in person, board of directors. voting,

by which,

if

but shareholders can vote either in person or by proxy. Most proxies are in fact given to persons connected with the management, but the shareholder may give his proxy to any one he chooses, subject to the practical limitation that the proxy will be proxy holder attends the meeting. In the first IS-year period after World War II, a number of highly pubineffective unless the

proxy contests were waged between management and insurgent groups of large, publicly held corporations, and in some contests, notably the contest for control of the New York Central Railroad company, the slate of management directors was defeated and the insurgent group took control of the company.

licized

It

has been a not

uncommon

practice for the

management

to

from shareholders without giving the latter adequate information about facts which they may need to know in order to determine whether the resolutions for which it is prosolicit proxies

posed to vote the proxies are compatible with the shareholders' Here again federal law has intervened, in this case by interests. providing that anyone who sohcits proxies relating to the shares

CORPORATION

536

of any corporation whose shares are listed on a stock exchange, of any electric or pas utility holding company or its subsidiary, or of any investment company must conform to regulations made by the Securities and Exchange commission regulations which provide for a full measure of disclosure. Since the directors of most corporations are elected for a term of one year and shares of voting stock are ordinarily transferable to new owners without restriction, there is sometimes serious risk that the membership of the board of directors may be changed

—

In so frequently as to make continuity of policy impossible. order to secure greater continuity of management, or for the less defensible purpose of enabling jiersons with little or no financial stake in the enterprise to obtain long-term control over it, all or a majority of the voting shares of a corporation are sometimes

turned over to voting trustees, who issue voting trust The effect of a voting trust is in exchange for them. voting trustees the sole power to vote the shares of become the legal but not the beneficial owners, while

certilicates

to give the

w-hich they

the holders

be entitled to any dividends declared on the shares of which they remain the equiStatutes frequently restrict the maximum length table owners. of such trusts, usually to a period of ten years. A possible alternative to the voting trust is a voting contract, by which the original owners retain their shares but agree to vote them in a particular way. Such contracts are regarded as of

the voting trust certificates continue

to

by most courts if they amount merely to agreements to combine rather than to agreements to sell one's vote for cash or some similar consideration and if they are limited to voting at valid

shareholders' meetings rather than at directors' meetings.

There are means other than the voting contract or the voting trust whereby the holders of less than 51% of the voting shares may secure control of, or what is called a controlling interest in, a corporation. (1) A considerable minority of the voting stockholders, such as the insider management group, may be closely organized and in agreement to vote together on certain questions,

or at an election. The remainder may be unorganized and their votes divided in several ways, some of them even voting inadvertently with the organized minority. (2) A minority of all the

may constitute a majority of the stock actually voting, as is very unusual to have more than 75% of the stock represented at a meeting. 3 A minority group may be regularly successful in securing from other shareholders proxies to vote an aggregate of more than 51% of the shares. (4) Sometimes stock votes by classes and a minority class may be given the privilege of choosing a majority of the board of directors. In such a case, stock

it

(

)

the majority of the preferred stock might elect a majority of the

and thus control. (5) Stock with a strict vetoing power exerts a strong negative control over various affairs. certain directors

A

may

be classified as nonvoting for ordinary purposes, and yet the certificate of incorporation may provide that certain things may not be done without the consent of the majority of this class. In such a case, the holders of the majority of this stock can block action. (6) Where statutes do not prohibit it, certificates of incorporation sometimes provide that more than a majority of the total vote shall be required to perform certain acts, such as the election of directors. In such cases a minority once in power can rem.ain so by blocking elections and other class of stock

actions requiring the larger vote. 4.

Fiduciary Obligations of Directors and

Officers.

—

It is

the duty of directors and otficers to exercise their powers for what

This can never put himself

they believe to be the best interests of the corporation.

does not mean that a director or officer in a position in which his economic interests are to any extent adverse to those of the corporation contracts by which a director agrees to buy from or sell to his corporation are sometimes desirable or even necessary for the corporation's economic welfare. It does mean that transactions between a director and his corporation will be set aside if the corporation so desires, unless the director is found to have acted with scrupulous fair-

—

ness.

Most courts have held

that,

unless

the

certificate

of

meeting

which the interested director

at

part of a

quorum

tendency

to

fairness

in

is

not counted either as

or as part of a voting majority.

— hut

There

is

a

the requirement of not between a director and his corporation but between two corporations having interlocking directors. It is

—

relax this latter rule

the case of a contract which

not

is

impossible to give a precise definition of what the courts fairness in this connection. It normally includes a duty

mean by

of full disclosure, not only of the director's adverse interests but of facts known to him which affect the desirability of the pro-

Where, as is not infrequently the case, two contracting corporations are represented in the transaction by identical or nearly identical boards of directors, disclosure is

posed agreement.

meaningless and fairness must be determined by other criteria. Some courts have said that in such a case the question is whether the proposition submitted would have commended itself to an independent board, a test which is adequate in theory but difficult to apply if the subject matter of the contract is something which has no determinable market value. One of the most difficult types of interested-director situations to deal with satisfactorily by judicial decision is that in which directors who are also oificers of the corporation fix the compensation of the officers. Many corporations adopt the policy of electing boards composed wholly or chiefly of persons who hold executive positions. In such a situation the majority of the board have direct personal interests in the executive salary scale. Either the function of determining such salaries must be transferred from the directors as managers to the shareholders' meeting a body not ordinarily well qualified to decide matters of that kind or the courts must make an exception to the rule that directors' action is not binding unless there is a disinterested majority and must sustain the salaries voted by the board if it finds them to be fair. A number of states have enacted statutes permitting interested directors to fix their own compensation as officers if the amount of the compensation is fair and reasonable. Another area of uncertainty in the law involves the permissible degree of conflict between the corporation and its officer, whether or not a director, who has an interest in a seller to or purchaser from the corporation, or in some other way stands to make a direct or indirect personal gain from a corporate transaction. The trend of the law to validate such transactions if deemed "fair" would indicate that a profit by the officer would not be struck down if the corporation received the same profit or advantage, and paid the same charges and costs, that it would have in the The question remains, however, absence of such a conflict. whether disclosure of such a conflict to the board of directors should not be required, and if the officer is a director, and especially if an important or dominating director, a disclosure by the board to the shareholders; and if so, whether a vote ratifying the propriety of such a conflict under the circumstances disclosed should not also be required. The directors' fiduciary duty of loyalty to the interests of their corporation is not limited to cases in which directors are dealing with the corporation or are acting for two corporations that are

— —

dealing with each other. It is applicable to many other situations, including that in which the director intercepts a corporate "opportunity" by acquiring property for himself instead of for the corporation. The law does not forbid a director ever to purchase for himself anything which the corporation might wish to have

bought. It does compel him to turn over to the corporation at cost property which, but for his interference, the corporation

would probably have been able to obtain for itself and also property which he acquired while director, knowing that it was vitally needed by the company and not essential to his own outside interests. Some of the older cases tended to restrict the term corporate opportunity to these two situations, but the later trend of the cases has been to take a broader view of the director's obligation, treating as significant though not necessarily as conclusive such factors as whether the corporation was already in the market for the property, whether the information that the property was

incorporation provides otherwise, a director's contract with his cor-

available

poration must have the approval of a majority of the board at a

whether

came its

by reason of his official position, would put him in a position adverse to the

to the director

acquisition

CORPORATION corporation, whether the corporation

was financially able to buy, and whether the corporation would have had a normal business interest in

purchasing or taking advantage of the property or op-

portunity in question. In addition to their duty not to allow the decisions which they naake as managers to be warped by self-interest, directors owe the further duty of reasonable care and prudence. The courts dif-

period

537 This latter

the transaction.

to the seller of the shares, is

designed to discourage the practice of short-term market trading by corporate officials. 5. Legal Obligations of Promoters and Controlling Share-

holders. nate

—

promote a corporation and to domiboard of directors without becoming, in any forofficial representative. A promoter who organizes

It is possible to

original

its

fer a good deal in the language which they use in describing the degree of care which directors are legally bound to exercise, but the language used to describe the duty is less significant than the results actually reached.

mal

Imprudent management by directors is of various kinds. It may from failure to attend meetings, from failure to keep well enough informed about corporate affairs to act intelligently at meetings, from failure to supervise or to provide for adequate supervision of subordinates, or from reckless or incompetent business judgment. Directors who are not also executive officers are

issues to other people.

result

Individual directors are frequently elected of the board for reasons other than their business skill. Courts tend to treat them more leniently than full-time salaried officers with respect to their duty of care. Nevertheless, failure to attend meetings with some degree of regularity and failure to rarely highly paid.

members

make any

substantial effort to keep informed about corporate matbe condemned as negligence, although a director whose negligence is judicially criticized will sometimes escape liability because of the difficulty of proving that his negligence was a substantial cause of the loss for which it is sought to hold him liable. Failure by the directors to provide for the super\'ision of subordinates has resulted in legal liability in a number of cases relating to banks whose assets have been looted by dishonest employees, and, much less frequently, in cases relating to other kinds of busiLegal liability for errors of business judgment has generally ness. been denied, although here again there is a tendency to treat bank ters will

directors

somewhat

differently

and

to insist that the directors of

iuch institutions, which purport to be places of safekeeping for depositors'

funds, will be liable

if

they embark the bank upon

disastrous ventures of a highly speculative character.

The

legis-

few exceptions, left questions relating to direci'.ors' duties of loyalty and care to the courts. On the other hand, there have been very important statutory idditions to the law governing the conduct of a director who is lot acting for the corporation but is purchasing some of its shares latures have, with

any profits derived from provision, which gives no remedy

liable to the corporation for

is

sense, its

manner is in a position to make highly inequitable contracts with the corporation and to obtain large profits from it which will seriously lessen the value of the securities it a corporation in this

The

courts have attempted to cure this evil

by obliging the promoter either

permit rescission of the transPromoters have frequently found means of evading these obligations successfully, and judicial remedies for the recovery of promoters' secret profits have in practice proved much less effective than the requirement of full disclosure at the outset made by the Federal Securities act of 1933, a statute applicable to most situations in which corporate securito

action or to surrender his secret profit.

ties are offered to

the public.

A majority shareholder, or a group of shareholders who act in concert and together constitute a majority, can, like a promoter, make use of the power of control over the corporation to make contracts with it which deplete its assets and cause loss to its other A compact minority group will often be able to achieve similar results if the majority have no effective means of uniting. Since shareholders have not, like directors, undertaken to act for the corporation's benefit, they are not subject to all the legal disabilities which are applicable to directors. For exam-

shareholders.

ple,

like voters in a political election,

they are not disqualified

from voting because of any adverse economic

may

have.

interest which they Nevertheless, they will not be permitted to use their

voting power to achieve results which are clearly designed to harm the corporation, and it is immaterial whether they attempt to achieve such results through control over the directors or by exer-

power as shareholders to vote on such questions as the Furthermore, some recent cases have thrown doubt on whether a shareholder bloc constituting efcising their

dissolution of the corporation.

fective control of the corporation at a price paid in part

may

by the purchaser

sell

the controlling shares

to secure a corporate ad-

vantage arising out of control, unless the

seller accounts to other shareholders for that part of the selling price which constituted a

of the earlier judicial decisions in this 'ield permitted a director to buy without disclosing any inside The reason given for this nformation which he might have.

premium paid by

although the director was a fiduciary for he corporation, he was not a fiduciary for its individual members. fhe practical effect of the rule was to enable a director, in dealing with individual shareholders, to take advantage of information which he had obtained by reason of the position to which he Many lad been elected by the shareholders, acting as a body.

shareholders would, as a practical matter, often be able to violate their duties to the corporation with impunity if it were not for

,:'rom

a shareholder.

enient rule

was

Most

that,

have repudiated

i0urts

this

have either required full

view and on it in cases where the situation

disclosure in all cases or insisted j3

such as to

make purchases without such

•quitable.

The broadest of the three nder

—

rules

disclosure peculiarly in-

— that requiring

—

the invention

by courts of equity of what is called the shareholders' The power to bring suit on a corporate cause of

derivative suit.

who will not exercise they are themselves the wrongdoers. If the maare not themselves participants in the wrong, jority shareholders they can, in theory and sometimes in practice, elect a new board of directors composed of persons who can be relied upon to bring action that

is

ordinarily vested in the directors,

power

if

suit if the corporation's interests require full

disclosure

circumstances is required by sec. 10 of the Securities and the rules which the Securities and Excommission has promulgated pursuant to that section for in which the director brings himself within the regulatory all

the buyer to secure the corporate advantage or other concomitant of control. 6. Shareholders' Suits. Officers, directors and controlling

of those

who have not

owned

small lots by a large

in

it.

But

if

number

of people, replacement of

.Exchange act of 1934

the wrongdoing directors will be difficult to achieve.

,hange

situation which usually prevails in politics, there

ases

.owers of congress ility

of interstate

by using the mails or some other instrumencommerce. Although the language of both

and rule is rather vague, it imposes a requirement of full isdosure on directors, officers and other "insiders'" who purchase .bares or any other kind of corporate securities, regardless of 'hether the purchase is made on their own behalf or on behalf of le corporation. Other federal statutes provide that, if the securies are shares of stock listed on a stock exchange or shares of a itatute

prporation to which either the Public Utility Holding iCt i

of 1935 or the

who

sells

of 1940

is

Company applicable,

purchases and resells and repurchases) the shares within a six-month

director, officer or large

or

Company act shareholder who

Investment

the shares

participated in the wrongful action are

is

Unlike the rarely in the

business corporation any organized party of the "outs" competing at each election with the party of the "ins," and to create one for

a particular purpose

To meet

is

often impracticable.

this situation, the courts

derivative suit,

developed the shareholders'

by means of which one

or

more shareholders

are

permitted to sue on a corporate cause of action for the corporation's benefit, if the board of directors unreasonably refuses to sue, or if, because the directors are the alleged wrongdoers, they are not proper persons to have charge of the litigation as representatives of the company. Such suits have often served a very salutary purpose. They have also led to serious abuses. An illfounded shareholders' suit against directors may cause the corporation serious loss, because the litigation may interfere with

CORPORATION

5;

the conduct of the business and because the corporation will in many states be obliged to reimburse for their legal expenses direc-

who have successfully defended themselves. Moreover, there danger that the shareholder's real purpose may not be victory

tors is

own

for the corporation but his

holder wins the

.suit,

it

individual gain.

If the

share-

the corporate treasury, not the share-

is

holder's pocketbook. which

is

directly enriched,

and the shareholder

not even participate substantially in the fruits of victory indirectly, through enhancement in the value of his shares, unless those fruits are very large or the shareholder owns a substantia! percentage of the corporation's shares. On the other hand, if the wrongdoers can, by settling with the litigating shareholder, avoid any serious risk of being sued later on by anyone else, it may be will

worth their w'hile to make a direct payment to the shareholder of a much larger amount in settlement of the suit than the amount by which the value of his shares would be enhanced if he won it for the corporation whose champion he purports to be. Two very different kinds of remedies for these evils have been attempted. One kind, of which the federal courts have been the chief exponents, seeks to

make

make

it

difficult for

by providing cannot be dismissed or com-

once suit has been brought, it promised without court approval, on such notice to

all the other shareholders as the court may direct, and also by treating anything w-hich the shareholder is paid for abandoning the suit as in law the property of the corporation. This line of attack on so-called "strike" suits has not been wholly

and several states have followed the lead of New York adopting statutes which impose restrictions of a very different Many statutes do away with the possibility of purchasing type. shares for the purpose of bringing suit by limiting the right to sue to those who owned shares at the time of the acts complained of. In addition, on the theory that small shareholders, who have little to gain from a corporate victory, are particularly likely to bring suit for purposes other than achieving such victory, shareholders whose holdings are relatively small are required in a few states to give security for and ultimately to pay the reasonable legal e.xpenses of the corporation and any of its directors, officers or employees who are defendants in the suit and succeed in establishing their successful, in

freedom from legal liability. It is legally possible for a group composed wholly of small shareholders to avoid the effect of this provision tiffs.

if

a sufficient

number

but such united action

of

in large

them join together as coplaincorporations has proved pracnumber of derivative

ticably difficult, with the result that the

actions brought in states having such statutes has been very sharply

reduced. A California security-for-costs statute avoids the necessity for such united action by making the requirement for security depend not on the size of the shareholder's holdings but on whether the court finds that there

is

no reasonable probability that the

suit will benefit the corporation.

A

who seeks to bring suit on behalf of the corporawould be greatly handicapped if he were unable to obtain reliable information about corporate affairs. The courts have come to his assistance by holding that he has the right to inspect the books and papers of the corporation for any purpose reasonshareholder

ably related to his interests as a shareholder, including the purpose of determining whether his suspicions that there is an adequate basis for a shareholder's suit are well-founded. This right usually includes the right to inspect and copy the list of sharea

names and addresses preparatory

and they are usually issued initially attached bonds or preferred shares as an added inducement to buy. All corporations have common shares; they may or may not have securities of one or more of the other types. As a general rule, all types of securities are transferable, bonds and debentures by mere delivery, preferred and common shares by delivery of the share certificate accompanied by a transfer power, which is generally embodied in a separate instrument. Preferred shares have priority over common shares with respect to dividends at a limited rate and, under some types of preferred-share contracts, participate to

with the

common

declared.

They

to circularizing

them

in

proxy contest.

Generally speaking, a shareholder has no legal right to obtain information except in this manner. It may seem surprising that there are only a few states in which it is the legal duty of management to send the shareholders an annual financial report, but it should be borne in mind that corporation laws are intended not merely for corporations whose shares are widely distributed but for those which have only a handful of shareholders. Most large corporations are required by federal statutes to make periodic public reports of their assets and earnings and. in certain cases in which proxies are being solicited by the management, to furnish financial reports to their shareholders.

shares in such additional dividends as

may

be

are usually preferred and limited also in their

rights in corporate assets in case of dissolution.

Bonds and debentures, which are long-term debts, are any great extent in corporation statutes, the

dealt with to

rarely rights

of the holders of such securities being determined for the most part

by the law of contracts and, in the case of bonds secured by an indenture of trust, by the law of security and the law of trusteeship. The word debenture, which is not a technical legal term, is generally used in financial circles to

mean an unsecured

bond.

Bonds and debentures that are publicly offered for sale must, with certain exceptions, conform to the requirements of the federal Trust Indenture act of 1939, which contains some provisions of rather limited scope for the protection of the holders of these types of securities. {See also Stock; Investment Papers; Bond [in Finance].) 8. New Issues of Shares. In the absence of any provision to the contrary in the certificate of incorporation, each shareholder has under the law of most states the right to subscribe for his proportionate part of any new issue of shares of his corporation

—

in

order that he may preserve his proportionate interest in the and earnings of the corporation and his proportionate voting

assets

power. This pre-emptive right is subject to various exceptions. It does not, for example, apply to shares which are issued for property or to so-called "treasury" shares (shares previously issued and subsequently reacquired by the corporation). In cases in which no pre-emptive right exists, the directors ordinarily have power to select the persons to whom shares shall be issued, but that power is subject to their duty as fiduciaries not to issue shares at less than their fair value (unless they are issued to all shareholders in proportion to their previous holdings and not to issue them for the purpose of giving some particular group voting con)

trol

tion

holders'

limited or limited duration, to purchase shares of the corporation at a specified price,

the shareholder to

the derivative suit a source of personal gain

that,

—

7. Types of Corporate Securities. The principal types of corporate securities are common shares, preferred shares, bonds and debentures. Preferred shares and bonds may be convertible into other types of securities, and the corporation may also have warrants outstanding. Warrants are transferable options, of un-

over the corporation.

The public sale of new issues of securities which are fraudulent or are offered without sufficient disclosure of essential facts about the enterprise has engaged the attention of state legislatures. A large majority of the states enacted so-called blue-sky laws, which

require that the persons who sell the securities and, subject to certain exceptions, the securities themselves, be licensed by some state administrative agency.

The statutes of a few states, including New York, instead of requiring licences for the public sale of securities, authorize the attorney general to investigate fraudulent practices in connection with such sales and to institute injunction proceedings. The Federal Securities act of 1933 differs radically from most of the state laws in that its sole purpose is to compel full disclosure. It provides that, with limited exceptions, no corporate security can legally be offered to the public by mail or by means of any instrumentality of interstate commerce unless the issuer has filed with the Securities and Exchange commission and made public a registration statement containing full information about the

The commission is given security and the issuing corporation. power to institute proceedings to prevent sale of the securities if no such statement has been filed or if it finds that the statement is Most of in any material re.spect false, misleading or incomplete.

CORPORATION the information included in the registration statement

must be

in-

cluded also in a prospectus, which must be given to each original purchaser at or before the time of delivery of the security. In the case of railroads and other public utilities a different kind of administrative regulation of security issues, designed as much to safeguard the general public against unsound financing of essential utilities as to protect buyers of securities, for

by various federal and state statutes.

is provided (See Securities Regu-

lation.)

Individual

Shareholders'

9.

Liability.

—Shareholders

whose shares are paid for in full are, generally speaking, immune from any other substantial liability for corporate debts, although some corporation laws make them personally liable for wage claims The special liabilities imposed in case of corporate insolvency. on shareholders of national and state banks had been abolished almost everywhere by mid-20th century. If a corporation's shares are what is known as par-value shares, full payment for shares means, as between the shareholder and corporate creditors, payment of the par value in money, property or services.

The

many

statutes of

states provide or are construed

providing that the judgment of the directors as to the value of any consideration other than money is conclusive in the absence of fraud. When there are no par-value shares issued for cash, the shareholder assumes no liability, either to the corporation or its creditors, except to pay the agreed consideration. When such ^shares are issued for property, it is necessary to put a dollar valuation of the property on the corporation's books. The law at mid20th century was still unsettled as to circumstances under which a shareholder would be treated as a participant in such valuation and held liable to creditors if the valuation was not based on an tionest business judgment. But since most shareholders know the dollar valuation (or "stated value") fixed by the corporation for its no par shares when it issues them, a shareholder or seller who conveyed property known by him to have been taken and put on 'the books at a valuation higher than the stated value of the no par shares issued to him for the property may well be liable for as

':he

shareholder

subject

to

'lability is

more

who

is

drastic

in control of a corporation is

sometimes

Immunity from

individual

liabilities.

not forfeited by acquiring a majority or even

all

of

'I

corporation's shares, but a sole shareholder, and, less frequently,

'i

controlling shareholder, has been held liable for corporate debts

damages where he or it (for liability has most often been imwhere the controlling shareholder is a "parent" corporation) fails to keep the corporation's business transactions clearly .eparate from his own and where he gives those with whom he )r

posed

impression that the corporation's debts are his own obFurthermore, a person who does business mainly at the isk of his creditors by forming a corporation with very little lapital and then expanding the scope of its operations by furnishing additional funds, ostensibly in the form of loans, is hkely to lave his claim subordinated by the courts to those of the other leals the

igations.

reditors loration

if is

the corporation

becomes

insolvent.

Although

a cor-

treated for most purposes as a legal person which

eparate and distinct from rally speaking,

its

members, the courts

will not,

is

permit a person or group of persons to evade a by causing their corporation to do what the

tatute or contract forbids

them

to

do in

their individual capaci-

'ies,

—

Dividends and Other Distributions. Distributions of ^orporate assets by corporations are mostly in the form of dividends. Most corporation statutes restrict the funds available for ividends to surplus or to some types of surplus. In the case of ar-value shares, surplus ordinarily means any excess of net assets 10.

ver the aggregate par value of all outstanding shares. In the ase of no par-value shares, it ordinarily means any excess of such

over that part of the consideration paid for the shares which been designated as capital by the board of directors. Some statutes forbid the payment of dividends out of surplus ,erived from an increase in the value of such fixed assets as luildings and machinery, and some greatly restrict the use for ividend purposes of surplus contributed by shareholders as part ssets

as

—

assets to a shareholder or shareholders.

If

payment

for the shares

made

out of capital and the shares are not resold, the effect on the corporation's financial status is the same as though it had

is

paid dividends out of capital. In most states the law applicable to such purchases is substantially identical with the law of dividends, but a few states still have very lax rules relating to such purchases.

The

practical application of legal rules relating to the funds

legally available for dividends or for purchases of shares often

of the proper accounting methods for determining such matters as surplus, earned surplus or current In most states, directors are immune from liability for declaring improper dividends if they have acted with due care, and shareholders who have received dividends or other distributions in good faith are not required to refund them if the corporation, despite the impairment of its capital, was solvent at the time of raises difficult questions

earnings.

distribution, 11. ter

is,

Amendment

of Corporate Charters.

—A corporate

char-

for purposes of federal constitutional law, both a contract

between the corporation and the corporation and its shareholders.

Most

states have,

by

legislation, reserved

state

and a contract between the

a provision in the state constitution or

power

to

amend corporate

charters.

Al-

though there is considerable conflict in the decisions as to the scope of such reserved power, many courts have held statutes which give wide powers of amendment to majority shareholders constitutional, even as applied to corporations created prior to their enactment. The amending powers granted majority shareholders in most states include not only power to change the nature of the business but power to change the dividend, voting, or other special rights of Changes of the latter sort usually a particular class of shares. require the affirmative vote of at least a majority of the class of shares affected. Where a majority has voted for the change, some courts treat the question as one of business judgment and refuse to interfere, at the request of the minority, unless the unfairness of the

amendment

is

so gross as to justify the inference

This view allows pressures to be brought to bear on preferred shareholders to induce them to consent to an inequitable of fraud.

modification of their rights, 12.

gen-

tatute or a contract

'

unearned surplus, such as "paid-in surplus," The statutes of a few states expressly authorize corporations pay dividends out of current earnings without applying those earnings to eliminate a deficit from operations of prior periods, and those of several other states are so worded as to make a similar interpretation of them not unlikely. Such current earnings can be made available for dividends in other states in one way only by having the shareholders vote to reduce the amount of legal capital to an extent sufficient to eliminate any deficit from prior operations and thus turn the current earnings into surplus. Purchases by corporations of their own shares constitute another method by which corporations may distribute part of their

to

by

difference,

A

539

of the purchase price of their shares and which has been designated on the corporate books not as capital but as some form of

Merger and Consolidation.

shareholders' rights

may

—Another method

be radically changed

is

by which by the merger or

consolidation (the distinction between the two, in many contexts, If each is of little importance) of two or more corporations.

corporation has only one class of shares, the effect of the merger is to modify the individual shareholders' rights only to the extent

making him an investor in a substantially different enterprise. But if one or more of the corporations has several classes of shares, the merger agreement may validly provide for such changes in class rights as the substitution of common shares of the combined enterprise for preferred shares of one or more of its constituent companies. Some courts have permitted a corporation, by creating a subsidiary company and then merging with it, to make changes in preferred shareholders' rights which could not be made by direct amendment of its certificate of incorporation. Under most merger statutes, however, dissenting shareholders are given the right to withdraw from the enterprise and to be paid the appraisal of

value of their shares in cash.

—

CORPORATION TAX

5+0 13.

Dissolution,

Bankruptcy and Reorganization.

—A

sol-

they have bought from the association, or have sold through it, a co-operative marketing association. The statutes of most states contain separate provisions for the organization of religious, charitable, educational, social and other nonbusiness types of private corporations, which are usually designated collectively as corporations not-for-profit. These vary in

vent corporation may be dissolved and its business wound up as a result of the voluntary action of its shareholders. The winding up of an insolvent corporation may be either voluntary or involuntar>'. The usual, although not the only possible, procedure by which the affairs of insolvent corporations, other than banks, in-

if it is

surance companies and railroads, are wound up is by proceedings in a federal court of bankruptcy. Insolvency does not, however, necessarily result in liquidation. A corporation may be insolvent, either in the sense of having in-

type from small clubs or societies to large educational institutions. Both the statutory and the judge-made law applicable to such corporations is much less complicated than that applicable to incorporated business enterprises. Judges are very reluctant to take jurisdiction over controversies relating to their internal affairs where, as is often the case, such controversies are not primarily disputes about property but about whether the views or actions of some member are compatible with the tenets, objectives or tra-

pay its debts as they mature or in the "bankruptcy" sense of having liabilities which exceed the fair value of the assets, both current and fixed. Despite insolvency of either tjpe, it may have a substantial going-concern value, and the best or even the only way in which that going-concern value can be realized by its creditors may be through a reorganization, by which the assets are not sold to outsiders but the old creditors become the principal or the sole owners of the reorganized company. Congress amended the Bankruptcy act in 1938 to provide for the reorganization of most types of corporations by means of proceedings in a federal court. The plan of reorganization,. which usually involves the exchange by the creditors of all or part of their debt claims for shares of stock, must, generally speaking, be assented to by the holders of two-thirds of each class of debts. Unless the corporation is found to be insolvent in the bankruptcy sense of that word or its junior shares are found to be worthless, the plan must also be assented to by the holders of a majority of each class of shares. In addition, it must be found by the court to be fair and equitable and financially feasible. A study of reorganization under an earlier form of procedure, made under the auspices of the Securities and Exchange commission, produced impressive evidence that creditors, because of sufficient current assets to

so-called

ignorance, inability to organize effectively for

common

action, or

eagerness to have the reorganization completed without long delay, had frequently agreed to reorganization plans which were unduly favourable to junior interests. The U.S. supreme court endeavoured to prevent plans of that type from being approved by the lower federal courts by admonishing them that, regardless of how large a percentage of any class may have assented to the plan, the judge must not approve it as fair and equitable if it fails to eliminate the holders of worthless junior securities entirely, or if, where such junior interests are found to have some value, it fails

ditions of the society.

See also Competition, Economic; Cartel; Monopoly; Stock; and references under "Corporation" in the Index volume.

M. D.; G. T.

(E.

—

Growth of the American Economy (ch. by William C. Kessler, Thomas C. Cochran and Joe S. Bain) (1944) Thomas C. Cochran, "The Social History of the Corporation in the United States" in Caroline F. Ware (ed.). The Cultural Approach to History, pp. 168-182 (1940) Ross M. Robertson, History of the American Economy (1955); Edward M. Dodd, American Business Corporations Until 1860 (1954) A. D. Neale, The Antitrust Laws of the United States of America (1960); Hans Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy (1955) Ralph L. Nelson, Merger Movements in American Industry, 1895-1956 (1959); Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., "The Beginnings of 'Big Business' in American Industry," Business History Review, pp. 1-31 (Spring 1959); Edwin C. Rozwenc (ed.), Roosevelt, Wilson and the Trusts (1950); G. Heberton Evans, "Business Entrepreneurs, Their Major Functions and Related Tenets," Journal of Economic History, pp. 250-271 (June 1959); Fritz Redlich and Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., "Recent Developments in American Business .Administration and Their Conceptualization," Business History Review, pp. 1-28 (Spring 1961) Edward S. Mason (ed.). The Corporation iti Modern Society (1960) .Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of Industrial Enterprise (1962). Law: William Meade Fletcher (ed.). Cyclopedia of the Law of Private Corporations, rev. ed., 20 vol. (1938-61) Adolph A. Berle, Jr., and Gardiner C. Means, The Modern Corporation and Private Property (1933) Norman D. Lattin, The Law of Corporations (1959) Howard L. Oleck, Modern Corporation Law, 4 vol. (1958) George D. Hornstein, Corporation Law and Practice, 2 vol. (1959) Harry G. Henn, Handbook of the Law of Corporations (1961). ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

to give senior security holders a substantial equivalent for

any

Fr.)

Bibliography. History: Samuel Williston, "History of the Law of Business Corporations Before 1800," Harvard Law Review, vol, 2, pp. 105-125, 149-167 (1889); Joseph S. Davis, Essays in the Earlier History oj American Corporations, 2 vol. (1917); Oscar and Mary F. Handlin, "Origins of the American Business Corporation" in F. C. Lane and J. C. Riemersma (eds.). Enterprise and Secidar Change, pp. 102125 (1953); G. Heberton Evans, jr.. Business Incorporations in the United States, 1800-1943 (1948); Harold F. Williamson (ed.), The

;

rights

which they give up.

;

In the reorganization of most types of corporations under fedlaw, the Securities and E.xchange commission was given a purely advisory role. That agency has much broader powers if the corporation is a gas or electric holding company or a subsidiary of such a company and is being reorganized either because of insolvency or because its security structure is not in conformity with eral

the requirements of the Public Utility Holding 1935.

The

Company

act of

Commerce commission was

given somewhat similar powers in connection with the reorganization of railroads, both when the railroad is being reorganized under the Bankruptcy act and when the directors of a solvent railroad, acting in accordance with the provisions of a 1948 amendment of the Interstate Interstate

Commerce of

its

tors

act, seek to

induce the holders of

75%

securities to consent to a modification of

consider an unsatisfactory

security

of each class

what the

structure.

direc-

(See also

Bankruptcy.) 14. Other Types of Business and Private Corporations. The most important types of nonstock business corporations in the United States are mutual insurance companies and savings banks. The members of mutual insurance companies are the policyholders. Although most agricultural and other co-operative associations are stock corporations, they are usually organized under statutes which narrowly limit the amount of stock which any member can hold and provide that, after a limited dividend has been paid, any additional earnings shall be divided among the members in proportion, not to their stock ownership, but to the amount which

CORPORATION TAX.

Almost every industrially develbusiness and taxation purposes, and British corporation, but few universally valid generalizations can be made about corporate taxation because of the wide variety of hybrid entities and the diverse approaches to taxation. Since World War II, taxes on corporations have provided an increasingly substantial part of the national revenues in most countries. In the United States, in the second half of the 20th century, the corporation income tax was second only to the individual income tax as a source of federal revenue; and in most of the states as well, taxes on corporations had long made important contribuIn Great Britain tions to the support of government activities. local taxation is of minor importance because of greater centralization of financial responsibilities in the national government. But oped

country recognizes,

for

entities resembling the U.S.

the proportionate contribution of corporation taxes to total gov-

ernment revenues is roughly the same as in the United States. In both countries corporations were subject to heavy excess-profits taxes during war periods (see Excess-Profits Tax). History. In the United States the practice of taxing corporations as such began during the middle of the 19th century when a number of states found the general property tax to be an inadequate instrument for the taxation of corporate wealth. Pennsylvania introduced a capital-stock franchise tax in 1840, and Massachusetts devised the "corporate excess" tax in 1864. Although only 12 other states had followed Pennsylvania's lead by

—

CORPORATION TAX 1900, nearly three-quarters of the states had capital-stock franchise taxes by 1950. Taxes on the "corporate excess" (i.e., the excess of the market or fair value of the capital stock above the value of property locally assessed or located outside the state) were levied by 16 states in 1912, but by only 2 in 1960. Other taxes paid by corporations are many and varied, though not limited to corThese include taxes based upon property as porate taxpayers. well as many forms of excise taxes, principally customs duties on imports, taxes on transactions involving transportation, communication and other services, and excises on the privilege of manufacture, storage, and the sale or purchase of commodities. Except for a brief period during the Civil War, federal income

I

]

1

'

'

taxation of corporations began in the United States with the imposition of a the

new

1%

tax in 1909.

This levy, which was merged with

individual income tax in 1913, was for several years

little

more than a withholding tax on corporation stockholders. Shortly after World War I, however, the corporation income tax became more and more widely regarded as a tax on the corporate entity; land by 1936, when dividends for the first time became fully taxable in the hands of the individuals receiving them, the corporation tax had become truly a levy upon earnings of the corporation as such. Meanwhile, the corporation rate had been rising gradually from klO% in 1920 to the peak 52% which prevailed after 1951. From [1911, when Wisconsin introduced the first successful corporation

,

more and more states made this tax their principal instrument of corporation taxation. By the 1960s corporation 'income taxes had been enacted by over three-fourths of the states land some cities, and accounted for substantial tax revenues. '.income tax,

Besides the wartime excess-profits taxes, the U.S. government (experimented with several other types of corporation levies. Dur'ing 1936-3 7 it imposed a tax on undistributed corporate profits

I

.at

rates ranging

ias

a substitute

las

a

from

7%

to

this tax was proposed income tax, it was enacted Opposition to it was great, and it was

27%. Although

for the corporation

supplementary levy.

•repealed after only a two-year trial.

From 1933

to

1945 cor-

porations were taxed on the "declared value'' of their capital stock. |At the same time, a complementary excess-profits tax on earnings iexceeding stated rates of return on the "declared value" had the of discouraging underdeclarations. Thus, the burden of the 'combined tax depended on the stability of the income and the accuracy of the forecast. Because of this unsatisfactory dependence lon an estimation of earnings and in view of the increase in the (regular corporation tax, these taxes were repealed in 1945. In Great Britain, corporations and individuals alike are subject The corporation's "to income tax at the so-called standard rate. payment of tax on its income at the standard rate satisfies all iiability for that tax on the income. When the income is distributed as a dividend, tax at the standard rate is not imposed ,m the shareholder in respect of the dividend. Thus a corpora.'.ion's income, whether distributed or not, bears but one tax at ,;he standard rate. However, the shareholder is treated as though .le has received, besides the dividend, the amount of that tax atfributable to the dividend, and the combined amount has then to oe included in his income for the purpose of calculating the :;raduated surtax imposed on individuals whose incomes are above he level at which surtax begins to be chargeable and for the purpose of computing total income by which various personal allowances are measured. After 1937, Great Britain levied an additional tax on the income of corporations. Originally called the national defense contribu,.ion, this tax was levied at the flat rate of 5% of income. During leffect

:

iVorld

War

II,

an excess-profits tax was imposed in lieu of the wherever the excess-profits tax was

lational defense contribution

Upon repeal of the excess-profits tax in 1946, he national defense contribution was renamed the profits tax |ind shortly thereafter its structure was changed so as to provide deterrent against dividend distributions. Special Problems and Policies. In any system of corporate |ticome taxation, there is the problem of interrelating the corporaion's tax with the tax on the individual stockholders who own 'he corporation. There has been much concern over the so-called I'double taxation" resulting when stockholders are taxed on divi-

;he greater

amount.

|i

'

—

541

dends received from corporate earnings despite the fact that the corporation may previously have paid taxes on the earnings. Great Britain, as stated above, has completely eliminated the double taxation effect as regards the standard rate. Australia, on the other hand, has imposed a highly progressive rate of tax on income received by corporations without any such mitigation, while Canadian policy has been to make some tax concession to dividends representing income upon which the corporation has paid a tax. Beginning in 1954 the U.S. congress made a limited concession to the argument for reducing the combined corporate and individual income tax levy on dividend income by adopting a $50 dividend exclusion for individuals plus a credit against the individual income tax of 4% of dividends received. But in the case of intercorporate dividends, received by a corporation from another corporation, a very substantial exemption from income tax has long been the U.S. policy, resulting in a maximum rate of 7.8% in 1961.

In the United States and some other countries, one of the main problems regarding rates stems from the fact that the corporation tax is at a flat rate of approximately one-half the net income, whereas the individual income tax is at a steeply graduated rate up to 91%. Thus, for high-bracket taxpayers the corporate device has been used as a shield against the high-bracket income tax rates by allowing most of the corporate net earnings above taxes to re-

main undistributed year after

year. Sometimes the individual stockholder will receive the accumulated earnings later by a sale resulting in a tax at the other devices, or through of the stock, lower capital gains rates instead of the much higher rates applicable If the to ordinary income (see Capital Gains, Taxation of). individual does not sell or liquidate the corporation until his death, the corporate earnings may even be passed on to his heirs with-

out ever being subjected to the income tax rates for individual taxTwo main statutory devices are used to curb this use of the corporation by high-bracket taxpayers; (1) an additional tax, known as the "accumulated earnings tax," upon the undistributed income of corporations used for the purpose of accumulating earnings to avoid the income taxes upon individual shareholders; and (2) a "personal holding company tax," which, in general, is imposed upon family corporations or other closely held corporations, payers.

80%

of

whose income

is

from certain sources such as investment

or personal services.

In order to permit small businesses greater choice of the corporate or noncorporate (partnership or individual proprietorship) form without overemphasis upon tax consequences, congress has permitted certain closely held corporations to elect, under limited conditions, the same tax treatment as if the stockholders were doing business as individual partners. A limited provision permitting certain unincorporated businesses to elect to be taxed as corporations had already been enacted in 1954. The corporate income tax has international ramifications in its application to foreign corporations doing business within a par-

and also with respect to the treatment of income earned abroad by domestic corporations or their subsidiaries. Not ticular country

policy considerations are the encouragement of forand the reduction of the impact of double taxation stemming from the power of two or more countries to tax. Quite generally, foreign corporations doing business within a country are exempted from local taxation, or are taxed only upon income

least

among

eign investment

earned in the country. International treaties and conventions are widespread between the United States and Great Britain and numerous foreign countries. Several mechanisms found in the income tax statutes of the United States reduce substantially These inthe income earned abroad by domestic corporations. clude: (1) a tax credit for foreign income taxes paid by domestic corporations; (2) a tax credit for taxes paid by foreign subsidiaries; and (3) a lower income tax rate accorded "western hemisphere trade corporations." Other important matters of policy relate to the types of charitable, educational and other corporations which are to be exempted from the corporate tax; and to the detailed treatment of the tax consequences, both to the corporation and to its stockholders, of such events as the transfer of property to the corporation upon

CORPSE— CORRECTIONAL

542

formation and to the stockholders upon liquidation or partial liquidation of the corporation, as well as various exchanges of stock when the corporation is changed in form or reorganized. Impor-

its

tant objectives are equality of treatment of taxpayers and preThe technical aspects in devising vention of tax avoidance. corporate tax patterns are complicated, and many countries have and British experience. See also United States been guided by

Income Tax; Taxation. (E. G. K.; S. S. S.; W. W. Bo.; F. W. W.) In every age, the public dead human body. interest has commanded a disposition of human remains in a mandictates of modern westThe ner consonant with existing mores. ern civilization require that a body must have burial, both for the sake of public health and in accord with the sentiment that the dead should be disposed of decently. However, cremation or burial

CORPSE,

at sea.

a

where necessary, are permissible, as is delivery of bodies for and study in accordance with the provisions of local

dissection

anatomical acts. In England, from the time of the Norman Conquest until the 19th century, the right of possession and disposition of a dead body was vested in the church and was solely the subject of ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The holding of the English common law, that a body after burial was the property of no one, encouraged rifling the grave to which the grisly practice of body snatching the overcrowded condition of London churchyards and the need (and the lack of legal provision) for cadavers for anatomical study contributed. This practice was ultimately ended by the passage

—

—

of anatomical, burial and other statutes making it a criminal offense to remove a dead body from the grave and making legal

provision for cadavers for anatomical study. These statutes also protect the rights of the next of kin to bury their dead and to prevent the mutilation of the corpse through medical autopsy, or exhumation of a previously interred body, except where public

exigency demands otherwise. In the United States, the courts have uniformly refused to treat a dead body as property in a material sense. However, the need, in particular controversies, for equitable results led to distinguishing

in the body and the right designating the latter a "quasi-

between the material property right

of survivors' dominion over

it.

By

property" right, the courts have been able to protect the senti-

ments of the survivors from violation arising from undue interference with their right of possession and control of proper disposition of the corpse.

See also

Death (Legal Aspects) Cemetery; Funerary Rites ;

AND Customs.

(P- E. Ja.)

CORPULENCE: CORPUS CHRISTI,

see Obesity. a city in subtropical south Texas, U.S.,

and seat of Nueces county, overlooks Corpus Christi bay which is separated from the Gulf of Mexico by Mustang and Padre islands. Called the "Naples of the Gulf" because of its shore-line drive at two levels and its T-shaped peninsulas extending into the bay, the city resembles a Mediterranean town. The Corpus Christi It is an industrial as well as a tourist city. standard metropolitan statistical area includes Bishop, Port Aransas, Portland and Robstown, all built generally on the same economy as Corpus Christi. The population of Corpus Christi in 1960 was 167,690 and that of the standard metropolitan statistical area was 221,573 according to the federal census. The history of Corpus Christi falls into four economic periods: (1) ranching under Spanish rule; (2) frontier trade (3) ranching and farming; and (4) the rise of the petrochemical industry. Prior to 1839 the area was a smugglers' den among Karankawa Indians who were undisturbed by the first serious Spanish explorations. Some ranching activities existed by 1794 and by 1839, when Henry L. Kinney of Pennsylvania established the trading post which became Corpus Christi, Capt. Enrique Villareal endeavoured to hold his ranch by force. Pirate, promoter and smuggler, Kinney served as Gen. Zachary Taylor's quartermaster from Corpus Christi to Monterrey during the Mexican war (1846). From this vantage Kinney bought army surplus goods and began a boom with trade to Chihuahua. Kinney's Trading post became an important station on the route to the California gold field via Chihuaa port of entry

;

hua but the bubble soon burst to be followed by a disastrous out- .1 break of yellow fever in 1854. Corpus Christi, so named by 1841, J remained a small town from 1854 until about 1920, interrupted chiefly by skirmishes during the Civil War, three severe hurricanes (1874, 1916, 1919), the coming of railroads (1881-1909) and a land boom backed by New York and Boston capital (1888-93). Discovery of natural gas in 1913 and its later exploitation, opening of the port by a deeper dredged channel in 1926 and discovery 1939 (the first of several such discoveries foundation for a city. Population grew from 10.522 in 1920 to 57,301 in 1940, and to 167,690 in 1960, according Continued development of ranching plus to the federal census.

of the Saxet

oil field in

in the area) laid the

agricultural products (vegetables and sorghum grains), discovery of new raw materials, development of commercial fishing (fish, shrimp and oysters), a growing tourist business, location of a large U.S. naval air station there in 1942, the World War II search for synthetic rubber which stimulated chemical industries, extensive use of government funds for a protective sea wall, a channel and harbour 40 ft. deep with a bridge towering 235 ft. over the turning basin to permit its enlargement and sufficient water for the foreseeable future insured by the Wesley E. Seale dam all contributed to the growth of the city as well as the flat, fertile prairie soils, long growing season (260 to 330 days), rainOther raw materials and fall (near 30 in.), and uniform climate.

new

economic activities include dairying, poultry raising, oyster shell and salt (piped in as brine from an underground dome 60 mi. to From these various raw materials the following are the west). produced: butane, naphtha, other petroleum distillates, formaldehyde, methanol, acetaldehyde, other organic chemicals, carbon black, starch, sugar, caustic soda, soda ash, chlorine, oil well additives and cement. The use of imported ores, permitted by the deep-water port, include bauxite, zinc and cadmium to produce

aluminum, refined zinc and cadmium, and sulfuric acid as a byproduct. In the population a strong Mexican influence is mingled with the old south, the north and the Texas range and with strong Incorporated in strains of Irish, German, Bohemian and Czech. 1852, the city adopted the city-manager form of government in 1945. The public school system includes Del Mar junior college

(founded 1935) with separate liberal arts and technical divisions. There are a number of private and parochial schools and a denomi-

La Retama public library, study groups (art, music, literature, drama), a Civic Music association, the Corpus national college.

Symphony orchestra, numerous playgrounds and parks, a yacht basin, the Junior museum. Exposition hall. Memorial coliseum and Centennial Art museum provide opportunity for recrea(N. M. T.) tion and cultural activities. CHRISTI, OF, a festival of the Western Christian Church in honour of the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, observed on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. The institution of this feast is due to Blessed Juliana, prioress of Mont Cornillon near Liege, whose veneration for the Blessed Sacrament was intensified by a vision, and who persuaded the bishop of Liege It did not spread, to order the festival for the diocese in 1246. however, until 1264, when Pope Urban IV ordered the whole Christi

CORPUS

FEAST

church to observe the

feast, for

which a new

office

(still in

use)

Because perhaps of Urban's St. Thomas Aquinas. death soon afterward (Oct. 2, 1264) his order was ignored in most countries until after its confirmation by Clement V at the council of Vienna in 1311. By the middle of the 14th century the festival had found general acceptance, and in the 15th century it became in effect the principal feast of the church. The procession of the Host, its most prominent feature (though not part of the original ritual), became a gorgeous pageant in which sovereigns and princes

was written by

took part, as well as magistrates and members of trade and craft and was followed by miracle plays and mysteries performed

guilds,

by members of the

The

guilds.

rejection of the doctrine of transubstantiation at the Ref-

ormation naturally involved the suppression of the festival, as a religious observance, in the Reformed churches. See also Church

Year.

CORRECTIONAL SCHOOL:

see

Reformatory.

—

CORREGGIO CORREGGIO

*j

is

the

name

universally given

to

543

Antonio

(c. 1494-1534), son of Pellegrino Allegri. He was bom Correggio probably not long before Aug. 30, 1494, and died there on March 5, 1534. He was one of the half-dozen greatest masters of painting of the High Renaissance in Italy, and, in his forerunner of the baroque style. In the 16th cenlater works, a tury he was already known as "the painter of the Graces," and

Allegri

'•

at

I

I

although his works were concentrated at Parma and in a few neighbouring cities, he was early considered worthy of being named in the company of Raphael, Michelangelo and Titian. He was probably a pupil of Francesco Bianchi-Ferrari at Modena about 1503 and pursued further studies at Mantua during the period in which Andrea Mantegna, who died in 1506, was succeeded as court painter by Lorenzo Costa. Correggio's early works are pervaded with his knowledge of Mantegna, although they are all softness and light and shade where Mantegna uses line. An early tradition records that he completed the decoration in Mantegna's family chapel in the church of S. Andrea at Mantua after Mantegna's death,

A

group of devotional pictures, which became increasingly documented work,

luscious in colour, antedate his first securely

:

the altarpiece in the St.

Francis," which

Dresden collection was commissioned

The most important

called

"The Madonna of

for S. Francesco at Cor-

"The Marriage Catherine" (Detroit), the "Nativity" and "Adoration of the Kings" (Brera gallery, Milan), and "Christ Leaving His Mother" (National gallery, London). His mature style, however, only emerged with his first commission for Parma, the ceiling of the abbess' parlour in the convent of S. Paolo, which was probably executed about 1518-19. Although there are echoes in this work of Mantegna's frescoe.s reggio in 1516.

of these are

of St.

I

;

Mantua, it was wholly original in conception. was conceived as a trellis in 16 compartments, with an who form an allegory of human activities, and each trellis terminates in a lunette in grisaille with classical personifications often taken from antique coins. This learned humanist program, assimilated to art with extraordinary perfection, was one of the last of its kind planned for a sacred building prior to the reforms within the church which iwere urged by popes from Julius 11 onward. Correggio's other great decorative works were all made for in the Castello at

The

ceiling

oval gap in each revealing pairs of children

"THE MADONNA OF 16TH CENTURY.

IN

ST.

FRANCIS."

ALTARPIECE BY CORREGGIO;

EARLY

THE DRESDEN (GER.) GALLERY

I

I

:

The decoration of the cupola of S. Giovanni Evangelista ,(1520-23) was followed by that of the apse of the same church, lof which only the "Coronation of the Virgin" survives in the iParma gallery. In the cupola is St. John seeing the vision of the lAscension; this was still in the High Renaissance tradition and

iParma.

owed much '

to Michelangelo.

"Assumpand treated

In the cupola of the cathedral (1526-30), with the

ition of

the Virgin," Correggio anticipated the baroque

whole

vast proportions, equatIt made a ing the dome of the church with the vault of heaven. profound impression at the time, although criticism was not altogether favourable, but its influence was greatest a century later, in the Roman baroque movement, when its decorative implica-

;the

field as a single pictorial unit of

were first carried further by Giovanni Lanfranco, himself a Parma. The remainder of Correggio's most famous works, the dates of ifew known with certainty, fall into three groups: the great altarpieces (and a few other large religious compositions); exquisite small works of private devotion; and a handful of mythological The altarpieces are iSubjects of a lyrically sensuous character. ;among those landmarks of art which have acquired affectionate nicknames. The "St. Sebastian," the "Night" (finished about :I530) and the "St. George" ( 1530-32 are among those which are

.tions

native of

)

at Dresden in Germany, but the "St. Jerome" ;(iS27-28) and the "Madonna della Scodella" (1528-30) remained in the Parma gallery, as did the large "Deposition" and the "Martyrdom of St. Placidus and Others," w^hich are among Correggio's most remarkable inventions. The "St. Jerome" in particular comibines an intimate and domestic mood with astonishing softness iind beauty of paint texture, and includes types of feminine beauty in the gallery

of ideal loveliness.

This intimate and homely poetry was carried through into the small devotional works such as the "Madonna of the Basket" (National gallery, London), "La Zingarella" (Naples) and the "Virgin Adoring the Child" (Uffizi, Florence). The most famous of the devotional pictures which explored this vein of ideal feminine loveliness is the larger "Marriage of St. Catherine" (Louvre

museum,

Paris

).

Correggio's technique, which was the reverse of linear and in which the paint seems to have been lightly breathed onto the its most remarkable results in the mythologies. were probably the "Antiope" (Louvre) and the "Education of Cupid" in the National gallery, London; the others all belong to his last years the "Danae" Borghese gallery, Rome), the "Ganymede" and "lo" (both at Vienna), the battered "Leda" in Berlin, and the two allegories of Vice and Virtue painted for Isabella d'Este (in the Louvre). In these the sensuous character of the subject matter is enhanced by the quality of the paint and these pictures carry this kind of sensibility to the limits to which

forms, achieved

The

earliest

—

(

can go without offense. Correggio's drawings are spirited and audacious and always paintings in view. The intimate and most "precious" quality of his more widely distributed works has sometimes led him to be considered as an artist of less than the highest flight a view which follows Giorgio Vasari who regretted that Correggio had never had the advantages of study in Rome. But this impres-

it

made with

sion

is

redressed by the works which remain at Parma.

Although

be detected in later Parmese painting, and counts for something in the Mannerist style of Parmigianino, Correggio had no direct pupils who deserve mention. His decorative ideas were taken up by the baroque painters of the 17th century, he became almost a tutelary deity of the French rococo style, and his great altarpieces were among the works most abundantly copied by the traveling artists of the 18th century during their years of his influence can

study in Italy.

—

Bibliography. Silvia de Vito Battaglia, Correggio Bibliografia (1934) G. Gronau, Correggio in "Klassiker der Kunst" series (1907) A. Venturi, // Correggio (Italian, German and English eds., 1926) ;

;

;

CORREGGIO—CORRESPONDENCE

544

A. E.

Popham, Correggio

Italian feudal family

who were lords of lUh to the 17th

C. Ricci, Correggio (English trans., 1930) Drawings (1956).

CORREGGIO, DA,

;

(E. K.

We.)

Correggio, near Reggio Emilia, from the century. During the 13th century, as leaders of the Guelfs, they came to dominate the politics of Parma, and in 1303 Ghiberto da Correggio was acclaimed lord of the city, which he ruled until 1316. In 1341 his son Azzo, a friend of Petrarch, who dedicated

him the De remediis utriusqite jortunae, recovered control of Parma, only to sell it again three years later to the Este family of Correggio itself, however, remained independent, being raised to the rank of countship in 1452 and to that of principality in 1616. Shortly afterward, in 1630, Siro da Correggio was condemned by the Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand II to pay a heavy fine for minting bad coin unable to raise the sum he was forced to to

Ferrara.

;

cede Correggio to the Este of Modena in 1634. an end with the death of Camillo in 1711.

The family came

—

Bibliography. G. Tiraboschi, Memorie storiche modenesi (179395) articles by Q. Bigi and V. Magnanini in Atti delta Depidazione di Storia Patria, Modena e Parma (1865-69 and 1890) and by M. Melchiorri in Arckivio storico provincie parmensi (1906). (P. J. J.) ;

CORREGIDOR, a rocky island at the entrance of Manila bay. Republic of the Philippines, famous for a historic defense by U.S. and Filipino forces against overwhelming numbers of Japanese during World War II. After the fall of Bataan in April 1942, Corregidor was the last outfHjst of organized resistance in the islands. For 27 days its forces, under Lieut. Gen. Jonathan M. Wainwright, repelled all efforts to dislodge them from the elaborate system of tunnels and emplacements built after the SpanishAmerican War, but were finally forced to capitulate on May 6, 1942. See also World War II: The War in the Pacific.

CORRELATIVE

generally denotes the terms or partners of relationship requires at least two terms between and they are said to be correlative terms. Thus "cause" and "effect" exemphfy one kind of relationship; "teacher" and "pupil," another; "north" and "south," yet another relationa relationship.

A

it

ship.

The terms

holds,

in

each of these pairs are accordingly called, in

The expression has also been extended which express the same relationship from different

logic, "correlative" terms.

to propositions

Thus 5 is north of P implies are simply correlative propositions.

points of view.

They

P

is

south of S.

CORRENS, KARL ERICH

(1864-1933), German botanist, was one of several scientists who, near the end of the 19th century, independently and almost simultaneously rediscovered Menlaws (see

del's

Munich on

Mendel, Gregor Johann).

He was born

at

and educated in the same city. After graduating from the university in 1891, he continued his studies, working under Karl von Naegeli, Gottlieb Haberlandt and Wilhelm Pfeffer. In 1892 he became Privatdocent of botany in the University of Tiibingen and was promoted to a professorship in 1897. In 1902 he was transferred to Leipzig and in 1909 to Miinster.

were

local in character.

all

The emergence

of intercolonial com-

mittees followed the suggestion of the Virginia house of burgesses which, on March 12, 1773, appointed 11 men, including Patrick

Henry and Thomas

Jefferson, as a committee for intercolonial communication. By the end of 1773, eight other American colohad followed Virginia's example. The committees played a major role in promoting unity against England and in calling together in Sept. 1774 the first continental congress iq.v.), a majority of whose delegates were committee members. With the breakdown of royal control these earlier committees were superseded by committees of safety, but the colonial experience subsequently was seen in the introduction of correspondence committees as a common system of early party organization in the United States. (N. E. Cu.) INSTRUCTION, sometimes referred to in the U.S. as "home study," is a method of teaching by mail. In its fullest development it includes: (1) specially prepared materials, written in a self-explanatory fashion and arranged into a series of lessons; (2) supplementary printed and other materials; (3) a series of exercises to be worked out by the student; (4) the evaluation of these exercises by a competent instructor with the student being informed of this evaluation and, occasionally, being given the opportunity to correct his errors; and (5) a final examination over the whole course. Occasionally one or more of these five elements is omitted, as when a student is asked to grade his own exercises. Again, the elements may be combined in a programmed course or an instructional program designed for use in a teaching machine. At the extreme, so-called "correspondence instruction" is nothing more than a name used to sell specially prepared materials with the purchaser being given no individualized help or outside evaluation of his work. Correspondence instruction has three great advantages: it makes possible the education of those who are isolated by geography or circumstance (such as people in rural areas, prisons or sanitariums) it is highly flexible, since the student may start at any time, study anywhere he wishes and proceed at his own desired rate of progress; and it may be used for highly specialized subjects in which the relatively few interested persons are scattered over a wide area. The disadvantages are in the lack of direct personal contact with the teacher and in the inability to profit from the stimulation of group learning processes. The correspondence student must rely heavily on his own initiative. Perhaps it is for this reason that course completion rates are usually low, despite many special efforts to raise them. Teaching by mail has been a prominent feature of European and nies

CORRESPONDENCE

to

which

with other towns in Massachusetts. Similar groups had appeared in some 80 towns in the colony by Jan. 1773. These committees

Sept. 19, 1864,

He was

appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Research Institute for Biology and professor of the University of Berlin in 1914, and held that position until his death on Feb. 14

;

American

life

since the last quarter of the 19th century.

In 1856

C. Toussaint and Gustav Langenscheidt founded a school in Berlin to teach languages

made

by correspondence.

Other early

efforts were

various European countries, but the first large-scale programs occurred in the U.S., particularly in the work of the in

institution and The University of Chicago (where a correspondence department was included as an integral part of the

Chautauqua

1933.

institution at the time of its founding in 1891).

Correns started his research work by investigation of the cell structure and the growth of the cell wall. Later he turned to the study of the reproduction of mosses. Mendel's law attracted his

The most prominent institutions using this method in both Europe and the U.S., however, have been the correspondence

attention to the problems of genetics, and in this field he achieved so much that his eminence was recognized throughout the world.

He was

especially interested in hybridization and in the most difproblems of inheritance in plants, including the so-called anomalous inheritance of variegation. The study of self-sterility

ficult

in a

number

of plants culminated Correns' scientific activity

CORRESPONDENCE, COMMITTEES OF.

These were the Ameri-

committees originally appointed by the legislatures in can colonies to correspond with colonial agents in England.

They

assumed new functions on the eve of the American Revolution, providing colonial leadership and aiding intercolonial co-operation. Their emergence as agencies of colonial discontent was prompted by Samuel Adams who, at a Boston town meeting, Nov. 2, 1772, secured the appointment of a 21 -man committee to communicate

schools, profit.

independent institutions that are usually operated

These schools range from

ethical institutions

down

for

large, well-established highly

to small, precariously financed

and

occa-

A very wide range of subjects is heavy emphasis on academic ind vo-

sionally unscrupulous ventures, available, with a particularly

cational subjects at all levels, but also with many courses designed Students are secured chiefly by advertising, although some schools maintain to increase personal effectiveness in various fields.

sales representatives.

In the U.S., the typical student

is

a married

man, about 26

years

of age, with at least a high school education, taking a vocational

course.

In the United Kingdom the emphasis

or other vocational qualifications.

vide their instruction

own correspondence is

Some

is

upon

professional

professional bodies pro-

courses, but

most correspondence

conducted by private institutions.

Several reputable

CORREZE— CORRIENTES private correspondence colleges were established during the late

19th century. Courses are offered leading toward external degrees London university and other educational qualifications such as the general certificate of education.

I

of I

I

A number of efforts have been made in the U.S. to regulate correspondence schools and raise the quality of their instruction. The Federal Trade commission has been active in this respect, as have the various state departments of public instruction, often aided by

.

'

special legislation.

;

The

larger

and better established schools have

attempted to improve the calibre of the work by creating in 1926 the National Home Study council, a voluntary inspecting and accrediting agency. Correspondence instruction has also been extensively used by American universities as a part of their extension activities. The armed services also have provided a large number of correspondence courses for their reserve officers and men, and the United States Armed Forces institute operates an enormous program for persons on active duty in the various branches of military service. The British forces correspondence course scheme is available to all ranks in her majesty's armed forces. It provides courses leading to external degrees of London university, to professional and other vocational qualifications and courses for purely cultural study. Many adult education institutions, voluntary associations and government departments also maintain correspondence courses. Much of the work is individualized, but courses have also been developed on a group basis and made available to industrial, com.mercial and other types of users. In addition, correspondence instruction has been used to supple,ment the work of elementary and high schools. In Australia all the state departments of education have since the early decades .of the 20th century provided highly organized services of correspondence instruction for children of primary and secondary school age. The courses, which cover the entire curriculum, are supplemented by traveling libraries and exhibitions, correspondence .school magazines, radio features and other means, including occaisional regional and national meetings. For older students technical courses have been extensively developed, and some university A similarly comprehensive governmental courses are available.

r

,

,

,

I

I

I

New Zealand. Several Canadian provincial governments offer correspondence instruction throughout grade school and some also provide correspondence courses for adults. ;In the U.S.S.R. extensive programs of correspondence instruction 'are conducted through the universities. service operates in

See also

Adult Education; University Extension.

I

—

Bibliography. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, "Education by Correspondence at the Primary and Secondary Levels," Education Abstracti, vol. vi, no. S (Oct. 1954) National Home Study Council, Private Home Study Schools in the United States (1956) (British) War Office, Correspondence Course HandBook, Code No. 10221 (1956); S. A. Rayner (comp.), Correspondence 'Education in Australia and New Zealand (1949). (C. O. H.; X.) ;

;

CORREZE,

:

from

an inland departement of central France, formed

the southern portion of the ancient province of Limousin

bounded north by Haute-Vienne and Creuse, east by :Puy-de-D6me, southeast by Cantal, south by Lot and west by Area 5,887 sq.km. (2,273 !Dordogne. Pop. (1954) 242,798. ;sq.mi.). It is situated on the western margin of the Massif Central {q.v.) and is largely undulating plateau country composed of granite and other crystalline rocks that give an impermeable surface and infertile, acid soils. The highest ground, in the north, is .part of the plateau of Millevaches, which separates the drainage Most of the departement is basins of the Loire and Garonne. drained southwest by the Dordogne and by the Vezere and its trib(q.v.), is

In its lower, western portion the softer sedimentary rocks that flank the Massif Central form a marginal depression, the basin of Brive, with rich if clayey soils. In this undulating, verdant lowland, mixed farming is practised on small holdings, with maize, a wealth of fruits, potatoes and other vegeThe vineyards tables and the rearing of a variety of livestock. utary the Correze.

were formerly important were largely replaced by fruit trees end of the 19th century. (The crystalline uplands are tracts of much poorer farming where 'die traditional grain crop was rye, not wheat or maize. The higher that

pfter the Phylloxera infestation at the

Hi

545

grazing and there is generally much heath remaining, but the lower tracts of undulating plateau form a bocage (q.v.) countryside of small, hedge-bounded fields, devoted to grass and other fodder crops. Intensive cattle rearing is

parts provide only

summer

economy. There is no longer much and the chestnut woodlands that were once so important are neglected and ravaged by disease. Apart from scattered brick- and tileworks, and leather and agricultural industries in the market towns, there is little manufacturing in the departement. At Tulle (q.v.), which gives its name to a fine net, is a government firearms factory. Correze is divided into the arrondissements of Tulle, Ussel and Brive. It lies in the archdiocese of Bourges and the educational division (academie) of Clermont-Ferrand and comes under the jurisdiction of the Limoges court of appeal. Tulle, the capital, in the centre of the departement and Brive, or Brive-la-Gaillarde There are (q.v.), near its western border are the chief towns. the

modern

basis of the rural

cultivation of grain,

Romanesque

churches

Uzerche,

at

Beaulieu-sur-

Aubazine,

Dordogne, Meymac and Vigeois. Uzerche and Treignac, with extensive remains of their medieval fortifications, and Turenne, dominated by the ruins of its castle, are picturesque towns. (Ar. E. S.)

CORRIB,

LOUGH

a lake chiefly in County located on the western edge of the drained southward by the Corrib river

(Lough Coirb),

Gahvay, Republic of Ireland, central Irish lowland.

It is

is

through the city of Gahvay. Varying in width to a maximum of 10 mi. and with a total length of 29 mi., Corrib is the third largest lake in Ireland. On the west its shores form the fringe of Connemara q.v.), and peat bogs of vast extent, in part due to the infilling of the lake, alternate with farmed ridges of glacial drifts. To the east there are also large bogs and limestone outcrops, of which some are bare rock with rough woodlands and others good pastures of farmed lands. The lake provides brown-trout fishing and facilWhen Galway's Eglington canal was ities for pleasure boating. built (1848-57). steamboats went toaquaynear Oughterard. The (

drainage was improved by schemes in 1846-50 and far more ef(T. W. Fr.) fectively in 1955-59. a province of the Mesopotamia region of northeastern Argentina, is bounded in the north and west by the

CORRIENTES,

Parana river, which separates it from Paraguay, and in the east by the Uruguay river, which separates it from Brazil and Uruguay. Pop. (1960) 543,226. The north of Its area is 35,054 sq.mi. Corrientes consists mainly of a low-lying plain with swamps and

To the lagoons, the largest lagoon being the Estero del Ibera. south there are fine natural pastures and woods in the rolling uplands and abundant streams. The climate is hot and humid in the north, subtropical in the southern hills, with hot, rainy

and mild winters.

The mean annual temperature

is

summers

about 71° F.

Among principal activity is the chief crops are maize (Indian corn), rice, cotton, tobacco and Verba mate and tung are grown in the north, near the flax. the raising of cattle and sheep.

The

Misiones border. fruits.

The province

is

especially noted for

its

citrus

Provincial exports include cattle, hides, timber and

fire-

wood, oranges and quarried stone. Manufacturing industries are small, the most numerous being sawmills and tanneries. The principal town and capital is Corrientes (q.v.), an important port on the Parana for steamers plying between Buenos Aires, the upper reaches of the Parana and the Paraguay river. Passengers traveling upstream usually change into vessels of smaller draft at Corrientes. This is the most densely populated district. Other ports on the Parana are Goya (pop. [1956 est.] 25,208), which is on a side channel of the main river and is a flourishing commercial centre exporting pastoral and agricultural products; Empedrado; Bella Vista; and Esquina, which exports timber and firewood. Small ports on the Uruguay river are Monte Caseros, Paso de los Libres and Santo Tome. For generations cattle were smuggled across this upper stretch of the Uruguay, when the difference between prices on the Argentine side of the river and the BraThe rivers provide the main means zilian side made it profitable. of communication in northeastern Argentina, but the chief towns in the province are connected by railway and road. A railway from the town of Corrientes runs southeastward via the inland towns of

CORRIENTES

546 Mercedes and Curuzu Cuatid day and a half.

— —

to Buenos Aires, a distance of 660 Another railway goes north from Caseros, running close to the Uruguay river into Misiones on the way to Asuncion, Parag. Branch lines connect with Goya and with the inland towns of General Paz and MburucuyA, both of

oxidation

which

Interference: The Colours of Thin Plates). At high temperatures scale too thick to give interference colours is quickly formed

mi., taking a

Monte

lie in

a particularly fertile northern district of the province.

(Ge. p.) a river port and capital city of Corrientes northeast Argentina. It lies on the left bank of the Parana river, 20 mi. below the confluence of the upper Parana and

CORRIENTES,

province

in

rivers and 667 mi. N. of Buenos Aires by rail. Pop. (1960^ 10,^.999. The city was founded in 1588 by Torres de Vera, who built a fort named San Juan de Vera de las Siete Corrientes ("seven currents") for the seven rapids in the river just upstream. It is a transshipment point for river traffic because vessels of shallower draft must be used for navigating the upper Parana and the rivers of the Chaco. Its favourable situation in relation to the river basins has made Corrientes an important commercial and industrial centre. Meat-freezing works, tanneries,

Paraguay

sawmills, textile plants and vegetable-oil factories in the city reflect the agricultural and pastoral wealth of its neighbourhood. Among the city's administrative buildings the government palace is noteworthy. Corrientes is the seat of a bishop in the archdiocese of Parana, and has a Renaissance-style cathedral (Las Mercedes). The church of La Cruz is a pilgrimage centre where the 16th-century cross of Torres de Vera is venerated. Corrientes is the terminus of the railway from Entre Rios province and branch lines serve the productive area of northern Corrientes province. Ferries link it with Barranqueras and the Chaco province on the opposite bank of the Parana, and there are airline services to Buenos Aires, Rosario, Arg., and Asuncion, Parag.

(G.J. B.)

CORROSION AND OXIDATION OF METALS.

The

term corrosion may be used to denote a chemical change in which metal passes from the elementary to the combined condition; examples include the formation of scale (oxide) on steel heated in air and of rust (hydrous oxide) on iron exposed to water or

damp To tial

air.

the pure scientist, corrosion reactions should form an essenof chemical kinetics;

division

laws, often simple

fering

they follow well-established

and capable of rational interpretation, but

dif-

somewhat from the laws which receive more prominent

treatment in chemical textbooks. In industry, corrosion processes are sometimes brought about intentionally, as in manufacturing the pigment white lead by the corrosion of metallic lead. More often, they are undesired changes

damage and expense. The damage caused by corrosion is enhanced whenever attack concentrated upon small areas. Intense localized attack ("pit-

involving is

ting") often occurs under conditions intermediate between those

which produce general corrosion and those which confer complete immunity. Thus, inadequate protective measures may actually accelerate penetration, leading to rapid perforation of taining vessel.

are

more

On

some pipe or con-

certain materials, the boundaries of the grains

susceptible than the interiors, and such substances, sub-

jected to a static stress in a corrosive environment, may develop intergranular cracking, leading to failure; certain aircraft alloys, after incorrect heat treatment, are prone to this "stress corrosion

cracking."

Where metal is subjected to alternating stresses in a corrosive environment, the most susceptible portions may be, not the intergranular boundaries, but disorganized matter produced along slip

very rapid during the first few minutes, but steadily can be followed by gravimetric, optical or electrometric methods. slackening If

Structural

members subjected environment

be the limits of safety

to alternating stress

at stress ranges well within

gently heated in

may

crack

what would

air,

the film soon becomes

Light: Waves and

thin.

At least three equations have been established for expressing meati film thickness, y, at time, t; namely, parabolic equation, dy/dl = ki/y or y^ = Kit-^-Kt; loRarithmic equation, dy/dt = *2e ''" or y = K3\og (Kd rectilinear equation, dyldt K6t-\-KT. ki or y

{Ki = 2ki\K^=

= = = fe2^3;-^6 = *4- AH

+ Kb)

;

K's and ^'s represent constants independent of time but varying with temperature.) Parabolic thickening occurs on copper heated in air at high temperatures (Norman Pilling and R. E. Bedworth, 1923) also on iron, nickel and tungsten, and on nickel-chromium alloys. It is generally attributed to the migration of metallic cations and electrons outward through the film to meet the oxygen, and the value i/fej; A'4

;

of the constant ^1 is related to the electrical properties of the film substance by the equations of C. Wagner (1933, 1952). Enhanced resistance to oxidation is obtained by introducing into iron alloying constituents in which either the electronic conduc-

low {see Electricity, ConConduction). Even small percentages of impurities may suffice to alter the nature or abundance of defects in the crystal lattice of the metal or of the oxide film in such a way as to affect the corrosion resistance markedly (E. Gulbransen, 1956). The improved oxidation resistance of iron-aluminum alloys is probably connected with the low electronic conductivity of an alumina film, while that of steels containing chromium has been attributed by some authorities to the low cationic conductivity of chromic oxide. (In practice, a layer of aluminum alloy is produced on fire bars and heat-treatment boxes by heating in a mixture containing aluminum powder, as in tivity or the cationic conductivity

duction of: Conduction

is

in Solids: Ionic

the calorizing process.)

The presence

of sulfur compounds in the atmosphere accelerby increasing the number of lattice defects in the scale; the products of combustion of coal rich in sulfur cause far more

ates attack

wastage than that of cleaner coal. Again, air containing hydrogen produces on copper at ordinary temperatures the same sequence of interference tints which, in pure air, occur only when the metal is heated. At relatively low temperatures, where parabolic thickening is (in absence of sulfur compounds) unimportant except in the opening stages, film growth may occur on iron or copper according to the logarithmic law. A rectilinear growth was found on zinc exposed to London air at ordinary temperatures (W. H. J. Vernon, 1923) and logarithmic growth when it was exposed to relatively pure air over the temperature range 25°-4oo° C. (Vernon, Rectilinear thickening E. I. Akeroyd and E. G. Stroud, 1939). may be caused by the fact that the film substance is sometimes in its nature porous; e.g., where it is an oxide which occupies a volume smaller than the metal destroyed in producing the oxsulfide

ide.

The cause of logarithmic growth sion.

Corrosion by Liquids.

in noncorrosive conditions. Direct Oxidation. An oxide-free surface of iron or copper exposed to dry air at ordinary temperatures soon becomes covered with an invisible oxide film, which isolates the metal from oxygen, so that its growth becomes continuously slower. The progress of

—

is

on iron and copper. Even here the rate of oxidation declines as the film thickens, provided that the scale remains continuous; but thick scale is likely to flake off, particularly under conditions of bending, scraping or fluctuating temperature; to withstand oxidizing conditions at very high temperatures, a material must be chosen which produces a film that is protective while still

planes; thus, "corrosion fatigue" arises. in a corrosive

the metal

thick enough to produce interference tints {see

is

a matter

still

—Wet corrosion may be

under

discus-

divided into:

(1) film-forming reactions; and (2) others. Where a solid film formed over the metal, the rate of thickening usually dies away with time, sometimes according to the parabolic law given is

above. L. B. Parsons (1925) studied the behaviour of several metals toward iodine dissolved in various organic solvents. When the iodide of the metal under test was soluble in the organic liquid chosen, corrosion continued apace; when an insoluble solid iodide

I

CORROSION AND OXIDATION OF METALS

547

appeared on the surface, the corrosion was unimportant.

or iron disks in stagnant potassium chloride solution, the corrosion

Since most metallic oxides are sparingly soluble in water, the attack on heavy metals by pure water containing oxygen would be expected to be slow; this is found to be the case, although

was usually determined by the maximum rate at which oxygen could reach the specimen, which was itself influenced by the nature of the corrosion product; on iron the corrosion velocity often remained constant for long periods, suddenly changing when the physical character of the corrosion product underwent altera-

sometimes the attack is intensified through localization, and cannot then be neglected. Where salts are present in the water, electrochemical corrosion becomes possible, often leading to soluble substances as anodic and cathodic products; in such cases no film is produced, and For instance, if rolled steel the corrosion continues unchecked. covered with broken oxide (mill scale) is placed in a salt solution with access of oxygen, an electric current flows between the oxide scale as cathode and the metal exposed at the breaks as

rate

tion.

Under conditions of shallow immersion, the corrosion velocity diminished when the depth of immersion was increased; in such Beyond cases, the oxygen was reaching the metal by diffusion. a certain depth of immersion, further increases in depth did not affect the velocity, since the oxygen was reaching the metal by convection.

The strength of mined by the rate

the current flowing

must be

largely deter-

of arrival of oxygen at the cathode, but the concentrated on the iron exposed at the breaks in If the discontinuities are small, the attack may be the scale. intense; this combination of large cathode and small anode is one likely to cause pitting or trenching. The presence of a thick oxide scale on metal is not needed for electrochemical corrosion. A strip of iron or zinc sheet partly immersed in a salt solution will suffer electrochemical attack. The portion nearest to the water line, where the replenishment of oxj'gen is easiest, will then be the cathode, while the anode, where attack proceeds, is a zone a little way farther down. In such cases, it has been possible to measure the electric currents (U. R. Evans and T. P. Hoar, 1932); the strength of current flowing is sufficient to account for the rate of corrosion actually observed. Five different methods are now available for the measurement of these local corrosion currents, and it is no longer necessary to regard the electrochemical mechanism of corrosion as a the-

corrosion

is

ory.

The equations governing in

the corrosion of a divalent metal, presence of oxygen can most simply be written,

M

at the anode, at the cathode,

= M2 Wz + H2O +

If iron is corroding in salt

M,

+ -t-2e; 2e

= 20H-

water containing oxygen, the anodic

product can be regarded as ferrous chloride, and the cathodic product as sodium hydroxide. Where they meet they will form ferrous hydroxide FeO.H^O or Fe(OH).^|, which will combine with further oxygen to give hydrated ferric oxide FeoO^.H^O or [

[

FeO(OH)], commonly known

If less oxygen is anhydrous form (Fe304) or a

as yellow rust.

present, magnetite, in the black

green hydrated form,

is usually produced. These bodies, being thrown out of solution some distance from the corroding surface at points where the anodic and cathodic

products meet, will not stifle further attack, so that rusting, when once started, usually proceeds readily (except in hard water where rust

is

produced

in a clinging, protective

form as explained be-

llow). If oxygen is absent, and even to some extent if it is present, an alternative cathodic change is possible; namely, 2H + 4-2e = H2. The two types of cathodic reaction (oxygen reduction and hydrogen liberation) involve either production of or destruction of H+ ions, and thus render the liquid more alkaline or less

OH"

icid.

The hydrogen-evolution type of attack occurs most readily n acid solutions, although certain metals, like zinc or aluminum, which are soluble in alkali (forming complex anions), :an liberate hydrogen from solutions of caustic alkali. ;he oxides of

When

an oxidizing agent is present, other cathodic reactions ire possible, sometimes permitting the electrochemical corrosion ;o attain high velocity; in the attack of nitric acid on copper, "he cathodic reduction of nitric acid constitutes an autocatalytic :ycle, and the attack may become violent, especially in crevices 'fihere

the corrosion products escape dispersal.

Very careful measurements of the corrosion of fuUy immersed 'ron and zinc have been carried out by G. D. Bengough (1927 'tseg.), with J. M. Stuart, then A. R. Lee and later F. Wormwell; I'Ome of their

experiments lasted several years.

On

horizontal zinc

—

Corrosion by the Atmosphere. ^While the corrosion of immersed metal is frequently controlled by the rate of arrival

anode.

fully

of oxygen

(water being everywhere

in

excess), the converse

true of atmospheric corrosion; here oxygen

and

it

is

everywhere

is

in excess,

often the uptake of water which decides the velocity of

corrosion,

who

is

Vernon [igi^

carried out

much

and J. C. Hudson (iq2g et seg.), work on atmospheric attack, found

et scg.)

careful

metal exposed to indoor atmospheres, there is very slow. Thus, Vernon found that nickel exposed to air at a humidity below 70% undergoes little change; above this value, "fogging" that, in the case of

is

often a limiting humidity below which change

is quite free from sulfur oxides. In the early stages, the deterioration is caused by a film made up of little droplets containing sulfuric acid (caused by the catalytic oxidation of adsorbed sulfur dioxide to give sulfuric acid, which

takes place, unless the atmosphere

then attracts more moisture); this is easily removed so that the On brightness of the metal can be restored by simple wiping. longer exposure, basic nickel sulfate is formed, and brightness

can no longer be restored by wiping. The corrosion of metals exposed out of doors increases with the sulfur oxides, largely derived from the combustion of coal, and is thus greater in towns or industrial regions than in the counNear the sea, the presence of salt spray increases atmospheric try. Careful measurements on numerous materials, ferrous and nonferrous, have been carried out by Hudson in various atmospheres. Iron and steel are corroded much more quickly than nonferrous materials. Among the materials included in Hudson's nonferrous tests, zinc, which corroded the fastest, usually suffered corrosion at four to five times the rate of 80/20 nickel-chromium alloy, which proved the most resistant among those studied. Corrosion Caused by an External Electromotive Force. While in natural corrosion there is usually a limit set to the rate of attack by the supply of some essential substance, no such limit exists where the metal undergoing corrosion is made the anode in an electrolytic ceU supplied with current from an external source. corrosion.

—

In the absence of passivity (see below) or other complication, the rate of attack can be calculated, by Faraday's law, from the current forced through the cell. Anodic action, however, does not always lead to attack. If a current be passed between two iron electrodes dipping into a The liquid, two different changes may take place at the anode. iron may pass into solution, giving a soluble ferrous salt, or, alternatively, hydroxyl ions may be discharged on the anode, leading to a protective o.xide film; when once this film has been formed, the current flowing will be used in the evolution of oxygen gas. The decision between these two happenings depends largely on the pH value and the current density. At low values of pH and current density, the iron generally passes into solution as a soluble salt, in weakly alkaline solution a protective film is formed, causing the metal to become "passive" so that corrosion ceases. In strongly alkaline solutions, some metals are attacked freely, forming complex anions. Thus, zinc can pass into solution as a zincate, while tungsten and molybdenum suffer anodic attack at high current efficiency, giving rise to tungstates and molybdates. With iron, dissolution in alkaline solutions occurs only at very

whereas

high concentrations of

Even

alkali.

in acid solutions,

an iron anode

may become

passive

if

is

sufficiently high, the establishment of pas-

sivity being favoured

by stagnant conditions; under conditions

the current density

CORROSION AND OXIDATION OF METALS

5+8

rapid stirrinn, only very liiuh

of

passivity.

When

iron

is

dcnsilies pivc

current

made an anode

in

rise

to

dilute sulfuric acid,

first passes into solution as ferrous sulfate, and then suddenly it becomes passive, almost ceasing to dissolve; the current is now

devoted to evolution of oxygen. Extensive researches at Vienna by W. J. Miiller (ig27 rt seq.) have shown that the first stage of passivity is (he production of a supersaturated solution of ferrous sulfate over the anodic surface; if this is not dispersed by stirring, ferrous sulfate crystallizes out on the surface, raising the current density of the part not covered up by the microscopic crystals. At this stage the liquid next to the metal is |)rot)ahly no longer strongly acid, because of the migration of hydrogen ions toward the cathode, and conditions become favourable for the production of an oxide fdm. The oxide film prevents further attack on the iron, and the current is now expended on the evolution of oxygen in bubbles, which disperse (he ferrous sulfate, leaving the anodic surface bright and outwardly unchanged. one time scepticism was expressed as to whether the passivity set uji in an acid solution could be due to an oxide film. It was contended that all known oxides of iron would dissolve in an acid. The invisible film on iron rendered passive by anodic treatment in sulfuric acid has, however, been isolated by undermining (F>ans, ig.^o), and can be kept in acid for some hours withThis disposes of the objection. The rapid deout dissolving. struction of oxide films brought about by the action of acid on iron previously tinted by heating in air is due to the cell

M

ferric

set

up

oxide

I

acid

|

iron

at discontinuities in the oxide film; the ferric oxide

cathode of the

cell,

is

the

and, being reduced to the ferrous condition, If this reduction is prevented by

rapidly ixisses into solution.

making the electrode

as a

whole the anode, such interference-

colour films are quite stable toward acid. Prevention of Corrosion. The protection of metal to be ex-

—

atmosphere is usually obtained by apiilying suitable sometimes these are paints consisting of a pigment embedded in an organic medium. It is best to include anticorrosive

posed

to the

coats;

substances

in

the coat next to the metal, covering this with other

mechanical or aesthetic added to the lowest coat may be chromates; sodium chromate, mentioned as useful in water treatment, would clearly be too soluble, but zinc chromate Another class is often employed, generally mixed with iron oxide. of anticorrosive pigments are those containing lead; red lead, white lead, lead basic sulfate and even metallic lead have all been used as anticorrosive pigments. In oil paints they interact with the vehicle to give lead soaps; these are broken down by water, yielding strongly adsorbed compounds upon just those parts of the metal which would otherwise become the anodes of the corrosion

paint

coats

chosen

characteristics.

for

The

their

physical,

inhibitive substances

process (J. E. O. Mayne, 11)46). Instead of paints, metallic coats can be used to protect iron and steel. At first sight it might seem best to use a relatively noble metal, which itself withstands corrosion, but if any discontinuity were to occur in such a coat, the dangerous combination of big cathode and small anode might make the corrosion of the

exposed steel locally more intense than if no protection had been attempted. On the other hand, zinc or aluminum, which are anodic to iron, will prevent for a time corrosion of iron exposed at gaps. Zinc is applied to iron by dijjping it into molten zinc, or by electrodeposition, or liy sherardizing (beating in a mixture containing zinc dust); the last process gives a coating which is largely zinciron alloy, and there is frequently an alloy layer present in the ba.se of the coatings obtained by the first-named procedure. A useful method of applying coats is by metal spraying; a cloud of metallic globules from a "pistol" is directed upon the surface to be coated, and produces a layer of overlapping scales. One of the most |)romising plans for protecting steel consists in first shot-blasting the surface, then ajiplying a sprayed coat of aluminum and finally adding an ordinary paint; the paint often keeps its colour far better than if applied directly to steel. The advantage of metal spraying is that it can be applied to a structure after

its

erection.

Another plan suited

for apiilication

depends upon the use of paints so richly pigmented with zinc dust as to constitute almost a continuous metallic coat; such paints confer protection on steel exposed at discontinuities under suitable conditions, and can be applied by brush without special equijiment. The coat after drying may contain 95% of in the field

metallic zinc.

The persistence of the electrochemical corrosion set up when certain salt solutions containing oxygen act on metal is connected with the soluble nature of the anodic and cathodic products. If the salts present are such that either the cathodic or anodic product is sparingly soluble, the corrosion process may stifle itself. Various substances have the [)ower of preventing attack by natural waters on iron or steel. One of these, calcium bicarbonate, is present in many hard natural waters, and on that account it is possible to run such waters through pipelines without the pipes becoming blocked or the waters emerging red with rust. The rise of \m value which always accompanies the cathodic reaction precipitates on the pipe a film of calcium carbonate, later converted, in part, to a clinging form of rust by interaction with the iron salts formed by the incipient anodic process. Acid waters from moorland regions, or soft waters from igneous rock districts, are often corrosive; they can be made less corrosive by passage through beds of limestone or calcined dolomite, during which they ac(]uire calcium bicarbonate and lose their acid character. These cathodic inhibitors are not entirely efficient; they fail to stop corrosion if the water contains much chloride, and in any case they do not prevent attack upon freshly abraded iron; the attack becomes slow only after a film of clinging chalky rust has apijeared on the surface. Anodic inhibitors are chemicals which produce a sparingly soluble anodic product. E.xamples are sodium phos[)hate or sodium chromate; the latter seems to operate by producing an oxide film and by interacting with any ferrous ions formed at the weak places in it to give a mixture containing Fe-' + or Cr''+ and OH" (Moar and Evans, 1932 ), so that discontinuities are repaired. The amount of inhibitor needed increases if the water contains chloIf the addition of inhibitor is insufficient, the corroded area rides. is diminished more quickly than the total amount of corrosion, so that the corrosion per unit area of the part affected is actually increased. In other words, an insufficient addition of inhibitor may intensify attack. Consequently, anodic inhibitors are dangerous if used without judgment, although they can be more efficient than cathodic inhibitors; freshly abraded iron may be kept in a chromate solution indefinitely without rusting. As indicated above, certain substances classified as anodic inhibitors for iron have been jiresumed to act by virtue of their ability to induce the formation of a protective insoluble film from ferrous ions that emerge through breaks in the film. There are other inhibitors the action of which is assumed to depend upon ,

their being adsorbed on the surface so that, again, the active metal and corrosive environment are physically separated. It has also been suggested (H. H. Uhlig, 1951) that inhibitors of the type of chromates may owe their effectiveness to adsorption of the inhibitor anion. Use of an artificially prejiared radioactive isotope of chromium (Cr'') made possible a more detailed study of the action of the chromate ion as an inhibitor and gave support to the conclusion that adsorption is present (R. A. Powers and N. Hackerman, 1953). In addition, the discovery (G. H. Cartledge, 1955. 1956) "f inhibiting properties in the pertechnetate ion,

TcO.|~, derived from the radioactive and long-lived artificial element, technetium, permitted experimental studies to be conducted over much longer times than are possible with the transitory

chromium

isotope.

These studies

led to the suggestion that chemical reaction of may not be essential to the inhibitory process

the inhibitor itself

oxygen is iiresent. The hypothesis was suggested that ad.sorption of the inhibitor at the boundary between the solid surface and the surrounding solution gives rise to electrostatic forces that modify the energy relationships at the interface and permit the corrosion rate to be reduced, under favourable circumstances substantially to zero. Experiments in the latter 1950s led to thf view that the film demonstrated by Evans (19,^0) is still present if

CORRUPT PRACTICES H. Cartledge and R. F. Sympson, 1957). Losses due to corrosion are often serious economically owing to some specific characteristic of the environment. Thus, pipelines or other metallic objects buried underground require protection ferent fundamentally (G.

against corrosion arising

from stray

tensively used as a preventive

and from the acidity or some

electric currents entering

leaving the metal at different points, or other chemical constituent in the soil.

measure

Plastic coatings are ex-

substances, such as sulfides, which accelerate corrosion specifically. Protective measures in such cases depend chiefly on thorough

metal surface with paints containing,

toxic substances such as copper or a cuprous

iCoats,

in the final

compound.

1950s demonstrated the effectiveness Df cathodic protection as applied to ships' bottoms. The problems of corrosion were greatly intensified in the 1950s oy the developments in jet engines and the applications of nuclear The extremely high temperatures encountered in jet ;nergy.

\n e.xperiment

other assistance in meeting campaign costs. United States. Corrupt practices in the United States are regulated by both state and federal legislation. Piecemeal action was taken during the 19th century, especially penal statutes against

—

in these instances.

Another very effective system of protection known as cathodic protection is widely used. In this treatment, the metal to be protected is connected electrically to a more easily corroded metal, such as magnesium. This sets up an electric circuit such that the magnesium corrodes as a "sacrificial anode," while the less active metal serves as the cathode and is not itself attacked. Metals exposed to sea water are subject to corrosion not only because of the electrochemical action that can occur in any salt solution, but also because of the extensive deposition on the metal of marine organisms. The effect of these deposits is due to several factors, including the disturbance of protective paint .coatings, the setting up of galvanic cells due to a differential supply of oxygen under the organism, or even the generation of

iCoating of the

549

extended to the more general regulation of money in nomination and election campaigns, including the specification of purposes for which money might and might not legally be spent, the fixing of legal limits on the size of expenditures and contributions, prohibitions against contributions from certain sources, and the requirement that receipts and expenditures of designated kinds be publicly reported. In attempts to ensure freely competitive elections, later measures in some nations and in some U.S. states sought to provide major candidates with certain communications facilities and with

but that its stability and effectiveness depend upon a labile adsorption of the inhibitor when other vigorous passivating conditions are absent. "Passivation" and "inhibition" are therefore not dif-

in the latter

I

and gas turbines necessitated the development of new lUoys that have sufficient resistance to corrosion by the hot comjustion gases as well as adequate mechanical properties at the ;ngines

ligh temperatures encountered.

In certain types of equipment associated with nuclear reactors, only are metals exposed to corrosive chemicals and elevated the intense radiation associated with fission ;reatly modifies the environment and may enhance the corrosion. The details of the effect of radiation upon corrosion rates were

,

liot

lemperatures, but

very imperfectly understood in the early 1960s. The experimediums for heat transfer in nuhas introduced a type of corrosion known as mass ransfer, whereby metal may be dissolved from the hottest parts I'f the system and deposited in cooler areas. See also references under "Corrosion and Oxidation of Metals" :i the Index volume. Bibliography. G. D. Bengough, "The Corrosion of Metals in Salt olutions and Seawater," Jubilee Memorial Lecture, Chem. & Ind. Rev.), ii:igs, 228 (1933); W. H. J. Vernon, "The Corrosion of letals in Air," Jubilee Memorial Lecture, Chem. & Ind. {Rev.), 2:314 (ig43); U. R. Evans, "Electrochemical Corrosion in Nearly ffeutral Liquids," Palladium Medal Lecture, /. Electrockem. Soc, 103:73 (1956)1 Metallic Corrosion, Passivity and Protection, 2nd ed. New York, London, 1946) J. C. Hudson, The Corrosion of Iron and 4eel (New York, London, 1940) R. J. McKay and R. Worthington, 'orrosion Resistance of Metals and Alloys (New York, London, 1936) i. N. Speller, Corrosion: Causes and Prevention, 3rd ed. (New York, !.ondon, 1951); H. H. Uhlig (ed.). Corrosion Handbook (New York, ondon, 1948) E. Rabald, Corrosion Guide (Houston, Tex., London, 0. Kubaschewski and B. E. Hopkins, Oxidation of Metals and 551) Hoys (New York, London, 1953) W. E. Garner (ed.), Chemistry of 'ie Solid State (New York, London, 1955); National Association of orrosion Engineers, Cathodic Protection: a Symposium (Houston, 'ex., 1949) H. Fischer, K. Hauffe, W. Wiederholt (ed.), Passivierende \ilme und Deckschichten (Berlin, 1956). (U. R. E.; G. H. Ce.)

jtill

nental use of molten metals as

clear reactors

!

—

;

Somewhat later, certain states and bribery and related abuses. congress moved to limit the assessment of public officeholders. It was not until 1890, however, that New York adopted its publicity law, the first in a long series of enactments attempting to bring about disclosure of the sources and uses of campaign money, an effort that became a cornerstone of state regulation, and was followed by federal reporting requirements, the first of which was adopted in 1910. State legislatures addressed themselves repeatedly over the years to various types of controls. Three-fourths of the states amended their statutes in some way between 1951 and 1957, one-fourth of them making general revisions during that period. The principal federal regulations rested on the Corrupt Practices act of 1925, the Hatch acts of 1939 and 1940, and the Labor-Management Relations act of 1947 (the Taft-Hartley act). Although corrupt-practices legislation in the United States attempted and accomplished more than in other nations, it was characterized in general by faulty conception, imperfect draftsmanship

and casual enforcement. State Regulation.

— By 1961, 43

reporting requirement.

Illinois,

had some kind of public

states

Rhode

ana and Nevada were without one, the

Island, Delaware, Louisi-

latter three states

having re-

pealed theirs within recent years. A survey in 1954 showed that in all states with reporting requirements, candidates had to make reports, and in 33 of them parties or campaign committees also had In six states, information on disbursements only to file reports. was called for, whereas elsewhere receipts were also covered. The requirements applied only to primaries for the nomination of candidates in six states, and to primaries and general elections in the others. In most states, reports were called for after the voting, but in 17 they had to be submitted both before as well as after. states have differed widely in their restrictions on sources campaign contributions. In 1959 about one-third had prohibitions against the solicitation of significant groups of state employees or otherwise tried to limit the freedom with which such employees could make campaign gifts. About two-thirds of them

The

of

limited the right of corporations to give money to candidates or Four prohibited the gift of labour-union dues their supporters.

money on Four

behalf of political candidates.

states also limited the size of individual contributions, the

maximum ranging from $1,000 to $5,000. Two-thirds of the states had ceilings on campaign expenditures. The ceilings generally, but not invariably, to both primaries and general applied

permissible

elections, but usually only to expenditures

;

his

knowledge and consent.

by the candidate, or with also applied to cam-

Even where they

;

;

;

;

;

CORRUPT PRACTICES

'

'ry,

undue

Vstems.

is

a general term including brib-

influence, etc., but has specific reference to electoral

Beginning

in the

19th century,

many

nations outlawed

freedom of elections, such as Improvements I'eating, intimidation, coercion and personation. electoral administration, notably the secret ballot, were also deractices that interfered with the

!i

igned to reduce corrupt election practices.

Legislation gradually

paign committees, they generally failed to limit total expenditures. Between 1942 and 1956 seven states abandoned this type of at-

tempted control. Between 1908 and 1959 eight states authorized the issuance of official pamphlets to assist candidates in publicizing themselves. In the latter year only Oregon, North Dakota and Idaho did so. Minnesota in 1955 and California in 1957 authorized a state income-tax deduction for certain political contributions up to $100, and Minnesota did the same for limited campaign expenditures for The commonwealth of certain party officials and candidates. Puerto Rico in 1957 adopted a measure under which the government paid the bills of a political party up to a maximum of $75,000 in nonelection years and $150,000 in election years. Act of 1925. Because of constitutional uncertainties arising out of earlier federal legislation, the Corrupt Practices act of 1925,

—

CORSAIR— CORSICA

550 which repealed previous

legislation,

made no

effort to control

nom-

inating primaries or conventions.

It required the treasurer of every political commitlee with activities in two or more states to tile periodic reports w ith the clerk of the U.S. house of representatives, four reporting dates being specified for nonelection years and The sworn statements were rec|uired to six for election years. show the name and address of each contributor of $100 or more with the amount given, the total of other contributions, the names and addresses of all persons to whom expenditures of $10 or more were paid, with the amount, date and purpose of each such expendIndividuals spending $50 iture, and the total of other expenses. or more in two or more states other than by a contribution were

make a similar report of their expenditures. Each candidate for representative and for senator was required to file with the clerk and w'ith the secretary of the senate, respectively, required to

before and after each election, a sworn statement itemizing contributions and expenditures handled by him personally or by some-

one else with his knowledge and consent in support of his candidacy. Under the act, as amended, any candidate for senator could spend up to $10,000 and any candidate for representative up to $2,500 unless state law prescribed a lower figure. Important categories of expenditures were excluded from the limits, and the limits themselves could be raised to a maximum of $25,000 and $5,000 respectively, under a formula that took account of the number of votes cast in the last election. The act contained various other prohibitions, carrying forward one originally enacted in 1907 making it unlawful for any national bank or corporation organized under authority of congress to make a contribution in connection wuth any election, or for any corporation to contribute to federal campaigns. Hatch Acts. The Hatch act of 1939, amended in 1940, extended existing controls over federal civil-service employees by prohibiting all federal employees other than policy-making officers from taking active part in political campaigns. These limitations, as well as a ban on the solicitation of political contributions by one

—

employee from another, applied to

state

and

local officers

em-

ployed in connection with activities financed in whole or in part by

expenditures. Detailed reports were required, showing the sources of funds and to whom expenditures were paid and for what purposes. Summaries of the reports ajipeared in local papers and were printed in a document prepared by the home office. The use of money for some purposes was prohibited (e.g., bribery, treatall

workers, music, banners, hired cars). Anonymously published campaign documents were forbidden. Parliamentary candidates were permitted to mail one two-ounce letter free to each elector and to rent public buildings at maintenance cost. They could not buy radio or television time, though in fact each important party was provided limited amounts of free time during a campaign. British efforts to regulate corrupt practices enjoyed general approval inside and outside the country, although the objectives sought were modest compared with those in some other places, especially the United States. No public accounting was required of money spent by central party organizations not directly allocable to an individual candidate, nor of money received and used on behalf of candidates outside the actual campaign period, usually about three weeks. No attempt was made to prevent campaign contributions and expenditures by corporations and labour unions. The regulation of corrupt practices in local-governrnent elections in England was similar to that of parliamentary elections; certain similar features were also adopted in other commonwealth ing, precinct

nations.

See also Electoral Systems Bribery. Bibliography. Alexander Heard, The Costs of Democracy (1960); Louise Overacker, Money in Elections (1932), Presidential Campaign Funds (1946) E. R. Sikes, State and Federal Corrupt-Practices Legislation (1928); V. 0. Key, Jr., Politics, Parlies, and Pressure Groups, 4th ed., ch. xviii (1958). (Al. He.) the name given by the Mediterranean peoples to ;

—

;

CORSAIR,

the privateers of the Barbary coast who plundered the shipping of Christian nations. See Barbary Pirates.

JOHN MURRAY

(1835-1893), U.S. army officer CORSE, and hero of the Civil War battle of Allatoona, was born in Pittsburgh, Pa., on April 27, 1835. He attended West Point and later studied law.

In 1861 he was appointed major in the 6th Iowa infantry.

federal funds.

distinguished himself in several campaigns, was

No political committee with activities in two or more states could legally receive or spend in excess of $3,000,000 during a

battle of Missionary Ridge (1863) and

calendar year. It was also made illegal to contribute directly or indirectly an aggregate in excess of $5,000 during a calendar year to or

on behalf of any candidate for nomination or election to a

federal office, or to a national political party or to an organization

active on behalf of such a candidate, other than a state or local

committee. As the legislation was interpreted, individuals could give up to the limit to as many candidates or committees as they wished, and any number of different committees could spend political

up

to the legal

The Hatch

maximum.

acts also contained prohibitions against buying goods,

advertising or articles of any kind for the benefit of federal candidates, as well as provisions making it unlawful for anyone entering a contract

with the United States government to

make

a

contribution, measures that were largely unenforced.

—

Labor-M anagement Relations Act of 1947. Trade unions, but not political committees formed under their auspices, were prohibited by this act from making contributions or expenditures in connection with the nomination or election of federal officials. The act also extended the prohibitions against corporate political action to include expenditures

—

and nominations.

England. Early measures in England culminated in the Corrupt and Illegal Practices Prevention act, 1883. This legislation, altered by several later enactments including the Representation

(Amendment) act, 1958, set the basic regulatory patThe expenses that might be incurred by a candidate for

of the People tern.

parliament during the campaign period were strictly limited according to the number of electors in each candidate's constituency (the authorized amounts averaging about £850 for each candidate in

1955, plus certain personal expenses

The candidate

up

to

£100 additional).

himself, or a single election agent designated

him, was required personally to receive

all

money and

by

to authorize

wounded

He

at the

promoted to the rank of brigadier general. In command of a division during Sherman's Atlanta campaign. Corse played a leading role in one of the most dramatic events of the war. Hood in his campaign of harassment against Sherman's forces in Georgia in the fall of 1864, ordered an attack on a Union supply post at Allatoona, about 30 mi. N.W. of Atlanta. Corse, ordered to hold the post, moved in with a force of less than 2,000 and successfully repulsed an enemy numbering nearly 5,000. A third of the forces on each side were lost in the bloody battle and Corse was severely wounded. Philipp Bliss, the singing evangelist, wrote his popular hymn "Hold the Fort" in

commemoration

of the action.

Corse retired at the end of the war with the rank of major genHe became a collector of internal revenue and later a contractor. Active in Democratic politics, he was appointed postmaster of Boston in 1886. He died in Winchester, Mass., on eral.

April 27, 1893.

CORSICA

(Fr. Corse), the third largest island in the Medi-

terranean sea, forms the sixth departemetit of France by size (3,367 sq.mi.) together with 43 offshore islets. Corsica lies about 105 mi. from southern France and 51 mi. from Italy and is sepaIt has a rated from Sardinia by the 7-mi. strait of Bonifacio. north-south length of 114 mi. between latitude 41° 20' and 43° N.

on the same latitude as Rome. Ovalwidth of 52 mi. Physical Features Corsica is the most mountainous island in the Mediterranean, with an average elevation of about 1,863 ft. Its highest summit, Mt. Cinto, reaches 8,891 ft. and there are about 40 other peaks rising above 6,500 ft. Geologically Corsica represents..two distinct mountain systems. Ajaccio, the capital,

is

shaped, the island has a

The

maximum

eastern and northeastern sector of the island consists

folded, alpine structures, lustres,

and thought

to be

most of them

in

metamorphosed

of

schistes

autochthonous nappes having their

roots

CORSICA in

Tuscany,

acteristic,

Italy.

Heavily dissected, mountainous

relief is char-

reaching 5,800 ft. in the district of Castagniccia (chestNorth of the Golo river, the nappes are folded in

nut woods).

wider, clearer amplitudes, the synclinal basins of Novella

and

St.

Florent alternating with the two anticlinal ranges of the Agriates and Cap Corse. To the west and southwest of these alpine structures, the remaining two-thirds of Corsica comprise the rejuvenated remnant of an ancient land mass. This is granitic Corsica,

with its rock types weathered into distinctive land forms. The hornblende granite weathers rapidly into softly rounded plateaus, while the hard granulites and rhyolites form the high ridges and rugged pinnacles notable in the Calanques de Piana on the west

Further variety is produced by gabbros, diorites, serpentines and eroded breccias of volcanic origin, while parallel and transverse dikes may run for several miles as scarped walls, esChemical weathering has been marked, pecially in the southeast. coast.

especially in the curious

hoUowed-out

551

altitudinal sequence.

higher summits.

The mountainous interior holds wild boar, foxes, deer and hares and also game birds. There, too, is the mouflon, the only European wild sheep. (R. E. G. P.-S.; Ma. Bu.)

Archaeology.—After that of

and scrapers as well as a

traditional microlithic industry, the Chalcolithic culture penetrated to Corsica at the beginning of the

3rd millennium B.C. It did not use hypogea, but employed natural caves (rarely) for burials. Some rock paintings of this period in red ochre of a schematic art and possibly of Iberian treatment were discovered in shelters to the west of Cap Corse. In the Early Bronze Age (2500-1700 B.C.) the important Mega-

covered the island with dolmens, great cists, and and grouped menhirs. Palaggio, situated 4 km. from the sea and 2 km. to the right of the road from Sartene to the little port of Tizzano, alone comprises more than 90 menhirs in two rows. The granite of all these monuments was carefully worked. At the end of the Early Bronze Age, after the

lithic religion

numerous

low limestone karst (q.v.) of Bonifacio. Quaternary glaciation has only modified the high relief of the summits. Much more significant has been the deep valley erosion, the major valleys flowing first in flat-floored waterfalls (e.g., Scala de Santa Regina). A major contrast is presented between the coasts of the east and the west. In eastern Corsica the extensive coastal plain of Aleria (about 40 mi. in length and up to 8 mi. wide), together with smaller plains farther north and south, reveal emergent features with lagoons, sandspits, etc. Facing west, the coast has submergent features, with deep rias and small isolated plains at their head, cut off from each other by rocky headlands. Such are the drowned gulfs of Valinco, Ajaccio, Sagone and Porto, with former coast lines detached as in the lies Sanguinaires and with deep water inThe ancient Hercynian folds and later fractures running shore. northeast-southwest are represented by 30-40 main valleys and interfluves on the western coast, making coastal communications difiicult. In contrast the eastern mountain flanks are less broken and descend steeply and rapidly to the extensive coastal plain. This plain was infilled by the deposits of the two largest rivers, the Golo in the north and the Tavignano farther south, and by those of numerous secondary streams which flow down the eastern mountain sides. The upper courses of most of the rivers are flat-floored, high basins just below the mountain crests. From them the streams descend rapidly in their middle courses through gorges. The western rivers flow to the heads of the gulfs where they have iformed small, isolated plains at the sea's edge, each one separated ,from that at the mouth of the next stream by cliffed promontories. Climate. The Corsican climate is typical of the western Medi-

(2.4 mi.)

the northwest,

in the

—

By

and moderate size, temperature range is reduced and the precipitation is above :he average. Mean monthly temperatures near the coast vary from The annual precipi(ibout 50° F. in January to 75° F. in August. ation ranges from about 24 in. at sea level to over 50 in. in he mountains. There is approximately the same amount on both rides of the island, thunderstorms having their maximum intensity m the eastward, leeward coast. On average there are 60-70 rain :iays in the year, the maximum occurring generally in the autumn, idthough the wet season is prolonged into the late spring. Summer irought is most pronounced in the extreme south. The snow line ,ies at about 4,500 ft. in April, but snow disappears from the peaks ,)y late May. (J. M. Ho.) Vegetation and Animal Life. The flora belongs to the Sardo-orsican province. The natural plant cover can be divided into our zones according to altitude. (1) The Mediterranean belt rem sea level up to 1,300 ft., which includes halophytes (seacoast ilants) with sandy habitat and rock creviced plant associations; naquis, with arbutus, tree heath, mastic, buckthorn, myrtle and osemary; and garigue of cistus the maqiiis and garigue altematng with olive tree cultivations and woods of cork oak or holm oak. 2) The submontane belt (1,300-3,000 ft.) consisting of woods f chestnut, pubescent oak (Quercus pubescens) or maritime pine iPinus pinaster). (3) The montane belt (3,000-5,000 ft.) where re found pure or mixed communities of Corsican pine, beech and iterranean.

virtue of

its

insular position

.he

—

I

—

|r.

(4)

The

alpine belt with Corsican alter shrub, stunted sub-

'tmib formations, grass

communities and boulder vegetation in

a Neolithic period having affinities with

North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean, which can in the rock shelters by arrowheads and obsidian blades

be traced

and

tiiffoni of

This zone extends to the bare areas of the

isolated

zenith of the Megalithic culture, occurred an insular phase of arevolution. This was represented first by engravings on dolmens (circles and bossed bulls' horns) and later by engravings on the menhirs, which progressively advanced to the stage of a true culture that of the statue menhir at the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age. More than 40 statues, varying from the archaic to sculpture in the round and from 6 to 9 ft. high, have been examined in the island's two principal groups; the southern group is the most dense and the most characteristic. The main centre of this culture, where it also reached its peak, was at Filitosa, There, between 1948 and a site 40 km. (25 mi.) S. of Ajaccio. 1959, 16 statues were found, most of them armed with swords and daggers in low relief. These statue menhirs are unique and their art form, peculiar to the island, cannot usefully be compared with that of groups elsewhere. The anthropomorphic statues of Corsica were probably representations of dead personages, for they were connected with a funerary cult. They have been dated from the iSth to the 14th centuries B.C., immediately before the arrival tistic

—

of a

new

—

civilization

—

that of the builders of circular, dry-stone

monuments, sometimes of cyclopean arrangement, with inner chambers and passages. In the walls of one of these, six earlier statue menhirs were found broken up and used as building material.

These circular monuments, called torre, reach a diameter of about 50 ft. and have been definitely attributed to the period between the Middle and Late Bronze Age 1700 to 1200 B.C. They form part of a Mediterranean Bronze Age current covering, among other regions, Apulia in southern Italy with its specchie (rude stone structures) and Gallura and the north of Sardinia (q.v.) with its galleried nuraghi (dry-stone towers) or pseudonuraghi. These basically related monuments served both a funerary (by cremation) and a religious purpose; their importance lies in the fact that they were anterior to, or at the very beginning of, the Nuraghic civilization of Sardinia. In Corsica the principal circular monuments, of which there are about 30, are near Filitosa and, higher up, in the Taravo valley, at Balestra, at Foce and at Torre on the east coast near Porto-Vecchio. Of the Iron Age (Hallstatt) there are several funeral sites yielding ornaments and bronze weapons, tanged, as at Cagnano near Luri. In the centre of the island there are rock engravings with stylized and geometrical (R. A. Gr.) signs. History. The recorded history of Corsica (Greek Cyrnos or Kyrnos) begins c. 560 B.C., when Greeks from Phocaea in Asia Minor founded the town of Alalia on the east coast. Twenty years later almost the whole population of Phocaea, fleeing the Persian armies, joined the colony; but in 535 the Greeks were defeated in battle by an allied Carthaginian-Etruscan fleet. Although Herodotus states that they abandoned Alalia, archaeology shows that Greek influence remained paramount there during the next 300 years, in spite of Carthaginian and Roman ambitions. Sicilian

—

;

—

Greeks raided the coast

in

453 and 384, but the island had fallen

CORSICA

552

under Carthaginian domination by the end of the 4th century. In 259 B.C. Lucius Cornelius Scipio won a great victory over the Carthaginians and captured Alalia, then known as Aleria. Thf Romans. The indigenous population put up a ferocious resistance to the Roman invaders. The conf|uest of the island was achieved in a sequence of hard-fought campaigns between 234 and 16.? B.C. Corsica, with Sardinia, was formed into a single Roman province. In 93 B.C. Gaius Marius founded Mariana; 13 years later Lucius Cornelius Sulla rebuilt Aleria. Though the philosopher Lucius Annaeus Seneca complained bitterly of his exile in Corsica (a.d. 43-49 ). under the Roman emPtolemy's map shows a string of ports pire the island liourished. round the coasts and numerous inland settlements. The Romans built roads, cultivated the fertile east coast and implanted their language the basis of the subsisting Corsican dialect. Christianity had taken root by the 3rd century. Barbarian Invasions and the Papacy. With the collapse of the West Roman empire the Vandals invaded Corsica c. 450), entirely

—

—

—

(

destroying Aleria. They are remembered chiefly for deforesting A brief Ostrogothic occupalarge areas for shipbuilding timber. tion intervened before the island was finally reconquered by the Byzantines and organized with Sardinia as a province (552). The

Corsicans gained nothing by the change, for they were mercilessly overtaxed by corrupt officials. In 725 Corsica was annexed to the Lombard kingdom of Italy, Meanwhile the Prankish king, to be freed about 50 years later. Pepin the Short, in 757, had promised the island, when liberated, to the papacy. The donation was confirmed by Charlemagne. The pope was thenceforth titular ruler of Corsica, but in practice dele-

between them was constant fell to the Genoese

off

the coasts.

Bonifacio, fiercely dis-

1187; peopled by their citizens it became their base for territorial expansion. The 13th century saw the rise to power of the ambitious feudal family of Cinarca. During the next 250 years its leaders, estab-

puted,

in

lished in large fiefs in the west

domination over the whole

known

and south, sought to extend

island.

Thus Sinucello

their

della Rocca,

as the giiidice ("judge) of Cinarca, virtually ruled Corsica

during the latter half of the 13th century, until, as a vassal of Pisa, he was captured and imprisoned by the Genoese. Meanwhile Genoa had defeated the Pisans in the naval battle of Meloria (1284), and the role of Pisa in Corsica was at an end, Genoa and .4ra(;on. In 1296 Pope Boniface VIII invested James, king of Aragon, with the suzerainty of Corsica and Sardinia, This unfortunate step inaugurated a new period of rivalry and war. While Aragon sought to prepare the annexation of the island by alliances with the nobles of Cinarca. republican Genoa

—

common

who had begun minor feudal lords. An Aragonese attack on Bonifacio in 1346 drove the Genoese to action. In the following year they sent an expeditionary force to conquer the island, but the Black Death cut short the campaign. It was not until ten years later that they could again turn their attention to Corsica. The moment was favourable. Sambocuccio cultivated the allegiance of the to

people,

resent the increasing pretensions of the

d'Alando, elected leader of the populations of central Corsica, led a successful revolt against the feudal lords of that region. Needing support, he appealed to Genoa to assume the government

The Genoese seized the offer with alacrity. Their governors' authority, however, was only operative in the north and of the island.

gated its administration. Before the Corsicans could benefit by this arrangement they were subjected to about 300 years of Saracen invasions. Raids from north Africa had begun early in the 8th century; incursions from Spain followed. In spite of expeditions organized by Charle-

centre, where the feudal regime had been broken: this territory was known as the Terra di Comune. The Cinarchesi, favouring

magne and

pect of a costly war, assigned Corsica to a financial company known as the Maona. Its forces had to combat Arrigo on and off Bastia. founded by the Genoese about until his death in 1401. With the death of 1380, became their administrative capital. Arrigo, his nephew, Vincentello dTstria, took up the Aragonese

his son Pepin of Italy the attacks became increasingly frequent and destructive. The Tuscan count Boniface II founded Bonifacio, in the south, after a victorious crusade (c. 828) but by the mid-9th century conditions had become so desperate as to produce a mass exodus of Corsicans to Rome. Corsica, it seems, was ;

finally freed

from the Saracen menace early

in the

1

1th century

by

the combined action of Pisan and Genoese fleets. Pisa and Genoa. In 1077 Gregory VII asserted papal authority by entrusting the administration of Corsica to the bishop of Pisa.

—

The domination

of the Pisans

was an enlightened

ecclesiastical

protectorate; innumerable churches were built under their direc-

Genoa, however, soon manifested hostility. In 1133 Pope Innocent II attempted to appease the conflict by dividing the jurisdiction of the six Corsican bishoprics between the republics of Pisa and Genoa, three to each. The compromise satisfied neither; war tion,

Aragon, remained in control of the south, Arrigo della Rocca was the first who attempted to dominate Corsica with Aragonese aid (1376). Genoa, alarmed at the pros-

By 1420 he had all but ousted the Genoese from Corsica. Aragonese troops, commanded by King Alfonso V, landed the same year. The town of Calvi submitted; but the Genoese inhabitants of Bonifacio successfully resisted the Spanish fleet in a heroic five months' siege. Alfonso V thereupon abandoned the island, leaving Vincentello as viceroy. Vincentello's rule was uncontested until he was captured and executed by the Genoese in 1434. At this period a new class of Corsican leaders emerged: the cause.

caporali.

Originally elected magistrates or chiefs of the districts

came to form an influential and greedy subaristocracy. obtaining pensions from the Genoese and other rulers in return for their co-operation. Bank of San Giorgio. After a period of anarchy the Genoese freed from the feudal regime, they

—

Corsican delegation, placed the island under the government of the Bank of San Giorgio. This was a powerful financial company already entrusted with the administration of Genoa's eastern colonies. The rule of the bank was opposed by a series of formidable revolts led by the war lords of Cinarca: Raffe da Leca (executed in 1456), Rinuccio da Leca (executed in 1489), Gian Paolo da Leca (exiled in 1500) and Rinuccio della Rocca (assassinated in 1511). The officers of the bank retaliated with the utmost ruthlessness they burnt \'illages. crops and trees and forcibly exiled the population of the Niolo With the death of Rinuccio della Rocca (a mountain region). who had kept them at war for ten years, the power of the Cinin 1453, at the request of a

:

archesi

was

finally broken.

The Genoese scorched earth efficient

BONIFACIO. ON THE CLIFFS OF CORSICA; FOUNDED IN 828

policy was compensated by various constructive works: the coastal towns were refortified

Ajaccio was founded (1492), and a chain of watchtowers buill round the coasts as defense againjt Moorish raids. The administration was not, in its form, tyrannical. The governor was assistec by three lieutenants and a vicario, who judged criminal cases local government and civil jurisdiction remained in the hands o:

^

—

CORSICA the Corsicans, the pievi (groups of parishes) being administered

by a podesta (mayor) aided by raxioneri (accountants), all CorsiNonetheless many of the more cans and elected by the people. dynamic Corsicans preferred to emigrate rather than submit to the unpopular foreign regime. Constant raids on the coasts by Barbary pirates added to the general distress. As soldiers of fortune Corsicans made their names in all the Italian states; others built

up fortunes in Spain and Marseilles. Sampiero Corso and the First French Interveittion. It was a soldier of fortune of humble origin, Sampiero Corso, who once again offered the Corsicans an alternative to Genoese rule. Engaged first in the troops of Giovanni de' Medici and then in the French army with the rank of colonel, in 1SS3 Sampiero prevailed on Henry II of France (then at war with the Holy Roman emperor Charles V, ally of Genoa) to invade Corsica. The French army was supported by the Turkish fleet and a strong Corsican contingent commanded by Sampiero. By 1556, when the truce of Vaucelles put an end to hostilities, the French had occupied the whole island

—

They ruled judiciously until Corsica was returned to Genoa by the treaty of Cateau Cambresis (1559), the disappointment of most of the people. Having unsuccessto fully solicited aid from Turkey, Sampiero returned to Corsica with a handful of followers and waged a desperate three years' war against the Genoese until he was killed in an ambush in 1567. Genoese Rule. The republic, having assumed direct control of except Calvi and Bastia.

—

the island, reorganized its administration. A revised legal code was promulgated. Justice was rendered by the governor, by variofficials (some of whom were Corsicans) and by the podestai. The governor could condemn to death without trial. Eighteen Corsican delegates 12 for the northeast (the nobili dodici) and 6 for the southwest (the nobili sei) were charged to formulate the grievances of the people. Every year they sent an oratore If this regime was not really to Genoa to present their requests. totalitarian, its execution left much to be desired. The Genoese Dfficials were usually ruined gentlemen who sought to recuperate their fortunes by selling privileges and favours. The administration of justice was notoriously corrupt. In these circumstances the Corsicans preferred private vengeance; the vendetta (q.v.), 1 custom dating back to the early middle ages, increased, in spite if the harsh repressive measures of the Genoese. In 1676 Genoa :eded a tract of land to about 700 Mainote Greeks, refugees from

pus

—

Turkish oppression.

—

They remained

Nationalist Rebellions.

—In

Genoese tax

in central

collector.

Genoa

Roman emperor

Charles VI, who sent .roops and negotiated a peace in 1732. Its terms, however, were lot respected, and in 1734 the Corsican nationalists again took to irms. The leaders, Luigi Giafferri and Giacinto Paoli, declared ;he island independent and proclaimed a democratic constitution. In 1736 the German adventurer Theodor, baron von Neuhof [q.v.) landed with a shipload of arms and supplies. Promising .mportant foreign help, he managed to persuade the Corsican eaders to crown him king (Theodore I) at Cervione. This fanci-ul but not incompetent charlatan distributed titles of nobility, .:oined money and won some military successes until, running out )f funds, he left the island the same year. The rebellion noneheless continued. Genoa sought assistance from France. The :omte de Boissieux (Louis de Fretat) was defeated by the Corsi:an patriots in 1738; but the marquis de Maillebois (J. B. Desnarets), replacing him, overcame resistance in a rapid campaign vhich drove Giafferri and Paoli into exile. Peace was re-estab;oHcited help

)shed

Two

from the Holy

when

the French withdrew in 1741. years later Theodore reappeared on a British ship, but left

lurriedly,

having been coldly received by his "subjects." The more serious aid from Charles Emmanuel III,

'orsicans obtained

Savoy-Sardinia, then the ally of the Austrians and the iritish in the War of the Austrian Succession. British warships nd Sardinian troops captured Bastia in 1745, but the town was

luke of

etaken soon afterward

by a combined Genoese-Franco-Spanish

orce.

Unable to master the situation, Genoa again obtained French The marquis de Cursay (Seraphin Rioult de Douilly) be-

elp.

cans of 25 or more years of age; Paoli himself held the executive assisted by an elected council. During the 14 years of his rule this man of genius was able to lead the Corsicans in a great regenerative effort he repressed the vendetta, created a university and a printing press, coined money, founded a port (L'lle-

power

:

Rousse) to replace Genoese Calvi and built a navy which took part in his conquest of the island of Capraia (1767).

The Genoese, powerless, once again turned to France. By the Compiegne (1764) Louis XV undertook to garrison their

treaty of

coastal towns in Corsica for four years.

Paoli vainly sought an France in which Corsican independence would be In 1768 the Genoese sold their rights on Corsica to France, and French troops invaded the island in overwhelming numbers. The Corsicans were decisively defeated at Ponte Nuovo alliance with

recognized.

in

May

months

Paoli

1769. later,

on Aug.

embarked for England in June. Two IS, Napoleon Bonaparte was born in

Ajaccio.

—

The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Period. For the next 20 years Corsica was administered as a pays d'etats under the French monarchy, which recognized the Corsican nobility and accomplished various useful public works. But the French Revolution (1789) was welcomed by the Corsicans. In 1790 the constituent assembly declared Corsica a departement of France. By virtue of the amnesty of political exiles Pasquale Paoli returned to the island the

same

year.

Enthusiastically acclaimed by the

people, he was appointed president of the administrative council

loyal to the republic.

1729 rebellion broke out

Corsica following a dispute with a

553

tween 1748 and 1753 conciliated the patriots and made himself so well-respected on the island that the Genoese, jealous of his influence, contrived to have him removed. Thereupon the Corsican leader Giovan Pietro Gaffori put into execution a previously prepared democratic constitution. He was murdered in 1753. Pasquale Paoli.— ki this crucial moment in the national struggle Pasquale Paoli (q.v.), the 30-year-old son of the exiled Giacinto, landed in Corsica. In July 1755 he was elected general of the Corsicans at an assembly in the Franciscan monastery of San Antonio della Casablanca. Within the next six months he had overcome a rival Corsican faction. With the Genoese confined to their coastal towns, Paoli proceeded to organize Corsica as an independent democratic state from his mountain capital, Corte. The constitution that he gave to his countrymen was more liberal than any known in his day. The legislative power was exercised by consulte composed of representatives elected by all male Corsi-

and commander-in-chief of the national guard. Paoli, however, had little sympathy with the new regime. He was opposed to the extremes of revolutionary policy and resented the influence of the Jacobin clubs in the Corsican towns. Blamed for the failure of an expedition against Sardinia in 1792, he was arraigned by the Convention (April 2, 1793). His response was to convoke a national assembly at Corte in May 1793, an act tantamount to a declaraNapoleon Bonaparte, loyal to revolutionary tion of rebellion. France, was driven off the island by Paoli's partisans. Paoli appealed for British protection. Admiral Samuel Hood reached Corsica in Feb. 1794; by August the British had reduced the three coastal towns held by revolutionary troops. In June the Corsican assembly formally accepted British rule the constitution of the Anglo-Corsican kingdom.

two years, with Sir Gilbert Elliot as viceroy. Paoli's presence being considered responsible for growing unrest, he was invited in 1795 to return to England, where he died in 1807. In Aug. 1796 the British government ordered the evacuation of Corsica. An expeditionary force, dispatched by Napoleon from Italy, moved into the island in October while British troops were embarking. British forces again occupied Bastia for a short time in 1814, but in the settlement of 1815 Corsica was restored to lasted

the French crown. 19th and 20th Centuries.

—

During the 19th century the French accomplished the immense task of building roads in Corsica and providing public education. The island remained underdeveloped but the Corsicans found many opportunities for making successful careers in continental France and the French colonies. With the final suppression of banditry, in the 1930s, and the elimination of malaria at the end of World War II, Corsica I'lle de Beaute

—

CORSICA

554 began to attract an important tourist traffic. Napoleon secured the permanent loyalty of

his

countrymen

to

than 20,000 Corsicans died in World War I. Mussolini's claim that Corsica formed a natural part of Italy met with no response from the Corsicans. as became obvious when in Nov.

More

France.

1942, during World War II, 80,000 Italian troops under Gen. G. Magli occupied the island. Later they were joined by about 15,000 Germans. The Corsicans organized a redoubtable resistance (incorporated in the Front National) which, when Italy capitulated on Sept. 8, 1943. was able to liberate Ajaccio and serious damage on the German forces, the Italians co-oper-

inflict

ating or remaining neutral.

the struggle on Sept. 20.

mans were driven from

Free French units from Algiers joined

Between Sept. 29 and Oct. 4 the Gerthe island, retreating via Bastia. The

Italians retired to Sardinia.

As the

first

liberated departement

of metropolitan France Corsica served as a valuable base for the Allies.

d'itat of May 13, 1958, in Algiers {see France: Hiswas followed on May 24-25 by a similar movement in Corwhere committees of public safety were set up in Ajaccio, Corte, Calvi and, subsequently, Bastia and Bonifacio. Corsica thus played a prominent part in the events which brought Gen. Charles de Gaulle to power as the first president of the 5th French republic. (D. Ca.) Population. In 1954 the population of Corsica was 246,995. Nearly three-quarters lived in settlements of less than 2,000 inhab-

The coup

tory)

sica,

—

itants.

The

distribution of chestnut forests, formerly an impor-

tant source of food, helps to explain the

many

and hamlets

marked concentration

ft. above sea level (114 out of 204 settlements in northeast Corsica') and for the

of

villages

at 1,300 to 2,500

traditional high density of population in the district of Castagniccia. Favoured areas, such as the semiurban emarons of Bastia, Ajaccio (qq.v.) and L'lle-Rousse, and the fertile districts of Cap Corse and the Balagne, have the highest densities, with more than 500 persons per square mile. Nearly one-half of the country has an average density of from 50 to 150 per square mile, and almost as large an area is ver>' sparsely settled. The uplands of Agriates and the central mountain chain are almost deserted. The scourge of malaria along the coasts below 1,000 ft, {i.e., the upper limit of the mosquito Anopheles maculipennis) especially in the ,

eastern plains, explains their low densities.

in 1936. Since then it has fallen rapidly and by 1961 was estimated at around 140.000. Emigration, the result of rural poverty and the lack of industrial emploj-ment, has long been a feature, accelerated further during World War II by refugee movements from the island. There were many Corsican casualties in the war. In 1954, S4';^f of the urban and 29% of the total population lived in the two principal towns, Bastia (42,729), the chief port, and Ajaccio (28,732), the achninistrative capital. Apart from the cities, six other centres have today between 2.000 and 5,000 inhabitants, all on the coast except Corte (g.v.). the third town (4.369)

and for a short time in the ISth century the capital. Bastia owes its importance to its fa^•ou^able position as the nearest port to southern France, its control of much of the trade of the east coast, the terminus of the railway system and its being the outlet for the most densely populated hinterland. Ajaccio is well placed to dominate the commercial activities and tourism of the west coast.

The physical characteristics of the people are strikingly uniform and perhaps of ancient ethnic identity. In the past the strict system of marriage within a group of related families may have aided this; certainly the vendetta between opposing families was a negative control.

The Corsicans

are

Roman

Catholics, apart

from a small minority of Greek Orthodox at Cargese, descended from Greek settlers in the 18th centur>'. The Corsican dialect is more akin to Italian than French, and is widely spoken. A northern variety. Cismontan, is of Tuscan origin, and in the south Oltremontan has more affinities with the dialect spoken in northern Sardinia.

PRINCIPAL TOWNS AND CITIES. RAILWAYS AND LAND USE

After a number of

half-hearted efforts a vigorous campaign in 1948-49 made the plains healthy for the first time in centuries. Despite a high birth rate the population only grew from 163.896 in 1801 to 322,854

The Economy.

IN

CORSICA

—

Hampered by lack of capital and primitive methods of agriculture, the cultivated land has never been of much importance.

Cereal lands declined seriously after the mid-19th centur>'; early vegetables now occupy a more extensive area and have a more promising future. Olive groves, especially in the Balagne. and vineyards in Cap Corse and the main valleys have

been traditionally the chief crops. Fruit trees, especially citrus, almonds and peaches are cultivated in the low, sheltered areas of Nebbio, Balagne, Porto-Vecchio and Ajaccio, Chestnuts, once a dominant source of food supply, have greatly declined except in the Castagniccia.

Most

cultivators are proprietors of holdingi

The land is much fragmented and terac. racing on the mountain slopes is extensive. A typical holding ma\ have a small vineyard and olive grove, valley land periodical!) reclaimed from waste or under intensive cultivation, and a share in the communal chestnut woods and pastures. Rough pasture, still utilized seasonally by transhumant flocki of sheep and goats, occupies more than a quarter of the total area A large number of dairies produce broccio from the goats' milk which is sent to Roquefort, France, for final processing as cheese Two-thirds of the ewes' milk is also made into cheese. Fishing has never been important and is still largely a subsist ence economy. The industries of Corsica are of small scale am diverse, being chiefly dependent upon the agricultural and fores products. They include the-preparation of tannic acid from chest nut bark; the manufacture of edible pastes, cheese, tobacco am averaging about 44

making semifinished pipes from the roots o heath; canning fish; sawmilling; and charcoal making. There citron preserves;

:

also

the bottling of mineral waters

from

local

spas

(notab:

Orezza), the mining of anthracite and several nonferrous metal: and the quarrying of granite, marble and amianthus, a kind o

CORSICANA—CORTES asbestos which

found and processed at Canari. After 1957 some hydroelectric plants were installed, but there has been little capital

L

I

is

from the

actions on land and at sea. He had some gift for painting as well as being a poet and soldier; one of his pictures is preserved in the church of S. Antao in Evora. He produced three epic poems: Sucesso do segundo cerco de Die ( 1 5 74 ) on the historic siege of

road of van,-ing quality encircles the island to link the coastal towns. A narrow-gauge railway connects Bastia and Ajaccio -with a branch line to L'ile-Rousse and Calvi. The eastern branch line to Porto-\"ecchio was left unrepaired after destruction during

that Indian island- fortress

well served

is

transport

air

1

'

]

I

;

'

Portuguese

Genoa and Leghorn, and also by but internal communications are rather poor. A survey of 1049 showed that about half the main roads were too narrow, and there are still villages inaccessible by road. A motor

Corsica

power of the

by regular shipping

rivers.

ser\-ices

ports of Marseilles. Toulon. Nice.

!

(1533-15S8),

who endeavoured, with little success, to follow in the path opened by Camoes' Lusiadas. was of the same noble family as the famous explorer Caspar Corte-Real. He took part in military

available to exploit fully the potential

1

555

CORTE-REAL, JERONIMO

W.^Hd War

:

"lOGR-WHY. :

-i

,.

ila

under "Corsica"

,

Cone

—R.

in the

Index volume. (J. M. Ho.)

Ambrosi.

Geographie physique de la Corse C. Gotch. Corsica (1950); G. Wagner, Your Guide to Corsica A. .\lbitreccia. La Corse dans I'histoire (1939) and Histoire de (1948).

CORSICANA, y. is

a city of central Texas. U.S.. seat of Navarro about 55 mi. S.S.E. of Dallas. Named by Jose Antonio

where his father was born, 1S50 and chartered in IS71.

N

:ro after Corsica,

was settled in (For compara-

it

incorporated in pulation figures see table in Tex.as: Population.)

of an early oil discover>- (1S94: first production 1S95\ area's petroleum output is valued at SlO.CXW.OOO annually. INavarro county is a large cotton producer and is noted for its fine Hereford cattle. (N. McG.) CORSINI, a Florentine princely family, whose first recorded ancestors rose to wealth as wool merchants in the 13th centurj-. jAs t>-pical members of the popolo grasso (rich merchants which ruled Florence during the later middle ages, they regularly served ~

-

,lhe

i

as priors and ambassadors

of the

commune.

Filippo

Corsini

was created count palatine by the emperor Charles IV in 1571. Two Corsinis were bishops of Fiesole. Andrea (1549) and Neri (1374); and two bishops of Florence. Piero (1565) and Amerigo (1411). Though some of the Corsini opposed the Medici, the family as a whole continued to flourish in business and politics under Medici rule, acquiring titles, lands and otfices. Thus another Filippo (157S-1656 ». who managed affairs in Rome, was created by Pope Urban VHI marquis of Sismano, Casigliano and Civitella, of which his father Bartolomeo (1545-1615) had earUer purchased the lordships; and Bartolomeo di Filippo (1622-85) iwas in turn made marquis of Laiatico and Orciatico by grand duke .Ferdinand II. and marquis of Giovagallo and Tresana by the king pf Spain. Further titles followed the election of Lorenzo Corsini !is pope Clement XII in 1750; his nephew Bartolomeo (1685.1752 was made prince of Sismano and a grandee of Spain (1752). lorenzo began the Biblioteca Corsiniana. now in the Accademia dei jLincei at Rome. Throughout the Napoleonic period and down f.o the unification of Italy the Corsini remained active and inlJuenpal in Tuscan an'airs. The family continues. '(1354-1421

I

•

—

BrBLiOGR.M>HY. L. Pa-sserini, Genealogia e storia deUa famiglia Corsini (1S5S) ; V. Spreti, Enciclopedia storico-nobiliare itatiana (1928 ;( seq.); L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. xxxiv (1941).

!

(P. J. J.)

CORTE,

the largest inland

town

in

the island of Corsica,

is situated on the Ta\-ignano river 84 km. (52 mi.) N.E. Ajaccio by railway. Pop. (1954) 4.369. At the upper (west) the town stands the citadel built in 1420 by H. Vincetello )lTstria. the Aragonese \-iceroy. and to the southwest are the crags )f Monte Rotondo. Corte was the island's capital under the proi/isional government formed by Pasquale Paoli (q.v.) during his ilictatorship of 1755-69. and during the English occupation under Dir GUbert Elliot 1794-96). The only buildings of interest are in the upper town and include, opposite the church, the Maison uatiori, the scene in 1750 of the heroic resistance to the Genoese nade by Mme. Gafi'ori. who held the house until relieved by her lusband. Gen. Giampietro Gaffori. Both the general and Paoli .re commemorated by statues. There are marble quarries in the lieighbourhood and the town has a trade in wine, olive oil, chest-

France, i)f

lind of

(

jiuts

and cheeses.

.

the victor)' of

Don John

the Austriada (1578). in Spanish, on of Austria at Lepanto Xauirdgio de Se;

;

pulveda (1594). All are long, discursive and prosaic and are of only slight literary value.

—

II.

also references

;

epic poet

BiBLioGiUPHY. A. F. Barata, Subsidios para a biografia do poeta J. Corte-Real (1S99) F. M. Sousa \iterbo, Trabalhos nduticos das Portugueses, vol. ii (1900) Cabral do Xascimento, .intologia de Poemas Narratives Portugueses (1949). (N. J. L.) ;

;

HERNAN

CORTES, or Herx.\xix) (1485-1547), Spanish conqueror of Me.xico. born at Medellin. Estremadura. in 1485. He studied law at the University of Salamanca but returned home in 1501, probably without a degree. In 1504 he sailed to Santo (Hispaniola). where he settled as a farmer and public smaE town on the island, while friends and neigh-

Domingo

notarv' in Azua, a

bours sailed for dangerous if glorious conquests. In 151 1 he accompanied Diego Velazquez in his expedition to Cuba, where he became alcalde of Santiago (then the capital). Nelazquez sent Cortes to Yucatan to rescue two unsuccessful expeditions and to explore the country. On Feb. 19, 1519, Cortes set out with 11 vessels. 508 soldiers and captains, 100 seamen including pilots and masters, 16 horses, 10 bronze guns, 4 falconets and 13 shotguns. In March 15 19, he landed at Tabasco where he stayed for a time in order to gain knowledge from the naUves, who. though

somewhat awed by the strangeness of

the men. the weapons and the animals, fought and defended their land. He won them over however and received presents from them, as well as 20 women, one of whom. Dona Marina (Malintzin). became his mistress and interpreter and bore him a son, Martin. He sailed to another spot on the coast and founded Veracruz, mainly to have himself elected captain general and chief justice by his soldiers as citizens, thus shaking off the authority of \elazquez. He then had his ships run aground and dismantled, a fact which gave rise to the legend that he burned them. He set out for the interior, reh-ing sometimes on force, sometimes on amity toward the local chiefs but always careful to reduce disturbance and duress to a strict miniminn. The nation of Tlaxcala. in a state of chronic war with Montezuma, ruler of the Aztec

empire of Mexico, resisted Cortes

at first

but

when defeated became his most faithful ally. Rejecting all of Montezuma's threats and blandishments to keep him away from Tenochtitlan or Me.xico. the capital (rebuilt as Mexico City after 1521), Cortes entered the city on Nov. S, 1519. with his small force and only 1,000 Tlaxcatecs. Montezuma, believing him to incarnate the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl. received him with great honour. Bemal Diaz, a soldier in the army, gives a %n\"id picture of the wealth of the city, the horrors of its human sacrifices and the magnificence of the emperor. Cortes decided to seize Montezuma in order to hold the countn.' through its monarch, and achieve not only its political conquest but its religious conversion. He found a convenient pretext as the news reached the city that the garrison he had left in \"eracruz had been attacked by the Indians and his chief killed. He went with his officers to the palace and seized Montezuma whom he put in irons. He obtained the surrender of the leader of the Veracruz attack and burned him at the stake using for faggots the wooden weapons he discovered Montezuma had amassed. This done, with his own hands he unlocked the irons on the emperor's feet. He was by that time master of Mexico. But then Montezuma first, and Cortes later, heard of the arrival of a Spanish force under Panfilo de Narvaez sent by X'elazquez to deprive him of his command. Lea\dng a garrison in

Tenochtitlan of 80 Spaniards and a few hundred Tlaxcatecs, he marched against Narvaez, defeated him and enlisted his army in his own forces. On his return, he found the Spanish garrison after an irresponsible aggression besieged by Indians. Montezuma was kiUed as he was trying to induce the Indians to cease their

CORTES—CORTES

556

Hard pressed and lacking food, Cortes decided to leave by night. The operation was performed, but with heavy blood and booty. After six days of retreat he won the battle of Otumba over the Indians sent in pursuit (July 7, 1520). Well received by his allies of TIaxcala, he reorganized his forces, subdued the neighbouring territories and after a stubborn siege captured the city (Aug. 13, 1521). This victory marked the fall of the Aztec empire. Several embassies he had sent to Spain convinced the emperor Charles V' of the immense value of the conquest. Cortes returned to Spain (152S), was appointed captain general and made marques He lived like a prince and worked like a del Valle de Oaxaca. statesman. He revealed himself as the greatest of the conquerors, intent on organizing the land, studying its resources and pushing forward the work of exploration within and outside the country he had conquered. His enemies in Madrid and in Mexico did their best to thwart his efforts. His goods were seized by order of the

Their admission was due to the crown's need beyond that provided by its customary dues and its inability, in law. to impose extra taxation without the consent of the municipalities. In both Leon and Castile the Cortes were in existence by the early 13th century. Their functions and procedures were similar and, after the union of the two crowns (1230), they often held joint meetings- a procedure which was normal after 1301. Parliaments also functioned in Catalonia from 1218, Valencia (1283), Aragon (1274) and Navarre (1300). The Cortes of Leon and Castile was composed of three estates:

attacks.

certain subjects.

the city

for financial aid

loss in

council of the Indies and his retainers imprisoned. He went to Spain to appeal to the emperor, who received him with marks of honour and friendship; but he returned to Mexico with a dimin-

V appointed Antonio de Mendoza as Frustrated in his ambition as governor of the country he had conquered. Cortes e.xplored the peninsula of Lower California (1535) and surveyed part of the gulf between it and Mexico. Earlier, his exploration of Las Hibueras (Honduras) was a feat of leadership and endurance perhaps even greater than his conquest of Mexico. ished authority, for Charles

viceroy.

Discouraged by his struggle with unworthy adversaries, Cortes This time he was received coldly. He attended the emperor assiduously and served as volunteer in the

sailed to Spain again.

disastrous expedition against the pirates of Algiers in 1541. Kept arm's length by the noblemen who surrounded Charles V, he was unable to take a military part worthy of his talents in that enterprise which under his command would in all likelihood have at

been a

ment

brilliant success.

The emperor was unable

for the ablest leader in the country.

and died

He

employfrom court

to tind

retired

de la Cuesta near Seville on Dec. 2, 1547. (See also Mexico City; Aztec.) The only writings of Cortes are the five letters addressed to Charles V. The best edition is that of Francisco Antonio Lorenzana, archbishop of Mexico, entitled Historia de Niieva Espaiia escrita por su esdarecido conquistador, Henidn Cortes, aumentada con otros documentos y notas (1770). An English translation, edited by Francis A. MacNutt, was published in 1908. See also references under "Cortes, Hernan" in the Index volin his estate of Castilleja

ume.

—

Bibliography. The conquests of Cortes have been described by Antonio de Solis in Historia de la coiiquista de Mejico (1685, 2nd ed. 1790), and by Bernal Diaz del Castillo in Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva Espaiia (1632), English trans, by A. P. Maudslay, "Broadway Travellers Series" (iqsS). See also F. A. MacXutt, Fernando Cortes and the Conquest of Mexico i4S;-i;47, "Heroes of the Nations Series" (igog) H. D. Sedgwick, Cortes the Conqueror ;

Francisco Cervantes de Salazar, Cronica de la Nueva Espaiia Salvador de Madariaga, Herndn Cortes, Conqueror of Mexico, 2nd ed. (1955) M. Collis, Cortes and Montezuma (1955). (S. DE M.) _, (1926) (1924)

;

;

;

CORTES,

a small department of Honduras facing the CaribPop. (1961) 199,215; area 1,527 sq.mi. The depart-

bean

sea.

ment

consists mostly of coastal plains

at the

mouth

and river lowlands, has fertile soils and an annual precipitation of 60 to 80 in. It has good transport facilities. Main products are bananas for export with nearly 40% of the national total. It also produces rice, sugar, sweet potatoes, poultry and cattle. Puerto Cortes (pop. 12.228) of the Ulua river

is

the largest port in

Honduras and

connected by Inter-Ocean highway with Tegucigalpa. The departmental capital, San Pedro Sula (g.v.), is an important banana and sugar centre. (C. F. J.) is

CORTES, the plural form of a Spanish word meaning court, used in particular to designate the parliaments of the medieval Spanish kingdoms and, in modern times, the national legislative

is

The Cortes developed in the middle ages elected representatives of the free municipalities began, as of right, to take part in the deliberations of the curia regis on or deliberative assembly.

when

—

nobles, clergy and the procuradores of the electors.

free municipalities

who bore

written instructions (poderes) from their Redress followed supply. The king convoked meetings

iconcejos'),

when and where he pleased. The crown's proposals were discussed and voted on by the whole Cortes. The three estates also had the right to present petitions to which the king must reply. If he accepted a petition it became law. During the 14th century the procuradores dominated the Cortes because they, and only they, could authorize the special taxation needed by the crown. The nobles, largely exempt from such taxation, and the clergy virtually withdrew from the Cortes and an alliance of king and procuradores was used to weaken the political power of the magnates. The influence ol the third estate in the Castilian Cortes reached

its

peak in the last decades of the 14th century, because of the continuous needs of the early Trastamara kings to finance their wars. Under John I, the procuradores not only intervened in foreign affairs and administrative matters outside their earlier competence, but insisted on supervising the royal accounts and on the formation of a royal council on which they were represented. Decline, thereafter, was swift. Alienation of crown lands reduced drastically the number of free municipalities entitled to be represented. Roman and canon lawyers, dependent on the king and partisans of The crown royal supremacy, secured a foothold in the Cortes. then contrived, by various devices, to lessen its financial dependence on the procuradores and their capacity to resist its demands. Nevertheless, and despite its part in the rising of the comuneros against the emperor Charles V (1520-21), the Cortes of Castile was more prominent in 16th-century affairs than has often been thought.

The Catalan Cort general had was obliged

three estates, which, in theory,

summon

Barceat regular intervals. lona sent five representatives (sindichs), the other municipalities only one. Redress preceded supply, and the Cort had legislative power. Royal proposals were studied separately, in committee, by each estate and these informed each other of their conclusions before meeting in plenary session under the presidency of the crown. From the mid- 14th century a permanent parliamentary the sovereign

to

commission (diputacio del general), resident in Barcelona, was set In practice the to act when the Cort was not in session. Catalan parliament was strongly oligarchical. The parliament of Valencia was modeled on that of Catalonia, and the Aragonese Cortes borrowed from the Catalans the idea of a permanent commission, the form of municipal representation, and other features. In Aragon, however, the magnates and lesser nobility were separately represented, and the nobles were always very powerful. A special feature there was the office of justicia mayor, a hereditary and immovable official who heard complaints, in parliament, against the king and his officials or of violations of charters and rights. At one period the Aragonese Cortes claimed the right to depose the king if it so wished, but the latter, in practice, had more power than in theory, for only he could initiate legislation. Unlike any other peninsular parliament, the Cortes of Navarre voted the customary taxes as well as extraordinary subsidies.

up

All these assemblies survived until the 18th century, but long In 1700, for example, before then they were dead politically. the Cortes of Castile had not been summoned since 1665, while the assemblies of Catalonia and Valencia had last met in 1640 and 1645 respectively. The situation was unaltered by the change of dynasty; indeed, the Cortes of Aragon and Valencia in 1709, and that of Catalonia in 1724 were merged with the Cortes of Castile. The Bourbon kings viewed the Cortes merely as a rubber stamp

and

this attitude fairly characterized its position until the 19th

CORTEX—CORTOT century.

For the development of the Cortes

in the constitutional

Spain; History. (P. E. R.) the outer portion of various structures in the biologic world. It is sometimes used figuratively. In botany it means the rind, bark or outer portion of the stalks of a variety of growths. Medicinally it is employed to describe the origin of cerIn the medical tain drugs such as quinine from cinchona bark. sciences it is used to designate the outer portion of various organs era, see

CORTEX,

such as the brain, kidney, adrenal glands, etc., as distinguished from the inner substance. The cortex usually lies just beneath or within the covering layer or membrane or capsule if one is (F. L. A.)

present.

CORTI, LUIGI, CoNTE

(1823-1888), Italian diplomatist, foreign minister at the time of the congress of Berlin, was born (Pavia) on Early involved with Gambarana Oct. 28, 1823. at Benedetto Cairoli in anti-Austrian conspiracies, he was exiled to Turin, where he entered the Piedmontese foreign office in 1846. After serving in the campaign of 1848, he was in 1850 appointed secretary of legation in London, after which he was minister in Stockholm (1864), Madrid (1867), The Hague (1869), Washington (1870), and Istanbul (1875). Called by Cairoli to the direction of foreign affairs in 1878, he took part in the congress of Berlin, but declined Lord Derby's offer for an Anglo-Italian agreenent in defense of common interests. At Berlin he sustained .he cause of Greek irredentism, but otherwise remained isolated ind incurred the wrath of his countrymen by returning to Italy In Oct. 1878 he resigned. In 1881 he was with "clean hands." iient to Istanbul by Cairoli, where he presided over the futile ;onference on the Egyptian question. In 1886 he was transferred :o London as ambassador, but he was brusquely recalled by Francesco Crispi in the following year through a misunderstanding. Phe shock may have led to his death in Rome on April 9, 1888. D'AMPEZZO, a mountain resort of the Dolonites, province of Belluno, Veneto region, northern Italy, is situited in a beautiful hollow among fir-covered mountains on the left jank of the Boite river, 74 km. (46 mi.) N. of Belluno by road.

CORTINA

Pop. (1957 est.) 6,640

(commune).

Its altitude is 4,016

ft.

The

dominated by its modern Gothic church whose tall bell ower plays chimes identical with those of Westminster abbey, ^ondon. The huge Olympic ice stadium and the two artificial ce tracks were built for the seventh winter Olympic games, held here in 1956, and at nearby Zuel is the Olympic ski-jumping :hute. Cortina is on the railway from Pieve di Cadore to DobThere is much local work in wrought iron, filigree and )iaco. olaid wood, especially cuckoo clocks. Cortina is one of the towns Vhich make up the Great Community of Ampezzo and the people till retain their national costumes and Raetic or Ladin language. (M. T. A. N.) CORTISONE, one of several hormones secreted by the cortex

i.own is

i

I

outer layer) of adrenal glands. drenal cortical insufficiency

Cortisone is useful in treating (Addison's disease) in man. Be-

it was found clinically useful in suppressing the vTnptoms of rheumatoid arthritis and related diseases, certain ilergies, acute leukemia, and certain inflammatory conditions of le eye and skin. Large doses are required. It does not cure lese diseases. Sometimes the therapeutic use of cortisone causes istric ulcers, edema, diabetes, hypertension, hirsutism, psychic isorders, etc., making it necessary to stop this type of therapy. '(ydrocortisone. a somewhat more potent adrenocortical hormone, is similar therapeutic effects and the same limitations. Similar inical effects can be obtained by administration of adrenocorti-

inning in 194S,

|)tropin iates

(ACTH),

secreted by the anterior pituitary, which stimand hydrocortisone.

the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisone

use of these natural hormones has been largely superby synthetic derivatives of hydrocortisone that are more Jtent and suppress the symptoms of disease with fewer side ef;cts. See Steroids; see also references under "Cortisone" in le Index volume. (D. J. I.) CORTLAND, a city of central New York, U.S., on the ioughnioga river midway between Syracuse and Binghamton; e largest community in, and seat of Cortland county. Originally lirt of the Phelps and Gorham purchase ( 1 788) Cortland was first

Ihe clinical i-ded

,

settled in 1791.

557

It

was incorporated as a

village in 1853

and as

a city in 1900.

Cortland's diverse manufactures include industrial wire cloth

and netting, wire, nails, forgings and stampings, motor trucks, women's foundation garments and various precision mechanisms. Dairying

and

sales

is

the predominant agricultural activity of the area,

of cattle, poultry, eggs and

maple sirup are

signifi-

cant.

A State University College of Education, founded in 1863 and offering elementary and secondary school training, is located there. Winter sports and proximity to the Finger lakes are among the area's attractions. Three miles north is the village of Homer, the "Homeville" of the novel, motion picture and radio series David Hanim. For comparative population

figures see table in

New York:

(R, C. He.) (Pietro Berrettini) (15961669), Italian painter and architect, one of the leading exponents of baroque art, was born at Cortona on Nov. 1, 1596. He created Population.

CORTONA, PIETRO DA

great illusionistic ceiling decorations at Rome in the Palazzo Barberini and the Chiesa Nuova, and in the Palazzo Pitti at Florence. Cortona built at Rome the church of SS. Martina e Luca

and the fagade of Sta. Maria della Pace and submitted in 1664 an unsuccessful design for the Louvre at Paris. With G. D. Ottonelli he wrote a treatise on the iconography of religious art, Trattato della pittura e scultura, use et abuso loro (1652). He (D. R. Cn.) died at Rome on May 16, 1669. CORTONA, a city of central Italy, region of Tuscany, province of Arezzo, is situated at the end of the Val di Chiana on the south slope of the CoUe di San Egidio and on the right bank of the Esse river, 120 km. (75 mi.) S.E. of Florence by road. Pop. (1957 est.) 29,527 (commune). The chief streets are wide and There are several fine squares, flat but the smaller ones are steep. and from the Piazza del Duomo there is an excellent view of the Chiana valley and Lake Trasimeno. The medieval walls survive, built on top of Etruscan walls. The cathedral has a partly Romanesque west front, a Renaissance-type bell tower and a fine portal

by Giuliano da Sangallo (15th century). It contains paintings by Luca Signorelli, who was born in Cortona, and a magnificent Greco-Roman sarcophagus of an unknown warrior. In front of the cathedral is the church of Gesii (15th century), now a museum. The upper It consists of one church superimposed on another. church has a fine carved wooden ceiling by Michelangelo Leggi (1536). Notable among the exhibits is a painting of the Annunciation by Fra Angelico. The churches of S. Domenico, S. Antonio and S. Francesco are fine Gothic. The Romanesque Gothic church and the church of the Madonna del Calcinaio are station is at Camucia, 4.5 km. (2| mi.) away on the main line from Florence to Rome. Agriculture and stock raising are the main occupations. Once a malarial marsh, the Val di Chiana was drained and produces some of the best cattle of Sta. Margherita also noteworthy.

The railway

in Italy.

The Roman Corito, the town was probably of Umbrian origin In but was later an important Etruscan magisterial centre. Roman days Hannibal passed by it to his victory at nearby Lake Trasimeno (217 B.C.), and in a.d. 405 it was taken by the Goths. It emerged from a long period of obscurity in 1202, when it was a free commune. It was sacked by Arezzo in 1258. Cortona recovered and had its own mint as well as becoming an episcopal see in 1325. After a long period of peace it was besieged in 1529 by the armies of Clement VII and Charles V, and thereafter joined the grand duchy of Tuscany. In World War II it was captured by Al(M. T. A. N.) lied forces in July 1944. DENIS (1877-1962), French pianist, CORTOT, conductor and teacher known for his poetic interpretations of the later romantic composers, was born at Nyon, Switz., on Sept. 25, 1877. He studied the piano at the Paris Conservatoire under Louis Diemer and, after gaining experience as assistant conductor at Bayreuth, conducted the first French performance of Wagner's Gdtterddmmeriing (1902). He founded the Societe des Concerts and the Paris Orchestre Philharmonique. In 1905 he formed a trio with Jacques Thibaud and Pablo Casals, and in 1918 founded

ALFRED

CORT VAN DER LINDEN—CORUNA

558

the £cole Normale de Musique in Paris where his piano classes had a wide influence. Cortot published works on piano technique, a historical survey of French piano music, and edited the works of Chopin and Schumann. He also made one of the finest private collections of musical autographs. About 1950 he retired to Lausanne, SwiLz.. where he died on June 15, 1962.

CORT VAN DER LINDEN, PIETER WILHELM ADRIAAN (1846-1935), Dutch Liberal statesman, prime minisduring World War I, was born at The Hague on May 14, 1846. to 18S1 a solicitor at The Hague, from then to 1897 professor of economics at Groningen and Amsterdam, he started reuniting ter

Up

the Liberals on a program of social reform in 1886. He was minister of justice in the cabinet that succeeded in enacting much of this program (1897-1901). In 1902 he was made a member

In 1913 Cort van der Linden formed an extraparliamentary cabinet, which during World War I succeeded in bringing about a revision of the constitution. In 1917, this of the state council.

and the school issues, which for half dominated Dutch politics. Proportional representation, with universal male suffrage, was introduced; and private denominational schools were put on the same financial footing as public secular ones. After his resignation in 1918 Cort van der Linden was again appointed a member of the state council. He died at The Hague on July 15, 1935. (F. de J.) CORUM, the chief town of the il (province) of Corum, Turk., altitude 2,300 ft., is situated on the edge of a plain, almost equidistant from Amasya and Vozgat on the main road to the Black sea coast at Samsun, 130 mi. N.N.E. of Ankara. Pop. (1960) 34,629. The country around is fertile and extensively cultivated; cereals, fruits, tobacco and opium poppies are the chief crops. Corum is an important hand-spinning and weaving centre. Manufacturing of copper utensils and* leather is also carried on. The ancient Euchaita, 15 mi. E., was attacked by the Huns in 508 and became a bishopric at an early period. It contained the tomb of St. Theodore, who was reputed to have slain a dragon in the vicinity and became one of the great warrior saints of the Greek church. settled both the franchise

a century had

The

//

Corum

of

Heeler,

or

has a population of 446,389 (1960). The chief are Alaca, Iskilip, Mecitozu, Osmancik and (N. Tu.; S. Er.; E. Tu.) , a city and river port (1960 pop. 36,744) in the Grosso, Brazil. Situated on the Paraguay river at

kazas,

Sungurlu.

CORUMBA, state of

Mato

and fronting on Bolivia, the town was founded as a military outpost and colony in Sept. 1778 by Luis de Albuquerque. Corumba's position was enhanced by the opening of the Paraguay to international commerce following the Paraguayan War (1865-1870) when it became terminus of river craft from Buenos Aires and Asuncion. The buttes of Morro do Urucum to the south contain vast deposits of manganese and iron, mined 360-ft. elevation,

Corumba produces animal products such as hides is the leading entrepot centre in southern Mato Grosso. It is a junction of air routes and has railroad connections with Sao Paulo and Santa Cruz, Bolivia. (J. L. Tr.) since the 1940s.

and dried beef, and

CORUNA, LA

(often

in

English

Corunna; French La

Corogne; English formerly The Groyne), capital of the province of the same name occupying the northwest comer of Spain, lies on Ria de la Coruiia (Corunna bay), an inlet of the Atlantic ocean.

Pop. (1960) 177,502 (mun.).

A

peninsula jutting north-

ward separates Orzan bay on the west from the harbour on the east. The old town (Ciudad Vieja) occupies an eastern spur of the peninsula; the modern city (Ciudad Nueva or Pescaderia "fishing quarter") stands on the low isthmus joining the peninsula to the mainland and on the mainland itself. A feature of the houses is their miradores, or window balconies glazed for protection against the wind. In the old town are the early 12th-century church of Santiago and the church of Santa Maria del Campo (13th century but badly restored). The church of Santo Domingo in 18th-century Galicjan baroque; south of it in the Jardin de

is

San Carlos overlooking the harbour is the granite tomb of Sir John Moore. About 2^ km. (1^ mi.) northwest of the old town, near the end of the peninsula, is the "tower of Hercules." It is supposed to have been built by the Phoenicians but was probably a Roman lighthouse dating from Trajan's reign. It commands

a fine view and

still serves as a lighthouse. Separating the old and new towns is the wide Plaza de Maria named after a heroine who displayed great bravery during the English attack of 1589. Near the Alameda gardens with their palms and orange trees is Canton Grande a tablet on No. 13 marks the house where Sir John Moore died. Corunna is a popular summer resort and has excellent bathing beaches on Orzan bay and at Santa Cristina, 5 km. (3 mi.) S. The town has streetcar and bus services and is linked by rail with Madrid and with Oporto in Portugal. It has schools of navigation and agriculture, an

Pita,

;

arsenal and barracks. Because of its position near a great sea route between northwest Europe and South and Central America, Corunna is one of the chief ports of northern Spain.

The

sheltered harbour can accom-

modate ocean-going vessels; it is a regular port of call for several shipping lines and is the chief Spanish passenger port for Cuba and South America. Corunna is an important fishing centre for sardines, herrings, haddocks and conger eels, and has a salting and canning industry. It also exports farm produce (especially onions and potatoes), and its imports include coal, salt and manufactured goods. There is a state tobacco factory in the southern suburb of Santa Lucia and shipyards for building fishing vessels. History. Under the Roman empire, Corunna was the port of Brigantium, but its present name is probably derived from that of Coronium by which it was known in the middle ages. In 1370 it was for a short time occupied by the Portuguese. In 1386 John of Gaunt landed there to conquer Galicia in pursuit of his claim to the kingdom of Castile. Philip II of Spain sailed from Corunna in 1554 to marry Mary Tudor of England, and in June 1588 most of the ships of the "invincible armada" despatched by him against England were forced by heavy squalls to take refuge in the port.

—

In the following year an expedition sent in reprisal under Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Norris burnt the shipping at Corunna and sacked the lower part of the town. In 1815 and 1820 it was the scene of antimonarchist risings; in 1823 following a siege it was taken by French troops engaged in restoring the reactionary In 1836 it was captured by the Carlists rule of Ferdinand VII. (adherents to Don Carlos: see Spain: History). Corunna suffered heavily when Spain was deprived of Cuba and Puerto Rico

War

by the Spanish-American

of 1898, for

thriving trade with those colonies. it

early in the Civil

War

it

had hitherto had

a

Nationalist troops captured

of 1936-39.

To many English-speaking people Corunna is familiar chiefly through The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna, a famous funeral elegy written in 1816 by the Irish poet Charles Wolfe Moore, commanding the British forces in Spain, was (g.v.). toward the end of 1808 advancing to relieve the pressure on the Spaniards by attacking Marshal Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult on the Carrion river when he learned that the French had cut Portugal. (5ee Peninsular War.) He thereon Corunna a march of more than 200 mi. across mountains in midwinter. The supply and transport Cantabrian the services were inadequate and British losses through straggling and sickness were heavy, but on Jan. 11, 1809, Moore reached Corunna He chose as his to find that the British fleet had not yet arrived. main position the Monte Mero ridge straddling the road by which mi.) of the harbour. Soult must approach, about 3 km. (2 S. Soult, with about 16,000 troops opposed to Moore's force of about The initial advantage lay with the 15,000, attacked on Jan. 16. British but unfortunately a round shot struck Moore from his horse, carrying away his left arm; knowing his wound to be mortal he handed over command to Sir John Hope and was carried from off his retreat into

—

fore withdrew

the

field.

At evening he

died.

The

battle flickered out; neither

had lost about 900 men) and the British were able to embark next day unmolested in the fleet which had by then arrived. At dawn Moore, "his martial cloak around him," was buried in the ramparts of the citadel; the place was later (See also Moore, Sir John.) laid out as a garden. Corunna Province. The province, until 1833 part of the captaincy-general and former kingdom of Galicia (g.v.), has a population (I960) of 991,729, and an area of 7,876 sq.km. It has a rocky coast with deep indentations^ (3,041 sq.mi.). side could claim a victory (each

—

CORUNDUM by

formed

drowned

These

valleys.

(Santa

Marta,

559

Ferrol,

tory studies, differing distinctly from the q:-A1203 or corundum

•Corunna, Corcubion, Arosa bays) afford sites for sheltered ports ibut the coast is dangerous because of frequent winter gales and Cape Finisterre (the Promontorium fogs in winter and spring.

.Nerium of the Romans), a huge granitic mass 100 km. (62 mi.) iS.W. of Corunna by road, is one of the chief European headlands. The interior of the province is mountainous but seldom exceeds The cli|1,S00 ft. elevation and is drained by many short rivers. :-nate is mild and equable but the rainfall is the heaviest of any Spanish province (Santiago de Compostela, 66 in. annually). The slopes are covered with woods (oak, chestnut) and pastures md in the valleys beans, onions, potatoes and fruit are grown for The broken nature of the country discourages cereal !xport. *;rowing but in limited areas heavy crops of maize (corn), wheat are obtained. The local wines are heady, rough and of knd rye The breeding of pigs and cattle is important, nferior flavour. •hough the export of livestock, once considerable, declined because A little tin, tungsten, copper and lignite if foreign competition. .ire mined and Vimianzo near the west coast was once famous for Along the coast there are valuable fisheries of 'ts gold mines. The chief exports are ardines, lobsters, hake and other fish. arm produce and fish; the imports coal, petroleum fuels, salt

phase into which they transform on heating to about 1,200° C. So-called /S-ALOg is actually NaoO.llAlnOj, and is not a dimorph of corundum as was long

,

;ish,

timber, hides, salt and manufactured goods.

""errol 'he

principal ports are

and a southward

line

through Santiago to Vigo and Oporto,

inhabitants are dependent on

See 0. Pedrayo, 1957).

somewhat

Guia de Galicia (1954)

;

indifferent roads.

Martinez-Barbeito, Galicia

(M. B. F.) mineral composed of aluminum oxide, 'lUO.j, and in its finer varieties forms valuable gems such as !uby and sapphire iqq.v.). The massive form in combination with

CORUNDUM

'

'•on o.^ides

is

and spinel

a

is

called

emery

(q.v.

).

The name corundum

believed to be derived from Hindi (Kariind), the mineral

';

from India. diamond, corundum

first

ieing identified

Next

!

to

is

the hardest

known mineral

lohs' scale), this being sufficient to separate

from

(q

on

other linerals. The pure mineral is colourless, small amounts of imurities explaining the wide range of colours in nature. Ruby 'ontains chromium, sapphire presumably iron or titanium; most 'orundum contains nearly i% iron oxide. Zoisite, sillimanite, yanite, margarite, damourite and hydrated alumina minerals are

ommon

alteration products.

Corundum

is

it

all

used for bearings in

machinery such as watches and motors and, as emery, for It is a prominent constituent of many refractories, in iiany instances being formed on firing. Artificial corundum (q.v. ;as similar properties and has become the source of most pure Humina (q.v.) abrasives. Synthetic rubies and sapphires that 'efy detection by all but the expert are manufactured. Gem ijrundum has come principally from Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, lontana, and Queensland, the stones being recovered from meta'lorphic rocks and placer deposits. Corundum has also been 'ined in Ontario, South Africa, the Ural mountains, South Carona and other places. Corundum cr>'stallizes in the hexagonal system (rhombohedral lass) showing considerable variety of habit, the commonest be'ig acute hexagonal bipyramids. sometimes in barrel-shaped forms, tabular owing to predominance of the ba.sal form. Corundum IS no true cleavage but a parting parallel to the base and the ;iombohedron. the latter a plane of lamellar twinning, sometimes '•condarily produced through pressure. Density is 3.95 to 4.0, '•fringence (refraction) as high as 1.7686 (sodium light), melting bint 2,040° C, dielectric (nonconductive) constant about 10. Alumina-rich lorundum resists attack by acids and alkalies. ^elts have great power of crystallization, making it difficult to I'eserve glasses of such composition. Single crystal alumina ')dies can be formed into rods and bent at high temperature, yet

'ne

iolishing.

)

j

':

other natural ALOg mineral is jiown but essentially anhydrous oxides are encountered in laboratain

monocrystallinity.

No

SOUTH AFRICA. AND TABULAR FORMS VAAL.

IN

Corundum is widespread in naBARREL ture, occurring in igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Certain rocks of the syenite clan

carry appreciable corundum. The occurrence of corundum in quartz-bearing igneous rocks is rare and is considered anomalous from thermodynamic considerations. See also Gem.

commonly

(W. K. Gr.)

CORUNDUM, ARTIFICIAL,

has the same properties as natural corundum (q.v.) or a-alumina. Probably the most important advance in the abrasive field was the development of techniques around igoo for the large-scale production of artificial In addition to being very hard (g on Mohs' scale) is exceedingly strong. It fractures in such a

corundum. artificial

way

Corunna and El Ferrol (q.v.). The Air services hief inland town is Santiago de Compostela (q.v.). Barcelona, Bilbao and Madrid but other comSantiago with 'ink Except for a main railway line from lunications are sparse. '",orunna through Lugo to Madrid, with a branch northward to El

The

'

thought.

CORUNDUM CRYSTALS FROM TRANS-

corundum

that new, sharp cutting points are continually formed.

It

has low specific heat and thermal expansion. These properties adapt it particularly to the working of materials of high tensile strength, such as the various steels, which is the most important use for abrasives. The grains are used extensively in all kinds of grinding and polishing wheels, coated paper, cloth and disks, and Specific applications are exemto a lesser extent as loose grains. plified by the following: automatic and hand-grinding operations of all types, for snagging steel castings, surface

and internal grind-

tool and cutter grinding, polishing articles such as cutlery and hardware; cut-off saws; loose grain polishing of plate ing, honing,

and metallurgical specimens; Fused alumina is employed as grog,

glass

in dental

and other

air-drills.

in special refractory concrete.

Fine bearings, record-player needles, and other uses employ

arti-

corundum crystals. Artificial corundum sometimes is known as fused bauxite, or fused alumina, and by trade names such as Alundum, Borolon, Fused bauxite is made by meltAloxite, Lionite, and Oxaluma.

ficial

ing

calcined

' and fiscal policy. levels of consumption.

Changes in Cost of Living.

—The

consumer price index (BLS) is the most

(C.P.I.) of the U.S. bureau of labour statistics

important measure of changes in the cost of living in the United States. Its retail food index (/?,) goes back to 1890 and that of all consumption categories to 1913. The index is designed to measure changes in the prices paid for a selected budget of a base year. It is based on the index formula of Etienne Laspeyres (see General Considerations, above) Rr-

S qo pi 2 qo po

where the 90's are the average quantities used

in the base year of each of the items priced, the po's are their prices in the base year and the pi's are current prices. This type of index tends to

indicate a greater price increase than one using the Paasche for-

movement

of prices of

goods and services purchased by the families of wage earners clerical workers. All important items in families' spending are represented with the exception of life insurance and income taxes. The inclusion of an item is determined by its importance and its price movement. Because the ability of one item to represent the price change of other items is not widely understood, the C.P.I, includes important items even though the index would be essentially the same if they were represented by other items also priced. The pricing of a large number of items contributes to the credibility of the index as an accurate measure of price change. all

and

Table I.—

COST OF LIVING Between such surveys some substitutions Long before the 1934-36 survey, women's ligh-buttoned shoes, in general use in igiS-ig, had disappeared rem shops. They were replaced in the index by the type of shoes hat replaced them in use. When such changes are made the price )f the new goods is introduced with a link so that its price change mly and not the price difference between the "old" and the "new" This method is also used when compre;oods affect the index. lensive revisions introduce many new goods and change the

amily consumption. 'ire likely to be made.

veights.

Deliberate changes may also be made in the quality priced if he volume sold indicates a change in consumers' preference. Vhen this is done, the new quality is usually linked in. During Vorld War II this practice was modified because of what was A given quality of product formerly ailed "forced uptrading." iriced for the index might have been dropped because it had alaost or completely disappeared from the stores, and been replaced ly one of a higher quality. This shift was in part the result of )rice controls so that the market did not respond as formerly to onsumer demand for given qualities. When it seemed probable hat consumers were forced to buy the higher-priced line, a part T all of the price difference between the "old" and the "new" luality was included in the index. Constant study of price movements is necessary since the ability f one item to represent another may change. The use of food ubsidies during World War II led to careful scrutiny of items riced. A change in customary relations may necessitate the inlusion of additional items and the redistribution of weights. At ne time the price movement of children's clothing was repreented

by that of

A

adults.

change in the correlation of their

some items of children's apparel being added uring 1947. Because rents and the cost of housing to home wners had tended to move together, rents paid by tenant families rices resulted in

used to represent the change in housing costs of home owners. World War II, partly because of rent control, this relationAfter the 1953 revision, change in rent no longer epresented change in the cost of owner occupancy of dwellings. During World War II and early postwar years rent control reulted in a downward bias in the rent index that came to be aferred to as the "new unit bias." Normally in a market free of

/ere

)uring

hip changed.

new units and existing units of compara'le quality is the same. With rent control a difference occurred, 'he rent index rose 6.8 points in Jan. 1950 when a correction 3nt control the cost of

3r this

bias

was applied.

In the C.P.I, an attempt 3 order to

do

is

made

to

measure price change only. up so that the product

this, specifications are set

riced in successive periods

is

similar

if

not identical in char-

Those for a man's shirt, for example, designate thread ')unt, stitches per inch and character of workmanship. Such lecifications for the most part are broad and their use in pricig often necessitates judgment on the part of the agent who inlects the product and obtains the price. Even so they serve to tclude from the index some of the effect of shifts to a higher cteristics.

to a lower quality that may occur because of change in real icome or preferences. This aspect of the index is often passed •rtr Ughtly if mentioned at all in theories of price measurement,

r-

many

What, for two successive seasons? Tiere is the identical automobile to be found when each year rings a new model? Those pricing women's hats must decide on hat is comparable in the midst of changing materials, shapes and orkmanship. Standard models of selected automobile companies "e used and the significance of improvements from year to year presents

tample,

•

is

ignored

Before ;encies.

an

difficult

"identical''

problems

in actual practice.

woman's hat

in

—even those

that lead to a longer life of the car. 1943 rents for the index were obtained from rental

Because of the possibility that violations

in rent ceil-

were occurring and might not be reported by rental agencies, change was made in the method of collecting data. A sample of ntal dwellings was drawn and rents were obtained from their ocipants. Because of the high cost of drawing an entirely new same, the same dwellings were priced in many successive periods. gs

During World

War

II the

"little steel"

wage formula of 1942

599

brought the index into great prominence. Between Jan. i, 1941, and May 1942, the C.P.I, increased by about 15%. The formula limited wage increases to 15% of wages prevailing Jan. i, 1941, apart from inequities arising from unusually low wages. Claims for wage increases beyond this 15% were made on the grounds The that the C.P.I, understated the rise in the cost of living. members of the American Federation of Labor (A.F. of L.) and the Congress of Industrial Organizations (C.I.O.) in Jan. 1944 claimed that the cost of living had risen 43.5% during a period when the C.P.I, showed an increase of 23.4%. Early in 1943 the American Statistical association appointed a committee to appraise the C.P.I. A downward bias was reported but no estimate of its magnitude was given. In the fall of 1943 the president's committee on the cost of living was appointed with William H. Davis as chairman and with employer and union representatives. Davis appointed a technical committee to review the index with Wesley C. Mitchell as chairman. The guesses of this committee put the total downward bias at from three to four points for the period Jan. 1941 to Sept. 1944. For about three years the BLS with each month's release explained that "the index does not show the full effect on the cost of living of such factors as lowered quality, disappearance of low-priced goods, and forced changes in housing and eating away from home." One outcome of the controversy was a change in the name of the index from "index of the cost of living of wage earners and lower-salaried workers in large cities" to "consumers' price index of moderate-

income families in large cities." The C.P.I, was used in wage negotiation in peace as well as war years. General Motors and the United Automobile Workers in May 1948 agreed upon an escalator clause that adjusted wage rates up and down with the C.P.I. For a time escalator clauses were quite popular. At the end of the Korean war their use dropped markedly. By Jan. 19SS about 2,000,000 workers were under contract with escalator clauses compared with a peak of about 4,000,000 a few years earlier. By Jan. 1960 the number had dropped still further to 1,000,000 workers, mostly in the manufacture of automobiles and related products. Many modifications and supplements for the index were pro-

Some argued that fixed weights over a long period of time were inappropriate in a rapidly changing society, and recommended a chain index with the items and weights changed annually. The need was expressed for a C.P.I, for low-income urban families. There was evidence that during inflation prices of goods customarily purchased by low-income families tend to rise faster than those of moderate-income families. There were also proposals that the mobility of population be allowed to affect the index. In 1951 the index measured price change at a given locaposed.

in prices paid by families moving with different price levels. Those who wish an index as a deflator of national consumer expenditures to measure the change in volume of consumer goods would like to have the entire population included. However, consumer price indexes useful for one purpose might not be suitable for another. Several consumer price indexes are needed if all purposes are to be served. Other consumer price indexes include that of the National Industrial Conference board, a private agency representing emMore ployers, which has provided an annual series since 1914. cities are included than in the C.P.I., but fewer items are priced. The U.S. department of agriculture' provides an index of "prices paid by farm families" from 1910 forward. It is a part of the formula to measure "parity" income for agriculture. The items included are those typical of farm-family consumption during

tion

and ignored the differences

among

cities

1922-24. The index is confined to food, clothing and housing. Prices are reported by mail by retailers selling to farm families. No attempt is made to relate prices to the same quality in each reporting period, and prices reported are those most frequently paid for specified consumer goods. If higher or lower real income leads to a change in quality purchased this shift is reflected in the index. These three indexes have much the same cyclical pattern but differences in items, weights, areas and system of price collection are such that none of them can be used as a check on

the accuracy of another.

—

COST OF LIVING

6oo How Much

—

Cost to Live? Putting this question to a random sample of families would undoubtedly elicit answers highly Outlays to provide correlated with their current expenditures. things considered essential by a family tend to be its measure of Thus, higher income tends in time to bring a its cost of living. higher "cost of living," since essentiality is determined in large measure by that to which a family has become accustomed. Conversely, continued e.xperience with a lower income will lead to a The decline in what a family looks upon as its cost of living. measurement of cost of living, apart from such individual judgments, is essential in the administration of relief, is implicit in social

Does

insurance,

It

minimum-wage

legislation,

income-la.\ exemptions, and has a place in

family allowances,

wage negotiations.

Cost

of living in relation to the productivity of workers has also re-

ceived scattered attention, especially the cost of education and health services.

Both governmental and nongovernmental agencies have provided measures of cost of living. Among the latter are some labour unions, the National Industrial Conference board and the Heller Committee for Research in Social Economics of the University of California. The Heller committee provides such measures for three occupational groups.

An

essential first step in

of welfare to be provided.

is

to decide

The concepts used

on the level

lack precision, al-

though there

is a consensus that "subsistence" is appreciably lower than "health and decency." When the level of budget is decided, it next necessary to select the items and their quantities. Methods

for doing this are not standardized.

ditions of living

II.

Scales for Families of Varying Size

Adequacy

of diets

Amount

of savings

persons persons 4 persons 5 persons 6 persons 2

3

In most of these, family need was measured in terms of adult equivalents, the need of an adult male being counted as one and that of other family members being expressed in terms of it. Food scales were most widely used, based on scientific findings as to need for nutrients and customary food patterns. The activity.

scales for other budget categories

do not have so sound a basis. Furthermore, the scales for total consumption become complex when an attempt is made to take into account the economy that comes with larger size of consuming unit. This differs greatly, for example, between food and housing. The BLS in publishing the city worker's budget in 1948 provided an over-all scale for estimating the difference in the cost of the budget for families of varying size if the same level of welfare was provided. Two criteria were used: (i) the relative income level at which families

and (2) a given of savings. The scales are given in Table II. Budgets were also prepared for other types of consuming units. In 1948 the Federal Security agency published a budget to use in appraising the adequacy of the consumption of elderly couples living by themselves. As of June 1947 its annual cost in eight cities ranged from $1,365 in Houston, Tex., to $1,767 in Washington, D.C. Budgets to measure the cost of living of single women became necessary because of minimum-wage laws. By 1948 cost-of-living budgets had been developed in ten states and the District of Columbia. In Massachusetts a budget for a single man as well as woman was set up and priced. In general, these budgets were for a single woman living away from home; employers argued that such a budget should be for a woman living at home. On the other hand, the U.S, women's bureau argued that allowance should of various sizes report a specified quality of diets;

measurement

is

most part have been

Table

Quantity budgets for the

up by experts acquainted with the conof the group to whom the budget is to relate and set

having some survey or other data about current consumption. In selecting the items they take into account what scientists have to say about adequate diets and other conditions necessary for a high level of physical health, legal requirements (for example, those relating to sanitary facilities of dwelling and extent of overcrowding), the need of families of sociability and of children to go to school. The BLS statistics in the "city worker's budget of IQ4S" used another method. It selected the items and their quantities on the basis of the relation of rate of increase in quantity purchased to the rate of increase in income of families. The budget was at the income level where the relative increase of quantity in relation to income, technically described as income elasticity, was at a maximum. This was accepted as a measure of relative urgency felt by the families for the various goods. The early measures of cost of living were concerned with poverty. After an extensive investigation, Robert C. Chapin decided that the annual cost of subsistence was $800 for a family of five persons in New York city in igog. At the close of World War I several budgets bearing on wage negotiations were set up, concerned with local situations only. In the middle 1930s the Works Progress administration set up two budgets to meet basic maintenance and emergency standards. These were priced in 59 cities. For the first budget the average cost for a family of four in 1935 was $1,261 and for the second $903. The maintenance budget was described as not so liberal as that of a health and decency level but above "minimum of subsistence." The emergency budget was looked upon as suitable only for temporary conditions. During 1939 and again during 1941, the BLS priced the maintenance budget in many cities. The city worker's budget of 1948 was developed by the BLS at the request of a congressional committee on appropriation "to find out what it cost a worker's family to live in large cities in the United States." The budget set up was described as an attempt to measure "a modest but adequate standard of living," for a family of husband, wife, a boy of 13 years and a girl of 7 years. The BLS estimated costs of this level At the of living in 34 cities during March 1946 and June 1947. later date the cost ranged from $2,734 in New Orleans, La., to Washington, in D.C. $3,111 A need varies greatly among families. Thus, a budget designed to measure the cost of living for one family type is not suitable for others. In order to deal with this variation, early investigators set up cost scales for individual members based on age, sex and

amount

be

made

for dependents.

—

Place to Place Differences. Comparison in the cost of living between two places is simple if one budget represents the same level of consumption in the two places, but this condition seldom occurs. There may be differences in climate that affect need, in market prices that affect the relative quantity of various purchased goods and in the combination of adults and children in the consuming units that affect economy of consumption. All of these factors make it difficult to prepare budgets to represent comparable levels of consumption. The city worker's budget of 194? varied the quantity weights for the clothing and housing in ordei to take account of the difference in climate among the cities in

which it was priced. Attempts were made to compare the cost of living of farm anc urban families. One such measure was made by Nathan Koffsky Two budgets were used and priced in both markets. City price; as relatives of farm prices using farm expenditure weights werf found to be 3o''o higher, whereas farm prices as relatives of cit> If twc prices using city expenditure weights were 12% lower. budgets could be developed to provide equivalent welfare, eacl could be priced in its own market and a single measure of cosi Suitable methods for this type of measure of living secured. ment had not yet been developed in the early 1960s. (See alst (M. G, R.) Budget, Family.)

SOME COMMONWEALTH COUNTRIES AND IRELAND

—

United Kingdom. From 1914 to June 1947 the ministry labour calculated a cost-of-living index at monthly intervals witl 1914 as base year. The "weights" of the index were based on th average expenditure of 1,944 urban working-class family budget collected by the board of trade in 1904. It was assumed that th proportions of total expenditure, devoted to different goods an services remained unaltered until 1914. The avepge weekly ej penditure of these families in 1904 was 365. lod., of which 22s. 6( The weights allotted to the different groups

was spent on food.

1

1

COST OF LIVING items were rlothing,

60%

8%

for food,

for fuel

and

16%

light

and

for rent, rates, etc.,

4%

12%

for

for other items.

In 1937-3S the ministry of labour carried out a household budget inquiry to gather data for a review of the basis of the cost-of-living index (see Methods of Measurement, above). Most af the households were those of persons insured against unemployment but some of the uninsured workers in the same class were also included; e.g., domestic servants, police, etc. The scope jf the inquiry covered agricultural workers and workers in inThe average weekly dustrial, commercial and clerical occupations. jxpenditure of the industrial households was 85j. and of the agricultural households 575. 4d. (Ministry of Labour Gazette, Dec.

,1940

and Jan. 1941).

The outbreak of World War 11 prevented any immediate action, DUt in March 1947 the Cost of Living Advisory committee, which lad been appointed in 1946, issued its report (Cmd. 7077, 1947). The committee recommended the institution of a temporary index jased on the pattern of expenditure disclosed by the 1937-38 Meanwhile, study of the problems of budget studies was to go on so that he form of a permanent index could be decided. Accordingly, an 'interim index of retail prices" was calculated and was published The groups of this index it monthly intervals from June 1947. (Vere eight in number and their weights were 34.8% for food, 8.8% or rent and rates, 9.7% for clothing, 6.5% for fuel and light, -.1% for household durable goods, 3.5% for miscellaneous goods, .9% for services and 21.7% for drink and tobacco. In the 19378 budgets it had been shown that items attracting 22% of total xpenditure were not covered by the old cost-of-living index. The course of the old cost-of-living index during and after Vorld War II may be compared with that of an index calculated ly R. G. D. Allen using the weights of the interim index (London nd Cambridge Economic Service Bulletin, Feb. 1949). Both idexes were computed on the basis 1938=100. Table III clearly shows the effect of government policy of subidizing those articles of consumption that entered the old costvorking-class

budgets.

:ollecting a regular series of

-

if-living

index.

Table

III.

—Comparison of Cost-of-Living Indexes Cost-of-living index

.1941

1943 1943 1944 1945 ,1946

1947 ,1948

Dudley Seers attempted

to calculate the increase in the cost

middle classes during World War II (Bulletin of he Oxford Institute of Statistics, Aug. 1948). He defined the liddle classes as those with salaries of more than £250 per year 1 1938, proprietors of business and those living on investment icome (other than retired members of the working classes) toether with their dependents. He further distinguished the lower liddle classes from the upper middle classes by considering those ith salaries of between £250 and £500 a year and those whose rofessional earnings or profits from farming, shopkeeping, etc., or ivestment income were less than £500 a year in 1938 as being le lower middle classes. Seers estimated that whereas the workig-class cost of living had risen 61.2% between 1938 and 1947, )r the middle classes as a whole it had risen 77.8%. Further, the middle classes were divided, the rise between 1938 and 1947 mounted to 66% for the lower middle class and 85% for the pper middle class. These estimates are somewhat hazardous 5cause of the method used to estimate the weights for the middle living of the

ass indexes.

In June 1951 the Cost of Living Advisory committee recomended that a new full-scale budget inquiry should be held as as possible since conditions of spending appeared to be sufiB.ently stable. In March 1952 the committee reported on its vestigation into the working of the interim index and suggested

on

modifications in the weighting structure of this index, to be based on the 1950 pattern of consumption as revealed by national income estimates, until such time as the new inquiry could be completed.

The new index took

Jan. 1952 as 100 but the all-items index

was

The weights used for combining the proportionate changes in prices after Jan. 1952 were: food 39.9%; rent and rates 7.2%; clothing 9.8%; fuel and light 6.6%; also linked to the interim index.

household durable goods 6.2%; miscellaneous goods 4.4%; services 9.1%; alcoholic drink 7.8%; tobacco 9.0%. The committee reported again in March 1956 when the results of the budget inquiry held between Jan. 1953 and Jan. 1954 had been analyzed. The new index was based on Jan. 1956 as 100 but as before the all-items index was linked to the interim index. The weights, as of Jan. 1956, for the new index were: food 35.0%; alcoholic drinks 7.1%; tobacco 8.0%; housing 8.7%; fuel and light 5.5%; durable household goods 6.6%; clothing and footwear 10.6%; transport and vehicles 6.8%; miscellaneous goods 5.9%; services 5.8%. Particular attention was paid to the problem of obtaining adequate information about changes in rent, both of local authority houses and privately owned houses. After the Rent act, 1957, the sample of dwellings was increased from 2,200 to about 6,000. Quotations for food prices and for a number of other goods were obtained from retailers in 200 representative towns, while for furniture and various household appliances information was provided by agents who visited retailers in about 23 large urban areas. The ten groups of the index were divided into 91 separate sections, for each of which a number of items were priced monthly with a total of nearly 350 items. In the annual government publication National Income and Expenditure, indexes are published of the market prices of groups of commodities based on the current pattern of expenditure of consumers of all classes. The recent course of the index referring to consumers' expenditure in the United Kingdom is given below: 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 108 111 114 114 115 83 91 97 98 100 103 Further details about the interim and new indexes may be obtained from Interim Index of Retail Prices (H.M.S.O., 1952), Report on the Working of the Interim Index of Retail Prices, Cmd. 8481 (H.M.S.O., 1952), Report on Proposals for a New Index of Retail Prices, Cmd. 9710 (H.M.S.O., 1956) and Method of Construction and Calculation of the Index of Retail Prices (H.M.S.O., 1959).

Year

Index

—

1939 1940

f

60

Republic of Ireland. In Nov. 1953 a consumer price index replaced the interim cost-of-living index (essential items), which had been published since Aug. 1947. The index covered all nonagricultural households and its weights were based on a family living study conducted in 1951-52. In this study 3,000 households reported their expenditure over a period of one week in each quarter of the year. Investigation showed that different types of families had reasonably consistent expenditure patterns. The prices of 191 items were collected once every quarter in 118 towns and villages. Over 30,000 individual price quotations were used for each calculation of the index. A special rent inquiry was conducted annually in mid-November to obtain information about the rents and rates paid for rented dwellings, both local authority and privately owned. Allowance was made for the rates paid and the maintenance costs incurred by owner-occupiers. The prices of milk, eggs and potatoes were adjusted for season by correction factors based on the average seasonal movement over the preceding five years. The new index was linked to the old interim index but no official backward revision of the earlier index was made. The weights of the groups were as follows: food 40.8%; clothing 12.7%; fuel and light 7.0%; rent 6.2%; and miscellaneous 3i.3%. Australia. The index used from 1953 was not based on a budget study but on national consumption data for the years 1950-53 as derived from consumption estimates using official production and trade figures, the census of retail establishments and general census data. Prices were collected for 245 items in each of six state capital cities. For commodities, prices were obtained generally from not fewer than ten retail outlets in each Information about rents was derived from a 5%-15% city. sample survey of four- and five-room brick or wood dwellings. A

—

6o2

COSTS—COSTUME DESIGN

COSTUME DESIGN

Plate

91

Greek

actor wearing tunic of tragic drama

the full-length, long-sleeved in the title role of Euripides' Detail from a vase painting; 5th cenStaatliche Museen, Berlin, Germany

Andromeda. tury B.C.

Sketch of Zuni Pueblo ceremonial dancer wear Shalako mask that repr spirit or god whom the

PREMEDIEVAL THEATRE COSTUMES

personifies

Tragic actor holding his mask. He wears a long-sleeved, short tunic and high boots (cothurni). Fragment of a vase from Tarentum, a Greek city in southern Italy; late 4th century B.C. Ma. tin

von Wagner museum, WiJrzburg, Germany

^n^^^ Scene from a burlesque with actors wearing the short tunic and tubular oants of Greek Old Comedy. Detail from a mixing bowl of Assleas of ^aestum, Italy; late 4th century B.C. Ehemals Staatliche Museen, 3erlin,

Germany

im a

New Comedy

of the Hellenistic period in

long tunics and draperies (pallia). jseum, Naples, Italy

Marble

Rome. relief

The actors

from Pompeii,

are

masked

Italy.

Na-

I

Plate II

COSTUME DESIGN

"Warrior

COSTUME DESIGN

Plate III

COSTUME DESIGN

Plate l\

THEATRE COSTUMES OF THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES

^

_*,>.

,

costumes in the rococo style of the 18th century designed by (left) Francois Boucher (1703-70) and (right) Louis Boquet (1717-1814), court painters to Louis XV Ballet

of France.

Archives de I'Opera, Paris

Pastoral costume design for a French peasant girl by Jean Bapliste Martin (1659-1735); dated early to mid-lSth century. Bibliotheaue de I'Arsenai, Paris

Neoclassic costumes designed by Jean Simon Berthelemy (1743-1811) Proserpine; late ISth century. Archives de TOpera. Paris

for

AxM0

^irJrm.

J

*^^/^

Costume design by James Robinson Planche (1796-1880) for the king in the Charles Kemble production of King John by William Shakespeare; 1823. The British museum. London

COSTUME DESIGN

>slume design by illiam

argaret

Raymond Sovey

for

Shakespeare's Measure for Webster production, 1964

L

M

Costume design by Robert Edmond Jones (1SS7-1954) for the extra lady in The Merchant of Venice by Shakespeare; about

1913

Plate

V

Costume design by Caley Summers for Lady Anne in Shakespeare's Richard III: Colorado Shakespeare festival,

1963

COS'lUME DKSKiN

Plate VI

TRADITIONAL

THEATRE COSTUME OF THE EAST

Chinese actor wearing an ancient national costume

Chinese actress wearing the costume of the here of The Peony Pavilion, a 16th-century oper, by T'ang-Sien-Tsu in the fun-cA'u style

of a warrior in

The Retreat

The flags ol Kisi-Ting. is on horseback

on his back signify that he

S>i. Japanese actor wearing no robe

Kabuki actor wearing the costume The Subscription List, classic Kabuki play dating from 1840

in

a late

his portrayal of a

ISth-century female role

of a leading character in

lid

Dancer actor in a traditional costum( of Javanese ritualistic theatr. to have derived from shadow plays

COSTUME DESIGN the southwest are a case in point.

Their unique culture was irrested by the coming of the Spanish in the 16th century, but these people steadfastly preserved their symbolic ceremonial dances with the traditional costumes in the face of an alien and :onquering religion. These costumes include garments of the style worn before the conquest: for men a wrap-around or kilt woven of leavy cotton, for women a drapery equally simple but more en(Such reverence for and symbolic use of garments veloping.

p{

'ormerly

worn by

all

is

a persistent characteristic of theatrical

:ostume everywhere.) These particular costumes are decorated OTth highly abstract, symbolic designs. Along with the basic dress 5r sometimes instead of it may be worn ornaments and accessories hat suggest an animal to be honoured or propitiated. The eagle dance costume of the Hopi tribe includes wings with vhich the dancer imitates the swooping motions of the eagle and I

The Hopi eagle dancer more than human size, of highly unreal-

headdress that symbolizes that bird.

vears a mask-headdress of stic

design, sjTnbolic not imitative

—

actually a sacred symbol.

In the same category is the Shalako mask, which in the Zuni ceremonial represents an ancestral spirit with "god-like wtency." For. as Virginia Roediger explains, "As soon as the mpersonator dons the mask of the supernatural he is believed to jecorae that spirit. As a consequence he is supernatural and must lot be approached or touched during the ceremonies and must be mcharmed before he again becomes mortal." Body paint also has nagic power: it too renders the wearer untouchable and must )e washed off ceremonially before he again becomes as other

.ribal

nen.

Outsiders unaware of the important ritual meanings in the ceremonial are stirred by the aesthetic appeal of the cos-

''ueblo

,umes: their vibrant colours, ingenious construction, abstract deigns pleasingly applied and such ornaments as sashes, fringes,

combine in a syncopated accom)animent to the basic rhythm of the measured steps. Egyptian. From such dances and other primitive religious assels

and

rattling shells that

—

:mbryo dramas, scholars infer that similar conventions developed n prehistoric civilizations. The rather sketchy information availible about Egyptian theatre in historic times points the same way. icripts of a few Egyptian religious plays do exist but there is However, many Egyptian figures 10 indication of the costuming. n stone, in fresco and on papyrus have the look of theatre costume lesigns:

hawk-headed men

in loincloths

and round beaded

collars;

emale figures wearing headdresses representing the folded wings 'f birds, their bodies wrapped in feather-painted skirts, and many ithers, beautiful now as pure design, once charged with symbolic leauty as well. Those animal heads could well be the masks of iriests impersonating gods. Certain to be identified as elements •i priestly costume concerned with ritual are the false ceremonial «ard (also reserved to the Pharaoh) and the exotic leopard skin irapery so alien to the ordinary dress of a tropical people. Here onsideration of Egyptian theatrical costume

must

rest until

more

vidence comes to light. Greek. Egypt was one of the contributors to the religious .bought of Greece. Another was Thrace, whence the god Dionysus

—

With

^ame rioting down.

irama, lusty with satyrs

^rsonators,

who formed

the worship of Dionysus began Greek and dancing women. The satyr im-

the

first

choruses, imitated nature crea-

bushy tails and animal-like masks. Long form of the ritual song-dance had been subordinated to eveloped drama with choruses of various sorts, the satyr play mgered on, as though men were loath to give up the opportunity identify themselves with the wild things by means of masks and lils. The mask, then, is the first important item of Greek heatrical dress. Also associated with Dionysus is the non-Hellenic lunic, the distinctive garment of the dramatic hero who emerged 1 the time of Aeschylus. This tunic was characterized by its ;ngth (to the feet) sometimes by a train called the syrma, which 'as added occasionally for special emphasis; its slight shaping to 3e form; its long, snug-fitting sleeves; and its lavish ornamentaon. This garment, of Thracian or possibly Persian origin, is an arly example of the ever-recurrent tendency in theatrical costume esign to turn to the exotic, the foreign. No costume could have

of the Christian era

and the decline of tragedy.

From

the be-

ginning, however, the principal actors did wear masks, which al-

most immediately were accompanied by the headdress, or onkos. Together they served to identify and characterize the wearer, and in time both became more and more stylized and exaggerated. Mask, onkos, instep-length robe with long sleeves and lavish decoration, high boots with hard soles by these distinctive details was the tragic actor set apart. worn chitons and these appears to have By contrast, the chorus were made of the richest material and ornamentation the choregos could afford. The choregos was some wealthy Athenian who, since he had been accorded the honour of dressing these singers and dancers, would strive to live up to it by extravagant expenditure. When both chorus and principal actors needed to augment their costumes they put on the chlamys, a moderate-sized scarf, or the

—

himation, a great enveloping length of fabric that served both men and women as an outside wrap. Concerning colour symbolism on the tragic stage of the Sth century B.C., evidence is far from definite. In the works of art that yield information about Greek dress, including theatrical, virtually no colour remains. Passages quoted are generally from Pollux, who wrote 500 years later. Contemporary writing pays tribute to the "rich colours"

worn by the actors and

to the

"sumptuousness"

It states that gold threads were woven into purple cloth for royalty; red, ranging from purple-red to flame colour, was a hue for heroes; the drabs and black stood for poverty and But decorative design and its motifs fared better: there grief.

of the chorus.

exists in vase painting a clear recording of the actor's patterned robes with their horizontal stripes, pointed rays, palmettes, still

heads of sphinxes, horses,

spirals,

human

figures

and the famOiar

wave.

from the worship of Dionysus, folfunmakers rather than that of the more reverent worshipers. The costume of Old Comedy is far removed from that of tragedy. It was gross and clownish and sometimes inspired extra mirth by satirizing the dignity of tragic heroes and The masks were exaggerated and ludicrous; when the gods. wearer represented some contemporary poet or pohtician his face was recognized as easily as the faces in present-day cartoons.

Comedy, which

lowed the

Masks der;

types.

fter the

that of

also derived

spirit of the

sur\'ived into the later, reaUstic

by

ures with hairy legs,

;

603

been further removed from the ordinary dress of the Greeks, whose principal garment was then the chiton, which in its pure form is never shaped to the body; it is a rectangle of wool draped upon the wearer and secured by pins and cords. It is never caught to enclose the arms snugly and often leaves them entirely bare. Men wore the chiton short, women wore it long. The tragic actor's tunic was long probably because of the tradition that Dionysus himself wore a long dress. He also traditionally wore the cothurnus, a soft boot laced to mid-calf; this Aeschylus is said to also became a part of the actor's costume. have caused the boot (it was originally feminine footwear) to be modified with a hard sole that added to the wearer's height. Evidently this sole was thickened progressively, but when and by how much and to what ultimate thickness are matters of controversy. Pictorial evidence for Early written testimony is ambiguous. really high soles is scanty and late, dating from the early centuries

New Comedy

of

Menan-

that time they were no longer caricatures but merely

Whereas tragic theatre dress was longer than ordinary, comedy was shorter; the tunic, whether sleeved or not,

reached just to the buttocks. Ankle-length tubular pants covered the legs. Feet, though sometimes bare, were often dressed in the came to be identified with comedy The pants were wrinkled, as the cothurnus was with tragedy. sloppy laugh-getters. The whole figure of the comic actor was a soft sock shoes or soccus that

grossly undignified contrast to the stately body of the tragic hero; he had shoulder humps, bumpy biceps and calves (or stringy arms

and legs), and a huge belly balanced by great fat buttocks; and he always wore the phallus, stylized, greatly exaggerated, but recognizable. A leftover from the primitive once serious fertility It eventually rites, this appendage had come down via the satyrs. disappeared from the sophisticated and realistic New Comedy but was retained by performers in the rustic Dorian Phlyakes. New

'

COSTUME DESIGN

6o4 Comedy, dressing which

still

Roman. :

actors in ordinary clothes, clung to the mask,

set the actor apart

— When

alterations were

ness

its

republican

made

in

from

his fellow Greeks.

Rome

took over Greek drama, few

costume except

in the direction of lavish-

these changes were neither as important nor as extensive as

There existed, however, a native drama in republican Rome that was in the style of realistic Greek New Comedy, but with Roman plots; this drama had costume characteristics so distinctive that the name of the garment was given to each type of play. The dramas based on Roman histor>' and its heroes were called jabulae togatae, which meant that its characters were Roman citizens entitled to wear the toga; the jabulae praetextatae concerned magistrates and senators, whose togas had a purple border, the praetexta, as a distinguishing ornament. These honourable persons also wore the high boot (cothurnus), possibly with the sole elevated a few inches. The realistic comedies dealt with characters of all sorts, few of them entitled to the toga. They wore the pallium (an upper garment resembling the Greek himation), and therefore these plays were called jabulae palUatae. Actors in the comedies of both Plautus and Terence were costumed in ordinary clothes and used the pallium, not the toga. The actors in these comedies wore if they did not go barefoot the low, the changes in staging.

—

—

soft sock shoe {soccus) or the solea, a sandal for

women,

slaves,

freedmen and foreigners.

the cover of the English periodical.

The country improvisers held on, even after the vast metropolitan spectacles had died out under the disapproval of the church and the dwindling Byzantine power. Acrobats, jugglers and tightrope artists scattered through western Europe, bringing their masks, foolscaps and even the shaggy skins inherited from ancient satyrs. They became well known at village fairs and showed up A few became domiciled as household jesters, complete with foolscap and sometimes bells. Such relics of the entertainer's arts preserved traces of theatrical dress. More important theatre costume then came into being along with the Christian drama as once again religion became the root of theatre. Early Christian Drama. The central ritual of the early church was the eucharistic feast, a shared commemorative partaking of bread and wine. The ritual, an ordered sequence, was led by the at castles, too.

—

who thus became the protagonist, the leading actor in a sacred drama. Out of reverence, he wore from the beginning his best alba, a long, sleeved, generally white garment commonly worn in Rome during the empire. This is the ancestor of the alb, still priest,

a principal church vestment.

Roman

nified

garments.

Some scholars, notably W. Beare, are convinced that from the time of Plautus (3rd century B.C.) the actors in these original plays wore masks, but this contention is vehemently denied by others, including Margarete Bieber, who holds that only facial paint and wigs proclaimed the actor's character. She concedes, however, that possibly in the 2nd century B.C. masks were used in the plays of Terence. All agree that Quintus Roscius, the accomplished actor of both tragedy and comedy in the time of Cicero, inaugurated the regular use in Rome of masks that, as in the Greek tradition, identified characters as old, young, master, slave, courtesan and so on. In imperial Rome both the mask and the onkos, worn in Greek-derived tragedies, were exaggerated to the point of exciting derision. It is from the viewpoint of this latter time that Pollux compiled his oft-quoted list of masks worn, he says, in

New Comedy. Masks continued to be the one indispensable

Greek

it

were soon added other

by

their use, the

Roman

dig-

vest-

had been forgotten (another instance of the persistent archaic element in theatrical costume). Roman civilian dress thus became the costume of the Hence when the first dramatic episode Christian ritual drama. was interpolated in the Easter service, the actors found costumes The characters were the angel at the sepulchre and the at hand. three

women who came

their secular origin

to anoint the

body

of their crucified Lord.

At a given moment a young man came from the choir and took his place at the tomb. He was already clad in his long white alb, suitable vesture for an angel. Now came the two Marys and the third woman, three more young men from the choir, also in albs. To complete their woman's costume they had only to lift the amice (large neck scarf) and put it over the head to become women. The playlet over, they returned to their places and their own personthis simple beginning religious drama developed into mankind from creation to last judgment, but even had moved out of the church, priestly vestments were resorted to on occasion. For instance, the clergy of one cathedral

From

alities.

a whole epic of article of theatrical

costume throughout the sordid history of the theatre in imperial Rome and Constantinople. The mimes who unfolded their story by means of speech as well as gesture wore the old-style masks with open mouths. Evidence suggests that sometimes facial paint was substituted, which would allow more freedom in expression. Regarding the rest of the costume little is recorded except that it became increasingly spectacular and probably, like the plays, increasingly indecent. The pantomimists, who danced without words but with agile and expressive body gestures, wore a new kind of mask with closed mouth. About their costumes there can only be conjecture based on audience reaction recorded as approving (of rich fabrics and jewels) or disapproving (of lascivious design). As to colour in the Roman plays, there would of necessity be the

—

white of ordinary togas with, when called for, the purple of a praetexta border. Written testimony as to other colours comes from Pollux and from Aelius Donatus (they do not always agree). Purple is associated with royalty, of course, and also with the mili-

pimps (frequent characters in the comedies) are distinguished by "variegated colors"; and prostitutes by yellow, signifying greediness. Slaves wear red wigs. White is for old men but also for "a young man" and for "a cheerful person." Those frescoes and mosaics of the 1st century A.D. that represent scenes from plays show costumes in a variety of bright colours ihat did not, apparently, follow any tary; poor folk are allotted dull red;

symbolic conventions. Alongside the Roman-Byzantine shows continued the Atellanae, the farces that had originated in the south of Italy as descendants of the Greek Phlyakes. The players of Atella developed a technique of improvised comedy in which the actors always were identified with certain typed characters in varied situations. Here are the prototypes of certain commedia dell'arte characters Mac:

man and

To

Set apart

ments were retained after

Roman

cus the fool, Pappus the old

hooked-nosed Manducus, who became Pulcinella and finally Punch, the rascally hero of the puppet show and the jolly reprobate on

particularly

humpbacked.

after

it

gave permission to the townspeople to use a cope (rich cape) God the Father, "on condition that the play does not become solute."

for dis-

—

Medieval Developments The medieval theatre, regardless how faithfully its subject matter was taken from Holy Writ, was by no means only religious. Just as Greece had its satyrs and misshapen clowns, the middle ages had its devils. Some recall of

the old satyrs with shaggy goat legs, cloven hooves and horns;

some developed new drolleries with bat wings and scorpion tails; some were embellished with ornaments on the knees, elbows and bellies as well as grotesque masks on the face. These devils were black, red or blue from head to foot. Herod, who ranked next to Lucifer-Satan as the archvillain, was likewise fitted with grotesqueries, including a great turban-crown and a mask with hooked nose and fanged mouth. Terrifying as these creatures were intended to be, they were also objects of mirth, as were other characters including Noah's wife and sometimes the shepherds. Usually the actors needed only face paint to emphasize natural endowments; but when superhuman majesty was wanted, as for the Transfiguration, craftsmen devised an awe-inspiring mask and gilded to

it.

The European

craft guilds

and the

societies dedicated

producing the sacred dramas, as well as the leaders of

the

Italian city-states, strove to present their plays as factually and stage directions, as sumptuously as possible.. Surviving records

expense accounts and chronicles

—

—

testify to expenditures for rich

and to the ingenuity of designers and craTtsmen. No construction problems bafiied them. They produced instantaneous transformations, talking beasts and practicable wings for angels as needed. The stage costumes were not onl> rich but also exotic. The costumer drew upon the past, especiallv antiquity, and upon the foreign, especially the tales of infide fa'brics

and gold

leaf,

i

COSTUME DESIGN and Turk, constructing

iaracen

and strange costumes from Throughout the later middle

rich

understood sources. costume parade included tyrants outfitted in papiernache heads, with scarlet wigs and beards, and crowns, turbans .nd robes that glittered with jewels; demons whose huge grotesque aasks and lashing tails struck fearful pleasure to the hearts of he beholders; angels with shining garments and gilded limbs; nd deity, towering above the restless crowd, immovably benign Q a golden mask.

'hese partly

the

,ges

Renaissance to Modern Renaissance.

— In the 15th century, northern Europe was

still

by then the Renaissance was well launched in taly; by the early 16th century both France and England were ollowing the new ideas, at least in court circles. In the meantime, s morality plays began to supersede the drama based on religious tories, costumes became allegorical for Justice, Peace, Truth and Such abstract figures began to assume an "antique" he like. ppearance as the classical Renaissance took firmer hold, and it

nedieval, although

not long before the slightly classic robes of the Christian were followed by similar robes for Jupiter, Mars and even

fas

irtues 'enus.

Except for the rural comedies and the somewhat literary farces layed mostly in the universities, theatre in the 16th century ound its outlet in the expensive show-off spectacles of municilahty or court.

First

came

the processional shows, called in Eng-

ind "progresses," in France entrees

and in Italy triomfi. (The were reviving the triumphs of ncient Rome, in which a victorious general paraded the streets 1 a golden chariot, clad in purple and gold, crowned, preceded nd followed by his royal captives in chains, his soldiers and is wagons of loot.) Actually the Italian street show, like en'ees, celebrated the entry into a city of some important person nd included that person, his entourage, the city greats and float fter float of allegorical figures. The medieval combats at arms eveloped into shows that had rudimentary plots. These stage onflicts were grim contests in which costume pageantry was furished by distinguishing colours, crests, plumes, shields and other talians

wanted

to believe that they

araphernalia of heraldry; they served as the excuse for dressing pposing horsemen in magnificent costumes of Turks, Crusaders,

^mazons or "wild Scotsmen." Other outdoor spectacles furnished le opportunity for dressing actors in magnificent mythological, ylvan, pastoral and marine costumes. Top-grade artists designed

costumes as well as the scenic effects; among the designers 1 France were Rosso Fiorentino and Francesco Primaticcio, Italins who brought Renaissance art to the north. In Italy itself the artists were called upon to design costumes, from such lorentines as Giorgio Vasari, Jacopo da Pontormo, Bernardo uontalenti to the great Leonardo da Vinci himself. Outdoor spectacles made free use of masks, almost a necessity hen men had to impersonate women. At court balls both men id women wore masks not for magic or for character identificaon but for concealment. Presently the spectacle and the fancyress ball merged, women joined the performers, ladies and gentlelen learned to step through figure dances and the court ballet, the

lese

,11

—

was born. The Italians believed that in these iiusical spectacles they were reviving the Greek heroic drama, rom court ballet developed opera, which has seldom lost sight of jllet

de

coiir,

costume. To be sure, opera ballets can most logically be better compared with le musical of modern times, particularly in the matter of highly lectacular costumes. The Ballet comique de la reine at the rench court in 1581 is the example most often quoted, prcybably jcause there are a number of copies of the book, which records the le

original spectacular features, including

le first

reduction and includes costume pictures

by the designer, Jacques

These costumes, called "antique" like others of the time, very much in the current mode, with additions that A nymph will not have abandoned ;r tight bodice and great puffed sleeves, but she will have added billowing overskirt, gauzy oversleeves and a fanciful headdress om which floats (invariably) a chiffon veil. The male actor;ro, probably cast as a warrior, will be clad in a version of

atin.

e

in reality

iggest classical draperies.

Roman

605

(body armour) over a doublet with the fashionable great sleeves, a classical helmet with impressive plumes (the panache) and Roman "labels" over his breeches and long hose. These labels were originally metal-tipped leather tabs that hung from the cuirass to cover the thighs. The Renaissance developed this useful accessory into a greatly exaggerated and ornately mounted skirt and named it the tonnelet. While amateurs at European courts strutted and sang through ballet operas in costumes created at a cost beyond the reach of even a 20th-century Broadway musical, bands of professional actors in tradition-perfected costumes were making their way from Italy to other European cities and courts. The commedia dell'arte, grown in skill and sophistication far beyond the rustic improvisastyle

cuirass

tions of the Atellanae, clothed

their well-defined

characters in

the distinguishing garments that they were to retain through suc-

ceeding centuries, subject only to the dictates of changing taste. These are ideal theatrical costumes; they identify the characters, allow complete freedom for acrobatic dancing, exaggerate tellingly and delight the eye with bright colours and amusing patterns.

Most commedia actors (except the lovers) wore half masks that emphasized the character. There is little direct evidence that shows how the characters in the great plays written by Shakespeare and his fellow playwrights were dressed. Students of the theatre conclude that costumes at the Globe, for instance, were as handsome as the cashbox allowed; that they were often in the contemporary mode; that period such as Roman was indicated by classical and exotic details togas, turbans, oriental-looking robes; and that when it came to fairies and such imaginary creatures, the wardrobe supervisor did his best to imitate the sort of "antique" creations that were being designed by Inigo Jones for Ben Jonson's masques at court. Jones had received his art education in Italy. His costume designs have a close aSinity to those of Vasari. Fortunately, many designs by both Jones and Vasari are preserved along with written descriptions, so that costume plates for specific productions can be assigned to specific artists. These men of the late 16th and Their designs reflect early 17th centuries had artistic stature. the last stages of Renaissance classicism and form a transition to costumes of the baroque theatre.

—

—

Baroque. The 17th century was a period of theatricality. Architects of palaces, chateaux and churches joined with sculptors and ornamentalists in producing effects boldly emotional, with sharp contrasts of light and shadow, the whole enriched by a profusion of C-curves, vines, flowers and human forms. The time

was propitious for truly at hand.

theatrical design,

and the men for

it

were

All the skills of stagecraft, including that of costuming,

reached a high peak in the 17th century. From Italy came the Bibiena family, with their marvelous scenic illusions, and Giacomo Torelli, whose stage effects caused astonished Parisians to accuse of practising black magic. Amid all this grandeur and complementing the painted backgrounds moved stately figures in rich, stiff fabrics hung with gold tassels and fringe and encrusted with gold and jeweled ornaments. Jacques Callot recorded these costumes as well as those of the commedia, whose types were thus set

him

for later generations.

Heroic tragedy had its own costume conventions; these were with the performances first of Corneille's classic dramas and then those of Racine. Actresses modified the current fashions with external touches of antiquity and enhanced established

their impressiveness with towering plumes.

The

tragic hero in his

still recalled the Roman warrior, but his headpiece was more frequently a plume-laden hat worn over a periwig than it was a helmet, and his tonnelet had widened into a heavily

cuirasslike doublet

ornamented

petticoat.

Moliere devised brilliant shows for performance at the new royal residence of Versailles, his witty texts combining perfectly with the music of Jean Baptiste LuUy and the decor of Jean Berain. Courtiers acted in these shows along with professionals, and occasionally the king himself, Louis XIV, danced a ballet, A great many of dressed in a costume designed by Berain. Berain's designs have been preserved; all of them are supremely theatrical,

supremely baroque.

Inspired by visions of the past and

COSTUME DESIGN

6o6

The

of foreign lands, he designed costumes to be danced in, with sway-

bodice, bell skirt.

ing skirts, floating veils, flying ribbons, dangling tassels; costumes

something new

with snug breeches, close caps and free-moving sleeves. He designed fairies and antique goddesses and savage chiefs of the Americas. Yet even his most fantastic designs are chic with the particular ornamental stiffness of fashion plates by

tious obligation to revive the dress of the period portrayed.

spring

to

in,

Pierre Bonnard. his contemporary.

actors in Moli^re's comedies, such as Tartuffe, played in contemporary dress, as did those in the English Restoration

Drama had not yet retreated behind a proscenium comedies. arch the actors playing on the apron were visible from three sides and were close to the audience, so that their clothes had to stand scrutiny. It was worthwhile to embroider intricate designs. ;

the

bold, were no bolder than current taste allowed in of their cosmopolitan audiences.

motifs,

gowns

if

—

Rococo. Early in the 18th century, Louis XV, in his turn, danced his ballet for the admiration of his subjects. His costumes and those of the ensemble were designed by the court decorative painters, such as Francois Boucher, Nicolas Lancret, Jean Marc Nattier and Louis Boquet the last-named less important as a painter but a most delightful designer of costumes. Antoine Wat-

—

teau, rather than designing for the theatre, painted the actors o) the theatre both the Italian troupe and the French comedians.

—

He

also painted imaginary actors dressed in costumes fancifully nostalgic and shown in amorous scenes, courtly or pastoral.

In theatre designs of the 18th century the pastoral influence often intrudes. In other eras countryfolk had been represented realistically on the stage as often as poetically, but in the rococo period they were all pretty, very very clean, clad in delicate silks, garlanded with flowers and carrying beribboned crooks. Two other

on stage costume and interior decoration were the familiar antique and the Chinese, the latter enthusiastically discovered in the late 1 7th century and adopted into the essence of

influences

rococo.

As

for the antique, its real influence

awaited the French Revolution. Operatic costumes followed the

more more

mode

upon stage costume

into lighter fabrics

delicate motifs, except that the tonnelet

ornate.

became

larger

and and

A

leading tenor depicted on the stage with his singing partner had his tonnelet looped and draped in silken swags as

wide as her panniers, but knee-length instead of to the instep like hers. His wig is the fashionable close-curled tiewig; his hat a flourishing tricorne, plumed. Ballet dress as a special, functional stage costume was introduced early in the 18th century when the solo feminine dancer, who now performed light and intricate steps, had need of a shorter, lighter dress. Marie Camargo, as pictured by Lancret, wears skirts well above the ankle here was the introduction of the distinctive ballerina costume that would be perfected in the 19th ;

century.

Empire.

—The French Revolution, with

of the styles of republican

its

wholesale imitation

Rome, exerted an

influence on stage costume that was as profound as its influence upon women's dress. By the end of the 18th century actresses, along with the ladies in the audience, had discarded their impressive but cumbersome trappings such as panniers and high wigs and were playing neoclassic roles in neoclassic robes. Jacques Louis David, a painter deeply imbued with admiration for the classic, having managed to hold on from monarchy to directory to empire, set out to reform the male actor's attire, which had never relinquished the traditional tonnelet and other trappings. He persuaded the great actor Frangois Talma to appear in one of his classical roles in a Romanstyle tunica minus totmelet and stockings. Now the men of the new era, who had not followed their womenfolk in adopting Roman dress, were coated, high-collared and pantalooned to the ankle. Consequently neither men nor women in the audience took kindly to bare shanks on the stage. Throughout the rest of the 19th century and even into the 20th Romans in reasonably authentic tunics and togas continued to step out in snug tights, not always flesh-

coloured.

19th Century.

—

The antique as a fashion did not last long in 1 9th century; in the succeeding romantic period stage costumes followed the current mode: drop-shouldered decoUetage, snug

the

early part of the century also brought costuming of any period play a conscien-

—

In

England the pioneer in this attempt at historical integrity was James Robinson Planche. Although the libretti he wrote and staged for Mme Vestris, the dancer, were feeble imitations of rococo, he established his place in theatre history

The

The

to the

by writing one most reliable histories of costume and, even more, by dressing King John for Charles Kemble in 10th-century garb based on manuscript pictures and sculpture contemporary with that chronicle play. That was a milestone in theatre history truly of the first and

exciting in

its

own

time.

The 19th century witnessed

interest in archaeology of all kinds.

Out of

the publication in England, France and histories that

still

it

a growing

came, for one

Germany

thing,

of other scholarly

form the basis of a costume designer's

library.

But time has proved that historicity is not enough to ensure the success of a theatre costume, mainly because the time ele-

ment always stands between the present and the past. No costume designer, costume maker or actor can escape it. For instance, from the earliest years of Victoria's reign to the death of Edward VII the fashionable female figure of the entire urban world was amply boned, padded and petlicoated; the male counterpart was encased just as completely if not so tightly constricted. The result for all branches of the theatre except ballet was that bodies in the Victorian mode as a foundation for such varied period costumes as those of Calpurnia in Julius Caesar, Norma in the druidical opera, Francesca da Rimini in the popular play by Bokar and Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing. No amount of authentic ornamentation or accessories could transform the wearer into a figure from the past. No wonder later genera-

were corseted

tions found the accurate reproductions

overelaborate, unimaginative, boring.

from Victoria's reign

stuffy,

Later, in the 20th century,

when modern

art had changed even philistine ideals of beauty, the once-admired archaeological approach to costuming the classics was thrown out along with the old-fashioned corsets. Even such epoch-making costumes as those designed for the spectacular Wagnerian operas seemed in retrospect far less pre-Romanesque than mid- 1 9th century German. Nevertheless, some costume rental establishments continued for years to stock and send out to amateur groups those sturdily constructed relics of the past

that can best be labeled costumer period.

Meanwhile professionals in the lighter forms of entertainment dressed as always in costumes that met the time-tested essentials of theatre: construction that permits free movement, eye appeal through exaggerated motifs, striking colours, sequins, plumes, trains and display of as much of the feminine figure as is countenanced by the local mores; and somehow through it all large concession to the contemporary mode. The improvised comedy, which had dwindled to insignificance as a dramatic form, bequeathed to the popular theatre certain characters and their costumes. Pierrot, once an unimportant member of the commedio troupe as a stupid, hayseed type, was transformed by the French pantomimist Jean Gaspard Deburau into the pathetic lover, whitefaced, black-capped, in droopy white garments, eternally mooning She herself developed from a second-class over Columbine. soubrette to a leading dancer in the short, fluffy skirt of ballet. Harlequin, always clever, became the leading figure of English light entertainment. Many versatile actors were famous for their dancing Harlequins. Under a variety of names and embellishments he was always fundamentally a lithe, sleek figure in diamond-patterned tights and a neat black half mask. He brought along the bat that he had inherited from the forgotten Atellanae. the same bat that medieval devils had flourished in the old guild plays. Other descendants of ancient buffoonery are the whole tribe of clowns familiar in the English pantomime, the circus anq vaudeville. However varied the clown costume, from comic elf tc

A mask ol hobo, the constant feature is grotesque make-up. paint, rather than the inflexible mask of the ancients, often recalls the old comic masks with their great noses, huge eye socket; and enormous, wide-lipped mouths. A unique American contribu tion to the ancient line of clown masks is the burnt-cork minstre show face, a stylized exaggeration of African Negro features.

COSTUME DESIGN Most important

in the

19th-century theatre was the evolution

which developed a costume of its own that was both functional and aesthetically satisfying. When the dancer went up on pointes (the toes), she seemed to scorn the ground, each of her technical tours de force contributing to that illusion. Her costume always enhanced this denial of gravity, from the calf-length tarlatans of Carlotta Grisi in 1804 to the thigh-short Perfectly adapted to its function, the tutu of Anna Pavlova. tutu with its accompanying sleek bodice epitomizes the flight from reality to the dream world existence of classical ballet. Under its spell the 19th-century moderns painted the art of ballet, for Renoir, Seurat and the rest were not so much interested (To be i,n designing ballet costumes as in painting girls in them. jure, Pablo Picasso was still a modern in the 20th century; at that

\oi the classical ballet,

:ime he did

ind

so

make costume

designs for a

number

of ballet-operas,

younger contemporaries.)

did his

Famous throughout Europe from about 1875 to 1890 were productions of the repertory company organized by George

He

designed costumes jroductions that set a new standard of meticulous Fastidious good taste ind excellent craftsmanship. ;he mark of Sir Squire Bancroft's London company

duke of Saxe-Meiningen.

.he

for his

t\\t

II,

own

authenticity

was equally that played

Dopular drawing-room comedies in smart contemporary dress. Sverywhere the standard of theatrical production went up. The :onservative leading artists of the late 1 9th century in England in:luded among their activities the designing of both scenery and :ostumes. They brought to the task erudition and the techniques Impressive cer')f painting, though not always theatrical sense. ainly were the costumes designed and constructed for the specacular productions of such actor-producers as Sir 'ind Sir

Herbert Beerbohm Tree. As the 19th century approached

Modern.

—

/isual arts stirred in rebellion against the

its

Henry Irving close

and

all

long-established post-

ienaissance representational ideal, the theatre began to be bored As always at the beginning vith established production methods. )f any revolutionary movement the ordinary theatregoer was slow

new trends, but even before World War I enthusiasm begun to spread from a few young students of the theatre to a vider public. Perhaps the biggest jolt to conventional minds was he Russian ballet with its costumes (and of course decor) designed by Leon Bakst. In contrast to the older designers and their )olite but tired palettes, he threw upon the stage explosive and

After World

upon colour, motif upon motif in His drawings leaped from the paper just as the Starting with lancers whom he dressed leaped about the stage. oik costume or historic dress he exaggerated, intensified and disEven timid orted to express the meaning of the dance dramas. 'oung theatre workers caught fire from him and dared to combine orange and watermelon pink. Other influences tended to counterbalance the Russian frenzy, ^^dward Gordon Craig revealed the virtues of lofty and uncluttered urfaces, long grave lines and heavy fabrics; Adolphe Appia bowed the way to creative lighting, and from him and his followers ostume designers learned how to cope with light and take ad'antage of it. Max Reinhardt in Germany and the U.S. revived In his 'he splendours of the middle ages and the Renaissance. 'ast productions of Jedermann {Everyman) and The Miracle he Irew upon modern techniques, the exaggerations of the Russians .nd the vast scale of Craig to recreate religious drama in terms

)arbaric colours, piling colour iriental

profusion.

cceptable to "Wight's

In one version of A Midsummer taste. revived the baroque splendors of Vasari and

modern

Dream he

ones.

were competent to create costumes of meet the demands of widely different designer might create in the baroque spirit for one play

The new theatre astly different 'lays.

A

artists

sorts to

purest classical simplicity for the next, in each case dictated only by his sensitivity to the needs of the play, his knowledge Theatre, which had f art history and his feeling for design. «en in the 18th century the actor's province and in the 19th a in the early 20th fair bade playwright, 'round shared by actor and r in

!o

become

chiefly a field of artistic expression for the designers of

cenery and costumes.

I,

new developments

were inevitably

reflected in the theatre, primarily in a sophistication of colour

and an extremely acute selectivity of line and mass. After achieving fame in other pictorial media artists might try their hand at That boldest experimenter in new stage decor and costuming. art forms, Picasso, created for The Three-Cornered Hat a set of costume designs as practical as they were stunning. Various artists well trained in the ateliers of Europe and New York adjusted their skills to the demands of the stage, as had their remote predeIn general, costume designers successors in the Renaissance. ceeded in proportion to their experience in total theatre. If any one artistic viewpoint proved more congenial than others in the first half of the 20th century, it was the baroque, as expressed in costume designs for romantic plays from or portraying the rococo 18th century, all periods of the 19th and the early 20th; all these designs, called respectively empire, early Victorian and Edwardian, were nostalgic stylizations of decorative elements

Such neobaroque that were admired in the world of yesterday. designing found its richest opportunity in the newer music theatre, which was developing the haphazard song-and-dance musical comedy into a well-plotted drama with integrated music and dance. One theatre might house a sumptuous musical; the next, ah experiment with classics in modern dress an economical style of costuming that proved there is emotional significance in anything worn on the stage. Perhaps it was via modern-dress Shakespeare that the earlier revolt against a strictly archaeological approach to period plays reached the popular theatre of Europe and New If modern dress succeeded, then why not any period York.

—

deemed suitable, or a mixture of periods? Eventually audiences saw characters in Measure for Measure dressed like those in Lady Windermere's Fan and actors in The Taming of the Shrew wearing As the ten-gallon hats and leather chaps of pioneering Texas. a rule the ephemeral appeal of novelty was backed by the solid worth of good design, for costumers after mid-century generally were well-trained, creative and knowledgeable.

EASTERN COSTUMES

notice the

lad

War

607 in art

Throughout the thousands of years during which occidental theatrical costumes developed, fell into disuse and were revived in other forms, the costumes of the eastern theatre showed very little change. Drama itself was a more conservative art in the east, leaning to formalism in acting and staging and therefore in costuming. To western eyes the eastern costume never seems realIt is istic, not even in the popular dramas with domestic plots. always primarily theatrical. China. In China the theatre is of extremely ancient origin and as elsewhere has its roots in religious ritual. It has been a popular art for centuries, and the conventions of its staging, acting and costumes have been well understood by the average playgoer. Headdresses, for instance, indicate clearly not only social caste but even the character's place in the plot. Thus costumes besides being ornate, are also functional and highly important in communicating the story to the audience. In some plays and for some characters masks are worn; e.g., to portray the superGenerally, natural or some part that requires extra emphasis. however, character make-up is achieved by using symbolic colours beards. Feand hues, with the addition of appropriate wigs and male impersonators in the all male cast rely entirely on exquisite make-up and a body trained in the quintessence of feminine grace

—

essential to wearing their lady robes.

—

Japan. In Japan masked temple dancers preceded the no drama, which itself was so intensely aristocratic that it was performed only under imperial auspices. No costumes, derived from ancient ritual and court ceremonial dress of the era corresponding to the western 14th and 15th centuries, are constructed of the most sumptuous materials and in their gravely beautiful lines perfectly express the ritual quality of these highly symbolic poetic dramas. No masks are among the most skilfully made and possibly are the most beautiful in the world. The popular theatre is the Kabuki, derived from the esoteric ritual drama but far removed from it in The Kabuki's costumes are handsome and as spirit and prestige. remote from the ordinary dress of the audience as

its

gesturing

is

COSTUME DESIGN

6o8

from everyday movement. The Kabuld actor dresses carefully in layers of traditional garments and transforms his natural appearance with wonderfully constructed wigs and with stylized make-up in conventionalized symbols of line and colour. Japanese acting traditions have broken down to some extent under the impact of western theatre and especially western motion pictures. Nevertheless much of tradition remains in the pantomimic dance dramas. Java. Javanese theatre has preserved its ritual character and the costumes that express so well the symbolic movements of its highly trained dancer actors. This form is said to have derived from the shadow plays that used not men but marionettes in the form of cutouts; it has preserved in its costumes something of the rigidity and strange beauty of these prototypes. Masks play an important part. Burma. In Burma with its ancient Hindu culture the costumes are sumptuous and reflect almost literally the dress represented on ancient temple sculpture. They are cleverly constructed for their functions in the dance drama. The theatre costume of the east is primarily theatrical. It may be distinguished by those elements that set theatre costumes apart from ordinary clothes in all parts of the world; these elements include: exaggerations or distortions of the familiar; holdovers from the past that take on symbolic meaning as they become obsolete and exotics deliberately introduced from distant lands or legendary epochs.

—

—

MODERN DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

—

An

signer for the commercial theatre

—

may

—

rings, disks or thin strips.

of the wearer's ego, their advertisement of the producer's wealth

cork.

is

Modern

account

somewhat

all

designers of theatre costumes

still

have

magic—but the apnow expected of the costume

these factors—even

different.

It is

designer as of the scenic artist that he will fully understand the

aim of the production as a whole, the meaning of the play and For this reason he the nature of the characters he is to dress. must subordinate his own creative artistry to the demands of the play as it is to be presented. He is only one partner in a cooperative enterprise of author, director, designers and actors.

To

express the dramatic idea clearly in terms of costume re-

quires constant vigilance to include only essentials; in other words, the designer must eliminate whatever does not serve to identify

The designer thinks in terms not He subordinates order that he may focus attention on the protagonists. With his costumes he helps to compose a scene, balancing colour with colour, line with line, texture with texture. Above all, mindful not only of the characterizations that his cosa character or interpret him.

of single costumes but of the whole stageful.

minor characters

in

tumes are to help but also of what their wearers are called upon do physically, he designs clothes that can be worn without discomfort or without hampering the actor. On this score, costumes for the dance are the greatest challenge to the designer, who must constantly curb the exuberance of his imagination to leave the dancer free. A dance costume design must satisfy the choreographer, who knows what the performer has to do in it. The dancer's body is his major tool of expression and creates its own design. Too easily is this design obscured by irrelevancies in drapery or ornament. On the other hand, it may be accentuated by colour, flat decoration and texture. The fabric itself, clinging, floating or trailing, contributes materially to the rhythm of the dance. The successful designer of dance costumes has learned to

not disregard the lesson when he thinks in terms of drama, opera or musical. The designer for the modern stage must take into account not only the scenery against which his costumes will appear but also the value of simplification.

He

will

under which they will be seen. His knowledge of fabrics must therefore include an acquaintance with the effect of coloured lights on coloured textiles. Because he is aware of the transformations that take place on the lighted stage, he chooses his palette in close co-operation with the scenic artist. This done, a busy dethe lights

assistants to

be handed over to a professional dyer, there will be times when a craftsman must work with dye for special effects, such as shading from one value to another, tie-dyeing and ornamenting with stencil, batik or freehand brushwork. There must be wigs not only hair wigs that require great skill and much time to construct but also others, often not realistic and made from such materials as rayon, horsehair, nylon, raveled rope, string and felt. There must be millinery of all imaginable sorts. There must be footwear, from sandals to boots. Skilled shoemakers specialize in theatrical footwear, but again sometimes even boots are made in the workshop. Armour is not considered beyond the scope of the workshop, for armour appropriate and theatrically truthful can be made from a variety of materials: papier mache, the larger yardages

leather, felt, all of these metallized

to take into

upon

execution of his designs.) Costume making calls for many skills besides dressmaking and tailoring dyeing, for instance. Although

reasons: their wearability, their usefulness as identification, their dignity, their symbolic meaning, their magic potency, their flattery

proach

call

—

Integral Part of the Play. Throughout the long history of theatre costuming, designs have been adopted for a variety of

and importance.

may

sample-shop for him; many prefer to shop for themselves. His costume plates will be accompanied by swatches of the materials selected, including trimmings. He may add enlarged-to-scale drawings of the ornamentation. How Costumes Are Made. After costumes are designed, the workshop takes over. The commercial theatre is served by costume makers whose shops employ specialists in every branch of construction. The shop is headed by a costumier upon whose understanding and experience depends the successful realization of the artist's design. (In theatres in colleges and civic organizations in many parts of the world the artist himself supervises the

real

metal; brass,

from the same

steel,

and possibly augmented with copper or aluminum in the form of scales, Jewelry of every variety is produced

sort of materials as well as

from balsa wood and

Costumes are often made from fabrics not generally used by dressmakers or tailors, since for theatre costumes the right material may be located in unorthodox places: in the upholstery department, the houseware section, even the hardware store. Costumes have been made successfully from canvas, Osnaburg, felt, leatherette, carpeting, sheet rubber and all the synthetics including plastics. To the imaginative costumier the material that will look right on the actor on stage is the proper material, however unorthodox such a use may seem. Of course the modern costumier

command the natural fabrics that his predecessors used wool, silk; often he still finds one of them the ideal material. But he also has at his disposal the range of man-made Particularly valuable are the nylon nets, fabrics and stiffeners. especially for use as ruffs and standing collars and tutus. The construction of a costume starts with the underpinning. has at his

— cotton,

Padding of all kinds, corsets and such supports as farthingales, panniers and hoop skirts should be acquired or constructed with extreme care, for on them depends the basic integrity of the exOver such foundations and adequate petticoats a muslin terior. lining is tried on the actor; alterations are made in it to ensure becomingness as well as fit. At this point the cutter and draper take over; upon their sensitivity to the grain of the material de-

pends the ultimate success of the costume. Next it goes to seamstresses, whose sewing must be accurate and above all dependable, because on stage a ripped seam or loose fastening may mean Thus all these craftsmen become inevitably cocatastrophe. creators with the costume designer, who should never forget that his design is not the handsome picture he submitted to the director but the finished garment on the actor upon the stage before an audience.

See also Stage Design; Ballet;

Mask; Commedia

dell'Arte.

—

Bibliography. L. C. Arlington, Chinese Drama From the Earliest Times Until Today (1930) Lucy Barton, Historic Costume for the Stage (1935) W. Beare, The Roman Stage (1950) Margarete Bieber, The History of the Greek and Roman Theatre (1939) Milia Daven;

;

;

;

P. L. Duchartre, La Commedia port, A Book of Costume (1948) Robert dell'Arte, Eng. trans, by R. T. Weaver, Italian Comedy (1920) Edraond Jones, The Dramatic Imagination (1941); M. Hiler, Bibli;

;

ography of Costume (1939); Iwao Kongow, No-Ishe (1934); Jame; Laver (ed.). Costume of the Western World (1951); Kenneth MacGowan and H. Rosse, Masks and Demons (1923) Mlardyce NicoU Masks, Mimes and Miracles (1931), Stuart Masques and the Renats;

COSWAY—COTMAN Virginia More Roediger, Ceremonial Costumes of flhe Pueblo Indians (1941) ; Lilian Wilson, The Clothing of the Ancient Romans (1938). (Lu. B.)

yan« Stage (1938)

,

;

COSWAY, RICHARD

(c. 1742-1821), English miniaturist, was born in Devon and baptized in Nov. 1742. Before he was 12 he was sent to London and apprenticed to Thomas Hudson, under whom he learned oil painting. He exhibited at the Royal Academy from 1770 to 1806 and was elected associate in 1770 and full academician in 1771, the rapidity of these elections being the more surprising in that he was principally a portrait miniaturist, then not a very highly regarded art. He used transparent water colours on ivory, allowing the tone of the ivory to shine

through, a practice quite different 16th-

from the

solid painting of the

and 17th-century masters.

,

Vain, superstitious and foppish, he was fortunate in securing :he patronage of the prince of Wales, although the rumours conlected with the parties held in his house were not to his credit,

he married Maria Hadfield (c. 1760-1838), who was also and painter in oils. He died at Edgware, Middleon July 21, 1821. Cosway's miniatures are well represented in London (Victoria •md Albert museum, Wallace collection), in the royal collection ,ind at Cambridge. See Miniature Painting. (n 1781

i

miniaturist

,5ex, .

Bibliography.

—

G. C. Williamson, Richard Cosway (1905); B. S. Miniaturists (1929) G. Reynolds, English Portrait Miniatures (1952). (P. J. My.)

iLong,

British

;

COTABATO,

,

3as

ie

Island, Republic of

Area 8,868 sq.mi. Pop. (1960) 1,152,474. It upland margins, and the Liguasan marsh and Lake Buluan lowland. The area is drained by the Rio Grande Mindanao. Buluan, near the lake, and Koronadal, near the in the central

new centres of settlement. Formerly inhabited Muslim Moros, the province is being settled by Catholic ^isayans. The capital is Cotabato (pop. [1960] 37,320), at the south coast, are

jy

3iouth of the

md

Rio Grande.

It is

an interisland port shipping

an important commercial centre maize, abaca and ramie.

rice,

(J. E. Sr.)

COTARELO Y MORI, EMILIO iterary scholar,

who became

(18S7-1936), Spanish

secretary of the Academia Espaiiola

md conducted much of his research on its behalf, was born at Vega de Ribadeo, Asturias, Spain, on May 1, 1857, and died at Madrid on Jan. 27, 1936. His investigations were varied, his nethod more scientific than that of the better-known Menendez y Pelayo; his lis

documentary

results

were monumental.

Notable are

researches on dramatic history: on the 18th-century stage and

dramatist Ramon de la Cruz; on the jroblematic Tirso de MoUna; and on the origins of opera. The inost famous of his publications is Iriarte y su ipoca (1897), a derailed survey of 18th-century literary society. (I. L. McC.) listrionic art;

on the

prolific

COTE-D'OR,

a departement of east central France, formed 1790 from the northern part of Burgundy {q.v.) and bounded lorth by Aube, northeast by Haute-Marne, east by Haute-Saone md Jura, south by Saone-et-Loire and west by Nievre and Yonne. Pop. (1954) 356,839. Area 8,788 sq.km. (3,393 sq.mi.). The limestone plateau of Langres crosses the departement from lortheast to southwest and forms the watershed between drainage .0 the Seine and that to the Saone. Southwest of Dijon its south;ast-facing escarpment is the Cote-d'Or, the crest of which ex':eeds 2,000 ft. The Langres plateau slopes northwest, as the rocks lip toward the centre of the Paris basin, and in the extreme lorth of the departement a groove of well-farmed clay country, 'n

mown

as

La Vallee

in contradistinction to

La Montagne

of the

^angres plateau, runs northeast-southwest in front of a broken, vooded escarpment of Corallian limestone. The high, exposed ^angres plateau, with only thin soils on ace, is extensively jranitic

wooded and

highland of the

its

porous, stony surSpurs from the

thinly settled.

Morvan extend

into

the west

of the

and the backslope of the Cotethe upper basin of the Armangon, the undulating Lias :lay country of Auxois provides rich cattle-fattening pastures. The lower alluvial terraces of the Saone plain are richly culti'ated, wheat and maize being especially important, but there are lepartement. i'Or, in

Between these

hills

century naturalist Buffon.

COTES-DU-NORD, ern France formed in

(Ar. E. S.) a maritime departement of northwest-

790 from the northern part of the old provis bounded north by the English channel, west by the departement of Finistere, south by that of Morbihan and east by that of lUe-et-Vilaine. Pop. (1954) 503,178. Area 7,218 sq.km. (2,787 sq.mi.). C6tes-du-Nord consists of much denuded folds of ancient sedimentary rocks, with extensive intrusions of granite masses. Inland the Landes du Mene, the highest parts of which exceed 1,000 ft., form the watershed between the southward drainage to the Bay of Biscay and the Ranee, Arguenon, Gouessan, Gouet and Treguier rivers, which with other small streams flow north toward the Channel in winding, steep-sided valleys that cut transversely across the grain of the country. The coast is extremely rocky and indented, with discontinuous patches of more level land between the promontories. Market gardening is extensively practised there on smallholdings, advantage being taken of the special mildness of the coastal climate, the availability of seaweed fertilizer and the accessibility of the British market. Onions are an especially important crop around Saint-Brieuc. The interior, humid and windswept and with poor acid soils, is used chiefly for pasture. Some of the formerly extensive tracts of heath remain, though much reduced by modern enclosure. Rye, oats and buckwheat, formerly the chief crops, have tended to make way for pasture as farming has become increasingly specialized upon livestock. Cattle and pigs are important, but there are comparatively few sheep. Longshore fishing, especially for mackerel, is an important ac1

ince of Brittany (q.v.),

Mindanao

a province of

•he Philippines.

lire

609

sandy tracts that carry extensive forests, such as that of Citeaux. Along the foot and lower slopes of the Cote-d'Or is the great wine-producing district of Burgundy, its vineyards comprising the two main groups of Beaune and Nuits. Farther northeast, the continuation of the escarpment in the Dijon district is another important area, though orchards have encroached here upon former vineyards. The main line of the Sud-Est region railway (formerly the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee) traverses the departement on its way from Paris to Dijon and the south, and important trunk roads also converge upon Dijon. The Burgundy canal, connecting the Saone with the Arman^on headstream of the Seine, also passes through Dijon, and the Marne-Saone canal crosses the extreme east of the departement. Dijon {q.v.) is the capital of the departement the seat of a bishopric, an academie (educational division) and a court of appeal. It is a great commercial as well as an administrative and cultural centre and has a variety of important industries, including food preparation and engineering. Little medieval building remains at the famous Cistercian abbey of Citeaux, home of St. Bernard, but Fontenay is the best preserved of the great Cistercian houses. Montbard has the remains of a castle of the dukes of Burgundy that was later the home of the 18thalso

tivity of the numerous small ports, and trawlers from Paimpol operate in Icelandic and Newfoundland waters. The picturesque coastal scenery, sheltered coves and quaint fishing villages attract increasing numbers of visitors, and the tourist industry is thriving.

In the east of the departement the Cote d'Emeraude around Dinard {q.v.) is especially popular, and the rugged granite coast of Tregorrois in the west also deserves mention. Like other parts of Brittany, C6tes-du-Nord is rich in prehistoric remains and there are many interesting churches. The cathedral at Treguier and the ruins of the 15th-century castle of Tonquedec, 7 km. (4 mi.) S.E.

noteworthy buildings. C6tes-du-Nord is divided into the arrondissements of SaintBrieuc, Dinan, Guingamp and Lannion. Saint-Brieuc, the capital, The departement comes under the is also the seat of a bishop. archbishopric, court of appeal and academie (educational divi(Ar. E. S.) sion) of Rennes {q.v.). SELL (1782-1842), English waterCOTMAN, colourist and etcher, and the greatest member of the Norwich school, was born in Norwich on May 16, 1782, and was sent to London to study about 1798. Through Thomas Monro he met both J. M. W. Turner and Thomas Girtin. From 1800 to 1806 he exhibited water colours at the Royal Academy, and some of his of Lannion, are

JOHN

COTONEASTER—COTTA

6io

and 1,650 ft. from east to west. Its depth is 1,200 ft. of the time the beautifully symmetrical cone of Cotopaxi hidden by clouds that are lighted up at night by the fires in

works of this period, with their grand simplicity and geometrical composition, are now reckoned as among the finest English landIn 1807 Cotman left London and returned to scape paintings.

to south,

Norwich, where he worked as a drawing master and exhibited regularly with the Norwich Society of Artists, of which he was a leading member. In i8i 2 he moved to Yarmouth and began a long period of work as an archaeological draftsman in collaboration with the antiquary Dawson Turner. He visited Normandy in 1817, KSKS and 1820. In 1823 he returned to Norwich and in 1834 to London, where he died on July 28, 1842. In his last years his style changed completely and he started using rice paste mixed with his water colours to get a richer and more impasted effect, like oil painting. His sons. Miles Edmund (1810-58) and Joseph John (1S14-78), were also painters. Cotman is well represented in the Victoria and Albert and British museums, London, and in Norwich. See S. D. Kitson, The Life of John Sell Cotman (ig.n); V. G. R. Ricnaeckor, John Sell Cotman (iqs.O(P- J. My.)

the crater. The base of the volcano stands on open paramos, or mountain grassland; but the whole upper part of the mountain is covered with permanent snow. The snow line on the drier western side is about 15,500 ft. above sea level, but on the wetter eastern side it is about 1,000 ft. lower. Sometimes tlie mountain is crowned by a huge cumulus cloud in which the mountaintop is

COTONEASTER,

a genus of the rose family (Rosaceae; containing about SO species, mostly evergreen or deciduous shrubs, from temperate regions of Europe and Asia. The abundant small flowers are white. Each has five petals. The berrylike q.v.'),

—

and resemble diminutive apples evidence About 40 species and many hybrids are grown for ornament in temperate and subtropical gardens of the world. The kinds vary in form from low dense prostrate shrubs to small, diffusely branching trees. (G. H. M. L.) COTONOU, the chief port and economic centre of the Republic of Dahomey in west Africa, lies on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea about 65 mi. W. of Lagos, Nigeria. Pop. (1955 est.) 28,064. It is built on a narrow sandy spit which lies between the open sea and the navigable lagoon of Lake Nokoue, the older part of the town being on the western side of the lagoon entrance. The port and commercial area give place farther west to an administrative quarter and then to a residential area of villas set in gardens fruits are red or black

of close kinship to the latter.

fronting the sea.

Inland

is

a poorer built-up area.

Metre-gauge railways and motor roads connect Cotonou with the hinterland, and from its airport (20 mi. inland) there are regular services to Paris, Marseilles and the chief towns of west Africa. Construction of a new deepwater port began in 1959. Cotonou is the headquarters in Dahomey of a number of business and banking firms and in the late 1950s its port handled about 250,000 tons of cargo annually. The place was ceded to the French in 1868 and occupied by them ten years later, but its development dates from the period 1936-40 and continued after World War II. (J. D.) COTOPAXI, a province (formerly called Leon) in highland Ecuador, bounded west by Los Rios, north by Pichincha, east by El Oriente and south by Tungurahua and Bolivar. Pop. (1960 est.) 213,600. Area 1,781 sq.mi. On its northeast border is the active volcano of the same name. The chief concentration of people is in the basin of Latacunga, drained by the Rio Palate, a headwater of the Pastaza. The capital is Latacunga. The crops include wheat, barley, potatoes, maize, vegetables and fibre plants. Much land is used to pasture dairy cattle, and the higher mountain grasslands are used for sheep. The province is served by the railroad that connects Guayaquil with Quito, and by the PanAmerican highway, both of which pass through Latacunga.

COTOPAXI,

a

mountain

in the

Andes

of

(P.E.J.) Ecuador in South

America, probably the world's highest active volcano. It is located 30 mi. S. of Quito, at latitude 0° 40' S., and longitude 78° 26' W. Cotopaxi looms It rises to a height 19,498 ft. above sea level. above the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes on which it stands, with an almost perfectly symmetrical cone, interrupted only by one minor cone the Cabeza del Inca, or Inca's Head. It has a long record of violent eruption and the country about its base has many times been devastated by earthquakes or buried in pumice and ash blown out of the crater. The mountain itself is built up of alternating flows of dark-coloured trachytic lava and falls of lighter-coloured ash. Porous ash from this and other Ecuadorean volcanoes covers the basins between the Andean ranges to great depths. The crater at the top is 2,300 ft. in diameter from north

—

Much is

hidden; at other times the base of the volcano is hidden by a cloud sheet and the top stands majestically against the dark blue of the sky.

The

summit is from the northsmoke to drift toward the

prevailing wind at the

west, causing the

plume

of volcanic

southeast.

The first European to attempt an ascent of Cotopaxi was Alexander von Humboldt in 1802. He failed to reach the top and pronounced the mountain unclimbable. Other failures in 1831 and 1858 seemed to confirm this verdict. But in 1872 Wilhelm Reiss succeeded in reaching the top on Nov. 28, and in May of the following year A. Stijbel was also successful. Other famous ascents were made by T. Wolf in 1877, M. von Thielmann in 1878, and Edward Whymper

in 1880.

(P. E. J.)

COTSWOLDS,

a range of hills in the western midlands of England. The greater part lies in Gloucestershire, but they also extend into Somersetshire, Wiltshire, Oxfordshire, Worcestershire and Warwickshire. The range forms part of the Jurassic escarpments which cross the country from Dorset to north Yorkshire. The northwestern scarp face rises abruptly from the clayey Triassic and Liassic beds flooring the valleys of the lower Severn and the Warwickshire Avon and slopes gradually down to the east. The limestones forming the steeper slopes are mainly of Great Oolite age near Bath, but of Inferior Oolite age behind Cheltenham. The rock is generally of a rich crearti colour, in places long quarried as a building stone because it hardens and mellows with exposure.' The range extends for 60 mi. from the Bristol Avon to the Cherwell, widening from about 6 mi. in the south to nearly 30 in the north. Heights average from 600 to 700 ft., reaching a maximum at 1,083 ft. in Cleeve Cloud which overlooks Cheltenham. The Thames-Severn watershed is near the western edge except where the Frome tributary of the Severn cuts deep into the hills neaf Stroud. The region is noted for its picturesque countryside. From the 10th to the ISth century the Cotswolds were famous as open sheep pastures and gave their name to a large long-wooled breed (see Sheep). The wealth obtained from sales of wool is evident in the buildings of its many villages and small towns, such as Burford, Chipping Campden, Cirencester, Malmesbury and Northleach, and especially in their fine churches. The enclosure of the sheepwalks led to a gradual change to mixed farming; the Some minor cloti fields are often divided by dry-stone walls. manufactures are still carried on; e.g., at Witney and Stroud. It (T. Her.) the Cotswolds are many prehistoric long barrows. COTTA, the name of a family of German publishers, the most notable of whom is celebrated for his connection with Goethe and

other writers of the period.

JoHANN Georg Cotta (1631-92) was the founder of the pubHe settled in Wiirttemberg and in 1659 acquired b> marriage the bookseller's business of Philipp Brunn at Tiibingen thereby establishing the J. G. Cotta'sche Buchhandlung. On hi; death the firm passed to his son Johann Georg (2) and after hin: to his eldest son Johann Georg (3). Johann Friedrich Cotta (1701-79) was the second son ol Johann Georg (2 ). In 1 733 he became professor of philosophy af Tiibingen, and subsequently professor of theology at Gottinger (1735J and Tiibingen (1739). He was a well-known theologica lishing house.

writer in his day.

Christoph Friedrich Cotta (1730-1807), son of Joham Georg (i), established a printing house to the court at Stuttgart) It was Christoph F'riedrich's son, Johann Friedrich, who restore(' the fortunes of the family firm, then in decline.

Johann Friedrich Cotta, Freiherr von Cottendorf

(1764-

1832J, was born at Stuttgart on April 27, 1764. He studied a Tiibingen, spent some time in Paris and qualified as a barrister

COTTBUS—COTTON iowever, learning that the family business at Ttibingen was to be he took upon himself the task of restoration. At that time was 23 and totally inexperienced in the business. In 1 794 he olanned with Schiller the Horen, a periodical which, although it inly ran until 1 797, has a place in the history of German literature. Through Schiller, Cotta met Goethe, and his connection with other

'.old, lie

men increased. He became in lime publisher not only to }oethe but also to Herder, Wieland, A. W. Schlegel, Tieck, Jean 'aul, Kleist, Holderlin, Uhland and others. He also published for

iterary

Humboldt and for such philosophers as Fichte, Hegel In 1 798 he began to publish the Allgemeine Zeitung. Censorship difficulties caused the editorial office of the newslaper to be transferred from Tijbingen to Stuttgart, in 1803 to he brothers

,nd Schelling.

Jim, in

i8io to Augsburg and

in

1SS2 to Munich.

ceased In i8ii the firm It

form in 191 2.) lOved to Stuttgart, and in 1S23 Cotta started a branch in Augsburg nd in 1827 one in Munich. By that time he had made his publishig house one of the first in Germany. He developed his political

lublication in its traditional

going on several official missions to Paris. He attended Vienna congress to make, among other commissions, a plea or freedom of the press on behalf of German booksellers. He He was a progressive farmer and in Iso had scientific interests. he introduced the first steam printing 824 presses in Bavaria into In 1820 the title of von Cottendorf was lis Augsburg branch. lonferred on him by WiJrttemberg, and in 1822 he was created iterests,

be

ereditary Freiherr

by the king of Bavaria.

He

died in Stuttgart

n Dec. 29, 1832. I

His son JoHANN Georg Cotta (4), Freiherr von Cottendorf 796-1 863) extended the firm by buying in 1S39 the business of Goschen in Leipzig and in 1845 that of Vogei in Landshut. 1 the same year Bible branches were started at Stuttgart and

1

. J.

lunich.

Johann Georg (4) was succeeded by his son Karl and by his sphew Hermann Albert von Reischach. They preserved the tuttgart branch and the Allgemeifie Zeitung office in Augsburg jt the other branches gradually broke away. In 1889 the firm as bought by Adolf and Paul Kroner. The buildings were badly .imaged in World War II but the firm was subsequently re.tablished. ,

COTTBUS,

town of Germany which after partition of the World War II became headquarters of a Bezirk listrict) of the German Democratic Republic, lies chiefly on the ft (western) bank of the Spree river about 1 10 km. (68 mi.) S.E. Berlin and about 20 km. (12 mi.) from the Polish border. Pop. ition

a

following

Cottbus was founded in the 12th century, beming part of Brandenburg in 1445 and of the kingdom of Saxony 1.07-13. It has 14th- and 15th-century churches and the Sprem'rg tower is a remnant of the old fortifications. The town is a iilway junction and an industrial centre with manufactures of iCtiles, leather, tobacco, machinery and soap. Cottbus district id a population (1959) of 807,840 and an area of 3,169 sq.mi.; 3 neighbourhood was one of the last in which the Wendish lan959

est.) 66,099.

lage survived.

COTTENHAM, CHARLES CHRISTOPHER PEPYS, T

lord chancellor of Great Britain, whose contribution to the statute-book was the Judgments (1838), which amended the law for reheving insolvent debtors,

Earl OF (17S1-1851),

•.portant it

born in London on April 29, 1781. Descended from John of Cottenham, Cambridgeshire, a great-uncle of the diarist muel Pepys, he was educated at Harrow and Trinity college, imbridge, and after being called to the bar by Lincoln's Inn 1804 and practising at the chancery bar, he became a king's unsel in 1826. In 1831 he entered parliament, and in 1834 came solicitor general and was knighted. Later the same year was appointed master of the rolls. Next year he was one of M commissioners of the Great Seal, and in Jan. 1836 he became I'd chancellor and Baron Cottenham under Lord Melbourne. j: lost office with his party in 1841, but in 1846 under Lord John issell he was again chancellor. In 1850 he retired and was ':ated Viscount Crowhurst and Earl of Cottenham, and on his l.thday in 1851 he died at Pietrasanta, near Lucca, Italy. Although not profoundly learned, he was a good equity lawyer. is

i;pys,

'

He was

direct

6ii

and straightforward, and despite being somewhat

rigid and overtenacious of first impressions, and latterly increasingly slow and testy, he was an excellent judge. See E. Manson, The Builders of Our Law (1904) J. B. Atlay, The Victorian Chancellors {iqo6). (R. E. My.) ;

COTTII REGNUM,

a district of ancient Liguria, Italy, commanding the important route into Gaul over the pass (6,083 ft.) of Montgenevre. In 58 B.C. Caesar established friendly relations with the king of the district, Donnus, whose son Cottius was con-

firmed in his position by Augustus. Under Nero, after the death of the last Cottius, the district was annexed, becoming the procura-

province of Alpes Cottiae. A triumphal arch in honour of Augustus can be seen at the ancient capital Segusio (the modern Susa). (J. B. W.-P.) torial

COTTINGTON, FRANCIS COTTINGTON,

Baron

(c.

1579-1652), English lord treasurer and ambassador, was a supporter of Roman Catholicism and of Spain during the political struggles preceding the Civil War. He was appointed English agent in Spain from 1609 to 1611. In 1612 he became consul at Seville. Returning to England, he became a clerk of the council in 1613 and in 1616 ambassador to Spain. In 1622 he became Prince Charles's secretary and the next year accompanied Charles and the duke of Buckingham to Madrid. On their return he fell into disgrace as a result of Buckingham's enmity, but after the duke's assassination he regained his position, being made a privy councilor in 1628. Next year he became chancellor of the exchequer and was again sent as ambassador to Spain. He concluded the treaty of peace with that country and in 1631 was created Baron Cottington of Hanworth, Middlesex. Archbishop William Laud's opposition prevented him from becoming lord treasurer in 1635-36, but his prominence in Charles's council, his exactions as master of the court of wards, his Roman Catholic and Spanish leanings and his declaration that for the Scottish War the king might levy money without parliament made him unpopular when the Long parliament met. He gave up the court of wards in 1641 and the chancellorship of the exchequer in 1642. He joined the king in 1643, took part in the proceedings of the Oxford parliament and was made lord treasurer in October. He signed the surrender of Oxford in 1646 and, being excepted from the indemnity, joined Prince Charles at The Hague in 1648. Next year he accompanied Edward Hyde (afterward earl of Clarendon) to Spain to obtain help for the royal cause but, receiving no response, settled there (R. B. Wm.) and died at Valiadolid on June 19, 1652.

COTTOLENGO,

SAINT GIUSEPPE (1786-1842), founder of the Cottolengo charitable institute and of 14 religious congregations, was born at Bra near Turin, Italy, on May 3, 1786. He was a canon in Turin when in 182 7 he was summoned to a woman dying in squalor for want of a hospital to receive her. This painful experience began an extensive and successful series of charitable enterprises. He first hired two rooms to receive the sick, but this venture soon grew into a hospital situated at Valdocco, then on the outskirts of Turin, called the Little House (Piccola Casa) of Divine Providence. He founded the Brothers and Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul to nurse in the hospital, the Sisters of Thais to care for a refuge for penitent women, and a congregation of priests called after the Trinity to minister to homes he established for epileptics, deaf and dumb, orphans, the aged, the mad, In all he founded 14 congregations, both active and contemetc. Casa and assisting in its acFor Cottolengo the active and contemplative lives were

plative, all affiliated to the Piccola tivities.

interwoven, the latter being the soul of the former. His achievement was based on prayer; he kept no accounts and invested no funds but never ran short of the means for continuing his work. He died on April 30, 1842, at Chieri, near Turin, and was canonized

His feast day is April 29. See H. L. Hughes, 5(. Joseph Cottolengo (1934), and the biography (E. I. W.) by P. P. Gastaldi, 2 vol. (1S92). in 1934.

COTTON, SIR ARTHUR THOMAS lish engineer,

who was

May

responsible for

He

much

(1803-1899), Engirrigation

work

in

entered the Madras engineers in 1820, served in the first Burmese war (1824-26), and began his Hfe work on the irrigation works of southern India in India,

was born on

15, 1803.

COTTON

6l2 IS28.

He

constructed works on the Cauvery, Coleroon, Godavari rivers, making anicuts (dams') on the Coleroon (1836)

and Krishna

for the irrigation of the Tanjore.Trichinopoiy (now Tiruchirapalli) and South Arcot districts, and on the Godavari (1847-52) for the He also projected the anicut irrigation of the Godavari district. on the Kistna. Before the beginning of his work Tanjore and the adjoining districts were threatened with ruin from lack of water; on its completion they became the richest part of Madras, and Tanjore returned the largest revenue of any district in India. Cotton was the founder of the school of Indian hydraulic engiHe was knighted in 1861. After retiring from governneering. ment service in 1862, he was employed from time to time in He investigating and reporting upon various irrigation projects. retired from the army with the rank of general in 1877, and died at Dorking, Surrey, on July 14, 1899. (A. McD.) See Lady Hope, General Sir Arthur Cotton (1900).

COTTON, CHARLES

(1630-1687), English poet, man of and country squire, chiefly remembered for his share in Izaak Walton's Complrat Angler, was born on April 28, 1630, at Beresford, Staffordshire, where he lived all his life. His father, also Charles Cotton, was the friend of Ben Jonson, John Donne, Sir Henry Wotton, John Fletcher, Robert Herrick, Sir William Davenant, Richard Lovelace and Izaak Walton. His mother was daughter to the Lady Stanhope for whom Michael Drayton wrote an elegy. Cotton married his cousin, Isabella Hutchinson, half sister of the Puritan colonel John Hutchinson; she died in 1669 and in 1675 he married the dowager countess of Ardglass. He died during a visit to London and was buried in St. James's church, Piccadilly, on Feb, 16, 1687. Cotton's father had an excellent library and to this, rather than to a visit to France in 1655, he owed his knowledge of French letters

He made a number of translations, including, in 1685, the often reprinted Essays of Michel de Montaigne (which is much closer to the original than Giovanni Fiorio's more famous version), literature.

Horace (1671) and several historical and philosophical He followed French fashion also in Scarronides (1664, 1665) a coarse burlesque of the Aeneid, books I and IV, and in the Burlesque upon Burlesque being some of Lucian's Dialogue newly put into English Fustian (1675). Cotton described himself as "an old-fashioned country squire," meaning one who played his full part in the life of his county, as farmer, sportsman, magistrate and host. From this life he Corneille's

works.

.

.

.

drew the inspiration for all his original writings: The Compleat Gamester (1674), The Planter's Manual (1675) and the second part, on fly-fishing, which he added, at Walton's suggestion, to the 5th edition of The Compleat Angler (1676). (For their pleasure in 1675 Cotton built the fishing house beside the river Dove, with their initials twisted together in monogram above the door.) The Wonders of the Peak (1681), a long topographical poem, popular throughout the i8th century, and his other poetry, published in the posthumous and unauthorized Poems on Several Occasions (1689), reflect his enjoyment of life. Although Cotton's fame rests chiefly on his connection with The Compleat Angler, the qualities which make it memorable his delighted observation of the country scene, his friendly charm of manner, the vigour and purity of his style are all to be found in his poetry, which was much admired by Wordsworth, Coleridge and Lamb.

—

—

See John Buxton (ed.). Poems of Charles Cotton (igsS), a selection which corrects the faulty text of i68g from a contemporarv manuscript.

(E.

COTTON, GEORGE

EDWARD LYNCH

J.M.

Bn.)

(1813-1866),

English bishop of Calcutta and. earlier, a distinguished schoolmaster, was born at Chester on Oct. 29, 1813. He was educated at Westminster school and at Trinity college, Cambridge. He became an assistant master at Rugby, where he worked devotedly for 15 years, inspired by the headmaster, Thomas Arnold, and heartily entering into his plans and methods. Cotton is the "model young master" who intervenes at the end of part one of Thomas

Tom Brown's Schooldays

(1867). Cotton became master of Marlborough college in 1852, and in his six years of rule raised it to a high position. In 1858 he became bishop of Calcutta, where

Hughes's

he established schools for British and Eurasian children, did much to improve the position of the chaplains and was unwearied in missionary visitation. On Oct. 6, 1866, he was drowned at Kushtia on the Ganges. A memoir of Cotton, edited by his widow, was published in 1871.

COTTON, JOHN

(1585-1652), English-American Puritan sometimes called the "patriarch of New England," was born in Derby, Eng., on Dec. 4, 1585. He was educated at Trinity college, Cambridge, and became a fellow of Emmanuel college, Cambridge, then a stronghold of Puritanism. In June 161 2 he became vicar of the parish church of St. Botolph in Boston, Lincolnshire, where he remained for 21 years. Becoming more and more a Puritan in spirit, he ceased, about 1615, to observe certain ceremonies prescribed by the legally authorized ritual, and in 1632 action was begun against him in the high commission court. He thereupon escaped, disguised, to London, lay in concealment for several months, and eluding the watch set for him at the various English ports, in July 1633 emigrated to the colony of Massachusetts Bay, arriving at Boston early in September. On Oct. 10 he was chosen "teacher" of the First Church of Boston, of which John Wilson (1588-1667) was pastor, and there he remained until his death on Dec. 23, 1652. In the newer as in the older Boston his popularity was alm.ost unbounded, and his influence, both in ecclesiastical and in civil affairs, was probably greater than that of any other minister in minister,

theocrati/C

He was

New

England.

man

a

of great learning and was a prolific writer.

His

The Keyes to the Kingdom of Heaven and the Power thereof (1644), The Way of the Churches of Christ in New England (1645 ), and The Way of Congregational Churches Cleared (1648), these works constituting an invaluable exposition of New England Congregationalism and Milk for Babes, Drawn out of the Breasts of Both Testaments, Chiefly for the Spirituall Nourishment of Boston Babes in either England, but may be of like Use for any Children (1646), widely used for many years, in New

writings include:

;

England, for the religious instruction of children. See the quaint sketch by Cotton Mather, John Cotton's grandson, in Magnolia (1702), and a sketch by Cotton's contemporary and friend, Rev. Samuel Whiting, printed in Alexander Young's Chronicler of the First Planters of the Colony oj Massachusetts Bay from 1623 to. i6j6 (1846) also A. W. McClure's The Life of John Cotton (1846), a chapter in Arthur B. Ellis's History of the First Church in Boston (1881), and a chapter in Williston Walker's Ten New England Leaden (igoi). (W. W.) ;

COTTON,

ROBERT BRUCE,

Bart (1571-1631), SIR English antiquary, the founder of the Cottonian library, was bom at Denton, Huntingdonshire, on Jan. 22, 1571. He was a descendant, as he delighted to boast, of Robert Bruce. He was educated at Westminster school under William Camden iq.v.), the antiquary and at Jesus college, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1585. H( took a house near Old Palace yard, Westminster, and there begar to assemble a collection of manuscripts, books and coins, whicl he supplemented steadily throughout his life. It became a meeting place for scholars, who were allowed to use the library freely. Ir 1614 Arthur Agarde (q.v.) left Cotton his papers, and Camden': manuscripts came to him on Camden's death in 1623. His con nection with Camden had been renewed when he joined (c. 1590 the Society of Antiquaries: in 1600 they toured the north of Eng land in search of Pictish and Roman monuments and inscriptions' Cotton assisted in the preparation of the 5th edition of Camden' Britannia and was regarded as the compiler of his History Elizabeth. He certainly revised it after Camden's death and hai probably supervised it, especially with regard to its treatmen of Mary, Queen of Scots. He also helped John Speed to compil his History of England (161 1). Cotton's pride in his Scottish ancestry attracted the favour c James I, and he was knighted on the king's accession. In 1608 b wrote a Memorial on Abuses in the Navy, and attended the priv council at which the matter was discussed. In 161 1 he presente to the king a historical Inquiry into the Crown Revenues, which he supported the creation of the order of baronets as means of raising money. In the same year he himself receive i

the

title.

COTTON however, Cotton's favour at court began to decline. After •"His acquisition of so many public documents had aroused misgivings, and in 1615 he was involved in the disgrace of his patron, ;he earl of Somerset (see Somerset, Robert Carr), and was arHe confessed to having acted as intermediary between •ested. Somerset and the Spanish ambassador, and to having altered dates n correspondence to substantiate Somerset's plea of innocence of he murder of Sir Thomas Overbury. Cotton received no formal ;rial, and was pardoned eight months later, but he never regained Moreover, his antiquarian studies caused lis standing at court. lira increasingly to lend the weight of his learning to the opponents In the Inquiry into the Crown )f Stuart methods of taxation. Revenues he had argued that tonnage and poundage should be evied in wartime only, and the circulation in the house of commons )f his notes during the debate on supply in 1625 materially conributed to the decision to grant Charles I that tax for one year mly. In 1626 he successfully protested on behalf of the London nerchants against a proposal to debase the coinage. His The leign of Henry III was published in 1627 in the face of a govemaent threat to prosecute the printers, and in 1628 the opposition jaders. Sir John Eliot, John Pym and Sir Simonds D'Ewes, used Cotton himself had entered paris house as their headquarters. iament in 1601 as member for Newtown: in 1604 he sat for luntingdon; in 1624 for Old Sarum; in 1625 for Thetford; and 1 1628 for Castle Rising, Norfolk.

613

this,

The Danger Remedie (1628), and

Finally, the publication of his political tract, entitled •jherein the

Kingdome now standeth and

the

he circulation of another, a Proposition to Bridle Parliament,

he original of which was found in Cotton's library, caused his uprisonment in 1629 and the sealing up of his library. His trial ,ortunately coincided with the birth of the future Charles II and e was released in honour of the event, but his hbrary was not

and his zest for life was destroyed. He died, probably 1 London, on May 6, 1631. His son. Sir Thomas (1594-1662), jgained possession of the library and added considerably to it.

estored

John, the 4th baronet, presented

ir

it

to the nation in 1700.

It

moved from Cotton house, first to Essex house in the Strand Ashburnham house, Westminster, where in 1731 it was iverely damaged by fire. In 1753, when the British museum was

FIG.

1.

— LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF COTTON FIBRES:

FIBRES;

(D).

(E).

(F)

established Veracruz. When Vasco da Gama around the African continent to Calicut (Kozhikode) in 1498 he found that, centuries before, Arab traders had taught the natives of Africa to cultivate and spin cotton. From Calicut he brought back to Lisbon pintados, or calicoes. An examination of one of the earliest-known fragments of cotton textiles reveals an analogous persistence of fibre structure. Breeding has produced longer, finer and stronger cotton, but the fibres from bits of cloth and yam found in the Indus valley, like

ton

when Cortes

the fibres in today's cottons, are flattened, twisted tubes, the walls of which are composed of fibrils of cellulose built up in a number of concentric layers; the textile character known to scientists and the trade as cottonlike

is the result of this persistent fibrous struclength of a single cotton fibre is from 1,000 to 3,000 The various species of cotton govern the diameter and number of twists the respective fibres have the more

ture.

times

The

its

diameter.

—

twists, the better the spinning qualities. fibre distinguishes

it

from

all

as

superior value for spinning. ture.

formed the basis of the manuscript collection, and lany of the partially burned manuscripts were restored. In the d library at Cotton house, the books and manuscripts had been Roman jpt in 14 tall cupboards, on 12 of which stood busts of the nperors, with busts of Cleopatra and Faustina on the remaining yo, and catalogues of the library (1696, 1732 and 1802) connued to group manuscripts under the names of the emperors in hose cupboard they were originally kept. it

See Cottoni Posthuma, collected by J. jldsmid, 1884-88) E. Edwards, Libraries ;

Howell (1651; ed. by E. and Founders of Libraries

865).

COTTON,

while supplying a dominant supply of the world's human food and livestock feed. Extenve use of the seed and of the products derived from it is a )re

needs, also provides

development; the use of the fibre, a mass of unicellular which grow attached to the seed on all types of cotton plants, iS been traced as far back as 3000 B.C. through spun cotton yams mnd in the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro, a city in the Indus valley, otton was mentioned in a Hindu Rigveda hymn 15 centuries here Christ and Herodotus (c. 450 B.C.) tells how the patient hands women of India plucked lint from seed, carded it and spun yarn r weaving on their crude hand looms. It was grown and spun the Egyptians, probably in a.d. 600-700. It was the subject legend and myth during the middle ages, and it was for an addi-

(Cent lirs

.'

supply of the fibre that many of the great explorations of 15th and 16th centuries were undertaken. Cotton has been in prehistoric pueblo ruins in Arizona, and cotton grave The spinning 'Dths from pre-Inca Peru are still in existence. snal e

und

cotton for nets and fishing lines apparently antedated weaving

Peru and the Caribbean, but when Christopher Columlanded in the West Indies in 1492 the natives brought skeins cotton yarn to his ship for barter; Yucatan natives presented

cloth in ,is

I

tton garments to

Hernan

Cortes, and Mexicans were clad in cot-

COARSE

sailed

nd then to junded,

(A). (B). (C)

FINE FIBRES

The

spirality of a cotton

other fibres and gives

No

it

elasticity

and

other natural fibre has this fea-

Despite the increase in production of man-made fibres, cotton continues to be one of the most important of the world's money crops. It is a tropical plant, adapted to temperate zones, thriving best with high temperatures, considerable sunshine, abundant but not excessive moisture and high soil fertility. More than 60 countries within the zone of latitude 47° N. and 35° S. produce cotton

A trend toward increased cotton production was in evidence in all cotton-producing countries, especially following World War" II, when world production reached approximately 40,000,000 bales, compared with a pre-World War World cotton production was II average of 31,600,000 bales. about five times that of both wool and rayon. In the years following 1940 remarkable advances were made in agronomy. Increased production of desirable-quality cottons and per-acre profit to the farmer became dual dominating factors in the raw-cotton industry. New varieties and strains of cotton were developed to meet the demands of agricultural mechanization, to for commercial purposes.

respond to chemical controls

in cultivation

and

to resist diseases.

BOTANY The development

of an engineering approach to the design

and

new evaluation of the emphasis upon the selection of

utilization of textile fibres resulted in a

botanical study of cotton, placing varieties

which

will

maintain the economic potentials and market most important nonfood agricultural com-

stability of the world's

modity. Taxonomy. Wild and cultivated species of cotton have been placed in the genus Gossypiiim. Authorities have disagreed on the family and tribe but have agreed in placing the genus in the order Malvales. The seeds of all species of Gossypium produce hairs,

—

and the seeds are produced inside capsules (bolls). Four species have been cultivated for the production of lint. G. herbaceum and G. arboreum, commonly known as Asiatic species, have a haploid chromosome number of 13 and produce short (| to | in.)

COTTON

6i4

G. hirsutum is commonly known as American upland cotton. It has a haploid chroinosome number of 26 and produces lint of intermediate length ( yf to IJ in.) and coarseness. G. barbadense has a haploid chromosome number of 26 and includes types commonly known as Sea Island, Eg>-ptian, AmericanEgyptian and Peruvian Tanguis. These commercial types, except for Peruvian Tanguis, produce extra long staple lyV 'o ^i in) which is ver>- fine. Most commercial cotton of the above types falls within the lengths indicated; longer and shorter extremes Botanical varieties of both G. hirsutum and exist in each type. G. barbadense that occur both in the wild and cultivated state have been described. Wild species include one with 26 chromosome pairs, G. tomentosum, and approximately 20 with 13 chromosome pairs. These latter so-called diploid species occur in the subcontinent of India, Australia. Africa and Arabia and in the Americas from Arizona to Peru, Botanists and geneticists have accumulated evidence indicating that the cultivated tetraploid species (those with 26 chrocoarse

lint.

(

mosome

from a hybrid of an Asiatic species or a fairly and a wild American species. Cotton fibres are single plant cells which develop as elongations of the outer layer of cells of the cotton seed. Each fibre consists of an outer or primary cell wall and an inner layer pairs) arose

close relative

—

Fibre.

of cellulose comprising the secondary wall.

Microscopic examina-

tion of the cross section of a fibre reveals the existence of daily

growth rings which form a series of concentric circles. During development the inside of each fibre (lumen) contains the living protoplasm of the cell. When mature and exposed to the air, the fibre dries, and the drying is accompanied by flattening and twisting. This process is emphasized because the convolutions in the fibre

make

it

distinguished

easily spinnable.

All cultivated species of cotton are

from wild species by

their convoluted lint

(seed

hairs).

Seed fuzz begins to develop from epidermal cells during the period from 5 to 11 days after opening of the cotton flower, in contrast to the lint development which is initiated on the day of flowering. Commercial types of upland cotton have relatively uniform fuzz over the entire seed; Sea Island. Eg\-ptian and Tanguis have only a portion of the seed covered with fuzz. Seed fuzz from upland cotton is a by-product of the oil-milling industry known as Unters and is used primarOy as a source of cellulose. (See also Cottonseed.) While all lint has in common the convoluted characteristic important to spinning, wide ranges exist in length, coarseness and strength. Differences in these properties exist within the produce of a single variety, and species and varieties within species are

of the secondary wall of individual fibres

called immature. Other immaturity examination and differential dye tests.

in the world has been produced by comparatively primitive methods. Into the second half of the 20th centurj' most cotton-producing areas still relied upon animal power for preparing the soil, and the crop was planted, cultivated and harvested by hand. In the United States, which became a major producer of cotton after the invention of the Whitney-Holmes

saw-type gin in 17Q6, mechanization of cotton production lagged behind mechanization in the production of corn, wheat and other crops. The use of tractor power for cultivation developed in the 1920s but did not spread until the 1930s, when additional implements were developed for seed-bed preparation and cultivation. Mechanical pickers and strippers for harvesting the crop had been developed for commercial use by the 1940s, but by 1949 only 6% of the U.S. crop was mechanically harvested; during the 1950s the percentage increased to about 30^^ but by 19S8. in southwestern United States, the most mechanized cotton-producing area in the world, some hand labour was still utilized in weeding and less than i of the crop was harvested mechanically. The degree of mechanization became progressively less from west to east in the cotton belt of the United States, partly as a result of farm size, field size, slope and competition for labour. In areas of Mexico contiguous to the United States the degree of mechanization approached that in the U.S. more closely than in other cottonproducing areas of the world. See also F.-vrm Machinery; Harvesting Machinery: Mechanical Cotton Harvesters.

GINNING The

mechanical device for separating lint is the country in which utiliza-

earliest record of a

from seed comes from India, which is believed to have

tion of cotton

all

In addition

include microscopic

CULTURE

under which the crop is grown is important. Specialized instruments have been developed for measuring specific properties, including an electronic device for scanning a sample of lint and

values for these properties.

tests

Most of the cotton produced

to inherent differences, the influence of environmental conditions

mean

related to measure-

Unusually thin walls in a given t>'pe of cotton often result from adverse environmental conditions, and such thin-walled fibres are

developed first. The primitive "churcka" gin consisted of two rollers through which lint could pass but seed could not. From this hand-operated model, powerdriven roller gins were developed which continue in use for ginning extra-long staple Sea Island and

quite dift'erent in

is

ments of relative fineness, and modifications of the air-flow instruments have been developed to estimate this relative thickness.

Egj-ptian types as well as shorter

and China, smooth seeded or W'hile naked seed

staple types in India

of which are

recording graphically the frequency of fibres of various lengths; strength testers that measure the tensile strength of a flat bundle

sparsely fuzzy.

of fibres, which

the medium-staple American-up-

"'^^"'""ii-l book co..

land tvpe, most upland varieties have the dense coat of short fuzz

"^'S-

reported as strength in relation to the actual weight of the fibres in the sample; and air-flow instruments that estimate relative fineness and coarseness of fibres in a sample by is

occurs as a genetic aberrant in

,

m this

relating rate of flow of air to specific surface of fibres in the sample.

known

Performance of each of these instruments has been related to results obtained by more tedious laboratory methods, and the combined lint properties have been related to the performance of individual lots of cotton in the manufacturing process. Thickness

the longer lint hairs are attached

as Imters,

more securely

Hand

and

""«"* IN

,

t>-pe

inc.

a.— primitive

hand-driven

=°"°''

''"':°^ll'-°Z° AGO. EMPLOYINDIA CENTURIES

roller principle of modern roller gins ,,^5

to the seed coat.

separation of

lint

and seed was replaced rapidly by

use

of saw-type gins in the United States after the inventions of Eli

Whitney in 1794 and of Hogden Hoknes in 1796. Whitney's gin was improved upon by Holmes who substituted toothed saws for the hooked cylinder and flat metal ribs for the slotted bar used by Whitney. The saws, metal ribs and doflang brush in these early models persist in modern gins, with no basic change in ginning principle having been made, although some modem gins substitute an air blast for the doflBng brushes.

FIG. 2.

—STAGES

IN

THE DEVELOPMENT OF A COTTON BOLL

Additional gin machinery has been developed to keep pace with changes in har\'esting practices which have resulted in a trenc from careful hand picking to rougher hand and machine harvesting These developments include seed-cotton driers, seed-cotton clean

i

COTTON burr extractors, green-boll traps and magnetic devices for ''•emoving metal. Lint cleaners, designed to remove trash from lint :rs,

had been removed from the seed, were added to modem and 1950s. Improvement in grade, which some cases, offset by he loss in weight. Gin installations include presses for baling the int and equipment for moving the seed away from the gin stands. A'hile some of the seed is saved for planting purposes, most of it noves directly to an oil mill for processing. Because whole cot-

ifter it ;ins in

the late 1940s

esulted in a higher price for the lint, was, in

onseed :ially

somewhat

is

toxic

when

ingested, its utilization

commer-

development of oil-extracting equipment, countries producing cotton fully utilize the seed pro-

to await the

had

.nd not all

iuced (see also Feeds,

Animal).

PESTS Insect Pests.

AND

DISEASES

— More than 500 species of

insects attack cotton,

mong them being some of the most destructive known to agriculWith its lush, succulent foliage, large flowers all with neciure.

615

proper cultivation, cleanup of favourable hibernation quarters and early destruction of cotton stalks. Direct control by poisoning adult weevils is used when the population of weevils in the field is high enough to warrant it. Continued applications at intervals of four to five days are required because the immature stages of the weevU develop inside the flower buds and young bolls where poison does not affect them, and the continued growth of the plant and chemical breakdown and disappearance of poison from the older parts of the plants prevent a lasting kiUing effect. Calcium arsenate was used as the sole weevil poison from discovery of its effectiveness in 1916 until about 1948, when organic insecticides became available. Chlorinated hydrocarbons and organic phosphates were used extensively during the 1950s, and late in that decade the appearance of weevils resistant to the chlorinated hydrocarbons were recorded. Certain of the chemicals available effectively controlled other cotton insects and chemical {See control spread to many cotton-growing areas of the world.

ment and

fertilization,

Boll Weevil.) Another major insect

also

the bollworm (Heliothis zea).

extended fruiting period, cotton is an excellent host Included in the insects visiting cotton are those flth beneficial effects and some with apparently neutral effects n the plant, in addition to the harmful species. A few of the most larmful are the boll weevil, pink boUworm, boUworm, cotton leaf-

weevil, which attacks only cotton, the

vorm, cotton aphid, cotton fleahopper, rapid plant bug, conchuela, outhem green stink bug, spider mites (red spiders), grasshoppers, hrips and tarnished plant bugs.

nuts.

In

known

as the corn-ear

,aries

and

or many

its

insects.

The earliest cotton production, utilizing perennials, was ideal pr the development of insect populations. The development and se of annual types made possible some insect control through jming of planting and other cultural methods, including sanitation leasures such as clean culture and disposal of crop residues at the nd of the season. Such methods continue to be important, and by breeding has provided means of escapmost serious damage by insects in some cases and has proided degrees of resistance in others. Chemical control, research n which was started in the early 1900s, has become of great imortance. Losses caused by insects have been high in all cottonroducing countries, the annual loss in the United States averaging lodification of varieties

ig

We

than $243,000,000 since 1929, with an all-time high of over 900,000,000 in 1950. To the losses caused by insects must be dded the cost of control measures, and these have been estimated t $58,000,000 to $95,000,000 annually in the U.S. The pink boUworm {Pectmophora gossypiella), first reported 1 India in 1842, has become generally established in eight of the

produce nine-tenths of the world's cotton. It caused an average annual loss of 15% to 25% in India and China it has caused more damage than all other cotton isects together. Losses in Russia have been severe, and in Brazil The pink boUworm aple average annual loss is 20% to 25%. aared in Mexico in 1911 and by 1960 had spread throughout a sixControl has been attempted ate area in the United States. irough heating or fumigating of cottonseed, burning of gin trash, blling lint to crush larvae and enforcing destruction of crop resiine countries that

as

,gypt; in

by specified dates at the end of the season to destroy insects food supply. Strict quarantines have been enforced on the Movement of untreated cotton to help prevent spread of the in'!ct. In a few relatively small areas where sufficiently strict conol has been possible the pink boUworm has been eradicated. ues

lid

Plant Quarantine.) The boll weevil {Anthonomus grandis) is beUeved to be a native f Mexico or Central America and it is restricted to the northern emisphere of the Americas. Another closely related species ocAfter entering the United States in 1892 Urs in South America. id spreading throughout the cotton belt by 1922, the boll weevU See also

?came the most serious cotton insect pest. Natural control fac»rs including about 60% mortality in hibernating weevils, death ''.emerging adults before cotton produces squares in which eggs ay be deposited, and deterrents to rapid multiplication such as make ;at, dry weather, insect parasites and predators, and birds

—

—

possible to produce cotton when the weevil is present. Cultural ,ethods of control for the weevil include preparation of a good edbed, early planting, a relatively early variety, soU improve-

lii

is

Unlike

the pink bollworm, which has a limited host range, and the boll

bollworm feeds on many wild and cultivated plants including corn (maize), grain sorghums, tomatoes, peas, alfalfa, lespedeza, beans, soybeans, flax and pea-

many

bollworm

moves to cotton from corn, on which it is worm. Natural enemies sometimes prevent when boUworms appear the application the best means of control. Poison must be ap-

areas

it

infestation, but

of insecticides

is

worms are small, for after they enter the bolls poison will not reach them. Insects which feed on the leaves and buds, including the cotton leafworm, which is a chewing insect, and the sucking insects including fleahoppers, leafhoppers and aphids, do considerable damDamage caused by age to cotton crops throughout the world. such insects is often difficult to assess because it is not always attack they often cause spectacular, and when sap-sucking insects when

plied

the

shedding of very young buds, too small to attract attention. Chemical control is an important adjunct to natural factors affecting In Africa and Asia damage caused by leafhoppers the insects. has been reduced through incorporation of plant hairiness in the commercial varieties. In some areas of Africa the tarnished plant

bug

A

is

the

most serious

insect pest.

stalk borer called broca

is

a serious pest in parts of South

America. The larva enters the stalk at the soil surface as a rule, and it can be controlled either by application of chemicals to the soil surface or seed treatment with systemic insecticides. Diseases. Cotton is subject to attack by pathogenic fungi, bacteria and virus, and damage caused by nematodes and physiological disturbances are usually called diseases. Descriptions of many of the diseases were published in 1892, although the occurrence of virus diseases was not noted until the late 1950s. Losses caused

—

by disease have been estimated as high as 50% in some countries of Africa and in Brazil. In India losses have ranged from 7% to 20%, and in the United States annual losses as high as 15% have been reported. A complex of disease organisms attacking young seedlings, with the predominant organism differing with locality and conditions within localities, is probably the most widespread disease problem. In many cotton areas seeds are treated with chemicals before planting to reduce disease injury to seedlings. The second most widespread problem is a bacterial disease known either as angular leaf spot or black arm, depending upon which symptom of the disease is predominant in the area. In African countries outside of Egypt this is considered the most serious disease, and considerable progress in breeding resistant varieties has been made. It is not a problem in areas of little or no summer rainfall like Egypt and California where cotton production depends on irrigation. Considerable attention has been given to the development of re-

some areas of the United States. Fungus diseases attacking growing plants include fusarium and verticillium wilt and Texas root rot. The latter is limited in distribution by soU type, soil reaction and climate primarily to areas Fusarium wilt is of Mexico, Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. sistant varieties in

COTTON

6i6

coming from adapted G. barbadense 1^ in. Brazil produces 95% IS to 1 in. cotton and about 5% 1^ in. China produces short cotton primarily, J in. and shorter. Since much of this is used in the home, it has little influence on cotton in world trade. Russian cotton is mostly ^ to l-^- in. Increased production in Russia has

somewhat

longer, with the longer group

in

varieties producing lint

restricted to sandy and mixed soils, usually occurring combination with nematodes in areas with 40 or more inches of annual rainfall. It is an important disease in the United States and is the major disease in Egypt. Soil fumigation is effective in control, but the development of resistant varieties has provided

the best

means of

control.

Verticillium wilt

is

most serious

in

serious with heavy irrigation and high Losses in the irrigated southwest of the levels of United States were reduced through the use of tolerant varieties and modified cultural practices. It has been reported in other countries in both the northern and southern hemispheres, and its

heavy

soils

and

soil

distribution

is

more

nitrogen.

may

be

in

doubt because of the similarity of

its

symp-

toms to those of fusarium wilt. Both cause chlorosis, or blanching of the green parts, leaf drop and ultimate death of the plant. Boll rots can cause severe damage to the crop. The bacterium causing angular leaf spot also attacks green bolls, and the lesions formed permit the entry of secondary invaders. Partially open and open bolls are attacked by several fungi, both pathogenic and saprophytic, and the lush foliage of the plant provides ideal conditions for the development of such organisms on the lower bolls, particularly in areas of high humidity at the time the crop matures.

Nematodes

damage they cause both in and alone has most likely been

are widespread, and the

combination with fusarium wilt Soil fumigation and varietal resistance both underestimated. provide control.

PRODUCTION AND MARKETING World production

statistics as

compiled

in the

United States

are for actual bales of U.S. cotton (these bales average 490 lb. net weight) and for equivalent bales of 478 lb. net for non-U. S.

The approximate world crop of 48,000,000 bales is the combined output of over 60 countries including the United States (15,000,000 bales), Brazil (1,800,000), China and Manchuria (7,500,000), Egypt (2,000,000), India (4,500,000), Pakistan (1,300,000), the U.S.S.R. (7,000,000) and Mexico (2,000,000). World Production. The United States, the world's largest

cotton.

—

producer, accounted for 60% of the total in 1929-30, 41% in 1939-40 and 50% in 1949-50, but by the mid-1950s produced only about 39% of the total. In 1933 acreage control and price supports were established in the United States in order to aid farmers during a period of economic distress. Continued control and price support, except during World War II and certain years of predicted short supply, have been a factor in a shift in world producPrice supports in the U.S. have encouraged the production tion. of cotton by other countries by enabling them to compete in the world market and have also encouraged the production of synthet-

which have been able to compete with cotton at the level of supported prices. Among the countries which consume a high percentage of the cotton they produce are the U.S., the U.S.S.R., China, Korea, India, Brazil and Argentina. Among those exporting most of their production are Egypt, Turkey, Mexico, Peru, Republic of Sudan, Uganda and Republic of the (former Belgian) Congo. Chief ics,

among

the importers of cotton are Japan and countries of the

European

Common

Market.

Quality of cotton is commonly measured in terms of length and coarseness or fineness of the lint. Other factors, including amount of trash in the bale and discoloration of the lint, also determine price (see Classing and Marketmg, below) but may or may not be directly related to the spinning quality of the cotton. Roughly 70% to 75% of world production is in the range of length from J to 1^ in.

About 12% to 15% is in the range from i to J in. ranges from 1| to li in. and 1% is li in. and longer.

About 9% About 95% of the cotton produced

United States is J to 1^ in., the remainder consisting of long staple upland and American-Egyptian and a very small percentage below | in. produced in areas with adverse seasonal conditions. Roughly 5% of in., 30% to 35% is I to |-|- in. and the Indian crop is 1 to 60% to 65% less than | in. There is a continuing trend in India to produce more of the longer (1 in.) cotton in place of the shorter types by replacing the Asiatic species with adapted varieties of American upland. Practically all Egyptian cotton is li in. or

1^

in the

up

to

therefore been in direct competition with many other countries, even though Russia exports only negligible amounts. Long staple types are imported by Russia, primarily from Egypt. Of the remaining cotton-producing countries, most produce lengths in the range | to 1^ in. Peru is a notable exception, where 85% is about l.j^ in., 7% is 1^ in. and the remainder is IJ to

1-A inClassing and Marketing. The market value of cotton is determined by length of the fibre, colour, preparation and foreignmatter content. These characteristics are used in determining grade and staple; additional measurements on fibre fineness, strength and maturity came into use on an extensive basis during the 19SOs in some phases of marketing. Classing systems vary throughout the cotton-producing and -consuming areas of the

—

world; a brief description of the United States system will serve as an example. All bales are sampled individually, approximately three to six ounces of lint from each of two sides of the bale, at the gin. Unless sold directly to a mill, the bales will be sampled again after periods of storage or when the bales are offered to a subsequent buyer. Grade standards in use in the U.S. for white cotton, ranged from best to poorest, are: good middling, strict middling, middling, strict low middling, low middling, strict good ordinary and good ordinary. Coloured cottons include spotted, tinged, yellow-stained and gray, and within each of these colours no grades of ordinary exist. Cotton not fitting the description of any of the established grades is called below grade. The grade of each sample is determined by matching it with a sample in the official box of standard samples as prepared and distributed by the U.S. department of agThe above standards apply to upland cotton up to \{ riculture. in. in length and, with special consideration given to preparation (ropy, matted or otherwise undesirable condition of the lint in the bale), to upland over 1^ in. Sea Island is classed in grades one to six, with half grades for description, and American-Egyptian cotton in grades one to nine. Classing is done by men employed by the department of agriculture as a free service to sellers and buyers, and each bale submitted Many buyers prefer to do their own is given an official grade. classing, however, and much of the cotton in trade is bought and sold on grade and staple determined by the buyer or his classer.: Local markets are maintained where cotton is ginned, and the local buyer may be the ginner, an independent buyer or a merchant or banker to whom the cotton grower is indebted. Buyers for mills are especially active at gins near the spinning mills and they sometimes buy in local markets in areas remote from the producing sizeable volumes or where cotCo-operative marketing ton with special qualities is produced. agencies also have buyers in the local markets. Much of the U.S. cotton has gone into the government loan program since it was established in 1933 and such cotton is not purchased by a local buyer but is transferred from the gin to approved warehouses after which the grower obtains a loan on the negotiable warehouse receipt. Central markets are located in larger cities and merchant; mills, especially in areas

and shippers operating in these markets buy from local market: and sell to mills, both domestic and foreign. These merchants d( not engage

in the

physical handling of cotton but trade in negoti

and are therefore dependent upon th( warehouses for storage and handling of the cotton. Each centra market serves its members in providing market information am in handling purchases and sales on the futures market. Central markets determine the basis, which is the relation o: spot-market price to futures-contract price. The base price ii the U.S. is the price of middling one-inch cotton, and the basi sheet lists premiums and discounts for other lengths and grades o upland cotton that may be delivered in place of middling inch Premiums and discounts are related to the supply of the variou able warehouse receipts

COTTON and the basis varies throughout the season. Manufacturers' markets are not assembled markets but

kinds of cotton

in the spinning-mill

area in the person of mill buyers.

chases are

made from

exist

Some

these are professional buyers; others, officers of the mills.

of

Pur-

central markets as a rule, usually for forward

delivery at a price agreed upon when the purchase is made. A survey after World War II showed that about 20% of the cotton used by U.S. mills was purchased through mill buyers, agents or other subsidiaries; 64% was obtained through central markets; 10% through ginners and other local first buyers; 4% through the Commodity Credit corporation (a government loan agency); 1% through co-operatives; and 1% direct from growers. All of the physical markets described above utilize the futures

market for lowering their risk in handling a commodity subject to change (see Futures). Cotton merchants hedge their purchases of cotton bought at fixed prices which they have not sold at fixed prices by selling cotton contracts on the futures market to the extent that such sales offset in quantity actual cotton bought. In order to hedge sales of actual cotton which was sold at fixed prices but which was not bought at fixed prices, merchants purchase sufficient contracts on the futures exchanges to offset in quantity the actual cotton sold. See also references under "Cotton" in the Index volume. price

617 New

Mexico, Arizona and especially California. Cotton experiments began in Kern county, Calif., in 1916, but the major acreage expansion came in the 1940s. By the 1950s this area, with less than one-tenth of the national acreage, had nearly onefifth of the production. Up to 2 bales per acre were raised, with lands of

staple lengths of

l-jl^

in.

and over.

Cultivation

is

highly mech-

This area also raises the small U.S. crop of AmericanEgyptian cotton, with yields of a bale per acre and staple lengths averaging over in. See also Cotton. anized.

1^

See Ladd Haystead and Gilbert C. File, The Agricultural Regions U.S. (1955); U.S. Department of Agriculture, "Land," 19SS Yearbook of Agriculture (1958). (J. A. Tr.)

of the

COTTON FAMINE

(1861-65), which devastated the Lancashire cotton industry, was the result of the American Civil War, when the supply of U.S. cotton, which then formed 85% of Lancashire's total consumption of raw material, was almost entirely cut off. The years 1859 and 1860 had been a period of great activity in the cotton trade: large stocks of cotton had been imported, and the stocks of yams and manufactured goods were unusually large. Had there been no war it is probable that the trade

I

would have been compelled to face a reaction involving a severe spell of depression and short time. It was not therefore till well into the autumn of 1861 (the blockade of the southern ports was established in July of that year) that the pinch first began to be felt in Lancashire. The rise in the price of cotton, which had been the first effect of the war, had enabled the spinners and manufacturers to dispose of large stocks of goods, and it was probably the cessation of demand rather than the lack of supplies of the raw material which first began to produce stagnation in the trade. In the opening weeks of 1862 trouble became acute. Widespread appeals for contributions were sent out with very satisfactory results. In all nearly £1,750,000 was distributed by various relief committees, not including contributions in kind (which were estimated at about £112,000 in value) and relief granted by the boards of guardians. In three years the latter spent just under £2,000,000. The total loss incurred by the whole trade in wages, profits, etc., is incalculable, but must have exceeded £10,000,000. By the time the large pref amine stocks had disappeared (some cotton was actually reshipped to the northern states) other supplies, especially from India, were coming into England, though in comparatively small quantities. The quality of this cotton proved exceedingly unsatisfactory. And although the cotton from Egypt, where quantity was comparatively small, proved better in quality

lad as

even than U.S. (except Sea Island), at best, however, the total supplies were never more than enough to keep the industry running about half-time. Even after the conclusion of peace in April 1865 it was a long time before supplies reached anything like normal. See R. A. Arnold, History of the Cotton Famine (1864). (A. Bri.)

—

Bibliography. H. B. Brown and J. O. Ware, Cotton (1958), concomprehensive bibliography; Frank D. Barlow, Cotton in South America (1952); Yearbook of the New York Cotton Exchange (annually); Cotton Year Book (annually). See also Read P. Dunn, Jr., series on foreign trade in cotton, published by the National Cotton Council of America. Current production statistics are summarized annually in Britannica Book of the Year. (J. M. Gr.) tains

COTTON

BELT, a name traditionally applied to the cottonjrowing part of the old south in the United States. As a crop :erm it was extended in the 1930s to include western irrigated ireas.

There are four major areas of cotton production in the United The southeastern area extends from the Carolinas to the and includes parts of Virginia and Florida. This was the original zone of cotton production in the south. In the 1 9th century up to one-fourth of the cropland was in cotton; by :he second half of the 20th century only 1 crop acre in 1 1 was in :otton, and the area had one-sixth of the national crop. Yields )er acre were moderate (350-400 lb.), and staple length typically -^ in. The small farms and hilly landscape are not suitable for nechanization, and farm abandonment and consolidations have )een widespread; beef cattle, dairying, broiler production, peanuts md soybeans became of increasing importance. The crop renained significant on the inner coastal plains and the Piedmont )f the Carolinas and Georgia and in north Alabama, but few farms

states.

.Mississippi delta

much

as 20 cotton acres each.

The Mississippi lowland or

delta includes the cotton areas in

and Louisiana, plus Cotton remains "king" on

Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Mississippi

few acres

and Kentucky. and very fertile alluvial soils. In the early 1930s cotton on more than 40% of the crop acres; although by the 960s cotton acreage was only half as much, production increased lightly, to 2S%-30% of the national crop. Many farms had over 00 cotton acres and were almost fully mechanized. Per acre aelds were about one bale (SOO lb.) and staple length lyig- in. Com, soybeans, rice and beef pastures increased in acreage. In the southwest (Texas and Oklahoma), cotton long has been mportant. In the Blackland prairie and Corpus Christi areas it .

he

in Illinois

fiat

vas planted

raised with the aid of natural rain much as in the southeast, but arms are larger, many with more than 100 cotton acres. The coton raised in the flat to rolling lands of southwest Oklahoma and learby parts of Texas is also a rainfall crop, but irrigation is necssary in the lower Rio Grande valley and in the Lubbock basin of he West Texas high plains. On irrigated farms cotton acreages re large and production is mechanized. Yields per acre average bout 300 lb., and the staple length is J to if in. The southwest

s

ad more than two-fifths of the national cotton acreage in the and nearly one-third of the production. The western and newest part of the cotton belt is in the irrigated

arly 1960s j

COTTON GRASS species of

or Cotton Sedge is the name applied to Eriophorum, a genus of the sedge family, Cyperaceae {q.v.). There are about IS species, about 10 being North American. They are generally found on wet and boggy moors, and are sometimes planted in the bog garden. The flowers are massed together into heads and each has

four or more hairlike bristles at After fertilization these grow out into long, conspicuous, cottony hairs which serve to distribute the seed which is contained in a small dry achene. The alpine cotton grass (E. alpinum) and the slender cotton grass (£. gracile) occur both in Great Britain and in North America. The COTTON GRASS (ERIOPHORUM POLY- Virginia cotton grass (E. virSTACHION), ABOUT ONE. THIRD NATMATURE ginicum). with dingy brown, SIZE. SHOWING URAL FLOWER CLUSTERS CLOTHED WFTH ^rely white, hairs, grows from Newfoundland to Manitoba and COTTONY HAIRS WHITE the base.

COTTON MANUFACTURE

6i8

southward to Florida and Nebraska. The sheathed cotton grass (E. callitlirix), found from Newfoundland to Pennsylvania and Wisconsin and northward to the arctic, and also in Asia, forms in

summer food

Alaska the

of reindeer.

COTTON MANUFACTURE.

Raw

cotton has few uses;

processed, or manufactured, cotton has many. This article tells how raw cotton fibres, which are about as fine as human hair

and from \ in. to main sections of

2 in. long,

are changed into useful products.

The

this article are as follows:

Manufacturing Processes A. Production of Yarns

I.

2.

Preparation for Spinning Spinning

3.

Doubling

4.

Finishing and

1.

Making-Up

B. Production of Fabrics 1. Preparation for Weaving 2. Spooling 3. VVarping 4. Slashing 5. Action on the Loom 6. Other Types of Production C. Converting of Cotton Goods 1. Scouring and Bleaching 2. Dyeing and Printing

down

1.

2.

III.

Yarn Varieties of Cotton Yarns Varieties of Cotton Fabrics

Economic Development of the Cotton Industry 1. Development up to 1914 2. Development After 1914 3. Machinerv 4. The Uses'of Cotton 5.

Organization of the Industry I.

The

From

in vertical layers.

the bale breaker the material goes

to the opener.

Finishing II. Varieties of Cotton Products 3.

3.

remove further impurities and form the fibres into a sliver; flyer frames for drawing and twisting; either ring frames or mules, for spinning, and, where folded or ply yarns are produced, winders and doublers, or twisters; cleaning and gassing (singeing) frames; and reels and bundling presses. The Bale Breaker.— The raw material, in the form of hard compressed slabs from the bale, is fed by hand into a hopper, from where it passes to a system of spiked and latticed conveyor belts. These belts carry the cotton under a spiked roller and then return most of the material to the hopper so that the tearing process can be repeated. As a result of the repeated passes between the two sets of spikes the cotton is reduced to a fairly fluffy state. Besides breaking down the raw material, which has been chosen from bales of different grades so as to give the desired quality In most of yarn, the bale breaker also mixes the raw cotton. cases mixing is completed satisfactorily by the machinery through which the cotton subsequently passes; sometimes, however, in mills that spin fine yarns, mixing is assisted by building up a stack of cotton from the breaker in horizontal layers and, after leaving it for two or three days to become aerated, pulling it

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

vast bulk of the world's cotton

is

spun into yarn, which

marketed as such, especially as sewing cotton, or is made into by weaving, knitting, lacemaking or braiding. Some yarns, and most fabrics, are rendered more attractive and useful by a variety of converting processes, which include bleaching, dyeing and printing, and a wide range of finishing processes, both mechanical (e.g., calendering, stiffening, glazing and raising) and chemical (such as mercerizing, parchmentizing, making crease The description below resistant, waterproofing and rotproofing). outlines the manufacturing processes; for further details see Spinning; Weaving; Yarn.

The opening and cleaning range employs various combinations of machines that have several features in common. Their function is to loosen, or open, the tufts of cotton as delivered by the bale breaker and mixing machines, and to separate more of the dirt and trash from the clean cotton. Spiked and other endless lattices are used to lift and convey the mass of cotton over short distances from one part of a machine to another. Beaters break up the tufts, and rotary cages si,ft the dirt and trash. The beater is a rotary shaft from which protrude blunt spikes or flat-ended blades that strike the cotton as it passes round them. It was once By the considered sufficient to clean and fluff up the cotton. 1950s, however, blending had become equally important because

is

of the advent of high-speed spinning machinery and the more

fabrics

methods of measuring and specifying the qualities required and yarns. More use came to be made of hoppers for storing and feeding loosened masses of cotton, of automatic devices for weighing and feeding so that blends can be made in exact proportions, and of air currents for conveying loose cotton

A. Production of

Yarns

—

1. Preparation for Spinning. In some countries cotton is grown so near the mills that it can be ginned and carried to the wagons, the usual practice is to deliver spinner loose in farm but ginned cotton in highly compressed bales (see Cotton). The raw

cotton contains l%-2% of impurities such as soil, dust particles bits of leaf and seed husk. A special type of impurity is caused by fibres that have failed to grow properly on the seed

and

and are said to be immature or even dead. They have very thin and tend to form tangles that may enclose bits of leaf. These tangles are known as neps and are regarded as a major nuisance by spinners. walls

Once the cotton

received in the mill the following preparatory and spinning processes take place: (1) the highly compressed is

cotton is reduced to the greatest possible state of division, and impurities are removed; (2) the fibres are formed into a rope, or sliver; (3) the slivers are drawn between rollers to attenuate them and are sometimes combed to arrange the fibres in parallel

rows and to increase the regularity of the material; (4) sufficient twist is inserted into the attenuated slivers, by now called roving, to make a firm thread; (5) where required, two or more threads are combined into a folded yarn; and (6) the yam is "finished" and prepared for shipment. The principal machines used in spinning preparation and spinning are:

bale

breakers,

openers, pickers

(U.S.) or scutchers (Great Britain), for cleaning and blending the cotton; carding

engines,

draw frames and, for high-quality yarns, combers, which

precise

of the fibres

through lengths of trunking.

The picker {scutcher)

is

the last

machine

in the

opening and

cleaning line and, besides picking, has the additional function of forming the loose cotton into a sheet (the lap) nearly an inch

package weighing 40-50 lb. The important for the success of subsequent processes, and a device known as an evener motion is used to control the rate at which cotton reaches the lap-forming mechanism so that across and along the length of the lap there is, as near as possible, the same weight of cotton per inch. The Carding Engine or Card. Here the elimination of impuriThe picker lap is reduced for a ties, including neps, is completed. brief moment to gossamer fineness and then rolled into a soft rope and short, broken and immature fibres are called a sliver. Trash jettisoned but the machine must be carefully set and supervised so that it does not create more neps than it removes. thick

and

rolling

it

up

regularity of this lap

into a

is

—

At the start of the carding operation, the picker lap is unwound by a small roller and presented to a taker-in roller, or licker-in. This consists of a series of fine-toothed circular saws mounted together on a shaft. The teeth move at a speed of about 1,000 ft. a minute and tear away small bunches of fibre from the lap. These are stripped from the licker-in by a cylinder, about 40 in. in diameter, that is covered with closely set steel wire teeth and revolves at about 2,000 ft. a minute. Above part of this cylinder are narrow bars, called flats, that are carried by an endless belt and are covered with wire teeth similar to those on the cylinder but pointed in the opposite direction. The cotton passes between the distance between them is set to about seven one-thousandths of an inch. Since the flats move in the same direction as the cylinder but only at two to three inches a minute they have a retarding and combing action and pick up the trash, short fibres and neps. This material is removed

the cylinder and the flats;

;

COTTON MANUFACTURE from the flats by a comb and a rotary brush and is deposited The good cotton is held between the wire a waste receptacle. :eeth on the main cylinder, from which it is doffed by a smaller This doffer also has wire points, facing into those of :ylinder.

"n

ie main

cylinder, but travels at only about ^^g-th of the speed.

comb takes the cotton fibres from the doffer n a continuous sheet nearly as fine as a spider's web. The web

\ rapidly rocking

immediately formed into a sliver by a pair of rollers that pull through a trumpet- or funnel-shaped hole and pass it on to

s t

mechanism that

I

coils

it

into a tall can.

Formerly, the carding operation created a very dusty atmosand the dust gave rise to bys-

phere in its part of a cotton mill

a form of pneumonoconiosis (q.v.). As a result of rework, the carding engine was modified so that no dust :an escape into the atmosphere and it has become possible to lave an atmosphere in the card room that is cleaner than the lutside atmosphere. The Draw Frame. It is only necessary to attenuate and twist he card sliver to produce a yarn. The initial processing at this tage is carried out on the draw frame. Steps are taken to make he sliver more regular and to arrange the constituent fibres in pproximately parallel order. Four, six or eight card slivers are jended into one on the probability that a thick place in one sliver nil balance out a thin place in another. To prevent the combined liver from becoming thick, the blending is accompanied by atlenuation, or drafting, as a result of which the product becomes our, six or eight times as long as but no thicker than one of the ard slivers. The draw frame has four pairs of smooth, leatherovered rollers arranged fairly close together in four rows. The airs are driven so that the speed of rotation increases from row D row until the front pair is moving four, six or eight times as ast as the back pair, depending on the number of card slivers eing fed into the machine. Because of the increasing roller peed, the individual fibres slip forward as they pass between the .inosis,

search

—

and are also pulled straight. The increasing amount f parallelism of the fibres becomes apparent in the increased istre of the draw-frame sliver, which is quite silky. The process lay be repeated two or three times on the assumption that the igularity of the sliver is improved every time the sliver passes irough the draw frame. Spinners now realize, however, that the airs of rollers

;petition

can be overdone.

The Comber. sual to

— For high-quality and

remove

S%-15%

or even

fine (i.e., thin) yarns,

20%

it is

of the shorter fibres as

enhances the "spinnability" of the remainder. To remove the recombined into small roUed-up laps that re fed to the comber. At regular intervals a lap is advanced so to present a fringe to a set of combs that pass through the ; inge and take out the loose, short fibres. These are detached "om the combs and reserved for use in spinning a coarser yarn, lis

bres the slivers are

combed

then pushed forward and combined with The machine usually has six imbing units, and the six combed laps are combined and drafted \to one combed sliver, which may then be passed through the taw frame again. he le

tail

of

fringe

is

the previous fringe.

—

To complete the attenuation of the sliver same principle of drafting by means of rollers is exploited a series of machines known collectively as speed frames and idividually as slubbing, intermediate, roving and fine jack frames. ne machine drafts {i.e., reduces the bulk and weight per unit length) the sliver about six times; the thinner product, known roving, is passed to the next machine, where it is drafted lother six times and so on down the line of frames. During the Drafting Machines.

le .

t

i

Deration, the ;gular

opportunity

by blending, two

is

taken to

make

the products

more

slivers or rovings being fed together to

The drafted product, at each stage, must be wound package that is convenient to handle and set up on the ;xt machine. It must also be twisted enough to make it stand :ntle pulls during the winding and unwinding but not enough to nder drafting. The twisting is performed on flyer spindles. The ickage, called a bobbin, is built up on a wooden support, also illed a bobbin, that fits loosely on a vertical spindle to whose

le

rollers.

to a

jp

is

fixed a hollow, inverted

U-shaped device, the

flyer.

The

619

roving passes through the flyer to the bobbin, which it drags round because of the high speed of rotation of the spindle and flyer, twist is inserted in the roving as it passes from the flyer to the bobbin. The bobbin rests on a frame through which the spindle protrudes; the frame rises and falls so that the coils of roving are laid down in regular succession over the major part of the length of the bobbin.

The

which the traditional roller drafting (invented by 1738) can be carried in one stage depends on the staple length of the cotton and the distance between nips of the roller pairs; the maximum attenuation possible with traditional drafting machines is a draft of about six. If the pairs of rollers are too close together many fibres will be ruptured. If they are too far apart many fibres will be floating loose between them, with a risk that the product will build up unevenly. This risk has led machine makers to avoid relying on two pairs of rollers to effect the desired draft and to divide the draft between three or four pairs, each pair revolving faster than the pair behind it. These three- or four-line roller systems are the rule, especially on the spinning frames proper. At the turn of the 20th century it was realized that if the floating fibres could be controlled much longer or higher drafts would be feasible; many long or high drafting systems are available. In some, the space between the pairs of drafting rollers is filled out by inserting thin rollers that support the product as it is being drafted. In others a pair of endless traveling belts (called aprons) is used as support; small trumpetlike supports are also used. These systems of fibre control are usually fitted to the spinning machine and have rendered some of the traditional speed frames redundant. Drafts of 30 or more, instead are 6, are currently attained in spinning, without detriment to yarn quality. Indeed, experimental and testing machines are in use that spin directly from card sliver with a draft of 900 and more. 2. Spinning. Spinning machines continue the blending and drafting begun on the speed frames, but they also insert twist limit to

Lewis Paul

in

—

in the desired direction

—

and

to the desired extent

—

and wind the

yarn into packages known as cops, or bobbins that vary in size according to the purpose for which the yarn is intended. Two types of machine are used: the mule, which was invented by Samuel Crompton in 1779 and is a cross between J. Hargreaves' spinning jenny (1764) and R. Arkwright's water frame (1769); and the ring frame, which was invented by John Thorp in the U.S. in 1828 and which by the early 1960s had almost entirely replaced the mule. Mule Spinning. In the early 1960s mule spinning was obsolete in the United States and declining rapidly in England and other parts of the world (see Economic Development of the Cotton Industry: Machinery, below). However, many British spinners claim that, for some purposes, the mule produces a better yarn than the ring frame and it is still used for spinning the finest yarns in numbers above about 200. In the mule the action is intermittent, twisting and winding being separate operations. The roving from a creel of bobbins is passed in the usual way through a roller drafting system to a bare The carriage spindle mounted on a carriage that runs on rails. may accommodate as many as 1,200 spindles in two groups on driving mechanism. Spinning begins with the of the either side As the drafted roving is carriage close to the drafting rollers.

—

delivered to the spindle the carriage moves away and the rapidly The carriage moves a distance revolving spindle inserts twist. (known as the draw or stretch) of 54-66 in. and then stops an inspindles continue to revolve. It then moves back tostant while the

ward

the rollers

and during

yarn on the spindle

—

is

this

wound

inward run the stretch of twisted

into a cop of the desired shape.

Ring Spinning. In this process the drafted roving is twisted and wound onto a bobbin simultaneously and continuously as in the flyer frames except that on the ring frame the flyer is replaced by a smooth ring with a flanged upper edge over which is sprung a small C-shaped piece of "Steel wire or plastic known as a traveler. The spindle, carrying a wood, paper or metal support for the bobbin (itself known as an empty bobbin), projects into yarn

vertically through the horizontal ring.

The drafted roving runs

COTTON MANUFACTURE

620 from the drafting system

few inches away and

to the traveler a

then to the bobbin; as the latter revolves with the spindle the yarn drags the traveler round the ring and the twist is thus inserted.

The

ring

is

mounted on down as

a rail that

moves up and down

on The size of the bobbin and the degree to which the bobbin. the yarn is twisted are governed by the diameter of the ring and so that the yarn

laid

is

a close succession of coils

A

fundamental difference between the ring and mule methods is that the length of the element of yarn that receives twist at a given moment is only a few inches on the ring frame but is .S4-66 in. on the mule. This may account for some of the alleged differences in yarn quality. 3. Doubling.For many purposes two or more single spun yarns are twisted together (doubled), usually by ring and traveler of spinning

—

or flyer mechanism but, as attenuation is not required, the drafting system is replaced by feed rollers. The singles may be run through a trough of water. Wet doubling produces a firm and smooth yarn, but dry doubling gives a softer product. Further processes include the production of cords; for example, by twisting together three doubled yarns. The variety of yarns that can be produced depends on the direction and degree of the twist inserted in the component "singles" and in the various folding, or plying, operations that follow. An endless range of novelty or fancy yarns can be produced by plying together different types or colours of single yarns, by feeding one yarn to the twisting device much faster than the other so that it corkscrews around it, or by feeding one yarn alternately fast and slowly so that the product is uneven in thickness (see Varieties of Cotton Products, below). 4.

Finishing and Making-Up.— When

lustre

and smoothness

passed several times through a gas flame or red-hot tube at such a speed that the fibres projecting from the surface are burned off without damaging the rest of the yarn. This process is known as gassing, or singeing. Such yarns may also be polished by repeated calenderings between a pair of heavily loaded rollers. is

B.

Production of Fabrics

Weaving is the process by which longitudinal yarns, known as the warp, are interlaced at right angles with transverse yarns, called the filling or weft, by means of a loom. The discussion below deals with the principal processes that take place during the weaving of cotton goods. 1. Preparation for Weaving. Yarn from the spinning room must be specially wound for the weaving machinery, and its preparation depends on whether it is to be the warp or the weft. The filling yarn (weft) is sometimes sent to the weave room on the bobbins on which it left the spinning frame, but in the modern process much yarn is rewound onto cones and then into the pack-

—

ages (called cops, quills or pirns) demanded by modern automatic looms. The second part of the rewinding process is carried out by automatic quill winders that tightly wind nearly double the

amount

of yarn that can otherwise be

wound on a quill. Rewindweak places and join

ing also provides an opportunity to break out

up the good yarn;

to facilitate this, the operative usually wears on the back of his thumb a little device for tying uniform knots. Warp yarn needs more preparation for the loom and is usually spooled, warped and slashed (sized).

—

Spooling The function of the spooler is to unwind the yarn from the bobbins onto which it was spun and to rewind 2.

on a large package called a cheese, which weighs as much as The machine consists of a long frame that supports a row of bobbins in a vertical position on either side and, above them, a row of cheeses arranged on either side of a horizontal drum. A knot-tying device, called a traveler, circles a track on top of the frame at preset intervals (usually about three minutes). When it has attached the yarn from the full bobbins to the cheeses, the arms that hold the cheeses press them against the drum, which is revolving at high speed. This drives the cheeses by friction and makes winding possible at speeds of 900-1,200 yd. a minute. When the bobbin runs out, the yarn breaks or the cheese fills up, it

ten pounds.

arm

lifts

the cheese free of the drum.

a reserve.

new ones

fall

Empty

bobbins

into place from

—

3. Warping. The purpose of warping is to run 200-400 equally long threads side by side onto a single beam. The sheet thus formed is then finally prepared for weaving in the slasher.

The

full

cheeses of yarn are doffed from the spooler and taken There they are put into the warp creel, a frame-

to the warper.

weight of the traveler.

are desired, the yarn

the cheese

are dropped on a conveyor belt and

work

Two

of vertical metal bars, each of which holds 9-12 cheeses. form of a V with the cheeses

creel sections are placed in the

on the outside and the junction pointing toward the horizontal beam onto which the yarn is to be wound. Because of the frailty of the yarn, the

motor driving

also stops automatically

if

this

take-up

beam

the yarn breaks.

starts slowly;

it

In the high-speed

warper both sides of the creel are fitted with spring cores to hold the cheeses, and operatives place cheeses on the inside while the winding is taking place. As soon as the outside cheeses are exhausted the position of the creels

—

is

reversed.

Slashing In the slasher (known as a tape frame in England) several beams of yarn from the warper are combined on one loom beam to give the number of warp yarns (several thou4.

sand) necessary for the loom; they are then coated with (mostly starch) to prevent chafing during weaving.

The warper beams

size

mounted

horizontally across the back frame of the slasher and are brought together in a single sheet are

comb, or bar. The sheet is then treated with size by running it between rollers below the surface of the size in the size box. It is important that the warp yam should pick up a correct and constant quantity of size, about 7%10% for good weaving, and so the viscosity and concentration of the solution must be watched carefully. As a result of research work conducted in the 19S0s, many tape frames in England were at a condenser

solution, usually

with automatic controls. The basic ingredients of the size, chosen for its cheapness, is usually cornstarch in the U.S. and potato starch, flour or sago in the U.K. Other ingredients for example, softeners, lubricants, emulsifiers and materials to prevent the growth of mildew are usually present in small quantities. A typical formula for gingham is 80 lb. of starch, 5 lb. of softener and 100 gal. of water, which makes 125 gal. of size. After leaving the size box the sheet goes to the drier, which, in the U.S., usually consists of two or three steam-heated metalsurface cylinders. The aim in drying is to leave the yarn with a moisture content of about 8%-10%; complete dryness is avoided. When the sheet emerges, the yarns are stuck together with the hardened size solution and have to be split apart by rods and combs; the sheet is then wound on a loom beam and stored until needed for weaving. In the 1960s homogenizers were replacing the kettles in which the size previously had been cooked. These render the material homogeneous without cooking and make it possible to use pearl starch, which is cheap, instead of the more expensive thin-boiling starch. In some mills hot-air driers are used instead of steam cans. Although this procedure is somewhat more expensive, it has two advantages over the older method: the sheet can be separated into individual yarns while still wet, thus avoiding the ragged edges caused by separating them when they are dry, and the dried yarn is perfectly round, whereas if it is pressed against a metal cylinder it emerges flat on one side. 5. Action on the Loom The warp is brought to the back of the loom on a beam that carries the number of ends needed to give the desired width and density (ends per inch) to the woven fabric. Each end is threaded through an eye in a set of heddles, or healds, and between the teeth of a fine comb, known as a reed, before being secured at the front of the loom, usually to the ends of a previous warp. A heddle is a string or wire with an eye at its midpoint; a large number of heddles are stretched across a wooden fitted

—

—

—

is as wide as the loom, and several of these frames, or shafts, are suspended one in front of another at the back of the loom. Mechanism is provided for alternately lifting and lowering the frames so that a lozenge-shaped gap, called the warp shed, can be created between warp threads that are up anc

or metal frame that

those that are down.

COTTON MANUFACTURE The

^

filling

(weft)

is

brought to the loom as a tightly wound

Ipackage inserted in a shuttle; the shuttle

is struck by the picking and made to pass on the smooth track (race board) of The sley is an apparatus that extends across the loom and rocks to and fro, being pivoted to a shaft in the lower part It carries the reed and, just below this, the race af the loom.

device

:the sley.

joard.

The picking device

•

tir\d

jnd

is usually a strong stick, faced at with buffalo hide or other wear-resistant material.

mounted

is

cam,

)f a

ihuttle.

it

For

is

its

a long time engineers

—

have considered

The aim

is

In other

iide.

new types

this traditional

to carry across the

—

loom and

releases

it

at the opposite

of loom, puffs of air are

employed

to

:arry the filling.

As soon as the shuttle passes through the warp shed, the and the shuttle is picked back again, this time iding over the warp ends that it passed under on the forward jourAt each pick, the length of weft that has escaped through ley. he eye of the shuttle is pushed up tightly against the fell of the voven cloth by the reed. This is known as beating up. The cloth 's wound tightly on a roller and, meanwhile, the warp beam is

aeddles reverse

urned slightly to

let off

more warp

—

to replace that already

made

All these operations the letting off of warp, the orming of the shed, the picking of weft, the beat up and the ake-up of the cloth must work in harmony and at speeds up 200 or more picks a minute for cloth about one yard wide, rhe adjustment of a loom is aptly called tuning. The simplest weave is a "one over, one under" interlacing of varp and weft. The effect of diagonal lines, known as twill, is ntroduced into a fabric by making the weft go over two or three nd under one end in the first pick, and over a different set of wo or three ends in the second pick, and so on. Patterns can e woven by arranging groups of coloured ends on the warp beam -this being the best way to produce stripes or by using two or 4ore shuttles with wefts of different colours. Colour-bordered ablecloths and cloths with coloured squares are produced in this Vay. By means of a dobby, a mechanism that can manipulate bout 25 heddle frames to effect more complex shedding arrangements, an almost endless variety of geometrical patterns can be nto cloth.

—

—

— checks,

'oven i

'f

the

diagonals and so forth.

Jacquard mechanism, which

is

Even more elaborate

used to control the shedding

individual warps rather than regularly deployed sets of them;

makes

it possible to weave floral and other nongeometrical Another method of weaving uses two warp beams, one f which lets off its yarn faster than the other so that at the beat p the longer pieces of yarn form into loops between the short ieces. Fabrics such as turkish toweling are made in this way. .11 these methods are used all over the world; some of the many ibrics manufactured are listed below under Varieties of Cotton 'roducts: Varieties of Cotton Fabrics or are described in separate

ois

atterns.

rtides. 6.

Other Types of Production.

am

1

—Knitting. —Much

cotton

was formerly knitted into cheap stockings and socks, but y the mid-20th century the man-made fibres were providing more ttractive products. However, cotton continued to be used largely )r comfortable underwear that was either fashioned from knitted ibrics or knitted as entire garments. (See Knitting.) Lacemaking. Some of the finest cotton yam is manufactured ito lace, ranging from curtains to trimmings.

—

trimmings and articles like shoestrings are made by braiding, in which yarns are interlaced at an angle less than 90°. Sometimes this is done about a core, a very familiar example being the braided insulation of electrical wire (flex).

The operation

of braiding recalls the old-time maypole dance, the separate packages of yarn corresponding to the dancers and the central core to the pole.

striking

:oom a short length of yam say 30-120 in. whose weight is legligible, but a filling package weighing several ounces is put nto a much heavier shuttle and picked hundreds of times before The force required to insert filling at a given speed t is used up. ncreases proportionately with the cube of the weight of the filling Dackage, so the traditional method wastes an enormous amount of rower. It is not surprising, therefore, that in the mid-20th century )ther methods of inserting filling were made available. In some, mckages of filling yarn are mounted at both sides of the loom md the traditional shuttle is reduced to a bulletlike gripper, 'bout the size of a man's small finger, that engages the end of 'he filling as it flies across the

621

—Other

C.

The other

loom mechanism, from which, by means made to give a powerful blow to the end of the in the

Dicking to be quite inefficient.

Braiding.

Converting of Cotton Goods

Only a small percentage of woven cloth is sold to the consumer in the condition in which it leaves the weave shed; i.e., in the loom state or the gray. Much of it is bleached, dyed or printed and subjected to various finishing treatments, the procedure chosen depending on the construction of the fabric and the use for which it is intended. A brief outline of some of the more important operations follows. Usually the gray goods are received from the weaver in lengths of 120 yd. or 240 yd.

marked with

The

pieces are inspected for imperfections,

number for identification purposes and sewn permit processing in continuous lengths. They are then passed over a gas or electric singeing machine, where the short fibres protruding from the surface of the cloth are burned off. The goods may next go to a desizing machine, where the starch that was employed in sizing the warp yarns before weaving is removed. For this purpose enzymes that digest starch are often used. end

to

end

a lot

to

1. Scouring and Bleaching.— Before cotton piece goods are bleached they usually are boiled for several hours with dilute caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) solution in a closed vessel, called

remove the natural oils, waxes and other impurities. Next they are rinsed, soured in a dilute solution of sulfuric or hydrochloric acid, rinsed, chemicked by being passed through a solution of sodium hypochlorite, piled in bins to permit the bleaching a kier, to

action to take place, rinsed, passed through a solution of sulfurous acid or other antichlor to remove the last traces of chlorine, again

water mangle to squeeze out excess water steam-heated cylinders, or cans. Bleaching can also be carried out in the kier by means of an alkaline solution of hydrogen peroxide, after which the cloth is rinsed and dried. Sodium chlorite won favour as a bleaching agent because it is easier to control and the cotton is not overbleached and weakened (tendered) in the process. Many bleachworks practise continuous bleaching, the gray cloth passing in succession through a series of scouring, washing and bleaching units. {See rinsed, passed through a

and dried on

a set of revolving

Bleaching.)

—

2. Dyeing and Printing. Dyeing is often carried out in machines in which a batch of the cloth, stitched end to end, is carried through tanks of hot dye liquor. In some machines a pair of rollers are submerged in the liquor; the cloth travels between them and is padded with the dye. Continuous machines are also

used.

They

consist of long tanks with a set of rollers at the top

alternating with another set near the bottom. alternately over a top roller and under a

The

bottom

cloth runs

roller

and so

from one end of the tank to the other. Fabrics that are be dyed in light or medium shades are bleached before dyeing. Bleaching is frequently omitted if the fabrics are to be dyed in dark shades. Printing is usually carried out on roller printing machines, although some fabrics are screen printed {see Textile Printing). After being printed, the fabric is frequently passed through a steam chest, called an ager, and then through a continuous washer before being dried. The choice of dyestuff depends on its cost and the purpose for which the fabric is intended. Dyes that provide the highest degree of fastness to washing are used in articles such as handkerchiefs and children's frocks; those that provide fastness to light {i.e., resistance to fading) are used in sun blinds and curtains; and those that provide fastness to perspira{See tion are used in coloured garments worn next to the skin. Dyes.) 3. Finishing. The white, dyed or printed goods are dried on steam-heated drums or in hot-air chambers and then finished. Finishing may be a mechanical process, assisted by starches, dextrins, gums, china clay and other agents designed to smooth, stiffen travels to

—

COTTON MANUFACTURE

622

other ways improve the feel (handle) of the cloth, or it may be a chemical process. In mechanical finishing the two types of equipment used for applying the tinishing agents are starch mangles and backfilling machines, the latter being designed to apply the finish to one side of the cloth only. After the finishing agents have been applied the cloth is partially dried, then passed over a stenter, or tenter, where drying is completed and the fabric is stretched to the desired width and straightened. On this machine the fabric is held taut

and wool are based on length per unit weight and are higher for fine yarns than coarse, and numbers for silk and rayon are based on weight per unit length and the fine yarns have the small numbers. Since mills tend to spin, and manufacturers to use, more than one type of fibre, a change-over to a universal system based on weight in grams per kilometre, or per ten kilometres, for all fibres was being widely considered in the early

by pins or

way and weftway were used

and

in

passes through a drying chamber. The pins or clips are attached to endless belts and the distance between the belts gradually increases so that the fabric is stretched widthclips as

it

Various types of calenders are employed to give smooth,

ways.

lustrous or embossed effects. These machines consist essentially of metal, paper or fibre rolls between which the cloth is passed

A linenlike appearance is obtained machine that drops heavy wooden posts

under considerable pressure.

by use of a beetle on the cloth as

it

—

a

travels over a steel roll.

1960s.

Yarn Twist.

—Traditionally such terms

as regular, reverse, twist-

to describe the direction of twist

These were found very confusing and so the practice Z-way or S-way according to the direction became established; this plan was first suggested in the U.S. in 1934. The magnitude of the twist is recorded as the number of turns per inch or by a twist factor (loosely termed a constant or multiplier) determined by dividing the number of turns per inch by the square root of in a yarn.

of designating the twist

of slope of the stems of these capital letters

the count.

—

Controlled-shrinking machines of various types are employed to counteract the stretching effect of the preceding operations and thus to prevent the fabric from shrinking upon laundering. Cer-

Yarn Strength. The strength, or breaking load, of cotton yam measured by a tensile-testing machine applied either to a single yarn or to a lea (120 yd.) that is wound on a reel 54 in. in cir-

and flannelette, are run over machine to produce a nap. Chemical finishing is commonly applied to cotton goods before they are given a mechanical finishing. Chemical finishing consists

cumference; when leas are tested, the breaking load is applied to 160 yarns at the same time. The breaking load of a cotton yam depends only to a minor extent on the intrinsic strength of a cotton fibre; the important factors are number and twist. Breaking load increases with twist up to a certain point and then declines. A useful basis on which to compare different cottons is the product of the lea strength and number; spinning conditions are best when this product is a maximum. The number to which a given type of cotton can be spun commercially depends mainly on its staple length; the long cottons yield the finer yarns. Short Indian cottons spin up to about 16s, American cottons to 44s, Egyptian cottons to ISOs and Sea Island

tain fabrics, such as cotton blankets

a raising

of using certain chemicals to obtain specific effects, which are of great importance to the cotton industry since they make cotton a fashionable, rather than a purely utilitarian, material. The first

chemical finish to be employed was mercerizing (g.v.), after John Mercer, an English dyeworks chemist. In 1844 he discovered that when cotton is steeped in sodium hydroxide truly

named

(especially of

18%

strength) the fibres shrink in length, swell

and become round in outline, and dye to a deeper shade. With this process he produced fabrics with dark, puckered spots on a paler ground; some types of modern seersucker fabrics are their descendants. Later (1889-90), Horace Lowe, a bleachworks chemist working near Stockport, Eng., discovered that if the cotton (yarn or fabric)

is held in the caustic soda so that it cannot is stretched to its full length while still in the alkali, acquires a silky lustre. This is the really valuable effect of mercerization and the process is commonly applied to high-quality cotton fabrics such as poplins.

shrink, or

it

Strong sulfuric acid has a parchmentizing effect on cotton; for it is used to give the swiss-organdy finish in which the cotton fabric becomes stiff and semitransparent. Other chemicals are used as proofing agents. Cotton fabrics are made waterproof or water repellent by depositing an alum soap within and between the fibres, or by the surface action of one of the silicones.

instance,

A

variety of efficient antiseptics

is

available for

making cotton

goods rotproof. In the early 1960s the problem of making fabric fireproof without making it uncomfortable to wear was at last within sight of a satisfactory solution, due to the discovery of a range of organic derivatives of phosphoric acid. Perhaps the discovery that has had the most profound effect on cotton and rayon finishing was the outcome of research into crease resistance, carried out in 1918-39 by an English firm that discovered a way of producing a synthetic resin within the fibre by combining chemicals like formaldehyde and urea. These resin treatments became almost legion and are the basis of drip-dry, minimum-iron and related finishes. (J. C. Wl.)

U. VARIETIES

—

OF COTTON PRODUCTS

—

1. Yarn. Yarn Numbering or Count System. The fineness of yarn is measured, in English-speaking countries, by the number of hanks of yarn that weigh one pound. In the U.S. this is known in the U.K. as its count. A hank is 840 yd. long, and so, for example, one pound of no. 10 (10s count) cotton yarn would unwind to 8,400 yd. In other countries metric units are used. It is difficult to compare cotton yarns with those of wool, rayon and silk since the hank of wool in English-speaking countries is 560 yd. and the number for silk and rayon is based on the weight in grams of 9,000 m. of yarn. Thus numbers for cotton

as its

number,

is

cotton to 400s. 2.

Varieties of Cotton Yarns.

yarns have

Z

S twist

— Practically

all

U.S.

spun

used for special purposes only, especially for making ply yarns. British spun yarn, when used for warp, has Z twist and is called twist yarn; yarn for filling (weft) is generally S twist unless otherwise specified. The twist factors of warp yarns usually vary between 3.5 and 4.75. Filling yarns generally have fewer twists and are softer, fuller yarns. Their factors vary between 3 and 4.25. Cloths that are to have a raised nap are manufactured from soft-twist fillings with factors from 2.50 to 3. Condenser waste yarns used as weft yarn for such products as blankets, sheetings and twills are made from waste fibres that are carded, rubbed between a pair of endless leather belts into cylindrical or sliver form on a condenser card, and are spun on a condenser mule into Is to 12s yarns without any drawing proctwist;

is

esses.

Knitting (hosiery)

yams

are coarse,

medium

or fine-count single

or ply yarns that are spun with a softer (knitting) twist than

Their factors vary from 2.50 to 3. Ply yarn (U.S.), which is also called folded yarn (U.K.), is made by plying (doubling together) two or more ends of yarn. Usually the direction of twisting is opposite to that already used in the single yarns unless very wiry .yarns are required; e.g., voile yarns. The majority are two-ply and are used where special strength is required, as in army ducks or airplane cloth. Cable yarns are made of two or more ply yarns twisted together. usual for weaving.

Several varieties are made for cordage, twine, fish nets, etc. When made with ZSZ twists, it is known as cable twist; that with a ZZS or SSZ twist is called hawser twist and is a tighter, wiry yarn.

Both cable- and hawser-twist yarns are used in making machine-manufactured nets they are used alter-

fishing nets; in

nately to balance the shrinkage or contraction.

Thread or spool cottons used for sewing and embroidery are ply or cable yarns that have been specially twisted, combed and processed. Only Sea Island and the finest and strongest Egyptian cottons are used. After being twisted either wet or dry. the yarn It is then bleached or dyed; is gassed to remove projecting fibres. most yarn is also mercerized to give it a silky finish and finally

COTTON MANUFACTURE not processed it is described as soft finished. is usually combed and is then carded before being softly twisted into a two-, three- or four-cord thread. Lace thread, which is made from Sea Island, Egyptian and fine Ameri,can cottons, is supercombed, hard-twisted and gassed. Coloured yarns are generally obtained by dyeing single yarns They can also be made from stock-dyed cotton in solid colours. A blended or mixture yarn, like that used in heather mixfibres.

waxed. If •'Crochet yarn

it

is

is

I

made by

a plied yarn

blending contrasting stock-dyed A mottled, or two-tone yarn, on the other hand, is a yarns. single yarn spun from a blend of different-coloured rovings. They tures,

is

mock twist (U.S.) or mock grandrelle (U.K.) and are used mostly in converts (finished fabrics) and mottled flannels. Sometimes roving, single yarns or ply yarns are printed throughout with a pattern of one or more colours. They are used in warp are called

and tie fabrics and are called also treated chemically to resist dye; this

for decorative flannels, shirtings

Yarn

printed yarns. resist

yarn

is

used, for example, in the manufacture of striped

is

fabrics since after

it is

woven

the ground cloth can be dyed without

being affected.

Ply yarns with special effects are usually called novelty yarns. Spiral yarn is made by plying two different-size yarns together and feeding the heavier yarn in excess so that it curls round the lighter one.

jecting tufts

(cut-weft yarns) along

tightly in place

its

sides; the tufts are held

by the firm-woven warp ends. Ratine yarn has and is made of three or more different-size Boucle yarn is similar to spiral

loop effects throughout

yarns that are unevenly plied. is

more exaggerated.

Slub yarn (himalaya, shantung, cloud, flake or snowflake yarn) is usually a simple yarn that has been spun unevenly by means of special gears at the spinning frame. The heavy patches in flake, imowflake, cloud or shantung are shorter than those in himalaya Blub.

Core yarn is manufactured by plying a single cotton yam with 1 heavy, bulky one (usually of Chinese or Indian cotton). It is used as filling yarn for blankets and, when napped, retains most of its strength. Woolen and cotton-and-woolen mixture yarns are liso made with a cotton core. Rubber-core yarns are those with i round or flat rubber core, around which is wound a fine, single combed yarn (80s, 100s) and afterward a second fine yarn in the Dpposite direction. Such yarn is described by the number of yards :hat weigh one pound; e.g., 1,600-yd. yarn. Union or mixed yarn is a single yarn made from cotton and wool 3r other fibres mixed or blended together. Part-wool yarns are nade with varying percentages of woo! and cotton and are manulactured into hosiery and underwear. The British name for a fine vool and cotton mixture is angola. Linen, cut rayon and silk ire also used.

Coarse blanket yarns, usually heavier than no.

1,

are

known

n the U.K. as bump yarns. They are measured in yards per ounce ind are used as wadding or stuffer yarns to give weight in heavy i}uilt

—

used in that state; (2) finished or converted cloths, which gray cloths converted by bleaching, dyeing, printing and finish-

:ases ire

—

those (3) woven coloured-yarn cloths, or mill-finished cloths voven and finished ready for use by the mills making them. Another classification, with more general significance, is made iccording to use: the divisions then are: (1) apparel or clothing naterials; (2) domestic or household goods, such as sheets, curains, upholstery fabrics and towels; and (3) industrial fabrics. The last group includes tire fabrics, wagon covers, filter cloths for iquids and air, conveyor belts for mines, tentage, sailcloths nd a host of other heavy fabrics. The most important types of loth are described below and in separate articles, such as: BroADE; Buckram; Calico; Cambric; Chenille; Cheviot -LOTH; Chlntz; Corduroy; Crash; Crepe; Cretonne; Dam;

is

usually a single-yarn

Beach cloth

made

of

loosely

is a strong cotton fabric with a loose weave; it is two-ply carded yarn. Bunting is a thinner, equally fabric that, like beach cloth, is used chiefly for flags

woven

and draperies. Boucle is a rough-surfaced material woven from boucle yam (see Varieties of Cotton Yarns, above). Cheesecloth and gauze are loosely woven, soft, light, plainwoven fabrics with a low thread count that are used as surgical dressings, tea bags, linings and bookbinding and for wrapping meat and cheese. A similar fabric, lightly stiffened, is tarlatan. The rough pebbly surface of crepe is obtained in various ways: by using high-twist crepe yarns; by altering the yarn tensions during weaving, as for example in seersucker (crimp) by weaving fine warp and coarse filling in granite or mock leno weaves; or by finishing the cloth with caustic soda, printing and then emboss;

it with crepe rollers. Donegal, originally an Irish peasants' homespun cloth,

is

a

tweedy fabric made with coarse ply yarns twisted together. The ribs in gros^rain, a close, hard-finish fabric, are formed by weaving a number of filling yarns as one. It is heavier than poplin and used for women's wear and trimmings. Lawn is the basic fine, combed-yarn, plain-woven gray cloth used for converting into fabrics such as batiste, mull, muslin, nainsook and organdy. It is also the name of a starched crisp finish

known

lawn (which

variously as India lawn, victoria lawn and persian the finest made). Handkerchief lawn usually has

is

a high thread count and a soft finish. Batiste is a highly mercerized, soft-finished, lightweight fabric used for lingerie, summer dresses and linings. (In the U.S. corset trade the term refers to a heavy, plain-woven, poplin-type fabric.) Nainsook is a bleached material; it is dyed pastel shades, soft finished and has

Such

fabrics are used for

underwear and infants'

clothing and are frequently embroidered.

British nainsooks are

a slight lustre.

known as white shirtings in the export markets. Muslin is made from lawn that has been bleached, dyed or printed. In the U.S. it is also the name of a finish given to white piece goods, also

such as sheetings. Organdy has a transparent, stiff finish and is one of the finest and sheerest fabrics made. It is usually bleached, dyed or printed, mercerized and given a very crisp permanent finish or a firm but temporary starched finish. Leno fabrics have an open, gauzelike appearance that is obtained by causing certain warp threads, called doups, to swing across one or more adjacent warp threads in the course of weaving.

Many

beautiful fabrics are

with other weaves.

made by combining

Marquisette

is

these cross weaves

a sheer, leno-woven curtain

fabric.

Osnaburg

fabrics.

3. Varieties of Cotton Fabrics.— Cotton cloth traded in U.S., Canadian and British markets is classified in three broad divisions: '1) gray cloths those woven of unbleached yarns and in some

'ng;

from extra-strong, long-staple cotton and cloth.

ing

Chenille yarn is not a spun yarn but is cut from a specially woven cloth known as chenille weft fabric. The cut yarn has pro-

yarn but

623

ask; Dimity; Duck; Flannel; Gabardine; Gingham; Holland; Moire; Moleskin; Muslin; Serge; Voile. Airplane and balloon fabrics, two of the strongest cloths made, are plain woven from Sea Island, Egyptian of long-staple American cotton. The former is usually made from two-ply combed yarns (mercerized or plain). Balloon fabric is manufactured

woven from rough, uneven yarn and

is a gray used for bags or is converted Hop sacking is similar to osnaburg but is made from cleaner yarn; it has a lower thread count, is given a soft finish and is used, unbleached or dyed, for men's wear. In the U.S. pique is always a carded- or combed-yarn fabric with narrow raised cords running warpwise. The very narrow corded material is known as pin wale; the heavier varieties are called bedford cloth, which is used for riding clothes, uniforms,

plain

is

cloth with a low thread count.

when

it

It is

has a linenlike appearance.

car upholstery, etc., and is sometimes napped on the back for warmth. In Britain, piques also have welts running weft-wise. Fancy piques are compound fabrics made with quilted, or puffed, designs.

Print cloth fabric.

It is

is

a carded-yarn, plain-woven,

made with yarns from

most, widely used

with different

in the

finishes

medium-weight staple

28s to 42s and

is

the fabric

U.S. market for converting. It appears under various names such as printed

—

COTTON MANUFACTURE

624

percale, cambric, organdy, printed shirting, muslin, crepe, canvas, chintz, interlining, bias binding for better cloth of the

—and

same name.

is

often used as a substitute

The

British fabrics

They

as Burnley printers are similar to print cloth.

known

are basic

gray cloths used for converting into printed shirtings, white shirtings and drapery fabrics. Dobby- or jacquard-woven fabrics in white or white and coloured yarns with quilted, raised or fiat designs are used for counterpanes. British fabrics include patent satin or mitcheline, toilet and Marseilles, all compound fabrics (that is, two fabrics woven back to back and closely interwoven by bringing occasional warp threads from the back to the front and vice versa) that use fine yarns for the design on the face of the cloth and heavy Alhambra, honeycomb and crochet yarns for the back cloth. U.S. -made quilt fabrics quilt fabrics are cheaper and lighter. include a number of white and coloured fabrics of various weights

with

llat

or quilted design that are generally referred to as jac-

quard bedspreads or according

to the type of pattern used,

as colonial, peasant, dimity, crinkle stripe, etc. Varieties of Cotton

For

such

ratine, see

Yams, above.

Sateens are smooth-faced cotton fabrics made with a satin weave, either warp faced or weft faced. Five harnesses (heddle shafts) are used. In weaving a warp sateen, each warp yarn floats over four weft yarns and interlaces with the fifth for a weft sateen, the weft yarns float over the warp ones. The bindings or inter-

the yarn is

is

carded, the warp ends are usually blue and the material Dress chambray has combed yarns, is always

starched.

bleached and is often preshrunk; when made with alternating white and coloured warp ends, it is called end-and-end chambray or end-and-end madras. Ticking, a strong fabric, is used for covering mattresses, the best qualities being closely woven satin or twill weaves in various weights and constructions. It is usually warp striped but is also made in elaborate jacquard panel designs. Warp sateen, drills and lightweight narrow sheetings are made into cheaper quality converted ticking and are usually printed with floral designs. if formed by number of harnesses (heddle weft formed by yarns. American drill is always a three-harness, warp-faced twill that is medium or heavy in weight. Jean is similar to American drill but has a higher thread count. It is dyed and used chiefly for work clothing. The most important working fabric is denim, also known as dungaree It is a three-harness twill, usually woven with indigo-blue cloth. warp yarns and unbleached filling but also made in other colours,

British twilled cloths are generally called drills

warp yarns, shafts),

and

irrespective

stripes and checks. and preshrunk, that

III.

lacings are as far apart as possible to obtain a

and draperies. British sheetings are made in plain or twill weaves. The regular plain-woven narrow sheetings are generally given a white finish

and are strong and serviceable. Medium-weight narrow British sheetings are also called domestics. Wide bed sheetings are strong and have a high thread count. Twill-woven sheetings usually have heavy condenser weft yarns that give the fabric a soft texAmerican sheetings are always plain woven, mostly of ture. carded yarns. Narrow sheetings up to 40 in. are largely used for converting into various standard finished cloths including can-

and crash. They are also used unbleached and feed bags, as a base for coated fabrics and as covers Wide bed sheetings are sold unfor mattresses and cushions. bleached as brown sheeting or are bleached and given a muslin vas, cretonne, suiting for grain

finish.

Shirting is the general name for plain- and fancy-woven (any weave that is a combination or extension of a plain, twill or satin weave) fabrics such as poplin, broadcloth, oxford, harvard and grandrelle. It is given mercerized, chased and preshrunk finishes.

White-finished shirting is also a general British term for whitefinished fabrics that include longcloths, cambrics, muslins and various fabrics with pure-sized and back-filled finishes used in export markets. Poplin is a plain-woven fabric with about twice as many ends as picks so that its characteristic ribs run widthwise. The best qualities are made with ply- or single-combed yarns or

with single-carded yarns; in the U.S., those made with fine yarn and a high thread count are called broadcloth. Poplins may be white, printed in solid colours or yarn dyed. The lighter varieties are used for shirtings and summerwear; the heavier are used for rainwear and sportswear. Oxford is heavier than broadcloth and Except in those is made with a fine warp and heavy filling yarn. cloths specifically called single-end oxfords, every pair of warp ends runs together and weaves as one with each pick. The fabric is generally bleached or dyed; British oxfords are made with stripes and checks. Harvard is a British shirting that has a reversible Grandrelle is also British and is 2/2 twill and a soft texture. woven wuth stripes of both solid-colour yarn and mottled granMadras is a lightweight fabric made with fancy drelle yarn. stripes or all-over patterns that are jacquard- or dobby-woven

from combed

single yarn.

white or unbleached yarns

is

It is is

a mill-finished fabric, usually starched

used for work clothing and sportswear. (X.)

;

smooth surface and avoid a diagonal line effect, and because of their smooth surface they take a highly lustrous surface when mercerized and schreinered (passed between special rollers). Sateens are used for linings, underwear and umbrellas, and are bleached, dyed and printed for numerous other purposes such as tropical suiting, uniforms

the

of

twills if

1.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE COTTON INDUSTRY

Development up

to 1914.

—The

earliest

known

piece of

cotton cloth was discovered in excavations in the Indus valley of remains dated about 3,000 B.C.; cotton is also known to have been

spun and woven in Peru by about 2,000 B.C. Before the Industrial Revolution the main centres of cotton manufacture were the cotton-growing countries: India, China, Turkey, the near east and Brazil, and at that time hand-spun and hand-woven cottons were imported on a large scale from India to Europe by the Dutch and English East India companies. Cotton manufacturing had, however, been introduced into southern Europe by the Moors in the middle ages; in England it took root in the 17th century in Lancashire, where a woolen and linen industry already existed. The decisive revolution in the industry was brought about by the great inventions in the art of spinning, especially those made in England in the second half of the 18th century, and by the application of power, which led to the concentration of spinning in factories. Weaving underwent a similar revolution at a slightly later date. In England the abundance of water power and coal, the proximity of major ports, the humid climate and the extensive existing domestic industry all favoured the location of the new factory industry in Lancashire, and in the course of the 19th century the other centres of the industry west Scotland, Derbydeclined relatively in importance. shire and Nottinghamshire By 1900 well over 80% of the operatives employed in the industry were in Lancashire and adjacent Cheshire. The enormous increase in the productivity of labour as a result of the revolution in techniques greatly reduced production costs, and this in turn led to a tremendous expansion in the market for cotton goods all over the world. The demand was satisfied partly by exports, which were supplied to an overwhelming extent by Great Britain, and partly by the spread of the industry itself. The first mills in the United States were established late in the 18th century and others were established about the same time on the continent of Europe, most of them being protected by a Until the mid-19th century the mill industry high import tax. was virtually confined to Europe and North America; afterward began the wider diffusion that has continued ever since and has brought so many problems to the longer-established industries. The cotton industry has always been one of the first to be established in newly industrialized countries, since it does not present great technical difficulties and does not require large amounts of

—

—

Shirting

The foundations of the Indian mill industry in Bombay date from the ISSOs. The Japanese cotton industry began about 1870 although it did not really flourish for another 20 years. Before World War I extensive industries had also developed in

called

China, Brazil, Mexico and Canada.

woven from dyed warp and chambray. In work chambray

capital.

COTTON MANUFACTURE The spread of the industry across the world was

paralleled

by

equally remarkable territorial shift within the United States. The original location of the industry was New England, but after he Civil War a combination of lower wages and the financial nducements granted by state governments attracted more and nore mills to the cotton-growing states, particularly the Carolinas, jeorgia and Alabama. In 1908 about 51% of the raw cotton conin

;umed in U.S. mills was manufactured in the cotton-growing The trend continued itates, as compared with only 1S% in 1880. By the early 1960s about 95% of all ater in the 20th century. aw cotton processed in the U.S. was manufactured in the cottontrowing states; the inly

amount manufactured

in

New

England was

about one-eighth of the amount processed there in the peak

'ear of 1916.

The development of the industry up to 1914 is demonstrated by few figures. In 1790 mill consumption of raw cotton totaled (It has been estimated that hand spinning ibout 25,000,000 lb. ,nd other consumption may have amounted to about 500,000,000 In the years immediately before World .b. a year at that date.) Var I mill consumption of cotton throughout the world averaged I

Consumption outside Europe and America accounted for about 20% of this total, as com-

:bout 10,500,000,000 lb. a year. »Jorth

)ared with only

about

5%

in the early 1880s.

The Lancashire cotton industry expanded

until 1914 (although he rate of growth slowed down considerably after about 1860) )Ut by 1910-13 Lancashire's share of total world mill consumption ras down to about 20% and it had been surpassed by the United itates in volume of production. Even in the export field its

upremacy was challenged.

Although Lancashire's exports of

continued to expand, reaching more than 1913, exports from continental European ountries and the United States were expanding much more rapdly, and Japan had also begun to compete. As a result the U.K. hare of total international trade in cotton yarn and manufactures ell from about 82% in 1882-84 to 58% in 1910-13, when more han four-fifths of Lancashire's production was being exported, ietween 1910 and 1913 the U.S. exported about 4% of its cotton oods; this amount accounted for 3% of the world trade. It is doubtful whether any other industry in modern times has dominated international trade and at the same time been so lependent on it as the Lancashire cotton industry. It was a unique chievement and left Lancashire uniquely vulnerable. 2. Development After 1914. Mill consumption of raw cotpiece goods

otton

,000,000,000 yd. in

I

—

onmore than doubled

—

century after 1910; this increase ompares with an estimated population increase over the same eriod of rather more than 60%. The difference between the two ates reflects rising standards of living and becomes even more emarkable when it is recalled that the man-made fibre industry eveloped in this period. World consumption of man-made bres, which compete directly with cotton in a large number of ses, equaled about 30% of the world consumption of cotton in in the half

ie 1960s.

—After

1910 a continued disperof supplies during 914-18 stimulated the expansion of the industry in India, China nd Japan, while between World Wars I and II the Indian industry ontinued to expand, under the protection of tariff barriers, and be Japanese industry initiated a rapidly growing export trade. Ifter the great depression of the early 1 930s industrialization proDistribution of the Industry.

'

ion occurred in the industry.

The interruption

ieded and, with the help of protective tariffs, cotton industries World War II 'ere established or expanded in many countries.

oosted this process, leading to a considerable expansion of the idustry in Latin America, Egypt, Turkey, South Africa, Australia nd elsewhere. After 1945 the industry was established or greatly

xpanded

in

South Korea, Formosa,

Israel, the Philippines

and

other countries. Spinning mills v>'ere built in Hong long from 1948 onward with refugee Chinese capital; the growth f the industry there was phenomenal and Hong Kong became a lajor exporter. The partition of the Indian subcontinent left ligeria,

among

all the cotton mills in India but a very important part of cotton-growing area in Pakistan. The latter country embarked

Imost ,ie

Ill

1 a

rapid development of

its

industry, becoming

more or

less

625

by 1957 and entering the export field on a big scale. Cotton manufacturing developed rapidly in the Communist countries, particularly China. The Japanese industry, after being virtually destroyed during World War II, expanded strongly afterward, although by 1961 it had not regained its prewar size because of the shrinkage in world trade, increased competition in the international field and the substitution of man-made fibres. Consumption in the United States increased rapidly until after the war and then from 1951 showed a slight tendency to decline on account of decreasing exports and increasing imports. As a result of all these changes consumption outside Europe (including the U.S.S.R.) and North America amounted by 1957-59 to about 45% of total world consumption, as compared with about 20% before World War I. In the early 1960s there was no sign of a halt in the spread of the industry, since important developments were under way in many countries, including Indonesia, Ceylon, the Sudan and Ethiopia. World Trade in Cotton Piece Goods. World exports of cotton piece goods expanded up to 1910-13, but the growth of the Indian and Chinese industries during World War I led to a reduction in trade. This decline accelerated after the great depression of the early 1930s as more and more countries began to manufacture cotton goods and to tax cotton imports. Despite the world trade decline, Japan managed to increase its exports of cotton goods very rapidly because of cheap labour and efficient production methods; by the late 1930s Japan was easily the largest exporter self-sufficient

—

of cotton piece goods, accounting for slightly of the total world trade.

The combination

more than 40%

of a declining total

trade and an increasing Japanese share naturally struck hard at

the other exporting countries the U.K.

The expansion

— the

U.S.,

Europe and above

of domestic industries

in

all

importing

World War II led to By then India was a major exporter

countries during and immediately after

fall in world trade. and the U.S. had also greatly increased its exports, mainly to Canada and Latin America, taking some 14% of the world trade After World War II the in 1949-51 against 3.5%. in 1936-38. losers were Japan and, once again, the U.K.; in both countries, it was inability to expand production quickly enough after wartime contraction that held exports down. The period of postwar reconstruction ended about 1951. Thereafter world trade in cotton piece goods did not decline any further and by the end of the 1950s it even appeared to be expanding. Japan re-emerged in 1949-51 as the principal exporting country and was still expanding its exports by 1960, though its share about 23% was considerably smaller than of total world trade before the war. After a period of decline western European exports increased in 1958-60; this increase was mainly in intraEuropean trade, stimulated by the Common Market. Exports from the U.K. fell very sharply after 1949-51 and exports from

another

—

—

the U.S. declined almost as sharply. A considerable number of other countries became exporters, particularly Hong Kong, Pakistan (mainly in the yarn trade), Egypt, Formosa, South Korea, Yugoslavia and Canada. There was also a big expansion in exports

from Communist countries, particularly China. World trade in cotton textiles by 1960 amounted to about 10% of world production, as compared with about 16% in 1936-38 and about 28% in 1910-13. Imports were largely concentrated in two groups of countries: first, countries that were not self-sufficient notably the continent of Africa, parts of Asia and Latin America, Scandinavia, Canada, Australia and New Zealand; secondly, the exporting countries of Europe and the U.S. The imports into the western European countries mostly came from other European countries, while the imports into the U.K. and U.S. mostly originated in Asia. It was the imports into the U.S., U.K. and western Europe that were tending to expand. The Cotton Industry in the United Kingdom. Immediately before World War I four-fifths of U.K. production was for export, and about 40% of the exports went to India. The expansion of the cotton industries in India, China and other countries and formidable competition from Japan for the trade that remained reduced U.K. exports from an annual average of 6,550,000,000 sq.yd. in cotton textiles,

(particularly Indonesia)

—

COTTON MANUFACTURE

626

1910-13 to 1,720,000,000 sq.yd. in 1936-38. Over the same period the average annual consumption of raw cotton in the U.K. declined by 37% and ciolh production fell by about 54%. It has been estimated that Lancashire's losses in the Indian market alone were sufficient to account for a contraction of one-third in its in

1912 and 1938. As a result, the interwar years were ones of chronic depression, characterized by the closing of mills, heavy unemployment and cutthroat compe-

cotton-cloth output between

tition.

During World

War

II the industry suffered

compulsory

contraction, and during the postwar period recovery was limited

Even in the peak postwar year, 1951, production (including man-made fibres processed in the cotton no more than about three-cjuarters of the 1937 level. industry) was After 1951 exports of cotton piece goods began to fall, and in 1961 they were still declining. In 1958-60 they averaged only 350,000,000 sq.yd. per annum, as compared with 860,000,000 sq.yd. in 1949-51. The proportion of world trade in cotton piece goods accounted for by the U.K. in 1958-60 was only just over 6% and a large proportion of these exports consisted of cloth that had been imported in the gray state and merely finished in the U.K. before being re-exported. In 1954 India began to export goods intended for consumption in the U.K., not for re-export, and was soon joined by Hong Kong and later by Pakistan, all of them taking advantage of the fact that commonwealth goods were allowed to enter the U.K. duty-free. These imports continued to expand and, coupled with the decline in exports, led to a further substantial contraction in the output of the U.K. industry. From the end of 1954 to well into 1959 there was a great deal of shorttime work (less than full capacity), with only a comparatively brief respite in 1957; although many mills closed down, a vast amount of surplus capacity remained. by shortages of labour.

Many some

efforts

were made by the U.K. cotton industry

to secure

commonwealth, and in 1959 the government introduced reorganization schemes in an attempt to put the industry back on its feet. Mill owners were offered compensation for scrapping machinery or going out of business entirely, two-thirds of the cost to be met by the government and one-third by means of levies on firms remaining in the industry. The government also offered to pay one-quarter of the cost of approved schemes of modernization. Under the first provision, almost half the spinning capacity of the industry and about 40% of the looms were scrapped. This, coinciding with a worldwide boom, brought a Hood of orders to the remaining mills and full-lime work was the rule, with some exceptions, until 1961. However, a shortage of labour again made it impossible to take full advantage of the opportunity and the gap was filled by imports, partly speculative, from nonrestricted sources, notably Spain but also Portugal, Yugoslavia, Formosa, the U.S. and Canlimitation of duty-free imports from the

In the early 1960s imports of cotton cloth were entering about one-third of total home consumption and the U.K. was then the largest importer of cotton cloth in the world. Mill consumption of cotton in the U.K. was less than half what it was before World War II and only about 30%

ada.

at a rate equivalent to

of the level before

World War

accounted for only slightly more than 3% of total world mill consumption. The Cotton Industry in the United States. The consumption of cotton by United States mills expanded very rapidly during World War I. The wartime rale of use was not maintained during the immediate postwar years, but a new peak was established in the years 1926-28. The great depression caused another setback, and by 1936-38 the recovery in cotton consumption had hardly done more than equal the previous peak. The main reason was that exports of cotton textiles, though never very important to the I;

it

—

decline was that exports of cotton cloth, which expanded rapidly

during World War II and reached 1,490,000,000 sq.yd. in 1947, subsequently declined steadily until in 1960 they amounted to no more than 440,000,000 sq.yd. The second main reason was that from 1953 onward imports of cotton goods from Ja[)an began to increase rapidly, re-establishing a trade that had been important before the war. In 1955 the Japanese cotton industry was persuaded, under pressure, to put a voluntary ceiling on its exports to the U.S. In 1959 and 1960 imports began to flood in from a number of other countries, notably from Hong Kong but also from India, Pakistan, South Korea, Formosa, Egypt, Spain, Portugal and France. In 1960 U.S. imports of cotton products from all sources were equivalent to about 6% by weight of total U.S. homemarket consumption. In 1961 a request from the U.S. government to the Hong Kong industry for a ceiling on exports similar to the Japanese undertaking was turned down. The U.S. cotton industry suffers a special handicap in that American raw cotton is sold to foreign mills considerably more cheaply than it is to domestic mills.

—

World Problems. On a world scale, the most intractable problem facing the industry in the early 1960s was undoubtedly that of competition between low-wage and high-wage countries since wages account for a relatively high proportion of the cost of yam and cloth. Since about 1954 the battle has been extended from third markets to the home markets of the high-wage exporting countries themselves, notably the U.K. and the U.S. There have been two principal methods of dealing with the problem: (1) quotas imposed by importing countries and (2) voluntary restijctions undertaken by exporting countries. Quotas were imposed on imports of cotton goods from China by almost all western countries, on imports from Japan by most European countries (including the U.K., France, western

Germany, the Netherlands,

Belgium and Austria) and on imports from India, Pakistan and Hong Kong by a few European countries; but a wider use of the quota weapon has generally been felt undesirable in view of the trend toward more liberal trade policies. Examples of the second method are the voluntary ceilings placed by the Japanese on their exports to the U.S., Canada, Denmark and Switzerland and similar undertakings of the Indian, Pakistan and Hong Kong industries in respect of their exports to the U.K. 3.

Machinery.

— In

spite of the steady increase in the quantity

consumed by the world's cotton mills there has been a decrease in the amount of machinery installed. Figures published in International Cotton Industry Statistics by the International of cotton

Federation of Cotton and Allied Textile Industries show that the total number of spinning spindles in place reached a peak of 165,000,000 in 1928, subsequently declining to 148,000,000 in 1939. After wartime destruction and postwar reconstruction the figure in the early 1960s was about 130,000,000. Most of this decline can be attributed to the replacement of the less-productive

mule spindle by the ring spindle. The number of mule spindles declined from 71,000,000 in 1913 to 3,000,000 in 1950. The number of "ring-equivalent" spindles in place (reckoning one ring spindle as being equivalent to one-and-a-half mule spindles) reached a peak of about 145,000,000 in 1930, declined to 135,000,000 in 1939 and totaled about 127,000,000 at the end of 1959. The International federation's first world-wide census of cotton power looms in 1930 recorded 3,159,000 in place. The total had

1936 and to 2,633,000 in 1959. The proporlooms increased from 2i% in 1930 to 41% in 1959. The disparity between the decreasing amount of machinery in place and the increasing consumption of cotton is explained by the increased speed of the machinery and, more important, fallen to 3,070,000 in

tion of automatic

number

U.S. industry, had fallen quite sharply. Throughout this period the New England section of the cotton industry had been contracting severely, causing great distress to those communities

shift

heavily dependent on the industry. World War II caused another great expansion in the U.S. cotton industry, and after a decline in the immediate postwar years the Korean war brought another

In other parts of the world, particularly Asia, capacity has

boom.

Cotton consumption

however, was not quite as After 1951 cotton consumption in the U.S. declined gradually. One reason for the great as in the peak

in 1951,

World War

II years.

the considerable increase in the

of operating hours, since

working became the rule rather than the exception. The decline in the amount of machinery has been concentrated in the U.K., the rest of Europe (excluding the U.S.S.R.) and the U.S. creased. 4.

The Uses

of Cotton.

—According

Food and Agriculture organization

to estimates

made by

in-

the

the United Nations, the average consumption of cotton per person throughout the world of

COTTON MANUFACTURE was about 7i lb. a year in 19S6-S8 (Commodity Bulletin Series, n31). This global average, however, concealed a vast difference between the consumption per person in different countries. At the top of the list came the U.S. with an annual consumption per person of about 23 lb. Next came a group consisting of the northwestern European countries, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Israel, Japan, the U.S.S.R., the German Democratic Republic and Czechoslovakia, with averages between 10 lb. and In contrast, average consumption in the whole 15 lb. a year. of the African continent was only about 2+ lb. a year, and in large ;parts of that continent, and also in some Asian and South Ameriican countries, it was lower still. The overwhelming bulk of the world's cotton, except for small amounts used for hand spinning and for such other uses as stuffing imattresses, is consumed in spinning mills. In the U.K., for examiple, only about 1% of the total is used for other purposes; e.g., wadding and cotton wool. By far the greater proportion of cotton yarn (about 80% in the U.K. and the U.S.) is manufactured into broad-woven cloth composed wholly of cotton or of cotton mixed I

I

!

with other fibres (particularly the man-made ones); these other are woven with the cotton yam or are blended with it at

.fibres

The remainder of the yarn is used for knitwear, thread, ribbons, ropes, nets, lace, carpets and other purposes.

ithe spinning stage.

The broad-woven cloth is woven either of gray or of bleached dyed yarn and usually has to be finished in some way; e.g., ibleached, dyed, printed, shrunk and made crease resistant. It may, however, be virtually ready for use in the loom state without Examples of this are gray cloth used in industry and ifinishing. ,or

yarn-dyed cloth used for curtains or upholstery. Cotton products are divided conventionally into three main cateFirst there is apparel, including gories according to their use. linings. Then there are the household goods such as sheets, towels, curtains, upholstery and also domestic sewing thread. The third main category is usually referred to as industrial uses. This for examlincludes the use of cotton in manufacturing equipment

—

and filter cloths, and also uses in which the icotton forms part of an article, e.g., tire cord, car upholstery, book In the U.S. just over half of the cloth and electrical insulation. cotton consumed is used for apparel, slightly more than onequarter for household uses and about one-fifth for industrial uses. In France the corresponding proportions are rather over a half, rather less than one-quarter and about one-quarter respectively, ple, factory belting

the U.K., as far as it is possible to judge, the proportion used in apparel seems to be less than in the U.S. and France, and the proportion consumed in both household and industrial uses seems In the newly to be greater than in either of those countries. emerging countries, of course, almost all the cotton is used for iln

;apparel. 5.

was

Organization of the Industry. first

—When

generally adopted, the normal

the power loom method of organization

was for spinning and weaving to be carried on in same establishment. There are, however, certain economic advantages in separating the two processes, and spinning and weaving in Lancashire came to be carried on in separate mills and by separate firms. There was even a geographical separation of a minor sort in that spinning became concentrated in the south and weaving in the north of the Lancashire cotton region. At the same time, the overwhelming importance of the export trade favoured a separation of weaving from styling, and a large class of merchant converters grew up, many of whom specialized in exporting to particular markets. Thus the classic Lancashire form in Lancashire

Ithe

developed the spinner sells the yam to the weaver, and the weaver then sells the gray cloth to a converter, who has it bleached, dyed or printed on commission by a specialist finisher. The converter then sells the finished cloth abroad or to a wholeBecause of techsaler, garmentmaker or other user in the U.K. nical developments and the decline in the export trade, the traditional structure of the Lancashire industry was not well suited of organization

to

modern

conditions, and after

trend toward ners

:

and weavers

their products.

World War

II there

was a

distinct

vertical integration, with the result that spingained greater control over the distribution of

more

627

The

structure of the U.S. cotton industry is very different. Spinning and weaving have always been integrated to a very large

same companies but in the same mills, which often have long runs on a few standardized products. The main reasons for this are the size and comparatively low density of the population; the fact that selling was concentrated in a comextent, not only in the

paratively small

number

of sales agents,

who

could instruct the

mills they represented to concentrate on particular constructions;

and

finally

the growth of the large multi-unit concerns, which

also could order concentration of production of certain cotton goods in the mills they owned. In the past, spinning and weaving were largely separated from converting. Before World War II there was a movement on the part of mills, particularly those in the household textiles field, to finish, make up and sell their goods as branded products in order to secure outlets for their productions. At the same time, users of industrial textiles (tire manufacturers, surgical dressing manufacturers, bag manufacturers, etc.) were buying mills in order to control the quality of their supplies. The trend toward vertical integration accelerated during and immediately after World War II as mills began to convert their cloth in order to secure additional profits at a time when prices were controlled and selling was easy, and as converters acquired mills in order to assure themselves of supplies of cloth. In the early 1960s the majority of U.S. mills converted their own fabrics, usually in their

The European

own

finishing plant.

industries tend to fall between the extremes of

the U.K. and the U.S. in point of structure. There is a good deal vertical integration than in Lancashire, including integration The Japanese industry less than in the U.S.

more

with finishing, but

dominated by the integrated spinner-weavers who produce mainly for export, but a large number of independent weavers are supplied with yarn by specialist spinners and from the surplus yarn production of the spinner-weavers. Many of these "independent" weavers, however, merely weave on commission for spinners or merchants. The large spinner-weavers convert their own fabrics, usually in their own finishing plants, but the selling and distribution The Hong Kong industry is in many is left entirely to merchants. respects similar to the Japanese industry; e.g., it has a strongly integrated sector directed mainly to the export trade and flanked by specialist spinners and weavers. In India, power-loom weaving There is also an is integrated almost completely with spinning. important Indian hand-loom industry that is protected by government policy against competition from the mills; it is supplied with yarn mainly by specialist spinning mills but also from the surplus yarn production of integrated mills. The structure of the Pakistan cotton industry is in many respects similar to that of the Indian industry and also includes an important hand-loom sector. There are numerous other points of contrast between the various cotton industries of the world. As regards machinery, for example, Britain was virtually the only country in 1961 in which mule spinning survived; even there, however, there were fewer than 3,000,000 mule spindles, as compared with 23,000,000 in 1945 and In weaving, automatic looms 45,000,000 before World War I. were practically universal in the U.S. and Canada, the high wage level being an overwhelming incentive to labour-saving methods. In the U.K. less than 30% of the looms were automatic a smaller proportion than in almost any other important western European cotton industry. The proportion of automatic looms in India was among the lowest in the world, mainly because of government restrictions on the mill sector of the industry, and even in Japan it was only just over one-sixth; in Japan, however, the vast majority of the looms owned by the integrated spinner-weavers were autois

—

matic.

Lancashire has for long had the melancholy distinction of workits machinery for fewer hours during the year than any other Until the 1959 reorganization schemes, single-shift industry. working was almost universal in spinning and largely predominant in weaving, but the scrapping of so much machinery made an apIn the 1960s double-shift and three-shift preciable difference. work schedules were fairly widespread, particularly in weaving. In contrast, three-shift working was practically universal in the U.S. and in the spuming and integrated spinning-weaving mills in Hong ing

—

COTTONMOUTH— COTTONSEED

628

Kong. Double-shift working was the rule in the Japanese spinning and integrated mills, and in all other cotton industries two- and three-shift working was far more common than in Lancashire. In the early 1960s more than 60% of the employees in the U.K. cotton industry were female, many of them married women. The proportion of women in the Japanese industry was even higher more than 80% but they were almost all young girls who were working for a few years before marriage and living in dormitories attached to the mill. The percentages of women in western European cotton industries varied greatly, ranging from about 80% in Italy to less than 20% in the Netherlands. There were more men than women workers in the United States and Hong Kong industries, and in India 94% of the labour force were men. BiBLiOGR.\PHY. M. D. C. Crawford, The Heritage of Cotton (1948)

—

—

;

E. Baines, History oj Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain (1835); T. EUi-son, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain (1886) G. W. Daniels, The Early English Cotton Industry (1920) A. P. Wadsworth and J. de Lacy Mann, The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire 16001780 (i931); R. Cox, The Marketing oj Textiles (1938); Working Party Reports— Cotton (H.M.S.O., 1946); Manual of Cotton Spinning, vol. 1 (Textile Institute, 1954); R. Robson, The Cotton Industry in Britain (1957) Keizo Seki, The Cotton Industry of Japan (1957) Review of Textile Progress, vol. 8 (Textile Institute, 1957); U.S. Department of Agriculture, Changes in American Textile Industry (1959); "Cotton: World Statistics," Quarterly Bulletin of the International Cotton Advisory Committee. (Do. C. S.) G. R. Merrill, A. R. Macormac and H. R. Mauersberger, American Cotton Handbook (1949) Textile Institute, Society of Dyers and Colourists, and Butterworth's Ltd., Review of Textile Progress, annually (1949- ) L. Diserens, The Chemical Technology of Dyeing and Printing, 2 vol. (1948-51) ; J. T. Marsh, Mercerising (1949), Introduction to Textile Finishing (1951), Introduction to Textile Bleaching (1946); K. Ward (ed.), Chemistry and Chemical Technology of Cotton (1955). ;

;

;

;

;

;

COTTONMOUTH,

a

venomous snake native

to

North

America and also called cottonmouth moccasin or water moccasin. See Moccasin. RAT, one of several species of American rodents of the genus Sigmodon, occurring from the southern United States into South America. The commonest, 5. hispidus, the hispid cotton rat, is typically ratlike in appearance. It measures 10 to 14

COTTON

about one-third of that length being a thin, scaly, sparsely tail. The colour is a grizzled blackish brown. Cotton rats are exceedingly prolific, producing several litters of two to ten young each year. Where they occur, they are likely to be numerous and the dominant small mammal. The habitat is varied, but a preference is shown for weedy fence rows and ditch banks. The nest, in a shallow runway or tunnel, is constructed of any available fibrous material. Cotton rats are aggressive and pugnacious. They eat virtually anything edible and often become serious agricultural pests. They do not climb, hibernate or store food. (K. R. Kn.) Cottonseed is obtained as a by-product of cotton production. For each pound of fibre, cotton plants yield approximately two pounds of seed. The commercial importance of cottonseed lies in the four principal products obtained through processing oil, cake or meal, linters and hulls. History. .Although cotton fibre has been a product of commerce for centuries, large-scale commercial utilization of cottonseed is a comparatively recent development. In ancient times the Chinese and Hindus used cottonseed oil as a medicine and in lamps and develof)ed crude methods for its recovery, but it was not until the production of cotton began its rapid increase following the invention of the cotton gin in 1794 that systematic and continuing efforts were made to develop machinery for the commercial procin.,

haired

COTTONSEED.

— —

essing of cottonseed.

Even

as late as 1875 the principal use of

cottonseed was for planting purposes, while the remainder over and above these requirements was regarded mainly as a waste product that frequently was disposed of by burning or dumping into streams near the cotton gins. This practice created a serious health problem, and several states passed laws making it a punishable offense to accumulate seeds around gins to the detriment of the health of the nearby inhabitants, or to dump cottonseed into streams used for drinking water or fishing.

The history of the development of the cottonseed industry is almost wholly a history of the development of the industry in the

United States. In the 18th century various individuals and organizations recognized the potential value of cottonseed as a source of oil and other products and urged producers to develop feasible for obtaining these products. Among the first was Bodo Otto of Pennsylvania, who in 1768 presented the American Philosophical society with samples of oil he had obtained from cottonseed. In 1783 the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manu-

methods

factures and Commerce in England offered a gold medal to any West Indies who was able to express one ton of oil and produce 500 lb. of cake from cottonseed. Two years later a premium was offered by the South Carolina Agricultural society in an effort to encourage the expressing of oil from cottonseed. (There is no record that either of these awards was ever claimed.) Between 1800 and 1825 several cottonseed-oil mills were built in various parts of the U.S. south, but they were all financial failures and none of them was very long in operation. The first mill that could be called successful was established in Natchez, Miss., about 1833 ^nd operated for nearly ten years. Beginning about 1850 a number of improvements were made in cottonseed processing machinery that led to a more successful By i860 there were seven active mills operation of the mills. crushing a total of approximately 50,000 tons of seed annually. Progress was stopped by the Civil War, but in the years following the war the industry again began to expand. By 1870 there were 26 active mills and by 1930 about 850 mills. In 1876 only 5% of the cottonseed crop was crushed for oil and

planter in the

other products, but after igio, 80% of the crop reached the oil mills. No cottonseed is now wasted. Cottonseed that is not crushed remains on the farms and is used for planting, as fertilizer for crops and as farm feed.

World production of cottonseed in the early 1960s was over 20,000,000 tons. The United States, India, China, Mexico, Egypt and Brazil provided more than half the world supply. The United States produced about 6,000,000 tons annually. Processing. Processing consists essentially of (1) cleaning;

—

(2) removing the fuzz or linters; (3) hulling; (4) flaking and cooking the kernels; and (5) recovering the oil by pressing or by solvent extraction. The residue remaining after oil removal is

cottonseed cake, which is usually ground and marketed as meal. Cottonseed is cleaned by means of a variety of devices to reforeign substances, and passed through delintering machines

move to

remove the short

fibres.

These machines are similar

gins but have circular saws with

moved by

successive cuts

Each type has

cuts.

The

known

much

finer teeth.

to cotton

Linters are

as first, second, third

re-

and fourth

different uses {see below).

delintered seed are hulled and the kernels separated from The kernels are flaked and cooked to facilitate maxi-

the hulls.

mum

oil

them

to a thickness of about .007 in.

30

go minutes.

recovery; they are passed between steel rollers to flake The flakes are tempered with moisture and heated in steam-jacketed cookers equipped with mechanical agitators to a temperature of about 235° F. for to

For many years hydraulic pressing was the only method used for oil from the prepared flakes. In this method the flakes are formed into cake, wrapped in thick haircloth and pressed in a hydraulic press. For some markets the pressed cake is broken and sold as cottonseed cake, but most of it is ground and sold as recovering

meal.

A

later process

pressing method.

used by

The

many

oil mills is

draulic pressing and fed into a slotted cage set a

the continuous screw-

flaked kernels are conditioned as for hy-

few thousandths of an inch apart.

made up

of steel bars

A

revolving screw carries The screw is so designed

them along inside the cage or barrel. that high pressures and temperatures are developed. The oil flows out through the openings between the bars and the cake is discharged at the end of the barrel. Solvent extraction is now used to some extent for commercial processing of cottonseed. The kernels are prepared in a manner similar to that for hydraulic pressing and then extracted with commercial hexane, a petroleum solvent. The solvent is recovered by distillation from both the oil and the extracted flakes for reuse. In some mills a prepress-solvent extraction process is used in which

COTTONTAIL— COTTRELL ^he flakes are screw pressed at low pressures and the residual oil ;n the pressed cake removed subsequently by extraction with •:ommercial hexane. the most valuable product obtained from cottonseed, he trend has been toward the use of the newer processes for its Although both hydraulic pressing and screw pressing ecovery.

As

oil is

)roduce ,0

7%

oil

of acceptable quality, both processes leave from 3.5% The processes using solvent extraction content of the meal to less than 1%. The newer

of oil in the cake.

'•educe the oil

olants are generally of large capacity, processing

up

900 tons The estimated annual average world )f cottonseed a day or more. production of cottonseed oil is more than 5,000,000,000 lb. This s about 23% of the production of edible oils and 7.5% of the oroduction of fats and oils from vegetable, animal and marine to

;ources.

Crude cottonseed oil is generally dark in colour and contains nany constituents that must be removed before the oil can be used Removal is accomplished by filtration, refinI'or food purposes. The filtered crude oil is refined ng, bleaching and deodorizing. )y treatment with solutions of sodium hydroxide and other alkaline compounds that combine with the free fatty acids forming soap ind remove nonglyceridic materials. For many years the standard practice was to use large, conical kettles for refining. The alkali lOlution reacted with the free fatty acids is separated by settling The oil is drawn off and water washed to re,0 form soap stock. nove remaining soap particles. Continuous centrifugal refining is iiow generally used in the United States. In this process the crude oil is intimately mixed with the proper proportion of alkali soluion and the separation of soap stock is accomplished by use of high-speed centrifuge. The oil is then treated by washing and Irying to remove the last traces of soap and water. When the oil is to be used as a salad or cooking oil, it is further )urified by bleaching, "winterizing" and deodorizing. Bleaching done by mixing bleaching agents with the refined oil and removS ng them by use of filter presses. The bleaching agents used are uller's earth (q.v.) and acid-activated bleaching clays. The latter .re sometimes used in combination with activated charcoal. These •.

absorb colouring substances.

naterials ized" to

The

refined oil

is

"winter-

remove the saturated glycerides so that the oil will be This is done commer-

iquid at usual refrigeration temperatures.

by chilling the refined oil, allowing the soHdified portion to and separating the clear oil by decantation and filtration. ))eodorizing is accomplished by vacuum distillation of the heated 'il to remove odoriferous materials by both batch and continuous ially

ettle

The most important uses for cottonseed oil are in shortening margarine or plastic fat products. For these purposes the is further processed by hydrogenation to produce a fat product yith any desired melting point up to about 140° F. The unsatujated fatty acids (oleic and linoleic) are in part converted to aturated stearic acid in this process by passing hydrogen gas into ,nd ,'il

the presence of a nickel catalyst. The properties of the oil are varied by control of processing methods to give pecialty shortenings for the prepared food industries. oil in

short ton of seed crushed are: 314 lb. or meal; 466 lb. of hulls; 184 lb. of linters; and 135

—Thoroughly

of process-

refined

vegetable oils used annually. About 29% of the refined cottonseed oil consumed annually goes into the manufacture of margarine; 35% into shortenings; 30% into salad oil, salad dressing, mayonnaise, cooking oils and other products; and 2% into inedible products. "Winterized" cottonseed is a superior salad and cooking oil because of its good keeping quality. About 75% of the "winterized" vegetable oils are obtained from cottonseed oil. Owing to studies of the relation of fats to health there has been a trend toward increased use of salad and cooking oils and decreased use of shortening.

The

use of cottonseed

oil in

inedible products

is

limited largely

and soap stocks. The oil and fatty acids obtained from them and acidulated soap stocks are used in the manufacture of soaps, lubricants, protective coatings and chemical products. to off-grade oils

The

fatty acid pitch

is used chiefly in the production of floor covercomposition roofing and insulating materials. Cake and meal are used principally as highprotein supplements in feeding cattle. They contain up to 45% protein as usually produced. The annual production provides between 25% and 30% of the supply of high-protein feeds in the United States. Methods of processing were developed to reduce the influence of gossypol, a pigment peculiar to the cotton plant, to a low level, with the result that cottonseed meal can and has been used in mixed rations for single-stomached animals (swine and poultry). Cottonseed meal also is used to some extent as a fertilizer, and small quantities are used in making starch-free flour for human consumption. Hulls. The hulls are used as roughage for feeding beef and dairy cattle. Considerable quantities are ground and incorporated They are rich in pentosans and are potentially a in mixed feeds. source of material for the commercial production of furfural, an important industrial chemical. Linters. Linters are the short fibres left on the seed after re-

ings,

Cake and Meal.

—

—

—

moval of the staple cotton fibre by ginning. They are largely cellulose and are transformed into many useful products. First-cut linters are used in making high-quality mattresses and in the manu-

Some

Acidulated soap stock is obtained by heating raw soap stock with an excess of sulfuric or other mineral acid in a After setis decomposed. ling, a layer consisting of fatty acids and neutral oil forms on top nd is decanted from the aqueous layer.

quantities of linters are used in the production of high-

Second- and subsequent-cut linters, after mechanical and chemical purification, are used in the manufacture quality writing paper.

of explosives, cellulose acetate, rayon, plastics, ethyl cellulose, lacquers, sausage casings and many other cellulose products requiring high-quality cellulose as a raw material. In many of these end uses linters

compete with wood

cellulose,

COTTONTAIL,

the

common name

species of rabbit (q.v.) of the tontails are grayish to

Fatty acids are obtained by distillation of acidulated soap stock use by the soap and chemical industries. The feed industries 1 the United States are now using increasing quantities of cidulated soap stocks and inedible fats to increase the energy value f mixed feeds. The residue after distillation of the fatty acids

—

the U.S. for several

COTTONWOOD:

COTTRELL, FREDERICK GARDNER

I

the fatty acid pitch of commerce. Utilization of Cottonseed Products. Although cottonseed have been used variously for centuries, their greatest comlercial utilization has been in the United States. The commercial rocessing of cottonseed has been increased in other countries, rincipally Mexico, Brazil, India and Egypt. The yield of prodlets is influenced by the variety of cotton, the environment under 'hich the cotton crop is grown and the efficiency of the processing

in

new world genus Sylvilagus. Cotdark brown in colour, lighter below, with a whitish tuft under the tail. See also Hare. see Poplar.

foots)

lor

rubber and synthetic products.

See A. E. Bailey (ed.), Cottonseed and Cottonseed Products (1948). (T. H. Hr.; X.)

orrosion-resistant vat until the soap

•roducts

lb.

and processed cottonseed oil is one of the principal high-grade edible oils of commerce. The average factory consumption in the United States of refined cottonseed oil is approximately 30% of the total of all edible and inedible Oil.

I

i

Typical average yields per of crude oil; 901 lb. of cake

ing waste and loss.

ardened

i

oil.

facture of coarse cotton yarns.

processes.

he

629

methods used for recovery of the

(1877-1948),

U.S. teacher, scientist, inventor of the Cottrell electrostatic

smoke

(fume) precipitator and founder of Research corporation, a nonprofit foundation to support basic research in colleges and universities, was born in Oakland, Calif., on Jan. 10, 1877. Educated chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley, with postgraduate work in Germany under Liebig and Ostwald, he was instructor of physical chemistry at the university, 1902-06, and assistant professor, 1906-11. Retained by local industry in the San Francisco bay region to combat air pollution, Cottrell began his successful work on electrostatic precipitation in 1906, turning over the basic patents he was granted to Research corporation, administered by the Smithsonian institution. By the second half in

COTY— COUES

630 of the 20th century the corporation

$21,000,000

in

had contributed more than

grants for research and eight grantees had received

the Nobel prize for their work.

Cottrell thus gave

up

a large per-

sonal fortune and lived and died in moderate circumstances, but his outgoing personality and his catholicity of scientific interests

sparked the success of thousands of younger men. Serving with the U.S. bureau of mines, 1911-20, he developed and administered the process of separating helium from natural

development of the bureau's mine safety division and served as director of the bureau (1920). He also served with the U.S. department of agriculture (1922-43), specializing in fixed nitrogen research. He died in Berkeley on Nov. 16, 1948. Sec also Precipitation, Electrostatic. Sec Frank Cameron, Cottrell, Samaritan of Science (19S2). gas, led in the

(JH.

COTY, FRANCOIS

W.

B.)

(Francois Marie Joseph Spoturno)

(1874-1934), French perfume manufacturer and newspaper owner, was born in Ajaccio, Corsica, on May 3, 1874. He started his career as secretary to the Corsican deputy and journalist Emmanuel Arene. Attracted toward the chemistry of perfumes, he started a small business and from 1900 evolved perfumes that were highly successful. In 1905 he opened a plant at Suresnes, near Paris, and during World War I became one of the richest men in France, though in later years his wealth was much reduced. Prompted by political ambitions and by concern at the social disorganization after the war. he gained control in 1922 of the conservative Paris daily paper Le Figaro, of which he was proprietor and director from 1924 until 1932, using it to advocate a strong nationalistic policy. To carry his message to the masses in an effort to check the growth of socialism and communism in France, he founded in 1928 L'Ami du Peuple and L'Aini dii Peiiple du Soir. Both were subsidized by the scent business and sold at half the price of other daily papers, which assured them a wide circulation. He also founded La Solidarite Fran^aise, an organization aimed at furthering his political and social ideas. Coty died at Louveciennes, Seine-et-Oise, on July 25, 1934.

RENE

(1882-1962), last president of the fourth COTY, French republic, was born at Le Havre (Siene-Maritime) on

March

A

graduate of the University of Caen, he became From 1923 to 1935 he served as a deputy of the Gauche Republicaine (a label which implied conservatism) and then became a senator. In Dec. 1930 he was undersecretary of state for the interior for a few weeks. Politically inactive during the German occupation, Coty after World War II was again a deputy 1945-48) and a senator 194854). He was minister of reconstruction from Nov. 1947 to Sept. 1948 and a vice-president of the senate from Jan. 1949. Respected for his courtesy and his spirit of concihation, he was induced to become a candidate for the presidency in Dec. 1953, when the election seemed likely to produce a deadlock. Elected on Dec. 23 on the 13th ballot, he served with dignity, but was less active in trying to influence policy than his predecessor, Vincent Auriol, had been. In the crisis of May 1958 his threat to resign helped to induce the national assembly to elect Gen. Charles de Gaulle as prime minister. He retired on Jan. 8, 1959, when De Gaulle was installed as the first president of the fifth republic. Coty died at Le Havre on Nov. 22, 1962. (P. W. C.) 20, 1882.

a barrister and soon entered local politics.

(

(

COTYLEDON, the

embryo

cotyledons

in is

the name applied to the first leaf or leaves of seed plants: also called seed leaf. The number of it provides one of the characters for

so constant that

the primary division of angiospermous plants, as monocotyledons

with one seed leaf and dicotyledons with two seed leaves. Although cotyledons sometimes perform the function of foliage more generally serve as storage organs for foods used in germination. (See AngiospeRiMs; Seed.) Cotyledon is also the genus name for a group of succulent plants of the old world, native mostly to South Africa and the Mediterranean region and belonging to the orpine or stonecrop family (Crassulaceae; q.v.). (J. M. Bl.) (CoTYTTo), a Thracian goddess worshiped with orgiastic rites, especially at night. Her worship, first mentioned by Aeschylus, was apparently adopted publicly in Corinth by the last

leaves, they

COTYS

quarter of the Sth century B.C., and perhaps privately in Athens; it then included a baptismal ceremony. Later relief sculptures from Thrace show her as a huntress-goddess similar to Artemis.

But

in literature she is rather compared with Cybele, and her cult synonymous with immoral practices. This aspect can be linked with some rites to Artemis as practised among the Dorians. See W. Roscher, Lexikon (1924); M. P. Nil.sson, Geschichte der griechischen Religion, vol. p. 835, 2.id ed. (1955). (H. W. Pa.) COUCY (now part of Coucy-le-Chateau-Auffrique in the diis

i,

partement of Aisne), a small town of northern France, 18 mi, W.S.W. of Laon, important in the middle ages both for its castle and for the family of the sires de Coucy. A commune from 1197, the town itself was strongly fortified, the most remarkable feature in its wall being the great Porte de Laon. Castle. The first recorded castle, on the hill above the town, was founded by Herve, archbishop of Reims, at the beginning of the 10th century. Long disputed between the archbishops and various feudal magnates, it passed at the end of the 11th century to Enguerrand de Boves, founder of the house of Coucy. Rebuilt early in the 13th century by Enguerrand III, the castle then had a donjon about 180 ft. high and 103 ft. in diameter. Sold to Louis de France, due d'Orleans, in 1400, Coucy passed to the French crown on the accession of Louis XII. Granted in apanage to Claude de France (later Francis I's queen), to Diane de France (from 1576 to 1619), to Frangois, comte d'Ales (d. 1622), and, in 1673, to Philippe, due d'Orleans, it remained with the house of Orleans, except during the Revolution and the first empire, till 1856, when it became state property. During the Fronde, Cardinal Mazarin had its fortifications dismantled (1652). Restored in the 19th century, the castle was destroyed by the Germans in 1917-18. Sires de Coucy. Enguerrand de Boves (d. 1115) distinguished himself as a crusader. His son Thomas de Marie was a brigand and rebel against whom Louis VI of France had to undertake two Enguerrand III fought for Philip Augustus at expeditions. Bouvines, but took part in the disturbances during Blanche of Castile's regency. In the 14th century, as Enguerrand IV left no Enguerheirs, Coucy passed to a nephew, Enguerrand de Guynes. rand VI, who married Catherine, daughter of the Habsburg Leopold I of Austria, was killed at Crecy in 1346. His son Enguerrand VII, who married Isabella, daughter of Edward III of England, tried to stay neutral in the Anglo-French war, attacked the Austrian possessions in Switzerland (1375-76) on the pretext of securing his mother's inheritance and finally joined the Hungarian crusade against the Turks. Captured at Nicopolis (Nikopol), he died in Turkey in 1397. His daughter Marie sold Coucy to the due d'Orleans in 1400.

—

—

5ee E. Lefevre-Pontalis, Le Chateau de Coucy, 2nd ed. (1928). (Mi. M.) , , (1857-1926), French psychotherapist whose

COUE, EMILE

formula, "Every day, and in every way, I am becoming better and better," became proverbial, was born at Troyes on Feb. 26. 1857. From 1882 to 1910 he worked as an apothecary at Troyes,; and in 1901 began to study hypnotism and suggestion under! H. Bernheim and A. A. Liebault. In 1910 he established a free clinic

at

Nancy

for the practice of his

own

psychotherapeutic

Based on the power of imagination rather than of the will, his naive and empiric system utilized formulas, repeatec again and again in a confident voice, especially at a time when the mind was most receptive, to sink into the subconscious and tc eliminate ideas tending to cause distress and disease. Coue always stressed that he was not primarily a healer but one who taughl others to heal themselves, although he also claimed to have effectec organic changes by means of suggestion. His teaching for a tim( spread rapidly, and enormous audiences attended his lectures ir England and the United States. Coue died at Nancy on July 2 method.

1926. See

Charles

Baudouin, Suggestion and Autosuggestion (1921). (Wr. R. B.)

ELLIOTT

(1842-1899), U.S. naturalist who did pio COUES, neer research in ornithology and mammalogy, was born in Ports mouth, N.H., Sept. 9, 1842. He was graduated in 1861 from Co lumbian college (now George Washington university), Washington,

COUGH—COUMARIN O.C, and from the medical school of that institution in 1863. In ^.864 he was appointed assistant surgeon in the U.S. army. At he age of 30, he pubhshed his Key to North American Birds, revisions its with (18S4 and igoi) and his revision of New .vhich, England Bird Life (Stearns), did much to encourage systematic itudy of ornithology in America. This was one of the first works to ntroduce the "Icey" method of botanical manuals into zoology, and is notable for its accuracy and completeness of citation and In 1873-76 Coues •.he convenience of its concise descriptions. "vas

md

Survey of Territories, the publications of which he edited. His ourneys enabled him to publish admirably annotated editions of he Lewis and Clark expedition (1S04-06) exploration of the

and of Zebulon Pike's upper Mississippi and Rocky mountain regions

';i805-07).

Coues was a lecturer on anatomy in the medical school of Coumbian in 1877-82, and professor of anatomy there in 1882-87. le was a founder of the American Ornithologists' union and edited ts organ. The Auk, and several other ornithological periodicals. In addition to ornithology Coues did valuable work in mamnalogy, his book Fur-Bearing Animals (1S77J being distinguished ly the accuracy and completeness of its description of species. He vorked on the Century Dictionary for several years, was associate :ditor of the magazine of ornithology, The Osprey, and edited ournals of exploration. He died in Baltimore, Md., on Dec. 25, 1899.

COUGH,

a reflex initiated

when

the respiratory tract

is

ir-

by infection, noxious fumes, dusts or other types of forThe reflex results in a sudden expulsion of air from ign bodies. lungs that carries with it excessive secretions or foreign matehe Cough is beneficial; pneumonia ial from the respiratory tract.

is

proportional to the surface density of electrification (this was later proved by Poisson) he also stated that in the case of action ;

at a distance the intervening medium played no part, Cavendish had anticipated Coulomb in the statement of the inverse square law, but this work was unpublished until many years after his

death.

See Electricity: Electrostatics: Coulomb's Law; see also

!t

attached to the United States Northern Boundary commission, in 1876-80 to the United States Geological and Geographical

631

established the result that the electric force near a conductor

ref-

erences under "Coulomb, Charles Augustin de" in the Index. Y, an urban district of Surrey,

COULSDON AND PUREE

Eng., which under the London Government Act 1963 was amalgamated on April 1, 1965, with Croydon to form the new London borough of Croydon (see London). The urban district, largely residential, includes Sanderstead, Kenley, and Selsdon, and lies on the North Downs. It has more than 1,700 ac. of public woodland and commons. Pop. (1961) 74,926. Area 17.4 sq.mi. The

parliamentary constituency is East Surrey. The area, especially Sanderstead, is rich in Mesolithic finds. Bronze Age remains have been discovered at both Purley and Coulsdon. On Farthing Down, near the Brighton Road, are outhnes of Celtic fields and a series of Saxon burials. All Saints' Church at Sanderstead has medieval wall paintings.

JOHN MERLE

(1851-1928), U.S. botanist COULTER, and educator, whose work centred on plant morphology and taxonomy, was born at Ningpo, China, on Nov. 20, 1851, the son of missionary parents. He graduated from Hanover college, Hanover, Ind., in 1870 and pursued further study there and at Indiana university, receiving from the latter in 1882 the degree of doctor After serving as botanist with the U.S. geological

itated

of philosophy.

.requently results

Rocky mountains in 1872-73, he was professor of natural sciences at Hanover college in 1874-79, professor of biology at Wabash college in 1879-91, president and professor of botany at Indiana university in 1891-93 and president of Lake

when an

effective reflex

is

lost as a result of

Repeated and severe coughphysically exhausting and interferes with rest.

hest injury, disease or oversedation.

however, is Jnder these circumstances drugs (especially opiates)

-ig,

may be used p suppress the reflex. Cough occurs in many of the acute infectious diseases including he common cold, in the majority of chronic pulmonary diseases nd frequently in heart disease. Any cough that persists longer flan a few wqeks should receive medical attention because it may (H. A. D.) •t the first warning of serious disease. I

COULOMB, CHARLES AUGUSTIN DE

(1736-1806), was born in |ingouleme, on June 14, 1736. He was a military engineer, and fter spending nine years in the West Indies he returned to France .ith his health much impaired. In 1789, on the outbreak of the 'vevolution, he retired to a small estate at Blois and devoted himjelf to scientific research. In 1802 he was appointed an inspector The if public instruction; he died in Paris on Aug. 23, 1806. "oulomb, an electrical unit, was named in his honour. Michell independently of Coulomb designed the torsion balance 1777. He published papers on friction as applied to machinery

,

physicist,

'rench

a

pioneer

in

theory,

electrical

,

ii

on windmills (1781), and on the torsional elasticity of and silk fibres (1784). His electrical papers were published the Memoirs de F Academic royale des sciences between 1785 nd 1789; these formed the basis of the mathematical theory of

11779); jietal 1

iectricity of Poisson.

memoirs appeared in 1785, the following numbers In these memoirs Coulomb 1788 and 17S9. ave an account of his work with the torsion balance in verifying The

;i

first

1786,

riestley's

three

1787,

law of electrical repulsions.

He

extended the case to

proportional the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the He also juare of the distance between them (Coulomb's law).

Jclude attractions

and

finally stated that the force

is

;)

erified

the inverse square law for particles of magnetic fluid; he but assumed that the magnetic

•elieved in the two-fluid theory,

uids

could not be separated but that the electric fluids were

sparable.

In the fourth j

memoir Coulomb showed

that an electric charge compared the

confined to the surface of a conductor and he 'stribution of charge on the surface of conductors.

1

He

virtually

survey

in the

From 1896 to 1925 he was proand head of the department of botany at The University of Chicago. In 1923 Coulter was made a member of the National Research council and in 1925 became adviser of the Boyce Thompson Institute of Plant Research at Yonkers, N.Y. For more than half a century Coulter was an active botanical investigator and educator, producing early in his career valuable manuals for the study of Rocky mountain and Texan plants and later building up an important graduate department in botany in which many U.S. leaders of plant research were trained. In 1875 he founded the Botanical Gazette, of which for more than 50 years he was editor. Coulter died at Yonkers, N.Y., Dec. 23, 1928. Coulter's longer works include: Manual of Rocky Mountain Botany (1885) Botany of Western Texas (1891-94) Plant Relations (1899); Plant Structures (1899); Morphology of Gymnosperms (1901; 3rd ed., 1910) and Morphology of Angiosperms (1903), both with C. J. Chamberlain; New Manual of Botany of the Central Rocky Mountains, with A. Nelson (1909); Fundamentals of Plant Breeding (1914); Evolution of Sex in Plants (1914) Plant Genetics (1918) and When Evolution and Religion Meet, with Merle C. Coulter (1924). Forest university in 1893-96. fessor

;

;

;

;

COUMARIN,

a fragrant chemical substance that occurs in sweet woodruff, the tonka (tonqua) bean, sweet clover (Melilotus) and many other plants. The fragrance of newly mown hay is Coumarin is widely applied in perlargely due to its presence. fumery for the preparation of the sweet woodruff essence, as a flavouring agent and to scent tobacco. It can be obtained from the tonka bean,

known

to the natives of tropical

South America

cumaru, by extraction with ethanol. Coumarin, CgHeO,, is the lactone derived from cu-o-hydroxycinnamic acid (coumarinic acid), which is not known in the free state because it cyclizes to coumarin as soon as it is liberated from

as

solutions of

its salts.

Coumarin was the first natural perfume to be synthesized from a coal-tar chemical and was made by the action of acetic anhydride and sodium acetate on salicylaldehyde (Sir William Perkin, 1868). It forms rhombic crystals melting at 67° C, which are readily soluble in ethanol

and moderately soluble

in hot water.

COUNCIL

632 The

couinarin nucleus is comparatively resistant to oxidation and the benzene part of the ring system is not as reactive as that

The chemical behaviour of a simple benzene derivative. coumarin is explained only partly by the lactonic structure since the a-pyrone ring is rather difficult to open with alkali while acids likewise do not readily affect it. On boilinR with concentrated potassium hydroxide, coumarin yields the potassium salt of o-coumaric acid. The double bond between carbon atoms 3 and 4 in the coumarin nucleus {see structural formula, below) is highly reactive; it adds bromine, hydrogen cyanide and sodium bisulfite with great facility. Catalytic hydrogenation under pressure converts coumarin to dihydrocoumarin which upon opening of the lactone ring forms melilotic of

acid. CuHiiiO;,.

There are many coumarin derivatives widely distributed in the world. Most of them are hydroxycoumarins the 6,7dihydroxy derivatives being dominant. Some occur as glycosides. Alkylated hydroxycoumarins also occur. Coumarin itself has very little physiological action on mammals, but many of the synthetic 3-substituted-4-hydroxycoumarins have

—

plant

potent

anticoagulant

The

properties.

agent

causative

of

the

hemorrhagic sweet clover disease of cattle is 3.3'-methylenebis(4-hydroxycoumarin). The synthetic product called Dicumarol (U.S. registered trade-mark) is widely used in clinical practice as an orally administered anticoagulant to combat various thromboembolic syndromes (coronary thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, etc.).

Another synthetic 3-substituted-4-hydroxycoumarin, the highly potent warfarin, has revolutionized rat and mouse control. Its anticoagulant action is not detectable by the rodent. When baits containing 0.025% warfarin are eaten for from three to five days, fatal internal hemorrhage results in from seven to ten days.

The 3-sodium

derivative of warfarin

is

also used clinically like

Dicumarol®. Structural formulas of coumarin and related substances are:

H C

4\

-CH = CHC02H

3CH I

-OH

aC

o-coumaric acid

coumarin

H

/V

O c

H O c

\

H

/•

c-c-c H

I

\/\O/\

I

^\.o

Dicumarol®

H

H /\/ \C— CI

I

C

\/\/ \

CH2-C— CHa II

warfarin

(K.P.L.)

COUNCIL,

Church, is a meeting of bishops and other leaders to consider and rule on questions of doctrine, administration, discipline, etc. An ecumenical or genera! council is a meeting of bishops of the whole church; local councils representing provinces, patriarchates and so on are often called synods. According to Roman Catholic doctrine a council is not ecumenical unless it has been called by, and its decrees are not binding until they have been promulgated by, the pope. Decrees so promulgated in the Christian

possess the highest authority. Outside the Roman Catholic Church, most Christians assert that there have been no ecumenical councils since the schism that di-

vided Eastern and Western churches; hence only the first seven councils are recognized. Roman Catholics accept 14 later councils (including the Vatican council that began in autumn 1962) as ecumenical. Synods, councils and conferences on a small scale have played a part in the Protestant churches and in times of crisis have achieved more than local or temporary significance. Examples of such are the Westminster as.sembly (1643), whose purpose was the reformation of the English church; the Synod of Dort (1618-19), an as.sembly of the Dutch Reformed Church to deal with Arminianism; and the Synod of Barmen (1934), at which the major German Protestant confessions declared their opposition to Nazism. In the 19th century there was a growth of national and world consultative organizations in the various Protestant denominations, and this has continued. The formation of the World Council of Churches {q.v.) in 1948 may herald the beginning of a Protestant conciliar movement of ecumenical scope. (X.) Origins. The name council was applied in the most primitive

—

times to any church meeting and even to buildings where services were held. As the theory of government by bishops was expounded during the 3rd century, the word council came to have the special sense of meetings of bishops, though not only bishops

were present, for the administration of the church. There had long been meetings of the entire congregation, the bishop with his presbyters and deacons and the faithful, and this was the foundation of the later diocesan synod. But as the church grew, its problems could be solved only by meetings of the heads and representatives of the various churches. Each bishop was regarded as the special voice of his church and its tradition, as the apostolic teacher representing an apostolic tradition. He came to a provincial council to utter his judgment upon such pastoral problems as the treatment of apostates or adulterers, or, if there were question of heresy, to declare the faith received in his church and presumed always to have been taught there since its foundation. The earliest-known provincial councils were held in the 2nd century to pronounce judgment upon an eastern sect of Phrygia, the Montanists, and to settle a disagreement between churches over the mode of celebrating Easter. In Cappadocia during the; 3rd century there seem to have been annual meetings. Persecution was a fruitful source of pastoral problems, and many of the earliest councils were concerned with it. By 300 the meetings of bishops in the province had become the habitual mode of church government. These gatherings looked back to the apostolic meeting at Jerusalem in Acts xv as their prototype, and believed that such meetings, were specially under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. Their decisions, known as canons, were already beginning to form a series of precedents, though the work of collecting and codifying had not yet begun {see Canon Law). The growth of conciliar action was especially affected by the. development of the authority of the greater sees. The bishop of a provincial capital soon gained a special place in councils, but even in the capital cities, like Rome and (after the transfer of the capi-i tal) Constantinople, there was often a local synod of resident or, visiting bishops gathered round the pope or patriarch. In nearly every provincial synod in this primitive period presbyters, deacons and sometimes laymen shared with the bishops in But it is clear from the writings of Cyprian that the council. bishops were always the decisive voice, and only the bishops signed the letters issued by the synods in the province of Africa. Elsewhere presbyters often signed as representatives of their; bishops, but other presbyters and laymen are also found signing. After the conversion of Constantine I the emperors summoned and sometimes presided at councils. In the kingdoms of the west lay lords sat with the bishops; and in England, Spain and France the distinction between the ecclesiastical council of the nation and the national council was not always easy to perceive. NeverIt was understood theless the distinction was never submerged. that there was a difference between the local law of the land and the universal law of the church, apd that in the declaration of the latter the laity were subject to the decisions of the bishops. General Councils. With the end of persecution under Constantine I, it seemed possible and natural that bishops from men

—

COUNCIL :han one province should be

convened

^aefore the conversion of Constantine, a series of provincial councils

became

Even accepted by a

to a general council.

in

decision

normal practice a binding

Thus Tertullian wrote of the "councils of the churches" Shepherd of Hermas {see Apostolic Fathers)

3ne.

633

was assumed, rather than formally

It

stated, that ecumenical

In the 6th century the emperor Justinian I ordered all bishops to subscribe to the first four councils, on the ground that we receive them as councils, once recognized to be such, could not err.

;vhich declared the

we

an authentic part of the New Testament. To a council from a wider area was inevitably attributed a more general authority, and as early as 314 Constantine had summoned such a 'general" council to Aries to deal with the problems of the Donatist schism. A distinction must be made at first between councils loosely railed general and those which later achieved the status of general No one knew in the beginning that there )r ecumenical councils. Na.s such a status to achieve; and any great council, with bishops epresenting several provinces, would regard itself as especially mportant and its authority as proportionately higher than that of provincial council. When the idea of an ecumenical council had :ome into existence and had been fully established during the Sth rentury, there were several attempts by councils to be ecumenical ind several councils which believed themselves to be ecumenical, hough their claim was disallowed, and occasionally abhorred, by he later tradition of the church. The idea of an ecumenical council was slow to take shape or, ather, its authority was defined but slowly. The term ecumenical ynod was first used by the historian Eusebius (in his life of Constantine) to describe the council summoned by Constantine q meet at Nicaea in 325. Between such imperially summoned •ynods and ordinary provincial synods there was a patent difference, but a difference more of practice and repute than of defined .uthority. The decisions of such a council were obviously more )inding than were those of earlier councils, since the emperor nade them effective in secular law. The Council of Nicaea met lot in a church but in part of the royal palace and the emperor vas present for some of the time, taking an effective part in the liscussion. The government made provision to pay the expenses if bishops who attended the Council of Nicaea and later councils 'if the 4th century. Ammianus Marcellinus grumbled that the 'mperial postal service was seriously hindered by the bishops going and from councils, and Pope Liberius tried to persuade the emperor Constantius to summon a council with the plea that the lishops would travel at their own charges. It was soon observed hat the privilege might diminish the independence of the bishops n a matter where the emperor was known to hold strong opinions; the Council of Ariminum (Rimini) in 359 most of the bishops efused their expenses on this ground, and it was noted as a sign 'f the poverty of three bishops from Britain that they were comlelled to accept help from the public funds.

same breath as the In practice this idea of irreformable canons was often confined to matters of faith. In matters of discipline later councils continued to alter the decisions even of the councils recognized as ecumenical, for changing circumstances had made Nevertheless there the old canons irrelevant or unenforceable. was never a clear distinction of doctrine between the canons of

lot to be

receive the

But though the relation to the emperor and the possibility of ummoning bishops from all parts of the empire patently made nuch practical difference to the nature of the council, it was not t first evident that there might be a peculiar sacredness about 'he decisions of such a council. All councils were believed to neet under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. In matters of faith, ince theoretically the bishops came to the councils not to make iew decisions but to declare the ancient faith of the church, it

how

ras

not clear

vas

more "irreformable" than

n matters

of

a council assembled

discipline

later

from the whole empire

a series of councils in parts of

councils habitually

evised the decisions of earlier councils.

The

corrected

eastern bishops

it.

or

who

Creed of Nicaea continued for many years to work or its revision. The long fight, led by Athanasius, to defend the IrttA of Nicaea and its word homoousios began about 359-360 attribute a peculiar and exceptional sanctity to the decision ^f Nicaea, a sanctity which carried with it the implication that he Creed of Nicaea was not reformable by a later council. Vthanasius was not slow in arguing that this specially sacred lature of the council arose from its universal representation. By he Sth century the historian Socrates declared that the Nicene athers could not depart from the truth because they were enlightened by the grace of the Holy Spirit. The Councils of Ephesus Ai\) and Chalcedon (451) declared that the decisions of Nicaea lisliked the

'vera

unalterable.

a little later

Pope Gregory

four Gospels.

faith

and the canons of

discipline.

Ecumenical Councils Recognized by Both Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholics 1. First Council of Nicaea (325)

t

'.t

Holy Scriptures; and

the Great mentioned the four councils in the

2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

First Council of Constantinople (381) Council of Ephesus (431) Council of Chalcedon (451)

Second Council of Constantinople (553) Third Council of Constantinople (680-681) Second Council of Nicaea (787)

Recognized by Roman Catholics 8. Fourth Council of Constantinople (869-870) 9. First Lateran Council (1123) 10. Second Lateran Council (1139) 11. Third Lateran Council (1179) 12. Fourth Lateran Council (1215) Council of Lyons (1245)

13. First 14. 15. 16.

Second Council of Lyons (1274) Council of Vienne (1311-12) Council of Constance (1414-18)

Council of Ferrara-Florence (1438-c. 1445) Fifth Lateran Council (1512-17) Council of Trent (1545-63) 20. First Vatican Council (1869-70) 21. Second Vatican Council (1962) 17. 18.

19.

The Roman Catholic Church

recognizes eight and the Orthodox

Eastern Church seven ecumenical councils before the schism between east and west in 1054 (see table"). For the east this in practice closed the series; for the west, the nature of a general council changed. Hitherto it had in every case been held under imperial protection, summoned by the Byzantine emperor, and in only one case (Ephesus in 431) held more than a few miles from Constantinople. After the schism the increasing centralization of the Latin Church under the see of Rome made that see the single effective convener of general councils, which only special circumstances kept away from the Lateran or Vatican.

COUNCILS TO THE 9TH CENTURY First Council of Nicaea

made himself the principal

sole

emperor

conflict

(325).

in 324,

—

After Constantine I had he addressed himself to healing

raging in the Eastern Church, that over

Arianism; in this effort he used the same method he had used in the west over Donatism when he summoned the Council of Aries of 314. It was originally decided that this ecumenical council should meet at Ancyra (Ankara), but, perhaps for the convenience of the western delegates as well as of the emperor, the meeting was transferred to the royal palace at Nicaea. To Nicaea came about 220 bishops, out of whom only five are known to have come from western countries, though the list is incomplete. The five included Ossius, the bishop of Cordova, but not the pope, who sent two representatives. (The pope was not personally present at any of the first eight ecumenical councils; and though he was in Constantinople while the fifth council was being held in 553 he pleaded as a reason for not participating that it was not the custom of his predecessors. He was represented by legates, except at Constantinople in 381 where he was neither summoned nor represented.)

No reliable account of the proceedings has survived; only the agreed creed, the 20 canons and the synodical decree are extant. It is difficult to suppose that no report of the proceedings was The taken, but none was extant even in the later 4th century. emperor, though unbaptized and a catechumen, presided in state at the opening

and took an active part

in the discussions.

It

seems

COUNCIL

634

which decisively swayed the divided council to accept, almost unanimously, the proposed creed supported by his chief advisers and containing the word homoousios, "of one substance"; i.e., with the Father, applied to the Son. (For a discussion of the theological issues, see Ariamsm; Creed: Nicene Creed.) No one knows whether Constantine himself understood what was at stake. The word homoousios appeared to rule out the subordination of the Son to the Father for which Arius had contended. But many eastern bishops were reluctant to accept the word. They shrank from including in the creed a word not drawn from scripture; they feared that its suggestion of absolute equality or even identity between Father and Son would encourage the error of the to

have been

Sabellians,

his personal influence

who regarded Jesus' The language

life

as a simple manifestation of

some eastern bishops indicates that their acceptance of the term was not due to theological conviction. The council also condemned Arius; and the eastern the Creator God.

of

bishops, with two open exceptions, did not question that he had rightly been until

condemned.

The emperor

he accepted the Creed of Nicaea.

exiled Arius It

from Egypt

thus appeared convenimplemented by the

ient that the decisions of a council should be

secular power; but as an inconvenient consequence,

came apparent, bishops

it

soon be-

of a small minority need not despair if

they could secure the support of an emperor. The s>'Tiodical decree of the Council of Nicaea attempted, though unsuccessfully, to establish a uniform date of celebrating Easter, in accordance with the custom of the great majority of the churches. The canons confirmed the authority of the bishop of Alexandria over other bishops in Egypt and Libya, and of other metropolitans (canon vi), thereby taking a long stride toward the creation of effective patriarchates; and allowed the bishop of Jerusalem a primacy of honour in his province, though it left him without jurisdiction (vii). They decreed a time of catechumenate for converts before their baptism or ordination (ii) for;

bade the clergy to have unmarried women in their houses (iii), apparently even as housekeepers; decreed that a bishop should be consecrated by three bishops at least and with the approval of his metropolitan (iv) condemned the lending of money at interest by clerics (xvii); ordered that Christians should pray standing on Sundays and from Easter to Pentecost (xx) and forbade bishops, priests or deacons to move from one church to another (xv). The Sth-century historian Socrates says that the council intended to make a canon enforcing celibacy of the clergy upon all bishops, priests and deacons. The unmarried bishop Paphnutius from Egypt said that "too heavy a yoke ought not to be laid upon the clergy," and prevented the canon, though he would have permitted a canon forbidding those who were ordained when unmarried to marry after ordination. ;

;

Councils Between 325 and 381.— After the death of Constantine (337) the eastern bishops put out various creeds and doctrinal statements which condemned Arius but did not contain the homoousios and were directed against the Sabellians. The prolonged controversies of the 4th century were part doctrinal, part personal. The only weapon of the church for solving these problems was the council, and indefatigable endeavours at numerous councils were needed to reach any solution that would be generally acceptable in east and west. The personal acrimonies and rival orthodoxies left even some contemporary observers with a distaste for councils "Venerable bishops," said Gregory of Nazianzus ironically, "who put their personal squabbles before questions of faith." "For my part," said the same writer sadly, "to speak the truth, I prefer to avoid all councils of bishops. I have never seen a council which ended well or cured evils on the contrary." For the last 16 years of his episcopate, Martin of Tours, whose experience of bishops had been as unhappy as Gregory's, refused to attend the provincial councils of Gaul. But these consequences were probably inevitable during the political divisions of the empire during the 4th century. No other ultimate authority was in those days conceivable, whatever eminence in jurisdiction might be accorded to the patriarchs. Probably the most important council, in long perspective, of this period of councils between 32 S and 381 was the Council of

—

—

Sardica (Sofia) in 342 (or, as some believe, 343). This had been intended as an ecumenical council, but the easterners refused to attend when they found that the western bishops insisted on the

presence of Athanasius and others who had already been deposed by lawful synods. The decisions of the western council at Sardica did nothing to solve the conflict. But the canons passed there

were taken into western canonical collections, tacked on to the Nicene canons without break or scribal mark, in such a way that sometimes they were quoted as "Nicene" and thereby gained spurious ecumenical authority. The canons of Sardica ruled that a bishop must first have been ordained reader, deacon and priest, and not consecrated as a simple layman (xiii); bishops ought not to be consecrated for every little town, for fear of lowering the

translations of bishops from see (i) bishops must reside in their dioceses and (characteristic of the 4th century) must not travel to other dioceses without good reason, and even with good reason must remain there as short a time as possible (xiv, xv). They ruled also that if a bishop is deposed by the bishops of his province he has a right of appeal to the see of Rome: if the pope holds that there is no case for revision, the appeal is disallowed; if he holds that

dignity of the episcopate (vi) to see are forbidden

;

;

is a case, he must refer it to the bishops of a neighbouring province as a court of final appeal (vii). This last piece of legislation remained a dead letter. The Nicene faith was not finally established till the Council of Constantinople in 381. In the later stages of the debate the Cappadocian fathers, led by Basil of Caesarea, not only brought the old eastern conservatism to lose its fear of the homoousios, but examined the theology of the Holy Spirit in such a way that when the settlement was reached in 381

there

was a full definition of trinitarian doctrine. First Council of Constantinople (381). Theodosius I, who was a strong defender of the Nicene faith, became emperor of the east in 379 and summoned a council of eastern bishops, some 150

it

attending.

—

Again the minutes of the council are not extant.

council declared for a creed that

The

was substantially the creed

of

Nicaea with the alterations that make it the Nicene (NicenoConstantinopolitan) Creed as subsequently known to the church. It finally

declared the doctrine of the equality of the Holy

Spirit

with the Father and the Son, and therefore may be regarded as the end of a long debate upon the trinitarian doctrine. In both these doctrinal decisions it recovered unity between east and west. The third canon of the council gave the bishop of Constantinople precedence of honour over all other bishops except the bishop of Rome, "because Constantinople is the New Rome." The second canon limited the influence of the eastern patriarchs to their own provinces, thus particularly limiting the power exercised by the see of Alexandria under Athanasius and his successors. Peter oi Alexandria had lately and high-handedly consecrated a bishop oi Constantinople, and it is probable that the canon was directec mainly against this sort of act. The council requested the empero to seal the decisions, and Theodosius gave them legal effect. Though only eastern bishops had been summoned, the Greek; claimed this council to be ecumenical. Pope Damasus (366-384" appears to have accepted the creed but not the canons, at leasi not the canon upon the precedence of Constantinople. But exactlj when the council achieved the ecumenical status comparable witl that already achieved by Nicaea is not easy to determine. Thi third ecumenical council at Ephesus in 431 still held the Counci of Nicaea in a unique place of honour. Not until the Council o Chalcedon (451) does the ecumenical status of this council of 38 appear to be undoubted. Rome continued thereafter to protes About 48 against the award of precedence to Constantinople. Pope Felix III wrote of three ecumenical councils, Nicaea in 325 Ephesus in 431, Chalcedon in 451. Pope Gregory the Great a» his successors decisively acknowledged the ecumenical character o the creed. The see of Constantinople was first allowed precedenc

by Rome

after it had become Latinized as a result of the fourt crusade (1204). Thus, in inquiring into the nature of the authoi ity of ecumenical councils in the Latin church, it should be ot served that the dogmatic authority of this council was not recog nized as binding until the 6th century, and its regulation of see

not until the 13 th.

COUNCIL Council of Ephesus (431).— After the settlement of the Arian Liuestion, and its corollary in the doctrine of the Holy Spirit, theoogical

)oth

moved

debate

i^erson,

into the realm of the doctrine of Christ's

Godhead and manhood in one who was One trend of thought, exemplified by Apolli-

the relation of

God and man.

and by Monophysitism and expounded in Alexandria, conupon the Word as the subject inhabiting the God-man, God but appearing to minimize the full and rue nature of his manhood. Another trend, exemplified by Theolore of Mopsuestia and Nestorius and in Antioch, emphasized his omplete manhood and used uncertain language about the way in laris

rentrated

;mphasizing Jesus as

vhich the

Word dwelt in that manhood. who became patriarch of Constantinople

Nestorius,

:lared that the

word Theotokos ("God-bearer"),

in 428, de-

as applied to the

Mary, long used at Alexandria and hallowed in popular was unsuitable or doubtful. Cyril of Alexandria held Nestorius had fallen into the opposite error of suggesting two hat jons of God who dwelt together in Jesus. (For a detailed discusion of the theological controversy, see Cyril, Saint; Jesus

Virgin

levotion,

The Dogma of Christ in the Ancient Councils; and vIestorius.) The conflict between the ancient rights of the see 'if Alexandria and the new claims of the see of Constantinople 'Christ:

Theodosius II summoned a meet at Ephesus on June 7, 431. The proceedings at Ephesus were extraordinary. The bishops rem Antioch and its province failed to arrive till June 26; and neanwhile, on June 22, Cyril of Alexandria held a council of some !00 bishops under his own presidency and deposed Nestorius, who efused to attend or recognize it. On June 26 the Antiochenes arived under their patriarch, John, and held a council of 43 bishops n which they deposed Cyril. On July 10 the pope's legates arived from Rome and declared for Cyril's council; this is the )layed a large part in the struggle. ;eneral council to

'

ouncil recognized as ecumenical.

The principal decision of the council was the condemnation of a decision primarily disciplinary, not doctrinal, espedoctrinal -debate continued as ardently after the council before it. The council looked with favour upon 12 anathemas

^lestorius, ially as .s

ironounced by Cyril against Nestorius and read at the council, vidently approved by the delegates, included in the acts over

but not formally declared to be binding. It las commonly been assumed in Christendom that the council hus condemned the disapproval of Theotokos and other particuirly Nestorian language which minimized the unity of Godhead nd manhood or treated the incarnation as an association between iod and the man Jesus rather than as the assumption of manhood heir subscriptions,

ly

the divine

Word.

The council declared that no one might make innovations on the Nicaea (proper, not the creed of 381 now called Nicene) nd condemned the opinions of the Pelagian Celestius, though

-reed of

which opinions it was condemning (perhaps his Ueged denial of original sin and the doctrine that the grace of is given to a man in accordance with his merits). The Roman

'ithout specifying

iod

5gate Philip asserted at the council that St. Peter still lives and udges in his successors, and these famous words were received by tie council without protest.

In default, however, of

any indubitable statement of what opiuNestorius and Celestius the council was condemning, it not easy to consider the decrees of the Council of Ephesus as eing of decisive dogmatic authority. Nestorius in fact was sent ito exile by the emperor. The continuing conflict between the uitiochene bishops on the one side and Cyril and Rome on the

ms

in

s

ther was resolved by the "formulary of union" in 433, which acepted Theotokos with an explanation, used the phrase "union of

wo natures" and

in one phrase allowed that the two natures perunion. It was left uncertain whether Cyril's 12 nathemas, which to some had suggested a fusing of natures and ad been abhorrent to the Antiochene bishops, had or had not been

isted after the

/ithdrawn.

—

From Ephesus

(431) to Chalcedon (451). Since the Council Ephesus had defined nothing, the debate over the Person of his relation to the Father and the relation of divine and uman within him continued for the next 20 years. Cyril's ex-

f

-hrist

—

—

635

treme supporters regretted that he had accepted a formula with the phrase "two natures," the extreme supporters of Antioch continued to regard Cyril as heretical. When Cyril died in 444 the more rigid wing of his party took control under his successor, Dioscorus, who was determined to reassert the "one-nature" language. In 448 the controversy centred upon the archimandrite Eutyches (q.v.), who taught that there were two natures before the incarnation, one nature after. He was excommunicated. Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople, informed the pope, Leo the Great, of Eutyches' heresy; and this was the occasion of the celebrated Tome of Leo (June 13, 449), which showed the vigorous opposition of the Roman see to the one-nature language. Eutyches appealed to Dioscorus, who persuaded the emperor to summon a general council at Ephesus (Aug. 449). This synod (known by Pope Leo's contemptuous nickname as Latrocinium, the "robber synod") vindicated Eutyches, deposed Flavian and all the chief defenders of two-nature language, dismissed the formula of union and anathematized the proposition that there were two natures after the incarnation.

Council of Chalcedon (451)

—

In 450 the emperor Theodosius and was succeeded by his sister Pulcheria and her husband Marcian, who were favourable to the two-natures group. Marcian summoned a general council (originally to Nicaea but transferred to Chalcedon before it began its sessions on Oct. 8, 4S1), the .

II died

largest of the early councils, with about

520 bishops or their

representatives present, and the best documented.

Unlike the bishops at Ephesus in 431, the bishops at Chalcedon Their mode was to approve documents: the Creed of Nicaea (proper), the Creed of Constantinople (381, the so-called Nicene Creed), Cyril's two letters against Nestorius (which excluded Nestorianism as Cyril believed it to be and therefore insisted upon the unity of persons in Christ, and approved the Theotokos), Leo's Tome (which excluded the one-nature language and insisted upon two natures after incarnation). They also composed a confession of faith: Jesus Christ is one and the same Son, the same perfect in Godhead and the same perfect in manhood begotten from the Father before the ages as regards his Godhead, and from the Virgin Mary, the Theotokos, as regards his manhood; made known in two natures defined doctrine.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

without confusion, without change, without division, without separation, the distinction of natures being by no means taken away by the union.

The council also deprived Dioscorus and others of his party. The council made certain regulations for pastoral discipline, especially subjecting monks to their bishops, prohibiting the clergy from farming or business and ordering that no one should be ordained without a pastoral charge. It elevated the see of Jerusalem to the status of a patriarchate in Palestine, hitherto under the see of Antioch, and elevated the see of Constantinople to the status of a patriarchate over Pontus, Asia and Thrace. This last resolution (the 28th canon) encountered the protests of the papal Its existence delegates, and the see of Rome never accepted it. layed Pope Leo's acceptance of the dogmatic definitions until 453. The Council of Chalcedon, by its first canon, confirmed a code of canons which its members were using, and thereby gave a measure of ecumenical authority to canons of earlier local or provincial councils. The collection of canons included not only the ecumenical councils of Nicaea (325) and Constantinople (381) but also local synods of Ancyra (314), Neocaesarea (early 4th century), Gangra (middle of the 4th century) and Antioch (ascribed to 341, but probably held about 328-330). This book of canons seems to have been received implicitly in the east before the Council of Chalcedon stamped it with a more authoritative approval. But the nature of this approval is doubtful, nor perhaps would Latins have perceived clearly what was being approved. Many of the earlier canons are concerned with pastoral problems of the lapsed and are appropriate only to conditions of persecution. The tenth canon of Ancyra permits deacons to marry after ordination if they have given notice at ordination of their intention. The 15th canon of Neocaesarea orders that the deacons be seven in number "even if the city be very great," and the first canon decrees that the priest who marries after ordination shall be deposed. For the most part this collection of canons bears

COUNCIL

636 witness to a primitive state of church

when the Council of Chalcedon met. After Chalcedon. By the time the

—

in

451 the western part of the

Roman

life

that

had passed away

which later became the barbarian kingdoms. There was a period of codification, both in Italy and the east (see Canon Law\ and the four general councils were canonized as the rule of orthodoxy, so that Gregory the Great at the end of the 6th century could say that he reverenced them as he reverenced the four Gospels. In the east the decrees of Chalcedon encountered resistance from the churches which were disciples of the one-nature doctrine, and in Egypt, Syria or Armenia there was Monophysite schism (see Monophysites). The emperors in Constantinople vacillated about the best means of holding together their religiously divided empire. A proposal by the emperor Zeno (the Hetioticon, 4S2) that Chalcedon be quietly dropped and agreement founded upon the first three councils failed disastrously, and its failure showed that no agreement could be reached except by receiving the decree of Chalcedon while seeking to modify it. Justinian I, emperor from 527 to 565, himself theologically qualified and the more concerned for the religious division because his troops were recovering control of Rome and Italy, tried various expedients for modifying Chalcedon. One scheme (543) was to condemn the "Three Chapters," the Antiochene two-nature subjects that had been approved by Chalcedon: the person and writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia the writings of Theodoret of Cyrrhus against Cyril's 12 anathemas; and a letter of Ibas, bishop of Edessa, which also attacked the 12 anathemas. These three were much complained of by those inclined to Monophysitism. The plan of condemnation ran into vigorous opposition from all those for whom Chalcedon had become sacred. To condemn the Three Chapters seemed to be calling in question the immutable nature of the decrees and therefore the ecumenical status of the council. Justinian summoned a general council in 553 and used stringent measures to persuade all the parties to conform. Second Council of Constantinople (553). The council opened on May 5, 553, with 165 bishops under the presidency of to break into the pieces

;

—

Eutychius, patriarch of Constantinople. Pope Vigilius of Rome, who had been summoned to Constantinople, opposed the council and took sanctuary in a church. The council condemned the Three Chapters. The pope continued his resistance until Dec. 8, 553, when he informally accepted the verdict of the council; he ratified it formally on Feb. 23, 554. The 14 anathemas put out by the council further strengthened the case against any Nestorian interpretation of Chalcedon by

upon the unity of the Person of Christ in the act of the council was to condemnation of Origen, though what opinions were condemned is not evident from the acts of the council. From the relevant documents used by the bishops, it appears that the doctrine of the soul's existence before birth was the chief offense. The western church, devoted as it was to Chalcedon, could not bring itself to accept the decrees of the council of 553, even though the pope had accepted them. In Africa imperial troops were able to force acceptance. North Italian bishops refused their allegiance to the see of Rome and found support in France and Spain. The opposition hung on in northern Italy until the end of the 7th century. By then the coming of Islam into those provinces of the east which had been inclined toward Monophysitism rendered obsolete all such plans for compromise. insisting yet further

two natures.

The only other important

ratify an earlier

Third Council of Constantinople (680) and Trullan Council (692). The arguments over Chalcedon, however, were

—

not ended.

Some

room for doubt. In reply to Constans which imposed silence on all parties, a Lateran synod held under Pope Martin I in 649 supplemented the definition of Chalcedon by a statement affirming two wills and two operations. Martin was exiled to the Crimea, and the struggle between Rome and Constantinople continued. But with the emperor Constantine IV conciliation prevailed. In 680 he summoned a council at Constantinople which in its first session assumed that it was ecumenical. It condemned the Monothelites, among them Honorius, and asserted two wills and two operations. "Each nature with the communion of the other willed and wrought that which was proper to itself." Another council met in 692 in the same imperial banqueting hall, called Trullus, at Constantinople, and this is known as the Council in Trtillo, or, because it intended to be a supplement to the fifth and sixth general councils, the Quinisext council. Though Rome and the west were probably not represented, the fathers claimed to be a general council; but some of their canons were most unacceptable to the west and were in part directed against Roman customs (e.g., celibacy of the clergy, rules for fasting). In the east the 102 canons of this council were added to those of the sixth ecumenical council and thereby acquired ecumenical authority (they were quoted as such by the seventh ecumenical Council of Nicaea in 787). Under this impression the west also though

his language leaves

II's edict of 648,

met at Chalcedon empire had already begun fathers

easterners, forbidden to talk of one nature,

thought to enforce the unity of the Person of Christ by talking of one will (Gr. thelema) and one operation (energeia)

from the two natures, and thereby are called Monothelites (q.v.). Sergius, patriarch of Constantinople from 610 to 638, seems to have been the principal author of this language. The doctrine of one will was enshrined in the Ecthesis of 638, published under the name of the emperor Heraclius but probably drafted by Sergius. The pope of Rome, Honorius I, appears to have declared for the doctrine,

received

some

of them.

Second Council of Nicaea (787) .—In 726 the emperor Leo III the Isaurian issued his decree against the worship of icons and thereby precipitated the iconoclastic controversy. During all the middle years of the 8th century the controversy raged in the east (icons were condemned at a council, claiming to be general, at Hieria, near Chalcedon, in 754), slowly driving the popes, who decisively opposed iconoclasm, out of the arms of the Byzantine emperors to look for protection from the new western power in Carolingian France. In 780 the empress Irene began to retract the iconoclastic policy; and her iconodulic patriarch, Tarasius, requested the summoning of a council to re-establish the peace of the church (787). It was intended to be an ecumenical council, and on this ground Pope Adrian I sent legates. Tarasius presided, but the Roman legates signed first. The dogmatic decrees anathematized all heretics, including Pope Honorius and the leading iconoclasts, but did not condemn the Three Chapters. It declared that icons deserved reverence (Gr. proskynesis) but not adoration (latreia), which was due to God alone. There were 21 disciplinary canons, one of which forbade further foundations of double (i.e., for both men and women) monasteries. The decrees of this council, though confirmed by the pope, were at first not well received in the empire of Charlemagne. This was partly the fault of the incompetent Latin translator of the acts, who, for example, translated proskynesis and latreia as though they were identical, thereby making it appear that the council was ordering Christians to worship icons as they worshiped the Holy Trinity. At the Council of Frankfurt (794) the dogmatic decree of Nicaea was repudiated, and the English church agreed with the repudiation. Even the great Pope Nicholas I, in the middle of the 9th century, still referred to the six general councils. As

church in France recognized only sa ecumenical councils, and some writers still gave the first four a place of special honour. But Rome's original verdict stood, anc the second Council of Nicaea was accepted by the canonists a; the seventh ecumenical council. Fourth Council of Constantinople (869-870). The fate oi the canons of the Council in Tridlo had proved that east and wesi late as the 11th century the

—

were already slipping asunder, and the iconoclastic controversj had further driven a wedge between Rome and Constantinople The rise of the Carolingian empire turned Rome's eyes westward apd there was never again to be the harmony between east an( west that had earlier prevailed for such long periods. Later th eastern church for the most part recognized only the seven ecu menical councils. The Roman Catholic Church, after a period o uncertainty during which two popes allowed only seven ecu menical councils, by the end of the 11th century recognized a ecumenical the Council of Constantinople (869-870) that con

COUNCIL Roman

sentence of excommunication against the patriarch ^;>hotius (g.v.). though that act was reversed, with the approval l)f the Roman legates, at a further Council of Constantinople in '!79-880. The 22nd canon of the council of 869-870 prohibited episcopal elections; and for the canonists of ay interference

firmed a

m

he investiture struggle at the end of the 11th century this canon issumed great importance. (W. 0. C.)

COUNCILS OF THE WESTERN CHURCH A

period of over 250 years separated the eighth ecumenical :ouncil from the ninth. It was a period during which the papacy cached its lowest level of degradation, in which lay control and eudalism took possession of the western church, and in which,

mid-1 1th century, theological activity was alWhen, from 1059 onward, the reformed papacy lecame itself a principal agent of reform, and under Gregory VII nd his successors pursued a policy of direct control and cenralization, and when, concurrently with this, intellectual life evived and the study of theology was once more pursued at a ligh intellectual level, the pattern of the church had changed •.t

least until the

nost nonexistent.

many

ssentially in

respects.

first place, Christendom was now divided into Eastern Western churches, though the ecclesiastical link was not iroken till 1054 and even then not without hope of repair; and vhile the eastern emperor regarded himself as the heir and repreentative of the ancient empire, the emperor of the west was ommitted to a struggle for supremacy with the papacy. The lapacy, for its part, had never retreated from its traditional claims nd had been strengthened in their exposition by elements of law lerived in part from the pseudo-Isidorian collection (see Decre•ALS, False) in consequence the pope now explicitly claimed hat his was the sole and complete right of summoning a general :ouncil. At the same time the Eastern Church had fallen entirely lut of the purview of Rome; both popes and western emperors lad come to regard the Byzantines with suspicion and distrust, vhile the leaders of the Eastern Church regarded Rome as both |iarbarian and overbearing. Between the two parts of Christenlom of which the eastern was the more civilized and economically ieveloped and the western the larger and now at last the more irogressive there existed no sympathy or sense of common cause. Synods and councils were the principal means used by the popes f the reform in promulgating and enforcing their measures, and everal such meetings were held in Rome, At the same time categories of those summoned had been widened to include abbots, epresentatives of cathedral chapters, and lay potentates, and the meetings had been called upon to settle or to register political nd ecclesiastical measures rather than purely dogmatic questions, 'hus Pope Calixtus II in 1122 had concluded an agreement with he German emperor, Henry V, at Worms on the question of avestitures which terminated a long and vexatious conflict, and Vished to clinch his achievement by a ratification by the clergy of

In the

'nd

;

—

—

he west.

First

Lateran Council (1123).

— No

acts or

any contempo-

and there is no reason to uppose that the pope consciously aimed at reopening the series if ecumenical councils. He did, however, invite bishops from 11 over the west, and the most credible estimate of those actually ary account of this council survive,

whom must

be added abbots and others. The (March 18-28, 1123), and were promulgated, many of fhich did no more than reiterate the decrees of earlier councils ir the (forged) decretals. A large place was occupied by dis-

)resent is 300, to

ouncil probably lasted for ten days

number

of canons (probably 22

)

which some were corolWorms; thus simony was demajor orders were forbidden to have wives, aymen were prohibited from disposing of church property, unanonical episcopal consecration was forbidden and marriage beween cousins was prohibited in general terms. There was no pecifically dogmatic canon. Second Lateran Council (1139). This council was convoked iplinary or quasi-political decisions, of

iries of

the recent settlement at

lounced, clerics in

—

y Innocent f

II in April 1139 primarily to

condemn

the followers

Arnold of Brescia (g.v.) and to end the schism caused by the

^37

antipope Anacletus after Innocent.

II,

who had been

elected almost immediately

Opinion was divided at the time, and

is still

among

where the precise canonical right lay in transactions of doubtful legality on both sides. In any case, St Bernard's

scholars, as to

support of Innocent

II, given largely on a moral judgment between the claimants, and later that of the emperor Lothair III decided the issue and were followed by a general recognition of Innocent II. The council, which counted among its members at least 500 bishops from all over the west and the Christian Levant, was styled "plenary" by the pope. There were some 33 canons, many of them reaffirmations of previous conciliar decrees, but several had an importance and an influence greater than any in the first Lateran council. Thus while one canon reiterated the previous decree against clerical marriage, another declared all marriages of those in major orders and of professed monks, canons, lay brothers and nuns formally invalid a decree that has remained substantially in force while others fulminated against those who attacked a cleric or a monk and prohibited usury, tournaments and the study by monks of law and medicine. Canon 28 acknowledged by implication the right of a chapter to elect the bishop, and canon 23 is of interest as mentioning some of the characteristic heresies of the later 12th century: denial of the sacramental Eucharist, of infant baptism, of holy orders and of matrimony. The council probably lasted from April 4 to 17.

—

—

—

Third Lateran Council (1179). This council was convoked by the ablest pope of the mid-1 2th century, the famous lawyer Roland Bandinelli, now Alexander III, who wished bishops from far and wide to witness the treaty he had made at Venice (1177) with Frederick I by which the emperor agreed to abandon his antipope and the church property he had seized. The council met in March 1179, and the 291 bishops present included those from the British Isles, Spain, Dalmatia, France, Germany, Denmark, Iceland, Hungary and the Levant, as well as abbots and envoys of princes. The council approved 27 capitula, of which the first

established the principle of a two-thirds majority of the col-

lege of cardinals for a papal election

and the third that candidates

must be of legitimate birth and 30 years old. directed against the heretical Cathari (q.v.), who anathematized, ostracized and refused Christian burial.

for the episcopacy

The 27th was

were Wandering robbers and vagabonds were

also

condemned, and

Christians were authorized, with the bishop's permission, to take up arms against them not as heretics but as outlaws. The Wal-

denses (g.v.) sent representatives to the council, presumably to obtain some kind of papal sanction, and according to contemporary accounts they were kindly received by the pope but forbidden to preach.

—

Fourth Lateran Council (1215). The first three Lateran councils were not convoked in direct imitation of the great councils of the early church.

They were merely peaks

in the long range of papal councils, noted at the time as "general" or "universal" and subsequently accorded ecumenical status by canonists and theologians. The case was other with the fourth Lateran council. This was the object of long deliberation and preparation on the part of Innocent III and was clearly envisaged by him as the con-

Europe of his day of the series of great councils from them, however, in several particulars. First, the council was appointed, convoked and directed by the pope himself. Second, the church was now regarded as a great society, of which all members should in measure be represented. Third, Innocent's conception of his position vis-a-vis the emperor and other rulers led him to give them also a place. The broadentinuation in the

of the past.

ing of

its

It differed

composition, however, in no

way implied a wider exThough little is known

tension of voting or consultative powers. of the preparations or proceedings,

it is

clear

from the

fact that

the general sessions of the council occupied only three days (Nov. 1 1 20 and 30, 1 2 1 5 ) that the fathers did no more than assent to the voluminous legislation proposed, presumably by select committees. The summons was sent out to all bishops, abbots and ruling priors of Europe and the Latin east, to the heads of religious and military orders, and to princes and their representatives; some The purpose of civic authorities and barons also were present. ,

COUNCIL

638 the assembly

was twofold: the recovery of the Holy Land and

the reform of the church.

A

list

of 400 bishops survives, and

there were probably numerous others present. Among the political business dealt with was the conveyance of the county of Toulouse to Simon de Montfort, the settlement of the disputed succession to the empire in favour of the

young Frederick

II as against

Otto

of Brunswick, and the excommunication of the English barons

and Stephen Langton.

The

Decision for a crusade was also taken.

council passed various doctrinal and reforming decrees: a

long profession of faith was directed against the errors of the Albigenses and Waldenses, though neither of these bodies was explicitly

named;

the existence of dual principles of good and

was denied; the character of the Catholic priesthood was was used of the eucharistic consecration. Unauthorized preaching was forbidden; the errors of Joachim of Fiore were condemned and the teaching of Peter Lombard on the Trinity approved. The practice of rebaptism by the Greeks was reprobated, and the primacy of Constantinople among the patriarchates denied. Yearly confession and paschal communion were imposed by the decree Omnis utriusque sexus; impediments to marriage were reduced in number; a system of provincial chapters and visitations was imposed upon the Black Monks and the Augustinian canons. In addition numerous decrees were passed affecting the life and administration of the clergy and the reform of clerical and lay morality. Indeed, alike in its scope and its influence on subsequent practice, the fourth Lateran council has been surpassed in importance only by the Council of Trent in the history of the Western church. evil

asserted; and the term transubstantiation

First Council of

Lyons

(1245).

—This

council held

its

ses-

sions on June 28, July 5 and 17, 1245, at the summons and under the direction of Pope Innocent IV. His primary purpose was to

secure the judgment and condemnation, followed by the excommunication and deposition, of Frederick II; hence the 22 capitiila of the council were legal and judicial, not dogmatic, in content. Only some ISO bishops were present, mainly from France and Spain, since the emperor hindered the Germans from attending. Second Council of Lyons (1274).— This council held its six sessions between May 7 and July 17, 1274. It was summoned by Gregory IX with the threefold aim of ending the Greek schism, rescuing the Holy Land and effecting a moral reform, but the last object occupied little time in the council. Only some 200 western bishops were present, but the council was distinguished by some notable participants, among them Albertus Magnus and Bonaventure (who died at Lyons on July IS). The kings of the west, the Byzantine emperor and the catholicos of Armenia were invited, but the emperor did not attend. A creed was approved for the reunion of the churches which included sections on purgatory, the sacraments and the supremacy and primacy of the pope; this was accepted by the Byzantine envoys and the reunion (soon to be repudiated by the Byzantines) was solemnly celebrated. The council also decreed that all cardinals should take part in papal elections and that strict measures with the conclave should ensure a speedy result. All minor orders of friars were suppressed, but the Carmelites and Austin hermits succeeded in escaping. Apart from the profession of faith there was no dogmatic decree. Council of Vienne (1311-12). Clement V convoked this

—

council at the

demand

of Philip

IV

of France,

and

it

held three

solemn sessions (Oct. 16, 1311; April 3 and May 6, 1312). All bishops of the west were invited, but only some 230 were ordered to come. The selection was made by the king of France, and in fact fewer than 120 bishops attended, though many others sent proxies France and Italy accounted for almost all who came. The primary aim of Philip IV was to secure a posthumous trial of Boniface VIII and the suppression of the Knights Templars. The trial did not occur, but the Templars, after long discussions, were suppressed outside the council by an act of power of the pope on March 22, 1322. Another task of the council was to hear the complaints of the conventual or moderate party of the Franciscans ;

who stood for the observance The moral strength of the Spirituals

against the extremists or Spirituals, of absolute material poverty.

was impaired by the charges of heresy leveled against their principal leader, Pierre Olivl, and the council decided in favour of

moderate poverty (the so-called usus pauper) against Olivi, though his name was not mentioned in the condemnation of his teaching. The pope, who had not been present at the later sessions, gave the decisions force of law by his approval. The councils of the 12th and 13th centuries are of a single pattern: that of a gathering of bishops and other prelates and (later) notables in a great body summoned, presided over and "managed" by the pope, and the series shows a growing tendency, seen also in the history of the Roman Curia during the period, for the representative and deliberative function of the members of

mere assent, at least in the public other words, reflect the strongly monarchic, unitary, autocratic development in papal theory and practice that reached its limit in the pontificate of Boniface VIII. the council to be reduced to a

sessions.

These councils,

in

Yet concurrently with the Aristotelian postulate that all agencies must in the end be reduced to unity there was the characteristically medieval doctrine that society, and

in

particular the Christian

was a corporate body whose head was a representative rather than a ruler and which could achieve its end best when acting as a body and could correct or depose any representative who failed in his duty. This doctrine was applied by canonists both to the college of cardinals and to the totality of the faithful society,

as seen in action in a general council.

The

first

application of

theory to practical politics followed upon the abdication of Pope Celestine V (1294) and the subsequent conflict between the pope and the king of France. Philip IV appealed to a general council against Boniface VIII and threatened his deposition. Some 30 years later, Marsiglio of Padua and William of Ockham in their different ways looked to the university of the faithful, or to a council representing them, as a remedy against papal tyranny and specifically against the alleged heresy of John XXII. When, therefore, the contested election of 1378 left the church with two popes and all efforts to restore unity had failed, a general council, which ex hypothesi would be able to judge and if necessary depose a pope, came to be regarded as the only hope for the church. In these circumstances, a council would be something far more powerful as an organ of ecclesiastical government than had this

hitherto been suggested.

—

Council of Pisa (1409). It was after 30 years of disunion, and when the powers and advantages of a general council had been debated on all sides, that a group of cardinals of both obediences summoned a council to meet at Pisa in 1409. This meeting, which has never been admitted by canonists or theologians to be ecumenical, was well attended; it proceeded to depose the two existing pontiffs and to elect a third, Alexander V; Western Christendom was therefore divided into three parties. Council of Constance (1414-18). had not been wholly in vain, for

ever,

—The it

effort of Pisa, how-

had shown that the

idea

The emperoi of a council rallied the forces desirous of unity. Sigismund, therefore, summoned a council to Constance; his summons was followed by that of the antipope, John XXIII, successoi Never before of Alexander V. The council met in Nov. 1414. had such an assembly of ecclesiastics been gathered together, foi besides some 200 bishops and 100 abbots at least 300 doctors of theology and proctors of all kinds were there. Verj' soon political rivalries resulted in an essential change of the system of voting b> which the members were organized in four blocs known as the each of whose nations, Italian, English, German and French votes had equal weight, while the college of cardinals had a fiftl After a few week; vote and later the Spanish nation a sLxth. John XXIII fled from Constance, and the council, faced with the Sacrosancta tha: in declared the decree dilemma of its authority, it drew its powers immediately from Christ and that even the pope was subject to it. It then proceeded to negotiate for the with drawal of the other two papal claimants. In the meanwhile i anathematized the doctrines of Wycliffe and Huss, and tried am executed the latter and his friend Jerome of Prague. Then proceeded to frame some decrees of reform, of which the most im portant was the decree Frequens oi Oct. 9, 1417, which aimed a making general councils a permanent institution in the life of th Church. It then elected Martin V, thus at last restoring unity ti

— —

i

the church.

—

COUNCIL The Council of Constance is reckoned as ecumenical, but its 'wsition is unusual in that it was neither summoned nor confirmed s to all its decrees by a legitimate pope. Its most important logmatic pronouncements, those

regarding Wycliffe and Huss, ubsequently were given papal approval, but the decrees asserting he superiority of council over pope and laying down the principle series of councils were never accepted, though if a perpetual

V

tiartin

did in fact

summon

a council after an interval of five

This was the council of Pavia (1423-24), later transferred by the pope because of poor attendance. See further Constance, Council of; Papacy: The Great Schism,

ears.

Siena and soon closed

.378-1417.)

Council of Basel (1431-37).— Seven years later Martin V summoned to Basel a council which he did not live to see. His sucessor, Eugenius IV, sent Giuliano Cardinal Cesarini as legate to laugurate the council CJuiy 23, 1431) though no bishop had arand in December the pope closed what was just beginning be a sizable assembly. The council refused to be dissolved, and enewed the decree Sacrosancta of Constance; its numbers inreased, and, though the number of bishops never equaled that f the doctors of theology and abbots, it proceeded to deal with the iussites, the majority of whom were received back into comlunion by the Compact of Prague (Nov. 30, 1433). A fortnight iter (Dec. IS) the pope revoked his decree of dissolution. In he negotiations and discussions that followed the council and the ope were at loggerheads and the council gradually lost prestige. ,ts efforts at reform were stultified by the impracticability and ntipapal bias of the measures proposed, and in 1437 the pope, 'ho had been long negotiating with the Greeks with a view to sunion, transferred it to Ferrara. {See further Basel, Council ived,

F.)

Council of Ferrara-Florence (1438-c. 1445).

—

^This council

principally concerned with effecting union with the

'as

This was

Greek

through, and the bull Laetentur oeli was promulgated on July 6, 1439, to be followed some months iter by a similar reunion with the Armenians. The Greeks acspted union simply in the hopes of receiving pecuniary and other id; the Greek prelates were consistently hostile, and when help as not forthcoming from the west the Greeks withdrew their dherence once more. Doctrinally speaking, the Council of Flor-

ifaurch.

nce

is

in fact carried

of interest on account of the exposition of the Catholic

purgatory and of the primacy and plenary powers of set out in the decree for the Greeks, and the long of sacramental theology in the decree for the Armenians.

octrine of .le

pope as

Imposition

See further

Ferrara-Florence, Council of.) (1512-17).— With the Council of

Fifth Lateran Council

and the reassertion by the papacy of its independence and ipremacy the epoch of the councils came to an end. It left a Duble legacy. The one was a persistent belief in many quarters, icouraged by interested monarchs and seemingly justified by the jhaviour of the Renaissance popes, that only a council could suc;ed in renovating the life of the church. The other was the Galcan doctrine of the relationship between the French monarchy id the papacy, which rested much of its weight upon the asseron by the Council of Constance of the superiority of a council to .e pope (see Gallicanism). It was in fact the hostile action of few cardinals, working in the French interest, who summoned a luncil apart from the pope in 1511, that led Julius II to issue s bull of convocation to the fifth Lateran council, ostensibly to eet the demand for a drastic reform of the church within and ithout the city of Rome. The council remained in being from

ilorence

March 16, 1517; the maximum number of bishops exceeded 100, most of them Italians. The death of on Feb. 20, 1513, but the council was connued by Leo X. Its principal results were the extinguishing of le threat of schism and the supersession of the Pragmatic Sanc3n of Bourges (1435) by a new concordat with the French king.

[ay 3, 1512, to

resent never iilius

II took place

was a condemnation of a contempoAverroistic opinion of the mortality of the soul, and a rection of the decrees of Basel and Constance exalting a council

|i

the theological sphere there

iry

'er .;re

A few reforming decrees were passed, but they (M. D. K.) unimportant and were not put into effect. the pope.

639

Council of Trent (1545-^3)

—The

Council of Trent is regarded as the 19th ecumenical council by the Roman Catholic Church, whose morale it restored and whose doctrines and discipline it overhauled and tightened after the challenge of the Reformation. The day-by-day proceedings of the council, and its decrees, are discussed in detail in the article

Trent, Council of;

concerned chiefly with the historical context in which its deliberations were held. The spread of Protestantism renewed the demand for a general council, both to reform and reunite Christendom, but no Protestant would accept a council acknowledging papal supremacy. Nevertheless the emperor Charles V, in his anxiety to restore religious unity among the Germans, pressed for a council on German soil that was prepared to offer the maximum concessions consistent with the essentials of orthodoxy. This policy was not agreeable to Rome, where dangers to Catholicism, together with an overstrengthening of the emperor's power, both ecclesiastical and political, were feared. Pope Paul III, faced with the threat of an autonomous German religious settlement as an alternative, negotiated, but the chronic warfare between Habsburg and Valois, together with French suspicion of anything calculated to increase Habsburg power, created long-drawn-out difficulties. At last in 1544 the peace of Crepy brought Franco-imperial agreement to a council at Trent, technically on German soil, but accepted only unwillingly by Paul III who saw in a site within Italy proper the only real safeguard of Roman and orthodox interests, the supremacy of pope over council and the security of the curia. In his eyes this article

is

the council's the

new

main business was to clarify Catholic doctrine against and to reform the morals and administration of

heresies

the church without revolutionary structural changes. Charles V, for his part, persisted in conceiving the council as primarily -a "reunion" council for Germany, one which should adapt itself to his own ideas and wishes in this respect. This basic papal-imperial conflict over purpose (not lessened by a military alliance for a war in which Charles V hoped to crush the Schmalkaldic league of Lutheran princes and force them to submit to the council if it would give them generous treatment) was evident when, after opening on Dec. 13, 1545, with three presiding papal legates but only a very small attendance, the council had to improvise both program and procedure. Rome ordered that definition of doctrine should precede reform. This was contrary to Charles's idea of leading up to doctrine

by

first

making

reforms that would attract favourable Lutheran attention. The Spanish bishops, and many others also, were passionately anxious that reform should not be delayed. Feeling in the council forced Rome's grudging acceptance of the compromise of simultaneous treatment. But this was so implemented that in fact doctrine got the lion's share of the council's time.

In the IS months before the removal to Bologna the basic between the principles of Catholic and Lutheran the last thing the emperor had wanted theology were drawn by decrees defining the Catholic position and condemning contrary propositions on the canon, interpretation and use of Scripture; original sin; the key subject of justification, on which seven months were spent; the number and nature of the sacraments in general, and baptism and confirmation in particular. The debates had shown agreement to seek the substance of Catholic doctrine without canonizing "school opinions." But there was much argument between Thomists and Scotists, and many well-worn points between them were left unresolved. The doctrinal program was skilfully steered by the second legate, Marcello Cervini, later Pope Marcellus II. The first president, Giovanni del Monte, later Pope Julius III, was in charge of reform. The imperialists and the Spaniards complained that reform was lines of division

—

not receiving adequate attention.

The

duties

and powers of bish-

ops and the restoration of their eflSciency as pastors formed the crucial point. This involved their obligation to preach, the thorny question of their powers over preachers belonging to religious orders (which were increased) and their obligations to reside in their diocese which many wished to be declared an obligation of divine law. This last was strongly opposed by the legates. The

impositions and interferences of the

Roman

curia

—

in exemptions,

COUNCIL

640

—

were widely denounced dispensations, taxation, patronage, etc. as hindrances to fruitful episcopal residence, as also were hindrances from the secular arm. the discussion of far

Not much time was allowed

for

these points, and the decrees passed were

all

from satisfying those who wanted treatment of the diseases

of plurality of benefices and nonresidence far more drastic than the touching up of old canonical rules that could be freely cir-

cumvented

in practice.

legates and the Italian bishops had all along disliked Plans the location at Trent, so accessible to imperial influence. and negotiations for a removal south had been unceasing, especially after the emperor's war against the Lutherans started in

The papal

the

summer

of 1546, but

peror's refusal.

The

all

these had broken

down on

the

transference to Bologna was thus the

em-

fulfill-

ment of a long-felt Italian desire. It was made suddenly by a majority decree, on March U, 1547, at the legates' prompting, but without the knowledge of the pope, on a plausible but not wholly convincing plea based on the fact that an epidemic had broken The 13 opponents of It proved self-defeating. out in Trent. the decree remained behind and subsequently received imperial orders not to move; while, unable to persuade Paul III to reverse the council's action, Charles V, whose victory over the Protestant princes at Mijhlberg on April 24 gave him at last his supremacy in Germany at the very moment when the council had left German soil, delivered formal protests of nonrecognition of the council of Bologna at Bologna itself and at Rome in Jan. 1548. This was followed up in the summer by the Interim settlement in Germany. Not even increased French support for Bologna could outweigh There were many valuable this. The council was made impotent. discussions on matters later settled at Trent, but no decrees could be passed. Not until Sept. 1549. however, shortly before his death, did Paul III allow the council at Bologna to disperse. His successor, Julius III, showed unexpected fle.xibility in recalling the council to Trent, where it reassembled in April 1551. There seemed now a better understanding between pope and emperor, and it was hoped that with the attendance of about a dozen German bishops (only one had previously appeared other than the cardinal of Trent), including the three ecclesiastical electors, the emperor's policy toward the German Protestants might still

be made to bear

fruit.

These hopes were shattered by the

rejec-

by the French; the intransigence of the legate Marcello Cardinal Crescenzio toward Spanish and other efforts and finally by the impossibility of finding for effective reform common ground for talks with the Protestant delegations, which arrived from Sa.xony, Wiirttemberg and elsewhere, had actually and whose ministers claimed equality of status. Nevertheless the council, continuing its former doctrinal program, passed decrees on t4ie sacraments of the Eucharist, penance and extreme unction together with some minor reforms. In April 1552 it was suspended owing to the outbreak of war in Italy and the revolt in Germany which overthrew Charles V's supremacy, both disturbances promoted by the French. The elector Maurice of Saxony, who had allied himself with France, marched southward by way of InnsThe emperor, taken by surprise, fled, and the council, bruck. fearing for its safety, decreed its own suspension. When the council reassembled ten years later under Pius TV in Jan. 1562, the demand for it came from France, newly troubled by the Calvinist movement. The treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (1559) had restored international peace; Charles V was dead, the German and Spanish crowns separated, and Germany pacified by the settlement of Augsburg (1555). The third assembly at Trent was more widely representative than its predecessors, and numbers rose to about 250 against the previous 70 or 80. Nonetheless, the German bishops, as well as the Protestants, stayed away, and in The Italian England the invitation was not even published. majority was rather more coherent and Roman control more proposition was exclusive right of systematic. The papal legates' now specifically laid down and, though constantly challenged by the French and Spaniards, was maintained. It was used to make whereas the French it clear that the council was a continuation and Ferdinand I wanted a new start and also (as previously) to keep a firm grip on both doctrinal and reform proposals. tion of the council

;

—

—

In spite of the efforts of Ferdinand, who, still hoping for the the Protestants, wished to defer the discussion of

return of

dogmatic issues, the doctrinal program was completed by decrees on the Mass, holy orders and matrimony. Reform proposals involving radical changes in ritual and discipline, and including permission for clerical marriage and lay communion under both kinds, came from the French and imperialists, both still hoping to pave the way toward general religious agreement by concessions. But most of these were resisted in Rome as was also the renewed demand for the residence of bishops to be proclaimed de jifre divino as the only way to the restoration of episcopal efficiency. A vote taken on April 20, 1562, showed the strength of the jus divinum party. It so annoyed the pope that the two principal legates, Ercole di Gonzaga, cardinal of Mantua, and Cardinal Seripando, were nearly recalled. Worse was to follow, however, when in the discussions on holy orders, the same party comprising bishops of all nationalities present pressed for a statement that episcopal jurisdiction came to each bishop direct from God and consequently not mediately through the pope. Determined to prevent this, the Roman authorities attempted to insert into the decree the definition by the Council of Florence of the papal universal episcopate, unacceptable to both French and Spaniards. Months of negotiation did not succeed in breaking the deadlock, which held up the council's work and even

—

—

threatened its collapse. Eventually, the deaths of Cardinals Gonzaga and Seripando opened the way for their replacement by the able Cardinal Giovanni Morone, whose skilled diplomacy secured the surrender of the extremists on both sides and general agreement to a plain

statement that bishops were placed by the Holy Ghost

to rule

the church (Acts xx, 28).

Mutual concessions were

also

made on reform

principles.

In

Rome would agree to Only the Spanish ambassador

return for the safeguarding of curial rights, as searching a

stood out,

reform as possible.

in principle, against the

general detente acquiesced

in

by

emperor and the cardinal of Lorraine, leader of the French. The effective reforms of the Council of Trent, which gradually

the

restored the pastoral efficiency of the

Roman

Catholic Church,

were the Work of the final two sessions. They represented, as it were, the middle-of-the-road conservative Catholic reform ideas, giving a new deal to bishops (empowering them, however, in many cases to act as representatives of Rome), laying down a new code for the religious orders and including the decree ordering the establishment of diocesan seminaries for the education 0)

There were, however, none of the radica clerics. changes desired by the French and the imperialists (under botl Charles V and Ferdinand 1) for the appeasement and eventua hoped-for reduction of Protestantism, nor was any diminutior allowed in principle of the rights of the Roman see or the Romai curia, nor were the more rigorous Spanish demands met. A) ambitious scheme for the "reformation of princes" had perforo to be abandoned in favour of a simple admonition to rulers ti respect the rights of the church. The council handed over to tb pope its unfinished tasks of drawing up an index of forbiddei books and reforming catechism, missal and breviary. It concludei harmoniously on Dec. 4, 1563, and its decrees were confirmed b; Pius IV on Jan. 26, 1564. (H. 0. E.) First Vatican Council (1869-70). An interval of more tha intending

—

three centuries separated the Council of Trent from that of th Vatican. Never before had so long a period elapsed without a meel

Many circumstances had brough not least the work of Trent and the popes of th Counter-Reformation, which had given to the church and th papacy a program, a directive power and a centralized organizatio adapted to the needs and sentiment of the modern world. Morf over, though the papacy had emerged with renewed strength those parts of Europe and the rest of the world that had not bee lost to the Roman Church, the growth of national spirit and tt ing of the bishops of the church. this about,

i

claims of the secular ruler, which had so greatly influenced tl Reformation, were equally influential in the Catholic monarchii of Spain, France and Austria, in all of which papal authorit though acknowledged as paramount, was in practice neutralizf

COUNCIL )y the limitations set

by

old customs or

new

concordats. But whereas in Spain and Austria the obstructive forces were ilmost wholly political or social, in France under Louis XIV the

mcient claims of the Galilean church were reasserted more pre:isely in the realm of theology and political thought, with the ioctrine, based on the decrees of the Council of Constance, that a ;eneral council was superior to the pope and that papal pronouncenents required the assent of the church to acquire binding force.

most powerful Catholic nation was enough to )revent any thought of a general council, and it weakened only vhen Europe was swept by the waves of rationalism and secularsm, culminating in the French Revolution. When that great arthquake and the tidal wave of Napoleon that followed were iver, a great religious revival took place, but the papacy found tself at issue with foes both domestic and foreign. Within the This attitude of the

hurch, a large section of the older clergy, especially in France

nd Germany, was imbued with the Galilean or "Josephist" ideas the old regime, while the largely antireligious forces of liberal-

i

im and communism and the new sciences of nature and doculentary criticism threatened to penetrate and to overthrow the In addition, nationalist sentiment in Italy made the hurch. 'Roman question" a burning issue. It was with this background that the long-lived, well-loved and •luch-enduring Pius IX, whose pontificate, the longest in the hisory of the church (1846-78), witnessed the Italian risorgimento nd the disappearance of the States of the Church, decided in 1864 convoke a council "to discover the necessary remedies against It many evils which oppress the church." The bull of convoca•on was dated June 29, 1868. At the suggestion of Bishop K. J. (efele, the historian of the councils, two procedural changes 'ere made in advance, as lessons from Trent: business was preared by commissions before the council met, and the right of •

was reserved to the pope. Meanwhile the attention of Europe was concentrated on two the church with the modern state, and the :aching authority of the pope. The first topic, made immediate y the reactionary outlook of Austria, the secularist government T Bismarck and the new liberalism in Italy and France, was not fact dealt with by the council. The second had become a storm ;ntre, violent if somewhat artificially exploited, between the semiallicans of France and the heirs of Febronianism and Josephinm in Germany and Austria on the one hand, and the Ultraontanes who favoured centralization in Rome and wished for a )eedy and certain doctrinal pronouncement on every controveral topic on the other. Papal infallibility, though so much to the ire both before, during and after the council, was, on the purely 'icological level, not a major topic of controversy. Almost all the reposing subjects for discussion )pics: the relation of

1

shops present at the council, as private theologians, held the subance of the teaching that was subsequently defined. They op-

from motives and habits of mind too exacerbated to some extent by extremists on the her side; partly because they feared its consequences in provokg hostility to the church or discouraging those outside; and irtly because they feared the lengths to which their opponents

' walls backed with earth were not sufficiently strong. They were, therefore, strengthened with buttresses or counterforts from the

Later the counterfort often took the form of an arched gallerv. built behind the wall under the rampart. The word counterpoint has three meanings in music ( 1 j it may mean a melody accompanying an existembrace the whole art of combining melody; it may ing (2) inside of the wall.

COUNTERPOINT. :

same measure of punishment as the fraudulent imitation of their national money. He furthermore recommended the creation of an international bureau to be charged with the collection of all information on counterfeiting and said that it would be advisable to entrust to a committee, selected from competent persons to be appointed by the various governments, the work of framing a draft convention for the suppression of this

melodies; (3) it may describe a limited number of styles grouped together for purposes of study or examination. This article surveys the history of counterpoint in western European music in the second of the above senses. It must be borne in mind that it is impossible to separate the constituent parts of musical speech

crime.

in the article

A diplomatic conference was held in Geneva on April 9, 1929, and was attended by delegations from 35 governments and by a delegation of the International Criminal Police commission in an advisory capacity. It drew up a convention with a protocol and

any extra part to an existing part produces counterpoint There is. however, a distinction between counterpoint that is constantly parallel (similar motion) and that which may also includf!

eign currency be liable to the

compartments of their own. and therefore many details ol contrapuntal technique, insofar as they are harmonic, are discussed

into

Harmony. Contrapuntal Forms and

dition of

—

Styles.

Strictly speaking the ad

COUNTERPOINT ontrary and oblique motion. If two parts always move in similar ;notion, the ear regards them essentially as one part enriched by

but

their melodic

direction diverges they take on Further, counterpoint whose constituent parts nove together in similar rhythm is likewise limited rhythmically. loubling,

if

eparate identities.

Styles .re

dominated by

hey

may

motion and/or by similar rhythms and are contrapuntal only insofar as

parallel

said to be horaophonic

be restricted to a particular number of vocal or instru-

649

the quodlibet technique of combining existing melodies simultane-

Another partially contrapuntal device used was

ously were used.

the hocket, which is characterized by rests between notes in individual parts, the notes of one part filling in the rests in the other.

(The top part

Ex.

2 is a typical hocket part in bars 5-7 of the the most important features of good contrapuntal writing of all periods is the completion of a rhythmic patin

One of

extract.)

nore truly contrapuntal.

by the concerted effect of the rhythms of different parts (as Ex. 1), and the hocket is an early realization of this. The secular style was represented, apart from secular motets, by the so-called cantilena, which included polyphonic rondeau,

parative term,

virelai

nental melodic lines.

Styles whose different voices are

more

inde-

and rhythm are said to be polyphonic and Independence in this context is a combecause the addition of one note to another also iroduces harmony; and however independent in direction and hythm individual voices may be, their combination as harmony their melodic and rhythmic shapes are 3 a vital consideration; lendent in direction

lound

by

this consideration.

Contrapuntal forms are those that are built on a combination of idependent voices or parts, e.g., canon {q.v.), in which one voice nitates more or less exactly the melody of another voice.

The earliest known music in more than one part is parallel rganum and free organum. The former is homophonic doubling certain intervals of the original melody while the latter is a ttle more polyphonic in outlook, the added melody {vox oranalis) starting and ending with the chant (vox principalis) but iverging from it otherwise, though mostly in parallel motion, .'he two important developments in the age of organum were: 1) the use of contrary motion with the crossing of parts (c. 1100) nd (2) the use of more than one note in vox organalis to one note vox principalis. The latter paved the way for the introduction f a more florid metrical system. As the added part became more pmplex, the term discantus was introduced. school Notre Dame Paris The of in developed the use of rhythlic modes in polyphonic writing. The organa of this school use ,ie modes partially, containing sections or voices in freer rhythms, •hile discantus consisted completely of parts measured by modal lythms. In the discantus, Perotin used clausidae, which are reeated rhythmic and melodic patterns (derived from the plain t

.1

The melodic patterns did not necessarily rhythmic patterns. Perotin wrote organa for vo, three and four voices. Naturally the individual melodies of rgana for three and four voices are more constricted than in two,art writing, the upper parts, slightly decorated, moving in octaves liant), in

the tenor.

aincide with the

r

his

,

with the tenor. An interesting feature of Perotin's work use of imitation with (1) an early type of double counter-

fifths

oint,

usually repeated with the voices interchanged;

and (2) the

ft of actual canon.

Example

(two of the voices are omitted) shows not only a motion but also a contrapuntal use of of the whole is made up of the alternating lythms of each part. A second style used by the school of Notre Dame for metrical i:xts was conductus (g.v.). This was characterized by all parts /Ovir.g in almost similar rhythms and was thus a more homojonic style than organum. Voices in the 13th-century motet sang different texts simultane;jsly and the technique included the interchange of voices and the ie of tenor patterns, both borrowed from organum. In the early 5th century the upper voices were much in the conductus style Jt about 1250 a new style developed, called Franconian after •rasp

1

of the use of contrary

lythm.

The rhythm

I

,

ranco of Cologne.

In this, triplum, the highest voice in the ,otet, became more ornate and important and, though constantly i'ossing with duplum, almost took the character of a tune, the her voices accompanying. The interchange of voices, canon and

tern

in

dies

and ballade; these borrowed melodies from secular monoand used a conductuslike technique.

The 14th century saw

the rise of true counterpoint.

In the

motets of Philippe de Vitry and Guillaurae de Machaut, in the madrigals of Jacopo da Bologna and in the caccia, the different voices have much more melodic life and direction. They use isorhythm, a formal device consisting of an extended rhythmic pattern repeated throughout the work in different melodic forms. Isorhythm has a formal function, and Machaut introduced it not only into the structurally important tenor parts but also into the other voices, which thus achieved more independence. An increasing give-and-take characterized the upper parts, and the Italian trecento composers favoured newly composed tenor parts, often more quick-moving in keeping with the other parts. The emancipation of the tenor gradually led to its becoming a contrapuntal equal of the other voices. Such a passage as Ex. 2 has no isorhythmic

parallel in earlier music.

The canonic form taken by

the caccia

is

inherently contra-

puntal.

Apart from the equality of voices, the greatest spur to real contrapuntal writing was the introduction of imperfect concords harmony notes. This apparently originated in England, where there is at least one motet of the early 14th century {Ave miles coelestis Ave rex patrone Ave Rex), in which the parts, though rhythmically very much in conductus style, are melodically remarkably independent, with a distinct sense of line. Such use of imperfect concords enabled John Dunstable to evolve a systemic treatment of dissonance that dominated the harmonic system in as regular

—

—

use from about 1500 to the 20th century.

Though

cantits firmus (g.v.)

the 16th century,

and indeed

methods were used

to the

end of was

to the present day, their use

increasingly different in that the cantus firmus was no longer confined to one part. The methods of using the cantus fir?nus included: (1) canons based on the cantus firmus; (2) highly decorated melodies following the main outlines of the cantus firmus; and (3) the more ancient use with, however, much more equality in other parts, including imitation. The Flemish school of Jean d'Okeghem, Jakob Obrecht and (a little later) Josquin Despres developed these trends further, parIn replacing a normal three-part ticularly in their church music. texture with one of four parts, they encouraged the use of the four registers of male voices (treble, alto, tenor, bass). Thematic

equality

demanded

single texts,

though there are examples of old-

style multitextual motets, even in Despres.

means of extension, such as and the sectional treatments, so usual in 16thmusic, which often century vocal was a combination of polyphonic Single texts also encouraged other

the use of canon,

and more homophonic styles. Canon and fugue, the latter an extension of the former {see Fugue), are logically the most natural Any distinctive melody repeated at a of contrapuntal methods. fairly close and therefore recognizable distance in another part in contrary motion, will result some some rhythmic alternation and

COUNTERPOINT

650

Ex.

some dissonance, and the entries of different voices will produce movement. Multiple Counterpoint. From the problem of providing a second part as countermelody and from that of providing the

—

second entry of a fugal subject arose the idea of double counterpoint, a device much used in the late 16th century, especially by William Byrd. In the following example themes (a) and (b) are interchangeable in voice position, so that whatever voice sings

2

(a), another voice

may

sing (b).

Apart from the obvious musical advantages in such a procedure is the added possibility of using two distinctive themes in double counterpoint, each fitting its own phrase of the text. Such a technique was often used in vocal fugues by Handel and Bach, Double counterpoint is, of course, constantly used in instrumental fugues that have regular countersubjects. The technical problem involved in multiple counterpoint lie; there

cor- da

COUNTERPOINT between parts so inverted.

n the alteration of intervals

Ex. 3 Intervals inverted in

"hows double counterpoint in the octave. he octave behave as follows: seconds become sevenths, thirds lecome sixths, fourths ;uch inversions

rithmetically, jeing the

become

octaves become unisons. This process can be expressed

fifths,

become reciprocal. by subtracting each interval from

inverted inten,'al.

Therefore,

in

nine, the result

such counterpoint

dis-

ords invert to discords and concords to concords, with the single xception of the concordant fifth, which inverts to become the dis-

onant fourth. Hence fifths must be treated in some such in Ex. 4, so that in inversion the dissonance is resolved.

^

,s

Ex.4

manner

^^-^ The problems of inverting

in other intervals

can be deduced by subtraction by subtraction from seven and so on.

651

extract below (Ex. 6) shows an example of triple counterpoint at the 12th

and incidentally

at the ninth.

Ex. 6 is a tour de force as triple counterpoint, which is normally not possible in any interval but the octave because the changes of harmony involved in inversion at other intervals are too complex, and because such counterpoint would always involve incidental relationships. At the octave, triple counterpoint is quite common generally, and Bach found it particularly useful as a means of both linking and varying different episodes in fugues (as in Ex. S). Quadruple counterpoint occurs quite often in Bach; even quintuple appears in his Magnificat. In the quintuple counterpoint of Fecit Potentiam in the Magnificat, a new free part is given to the vocal tenor that is actually invertible (over the given bass), though not so used by Bach. An independent bass does not so much remove the difficulty of inverting extended coherent passages of multiple counterpoint {i.e., any more than quadruple) as it removes some of its pointlessness. First, the hu-

rithmetically; inversion in the tenth, for example,

man

rom eleven,

curately; secondly, the very length of a

in the sixth

advantage of inversion at intervals other than the octave is he harmonic variety that can be so obtained. Some examples of avertible counterpoint are shown in Ex. 5. ."he

Note that the alteration .1

the inner part in (b)

is

rhythmic device

in the

form of shortened note values and

a matter of keyboard convenience

purely artistic consideration, though generally inersions of triple counterpoint are often altered in details. The

hat the

in (c) is a

ixact inversion is possible in this instance,

ear

is

incapable of hearing

required to use

permutations of extended multiple counterpoint makes its use pointless; thirdly, the harmonic constriction (which is less in very chromatic passages) that denies the normal use of the fifth would encourage dullness and thinness. In the finale of Mozart's "Jupiter" Symphony, K.55I, the quintuple counterpoint occupies just less than two bars of molto allegro, f however wonderful that finale may be artistically, the almost miraculous contrapuntal powers ascribed to Mozart on the strength of it are overrated, ;

Inversion (a)

£ass

lines of counterpoint ac-

movement

different

Ex. S

ree

many

COUNTERPOISE—COUNTRY

652

view of the fact that the themes concerned are such tags. But there can be few more perfect examples of contrapuntal writing than the fugal exposition occurring in bars 36-52 and the various stretti that occur later in the movement. Sextuple counterpoint occurs in Bach's Concerto in C for three harpsichords and in his cantata movement Nun ist

was a general was a countervailing

especially in

this practice

commonplace contrapuntal

there

das Hcil.

—

Other Kinds of Inversion.

The word inversion is used also an entirely different sense to mean the turning upside-down of melody. Total inversion of passages in several parts is described as "mirror" counterpoint, exemplified by Contrapunctus XII and XIII in Bach's Die Kimst der Fugue. Such a technique and that of crabwise movement (retrograde melody called cancrizans) have rarely been used with great artistic success. It will be noted that this article ceased to be historical from the point at which multiple counterpoint was discussed. From the 16th century onward, counterpoint, as distinct from contrapuntal forms and devices, cannot be separated from harmony. The details of harmony are contrapuntal and are discussed in the article Harmony. Musical style has been more or less contrapuntal according to circumstances and further information will be found in the articles Canon, Fugue, Madrigal, Motet, etc. The 20th century has seen a renewed interest in contrapuntal forms. But contrapuntal methods have varied with harmonic methods and it would be impossible to discuss details of style within the confines in

of this article. Strict Counterpoint.

—

This is an entirely academic type of study that originated after the great polyphonic age of the late Renaissance but purports to embody the stylistic principles of

methods of using canti firmi, to which were added were to some extent founded on 16th-century methods, as Thomas Morley's book shows, though most of its that period.

Its

counterpoints,

rules bore little relation to the practice of that age. It is still widely used in contrapuntal studies. "Free counterpoint" is a name given to an academic study that is so vague in its stylistic

British tobacco production.

countervailing duties, but as a result of the increase in their production a nominal duty of \s. per gallon was imposed in 1927, which was gradually increased almost to the level of the preferential duty on Commonwealth wines. It was the usual practice to fix customs duties slightly above the countervailing excise duties in order to compensate home producers for the inconvenience caused by the imposition of the

excise duties.

For instance, there was originally a difference

raised to 2s. lOd. after

When

(P. Eg.)

countries.

COUNTRY DANCE. as a skill sui generis.

COUNTERPOISE,

in radio engineering, an artificial ground for an antenna, consisting, of a network of wires elevated above

and insulated from the earth. ficult to obtain a good ground

used in places where it is difwhere there is extremely rocky soil). A combination of counterpoise and buried-wire grounds is also possible. See Antenna (Aerial). It is

{e.g.,

COUNTERTENOR: see Singing. COUNTERVAILING DUTIES, (taxes) the object of which

is

customs or excise duties unwanted and uninThey may be imposed for the proto neutralize

tended effects of other duties. tection of domestic producers against foreign rivals not subject to excise duties, and also for the protection of foreign producers against domestic rivals whose goods are not subject to customs duties, or for the protection of one set of domestic producers against another set. When customs or excise duties are adopted or increased solely for revenue-raising purposes and not for the encouragement or discouragement of the production or import of certain goods, the government imposes countervailing duties to prevent any unwanted consequences outside the fiscal sphere. The principle became firmly established in Great Britain during the 19th century as a result of the endeavour to reconcile free trade with the need for providing revenue by means of customs duties. Such duties were adopted regularly even by Liberal governments on the assumption that, so long as countervailing excise duties were adopted at the same time, the customs tariff did not protect domestic producers and was therefore not incompatible with the basic principle of free trade. Prior to World War I

I.

vailing customs duties were applied in order to protect domestic producers against their foreign competitors. Countervailing duties were also adopted in some instances to protect one domestic industry against another when products not subject to excise duty could easily be substituted for those that were taxed. For instance, in 1928 a countervailing duty was imposed in Britain on mechanical lighters to offset the duty on matches and since 1950 petrol (gasoline) substitutes have been made subject to countervailing duties which are adjusted to accord with changes in petrol duties. The term countervailing duties is sometimes interpreted as applying to customs duties imposed for the prevention of unfair competition by foreign rivals enjoying the advantages of a strongly organized industry, unduly cheap exchange rates, sweated labour or subsidies. Thus countervailing duties were levied in Canada in 1904 on steel rails produced in the United States on the grounds that these rails were sold at prices below those charged in the home market. But such duties are now better known under the term of antidumping duties and are frequently resorted to in many

nonrecurring countermelodies in fugue and other forms. Bibliography. General works: D. F. Tovey, A Companion to "The Art of Fugue" (1931); E. Rubbra, Counterpoint (1960); H. Searle, Twentieth Century Counterpoint (1954). Sixteenth-century counterpoint: R. O. Morris, Contrapuntal Technique in the 16th Century (1922); A. T. Merritt, Sixteenth Century Polyphony (1944) K. jeppeson. The Style of Palestrina and the Dissonance (1946), Counterpoint (1950) Thomas Morley, A Plain and Easy Introduction to Practical Music, ed. by R. A. Harman (1952). (P. C. A. W.) ;

World War

excise duties were adopted for fiscal purposes, counter-

as deriving

;

of

2d. per proof gallon of spirits under the trade agreement of 1860 with France. This difference was subject to changes and was

principles as to be reducible to the whim of each particular teacher or textbook author. The term is also used, properly, to describe

—

rule. For each fiscal customs duty excise duty, even on the negligible For a long time British wines escaped

from the carole

though there

is

This type of social dance, regarded

number of couples, performance by women only

{q.v.), is for a

historical evidence of

The term was narrowly applied to a social dance practised by gentlefolk from the mid- 16th century onward; similar dances, usually referred to as "traditional," are

known

to

have existed contemporaneously among countrypeople. The origin and precise meaning of the term "country dance" is obscure and disputed. There is no positive evidence of rusticity and the sources of knowledge concerning structure, movements and music are of urban, even courtly, origin: Italian (15th-16th centuries), English (16th-19th centuries) and French (18th century) The Italian contra-passo may perhaps be accepted, but not the French contredanse (a 17th-century gallic rendering; cf. "resbif"), as the source of the English

The country dance

word already in use about 1560 main forms: (1) circular foi

exists in three

an indefinite number, such as the English 15th-century "round' or hornpipe {q.v.) (2) "longways" or double-file for an indefinite number, either processional or in a "set"; (3) geometrical forma;

tions or "sets" usually for two, three or four couples.

Insofai

as the country dance can be regarded as rustic or "folk," form!

(1) and (2) are found in that context; the few rustic examples ol (3) are generally considered to be derivations of the quadrille and the "set-running" of eastern U.S. and Canada to be a com pound of doubtful origin exhibiting characteristics of carole anc quadrille. Both (2) and (3) were known in Italy in the 15th am 16th centuries, in England from the 16th century onward and

was re-exported to Europe a contredanse {q.v.) and Kontratanz, enjoying a prolonged vogue Apart from the processional {e.g., the well-known Helston Furry carrying the participants oyer an extended route and its modifica tion "square dancing," which disposes the double-file in an end less circle, the country dance "set" remains in the same place "Figures" in great variety are executed between couples or in dividuals opposite or adjacent to one another, while in "progres sive longways" continuous interchange brings a new leading coupl to the head of the set with every repetition. In England the chief source of instruction is John Playford' as a supposed English invention, (2)

COUNTY Dancing-Master (16S1; recension by M. J. Dean-Smith, ^957), which was continued in 18 enlargements and additional /olumes until 1728 and was succeeded by numerous imitations. :n the early 19th century Thomas Wilson (.4n Analysis of Country Inglish

dancing, 1S08, etc.) gave a new aspect to the country dance, but ihe revivifying effect was soon quenched by the introduction of A 20th-century revival of country dancing was he quadrille. irought about by Cecil Sharp, founder of the English Folk Dance ociety (1911-32).

—

Bibliography. C. J. Sharp et al., The Country Dance Book, 6 parts, important introductory essays (1909-22); M. Wood, Some HisDances (1952), More Historical Dances (1955), Advanced His-

vith

orical

Dances (1959) M. Karpele.s, Twelve Traditional Country Hnces (1931); D. N. Kennedy, England's Dances (1949); M. J. )ean-Smith, "Playford's English Dancing Master," three articles in ournal of the English Folk Dance and Song Society (1943-45). (M.J. D.-S.) in the United States, is the principal geographic nrical

;

COUNTY,

subdivision of the respective states. (For the county n Great Britain and the commonwealth, see below.) Counties

,nd political

geographic areas

except Alaska (although hey are called parishes in Louisiana), and are organized as governmental units in all except Rhode Island and Connecticut. Alhough organized county government blankets most of the nation, ome local areas, in addition to Rhode Island and Connecticut, xist as

re

in

all

without county government.

states,

Most numerous among

jertain cities, principally in Virginia

but including also

these are

St.

Louis,

653

administration, such supervision as existed being provided by the multimember board of county commissioners or supervisors. Major county functions are law enforcement, judicial administration, construction and maintenance of roads, provision of public

assistance to the needy, and the recording of legal documents.

some states, principally in the south, the county plays an important role in school administration. Other services and institutions provided by some counties include health protection, hospitals, libraries, parks, weed control, predatory animal control, fire protection and agricultural aid. County government is financed for the most part from local property taxes and state-aid funds, although fees and fines constitute minor revenue sources; and occasional counties levy sales taxes or other nonproperty taxes, or operate public enterprises of a revenue-producing nature. See Clyde F. Snider, Local Government in Rural America (1957) and In

bibliography therein.

Great Britain and the Commonwealth. the county (or shire)

is

— In the

(C. F. S.)

British Isles

the principal subdivision of the country

and other purposes. Before the Norwas used as a unit of government, with ealdorman two the or alderman, and the scirgerefa or sheriff. After the Conquest, under the name of county, the shire was administered by the sheriff and the county court; but these gradually gave way to the rising power of the magistrates in quarter sessions, who by the i8th century were the real rulers for political, administrative

man Conquest

the shire

principal officers

—

became the constituency for the election members of parliament. In 1 888 the Local Government act established county councils

and Baltimore, Md., which are independent of the surround:ig or neighbouring counties, and whose governments perform within their boundaries both city and county functions. In I960, ,059 organized county governments existed in the United States, he number in individual states ranging from 3 in Delaware to

of the county.

54 in Texas.

(usually between 50 and 100) elected by universal adult suffrage, together with one-third of that number of aldermen chosen by the

ilo.,

The principal organ of county government is usually an elective commissioners or supervisors, whose members are chosen some instances from county subdivisions or districts, and in thers from the county at large. Three-member and five-member cards are most common but where provision is made for repre;ntation of townships, board membership ranges upward to 50 nd more. The term of members varies from a single year to ight years with the four-year term most common, and terms are requently staggered. The county governing board is vested with oth legislative and administrative powers. Foremost among its ;gislative powers are those of taxing, appropriating and borrowing loney on behalf of the county, although bond issues frequently

,oard of '1

;

In addition to these fiscal powers, boards legislative authority of a regulatory

iquire voter approval.

ommonly possess some ature, such as power to

license

and regulate

retail liquor estab-

shments and various forms of commercial amusement in uninjrporated areas of the county. In some states county boards %\t zoning authority. Administrative powers usually include ontrol and supervision of county institutions and property, letting contracts, settlement of claims against the county, and appointlent of various county officers and employees. Elective county offices, in addition to membership on the govif

board, most commonly include those of sheriff, treasurer, coroner, assessor, superintendent of schools, surveyor or igineer, and recorder or register of deeds. The local prosecutor, .'ning

'erk,

rough in legal contemplation a state officer, is often elected from le county. Certain other county officers, such as highway comissioners, health directors and welfare superintendents, are more

Jmmonly appointed by the county board than

elected.

Also

'equently included in the governmental organization are various

and commissions operating in such fields assessment, elections, hospitals, libraries and

)ecial-function boards ''

agriculture,

anning.

A

second half of the 20th century had managers found in many municiexecutives with larger iministrative authority less extensive than that of orthodox maulers; and a few had elective executives similar to city mayors. Ihe great majority of counties, however, were entirely without any 'igle executive officer charged with general oversight of county

'

few U.S. counties

in the

ianagers patterned after the city 'ilities;

a

somewhat

number had appointed

It also

of knights of the shire, or county

and other These councils consist of a number of county councilors

to take over the administrative duties of the magistrates

functions.

chairman elected by the councilors and alderare responsible, in accordance with acts of parliament and under the supervision of central government departments, for a wide range of administrative duties, including education; services for children and old people; town and country planning; health services; maintenance of some roads; and fire brigades. The standing joint committees which administer county police forces are composed half of members of the county councils and half of county magistrates. Other services {e.g., sanitation and housing) are provided by the councils of the county districts (urban and rural districts and municipal boroughs). Apart from the county council and its officers, the chief officials of the county are the lord lieutenant and the sheriff {q.v.), but in both cases their functions had become by the 19th century greatly, though not entirely, ceremonial and social. The county is also of importance as the unit for the territorial army, for sports (particularly cricket) and for the quarter sessions. Every part of England and Wales is within a county, but for administrative purposes many of the larger towns form county boroughs and are excluded, providing their own local government services. Also, some of the counties are divided into two or three units (e.g., the North, East and West Ridings of Yorkshire; East and West Suffolk); and so, while there are 52 geocouncilors,

men

and

together.

a

They

graphical counties, there are 62 administrative counties (including the county of London) and 83 county boroughs. There are also {e.g., Norwich, Gloucester and Nottingham) which have been granted the status of counties in themselves and are known as counties corporate. This makes little difference in practice, and they do not necessarily have the status of county borough, Scotland is similarly divided into t,t, counties, with county councils generally resembling those of England except that they include members appointed by and from the councils of burghs within their area. County councils are also found in Northern Ireland and in the Republic of Ireland, where an adaptation of the U.S. system of council-manager government has replaced the English model. Outside the British Isles the system of county government was adopted with variations in most of the countries settled from

some towns

COUNTY AGENT—COUNTY COURT

654

Britain, including (besides the United States) Canada, New Zealand, Australia, Natal and Trinidad; in 1955 an experimental

county council was established in Tanganyika. In Canada the system never became universal; where they exist, the county counNew Zealand cils are generally much smaller than in England. has had county councils since 1876, and by a process of subdivision the number had increased to 12b by the late iqsos. In Australia the administrative unit is generally called the shire, though the

and keeps minutes thereof; records ordinances, resolutions and other forms of board action; and is custodian of the board's records. Where there is no auditor or controller, the clerk commonly examines claims against the county; makes recommendation to the board concerning their payment or nonpayment; and when claims have been allowed, draws warrants upon the treasurer for their payment. In some states the county clerk serves also as clerk of one or more of the county's courts of record. Other

name county

duties assigned to his office in

used for larger areas.

is

—

F. VV. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond Sidney and Beatrice Webb, The Parish and the Countv (.11)24) VV. O. Hart, Introduction to the Laiv of Local Governmrnt and Administration, 6th cd. (iQ.i;7) J. Rcdlich and F. W. Hirst, The History of Local Government in England, 2nd ed. (iqjS) R. J. Pola.'ichek (ed.), Local Government in Neiv Zealand (tq^(') K. G. Crawford, Canadian Municipal Government (1954) James E. Shaw, Local Government in Scotland (i047) Howard A. Street, The Law Relating to Local Gov-

Kihi.KH'.R.M'HY.

(i8i)7)


' of a single origin of the

Mediterranean and

its

subsequent dispersal

by migration or diffusion to all other localities where it has been reported. A more representative mid-20th century view is that the couvade originated independently a half dozen or so times in each major area of occurrence and subsequently spread to neighbouring peoples. Its social function is to emphasize the role of the father in reproduction, but those primitive societies which lacked the couvade were not ignorant of biological paternity, as

some 19th century writers supposed. Bibliography. W. R. Dawson, The Custom

—

L. Krocbcr, Anthropology (1948) World (1957).

;

of Couvade (1929); A, E. A, Hoebel, Man in the Primitive

(H. E. D.)

COVARRUBIAS, MIGUEL

(1904-1957), Mexican

writer and anthropologist, was born in

Mexico

City,

He

painter,

received

In 1923 he went to New York city on a government scholarship, and his incisive caricatures soon began to appear in Vanity Fair and elsewhere; a collection. The Prince little

formal training.

Famous Americans, was published in 1925. numerous magazines and books, extending his instudy of racial types. In 1930 and 1933 he and his a photographer, visited the orient, and subsequently he

of Wales and Other

He

illustrated

terest to the

wife,

wrote Island of Bali (1937). In 1939 Covarrubias painted six mural maps illustrating the cultures of the Pacific area for the Golden Gate International exposition. San Francisco, published as Pageant of the Pacific (1940). Turning to Mexico, he wrote and illustrated an account of the Tehuantepec region, Mexico South (1946). His last book. The Eagle, the Jaguar, and the Serpent (1954), surveyed the cultures of the northern American Indians. Covarrubias also worked as a theatre designer, easel painter, print maker and teacher. His work reflects a flair for decoration, perceptiveness and thorough craftsmanship. He died at Mexico City on Feb. 4, 1957. Bibliography, H. C, Pitz, "Miguel Covarrubias of Mexico City," in American Artist, vol, xii, no, 1, pp. 20-24 (Jan. 1948) Justino Fernandez, Arte moderno y contempordneo en Mexico, pp. 446-448

—

;

(1952)

Augustin Velazquez Chivez, Indice de

pintura mexicana contemporinea,pp.2S-i\ {l9iS). (D.VV.S.) a mineral species consisting of cupric sulfide ;

la

COVELLITE,

(CuS), although not

many copper system,

is

a

mines,

major ore of copper Covellite,

crystallizing

{q.v.), in

is

found

in

the hexagonal

of less frequent occurrence in nature than chalcocite

orthorhombic cuprous sulfide. Crystals are rare, the mineral being usually found as compact and earthy masses or as a blue coating on other copper sulfides. The dark indigo-blue colour is a characteristic feature, and the mineral was early known as indigo-copper. The name covellite is taken from N. Covelli, whc in 1839 observed crystals of cupric sulfide encrusting Vesuvian lava, the mineral having been formed there by the interaction of hydrogen sulfide and cupric chloride, both of which are volatile volcanic products. Covellite is, however, more commonly found in copper-bearing veins, where it has resulted by the alteration of (L, J, S,) other copper sulfides, especially chalcopyrite. iq.v.), the

COVENANT,

an agreement made between two or more perThe word has various specific usages in history, most important examples being the National Covenant of 1638 and the Solemn League and Covenant of 1643, and the covenant of the League of Nations; for these, see Covenanters and League of Nations, For the use of the word in law and in sons or groups. the

religion, see below.

In Law. in a deed.

— Covenant,

a promise

in law, is

The promise may be

made under

seal;

i.e.,

positive (to do something) oi

negative (not to do something) the deed may be a deed poll, with no party to it other than the covenantor, or there may be two or more parties. In modern times certain enforceable promises not made under seal, especially those relating to land, are ;

sometimes loosely referred to as covenants. {See Real PR0PERT^ AND Conveyancing, Laws of.) The effects of putting a promise under seal are various. Al common law, an agreement made without valuable consideratior Again, under thi is unenforceable unless made under seal. .

;

COVENANT time bars an action on a simple sooner than an action on a covenant. In most cases, promise is put under seal not in order to secure the lowever, a pecial consequences of a covenant but merely because the law equires the transaction to be effected by deed (as in the case of nost formal dealings with land), and so any promises in the docunent perforce become covenants. Covenants are used for a wide variety of purposes. Frequently hey are merely incidental (though often important) parts of a ransaction under seal, e.g., a lease, but sometimes they are of he essence. Thus it is common to find pajTnents being made to )ersons or associations under deeds of covenant. However, it is n relation to land that covenants have a special importance, rhree categories caD for special mention: 1. Covenants for title are covenants in a conveyance of land vhereby the grantor undertakes to protect the grantee and his tatutes of limitation, lapse of

:ontract

in title against defects in title. In their broadest orm, usually found in a warranty deed, they are against any In England, however, the traditional covenants

uccessors

iefect in title.

•xtend only to the acts or defaults of the grantor, of those claim-

ng under him and of any predecessors in title back to the last the benefit of all covenants for title runs In a quit-claim deed, no covenants for title are vith the land. ;iven to the purchaser. 2. Leasehold covenants are covenants contained in a lease. At ::ommon law a contract is normally enforceable only against the ontracting party, but leasehold covenants which "touch and conem" the land are enforceable against the landlord and tenant or the time being, even though they are not the original lessor jid lessee. (See Landlord and Ten.^nt.) 3. Restrictive covenants, or "equitable servitudes," show a urther modification of the common-law rule. In Tulk v. Moxlay, 2 Ph. 774 (1848), it was held that a covenant to maintain )urchaser for value;

^eicester

enforced

square, London, uncovered with buildings would be by injunction against a subsequent purchaser who bought

of the covenant.

This decision Ufted such covenants

rom the sphere of contract

to that of property; thereafter they

vith notice

bound all except a In the second half of the 19th century such covenants were widely used lot only to protect individual plots of land but also to secure uniormity in the development of estates by means of schemes

vere

equitable proprietary interests which

lurchaser without notice.

.nd the first half of the 20th,

ubjecting

plots

all

estrictions:

e.g.,

in

within them to uniform and reciprocal prohibiting their use for any purpose save

securing a uniform "set back" and in prothe erection of cheap buildings and unsightly outhouses,

)rivate residence, in libiting

n

many ways such schemes were

the private equivalent of the

mblic control subsequently imposed by town planning laws and oning ordinances, but the modern tendency, particularly in Engand,

more on public

to rely

is

control and less on private re-

trictions.

The debate

in the

members

United States concerning covenants not to

buy or use a parcel of land hould not obscure the usefulness of restrictive covenants as a onstructive tool in community planning. Racial covenants in

lermit

of a specified race to

now unenforceable (1948) and Barrows v. vhich made judicial sanction of n England the special rules for he U.S. are J.S.

1

under Shelley v. Kraemer, 334 Jackson, 346 U.S. 249 (1953), such covenants unconstitutional, restrictive covenants apply only

negative covenants, but in the United States the courts have

xtended the rules to positive covenants as well. Covenants someimes hinder rather than help, for they remain enforceable in lerpetuity, even if obsolete. However, the courts viill not en-

them if changed circumstances make this inequitable, and England the Law of Property act, 192S, s. 84, provides also a procedure for modifying or discharging covenants in

orce a

tatutorj'

pecified circumstances.

—The Hebrew word

In Religion.

(R- E. My.) berith, translated as "cove-

denotes a relation between two persons or groups, beween God and man or between God and the created world. This elation is characterized as harmonious existence (peace), law nd order, reconciliation, mutual or unilateral protection, trust,

lant,"

675

Covenant is established either unilaterally, by the gracious more powerful of the two, or mutually, by two equals. Though the term is often used in the Old Testament to express a relation between two parties in the sphere of law, business, politics, individual friendship and tribal intercourse, it is employed in a more important theological sense to express the nature and meaning of man's fellowship with God. As a Form in Human Relations. The covenant may be a bond of allegiance between friends Like David and Jonathan (I Sam. xxiii, 18), a treaty between two chieftains like Jacob and Laban (Gen. xxxi, 44 ff.) or simply a business agreement (I Kings v, 12). etc.

act of the

—

This type of covenant is not entirely secular, however, but quently has religious sanctions (Gen. xxxi, 49).

As

a Religious

and Social

Institution.

—The

relation

fre-

between

God and

his people is understood as covenant. Yet here the term has a different meaning from its use in human relations. In the sphere of religion, covenant is a means whereby the deity is represented as binding his worshipers to himself by a sovereign act of grace and calling them to obedient allegiance and faithfulness. Among the Hittites and other peoples of the near east in the 2nd millennium B.C. there existed a form of political covenant which resembled the covenant between Yahweh and Israel. This is the so-called suzerainty treaty, in which the suzerain binds his vassals to himself unilaterally and makes stipulations which they

The

are to observe.

suzerainty treaty, as well as other near-

eastern types of covenant, has been adduced as evidence for the early age of the Old

was the central

Testament covenant form. The covenant which bound the tribes of Israel to-

institution

gether in both the political and the religious sphere. This ancient institution was radically changed when the monarchy became the central authority in the 10th century B.C. Two covenant ceremonies are primarily noteworthy: the covenant at Sinai (Ex. xix-xxiv; xx.xiv) and the covenant at Shechem In the Sinai covenant, Israel is inaugurated as (Josh. xxiv). Yahweh's people and exhorted to obedience to the stipulations

Ten Commandments). {See Exodus; Decalogue; Ark.) In the Shechem covenant, the tribes were united into a league which worshiped Yahweh as the God who led them {See Joshua, Book of.) In the covenant cereout of Egypt. mony the intermediary proclaimed God's gracious acts of salvation and exhorted the people to do God's will (Ex. xix, 4-6; xx, 1-17), and after the people's promise of allegiance (Ex. xix, 8; of covenant (the

"blood of the coveThe intermediary of nant" and the sacred meal (Ex. xxiv). covenant be he Moses, the priest or the king represented the deity who bound his people to himself in the covenant rite. During and after the Exile (and in the New Testament), the intermediary became an eschatological figure and a symbol of God's xxiv, 7) he presided at the sprinkling of the

—

—

new order of salvation (Isa. xUi, 6-9; cj. Heb. ix, 15). As a Symbol for the Promise of God. The oath of Yahweh, promising protection and guidance to an individual who somehow represented the totahty of the people, is termed covenant. The covenants with Abraham (Gen. xv) and with David (II Sam. vii,

—

8-17; Ps. Ixxxix, 19-37) constitute symbols which are frequently used in biblical tradition to denote God's promise of eternal faithfulness to his people (Isa. Iv, 3; Luke i, 72-73). As a Symbol for God's Plan and Purpose in History. The notion that there is a given order in which man exists, and a purpose to his life and to the hfe of the religious community, is sometimes expressed by the term covenant. According to this view,

—

God established an order of harmonious existence for all mankind in primeval times in the covenant with Noah (Gen. ix, S-17) he promised protection to the people of Israel in the covenant with Abraham (Gen. xvii, 1-14); and he revealed his will to his people in the covenant with Moses at Sinai. This series of covenants symbolizes the stages in the purposeful forward movement of history from the natural world (Noah) to the elect people (Abrathe revelation of law through Moses. The "New Covenant." Jeremiah reinterpreted the ancient covenant notion and coined the term the "new covenant." It

ham) and

—

was a symbol for the new

life

which God would establish for {See Jeremlah.)

his people in the future (Jer. xxxi, 31-34).

COVENANTERS— COVENTRY

676

—

In its ancient Theological Meaning in the Old Testament. usage, covenant symbolized the interrelation between God's grace anti man's re.s|)onsibility, between "gospel" and "law." It also stood for God's sovereignty as Israel's God. Although covenant was sometimes interpreted in a legalistic way (Deut. xxvi,

17-19), the institution of covenant presupposed God's forgiveIn Jeremiah and ness (E.\. .\.\xiv, 6, 7, 10; cf. Jer. xxxi, 34). Deutero-I.saiah, covenant becomes a symbol for God's entering upon the scene of history to create a new people unto Himself.

—

New Testament. The life and death of Jesus in terms of the new covenant which has replaced Last Supper is seen as a covenant rite in which the the old. The wine symbolizes the suffering of Jesus and the blood of the covenant (Ex. xxiv, 8; Mark xiv, 24; I Cor. xi, 25), Jesus being the intermediary of the new covenant (Heb. viii, 6; ix, 15). .See Hebrews, Epistle to the. BiBi.iocKAPHY. George E. Mcndcnhall, Law and Covenant in Israel and the Ancient' Near East (1955); Edmond Jacob, Theology of the Old Testament {195' dark red or may be mottled red and white. It is cultivated on acid soils of peat or vegetable mold, free from loam and clay, cleared of turf and with a surface layer of sand. Additional sand; It is grown extensively is applied to the surface every few years. in Massachusetts, New Jersey and Wisconsin and near the coasi in Washington and Oregon. Early Black and Howes are the mair varieties in the east, McFarlin and Searls in Wisconsin and Mc in Three new varieties are Beckwith, StevenFarlin the far west. and Wilcox. False blossom is a very harmful, though easily controlled, virus in Massachusetts and disease

velopment after about 151 5, and it was faithfully imitated by a well-drilled group of studio assistants. The highly finished, massproduced paintings of this later period suffer by comparison with His earliest the more individual work of his early manhood. known pictures, all probably executed in Vienna, show him as an avant-garde artist of considerable emotional force, one of the Notable among them are a initiators of the Danube school. "Crucifixion" (c. 1500) and "St. Jerome" (1502) in Vienna; a "Crucifixion" (1503) in Munich; portraits of "Dr. Cuspinian and His Wife" (1502-03; Reinhart collection, Winterthur) and of "Dr. Reuss and His Wife" (1503; Nuremberg, Berlin); and a "Flight Into Egypt" (1504; Berlin). In these paintings the incidents of sacred story and the accidents of human appearance merge with a wildly luxuriant landscape into a painterly vision at once pathetic and lyrical. Here, and still more in his earliest designs for woodcuts, he challenges comparison with Albrecht Diirer. The first decade of Cranach's stay at Wittenberg was marked by a series of experiments in which he adapted his style to suit the demands of the Saxon court. The "Martyrdom of St. Catherine" (1506; Dresden) already shows a radical break with his earlier manner; there is exquisite detail in the realistic portrait heads, but courtly decorum has purged the scene of all emotion and given it a decorative bias, with strong emphasis on the patFollowing his visit to the Netherlands in 1508, terns of dress. Cranach experimented with Italo-Netherlandish ideas of spatial construction (Frankfurt altar, 1509) and monumental nudes ("Venus" woodcut, 1509; painted version, 1509; Leningrad). But his true bent lay elsewhere, as

is

shown by the splendid

"Duke Heinrich and Duchess Katharina (1514; Dresden) which mark the establishment of his

portraits of

full-length

of

Saxony"

official

por-

Here space and volume are annihilated; magnificent by a featureless backdrop, are topped by faces reCranach was a pioneer their essential, typical features.

trait style.

clothes, set off

duced

to

of the frigid state portraiture of the i6th century, but he of the icy reserve of his successors

fell

short

—Holbein, Bronzino or Mor

because his abiding Gothic taste invariably led him to exaggerate a feature or elaborate a beard or dress for the sake of linear

rhythms or calligraphic effects. With male sitters his method sometimes yields an image of startling power; e.g., "Dr. Schoner" (1529; Brussels). His female portraits are uniformly vapid. The resurgence of Gothic linear rhythms is fundamental for the whole of Cranach's later work. His "River Nymph" (1518; Leipzig) demonstrates the assurance with which he now translated a Renaissance model Giorgione's "Venus" (c. 15 10; Dresden)

—

into his personal language of linear arabesque.

It

inaugurated a

long series of paintings, of Venus, Lucretia, the Graces, the Judgment of Paris and numerous other subjects serving as pretexts for the female nude, in which Cranach appears as a kind of 16th-

century Boucher. The naive elegance of these ladies and their sinuous lines, defying ever>' principle of anatomy, were clearly to the taste of the German courts and have an enduring charm. But in conception and style they look back to the international Gothic painting of a century before.

plants allied to the blueberries.

ern cranberry iVacciniiim oxycoccos')

New

Fruit-rot control

Jersey.

especially important in

New

The is

small-fruited or north-

found

in

marshy

land

in

is

Jer-

There are many injurious insects. Weed control by chemicals, mowing and hand weeding sey,

important. The vines are protected from winter injury and are

from

by

frosts

flooding.

The

picking of the berries begins early in September and continues until late October.

More than ordinarily

3.000.000 bu. are annually.

produced

AMERICAN CRANBERRY (VACCINIU MACROCARPON) meats but are also much used in pies and in making a fresh fruit beverage; mos Mor of the consumption is in the United States and Canada. than half the U.S. crop is made into a canned sauce. The cowberry or foxberry (F. vitis-idaea), called mountain c rock cranberry in the eastern United, States, and by some linger

They

are used mostly as a sauce

and as a

relish for

berry, is not cultivated but is used extensively in northern Europ and by Scandinavians in U.S. cities. The so-called southern crat; berry or red huckleberry (V. erythrocarpum) is indigenous in i)S mountains from West Virginia to Georgia and is remarkable ft the tine flavour of its dark-red berry. The fruit of the cranberi tree or highbush cranberry (Viburnum trilobum) is sometirm

used as a substitute for true cranberries

in

Canada and

the nortl

ern United States.

See also Vaccinium. See Cranberries (national cranberry magazine) Bulletins 445 (194S 447 (1948), 450 (1948) and 463 (1952) of the Massachusetts Agrici (G. M. D.) tural Experiment Station. ;

CRANBROOK—CRANE CRANBROOK, GATHORNE GATHORNE-HARDY, 5T

Earl of (1814-1906),

;ssive

314. illed

British statesman, a member of sucConservative ministries, was born at Bradford on Oct. 1, He graduated from Oriel college, Oxford (1836), and was to the bar (1840), practising on the northern circuit with

He became M.P.

for Leominster in 1856 and soon and a stern upholder of the Conundersecretary at the home office from 358 to 1859 and in 1865, after a sharp contest, he won a seat for xford university from Gladstone. He entered Lord Derby's ibinet as president of the poor law board (1866) and succeeded ight success.

.ade his

mark

as a ready debater

^rvative party.

He was

Walpole as home secretary (1867). In the early 1870s he acted as Disraeli's deputy in the commons and was war

jencer 'ten

cretary in the cabinet of 1874, gaining the full confidence of He loyally supported Sir Stafford Northcote when the le queen.

succeeded Disraeli as leader of the commons in 1876, and years later he retired to the lords as Viscount Cranbrook of emsted, in Kent (May 1878), a year after having exchanged

tter JO

war office for the India office. Throughout the near eastern crisis of the late 1870s (see EngSH History: The Victorian Age, 1837-1901) Lord Cranbrook rongly supported Disraeli, who once described him to the queen the leader in the cabinet of "the war party pure and simple." Lord Salisbury's governments of 1885 and 1886-92 Lord Cranook was president of the council, and on retiring from public e when the ministry resigned in 1892 he was raised to an earlHe lived on, amid a large family, to the age of 92, and died ')m. Hemsted Park on Oct. 30, 1906. See A. E. Gathorne-Hardy (ed.), Calhorne Hardy, 1st Earl of anbrook (1910). (M. R. D. F.) (1803-1890), U.S. schoolCRANDALL, acher whose efforts to educate Negro girls aroused controversy the 1830s, was born of Quaker parentage at Hopkinton, R.I., ':pt. 3, 1803. She was educated in the Friends' school at Provi'nce, taught at Plainfield, Conn., and in 1831 established a pri,te academy for girls at Canterbury, Conn. Although the school IS recognized as one of the best in the state, by admitting a ;gro girl she lost her white patrons, and in March 1833, on the vice of William Lloyd Garrison and Samuel J. May, she opened )Chool for "young ladies and little misses of colour." For this she IS persecuted, boycotted and socially ostracized; measures were Icen in the Canterbury town meeting to break up the school, and ally in May 1833 the state legislature passed the notorious Con:cticut "Black law," prohibiting the establishment of schools r nonresident Negroes in any city or township of Connecticut thout the consent of the local authorities. Miss Crandall, resing to submit, was arrested, tried and convicted in the lower urts, whose verdict, however, was reversed on a technicality by e

'

PRUDENCE

!

e

court of appeals in July 1834.

Thereupon the

local opposition

and she was finally in Sept. 1834 forced to close married the Rev. Calvin Philleo a Baptist clergy^'tn in 1834, and the couple moved to Illinois. After her husband's i.ath she lived with her brother in Kansas, dying at Elk Falls on a. 28, 1890. The Connecticut "Black laws" were repealed in ,38. The episode of Miss Crandall's school is significant as showi; the attitude of a New England community toward the Negro that time, and throws light on the social background of the her redoubled,

k school. She

olition

movement

{g.v.) in the U.S.

CRANE, (HAROLD)

HART

(1899-1932). U.S. poet who life, themes and poetry distinguished for its experimentation jd technical mastery. Born at Garrettsville, O., July 21, 1899, he ,d a turbulent and unhappy youth disturbed also by the inWhite Buildings strialization of the agrarian middle west. 926), his first book, stressed his probings into the nuances of turned away Crane lotion. Then, unlike many contemporaries. Although still re'm despair toward mystical affirmation. :tant to accept all phases of American life, he derived fresh petus from Walt Whitman's faith in America's democratic hieved

renown by rhapsodically fusing American

dritual aspirations in

Finally, with religious passion whose fervour was awesome, undertook to reveal the spiritual essence of America's destiny

ture.

a series of

poems

unified

by

that great

symbol of American

695

engineering and art, the Brooklyn bridge. The Bridge (1930), shadowed by Crane's recurrent doubts, was not entirely successful.

Nonetheless, it confirmed his poetic powers and won him critical honours. His life, however, had been disintegrating under the pressures of personal and economic insecurity. Returning from Me.xico, where he had gone to write an epic dealing with Cortds

and Montezuma, Crane jumped or bean sea and was drowned April Hterary renaissance of the

modern

literature.

overboard into the CaribImportant in the 1932. 1920s, Crane profoundly influenced (B. W.; X.) fell

27,

Crane's Collected Poems, ed. by Waldo Frank, appeared in 1933, and his Letters, igi6-ig32, ed. by Brom Weber, in 1952. See also Philip Horton, Hart Crane (1937) Brom Weber, Hart Crane (1948) and H. D. Rowe, Hart Crane, a Bibliography (iq55). ;

;

CRANE, STEPHEN

(1871-1900), U.S. author, won outstanding fame as novelist, poet and S"hort-story writer. Born Nov. I, 1871, in Newark, N.J., Crane was still a brilliant prodigy when he died of tuberculosis in Germany at the age of 29. As William Dean Howells said. Crane's genius seemed to "spring to life fully armed." The sources of his vivid style and individual vision of life are still somewhat mysterious. His father, Jonathan Crane, an intellectually inclined Methodist minister of good family, died in 1880, leaving Stephen, the last of 14 children, to be reared by his devout, strong-minded mother. After preparatory school at the Claverack college or Hudson River Military institute. Crane spent one baseball-minded semester at Lafayette college and another at Syracuse university in 1890-gi and then went to New York to live in a medical students' boardinghouse while freelancing his

way

to a literary career.

Alternating Bohemian stu-

and exploration of the Bowery slums with genteel visits to relatives in the country near Port Jervis, N.Y., Crane gathered his forces for his first book, Maggie: A Girl oj the Streets (1893), dent

life

a sympathetic study of the bitter warfare of life in the slums. At that time so shocking that Crane published it under a pseudonym and at his own expense, Maggie left him to struggle as a free-lance journalist, poor and unknown until he was befriended

by Hamlin Garland and Howells. Suddenly in 1895 The Red Badge of Courage and his first book of poems. The Black Riders, brought him dazzling international fame. Strikingly different in tone and technique from Maggie, The Red Badge of Courage reaffirms Crane's view of life as warfare, and studies a young person trying to find reality amid conflict. His hero, Henry Fleming, survives fear, cowardice, illusion and vainglory and so discovers courage, humility, and perhaps wisdom in the confusion of an unnamed Civil War battle. Crane, who had as yet seen no war, was widely praised by veterans for his uncanny power to imagine and reproduce the sense of actual combat. Crane's few remaining years were chaotic and personally disHis unconventionality and sympathy for the downastrous. trodden were distorted by malicious gossip into false charges of drug addiction and Satanism which disgusted the fastidious Crane. His reputation as a war writer, his desire to see if he had guessed right about the psychology of combat, and his fascination with death and danger sent him to Greece and then to Cuba as a war After his marriage in 1897 he made his headcorrespondent. quarters in England until just before his death. There he won the friendships of two other American expatriates, Henry James and Harold Frederic, as well as Joseph Conrad. Privation and exposure in his Bowery years and as a correspondent, together with an almost deliberate disregard for his health, probably hastened if they did not bring on the disease which killed him so young. After The Red Badge of Courage, Crane's few attempts at the novel were of small importance, but he achieved extraordinary mastery of the short story. He exploited youthful small-town experiences, The Monster and Other Stories (1899) and Whilomville Stories (1900); the Bowery again, George's Mother (1896); an early trip to the southwest and Mexico, "The Blue Hotel," "The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky"; the Civil War again. The Little Regiment (1896), and war correspondent experiences. The Open Boat and Other Tales of Adventttre (1898) and Wounds in the Rain (1900). In the best of these tales Crane showed rare ability to shape colourful settings, dramatic action and perceptive char-

CRANE

696

bill, more compact plumage and elevated hind toe. In night the long neck is stretched out in front, the stiltlike legs trailing out behind. Cranes form an ancient group,

acterization into ironic explorations of

human nature and destiny. In even briefer scope, rhymeless. cadenced and "free" in form, his uniiiue. Hashing poetry was extended into War Is Khid (1899). Dramatic, symbolic, ironic in method, astringent in atmosphere and sound. Crane's poetry has often been accounted one of the earliest effective revolts against 19th-century Tennysonian verse

heavier

and the next important step after Emily Dickinson toward modern

the

poetry.

recovered

more than the unique work of would be secure in the major position he has won in the history of American literature. There is an edition of Crane's work in 12 volumes, edited by Wilson FoUett (1925-26), which, however, omits some work of interest. Follett also edited Collected Poems of Stephen Crane (1930). R. W. Stallman's Stephen Crane: An Omnibus (1952) includes novels, short stories, poems, newspaper articles and letters, with critical notes and introductions. Stephen Crane's Love Letters to Nellie Crouse, with Six Other Letters was edited by Edwin H. Cady and Lester G. Well (1954).

earliest

families

the generation produced nothing

M'lKirate

Stephen Crane,

family Gruoidea,

it

—

Bibliography. Vincent Starrett and Ames W. Williams, Stephen Crane, a Bibliography (1948); Thomas Beer, Stephen Crane (1923); John Berryman, Stephen Crane (1950) Daniel Hoffman, The Poetry of Stephen Crane (1957), a critical analysis. (E. H. Cy.) ;

CRANE, 'WALTER painter,

known

(1845-1915), English illustrator and

for his imaginative illustrations of children's books,

was the second son of the portrait painter and miniaturist Thomas Crane (1808-59) and was bom in Liverpool on Aug. 15, 1845. Having moved to London, Crane became an apprentice to the wood engraver W. J. Linton, 1859-62, and thus was able to study both the Italian old masters and contemporary work by D. G. Rossetti, Sir John Millais, Sir John Tenniel and Frederick Sandys. Probably the most important technical development in his art derived from the study of Japanese colour prints, whose methods he used in a series of toy books (1869-75 ), thereby starting a new fashion. The ideas and teachings of the Pre-Raphaelites and of John Ruskin manifested themselves in his early paintings such as "The Lady of Shalott" (Royal Academy, 1862). The

Academy

steadily refused his later work, but the opening of the

1877 enabled him regularly to show there until 1888. He became an associate of the Royal Water-colour society in i88g and a member in 1902. In 1864 he began to illustrate for Edmund Evans, the colour printer, an admirable series of sixpenny toy books of nursery rhymes. A new series, beginning

Grosvenor

gallerj'

in

with The Frog Prince (1S73), was more elaborate, and to the Japanese influence was added that of Florentine 15th-century painting, following upon a long visit to Italy. A strong didactic, moral element underlies much of his work, and for several years Crane contributed weekly cartoons for the

and The Commonweal, many of which were collected as Cartoons for the Cause 1896). He was founderpresident of the Art Workers' guild, and in 1888 founded the Arts and Crafts Exhibition society. As a teacher he exerted wide influence, becoming art director first of the Manchester School of Art (1893-96), then of Reading college (1896-98) and finally principal of the Royal College of Art, South Kensington (189899). His chief importance lies in book illustration, the standard of which he helped greatly to raise. He worked with William Morris in 1894 on the page decorations of The Story of the Glittering Plain, printed by the Kelmscott press in the style of 16thcentury German and Italian woodcuts. Among the best of his book illustrations are those for Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Qtieene (1894-96) and The Shepheard's Calendar. He died at Horsham, Sussex, on March 14, 191 5.

inhabit

all

—

Bibliography. P. G. Konody, The Art of Walter Crane (1902) O. von Schleinitz, "Walter Crane," Kunstler Monographien (1902) Walter Crane, An Artist's Reminiscences (1901). (D. L. Fr.)

CRANE,

any of 14 species of

tall

;

;

wading birds of the family

Gruidae, placed with rails (g.v.) in the order Gruiformes. They commonly confused with herons (g.v.), which they resemble superficially, but are usually larger and have a part-naked head,

are

the

in

super-

Living form? the great zoogeograph

regions except the neotrop

ical

(South America). These graceful terrestrial bird^ stalk about in marshes and or

ical

plains, eating small animals of a!

WHOOPING

CRANE

(GRUS

sorts as well as grain

AMERI.

Two

shoots.

CANA)

and

gras;

olive-gray

eggs

spotted with brown and measuring 4 by 2\

are laid in a nest of grasses and weed stalks on driemarsh or field; the same nest may be used year afte year. The brownish, downy young can run about shortly afte hatching. The trachea or windpipe is simple in the chick ready

ground

in.,

in

ti

leave the egg; with advancing age the trachea lengthens,

upon

The trachea

a French horn.

coilini

buried in th' hollow keel of the breastbone and reaches a length of five fee in the whooping crane {Grus americana), noted for its peculia loud vvhooplike call. itself, like

The whooping American

lies

crane, on the verge of extinction,

is

the

talles

white with black primaries, measure! about 52 in. long (wingspread 92 in.) and breeds in southen Mackenzie district and northern Saskatchewan, wintering in south eastern Texas. The little brown crane (G. canadensis canadensis] 35 in. long, breeds from Alaska to Hudson bay, wintering fror California and Texas south into Mexico. The sand-hill cran (G. c. tabida), 44 in. long and chiefly brownish-gray in colou formerly bred in southern Canada and the northern half of th of

U.S.,

is

now

birds.

It is

rare east of the Mississippi.

Its call

is

long, harsi

The Florida crane G. c. pratensis) breeds in Florid (Okefinokee swamp), southern Georgia and probably Louisian; The common crane (G. grus) breeds in Europe and northern Asi. penetrating.

(

England, migrating southward in large flocks in autum and China. The native con panion (G. rubicunda) lives in Australia and southern New Guine The demoiselle crane {Anthropoides virgo) breeds in Algeri southeastern Europe and central Asia; the crowned crane (Bal arica pavonina), over nearly all of Africa; and the wattled crai {Biigeranus carimculatus) in eastern and southern Africa. formerly

in

to winter in northern Africa, India

,

(G. F. Ss.)

socialist periodicals Justice

(

having been

fossils

from the Eocene of North America; the fossils Gerath>i'pe of crane, for the

weight of the

revolving part of the superstructure to be carried on top of a forged steel centre post, the over-

onally.

—

Power. Most cranes, and particularly overhead and traveling quay cranes, use electricity as the motive Electrical energy can be transmitted with an efficiency not ached by any other method. Electric motors for cranes can take for their supply electric Electric

— For

cranes, the use of water has decreased in favour of special oils or

snt that

,

where

wide variations of speed control are required. In this case a diesel engine drives a D.C. generator, which in turn provides the energy for D.C. electric motors. The use of a variable-voltage generator coupled to a diesel engine is preferred in some cases.

electric, diesel, hydraulic,

provide a further means of classification. Hand cranes extremely useful when the load is not excessive and the quantiles to be dealt with are not great, also when speed is not important id first cost is an essential consideration. The net effective work f lifting that can be performed by a man turning a handle may latic

697

or, for larger

turning

moment

of the load being

•anes

taken on

Dwer.

bottom of the superstructure, which roll around the part of the post immediately above the bed

jrrent of either the alternating- or the direct-current type, ranes are increasingly fitted with alternating-current (A.C.) mors rather than with direct-current (D.C.) machines, although in

of the crane.

ises

Overhead Cranes.

where special control features are required, D.C. motors

For cranes designed to work from A.C. supply, the electric moare usually of the slip-ring induction type, and the horsepower the motors depends on the load and on the speed of operation quired. For crane motors of up to about 60 h.p., it is usual for mtrollers to be of the simple drum type, whereas motors larger lan 60 h.p. usually have master-controller-operated contactor luipment. This equipment is also used with smaller horsepower otors where the duty is arduous, and where a drum-type conoiler would cause considerable fatigue to the crane operator. One of the disadvantages of the A.C. as compared with the D.C. otor is that its electric braking is inferior. Many schemes have •en adopted in order to obtain braking similar to that of D.C. ma.ines, those most successful being the countercurrent system, or stems incorporating D.C. injection. Special types of A.C. mors have been designed to obtain wide speed variation, and the incipal type is known as the commutator motor. Many crane users prefer D.C. motors. These are in every way mirable for crane work, being capable of a wide speed range and •rs

I

ving inherent braking features.

When

a very wide range of speed control is required, whether incoming current supply is A.C. or D.C, it is usual for cranes be fitted with Ward-Leonard or constant-current control sys-

—There

carried at the

and is

which runs on elevated gantry rails and consists, in the main, of two beams resting on traveling end girders and supporting a cab This type of crane has three motions, 2[A] ). (see fig. or trolley those of hoisting, long traveling and cross traversing. The overhead type of crane is mainly used inside buildings for general lifts and has the advantage of causing no obstruction at floor level. These cranes are sometimes used on gantries in the open; e.g., in stockyards. In this case, full weather protection is given to the machinery. Most overhead cranes are operated by electric moOvertors, although smaller cranes may be manually operated. head cranes are manufactured in sizes up to 300-400 tons lifting -SIMPLE HAND CRANE

capacity.

It is usual for the smaller sizes of crane,

up

but it is not normal for overhead cranes to have a span greater than about 120 ft. A typical overhead crane for lifting loads of about 50 tons, and having a span of 50 ft., would have a hoisting speed of 10 ft. per minute, a trolley traverse speed of 70 ft. per minute and a downshop traveling speed of 230 ft. per minute. ing,

When fitted to the hoisting motor of a crane, this equipment n be arranged to give speeds of about Jg. of the full-load speed

ms.

it can also, by means of a load-discrimithan full-load hoisting speeds when light

len hoisting or lowering;

ids are

being lifted.

Diesel

Power.

—

It is

becoming increasingly usual

to drive

by

;sel-powered cranes that are required to be self-contained, esperail-mounted and mobile cranes. These can be driven di-

illy

':tly

from the

diesel engine

with the use of a suitable clutch,

to 50 tons

capacity, to be designed to standard dimensions and clearances. of the girders naturally varies with the size of the build-

The span

e

ting device, give faster

Goliath

no doubt that

the crane in widest use throughout the world is the overhead crane,

e often preferred. 1

rollers,

—

(A) OVERHEAD ELECTRIC TRAVELING CRANE; FIG. 2. TRAVELING CRANE WITH UNDERSLUNG CAB AND BOOM

(B)

—

CRANE

698

variation of the overhead crane is shown in fig. 2(B). This, instead of being fitted with a plain trolley and hook, incorporates

A

mullirope.

For

a dockside crane used

the multirope type grab

is

mainly for grabbing

duty,

preferred.

A

an underslung jib. The advantage of this type of crane is apparent from the illustration, which shows that it can handle loads outside the span of its supporting gantries. It is not always practicable to erect a gantry for an overhead With this type of In this case a goliath crane is used. crane. crane the runway track is at ground level and is designed to cause

variety of crane specially developed for the bulk discharge of materials is the kangaroo crane (see fig. 5). In this case the

the least possible interference at this level in the area where the

that the load

crane operates. Goliath cranes with lifting capacities as great as ,^00 tons have been built, and they are sometimes used for building power stations, as this necessitates the handling of heavy loads

or out.

in the open. In such a case the cranes are occasionally dismantled and removed after construction is completed. The duties of cranes of the overhead and goliath types vary considerably. Sometimes a heavy crane, though necessary, may be used only occasionally for maintenance purposes; on the other hand it may be worked on a continuous day and night duty cycle. The steelworks ladle crane is an example of the latter use. This

with a lever arm at its head, the relative movement of which at varying radii of the crane and with a normal rope reeving, achieves the level luffing of the load. In another type, the jib is likewise balanced but is luffed by a rack and pinion. A special rope reeving is arranged in three parts between the jib head and the apex frame to provide level luffing. This arrangement is employed in the kangaroo type of crane shown in fig. 5, but the jib is crank operatec

example of which

is

Scotch Derricks.

is

is

are designed for level lutfing, which means

neither lifted nor lowered

in a

foundry and,

in

always a need for cranes which are sites. Typical of

the scotch derrick

derrick

shown is

usually

ing loads of

is

luffed in

further system of level luffing incorporates a parallelogranarrangement which, together with a normal rope reeving, give;

— For

construction and fitting-out

the

ol

up

The heavy lifts in shipbuilding usually occur when thi main machinery is being installed, and for this purpose fitting-ou' berths are generally equipped with one heavy crane, usually of th( Such cranes have been manufactured wit! fixed cantilever type. One example lifts this loat a lifting capacity of about 250 tons. veloped.

at a radius of 115

The speed

ft.

ft.,

the height to the rotating portion being

of hoisting 250 tons

A

30

and for

load.

to 30 tons.

obtain extra height of are sometimes tural trestles.

lift-

Such

lift,

are exceptional height of

lift

and

Dockside

—

Cranes. For the rapid loading and discharging of

most popular type of crane is the level-luffing These cranes are nearly always elec-

traveling dockside crane.

although occasionally the luffing, or change of altiis obtained by hydraulic means, Dockside cranes are manufactured principally with lifting capacities ranging from to 10 tons, although 3 cranes of this type have been designed for lifting 15 and 20 tons. A typical dockside crane of 3 tons capacity would have a hoisting speed of 240 ft. per minute, a traveling speed of 100 ft. per minute, a slewing speed of ]{ r.p.m., and a luffing speed of 150 ft. per minute. It is often necessary, for the purpose of avoiding obstructions, to design the crane for mounting partly on the quay and partly on a gantry at a higher level. Such an arrangement is described as a semiportal crane. A full portal crane is employed where the crane carriage has to span railroad tracks, so that the trucks may pass betrically driven,

tude, of the jib

neath.

Besides handling general merchandise, dockside cranes are fre-

quently required to discharge bulk such as iron ore, phoswhen they must use grabs. These are hook on, p,G. 5.— electric level-luffing. self-dumping, ring discharge or wharf crane, kangaroo type

ft.

13.

per minute, and

ft.

thi

per minute with the ful The crane is capable ii

they

ease of erection and dismantling for transfer from site to site.

6

slewing through one revolution about seven minutes when loaded This type of crane is found ii naval dockyards. For shipbuilding berths, crane of the tower or monotower typ

mounted on strucThe principal char-

acteristics of this type of crane

—SCOTCH DERRICK CRANE

is

trolley has a traversing speed

cranes are -generally fitted with long jibs of 100-120 ft., and, to

ships' cargo, the

the jib

for luffing.

scotch designed for

in fig. 4.

electrical operation

FI6. 4.

when

This feature has been found to be indispensable for rapid cargo-handling operations, and many designs have been developed to achieve it. In one, the jib is of the balanced type and is fitted

ships in shipyards, various types of special cranes have been de

and dust prevalent

—There

is

Shipyard Cranes.

shown

portable and which can be used on building

work

Most dockside cranes

level luffing of the load.

addition, to be speedily maintained.

cranes for this

discharges

jib

This type of crane is in fig. 3. -STEELWORKS CHARGER specially designed not only to stand up to the continuous and arduous duty in a steelworks but also to withstand the heat

it

A

type of crane can be designed for loads of 300 tons or more. Also used in steelworks are special steelworks charging cranes, a typical

is deposited in a hopper in front of the gantry, from where passes through a weighing machine onto a belt conveyor, which it through the rear of the gantry onto another conveyor.

material

6. FIXED electric ING SHIPYARD CRANE

fig.

are usually employed (see

REVOLV-

As many

fig. 6)

as six of these crane

are often installed adjacent to

Their lifting capacity is usually betwee and 50 tons. Dry docks are equipped with heavy cranes for moving propeller: machinery, etc., from ships during refitting. The usual type c crane employed is shown in fig. 7. In this design the luffing of ft jib is effected by the use of wire ropes, and in the crane shown This type of dry-dor fig. 8 the jib is operated by special screws. crane has a lifting capacity of 30-50 tons. Both shipyard and fitting-out cranes are often required to plac loads accurately, and this necessitates extremely fine electrical coi trol for the hoisting and lowering motions. This can be achieve by using A.C. commutator motors or Ward-Leonard electric driv^ There is an increasing preference for the level-luffing feature to 1^ shipbuilding berth. 15

i

incorporated in this type of crane.

Transporter

Cranes.

—The

handling of bulk cargo by means of grabbing cranes has been mentioned and particular reference made to the kangaroo, which lifts the load and luffs it over its own hopper, no slewing being involved. When the handling of bulk cargo is undertaken on a large scale, however, preference is given to

cargo,

the

transporter

phates, coal, etc.,

are

made

in

cranes.

These

three designs:

the

unloads (see fig. 9), the second reclaims and the third does first

7.— heavy electric travb. ing crane, rope-luffing type| ^,0.

—

CRANE FLY—CRANMER The unloading

^)th.

incorporates

,ually

)om which

can

transporter

hinged

a

be

raised

to

ime within the quay line and so 'oid obstructing vessels when

direct to trucks or conveyors,

transporter

reclaiming

ae

permissible limits.

is

nerally an inland appliance, the

which is to reclaim aterial from a stockyard or a le and feed it into a conveyor irpose of

stem or into railroad trucks. FIG. 8. HEAVY TRAVELING CRANE unloading and reclaiming WITH SCREW DERRICK ansporter can unload from ships .-ectly into trucks or onto the stockpile, and when not unloading, can be used for loading material from the stockpile into trucks, le transporter crane is expensive, but its initial cost is often stified when substantial tonnages of bulk materials have to be

—

,ie

A typical transporter would have a lifting capacity for and contents of 15-20 tons, and its hoisting speed would be 0-300 ft. per minute. The trolley, which is usually of the manling type, can have a traveling speed of 800-1,000 ft. per minute, ;d the traveling speed of the transporter is 50-80 ft. per minute, le time taken to raise the boom is not of great importance, and Ore-handling plants using transis can be done in 5-7 min. ]rters have been designed to deal with bulk material at a rate of ndled.

,ab

1,000 tons per hour.

V to

Floating Cranes.

—In

ports

moored ship to assist in unwhen a berth is not avail-

to a

loading able.

crane

on

its

In this case the floating able to transport the cargo Floating cranes are

is

deck.

either self-propelling or 9.

FOR

f:ed

with

tis,

iiich

TRANSPORTER UNLOADING

dumb pontoons

of floating cranes

are

moved by means

have a

mounted

dumb

pontoons. Self-propelled cranes are capable of speeds of up to nine knots. Cranes

— ELECTRIC

CtNE

j"ity

on

lifting

of tugs.

The ma-

capacity of from 30 to 100

although special floating cranes have been manufactured can lift as much as 350 tons. Those which are self-propelled

Voith-Schneider system. Both selfand dumb floating cranes are fitted with diesel-driven which supply power for the crane's motions and also i' the main propelling machinery. It is sometimes necessary f' a floating crane to undertake journeys in the open sea, and Ctnes specially manufactured for this purpose can lower the jib cto a special structure fitted to the crane pontoon. Railroad Traveling and Wrecking Cranes. These are r de with lifting capacities of from The smaller 5 to 250 tons. oacity cranes are used mostly for general engineering duties, for §ing assistance in loading and Uoading freight cars and for civil tjineering work, such as track

I;

either twin screws or the

p)pelled

gierators

—

(See

iiair, etc.

t:se

cranes

it

is

fig.

10.)

With

customary for

prime mover to be a diesel {;ine used in conjunction with t^

Hraulic or electric transmission. Cranes used for wrecking duties a

driven

ges

or

engines

converter drive. They been built to lift up to 250

modern

types, especially

diesel traveling crane

when

cranes, too, are fitted with safety devices of various kinds,

See also references under "Crane"

in the

fail

any

for

Index volume.

—

Bibliography. W. H. Atherton, Hoisting Machinery (1940) H. Ernst, Die Hebezeuge, vol. i Grundlagen und Bauteile (1952), vol. ii Winden und Krone (1956), vol. ill Sonderausjeuhrungen (l9SS) (P. M. Ra.) H. H. Broughton, Electric Cranes, 3rd ed. (1958). ;

;

CRANE FLY, a common name for narrow-bodied, two-winged flies

with long, fragile legs. Many of them resemble large mosThey are harmless to man. See Fly.

quitoes.

CRANE'S-BILL

is

of the genus Geranium.

a

common name apphed

to

many

species

See Geranium.

CRANK.

In mechanisms, a crank is an element comprising an arm secured at right angles to a shaft with which it can rotate or oscillate. Simple forms include the familiar hand crank and

See Linkages.

crank wheel.

CRANMER, THOMAS

(1489-1556), the

first

archbishop

Church of England and a martyr was born at Aslacton, Nottinghamshire, on July 2, 1489, the second son of Thomas Cranmer and Agnes, nee Hatfield. His father seems to have belonged to the lowest rank of the gentry; at any rate, he had only enough property to endow his eldest son, John, while Thomas and his younger brother, Edmund, were destined for the church. After experiencing the teaching of a "marvellous severe and cruel schoolmaster," whose ministrations Cranmer later maintained instilled in him a permanent uncertainty and pliability, the boy went on to Cambridge (1503). It is not known to which college he belonged as an undergraduate, but by 1510 or 1511 he had been elected into a fellowship at Jesus college. This he was soon compelled to vacate of Canterbury of the reformed in the reign of

Queen Mary

I,

because he married a certain Joan, a relative to the landlady of the Dolphin inn. During this time he kept himself by teaching for Buckingham (later Magdalene) college and left his wife to lodge at the Dolphin; out of this arrangement grew the later story that he had started life as an ostler, Joan, however, died in childbirth a year after their marriage, and Jesus college restored Cranmer to his feUowship. He now entered the church and threw himself into his studies, becoming one of the outstanding theologians of his time, a man of immense though not very original learning. From about 1520 he formed one of a group of scholars who met

White Horse inn to discuss the theological and ecproblems raised by Luther's revolt; known to be innew way of thinking, they were dubbed "Little Here gathered some who were to lead the first gen-

clined to the fig. 10.

all

reason.

clesiological

using

tique

t'e

—

sponsibility in the operation of cranes of

heavy and valuable loads are to be transferred. Formerly, operating a crane was very arduous, but modern design and layout of crane controls have considerably reduced operator fatigue; most

regularly at the

by either steam endiesel

—

Mobile Cranes. There is an increasing use of cranes mounted on pneumatic rubber tires. They are employed principally for loading and unloading motor trucks, for civil engineering and construction work and for duty in material storage yards. These mobile cranes are of two kinds. One is a revolving crane superstructure mounted on a truck chassis and the other is a specially constructed self-propelled crane. The cranes have lifting capacities of up to 80 tons with the use of outriggers. Boom lengths can be varied by inserting extra sections, and there are examples of boom lengths exceeding 100 ft. Mobile cranes are always fitted with internal-combustion engines as prime movers, and the transmission can be either mechanical, hydraulic or electrical. They can travel under their own power on roads at speeds of up to 40 m.p.h. Crane Operation. There is a considerable element of re-

which assure crane safety should the human element

and dockyards itisoftenpreferred for heavy lifts to be undertaken by a floating crane rather than by a land crane. The floating crane has the great advantage of mobility, and can often be taken

Fi.

699

their construction

where narrow-gauge and lightweight track is used, such cranes have to be provided with relieving bogies or auxiliary trucks so that the axle loads in running condition can be kept within the

ey are berthing. It is arranged deliver material through a hop,!r

and

must be particularly robust, since they often have to handle loads and clear wreckage, the weight of which cannot be determined. The larger type of railroad wrecking crane is, of necessity, a heavy piece of rolling stock, and tons,

Germany."

CRANMER

yoo

—

William Tyndale, Robert eration of the English Reformation Barnes, John Frith, Thomas Bilney and, above all, Cranmer, who by 1525 included among his prayers one for the abolition of papal power in England. Entry Into Royal Service. However, these ambitions would have remained as academic as their author but for the political events into which Cranmer was soon drawn, much contrary to his upbringing and tastes. From 1527 onward, Henry VHI pursued his desire to be freed from his first wife, and in 1529 the wheels of the "divorce" seized also upon Cranmer. An accidental meeting with two of the king's councilors (Stephen Gardiner and Edward Foxe, both old Cambridge men), at which Cranmer is alleged to have suggested that the king might strengthen his case by seeking the opinions of the European universities, brought the middle-aged Cranmer accepted a comscholar to an interview with Henry. mission to write a propaganda treatise in the king's interest, was (probably) appointed archdeacon of Taunton and suddenly found

—

many others, in the royal service. It was a fatemoment, from which stemmed the whole remaining history of life. Soon he was employed in a variety of duties, defending

himself, like so ful

his

the king's position before the English universities, serving as a

minor member of one of the many embassies sent to Rome (1530) and as the leading member of one sent to Germany (1532), officially to the emperor but with instructions to establish contact with the Lutheran princes. At Niirnberg he made the acquaintance of Andreas Osiander whose theological position midway between Luther and the old orthodoxy appealed to Cranmer's cautious temperament, while his niece Margaret appealed even more strongly to the instincts of one who had for too long remained in uncongenial celibacy. Despite his priest's orders he married her in 1532 at the same time, his theological views underwent a further decided change in the direction of reformed opinion. Archbishop of Canterbury. In fact, the year 1532 proved to be a critical one altogether, for in August William Warham, the aged archbishop of Canterbury, died. At first the usual practice was followed of extending the vacancy for the benefit of the king's finances, but by the end of the year it was apparent that the see would have to be filled because the divorce question was coming to a head. Thomas Cromwell's arrival in power had heralded a more energetic policy; by Jan. 1533 the act against appeals to Rome, intended as the gage of battle, was being drafted and Anne Boleyn was pregnant. Since Gardiner, the obvious candidate for the archbishopric, was out of favour, the king chose Cranmer; by March 1533 he was consecrated and instituted at Canterbury, with the assistance of confirmatory papal bulls and after a declaration that he took the obligatory oath to the pope without feeling bound by it. He proceeded to do what was expected of him. In May he convened his court at Dunstable (Bedfordshire), declared the king's marriage to Catherine of Aragon void from the beginning and pronounced the second marriage to Anne Boleyn valid. In 1536, convinced by the dubious evidence of Anne's alleged ;

—

adulteries, he in turn invalidated that marriage; in sisted at the freeing of

Henry VIII from Anne

1540 he as-

of Cleves; and in

1542 he was forced to be prominent in the proceedings which reHoward's execution for treasonable unchastity. There is no question that in these matrimonial politics he did as sulted in Catherine

he was

told,

though

it is

entirely improbable that his private opin-

ions on the issues in question in

any way contradicted

his public

doings.

More

significant, in

any

case, are his activities as archbishop

Cranmer had not sought high promotion. His marriage just before his elevation to Canterbury is fair proof that he expected no such career in the priesthood, in which a necessarily unacknowledged wife would be nothing but an embarrassment. Not until 1548 was he able publicly to recognize her, though the stor>' of his carrying her about with him in a chest with air holes is part of the scurrilous legend which grew up around him. Once put in power, however, he could not avoid the consequences; a convinced reformer with leanings toward a succession of continental theological changes, he found himsel'f assisting at the shaping of the Church of England under a master who on the whole had no taste for change. In co-operation with in the reconstructed church.

Cromwell he promoted the publication of an English Bible, madi compulsory in the parishes by Cromwell's Injunctions of 1538 Even before Henry VIII died (1547), his archbishop had drifted far in the direction of Protestantism, had composed (1545) thf Litany still in use, one of his masterpieces, and (by 1538) hat abandoned belief in transubstantiation though not in the real pres ence. As early as 1536 he was recognized by the northern rebel; as the leading innovator. His position was in consequence fai from comfortable after the reaction to the old ways signaled bj the Act of Six Articles (1539) and Cromwell's fall (1540). Durinf Henry's last years, Cranmer's enemies laid at least three elaborat( plots to destroy him by convicting him of heresy, but on each oc casion they were foiled by Henry's curious attachment to him In Cranmer this king, who as a rule kept himself entirely free fron personal feelings for his servants and advisers, found a man whon he both trusted and liked. Unlike the rest of them, the archbisho) was neither greedy nor devious; he sought nothing for himself alone was willing to plead for those who fell into disfavour (: service he performed with equal courage and futility for Thoma More, Anne Boleyn, Thomas Cromwell and others) and miracu lously retained Henry's good will throughout. The king regardei him with that mixture of awe and amusement which the world! and selfish bestow on those who appear simple in affairs; he hkei him, listened to him, protected him but allowed him no politica influence whatsoever. Not surprisingly it was to Cranmer that h turned when death came.

—

Achievements Under Edward VI. Cranmer's time reall Edward VI in 1547. Edward Se>

arrived with the accession of

mour, the protector Somerset, from the first demonstrated his irtention to transform the Church of England into a Protestan church, and when he fell in 1549 the expected Catholic reactio did not take place because the duke of Northumberland decided t introduce an even more extreme brand of reformed religion. 1 the doctrinal labours demanded by these changes Cranmer too the chief and directing part. In 1547 he was responsible for tb pubhcation of a Book of Homilies designed to meet the notorioi grievance that the unreformed clergy did not preach enough. Tl first prayer book, moderately Protestant, appeared in 1549, to followed in 1552 by the second which in effect came very near tt extremes of Zijrich. Cranmer was personally responsible for muc' of the work, but he had the assistance of a number of foreig theologians for whom Edward VI's England acted as a magna The most influential of these was probably Martin Bucer fro: Strasbourg whose position on the Eucharist is reflected especial Howeve in the communion service of the second prayer book. it was not so much Bucer who persuaded Cranmer away fro the vague Lutheranism, which seems to have been his positi( in 1547, as either the Pole John a Lasco or the Englishman Nichol. Ridley, both men possessed of a more determined and unquestio ing temper than was the archbishop. The ferment of those yea also produced Cranmer's 42 Articles (1553), the basis of the latj 39 and a monument to his comprehensive spirit, as well as striking attempt to revise the canon law of the English churo never enacted but published in 1571 as the Reformatio legum e desiasticanim. Though still deprived of any serious influence affairs of state, Cranmer dominated and guided the religious rev lution of the reign by his learning, authority and unwavering di gence. He settled in turn the doctrine, ritual and law of his chur in a manner which was to remain fundamental to later develo ments; above all, the Church of England owed to him the beau of its liturgy which shows him to have been not only a theologi| but something of a poet. 1:

is,

!

Degradation and Martyrdom.

—Edward

VI's approachi|

death (July 1553) at long last involved Cranmer fatally in politij After prolonged resistance he was forced by the dying king subscribe the document by which Northumberland hoped to up: custom, statute law and the will of Henry VIII in order to trai fer the succession from the princess Mary to his daughter-in-1. Lady Jane Grey. The failure o'f the plot brought Cranmer with the clutches of the treason law under which he was condemned '

Mary's government

in

had in any case becoi* future held no more bright promise

Nov. 1553.

obvious before this that his

It

CRANNOG— CRANSTON temporarily destroyed the English Reformation; ranmer's embittered enemy Stephen Gardiner was at once re-

;(ary's accession

ased from imprisonment

and promoted to the chancellorship, and Nov. 1554 Cardinal Reginald Pole arrived to occupy Canterbury lid direct the extirpation of heresy. Cranmer's trial for treason :as but a pretaste; the queen and her advisers did not intend him die for the technical offense of having supported Northumbernd's insane conspiracy but meant to destroy him for his longanding offense in promoting Protestantism. They had to wait itil they could get parliament to repeal the acts of Henry VIII id Edward VI and to reintroduce the laws which enabled the With Ridley and Hugh Latimer, cular arm to burn heretics. ranmer in March 1554 was removed to Oxford where the Countereformation felt safer than in Cranmer's own university. Late in lat year the heresy laws were revived, and in Sept. 1555, after ifeebling imprisonment, Cranmer was subjected to a long trial in hich he stoutly defended himself against the charge of having ijustiliably departed from his own earlier position on the sacraThe foregone conclusion was arrived at ents and the papacy. fter a variety of technical processes; on Feb. 14, 1556, in a cere:ony full of carefully designed humiliation, he was degraded from s episcopal and sacerdotal offices and handed over to the state. However, Mary's government had not done with him yet. The Urning of the archheretic would be an even more useful deed if e could be made to renounce his errors in public, and so a number ways were tried to break him down. In the previous October had been made to witness the martyrdom of Ridley and Latier; now he was temporarily removed from prison into pleasanter irroundings while government agents tried to stir up his doubts. fact, Cranmer signed five so-called recantations of which the •st four did no more than record his consistent belief that what onarch and parliament had decreed must be obeyed by all Eng.hmen. His convictions on this point logically forced him to cept the Marian Counter-Reformation as valid, and this in turn, his weak and uncertain state, not unaffected by the delay of rath and the faint hope of mercy, finally induced him to make an iject recantation (the sixth) of his whole religious development. lie government had every reason to hope that the publication of ranmer's defection would wreck Protestantism in England. No lercy was to be extended to the old man; though the vengeful lardiner had died, Mary and Pole were quite determined that the ntence must be carried out. Thus on March 21, 1556, Cranmer I

'

.1

'

IS

first required to make his recanThe proximity of death, however, restored both his dignity. With nothing to lose and only peace of

taken out to be burned, being

tion public.

and his he shocked his enemies by disavowing his recantation d emphatically reasserting that the pope's power was usurped .d transubstantiation untrue. At one blow he undid all that -vernment propaganda had achieved and restored heart to the rviving reformers. Then he went to his death. As he had omised, he steadfastly held his right hand which "had offended" ith

ul to gain,

'

signing the false recantations

—

—

into the flame until

it

was con-

and soon afterward the fire killed him. His brave and digmade an enormous impression. Character and Opinions. Cranmer was a very human man 10 in consequence has attracted a good deal of obloquy from 'ose who have not had to share his tribulations and temptations. ;sentially he was and remained a scholar who lacked the strength aich single-mindedness and fanaticism instill into the less reflec"e. He has sometimes been thought of as infirm in moral pur"se, but this is to misjudge him. His doubts at the last were :verly induced by mental torture, and his gradual development •'ay from traditional orthodoxy into more and more definitely "otestant views represents fairly the spiritual career of a man 10 obeyed reason rather than instinct. Cranmer was always irning and never ashamed to admit it; his was essentially a humi temper. He had not sought high office and did not enjoy it ich, though he valued his place for the chance it gave him to omote the changes which he came to regard as essential to the '"-ablishment of God's truth. He refused to bear malice or punthose who traduced him. When Cromwell once told him, in me exasperation, that the "popish knaves" would have his eyes rned,

&ed end

'1

—

701

and cut

his throat before he would do something about it, Cranmer turned the prophecy with a shrug. In a persecuting age he stood out for his clemency, though in 1550 he did take part in the trial and burning of Joan Bocher; it should be remembered that she was condemned for open blasphemy in denying the Trinity, the one offense which all the church had regarded as unforgivable ever since the struggle with Arianism. For his order and the authority of the church Cranmer had a high respect which, for instance, appears in his revision of the canon law.

However,

most consistent principle was one which was unhim much sympathy in later ages. It was part of he owed obedience to the king; though he

his

likely to gain

his religious beliefs that

did not worship the state, he served it without hesitation and as a matter of principle. This did not, as is sometimes alleged, make

him

servile; alone of Henry VIH's councilors, he time and again spoke up for the unpopular victim of the moment, and his tart criticism of the king's theology and grammar in the debates over the King's Book of 1545 speaks well for his courage. He stood up to Northumberland when everyone else quailed before that half-demented demon. These occasional disputes only underline the fact that with him submission to royal authority was ordinarily a fundamental, indeed a doctrinal, tenet. However, though he may have been more consistent in this than most, he only stressed more heavily what nearly everybody held at the time. His other guiding star was his study of theology in which he early discarded the arid aftermath of late medieval scholasticism and turned instead to Scripture and the early Fathers. Between them, his belief

in the divine right of kings to rule the ecdesia as well as the res

publica and his biblical theology m.ade him the characteristic An-

ghcan of

his day, the intellectual

and

in

part the spiritual founder-

father of that particular reformed church. Bibliography. Jasper Ridley, Thomas Cranmer (1962), the best biography, contains a sufficient summary of the materials for Cranmer's life. C. H. Smyth, Cranmer and the Reformation Under Edward VI

—

(1926), is particularly useful for the influence of foreign scholars; a recent attempt to deny their importance made by C. W. Dugmore, The Mass and the English Reformers (1958), has met more criticism than acceptance. For a hostile view, see P. Hughes, The Reformation in England, vol. i, ii (1950-53) for a more favourable one, T. M, Parker, The English Reformation to 1558 (19S0), and J. D. Mackie, The Earlier Tudors (1952). (G. R. E.) ;

CRANNOG, an

Irish word applied in Scotland and Ireland to constructed house or settlement sites built of timber, sometimes with stone structures, and situated off the edge of a lake. They range in time from the Late Bronze Age into the MidUsually constructed on islets or shallows in the lakes, dle Ages. they were fortified by single or double stockaded defenses around artificially

the margin.

Their distinctive substructures of brushwood and

up from the bottom set them apart from the pile constructions of earher periods in Switzerland (see Lake Dwell-

logs built

ings).

Implements and weapons from

Irish

and Scottish cran-

nogs are usually iron; even the objects of bronze and stone are Crannogs are among typical of those dating from the Iron Age. the latest prehistoric strongholds, and seem to have reached their A few remains of greatest development in early historic times. lake-village structures that have been excavated in England and Wales suggest typical crannog structure (see Glastonbury). See also Ireland; Archaeology. See "Lake Dwellings, Crannogs and Terremare," in G. E. Daniel, (S. Pt.; X.) of Archaeology (1950).

A

Hundred Years

CRANSTON,

a city of

Rhode

Island, U.S.,

is

in

Providence

county on the west shore of Narragansett bay. Dependent for services on Providence, which it adjoins, Cranston is primarily a residential suburb. However, industrial plants produce Agriculture is Umited textiles, machinery, wire, rubber and beer. to a few dairy farms, market gardens and nurseries. The first settlement was at Pawtuxet in 1636 by William Arnold, Cranston separated from Provia compatriot of Roger Williams. dence in 1754 and was named for Samuel Cranston, governor of Its early growth was dependent 1727. Rhode Island from 1698 to on the textile industry and dates from the founding in 1824 of the

many

Cranston Print works. Cranston became a city in 1910. Growth has been rapid since 1940 with several large housing developments. Population in 1960

GRANTOR— CRASSULACEAE

702

was 66,766 according to the federal census. State institutions located on 567 ac. of land include the adult correctional institutions, the juvenile training schools, the hospital for mental diseases, the state infirmary and the county jail. Points

Meeting-House (17291, the Budlong Rose Company gardens (commercial) and the pre-Revolutionary Caleb Arnold tavern. There are two yacht clubs and five recreational areas including Meshanticut park, a 42-ac. state reser(V. H. Wh.) vation. (4th-3rd century B.C.), Greek philosopher, a nati\e of Soli in Cilicia, a pupil of Xenocrates and Polemo and the teacher of Arcesilaus, wrote the first commentary on Plato's of interest are the Friends

GRANTOR

Timaeiis, denying that Plato actually ascribed a beginning in time

and its soul. In one of his works he presented a equated with "virtue") wins over wealth, health and pleasure. His writing On Grief created a new literary genre; viz., the consolation (offered on the occasion of a misfortune such as death). One of Crantor's consolatory arguments, reminiscent of Plato's Phaedo or Aristotle's Eitdemiis, was that life is actually punishment, death the release of the soul. He advocated moderation of emotions rather than their suppresto the universe

contest in which manliness (andreia

demanded by Academy, Greek. sion as

—

His writings are

Stoics.

lost.

See also

(Pp.

CRANWORTH, ROBERT MONSEY ROLFE, (

1790-1S6SI, lord chancellor of England, was born

at

M.)

Baron

Cranworth,

Norfolk, on Dec. IS, 1 700. Educated at Bury St. Edmund's, Winand Trinity College, Cambridge, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1816 and attached himself to the Chancery Courts. He represented Penryn and Falmouth in Parliament from chester,

till his promotion to the bench as baron of the exchequer in 1839. In 1850 he was appointed a vice-chancellor and created Baron Cranworth, and in 1852 he became lord chancellor in Aber-

1832

He

continued to hold the chancellorship in the administration of Palmerston until the latter's resignation in 1857. He was not reappointed when Palmerston returned to office in 1859, but on the retirement of Lord Westbury in 1865 he accepted the great seal for a second time and held it until the fall of the Russell administration in 1866. Cranworth died in London on July 26, 1868. His name is associated in the statute book with only one small measure on conveyancing. He left no issue and the deen's ministry.

barony became extinct on his death. CRASH, a group of coarse, rugged fabrics made from yarns that are irregular, firm, strong and smooth but sometimes raw and unprocessed. This fabric group includes gray, bleached, boiled, plain, twill and fancy-weave crash. The coarsest type is called Russian crash. Crash is used frequently for toweling, especially the type that is 14 to 20 in. wide and is dispensed from a roller. Linen is generally used for the warp yarn, while linen, jute or a mi.xture of linen and jute may be used for the filler. In the U.S., fibre content must be declared, according to a ruling of the Federal Trade commission. Crash may or may not be made with novel or fancy borders, and it is sold in white or natural shades or in dyed colours. Other uses of crash, in addition to the production of toweling, include the manufacture of draperies and other decorative cloths, doilies, dresses, caps, summer suits and sport coats. The term is derived from the Latin crassus, meaning coarse. (G. E. L.)

CRASH AW, RICHARD

6 1 3 ?- 1 649

English poet famous ) and brilliant wit, was born in London c. 1613. His father, William Crashaw, a learned and zealous Puritan, was preacher to the Inner Temple and (161826) incumbent of St. Mary Matfellon, Whitechapel. Richard Crashaw went to the Charterhouse and, in 1631, to Pembroke college, Cambridge, whence he graduated B.A. in 1634. In that year also he published Epigrammatum Sacrorum Liber, a collection of Latin verses on scriptural subjects, some of which may have been WTitten much earlier, as school exercises. In 1635 he was admitted to a fellowship at Peterhouse, a centre of Laudianism, and was soon ordained. His High Church leanings appear again (

1

,

for his ardent faith, glowing imagination

in his

friendship with Nicholas Ferrar's religious

community

at

During the Great Rebellion hii and he seems to have re^ linquished it in 1643, about a year before he was formally ejectedl from it by the Parliamentarians. Crashaw made his way first to Holland and then to France, and he became a Roman Catholic.l When Queen Henrietta Maria and her entourage moved to Paris,! Crashaw was found there by his Cambridge friend Abraham Cowley, living in great poverty; and he was then sent to Rome with a recommendation from the queen to the pope. After somej delay he was appointed, in 1649, to a canonry at the cathedral of the Santa Casa at Loreto; but his tenure was short for he was taken ill and died there on Aug. 21, 1649. Cra.shaw's Steps to the Temple with The Delights of the Muses was published in 1646 with an anonymous preface, and again in The preface speaks admiringly not] 1648, with a few additions.

Little Gidding, Huntingdonshire.

position at

Cambridge became

difficult

only of his poetry but of his linguistic knowledge, his proficiency' in music and painting and his saintly character. His English religious verse was republished in Paris in 1652 with more additions, including some of his finest lines, those appended to "The Flaming Heart," a poem on St. Teresa, and beginning "O thou undaunted daughter of desires." Crashaw left only a small amount of verse, but enough to give him a peculiar eminence among the writers of his day. Most of it is religious and highly individual. It reflects a mind untroubled by doubts and not much given to philosophical speculation, but vitally and ardently responsive to the Christian faith, fascinated by its implications and glorying in its paradoxes. And because Crashaw was by nature both otherworldly and sensuous, he was well qualified to capture in his poetry the spirit of Catholic worship. His thoughts are sometimes surprising and even disconcerting to modern taste, as in the conceit of Mary Magdalene weeping upward (to heaven) or the comparison of her sorrowful eyes to "portable and compendious oceans." Much of his poetry is translated from Latin or Italian, but even here his exuberance and originality can be seen, for often when he translates he transforms sometimes adding many lines of his own invention. Some of his religious poems, those for instance on St. Teresa or on the Assumption, are justly famous, but their outstanding qualities the eagerness and rapture, the brilliant imagery and the light, flexible rhythms are also found in favourite secular pieces such as "Wishes, to his supposed Mistress," or "Music's Duel," which describes a contest between a lute player and a nightingale. Crashaw was little read for 150 years after his death, though his memory was kept alive by Cowley's fine elegy. In the igth century, however, he gained his deserved recognition and his poems were reprinted several times. They were edited again by A. R Waller (1904) and by L. C. Martin (1927; 2nd ed., 1957). See A. Warren, Crashaw: a Study in Baroque Sensibility (1939).

—

—

(L. C.

CRASSULACEAE, culent plants, containing species, distributed in

Mn.)

the orpine or stonecrop family of sue 15

many

or

more genera and 500 or mor„ The plants, manji

parts of the world.

of which are interesting garden ornamentals, are herbs or

rarel)

shrubs, generally with thick fleshy stems and leaves adapted life in

rocky, often dry, places.

The

fo:

fleshy leaves sometimes an

reduced to a more or less cylindrical structure, as in a few stone crops (Sedum), or they form closely crowded rosettes as in thi houseleek (Sempervivum). Correlated with their life in dry situ ations, much of the tissue is succulent, forming a water stor that is protected from loss through evaporation by a thickb cuticularized epidermis, that is, one covered by a waxy secretioi or bloom, which gives a glaucous appearance to the plant. Th flowers, often red or yellow, rarely white, are usually arranged

i;

terminal or axillary clusters, are radially symmetrical and hav the same number of parts in each series. However, this numbe) though usually 5, varies in some genera. The sepals and petal The stamens ar are free or sometimes more or- less coalescent.

The carpels, usuall or twice as many as the petals. equal to the petals in 'number. In fruit they becom means of a creeping much follicles. Some species spread by branched rootstock or, as in the houseleek, by runners that pei In other cases sma ish after producing a terminal leaf rosette. as

many

free, are

CRASSUS—CRATERS

703

younger Drusus, having changed sides in poHtics since 106 when he had supported the consul Q. Servilius Caepio. Marcus Licinius Crassus Dives (c. 115-53 b.c), prominent and wealthy politician in the late republic. On the fall of Rome to Gains Marius in 87 (when his only surviving brother was killed and his father, P. Licinius Crassus, consul in 97 and censor in Returning with 89, committed suicide) he escaped to Spain, Sulla to Italy, he fought successfully at the battle of the Colline

His abiding jealousy of Pompey perhaps originated

gate in 82. in

Sulla's

(probably

for Pompey. After his praetorship he suppressed the slave revolt of Spartacus,

clear preference in

73)

and was consul with Pompey in 70. His wealth, derived largely from the SuUan proscriptions, gave him disproportionate influence as the creditor of indebted senators and the representative in politics of the business world (the equites). Apart from his early recognition of the quality of Caesar and his tenure of the censorship in 65, he achieved Httle in the 60s, the period of Pomgreat military achievements, and, though he may have encouraged Catiline in 65 and 64, he dropped him in 63 as soon as his schemes threatened existing capitalist tenure of property. He formed a political alliance with Pompey and Caesar (the "first triumvirate") in 60, in order to secure the passage in 59 of a law in favour of the company which collected the tithes in Asia. He supported P. Clodius in neutralizing Pompey in politics from 58 to 56. was consul with Pompey for the second time in 55 and, pey's

HOUSELEEK (SEMPERVIVUM

stem or leaves give rise to new plants by budding, in bryophyllums (Kalanchoe), where buds at the edges of the af may form new plants. The family is almost absent from Australia and Polynesia, and has but few representatives in South America; otherwise it is ;nerally distributed. Numbers of described species have been ultiplied by enthusiasts, and an accurate estimate for any genus difficult. The largest genus, Sedum, occurs in the temperate and ilder parts of the northern hemisphere; many species occur in orth America and nine in Britain. The species are easily cultiCrassula grows chiefly iited, and they thrive in almost any soil. ;ar the Cape of Good Hope. Cotyledon, a widely distributed srtions of the ;

d world genus, is represented in the British Isles by C. umbilicus, :nnywort or navelwort. The genus Echeveria of Mexico and its segregate Dudleya of western North America are culSempervivum occurs in the mountains of central southern Europe, in the Himalayas, Abyssinia, the Canaries id Madeira; 5. tectorum, common houseleek, or hen and chickens, ,seen often in gardens. The hardy species grow well in sandy il, and they are suitable for rockeries, old walls or edgings. )ssible

/ated widely. id

North America the representatives of the family are most imerous from the Rocky mountains westward, especially in ilifornia where several genera are represented. The family is allied closely to the family Saxifragaceae, from lich it is distinguished by the fleshy habit and the larger number In

I

carpels.

I

—

Bibliography. Alwin Berger, Crasstilaceae; Adolph Engler and K. iantl, Die Naturlichen Pjianzenjantilien, 183:352-483, fig. 183-212 Several journals are devoted to succulent plants, especially the 530) yclus and Succulent Journal; The Cactus and Succulent Journal of eat Britain; The National Cactus and Succulent Journal (England). (L. Bn.; X.) ,

I

CRASSUS

("thick, dense"), a cognomen or third name behging from the 3rd century B.C. onward to the Licinii, who, ijginally Etruscan, were the most distinguished plebeian family

Rome. PUBLIUS LiCINIUS CraSSUS DrVES MUCIANUS {c. 180-130), maximiis (high priest) at Rome and consul in 131 B.C. iMucius Scaevola by birth and a Licinius Crassus by adoption, was a political opponent of Scipio Aemilianus Africanus {q.v.), member of the Gracchan land commission and father-in-law of i

\ntijex

1

Gracchus. The first pontifex maximus in Roman history undertake military command outside Italy, he was defeated and Ued fighting Aristonicus of Pergamum in Asia early in 130. Lucius Licinius Crassus (140-91 b.c.) and M. Antonius, two greatest orators at Rome before Cicero, are vividly def|ted in Cicero's De Oratore. Crassus made his reputation at t; bar in 119 by his prosecution of Carbo, consul of 130, a con-

l.ius t

t,!

The scuous deserter from the cause of Tiberius Gracchus. Licinia Mucia, passed in his consulship in 95, allowing prose'|ion of anyone who was alleged to be laying false claim to Iman citizenship, offended the Italians. In 91 he supported the '1

after that, governor of Syria.

At the age of 60 he embarked on an unwarranted invasion of Parthia, and was disastrously defeated at Carrhae in 53. He was killed, as was his younger son, Publius, whom Cicero had encouraged as a promising orator but Caesar had taught to prefer soldiering. His elder son, Marcus, serving with Caesar in Gaul, survived, and through his son (and by adoption from the Calpumii Pisones) the family name continued, down to M. Licinius Crassus Frugi, consul in a.d. 64. Bibliography. Plutarch, Lije of Crassus; ancient and modern histories of the late Roman republic (for which see works listed under Caesar, Gaius Jcaius). For all three Licinii Crassi listed above see F. Muenzer and M. Gelzer in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopddie der

—

Altertnmswissenschaft vol. 55) and 295-331 (no. 68).

CRATAEGUS:

see

xiii

(1927) 334-338 (no. 72), 252-268 (no. (J. P. V. D. B.)

Hawthorn.

CRATER LAKE NATIONAL

PARK, in southwestern Oregon, U.S., was established in 1902 to preserve in its natural condition an area of 160,290 ac. The park's principal feature is an intensely blue lake, 1,932 ft. deep, set in a caldera (volcanic crater). The shores are almost sheer cliffs that rise from 500 to 2,000 ft., forming a nearly circular rim 6 mi. in diameter and 26 mi. in circumference. This is the stump of a mountain, Mt. Mazama, that is believed to have once reached a height of 12,000 ft. above sea level. Centuries ago an eruption destroyed the peak, and the caldera is Later intermittent outbreaks occurred, as all that remains of it. shown by several cinder cones on the caldera floor. One of these, Wizard Island, rises 750 ft. above the water. The lake, with neither visible inlet nor outlet, is replenished by rain and snow, Volcanologists conits level kept nearly constant by evaporation. sider that the volcano may be temporarily dormant. North of the caldera there is a pumice "desert," except for which, the park's lower elevations are heavily forested; lodgepole, ponderosa and sugar pine and white and Douglas fir are the domAt higher elevations, stands of Shasta red inant tree species. and alpine fir, whitebark pine and mountain hemlock are interspersed with meadows that are carpeted with wild flowers in sum-

mer.

Annual precipitation is heavy, and winter snow blows into drifts 20 to 30 ft. deep. Mammals include all three species of American black bear, pine marten, pordeer mule, blacktail and whitetail Eagles, cupine, marmot, badger, beaver and mountain beaver. hawks, owls and grouse occur and, particularly in summer, there (Dx. B.) is an abundance of song and insectivorous birds.

—

CRATERS OF THE MENT, a tract of about

—

MOON NATIONAL MONU-

48,000 ac. in south central Idaho, It is a reU.S., set apart in 1924 as a government reservation. gion of cones and craters formed by volcanoes which have probably

CRATES— CRAVEN

704

been extinct for only a few centuries, and the name of the reservation was sugpested by its resemblance to the surface of the moon. While the black lava and cinders allow only the scantiest vegetation and quickly absorb the very light rainfall, water is to be found in tunnels which were formed by eruptions through a partly formed crust. Lava stalactites and stalagmites in red and blue are striking features of these tunnels. Athenian actor and author of comedies, flourished

CRATES,

about 450-470

comedy

B.C.

He was

projier, since

of a wealthy Thracian family and sister of Metrocles, forced her parents to allow her to join him in his ascetic and missionary life. a gift for amusing parody of serious poetry, by which he

mocked other philosophers and

praised the Cynic

way

of living.

He was

reputed to be the author of philosophic dramas and philosophic letters: the letters extant under his nanie (ed. by R. Hercher, Epistolographi Graeci, Paris, 1873) are spurious. His historical importance lies in the influence that he exerted on Zeno the Stoic, who greatly admired him. Plutarch's biography of him is

no longer extant, 2. Crates of Athens

the chief representative of the allegorical theory of exegesis, maintaining that Homer intended to express scientific or philosophical

About 170 B.C., he went to Rome ambassador of Eumenes H, king of Pergamum; the lectures that he delivered there gave the first impulse to the study of grammar and criticism among the Romans (Suetonius, De gramtruths in the form of poetry.

as

maticis, 2). See C. Wachsmuth, De Cratete Mallola (1860), containing an account of the life, pupils and writings of Crates; J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarsliip, 3rd ed. (1921).

Crates of Tarsus

first

prize in 423 B.C., defeating Aristophanes' Clouds.

him the

title

Crati-

of the Aeschylus of

comedy.

—

Bibliography. T. Kock, Comicorum Allicorum Fragmenta, in Latin (1880-88) A. Kbrte's article in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopddie der classischen Alterlumswissenschaft, xi (1922) G. Norwood, Greek Comedy (ig'^i) J. M. Edmonds (ed.), Fragments of Attic Comedv (1957) ;

;

CRATIPPUS

(ist century B.C.),

(M. PR.) Greek Peripatetic philoso-

first at Mitylene, where Cicero made his acquaintance and where Pompey also had a conversation with him in Aug. 48 (after the defeat at Pharsalus). Moving to Athens (not later than 45), he had among his auditors there Cicero's son Marcus, whose father had chosen Cratippus as the young man's instructor. After the death of Andronicus of Rhodes, Cratippus became the most influential member of the Peripatos, though he probably was not its scholarch. Cicero, who procured Roman citizenship for him, speaks of him with high praise. The outline of his views on divination can be reconstructed from a passage quoted by Cicero (De Divinatione , i, 32, and ii, 52). Cratippus argues that the failure of some predictions is no disproof of prophecy, if it is matched by even a few successes not attributable to chance; but, following Dicaearchus, he rejects artificial modes of divination such as astrology and augury and accepts only prophecy in dreams or through divine afflatus. The psychological ex-

pher, taught in 51 B.C.

is that the rational power in the soul (as distinct from is inseparable from the body) is of divine and becomes strengthened when the body is inactive.

planation

(fl. early 3rd century b.c), Academic became scholarch or head of the Old Academy c. 270, in succession to Polemo (see Academy, Greek). 3. Crates of Mallus (fl. early 2nd century B.C.), Stoic philosopher, from Mallus in Cilicia, was primarily important as a grammarian: his chief work was a commentary on Homer. Leader of the literary school and head of the library of Pergamum, he was

philosopher,

4.

took

nus' vigorous style has earned

;

regarded as the founder of Greek

he abandoned political lampoons on individuals and introduced more general subjects and a well-developed plot (Aristotle, Poetics, 5), He is stated to have been the first to represent the drunkard on the stage, CRATES, the name of four Greek philosophers. 1. Crates of Thebes (fl. late 4th century b.c), Cynic philosopher, was a pupil of Diogenes. He gave up his fortune and made Hipparchia, daughter it his mission to castigate vice and pretense.

He had

Methe (drunkenness), and bring him back to the arms of his true-, Komodia (comedy), by smashing his wine jars. The Putine

wife,

(late

2nd century

B.C.),

Academic

philos-

opher, was scholarch from 131/130 to 127/126. (c. 49S-C. 420 B.C.) was generally classed in

CRATINUS

the sense-faculty, which origin

(D.

CRAVAT,

J.

A.)

name

given by the French in the reign of Louis XIV to the neck scarf worn by the Croatian soldiers enlisted in the royal Croatian regiment (Fr. Cravate, a Croatian) The term came to be applied in England and France to any kinc the

of a neckerchief

worn by

a

man.

After the battle of Steenkerke (Steenkirk) in 1692, a looseh tied cravat made of linen or muslin w-ith wide lace on the edge; and worn negligently knotted with one end passed through thi

In the late 18th and earl; buttonhole was called a steinkirk. 19th centuries the cravat was an elaborately folded and lighth starched linen or cambric neckcloth worn under the collar the shirt.

The

simplification and standardization of men's dress in thi 19th and early 20th centuries made the cravat the necktii worn by men today. It is applied more specifically to the forma late

scarf

worn with

a dress suit;

this

cravat

is

folded or tied

ii

bom

(M. B. K.) (1880-1945), U.S. actor and play^vrighl CRAVEN, was born in Boston, Mass. He achieved his first Broadway succes in Bought and Paid For (1911), after which he was very populai

The

especially in slender comedies.

antiquity together with Eupolis and Aristophanes as the greatest of Athenian writers of comedy.

Though Cratinus was probably

c. 495 B.C. some authorities put the date considerably earlier. 21 comedies attributed to him (of which only some 400 odd fragments remain) may be divided roughly into two classes: perOf the sonal and political satires, and mythological burlesques. second type may be mentioned the Odysses, which seems to have been a kind of skit on the Odyssey, the chorus of which was probably composed half of Odysseus' companions and half of Cyclopes; the Thrassai, which was an attack on the orgiastic rites of the Thracian goddess, Bendis; the Nemesis, which contained the story of the egg which produced Helen; and the Dionysalexandros, a comedy with a chorus of satyrs, which burlesqued the story of

the judgment of Paris.

Political

satire

evidently entered into

the three last-mentioned plays, for in the

Nemesis Pericles

is

travestied in the person of Zeus, and his mistress, Aspasia, in that

of Hera; and the

same statesman

is

referred to, in unflattering

Among the plays satire may be included

terms, in the other two.

dealing solely with

the Panoptai (The which must have borne some resemblance to Aristophanes' Clouds, in that it made fun of the Sophists, and the Putine (The Bottle). In this play Cratinus defends himself against the charge of drunkenness leveled at him by Aristophanes in the

personal and political All-seers),

Knights.

tempt

The chorus

— successfully—

is

to

composed

of Cratinus' friends,

who

at-

break the poet's liaison with his mistress,

front and the ends are tucked into the inside coat.

FRANK

Among

his

own

plays are To

Crooks (1914), The First Year (1920) and New Broow. (1924). He played the stage manager in Thornton Wilder's Ou (M. Rs.) Town. After 1929 most of his work was in films. CRAVEN, CRAVEN, Earl of (1606-1697)

Many

WILLIAM

English royalist, remembered especially for his services to beth, consort of Frederick V, the elector palatine,

was

Eliza!

the elde;

son of Sir William Craven, lord mayor of London (1610). H was educated at Trinity college, Oxford, and the Middle Templi but much of his youth was spent in military service abroad. I' 1632 he went to assist Frederick V, the dispossessed king of B( hernia, in the defense of the Palatinate, and there began his lifi long devotion to Elizabeth, the tragic "winter queen" of Bohemi William, created Baron Craven in 1627, was taken prisoner t the emperor's forces in 1637 but ransomed himself and went His gre. join Elizabeth in her exiled court at The Hague. wealth was their principal mainstay; during the English Ci\ War it was placed at the disposal of both Charles I and Charles I After the Restoration Craven commanded the Coldstrea guards and was created Viscount Craven of Uffington and ea of Craven in 1665. The queen of Bohemia, whom it was rumouri he had married, lived at his house in Drury lane, London, un 1

CRAWFORD Craven held many offices under the .own, mainly honorific, and although a member of the council, entered little into politics. But he and his guardsmen figured eminently in civic emergencies such as fires, and he prized his ilitary command above all, retaining it until the arrival of Wiliim Ill's Dutch troops in London in Dec. 1688, when Craven was ,und stubbornly guarding Whitehall with his men, and with ifficulty was persuaded to relinquish his post. He died, unmar];d, in London on April 9, 1697. He was a member of the Royal death in Feb.

•r

1662.

;.

ciety but his reputation as a patron of the arts will hardly ar scrutiny.

His brother John (d. 1648), created Baron Craven of Ryton, was the founder of the Craven scholarships

iropshire, in 1643,

Oxford and Cambridge universities, of which the first was (H. G. Ro.) OF. The house of Lindsay, of

[

•arded in 1649.

CRAWFORD, EARLS

of Crawford is the head, traces its descent to the Crawford who flourished in the 12th century. Sir

lich the earl

rons of

.exander Lindsay of Luffness (d. 1309) obtained Crawford, in l.narkshire, in 1297. His descendant. Sir James Lindsay (d. |97). lord of Crawford, was high chamberlain of Scotland and :jght at the battle of Otterbum (1388). The chronicler FroisVt

tells

of his wanderings after the battle.

;,:cessor.

Sir David Lindsay

(c.

James's cousin and 1360-1407), who married a

King Robert H, was made earl of Crawford in 1398. Is grandson David (d. 1446), 3rd earl, formed with the earl of buglas a powerful alliance which was continued by his son (.ughter of

/.exander (d. 1453), 4th earl, known as "the Tiger" or "Earl lardie." After the murder of Douglas, Alexander opposed King ^mes n, but he made full submission and was pardoned in 1453 sartly before his death, Alexander's son David (c. 1440-95), 5th earl, was lord high E.Tiiral and lord chamberlain, and several times ambassador to Igland. He was created duke of Montrose in 1488 and fought f-

James

HI

at

Sauchieburn (1488).

The dukedom

did not

John (d. 1513), 6th earl, who was killed at John's cousin David Lindsay (d. 1542), 8th earl, whose SI Alexander, master of Crawford, known as "the wicked master," vs sentenced to death in 1541 for attempting to kill his father, civeyed the title to his kinsman David Lindsay of Edzell (d. I08), 9th earl. The 9th earl adopted Alexander's son David . of Reigate and 7 mi. N.E. of Horsham on the main Londono Brighton road. Pop. (1951 ) of civil parish 7.000; of Crawley Nt

of the development of the

Tow^n is

(

district

New Town

The proposed population of the New Ten Area of district 7.0 sq.mi.; of Crawley New Town 3 Crawley New Town lies in West Sussex and East Susx

1961) 54.065.

55,000.

sq.mi.

and

a small part of the industrial area

is

in Surrey.

To

the soh

are the forests of St. Leonards. Tilgate and Worth, and nursy

gardens and woods covering about 465 ac. are being retained wie most of the farms were built over. Crawley received a cha;r from King John in 1202 and its medieval buildings have been ]^ served. The old industries include light engineering and wciworking; new ones are chiefly engineering (making machiny, elevators), electrical (hearing aids, electronic apparatus), cojr printing and inks, plastics and food processing. See also fw

Towns.

CASPAR

DE

(G.wpard) (1584-1669), Flersh CRAYER, who was strongly influenced by his friend Rubens, as born at Antwerp on Nov. iS, 15S4. He was a pupil of Rap.el Coxcie in Brussels, where he became a master in the painters' fid in 1607 and resided as a much-honoured citizen until 1664. In 1635 he was appointed court painter to the cardinal infant Flinand. for whose triumphal entrv- into Ghent he had designed c 0rations; after Ferdinand's death in 1641 he received the title a painter to the king. In 1664 he moved to Ghent where he dieon Jan. 27, i66q. De Crayer was the painter of a large numbfoi altarpieces which were produced with the help of many assisiits and still abound in the churches and museums all over Flandennd elsewhere in Europe. His pictures of secular subjects are rare. lis artistic development runs parallel in various respects to th; ol Rubens, but he surpassed all other close followers of Rubei i" thought fulness and compositional skill. His portraits are in\Tapainter,

(W. Sv^ (CR.4WFISH or Crawd.ad) are crustaceans ;ie). (W. D. Hh.) ;

BATTLE

CRECY, OF. On Aug. 26, 1346, an English army mder Edward HI routed the forces of Philip VI of France near he village of Crecy-en-Ponthieu in northern France. After leavng St. Vaast-La Hougue in the Cotentin on July 18, Edward lillaged lower Normandy unopposed, but by the time he reached he Seine, PhiUp VI had gathered an army. Edward crossed the jeint at Poissy on Aug. 16 and moved quickly north to the Somme, vhich was forded below Abbeville on Aug. 24. With an unimpeded ine of withdrawal to Flanders, Edward now felt ready to risk a lattle with the French, who had pursued him for more than a veek.

On

the

morning of Aug. 26 Edward arrayed

his

army

in a

on the forward slope of the downland beween Crecy and Wadicourt; it faced southeast across a small alley. Edward seems to have had at most 14,000 soldiers; about ,000 were men-at-arms and the remainder mainly archers. They vert placed in three divisions; on the right was that of the young »rince of Wales (the Black Prince), the earls of Arundel and lorthampton commanded the left, and the king's division was ,eld in reserve. Dismounted men-at-arms formed the centre of ach division in the front line; and on the flanks, set forward at ,n angle, were the archers. French scouts located the English uring the afternoon, and PhiKp ordered his van to halt while he troops behind came up and a plan of attack was devised. The "rench greatly outnumbered the English; according to eye-witesses, the French had 12.000 men-at-arms and thousands of other roops. Philip could not control the impatience of his men, and oward evening the first of a series of disorganized assaults on the English line began. This ended in confusion when the Genoese rossbowmen, driven back by the fire of the longbows, obstructed be advance of the cavalry. Although they fought bravely, the 'rench never recovered from this chaotic start, and repeated ttempts to break the English line failed; the men-at-arms stood rm, and the archers on the flanks wrought havoc with their ross-fire. Fighting continued into the night, and when the French t last withdrew In the morning their losses had been heavy. le bodies of more than 1,500 knights and esquires were found n the battlefield, as well as those of many others. Reinforcelents which arrived too late for the battle also suffered badly. English losses appear to have been very small. From Crecy the nglish moved to Calais to which they laid siege on Sept. 4. The ictory did not greatly further English hopes of conquest, but seriously impaired French morale. It confirmed in France what ,ad lately been shown at Halidon Hill against the Scots: the lefensive

position

W.

Se.)

CREDENCE

(Credence Table), originally a small side table placed near the high table, in royal or noble houses, for the tasting of food and drink for poisons by an official of the household. The name (Ital. credenza, Fr. credence) survived after the disuse of this precautionary ceremony, and the table developed into the buffet.

—

,

See

combining dismounted men-at-arms with archers. Years' War.

;arned

The best known are L'ltcumoire (1734), Le Sopha, conte moral ,;i742, Eng. trans, by B. Dobree, 1951)— the moraHty does not ;xtend beyond the title and Les Amours de Ziokinizul (1746). They were appreciated by Sterne, who saw in his writing some of lis own inconsequential narrative style. With his friends and

713

tactical value of

In the

Roman

wood

Catholic Church the credence table is a small or stone, placed near the wall on the south side of

the altar, to hold the cruets containing the wine and water, the chalice, acolytes' candlesticks and other objects to be used in the Mass. The use of the credence also has been revived in the Anglican Church and pronounced legal. CREDI, DI (1457-1537), Italian artist, whose surname was Barducci, was born at Florence. He was the least gifted of three artists who began life as journeymen with Andrea del Verrocchio. The other two were Leonardo da Vinci and Perugino, of whom he was the companion and friend. Credi had a respectable local practice at Florence. He was consulted on most occasions when the opinion of his profession was required on public grounds, e.g., in 1491 as to the fronting, and in 1498 as to the lantern of the Florentine cathedral, in 1504 as to the place due to Michelangelo's "David." At rare intervals he produced large ecclesiastical pictures. The greater part of his time was spent on easel pieces, upon which he expended minute and patient labour. But he worked with such industry that numbers of his Madonnas exist in galleries throughout the world. A fine example of his easel roundels is in the gallery of Mainz. In his old age he withdrew on an annuity into the hospital of Santa Maria Nuova, where he died on Jan. 12, 1537. The National gallery, London, has two pictures of the Virgin and Child, and a portrait of Costanza de' Medici by

LORENZO

Credi.

CREDIT,

term frequently used in economics to denote the borrower to raise funds. It also denotes the funds borrowed and is thus the counterpart of debt. Credit may be extended by a creditor (lender) to a debtor (borrower) either through the sale of goods to be paid for in the future or through the transfer of cash with the promise of future repayment. The debtor is obligated to make future repayment of the amount borrowed and the creditor normally has the right to receive interest payments over the period of the loan. Credit is frequently but not always evidenced by a credit instrument, which may or may not be transferable. It may have any maturity date agreed upon by both creditor and debtor; some types are payable on demand while others run for many years. {See also Debtor and Creditor Law.) Economic development has usually been accompanied by an a

ability of a potential

increase in the use of credit, particularly for productive purposes. facilitated the mobilization and expansion of real by permitting the transfer of purchasing power from savers to investors. Prevailing types of credit and the extent to which credit is used reflect the economic development of a community. Much of the credit in medieval times, for example, was consumer credit extended to supply the needs of exigent borrowers. Wherever international trade became important in medieval and early modem times, facilities for extending short-term commercial credit developed. The industrial revolution was followed by issuance of long-term bonds to finance the building of railroads and other public utilities and by the expansion of short-term credit

Credit has capital

for industrial purposes.

half of the 20th century

An important development of the first was the use of installment credit {q.v.) consumer goods such as autemobiles

to finance the purchase of

and household appliances.

Most money now

in use consists of claims on either governIn advanced economies the predominant means by check (cheque), which is a demand deposit claim on a commercial bank. Deposits may be created in a variety of ways, but for the most part they reflect credit exten-

ments or banks.

of

payment

is

CREDIT FONCIER—CREDIT INSURANCE

7H

by the banking system. The ability of banks to create money by increasing their loans, however, is limited by the a\'ailability of reserves, now generally held in the form of deposits with central banks. (Sec Central Bank; Federal Reserx^e System.) sion

Credit transactions tend to accentuate business cycles (g.v.) because they facilitate changes in investment expenditures which may not be accompanied by corresponding changes in the amount that people wish to save. This is particularly true of the lending activities of commercial banks, which are not limited by the current volume of deposits. Central banks, however, are able to influence the credit

mechanism

so as to moderate cyclical

move-

ments.

The

traditional

means

of credit regulation

is

through general

which influence the reserve positions of commercial banks. The major instruments used are open market operations (purchases and sales of securities, usually government securities, by the central bank), changes in the discount rate (the rate at which the central bank lends) and changes in reserve requirements (the percentage of deposits that commercial banks are required to hold in the form of reserves). During and immediately following World War II, many governments placed considerable reliance on selective credit controls, which regulated the flow of funds to individual credit markets, but their importance declined after the early 1950s. See Credit Rating; see also references under "Credit" in the Index volume. credit measures,

—

BiBLior.R.\PHY. Roland I. Robinson et al., Financial Institutions, 3rd ed. (1960) Peter G. Fousek, Foreign Central Banking, 1946-1957: Instruments and Effectiveness of Monetary Policy (1959); Albert Gailord Hart and Peter B. Kenen, Money, Debt and Economic Activity, 3rd ed. (1961); Ralph George Hawtrey, Currency and Credit, 4th ed. (1950); U.S. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, The Federal Reserve System: Purposes and Functions, 4th ed. (1961). (M. E. D.) ;

CREDIT FONCIER DE FRANCE,

a limited company under the supervision of the ministry of finance. It is managed by by two deputy governors, who are appointed by an order in council (decret presidentiel) Founded by a decree of Louis Napoleon in Feb. 18S2 under the name of the Banque Fonciere de Paris, the Credit Foncier de France was sanctioned by a decree of March 1852 and in December received authority to act under its present name. a governor, assisted

.

The company was

originally set up with the object of granting urban or rural properties long-term loans on mortgages to be paid off by annual installments, but its activities were gradually extended. Thus it was authorized in 1854 to grant shortterm loans without amortization; in 1860, to discount bills from the Sous-Comptoir des Entrepreneurs issued particularly against the representation of credits granted with a view to building; and in 1860 and 1862, to grant loans, even without a mortgage appropriation, to departements, communes, owners' trade associations and public bodies. Then, after various decrees, the Credit Foncier successively extended its activities to Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco and, generally speaking, to the French colonies, protectorates and territories under French mandate. Finally, in 1928, it was authorized to grant loans on mortgage to owners of seagoing or into ow-ners of

land navigation vessels. The Credit Foncier de France raises the funds necessary for carrying out these transactions by issuing bonds which. like the loans, are first

of three kinds:

land,

communal

are specially "pledged" as security

or maritime.

The

by the mortgage claims of

the company, the second

by the debts owed by the departements, communes and public bodies, and the third by the maritime mortgage loans. The amount of bonds issued cannot exceed that of the borrowers' receipts; thus the bonds in circulation are always pledged against at least an equal amount of claims. Furthermore, the bonds have a common guarantee in the registered capital and the whole of the company's reserves.

After World

War

11, the

jointly with that of the

help of the Credit Foncier de France,

Sous-Comptoir des Entrepreneurs, was

specially enlisted in connection with the solution of housing prob-

was given the task of managing the Fonds National d'Amelioration de I'Habitat (National Fund for the Improvement of Housing) created in Oct. 1945, and a convention with the state

lems.

It

(Oct.

1950)

entitled

it

to

grant specially favourable loans to

owners whose residential buildings were destroyed during the war. The Credit Foncier de France and the Sous-Comptoir des Entrepreneurs are able to offer credits or special loans to people wanting to build houses, who have been granted by the state building subsidies convertible into bonus interests. These credits or loans are granted directly by the Credit Foncier if the bor-

rower does not need the funds until the building is completed, more generally, by the Sous-Comptoir if the funds are required while the construction is in progress. These credits are, as a rule, granted for a maximum period of five years, but in most cases, the borrowers are not able to pay back within such a short or,

period; they can then be given, upon request, the assurance that these credits will be replaced, upon expiiration, by redeemable

long-term loans.

The Credit Foncier

insures the financial service

of the building subsidies allocated by the state, which are set against the loan charges and thus act as bonus interests. Lastly, the Credit Foncier accepts discount for the credit operations presented to it by the banks relating to the erection of residential

and equipment of commercial buildings, and maintenance of buildings for agricultural development and to the mobilization of stock issued by the Caisse buildings, to the repair to the erection

Autonome de

la

Reconstruction (Autonomous Fund for Recon-

struction).

(P. Vt.)

CREDIT INSURANCE.

This type of insurance affords indemnity to merchants and manufacturers against the risk of loss due to insolvency or protracted default of customers to whom goods are sold on credit. Applied to export credits, the term may embrace facilities outside normal insurance underwriting. Plans to cover credit risks existed in continental countries during the second half of the 19th century, and in England and the The business U.S. during the last two decades of the century. generally proved expensive to operate and early progress was slow. In its modern technique, credit insurance in England dates from the close of World War I. The depredations of war opened up a vast export field. In consequence, there came into being two credit insurance organizations, the Trade Indemnity company and the export credits department, representing private and state enterprise respectively. At first interested only in bills of exchange, the export credits department extended its activities in 1926 to the guarantee of export credit risks and, in 1931, the department was rationalized on a semicommercial basis and the word "guarantee" incorporated in the title. The service provided by these two organizations in the field of export credits then proceeded on similar lines until 1933, when economic difficulties in many countries brought into play factors which were to have a marked effect on the development of credit insurance in Great Britain. With exchange control on a national basis, additional insurance cover was sought against nonpayment of a debt as a result of transfer restrictions imposed by foreign governments, a form of political risk

was

which

it

was considered the government organizatioE and underwrite than was a private Thus occurred a cleavage in underwriting

in a better position to assess

insurance company.

which still obtains. Subsequent development was along two clearly defined

interests

paths:

the export credits guarantee department, concerned only with

ex-

port trade; and the Trade Indemnity company, supported by

a

consortium of insurance companies as shareholders and reinsurers concerned mainly with home trade. Risks inherent in the imposi tion of currency transfer restrictions, the cancellation of import licences and political risks such as war or revolution cannot lightl) be ignored by exporters and, since the government organization not disposed to cover extraneous and political risks without th( normally insurable commercial risk, it is understandable that b; ii

far the larger

subscribed.

wide

field

volume of export

The

private

credits insurance

company has

a

monopoly

is

govemmen

of the equall;

of domestic credit, scope in the field of export credit

no pronounced political risk involved and insur ance of certain purely foreign business. World War I crystallized the need for credit insurance in th countries of western Europe. In general, credit insurance in in temational trade developed on the basis of co-operation betwee: to countries with

i j

CREDIT MOBILIER and private enterprise, and undertakings specializing in credit insurance appeared in all the more important commercial coun-

state

tries

m

of the world.

international

The

basis

effective supervision of credit risks

on

requires

collaboration with credit insurance companies and state organizations operating in the countries :oncerned, and this is achieved through the International Credit Insurance association of Ziirich, founded in 1928, and the Union

^'Assurance pour le Controle des Credits Internationaux of Bern, ;stablished in 1934.

The years of greatest expansion in credit insurance followed World War II. As the business expanded the coverage was broadIt is

;ned.

possible for specific accounts or sections of accounts but it is more usual, both in home and export

by

715

designated in the policy as a fixed percentage, subject to a minimum amount expressed in dollars. The insurer also uses a so-called coinsurance provision. This is not similar in application to the fire insurance coinsurance is

fixed

loss experience statistics.

clause, but

is

It is

actually an application of the deductible average

principle used in marine insurance.

Under the credit insurance coinsurance provision the insured bears an actual percentage of each loss such as 10% or 20%.

—

The modern

credit insurance policy is designed to protect wholejobbers and manufacturers against abnormal credit losses resulting from the insolvency or protracted default of a customer to whom goods have been sold on credit. It tends to improve the

salers,

inly to be insured,

credit standing of the insured,

;rade, for a firm to insure all credit sales except those where no ;ommercial risk exists; e.g., when the buyer is an associated company or an official body. The insured is expected to retain a finan;ial interest in the insured transaction, and it is usual in the home ;rade for the insurance payment to be 75%-85% of losses in-

ices of the insurer the losses on delinquent accounts

:urred.

Claims are paid within 30 days of the insured debt being adnitted to rank against the insolvent estate or, in the case of "pro:racted default," within six months thereafter.

The standard

government organization include and shipments policies, external trade polices, dollar-market and medium-term policies. There are, in addition, policies devised to meet specialized needs. The exporter required to exercise customary business prudence and to retain 's iome reasonable interest in the transaction. For this reason the !xtent of the cover is normally 85% of loss through the insolvency )f, or protracted delay in payment by, the buyer, 90% of loss irising from any other cause covered by the policy and arising lefore shipment and 95% of such loss where the cause arises ifter shipment. Repudiation of a contract or a debt is not in tself adequate grounds for a claim. (P. Ss.) Credit Insurance in the United States Credit insurance in facilities of the

ihort-term contracts

he United States originated as a result of legislation enacted in in New York, New Jersey and Louisiana which companies to write this form of nsurance. In 1887 the American Credit Indemnity Company of Louisiana was organized and, in 1888, the U.S. Credit System comlany was established in Newark, N.J. Neither of these companies enjoyed success and soon withdrew from the field. In 1891 the American Credit Indemnity companies of New Orleans, of St. Paul .nd of Minneapolis, respectively, were established, but the efforts if these companies were also unsuccessful and they ceased to iperate after 1894. In 1892 the London Guarantee and Accident 'ompany of London, Eng., created a credit insurance department a the United States, and in 1893 the American Credit Indemnity

885 and 1886

lUthorized the incorporation of

"ompany of New York was founded. Both of these companies urvived and wrote credit insurance successfully and uninter'Uptedly; in the latter 1950s they were the only two in the United Jtates writing such insurance. Other companies entered the busiess after these two but all eventually discontinued the writing of redit insurance. Original credit insurance policies required the isured to sustain an agreed percentage of loss on gross annual ales before the insurer was liable. This percentage, based on the

was termed initial or amount double the agreed to pay losses, subject

pplicant's previous credit loss experience,

wn

loss.

The

policy was issued in a face

irgest individual debtor's limit,

these limits, in excess of the f

and

it

amount

of the initial loss.

Amounts

insurance on individual debtors were based on ratings of a meragency selected by the insured when application was made

'antile

The meaning of insolvency was confined to that from bankruptcies, receiverships, absconding debtors with 0 assets or a judgment that the debtor was unable to pay in full, .ater the more comprehensive form of policy evolved. or the policy. rising

)

Credit insurance adheres to the principle that it is not designed cover the insured for losses which can be foreseen or which

;sult

from the insured's carelessness.

rinciple, the ige

for

modern policy provides

In an effort to apply this that there will be no cover-

normal bad debt losses inherent in the insured's line of This normal loss, often referred to as a primary loss,

[usiness.

and through the collection serv-

may be reforms of policies available and these, in turn, may be divided into two major groups, known as back coverage policies and forward coverage policies. In back coverage policies the insurance company agrees to reimburse the insured for losses occurring during the policy term and, through the use of a back sales rider, covers unpaid accounts receivable in good standing on the insured's books on the day the poHcy becomes effective. Unless this policy is renewed, the coverage ceases at the end of the policy term. In forward coverage policies the insurance attaches to sales, shipments and deliveries of merchandise made within the shipment period of the policy. Inasmuch duced.

as

it

There are about nine

different

covers only those transactions made during the policy term, When this policy expires, the sales rider is attached.

no back

coverage provides for the filing of claims up to 90 days, plus the longest terms of sale after the last day of the shipment period subject to an over-all limit of 215 days. Diverse forms are issued for varying needs but generally "insolvency" includes bankruptcy or insolvency petition, assignment, receivership, compromise, attachment, execution, death or insanity of sole debtor, chattel mortgage, absconding, confession of judgment, transfer or sale of stock in bulk, a debtor's business taken over by a committee. Besides these insolvency definitions, collection policy forms provide for assigning accounts as insolvent after becoming due and payable under original terms of sale. Under this form accounts can be filed as an insolvency when they become past due on original terms of sale or, at the policyholder's option, within an agreed number of days after original due date. Original underwriting conditions have greatly improved. Credit insurance companies pooled loss statistics for a period of years, resulting in experience normal loss tables showing average experience on any given sales basis in more than 400 different businesses. The larger proportion of U.S. credit insurance poHcies cover the policyholder's annual sales volume, but the demand for coverage on individual debtors is met by single credit account pohcies. Considerable hazard attends credit insurance underwriting, in-

cluding regional disasters such as floods and crop failures, future business conditions, reasonable expectancy of business depression in cycles, when credit losses reach large proportions, and the especially important factor of moral hazard, the control of the

insured hazard being in the policyholder's hands to a greater exIt therefore demands of undertent than in other insurances. writers a broad general knowledge of business and of local with different specific hazards and keen acquaintance conditions, judgment of human nature obtained only through wide experience

over a number of years. Bibliography. L. J. McCauley, Credit Insurance: Its History and Functions (1955); J. T. Trapp, Credit Insurance: a Factor in Bank Lending (1953) C. A. Kulp, Casualty Insurance (1942). ("V. V. S.)

—

;

CREDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA, a

US.

construction

and finance company associated with the building of the Union Although its operations were more Pacific railroad, 1865-69. or less typical of 19th-century railroad building in the U.S., sen-

newspaper exposures and congressional investigations in 1872-73 established it as a symbol of post-Civil War corruption. Experience had already taught veteran railroad organizers that more money could be made from construction contracts than from the operation of a completed road. This promised to be doubly true in the case of the Union Pacific, which was supported

sational

CREDITON— CREDIT RATING

7i6

federal loans and land grants but proposed to span a vast unpopulated resion between the Missouri river and Great Salt Lake. Credit Mobilier was part of a complex arrangement whereby Thomas Durant, Oakes Ames and other men in control of the Union Pacific railroad contracted with themselves for construction of the railroad. Chartered in 1859 as the Pennsylvania Fiscal apency and taken over by Union Pacific men in 1864, Credit Mo-

appearance of the company's property and by observing its business methods. For an individual, capacity is judged by the length of his employment and by the improvement shown in his earning capacity and financial position over the years.

contractor for only the first 247 mi. of road. functioned as the guarantor of extravagant contracts awarded to Ames and J. W. Davis and assigned by them to seven trustees chosen from the inner circle of Credit Mobilier and the

liabilities

by

bilier

was

itself a

Thereafter

Union

it

Pacific.

Pacific

The

(more often

payments from the Union and bonds than in cash), paid the

trustees received in its stock

actual costs of construction, and distributed the profits

among

These arrangements, while holders of Credit Mobilier stock. facilitating the disposal of Union Pacific securities and speeding completion of the railroad, enabled the men in control to enrich themselves by converting Union Pacific assets and credit construction profits. In the process, the railroad itself was overcapitalized and impoverished. Credit Mobilier became a public scandal when it was revealed into

that in 1867-68, Oakes Ames, whose financial responsibilities did not prevent his serving as congressman from Massachusetts, had tried to win friends for the company by selling shares of its stock

number

at discount prices to a

of his colleagues.

The house

of

representatives appointed a committee to investigate these transand after hearing its report early in 1873 censured Ames and Rep. James Brooks of New York, but absolved men like Vice-

actions,

and Rep. James A. Garfield who had ac-

Pres. Schuyler Colfax

cepted their favours. See J. B. Crawford, The CrMit Mobilier of America (1880), and the studies of the Union Pacific railroad bv Henry Kirke White (189S), (D. E. F.) Nelson Trottman (1923) and Robert W. Fogel (1960).

CREDITON, Eng.,

mi.

lies 8

a

market town and urban

N.W.

district

of

Devon,

of Exeter partly in the narrow vale of the

junction with the Yeo. Pop. (1961) 4,442. Area of the 13th century mention an east or Crediton (Kirton) is tradiold town and a west or new town. tionally the birthplace of St. Boniface (c. 680), patron saint of

Creedy near 1.7

sq.mi.

its

Documents

both Germany and Holland, who was martyred at Dokkum, Friesland, in 745. The parish church was built (1150) as a collegiate church on the site of the cathedral. The earliest of Crediton's seven charters, now in the Bodleian library, Oxford, is dated 739. The Queen Elizabeth grammar school for boys was founded under the 1547 charter. its

The wool

trade, established

height in the early 18th century.

engineering, tin-plating,

woodwork and

by 1249, was

at

Agricultural trades with the

making

of cider and

confectionery have superseded the woolen and serge industries. In 1897 Crediton was made the seat of a bishopric suffragan in the diocese of Exeter. an evaluation of an individual's or business firm's soundness as a credit risk. It is usually based on the three C's of credit; character, capacity and capital. In this sense, character refers to the moral integrity of the person or business firm being rated. Capacity is the business skill or earning power

CREDIT RATING,

of the credit applicant.

Capital

is

strength or the collateral that he

the borrower's over-all financial

may

be able to provide as se-

curity.

Character

is

important as a factor

in

determining a credit rat-

ing because a credit transaction involves a promise to pay.

person or business firm substantial

amount

A

may have good earning power and own a may be a poor credit risk

of property but

because of excessive spending or failure to pay bills on time. A record of meeting past obligations is the best evidence that the borrower has the character to recognize and meet his obligations. A past record of fraud, fires under questionable circumstances, gambling and repeated suits to collect obligations due indicates that the applicant is a poor risk. Evidence that he is a good moral risk is found in job stability, home ownership, church and civic affiliations, and stable family relationships. The capacity or earning ability of a business firm is judged by It is also evaluated by noting the its past record of profitability.

In evaluating the capital or general financial condition of a business firm, three financial ratios are important. (1) The firm's current assets should be substantially greater than its current (obligations

thumb widely followed of at least 2 to

coming due within a year). A rule of is that a firm should have a current ratio

1, i.e., its

current assets should be at least twice as

(2) The firm's existing debt should not exceed the amount of money put into the business by the owners of the finn. The owners, in other words, should have as large a stake in the business as the creditors. (3) The rate of profit earned by the firm should be as high as is customary in its large as its current liabilities.

and should not be deteriorating. is judged mainly by the bank accounts; the quality and amount of common stocks, bonds and other investments he may have, and by whether he is a homeowner. If he is a homeowner, the size of the mortgage will indicate the extent of his clear ownership in the home. line of business

The

capital position of an individual

of his cash holdings and

size

Some

by

credit ratings are published

rating agencies and as-

sociations; others are simply judgments which

the

files

of banks or other business firms from

be sought.

may

be note'd

whom

credit

in

may

The best-known published

credit ratings in the United Bradstreet contained in a volume enThe Reference Book, published every two months. The materials in The Reference Book are organized by states and within states by cities and towns. Each listing includes the person's or

Dun &

States are those of titled

firm's line of business

and

The first part The rating Aa indicates The rating L indicates a

a two-part credit rating.

of the rating gives the financial strength.

worth of over $1,000,000. worth of up to $1,000. The second part of the

a financial financial

rating

represents a "composite credit appraisal." These ratings run from Al to 2 for the Aa financial strength rating and from 3^ to 5 for

L

the

The

financial strength rating.

credit appraisal also has the

words "high," "good," "fair" and "limited" associated with

the

—

abbreviated rating. Thus a rating of Aaa 1 (triple A one) represents financial strength of over $1,000,000 with a "high" (which is

the best) credit appraisal.

very poor risk

—

little

A

rating of

L

5

would

indicate a

financial strength with a "limited" credit

appraisal.

A its

large

own

number

of credit rating agencies exist and each has

set of rating

symbols.

Two

are the National Credit Office and the

known rating agencies Lyon Furniture Mercantile

well

Ratings may also be made by trade associations, lawyers and better business bureaus. Credit managers are organized both on local and national levels to exchange information and apagency.

praisals.

Information on the vast number of individuals buying at the department stores and elsewhere is compiled and made available by local, privately owned retail credit bureaus. They are associated with other bureaus by membership in the Associated Credit Bureaus of America and the National Retail Credit association. The reports of the credit bureaus supplement the information that the person or firm extending credit obtains for itself. Information may be obtained first of all through a credit application which requests certain kinds of information. The information on the credit application may be supplemented by making inquiries of the applicant's bank and of places of business where he may have obtained credit in the past. The firm's employer and other personal references may also be consulted The local credit bureau supplements this information by keep ing a file on individuals who have used or are seeking credit. Busi' ness firms may, in fact, use the information compiled by the credi bureaus so that they do not heed to ask for the information or kee[ retail credit level in

a record of

The

it

critical

themselves. aspect of the credit rating always comes back

the rating on character.

For

a surprise to a firm or person

this reason,

it

sometimes comes

ti

a

in a strong financial position to en

counter difficulty in obtaining credit for the

first

time.

Th

i

;

.

CREDIT UNION—CREED iltimate test of character in credit transactions is a record of ing taken

on credit obligations and

fulfilled

them.

hav-

If a person or

irm has continuously traded on a cash basis, no evidence

is

avail-

of performance in meeting credit obligations. Therefore, a trong financial position and a favourable record on the other terns covered by credit reports is not enough. To establish a

ible

an individual or firm must engage in credit transand develop an unbroken record of responsibility in meet-

ligh credit rating

ictions

ng credit obligations. The concept of credit rating

is essentially American but the expansion of hire purchase business for consumer goods and he expansion of credit facilities generally in the United Kingdom lave combined to emphasize the need for such an assessment in hat country. This however does not imply that credit facilities re granted in Great Britain without inquir>'. The reputation of lOth individuals and business firms is subject to scrutiny almost

when

credit

is

required.

Inquiries directed to banks

nd to any firm with which the party concerned has had dealings There are, moreover, inquiry agencies of a common practice. vhich Stubbs Mercantile agency is an example of one operating 5

enerally.

Some

trade associations have their

own

inquiry or-

See also Credit. (J. F. W.) an organized group of people who save together and make low-cost loans to each other, "hese are usually short-term consumer loans, mainly for autolobiles, household needs, medical debts and emergencies. In ome countries where economic development lags, credit-union oans are primarily for farm production and small business enterEach credit union operates under government charter and rise. upervision which limits membership and service to a commonond group, such as: (1) employees of a business firm or govemlent agency (e.g., municipal employees, teachers); (2) members f an association, lodge or church parish; or (3) residents of a 3iall well-defined community. At annual meetings the members jlect from their own number the directors, the credit committee nd the super\'isory committee. In its broad outline the credit union self-help movement stems 'om societies founded in the middle 1800s by Friedrich Wilhelm .aiffeisen in Germany and Luigi Luzzatti in Italy, both of whom wed much to the example of the less idealistic Schulze-Delitzsch ocieties in Germany. The first credit union in the western emisphere, where the greatest development was to take place, as organized in 1900 at Levis, Que., by Alphonse Desjardins, a :gislative reporter whose work revealed the misery caused by sury. Desjardins also helped organize the first U.S. credit union, I Manchester, N.H., in 1909. The same year Massachusetts assed the first state credit union act. It resulted from a study lade by Bank Commissioner Pierre Jay and strong legislativeearing support by Desjardins and Edward A. Filene, a Boston lerchant who had been impressed by credit co-operatives he had jserved in India, and who foresaw the growing importance of 'msumer credit. In 1921, to accelerate U.S. credit union growth, ilene set up and financed the Credit Union National Extension jreau. Under Roy F. Bergengren, later assisted by Thomas W. 'oig, the bureau provided legislative, organizational and opera'onai services which speeded up the growth of credit unions anization.

CREDIT UNION,

heir

By 1962 there were more than 28,000 credit unions, located mostly in the U.S. and Canada. They had more than 15,000,000 member-owners with $6,000,000,000 in assets. Their sizes ranged from fewer than 100 members to more than 30,000. The typical credit union had 500 members and $100,000 in assets. Bibliography. Credit Union National Association, Credit Union Yearbook (annually) Richard Giles, Credit for the Millions (1951) Maxwell S. Stewart, Credit Unions Self-Help Familv Finance, Public Affairs Committee (1955) John T. Croteau, The Federal Credit Union (\' (present Oklahoma) in the 1830s. There they maintained a semiautonomous Creek nation, with a republican form of government, until 1907 (see Five Civilized Tribes). In 1950 about 20,000 Creeks were living in Oklahoma, many of them entering fully into the life of the state and remaining Creek only by formal affiliation. Others were more conservative, preserving the use of the Creek language, traces of the ancient town organization, and some aspects of Creek religion such as the busk. A remnant remained in southwestern Alabama, where their descendants numbered about 500 in 1950, having lost the Creek language and almost all traces of Creek culture. The Seminole iq.v.) are an offshoot from the Creek confederacy of the 18th and early 19th centuries.

—

Bibliography, John R. Swanton, "Early History of the Creek Indians and Their Neighbors," Bureau of .'\merican Ethnology Bulletin 73 (1922), "Social Organization and Social Usages of the Indians of the Creek Confederacy" and "Religious Beliefs and Medical Practices of the Creek Indians," Bureau of American Ethnology 42d Annual Report (1928), "The Indians of the Southeastern United States," Bureau oi American Ethnology Bulletin 137 (1946); .^ngie Debo, The Road to Disappearance (1941) Mary R. Haas, "Creek Inter-town Relations," Amer. Anthrop.. vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 479^89 (1940). (W. C. St.) ;

'

CREEL—CREMATION CREEL,

'

GEORGE EDWARD

(1876-1953), U.S. journal-

and author who directed publicity for his government during War I, was born Dec. 1, 1S76, in Lafayette county, Mo. ie began as a new^spaper reporter, became the publisher of a iveekly magazine and served as editor of Denver's Rocky Mounain News. He was an active supporter of Woodrow Wilson, and ,vhen the president in 1917 established a wartime committee on )ublic information Creel was appointed civilian chairman. His .ervices were further utilized as Wilson's personal representative a number of important conferences. Although he served in several other public positions, his time ifter 1919 was chiefly devoted to writing books and magazine st

Vorld

irticles.

Creel died in San Francisco, Calif., Oct.

CREEVEY, THOMAS

2,

1953.

(H.J. Sg.)

CREFELD: see Krefeld. CREIGHTON, MANDELL

(1843-1901I. English histoand bishop successively of Peterborough and London, whose and administrative ability ensured him a lasting repu;aftion in both capacities, was born at Carlisle on July 5, 1843. He was educated at Durham and Merton college, Oxford, of which ae became a fellow in 1866, and later a tutor, and was largely responsible for starting the intercollegiate system of lectures in aistory. In 1872 he married Louise von Glehn, herself later the iuthor of several historical textbooks. In the following year he

'rian,

scholarship

ordained to the priesthood and in 1875 became vicar of EmbleNorthumberland. He proved an excellent pastor and adl^iinistrator, and assisted in the foundation of the new diocese of >vas

:on,

upon Tyne, of which he was made honorary canon

in

1883.

Meanwhile he maintained his academic connection by examining history finals and by serving as select preacher at Oxford. He also began to write history. In 1875 appeared his History of 'Rome, and in 1876 The Age of Elizabeth and Life of Simon de Vontforl. At the same time he undertook the editorship of two Series. Epochs of English History and Historical Biographies, writng for the former a short inaugural volume. The Shilling History of •n the

torical Review in 1886. He also continued his own writing, producing the third and fourth volumes of the History of the Papacy (1887), Cardinal Wolsey (1888) and Carlisle (1889). In 1877 he began editing a new series of textbooks. Epochs of Church History.

In 1890 he was nominated to a canonry at Windsor, but before he could be installed was called to the bishopric of Peterborough 1891 ). His six years there showed afresh his powers of adminis(

(1768-1838), English M.P. and 'ilaceman, whose friendship with the Whig leaders and consequent nside knowledge of contemporary politics and society enabled lim fully to indulge his talent for gossip. He was born in Liver)Ool in March 176S, allegedly the son of William Creevey, a local nerchant, but he is believed by some to have been the illegitimate on of Charles William, 1st earl of Sefton. He went to Queen's oUege, Cambridge, and graduated as seventh wrangler (1789). ie became a student at the Inner Temple, transferred to Gray's '.nn (1791) and was called to the bar (1794). He entered parlianent, through the duke of Norfolk's nomination, as member for rhetford (1802), and married Mrs. Eleanor Ord, a widow with ,ix children and a comfortable income. A close friend of Charles 'afterward earl) Grey and a follower of Charles James Fox, Treevey was made secretary to the board of control in the brief 'ninistry of "all the talents" (1806). He was defeated at Thet'ord in 1818 and sat for Appleby from 1820 to 1826: he was ap)ointed treasurer of the ordnance when his party next came into )0wer (1830) and Lord Melbourne made him treasurer of Greenwich hospital (1834). He died suddenly on Feb. 5, 1838, in his 'odgings in Jermyn street, London. Creevey had a shrewd political sense and in opposition in the lOuse of commons he was highly effective. His parliamentary :;ifts were the subject of an admiring portrait by Thomas Barnes, :ditor of the Times from 1817 to 1841 (Parliamentary Portraits published anonymously, 1815). He also had an unrivaled capacity pT giving pleasure in social life. Lord Sefton 's daughter said of lim "he has added to all the pleasures and diminished all the |orrows of my life," and many contemporaries would have echoed 'ler words. The Creevey Papers include many of his letters which, js lively and as cheerful as his personality and characterized by ;n almost Pepysian outspokenness, give a valuable picture of the )olitical and social life of the late Georgian era. His correpondence was treasured by his wife's family. See Sir H. Maxwell (ed.). The Creevey Papers (1903); J. Gore, >eevey'i Life and Times (1934). (R. T. B. F.)

'Newcastle

721

England. He also began work on his magnum opus, History of the Papacy, the first two volumes of which appeared in 1882. In 1884 he was appointed first Dixie professor of ecclesiastical history at Cambridge. He infused new life into' historical studies there by showing himself to be both a popular lecturer and a learned conductor of seminars. He was appointed residentiary canon of Worcester in 1885 and became the first editor of the English His-

tration

and negotiation.

In education, while supporting the princi-

ples of the 1870 act. he furthered the cause of the denominational

and voluntary schools. He took an active interest in social and industrial concerns, and helped to secure the compromise that ended the strike 1895 in the Leicester boot factories. These new responsibilities necessarily curtailed his historical studies, but he became the first chairman of the Church Historical society in 1S94, and in 1896 published Queen Elizabeth and delivered the Romanes lecture on "The English National Character." In 1897 he was translated to the exacting see of London. There his determined Anglicanism, combining attachment to the liturgical traditions of the church with a scholar's readiness to welcome new light from every quarter, enabled him to exercise a steadying in(

)

fluence in the ritualist controversies of the day. He supported archbishop Frederick Temple's able summary of the situation in the Lincoln judgment of 1899 and did much to draw the disputants together in his round table conference on the doctrine of Holy Communion in 1900. Throughout he tried to establish that the distinctive characteristic of the Church of England was "the appeal to sound learning." Worn out by his labours he died on Jan. 14,

1901. See Life and Letters of Mandell Creighton by his wife, 2 vol. (1904) articles in Dictionary of English Church History^ 2nd ed. (1950) in Dictionary of National Biography, First Supp. (1901).

and and

(J.

W.

C. W.)

CRELLE, AUGUST LEOPOLD

(1780-1855), German mathematician and engineer, who sponsored the work of many young scientists of his day, was born at Eichwerder, Wriezen, on March 11, 1780. Crelle was a man of many interests and great organizing ability, and worked for the advancement of the exact sciences. By profession he was a civil engineer in the service of the Prussian government, and he built the first railroad in Ger-

many. Crelle was more interested in educational matters, however, in 1828 he left the technical institute in which he was employed to take up service with the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs and public education. He published a considerable number of textbooks, and his multiplication tables have been used widely and reprinted many times, but his great service to mathematics was the founding of the Journal fiir die reine und angewandte Mathematik, now known as Crelle's Journal. Niels Abel and Jakob Steiner encouraged Crelle in this venture, and were the chief contributors to the first numbers; Karl Jacobi was another

and

early contributor.

Without Crelle's generous encouragement, some of Abel's greatwork might never have been completed and published. Crelle also founded the Journal fiir Baukunst. He died on Oct. 6, 1855,

est

at Berlin.

CREMATION.

Cremation is the reduction of human remains ample evidence that cremation was widely practised in the ancient world. The Romans copied it from the Etruscans and the Greeks, and cremation was the fashionable mode of disposal throughout the Roman empire among the aristocratic In Europe cremation ceased to be common with the classes. growth of the Christian doctrine that attached considerable importance to the resurrection of the-physical body. But the practice remained common throughout the eastern world: thus the Indians and the Japanese have always been cremationists, as have the to ash.

There

is

CREMAZIE—CREME

722

The Chinese, however, have never adopted cremation

Burmese. since

it

is

the desire of e\ery Chinese to be buried in the soil of

no matter where he may die. The modern development of cremation dates from 1874, when

his country,

Henry Thompson, published a book enTreatment of the Body After Death. In

the queen's surgeon, Sir titled

Cremution: the

this book he said that the proposal to adopt cremation in recent times originally proceeded from Italy. Papers on the subject had

appeared

in 1866, and two Italian scientists had experimented over the intervening period. It was in 1873 that Thompson had seen a model of one of these experimental furnaces at the Great exhibition in \'ienna and, with memories of the appalling conditions

of cemeteries in Britain, was attracted to the idea of the sanitary disposal of the dead by this Italian method. He consequently took

what he called the Cremation Society of England; leading supporters were outstanding writers, artists and scientists of the period: Sir John Tenniel and Anthony Trollope and steps to organize

its

Sir

John Millais were

closely

associated

with

Thompson and

were signatories

to the document that brought the Cremation society into existence. The purpose of this society, according to the statement drawn up on Jan. 13, 1874, was to propagate the

idea of cremation since the promoters "disapproved of the present system of burying the dead and wished to substitute some method which would rapidly resolve the body into its component elements by a process which could not offend the living and would render the remains perfectly innocuous." Although Thompson's book and his subsequent writings roused

great interest, the

new

society

met with considerable opposition

and prejudice and four years elapsed before the group was able to obtain a suitable site at Woking, Surrey, for establishing a crematorium. Even then it was impossible to proceed because of opposition of the church and the home secretary. It was not until 1SS3 that the attempt in south Wales by Dr. William Price to cremate the body of his infant child resulted in a legal action, producing in 1884 the judgment that cremation was a legal process provided it did not cause a nuisance. Fortified by this judgment the society proceeded to advertise that cremation was available at its Woking crematorium, but it was many years before cremations were offered regularly. In the early days the cremations were carried out according to principles laid down by the council of the Cremation society and, despite many efforts to introduce house of commons to regulate the process, it 1902 that the first Cremation act was passed and regulations were drawn up under that act. In the meantime, six other crematoria had been established in various parts of the country. Nevertheless progress was slow until the close of World War II. when local authorities, faced with the difficult problem of finding the necessary land for all the social needs of their citizens, concluded that it was no longer possible to maintain the burial system, which was wasteful of land, and that every effort should be made to encourage the adoption of cremation. The result is seen in the great growth not only in the number of crematoria and in the number of cremations carried out but also in the percentage of cremations in relation to total deaths. Thus, by the second half of the 20th century there were in Great Britain about 200.000 cremations annually, representing about one-third legislation in the

each case, the cremations exceed 30% of the total deaths. The law differs widely, however, in various countries. In Britain the process is controlled by the Cremation acts of 1902 and 1952

and by the regulations of the home secretary drawn up under these two acts, which require that the medical practitioner in attendance at death shall complete a form in which he certifies the cause of death and that a second and impartial medical practitioner shall confirm this finding. Although the law is not so rigid in most other countries, the general principle

means

not be a

is

to ensure that

of concealing crime

cremation

shall

and that proper safeguards

shall be established in the public interest.

In the United States the cremation in quite the

same measure

movement

as in Europe.

Its

did not progress beginning as an estab-

back to 1876, when F. J. Le Moyne of Washington, Pa., built a rather rudimentary crematorium that lished practice can be traced

consisted almost wholly of a furnace, without embellishments, and carried out a cremation there. He himself was also cremated there

The practice of cremation nevertheless made to the figures produced by the Cremation AsAmerica there were more than 230 crematoria in operation throughout the United States by the second half of the 20th century and during 1954-59 approximately 300,000 cremations were carried out. a short time later.

According

progress.

sociation of

After 1937, the national cremation societies throughout the world combined for consultative purposes in the International Cremation federation, with headquarters in London; the federation holds triennial congresses and seeks to promote cremation as a universal practice.

See Funerary Rites and Customs; see also references under in the Index volume. Sir Henry Thompson, Modern Cremation, Its History and Practice (1889) Florence G. Fidler, Cremation (1930) P. H. Jones, Cremation in Great Britain (1945) Knud Secher, Ligbraending i Danmark (1956); Gustav Schlyter, Die Halles des Lebens (1937); Luiffi Maccone, Storia Documentata delta cremazione (1932); Calvin Wells, "A Study of Cremation," Antiquity, vol. xxxiv, no. 133 (March 1960) Pharos, quarterly journal of the Cremation Movement; reports of the Cremation Society (annual). (P. H. J.)

"Cremation"

Bibliography.

—

;

;

;

;

CREMAZIE, (JOSEPH) OCTAVE dian poet

who may

(1827-1879), Cana-

justly be called the father of French-Canadian

poetry, was born at Quebec April 16, 1827, and was educated at the Seminary of Quebec. An extraordinarily learned man, he

architectural aspects involved and the development of the "gardens of remembrance" attached to each crematorium where the ashes

bookshop which became the centre of a literary others F. Gameau and Louis Frechette In 1860 Cremazie and his friends (gq.v.) and fitienne Parent. founded the first literary school of Quebec and in 1861 began issuing a monthly magazine, Les Soirees Canadiennes, with the object of perpetuating the folklore of French Canada before it was forgotten. Cremazie also published poems in the Journal de Quebec from about 18S4 onward. He became involved in business difficulties and to escape their consequences departed in 1862 for France, where he spent the rest of his life in great poverty under the assumed name of Jules Fontaine. During that time he wrote the gloomy poem "Promenade des trois morts." which remained unfinished, and a journal Siege de Paris, describing the siege of 1870, which he witnessed. His poetry was characterized by a fiatriotic love of Canada and Canadian nature, shown especially in the "Chant du vieux soldat canadien." His "Drapeau de Carillon" (18S8) almost became a national song of Canada. Cremazie died at Le Havre Jan. 16, 1879. In 1906 Philippe Hebert erected a monument in St. Louis square, Montreal, to his memory. His Oeirores Completes were collected by his friends in 1883.

may be buried or scattered. At the same time the technical aspect was not neglected, so that the process by which the

See P. G. Roy, Autour de Cremazie (1945) S. Marion, Octave Cremazie, Pricurseur de Romantisme Canadien-Franfais (1946).

was not

until

of the total deaths, and there were more than 160 crematoria in operation. Considerable advance was made in every aspect of the subject after World War II. Much thought was given to the

of the dead

dead body

is

reduced to ash

manner considerably beyond and

is

started in 1848 a circle

including

among

;

(C. Cy.)

carried out in a speedy and seemly

the original conception of

Thompson

his friends.

This increasing acceptance of the idea of cremation is observable in many parts of the world. In the Scandinavian countries and in all the countries of Europe where there are cremation societies, crematoria are established in most of the densely populated areas and there is an ever-increasing number of cremations. Progress was even more marked in Australia and New Zealand where, in

CREME DE MENTHE. A peppermint liqueur, water-white but usually of a beautiful dark-green colour Its since pure vegetable colouring is then added. normally 29% alcohol by volume. Mint is a natural digestive and the essence of a species of garden mint is obtained by distillation; when it is completely free from fusel oils, or vegeFor the table impurities, it is used to flavour a natural spirit. best creme de menthe, cognac is used. Originally the finest mint

in its natural state

when

sold,

strength

is

CREMER—CREMONA obtained from beds in Mitcham, Surrey, Eng., but these have )een abandoned. Unlike such liqueurs as chartreuse and Benedicine, creme de menthe can be made by any distillery and is pro-

,vas

(C. C. H. F.) (1838-1908), Engish trade unionist and pacifist who won the Nobel peace prize for lis advocacy of international arbitration, was born at Fareham, He was apprenticed to a carpenter .Viltshire, on March 18, 1838. ind, going to London in 1852, became interested in politics and rade unions. In 1860 he was one of the founders of the Amal;amated Society of Carpenters and Joiners. Cremer was secretary

iuced in several countries.

CREMER, SIR WILLIAM RANDAL

the British section of the first international

if

{see

Interna-

lONAL, the) but resigned because of dissensions with Robert ApIn 1870-71 he formed a workingmen's committee for ilegarth. he advocacy of neutrality in the Franco-German War. This comnittee developed, after the war, into the Workmen's Peace assoiation, of which Cremer was secretary until his death in London At the general elections of 1868 and 1874 he in July 22, 1908. tood unsuccessfully for parliament as a workingmen's candidate, lut he was elected as a "Lib. -Lab." in 1885 and was a member At the 1906 general election intil 1895 and from 1900 to 1908. leither the parliamentary committee of the Trades Union congress Labour Representation lOr the committee would endorse his canIn 1903 Cremer won the Nobel peace prize, and of the lidature. :8,000 awarded he gave £7,000 in trust to the International Arbiration league. He was knighted in 1907. See Howard Evans, Str Randal Cremer (1911). (A. Bri.)

ADOLPHE

CREMIEUX, (ISAAC) (1796-1880), French awyer and statesman, responsible for the Dicret Cremieux of Oct. '4, 1870, which enfranchized the Jews in Algeria, was born at 'Jimes on April 30, 1 796, of Jewish parents. After practising at he bar at Nimes, he became an advocate at the supreme court of ppeal in Paris, where in Dec. 1830 he defended Martial de Juemon-Ranville, one of Charles X's former ministers. Elected leputy for Chinon in 1842, he played a prominent part in the evolution of 1848,

becoming minister of

justice in the provisional

overnment. He at first supported the candidature of Prince Louis Japoleon for the presidency, while voting with the extreme left,

withdrew his support and was imprisoned after the coitp "Mat of Dec. 2, 1851. On his release he returned to the bar until 869, when he was elected a deputy for Paris. Minister of justice 1 the government of national defense (1870-71), he represented dgiers in the national assembly from 1871 till 1875, when he was lected a senator for life. He died in Paris on Feb. 10, 1880. See S. Posener, Adolpht Cremieux, 2 vol. (1933-34). LUIGI ( 1 830-1 903 ) ItaUan mathematician and edagogue, was born at Pavia. He fought as a volunteer in the bortive north Italian uprising of 1848-^9, and after studying nder Francesco Brioschi at the University of Pavia became elelentary mathematical master at the gymnasium and lyceum of )remona, and afterward at Milan. In 1860 he became professor of higher geometry at Bologna, nd in 1866 professor of higher geometry and graphical statics at he higher technical college of Milan. In 1873 Cremona became rofessor of higher mathematics at Rome, where he organized the oUege of engineering. His reputation was by that time European, n 1879 he became a corresponding member of the British Royal ociety and a senator of the kingdom of Italy. His life was devoted 3 the reform of higher mathematical teaching in Italy. Cremona was a prolific contributor to mathematical journals ,f Italy and Europe, and some of his books were translated into inglish; e.g., his manual on Graphical Statics and his Elements His reputa(trans, by C. Leudesdorf). ,/ Projective Geometry on mainly rests on his Introduzione ad una teoria geometrica delle lUt later

CREMONA,

urve piane, which proclaims

,

him a follower of the Steinerian or

ynthetical school of geometricians.

CREMONA,

a city in Lombardy, Italy, on the north bank of Po river and capital of Cremona province, lies in the fertile ombard plain 85^ km. (53 mi.) S.E. of Milan by road and 98 km. 61 mi.) by rail. Pop. (1957 est.) 70,506 (commune). No large owns stand on the banks of the Po downstream from Cremona, hich by the 1960s had expanded far beyond its old walls.

'

le

723

the cathedral square, almost wholly surrounded by ancient buildings. The cathedral (conseRomanesque basilica notable proportioned finely crated 1190) is a for frescoes by Cremonese and other north Italian painters (Boc-

The main

centre of

Boccacino,

caccio

Cremona

is

regarded

generally

as

the

founder of

the

Cremonese school of painting; Antonio and Bernardino Campi; Altobello da-Melone; Gian Francesco Bembo; Girolamo RoIt is connected by a double manino; Giovanni Pordenone). arcade, the Loggia della Bertazzola, by Lorenzo Trotti (14931505), with the Torrazzo (1284), reputedly the highest bell tower (397 ft.), commanding a magnificent view. Nearby the octagonal baptistery dates from 1167. Other buildings of the mid-

in Italy

dei Militi (1292), the churches of S. Vincenzo, S. Lorenzo and S. Bassano, and the Gothic city hall (1206-45). Renaissance buildings include the Raimondi, Affaitati, Vidoni, Fodri and Stanga palaces, adorned with terracotta mouldings characteristic of the Cremonese style. The church of S. Sigismondo in the east of the town is notable for frescoes by Camillo Boccacino and the Campi family; that of San Pietro al Po in the south has paintings by Bernardino Gatti and A. Campi; that of Sant' Agostino has frescoes by Bonifacio Bembo; that of Margherita was built and painted by Giulio Campi Sta. Neo-classicism is represented by the facade of the church ig.v.).

dle ages are the Loggia

Michele,

S.

of Sant' Agata (1848) and by the Mina, Barbo and Pallavicino palaces, and modern architecture by the vast National Insurance

building (1935) fronting the Piazza

town

Roma,

a small park in the

centre.

Cremona

is

linked

by

with Treviglio and Brescia to the

rail

north and with Fidenza to the south; the large iron bridge across the Po was destroyed in World War II and by the early 1960s had been partly rebuilt. A separate suspension bridge (1953) carries the natural gas pipeline leading from Cortemaggiore, 18 km. (11 mi.) S.S.W.

Cremona is an imporand for dairy and other produce an InterManufactures include food national Dairy Cattle fair is held. products, agricultural machinery, bricks and pianos. Nougat has long been a speciality of the town's confectioners but the supreme Cremonese products were the violins made in the 16th-18th centuries by the Amati family and their pupils Guarnieri and Antonio Stradivari (qq.v.). The School of Violin and Viola Makers has a museum of antique stringed instruments, including some by the As the centre of a

rich farming district

tant market for cattle

;

The university in the Palazzo dell' Arte. school of musical paleography is unique in Italy and the municipal museum contains collections illustrating local and national culCremonese masters,

from Roman to modern times. History. Cremona was founded by the Romans on the site of an earlier Gallic village of the Cenomani in about 219 B.C. Virgil, who was born at Andes near Mantua, was sent to school at Cremona; hence his Mantua, vae! miserae nimium vidua Cremonae ("Mantua, alas, too near the unhappy Cremona") This was quoted by Jonathan Swift on seeing a violin whisked off the table by a lady's mantle. In the dark ages the town was repeatedly sacked by the Goths and Huns before being rebuilt by the Lombards in the 7th century. In 1098 it became an independent commune covering a wide area; it was threatened by Milan and ture

—

.

therefore sided with Frederick Barbarossa, but finally joined the league in 1 167. It came within the orbit of the Visconti family ig.v.) of Milan in 1334, and within that of the Sforzas Sforza (q.v.) when Bianca Maria Visconti married Francesco

Lombard

(1441).

After repeated attacks by Venice,

Cremona was taken

dominto the Venetian republic 1499-1509, coming under Spanish ination soon afterward and under that of Austria in 1707. Thereafter

its

history was that of

Lombardy.

on the west approximately by the south by the Po and on the northeast and east approximately by the Oglio river, has a population (1961) of 350,818. Area 1,756 sq.km. (678 sq.mi.). The province, which has a network of irrigation canals, is almost wholly arable land and pasture, stock less than 5% being forest and woodland. Dairy farming and raising are important and the chief crops are rice, wheat, corn

Cremona province, bounded

Adda

river,

(maize) and

flax;

some raw

silk is

produced.

The

chief

towns

CREMORNE GARDENS— CREOLE

724

Cremona; Crema and Soresina between Cremona and Milan; in the northeast; and Casalmaggiore on the Po river in the southeast. Cremona is an episcopal see in the archdiocese of

are

blunt-tipped.

Soncino

feet in

(A. Pu.)

Milan,

CREMORNE GARDENS, formerly a popular resort by the Chelsea {(j.v), London, Eng, Thomas Dawson, created X'iscount Cremorne in 17S5, held Chelsea farm, a riverside In the midestate, which he converted into Cremorne gardens. 19th century the gardens were a resort for Londoners. They were closed in 1S77 and built over. The name survives in Cremorne road, which crosses the former gardens, and the Cremorne housing estate between Cheyne walk, by the river, and the King's road.

Thames

in

CREODONT,

any of the extinct omnivorous and flesh-eating a group that is usually considered a sub-

mammals comprising

order of the Carnivora. The creodonts were the principal flesheating animals of the northern continents during the Paleocene and Eocene (extending from about 40,000,000 to 70,000,000 years ago). Although they included a number of families of diverse or partly parallel specialization, they were all distinguished by certain primitive characters: a small brain; separate scaphoid and

The muzzle and jaws were

some

elongate, the limbs and

species slender and cursorial as in the wolf.

Some

species attained the size and massive proportions of the larger bears; the toes were tipped with flattened hoofs instead of claws.

These creodonts are found in the Eocene rocks of western North America, western Europe and central Asia. Several of them equaled or exceeded the largest living Carnivora in size of skull. In the Late Eocene rocks of Mongolia is found the gigantic Andrewsarchtts with a skull three feet long; this is the largest known carnivorous mammal, even allowing for the probability that the skull was relatively large in proportion to the skeleton. It is perhaps open to question whether the creodonts are really referable to the order Carnivora.

The

earliest true carnivores,

which date from Middle Paleocene time, were by then already fully recognizable as carnivores; no connection has yet been established between them and any of the creodont families. See also Carnivore.

—

R. H. Denison, Ann. New York Acad. Sci., vol. 37, (1938) W. D. Matthew, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 9, (1909) and Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc, n.s., vol. 30 (1937); A. S. Romer, Vertebrate Paleontology, 2nd ed. (1945) W. B. Scott, A History of Land Mammals in the Western Hemisphere, 2nd ed. (1937).

Bibliography.

art. 3

;

pt. 6

;

lunar bones of the carpus; and lack of ossification of the tympanic bulla. They lacked the dental specialization of modern land carnivores: instead of having the carnassials, the shearing teeth of typical carnivores, creodonts had other teeth enlarged and specialized. They differ from Insectivora and resemble the mod-

em

Carnivora

the enlargement of the canines into powerful

in

tearing teeth, in the heavier muzzle and jaws with strong zygomatic arches, and in a

The

number

of other skeletal characters.

oldest family referred to the Creodonta

is the ArctocyoThese evidently nidae of Paleocene and Early Eocene times. omnivorous forms had primitive tritubercular teeth and subequal molars. The arctocyonids show many resemblances to the earliest hoofed mammals (Protogonodon to the phenacodontid condyThese resemlarths; Deltatherium to the Pantodonta, etc.). blances have been regarded as supporting evidence for the view

and hoofed mammals had a common ancestry.

(B. Pa.)

CREOLE

(French creole; Spanish criollo), a term used originally (16th century) to denote persons born in the West Indies of Spanish parents, as distinguished from immigrants direct from Spain, Negroes and Indians. It has come to be used by and with reference to descendants of non-Indian peoples born and settled in the West Indies and on the American continents in some areas of Spanish, Portuguese and French colonization. In the United States the term is used chiefly to designate the French-speaking descendants of the early French and Spanish settlers in Louisiana {see Louisiana: History; New Orleans: Poptdation Characteristics). The patois dialects founded on French and Spanish are referred to as Creole languages {see Pidgin).

The concept Creole has undergone many modifications

during

The

the four centuries of cultural and social development and racial mixture in the new world. It has both biological and cultural

many

connotations with respect to which there

that carnivores

possibility exists, however, that the Arctocyonidae, or at least of the forms currently placed in the family, should be regarded as belonging to the great hoofed mammal group, the Ungulata. The latest Paleocene and Eocene Oxyaenidae (sometimes considered a subfamily, Oxyaeninae, of the Arctocyonidae) included a variety of truly predaceous types: Oxyaena resembled a wolverine; Patriofelis reached the size of a bear with massive hyenalike teeth; and Palaeonictis had more feline characters. The related Hyaenodontidae included many and various types in North America, Europe, Asia and Africa. In the earliest forms, Sinopa, Proviverra and Tritemnodon, of the Early and Middle Eocene, the teeth were tuberculosectorial, the molars not very different in size, and the skull was long and slender. The proportions of body and limbs were like those of the modern viverrids (civet family) except for the very long and hea\'y tail. Limnocyon was analogous in teeth, proportions and probable habits, to modem weasels and martens. In Pterodon and Hyaenodon of the Late Eocene and Oligocene, the teeth were more completely sectorial and the body was larger; the proportions of skull and limbs were more like those of wolves. The subfamily Machaeroidinae forms an interesting branch of the family. The known genera, Machaeroides and Apataeliirus, of the Eocene of North America, were remarkably similar to the later

Hyaenosabre-toothed tigers. dontids were widespread in the Late Eocene and Oligocene and late

survivors

occurred

in

Miocene of Africa and the

The most

the

peculiarly specialized the

=''^i:ou"tiesy^of

ihe American

uuseuu op

sKuuroTHvlENODON. a creodont any shearmg of early tertiary age. which in action of the teeth; the cusps of size and structure was somethe teeth were high, round and what similar to the wolf

by the absence

of

general way, Creole

may

non-Indian way of

life

In a very

be used to identify a non-European and

and set of values associated (in Latin complex manner with different segments of The the mestizo (culturally and racially mixed) population. Creole way of life is symbolized by distinctive work patterns,

America)

in a fairly

leisure activities,

modes

of dress, habits of speech, food preferences

and the like. This symbolism defies facile generalization, however, from one Latin American country to the next and even varies with respect to special segments of the population within a single nation. An idea of the complexity of association may be had by selecting one country, such as Peru, as a concrete example.

In Peru the word criollo is used both as a noun and an adjective, with sharply different meanings. As a noun, the word is used to classify persons of predominantly Spanish descent who have family roots in the colonial period.

bers of "high

society"

{alta

Most

memsome stemming from

of these Creoles are

sociedad),

and others from the landhungry element who fought successfully for Peru's independence from Spain and who thereby acquired wealth and social position. These upper-class Creoles constitute a very small segment of the population. They are members of the oldest and wealthiest fam-

old-line families {familias de abolengo)

the provincial capitals, identified with the preservation of an elegant colonial tradition, or members of wealthy families of Lima who, however, tend to identify with modern European and North American cultural norms. Bordering on the adjectival use of the term is the manner in which Creole is used to distinguish coastal people {costenos) from highland Indians {serranos). This

Plio-

creodonts, the Mesonychidae, were distinguished of

considerable local (na-

ilies in

cene of India.

family

is

tional, regional, ethnic, class) variation in significance.

usage emphasizes two different ways of life and geographical provenience, regardless of the class membership or family heritage of the costeno.

As an adjective, criollo is not a class-bound concept, although has most significant associations with the lower classes of the Peruvian coast social and economic categories comprised of

it

—

CREON— CREOSOTE and Negroes.

Important expressions of the Creole way ^f life are the ability to turn a situation to one's advantage; speak Vittily and persuasively on a wide range of subjects; be masculine macho) in the sense of a successful and promiscuous lover; and elish well-seasoned (picante) foods associated mostly with pleHard work, often field labour, is part of the Creole leian taste. nestizos

among the lower classes; but work is avoided when and leisure is handsomely exploited in fiestas, where the 'narinera and the vals criollo are danced and copious amounts of vay of

life

i)0ssible

nsco are drunk.

Fiesta life has its roots in the hacienda system, nd occasions members of alta sociedad (hacienda owners and to mingle with their workers and local townsmen on ^aints' days, etc., when they return to play the traditional role of heir friends

)

'mtron and, participating in the revelry,

may become muy

criollo

very Creole). In a larger sense, creolism (criollismo) signifies ,ving life with a special gusto involving a national orientation, dde in country and a vigorous identification with Peru's present nd future. Criollismo is an adaptive concept within the limitaions of the Creole "spirit." Foreign ideas are reworked into the 'reole pattern of life, acquiring new significance. This malleabil|;y

indicates the process, in all societies having Creole segments, numerous special adaptations have been made in the

','hereby

"reole tradition.

Bibliography.— John Gillin, "Mestizo America" in Most of the Vorld, ed. by Ralph Linton (1949); Ozzie G. Simmons, "The Criollo Jutlook in the Mestizo Culture of Coastal Peru," American Anthroologisl, vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 107-117 (1955); J. L. F. Broussard, .ouisiana Creole Dialect (1942) H. L. Ballowe, Creole Folk Tales ;

1942).

(L.

C.Fa.)

CREON,

the name of two figures in Greek legend. (1) Creon, on of Lycaethus. was king of Corinth and father of Glauce or .'reiisa, the second wife of Jason, for whom Jason abandoned ledea.

(2)

Creon, the brother of Jocasta, was successor to

725

loaded onto steel cars, the cars are run into a steel pressure cylinder, usually 6 ft. or more in diameter and 100 ft. to 150 ft. in length,

and the cylinder is closed. The next step in the treatment depends upon which of the two pressure processes is used. In the full-cell (Bethell) process, the cylinder is evacuated and without first breaking the vacuum it is with creosote oil, previously heated to about joo° F. and maintained at this temperature during the treating period. The pressure in the cylinder is then raised to about 190 lb. per square inch and is maintained at this pressure until the wood has absorbed the desired amount of creosote. The creosote is then pumped out of the cylinder, the cylinder is again evacuated and the wood is removed from the cylinder. In the empty-cell (Rueping) process, instead of evacuating the cylinder before filling it with creosote oil, compressed air is introduced and the air pressure is maintained in the cylinder while it is being filled with the creosote. After the cylinder is filled with filled

creosote the operations are the

The amount

expressed in terms of the

put. Building lumber is usually given an 8-lb. treatment, telegraph poles an 8-lb. to 12-lb. treatment, piling a i6-lb. to 24-lb. treatment, railroad ties a 6-lb. to lo-lb. treatment, creosoted block flooring about a 6-lb. treatment. Records show

wood may be expected to give a service of 50 years or more. The post-office department in England has creosoted poles still in service 70 years after erection. In addition to treatment by the pressure process, wood is impregnated with coal-tar creosote by a hot- and cold-bath open-tank process. In this process the wood is heated for one or more hours in the creosote oil at a temperature of from 180° F. to 220° F., that pressure-creosoted

life

In pharmaceutical circles creosote wariably refers to wood-tar creosote, a mixture of phenolic comounds extracted from a distillate of wood tar. Coal-Tar Creosote, an oily distillate of coal tar, is a complex

tract

istillation of coal tar (q.v.).

J

lixture of organic

compounds.

Most

of the coal-tar creosote pro-

is used for the prevention of the deterioration of wood by insects and marine animals. The decay of wood is caused minute plants, called fungi; these parasitic plants attach them^y ;lves to the wood, use it for food and thereby destroy it. Of the ,irge number of insects which destroy wood the termites (q.v.) re responsible for the largest part of the wood destruction caused The mollusks (shipworms) and the y this biological group. rustaceans are the two groups of wood-boring marine animals hich damage wood submerged in the salt waters of the tropical nd temperate regions; they are more abundant in the warmer /aters but even in the colder regions are a serious menace; usually ."ood submerged in fresh water is not attacked by the borers. Coal-tar creosote was an important fuel in the British Isles durig World War II. In a substantial manner it replaced the petro:um fuels which had to be imported. Coal-tar creosote was itself sed as a fuel and it was blended with coal-tar pitch to make other quid fuels. Some coal-tar creosote is used in the manufacture f lampblack or carbon black (q.v.), a carbon of a particular and eculiar kind. Lampblack is made by burning creosote oil with inomplete combustion. The volume, speed, temperature and hulidity of the air are adjusted for the desired grade of lampblack. Wood-Treatment Processes. To prevent the deterioration of 'ood by organisms, the wood is impregnated with coal-tar creosote, 'he most satisfactory way to inject the creosote into the wood is y means of pressure. The pressure treatment of wood is by either f two processes: the full-cell process, in which the cells in the reated portion of the wood remain either partially or completely lied with creosote; or the empty-cell process, in which the cell ,'alls in the treated portion of the wood are coated with creosote, ae cell itself being empty or only partially filled. The wood is

lUced

ilants,

—

as in the full-cell process.

retained

The amount the wood will be

whereby the moisture and

CREOSOTE.

oil

number

Thebes {see Antigone). The term creosote is appHed loosely to two enirely different substances, coal-tar creosote and wood-tar creosote. ,n commerce creosote refers to coal-tar creosote, a complex mixure of organic compounds, largely hydrocarbons, obtained by the )edipus as king of

same

by the wood is usually of pounds per cubic foot of wood. desired to be retained depends upon the use to which of creosote

air in the wood expand and are pardriven out. Then the wood is quickly transferred to a tank of creosote having a temperature of about 100° F. It is left in this tank for one hour or more the plunging of the warm wood into tially

;

the cool creosote

causes the air and moisture in the wood to conand thereby suck in the creosote oil. The hot- and cold-

bath process

is

oil

used for the butt treatment of posts and poles. is another way of injecting creosote into

The dipping process wood.

In this process the wood is submerged in creosote oil and heated at from 200° F. to 220° F. for about 15 minutes or more. This allows the creosote oil to fill all the checks and defects in the

wood, but the penetration of the oil into the wood is only slight. Sometimes wood is merely given a brush treatment or painting with the creosote. Coal-tar creosotes vary considerably in their composition and therefore in their preservative value. Considerable attention has been given to the relative preservative qualities of low-residue creo(i.e., those oils which have only a small amount of the fraction distilling above 355° C.) and of high-residue creosote oils (the oils have a large amount of the fraction distilling above 355°

sote oils

The facts indicate that a well-balanced coal-tar creosote oil consisting of both low-boiling and high-boiling distillates is the suwood preservative. C).

perior

—

Chemistry. Coal-tar creosote consists largely of aromatic hydrocarbons (naphthalene, methylnaphthalenes, fluorene, anthracene, pyrene, etc.) but also contains some tar acids (phenols,

and some tar bases (pyridines, Because of its complex and variable

cresols, xylenols, naphthols, etc.)

quinolines. acridines, etc.).

chemical composition,

necessary to rely on

its physical propercharacterize coal-tar creosote. The specific gravity of coal-tar creosote at 38° C. compared with water at 15.5° C. is not less than 1.03; the specific gravity of the fraction of creosote distilling between 235° C. and 315° C. is it is

ties to

usually not lower than 1.025 at 38° C. to 15.5° C; the fraction distilling between 315° C. and 355° C. usually has a specific gravity not lower than 1.085 at 38° C. to 15.5° C, Ordinarily, coal-tar

creosote does not have more than $% of a fraction distilling up to 210° C. and not more than 25% of a fraction distilling up to 235°

C;

the

amount

about 40%.

distilling

above 355° C. varies from about

10%

to

CREOSOTE— CRESCENT

726 Wood-Tar Creosote

is

a specially refined part of the alkali-

oil obtained from tar, usually beechwood tar. (See Tars, Low-Temperature.) It is an oily liquid which distills over the approximate range 203° C. to 220° C. It is composed largely of a mixture of monohydric phenols (phenol, cresols, xylenols) and the methyl ethers of dihydric phenols (guaiacol). Beechwood creosote was once used extensively for pharmaceutical purposes. Medicinally, it has been used only to a limited extent, mainly in the treatment of respiratory infections such as

soluble constituents of a fraction of distillate

hardwood

bronchitis.

(F. E. Cl.)

CREOSOTE BUSH

(Larrea tndentata), a North American shrub of the caltrop family (Zygophyllaceae), called also grease-

wood, native

to

and characteristic of the sparse scrubby vegetaand adjacent

tion of desert plains in the southwestern United States

Mexico.

It

shrub, 2-5

The

is

an

evergreen,

strong-smelling,

high, with brittle stems

ft.

tangle-branched

and very leafy branches.

small, olive-green, resinous leaves emit a tarry odour.

The

bright yellow flowers, a half-inch across, appearing in early spring, are follow'ed

by

small, white, densely woolly globose seed capsules.

At low altitudes and sometimes up to 3,000 ft. the creosote bush forms, in the Mohave, Colorado, Gila and similar deserts, a characteristic zone of vegetation called the Larrea belt. The plant is cultivated as an ornamental in desert gardens.

CREPE, weights but

a all

family of fabrics of various constructions and possessing a crinkled or granular surface.

The

sur-

face effects are achieved through weaving variations, chemical treatment or embossing. The weaving method usually employed is

to

weave the

fabric with crepe yarn, a hard-twist yarn

either with a higher

number of and "Z"

or with alternate "S"

produced

twists per inch than ordinary yarn

In the "S" twist the twist of the yarn resembles the centre part of the letter "S"; in the "Z" twist the resemblance is to the centre part of the letter "Z." twists.

Another weaving variation is to leave out certain risers (interlacings of warp over filler threads) present in plain weave in order to increase the float of yarn from one to three. The fabric is made from all of the major fibres, natural or man-made. Surface textures range from fine, flat crepes to pebbled and mossy effects;

some surfaces resemble

tree bark.

Popular crepes include Canton, crepe-back satin, crepe de Chine, Georgette, marocain, faille, lingerie, mossy, romaine and rough. The family name is derived from the French crepe, meaning crisped, frizzled or wrinkled.

The

original spelling in English

was

(G. E. L.)

crape.

CREPE DE CHINE, a

very

and fine plain woven dress warp and weft or else with

light

fabric produced either with all-silk

a silk warp and hard-spun worsted weft. A crepe de Chine texture has a slightly crepe character, a feature produced by the use of weft yarns spun with the twist running in reverse directions and known as right-hand and left-hand twist, respectively. During weaving, the picks of weft are inserted in the order of "two-andtwo" (i.e., with two picks of weft with a right-hand twist and two picks with a left-hand twist). Hence, during the finishing operation, owing to the abnormal amount of twist in the picks of weft, these tend to untwist and recover their normal condition. They thereby cause the characteristic effect of typical crepe de Chine. Crepe de Chine textures of artificial silk are now common and are often difficult to distinguish from the true silk. are shafts of light which are seen just after the sun has set and which extend over the western sky radiating from the position of the sun below the horizon. They form only when the sun has set behind an irregularly shaped cloud or mountain which lets the rays of the sun pass through a cloud in bands. The radiating appearance of the bands is caused by perspective, as demonstrated by the fact that when on rare occasions the rays extend across the entire sky, they appear to converge again on the eastern horizon. The name is sometimes applied to shafts of sunlight seen when the sun shines through cumulus clouds, from which phenomenon arises the erroneous popular expression "the sun is drawing water."

CREPUSCULAR RAYS

The

word (Latin crepusciilum, "twilight") inshould be applied only to the after-sunset occur-

derivation of the

dicates that

it

rence.

I

See also Twilight.

(H. R. B.)

CRERAR, JOHN

(1827-1889), U.S. philanthropist who enafter him in Chicago, 111., was born in city In 1862 he went to Chicago, 8, 1827. where he directed a plant that manufactured railway equipment' he became one of the original members of the Pullman Palace Car company when it was incorporated in 1867. He was also a bank and railroad director and served as president of the Chicago and Joliet Railway company. Crerar died a bachelor in Chicago on

dowed the New York

named on March

library

Oct. 19, 1889.

His bequest for a statue of Abraham Lincoln led to the creation of Augustus Saint-Gaudens' seated figure of Lincoln in Chicago.

Crerar did not specifically provide in his will for a library devoted to the sciences and technology, which the John Crerar Public library became, though he expressly wished to exclude certain novels and works that he felt undermined morals. The library contains special collections in the various sciences and in medicine and the history of medicine. CRES (Ital. Cherso), a Yugoslav island in the Adriatic sea, in the Quarnero group, lies off the east coast of Istria. In 1945 Cres and the adjoining island of Losinj (Lussino), previously Italian, passed to Yugoslavia. Pop. (19S3) Cres 4,938; Losinj 5,335; and the adjoining small islands 2,235. Cres, 64 km. (40 mi.) long and 12.8 km. (8 mi.) wide, has a total area of 336.1 sq.km. (130 sq.mi.). It is separated from Losinj by a navigable channel which is believed to be an artificial one made by the Romans. Both islands are structurally a part of the Karst plateau of Istria. The most interesting feature is Lake Vrana with drinking water 63 ft. below sea level. V/ine, olive oil and fruits are produced in both islands but Cres is chiefly devoted to sheep raising. (V. De.) CRESCAS, HASD'AI (c. 1340-1412), Jewish philosopher, who played a prominent part in Jewish communal affairs, was born at Barcelona, Spain, a protege of the royal house of Aragon. His principal work is the Or Adonai ("The Light of the Lord"), which, in opposition to Maimonides and Gersonides, seeks to free religion

only

from intellectualism and

way

stresses the love of

God

as the

to eternal bliss.

Again opposing his predecessors, he interprets creation as the eternal and necessary emanation of existence from God. His critique of Aristotelian physics foreshadowed a new conception of the universe and influenced Pico della Mirandola and possibly Giordano Bruno. Spinoza mentions Crescas in a letter and seems to owe something to him. Unlike his Jewish predecessors, Crescas rejects the doctrine of absolute free will. He distinguishes, however, between predestination in the sense of fatalism and causal determination and admits that the human will, though free to choose, is determined by the causality of motives. His view goes back to Averroes, to Avicenna and to the Stoics. Crescas wrote a Refutation of the Cardinal Principles of the Christians in Spanish. (A. An.) CRESCENT (Lat. crescens, "growing"), a word used particularly of the moon and applied to the moon's shape in its first quarter. It was a religious symbol from the earliest times and figured, for example, in the worship of Astarte. Later it became the symbol of the Byzantine empire, supposedly because the sudden appearance of the moon saved the city from a surprise attack. It once was thought that the Ottoman Turks adopted the crescent for their own flags after capturing Constantinople in 1453, but in fact they had been using the symbol for at least a century before that, as it appeared on the standards of their infantry under Sultan Orkhan (c. 1326-c. 1360). In that case, however,

the crescent

may have been

of different origin,

formed by

the base-

to-base conjunction of two claw or horn amulets, as on horse brasses.

Whatever its origin, the crescent became closely Ottoman empire (appearing on military and

ciated with the

asso-

naval

standards and on the tops of minarets), its successor states and the world of Islam in general. It may be seen today, as a white; crescent with from one to five stars, on the national flags ofi Turkey, Pakistan, the Federation of Malaya (and its component) states), Tunisia, Libya and the Maldive Islands, and in red asi

j

CRESCENTII—CRESSENT ^the s>'mbol of the

Red

Crescent, the

Muslim equivalent

of the

;Red Cross organization.

The Fertile Crescent comprises Iraq, the northern and coastal areas of Syria and Lebanon and Israel, forming a crescent-shaped I

'belt

of fertile land.

In heraldry the crescent was originally a mark of great honour adopted by many returned crusaders, particularly in France. In England, with the horns vertical, it became an honourable ordinary. With the horns turned to the dexter it was known as "in-

and

crescent,"

to the sinister as "decrescent."

In modern heraldry it is used as a difference to indicate second sons of a family and their descendants. In western chivalry there have been two ;orders of the Crescent, the first founded in 1268 by Charles I of ,Naples, the second in 1448 by Rene d'Anjou. Neither of these, 'Dor Selim Ill's order, was very long-lived. In architecture a crescent

I

is

a street or place built as the arc

A common

street name in England, it was first used Royal crescent in Bath in the 18th century. (A. D. A.) (Crescenzi), a Roman family which played an important part in the history of Rome and the papacy from the of a circle.

of the

CRESCENTII

middle of the 10th to the beginning of the 11th century. Its extensive possessions were situated mainly in the Sab'ina. The Crescentii a Caballo Marmoreo and the Crescentii de Theodora

may

both be descended from one Crescentius recorded in 901. It is doubtful whether Pope John XIII belonged to the former. Crescentius {I) de Theodora (d. 984?) led a revolt in 974 against [Benedict VI who was imprisoned in the Castel S. Angelo and then assassinated; but the antipope Boniface VII did not prevail against the new "imperial" pope, Benedict VII, under whose pontificate 1(974-983) the Crescentii seem to have suffered a political setback. After the emperor Otto II's death their fortunes revived, and John, probably Crescentius' son, assumed the title of patriciiis of Rome and appears to have controlled the election of the new pope, John XV, in 985. In 996, Crescentius, probably John's

Gregory V, whose cousin the emperor 998; after being besieged by Otto in the Castel S. Angelo, Crescentius was executed on April 29, 998. His son John (II) was the last of the family to wield political power in Rome: after Otto's death (1002), he became patriciiis knd henceforth practically governed the city; he died in 1012. brother, led a rising against

Otto III reinstated

him

in

After that, the Stefaniani branch, descended

from Stefania,

sister

Crescentius (I) de Theodora, declined; the Ottaviani, descended from John (II) 's brother-in-law Octavianus, retained the rectorate of

of the

Sabina until the beginning of the 12th century.

—

Bibliography.

," Dissertazioni delta G. Bossi, "I Crescenzi Accademia Romana di Archeologia, vol. xii (1915) and "I Crescenzi di Sabina Stefaniani e Ottaviani (dal 1012 al 1106)," Archivio della Societa Romana di Storia Patria, vol. xli (1918); C. Cecchelli, 7 Crescenzi, i Savelli, i Cenci (1942) P. Brezzi, Roma e Vimpero medioevale (1947). (N. R.) .

.

.

Pontificia

;

CRESILAS

(fl. Sth century B.C.), a Cretan sculptor who in Athens. He was a contemporary of Phidias, and the sculptor of an Amazon in the competition at Ephesus about 440 B.C. His Amazon was perhaps the figure, of which copies are

worked mostly

drawing back her chiton from a wound under Another work of Cresilas of which copies appear Athenian statesman Pericles. This portrait confirms the statement of ancient critics that Cresilas was an artist who idealized and added nobility to noble men. Copies of a statue of Diomedes are probably also derived from Cresilas. extant, represented as

the right breast.

to survive is the portrait of the

—

Bibliography. Gisela M. A. Richter, The Sculpture and Sculptors of Greeks (19S0); G. Lippold, Handbuch der Archdologie, lii, 1 (1950); P. Orlandini, "Kresilas," Atti e Memorie (Lincei) (1952). (C. C. V.)

the

CRESOLS

A

mixture of the three or Methyl Phenols. isomeric cresols (ortho-, meta- and para-) is obtained from coal and also from cracked petroleum naphthas. The formula of

tar

is CH3.CeH40H. The o-cresol is separated quite readand fairly completely from the other two isomers. The boiling

the cresols ily

points of »i-cresol

Tar) that

and

/)-cresol are so close together

(see

Coal

not practical to separate them by fractional distilthe separation may be accomplished by chemical means. Cresyhc acid, a mixture of the three cresols containing some phenol

lation;

it is

727

and various amounts of xylenols (dimethylphenols), is an important commercial chemical. It is used in the manufacture of phenol-formaldehyde resins, tricresyl phosphate and in disinfectants.

In 19S6 a multimillion-pound-per-year plant was erected in the U.S. for the synthesis of p-cresol. The process used involves the oxidation of ^-cymene (/J-isopropyltoluene) to the corresponding

hydroperoxide, and the latter

then hydrolyzed to ^-cresol. (F. E. Cl) Italian mannerist painter, was born at Busto ArsLzio, near Milan, in 1590/92. He was a pupil of G. B. Crespi and of G. C. Procaccini, and became an exponent of that form of mannerism which is characterized by extreme elongation of the figures and especially the limbs. He

CRESPI,

DANIELE

is

(1590/92-1630),

worked exclusively

in Lombardy, and there are works by him in churches, including the Certosa di Garegnano, near Milan, in which are his scenes from the life of St. Bruno, generally

many Milanese

reckoned his masterpiece. Other works are in the Certosa of Pavia, and in the Brera gallery, Ambrosiana and Castello Sforzesco in Milan.

He

died in Milan, of plague, in 1630.

(P.

GIOVANNI BATTISTA

(called II

CRESPI,

My.) Cerano)

J.

(1575/76-1632), Italian painter, who was influenced by Gaudenzio own style is important in the development of Lombard realism before Caravaggio, was born at Cerano near Novara and died in Milan about Oct. 23, 1632. (In the register of deaths his age is given as 56, so he must have been born about 1575/76 and not, as formerly believed, c. 1557.) He studied in Rome and Venice and returned to Milan under the patronage of Federigo Cardinal Borromeo, who made him head of the painting section of the Accademia Ambrosiana in 1620. His most celebrated works are a series of ten pictures of the life of St. Charles Borromeo in Milan cathedral (1602-10). He was also active as a sculptor and architect. (P. J. My.) Ferrari and Camillo Procaccini but whose

CRESPI, GIUSEPPE (1665-1747),

March

Italian

16, 1665.

genre

He was

MARIA painter,

a pupil of

(called

was

bom

Lo Spagnuolo) in

Bologna on

Domenico Canuti but formed

on the example of the Carracci and on the study of the Venetians Barocci and Correggio, seen during his extensive travels. He was, however, unique in his employment of strong chiaroscuro and in his interest in genre subjects; both these interests were to be taken up in the 18th century in Venice by G. B. Piazzetta and Pietro Longhi. His famous series of the "Seven Sacraments" (Dresden gallery) shows both his preoccupations to advantage. Other works by him are in Bologna. His son, Luigi Crespi, wrote his life in his Vite de' pittori bolognesi (1769). He died on July 16, 1747, in Bologna. (P. J. My.) CRESS, a common name for many plants of the mustard family (Cruciferae; q.v.) whose sharp-flavoured basal leaves are often used in salads, seasonings and garnishes. Water cress is probably the best known {see Water Cress), but other edible cresses include garden cress (Lepidium sativum), a peppergrass {q.v.)\ upland or winter cresses (Barbarea verna and B. vulgaris), often weedy herbs; and bitter cress (Cardamine species). Among several ornamental plants called cress are rock cress (Arabis species; see Arabis) and Indian cress, the common garden nasturtium {Tropaeolum ma jus ; see Nasturtium). his style principally

.

CHARLES

.

.

CRESSENT, (1685-1768), French furniture maker, sculptor and metalworker, who occupied a prominent position in 18th-century European art and whose works are among the most beautiful pieces of French furniture of the period, was born at Amiens on Dec. 16, 1685. Grandson of the cabinetmaker Charles Cressent and son of the sculptor Frangois Cressent, he practised both professions. It is not known when he went to Paris, but it was probably about 1710. At first he worked for the son of the cabinetmaker Andre Charles Boulle, came under the influence of the designer G. M. Oppenordt and the painter Antoine Watteau and formed a friendship with the sculptor Frangois Girardon. As early as 1715 he was appointed official cabinetmaker to the due d' Orleans, regent of France, and later he occupied the same position for his son. In 1719 he became a member of the Academie de Saint-Luc, an eminent situation that brought Cressent important orders. He made furniture for foreign courts

;

CRESSY— CRETACEOUS SYSTEM

728

Portugal, Bavaria) and for the houses of the wealthy in France but does not seem to have worked for Louis XV. For the regent's I

made one

northeastern Derbyshire, Eng.

known, and the

I Its precise geological history

is

not

would have been quite incapable parallel walls of cliffs on either about 50 ft. in height in places. Both escarpments by gullies and pierced at several points by considerrivulet

it

carries

Two

of his masterpieces, the famous medal cabinet (in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris). Cressent was also an

of erosion on the scale seen.

experienced collector. Having developed his taste in the world of art, he formed a fine collection of pictures and objets d'art, which, however, he voluntarily dispersed. He died in Paris on

are dis.sected able caves. The latter contained important deposits of the Upper Pleistocene Age, whose excavation has yielded one of the most important series of extinct vertebrate faunal remains accompanied

son he

Jan. 10, 1768. Cressent not only designed the models and

made the furniture himself, but he also carved magnificent mountings of gilded bronze In this respect his skill was comparable to that of his for them.

contemporary, Jacques Caffieri. The cabinetmakers' corporation instituted proceedings against Cressent, who. although a cabinetmaker and in spite of his privileges, had not the right to work bronzes on his premises, and they were seized in his workshop. The total absence of signatures makes it difficult to date Cresproduction, so recognizable by his personal style. The works, still very much in the manner of Louis XIV, have af-

sent's first

with Boulle's work. In the following period (about 173050) his artistry is balanced, retaining its elegant strength and avoiding the excess of rococo; from this period can be dated the charming espag?wlettes (female figures generally fixed to the corners of tables), most characteristic of Cressent's style. Finally, finities

work was

by a return to the antique. The Louvre (Paris) and the Wallace collection (London) are specially rich in furniture by Cressent. See M. J. Ballot, "Charles Cressent," Archives de I'art francais, vol. x (1919) F. de Salverte, Les Ebenistes franqais du XVIIIe Steele (1953). after 1750, his

inspired

;

(S.

CRESSY,

HUGH PAULIN (in religion Serenus)

Gr.)

(c.

1605-

English Benedictine historian, apologist and spiritual writer, was born at Thorpe-Salvin, Yorkshire, and educated at Merton college, Oxford. He became chaplain to Sir Thomas Wentworth (later earl of Strafford) and subsequently to Lucius Cary (later Lord Falkland) he was also dean of Leighlin, Ire., and canon of Windsor. In 1646 he joined the Roman Catholic Church, partly owing to the writings of Father Augustine Baker, and became a monk of St. Gregory's, Douai, in 1649. Returning to England after the Restoration he was appointed chaplain to Queen Catherine of Braganza at Somerset house. He died at East Grinstead on Aug. 10, 1674. His Exomologesis, an account of his conversion, appeared in Paris in 1647; he also wrote a large Church-History to the Norman Conquest (part i, of Brittany [i.e., Britain] 1668; part ii, discovered in 1S56, is still unprinted) and several 1

674

)

,

;

.

.

.

His chief significance, however, is as editor of the mystics Walter Hilton (1659) and Julian of Norwich (1670) and, above all, as the skilful compiler, from manuscript material left by Father Baker, of the spiritual classic Saticta Sophia (1657). He thus presented to his generation and to posterity the traditional ascetical and mystical teaching of medieval England, developed and completed by the saints and mystics of the Counter-Reformacontroversial tracts.

bank

rise to

by the implements of Paleolithic hunters known

The

in Britain.

recorded scientifac excavations of these deposits 1875 and were continued for a number of years by Sir William Boyd Dawkins. Further excavations were undertaken by A. L. Armstrong in 1924 and subsequently, and his work was followed in 1959 and 1960 by detailed investigations undertaken by R. V. S. Wright and C. B. M. McBurney. earliest

took place

in

The principal sites examined were Robin Hood's cave. Pin Hole, Mother Grundy's Parlour and Church Hole. The best-attested

human occupation in all of wellian culture, now widely

these belongs to the so-called Cresregarded as a provincial variant of

the later Magdalenian culture of southwestern France and assigned to the final episodes of the last or Wiirm glaciation. On the evidence of radiocarbon analyses, this last glaciation is believed

have fallen between the 13th and 9th millennia B.C. Traces of earlier Paleolithic stages include Mousterian artifacts from Pin Hole, Robin Hood's cave and less certainly from the to

other two. Well-characterized implements of the British variant of the Proto-Solutrean are also available from Church Hole. The accompanying mammalian fauna includes reindeer, woolly rhinoceros, mammoth and wild horse. An earlier faunal assemblage, presumably of the Last Inter-

Riss-Wijrm Age, from Mother Grundy's Parlour includes Hippopotamus major and Rhinoceros leptorhinus, both indicative glacial or

A

of temperate conditions.

quartz industry claimed to be (C. B.

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM,

M. McB.)

in geology, a vertical sequence

of rocks deposited toward the end of the Mesozoic era, or time of intermediate forms of life following the Jurassic period and immediately preceding the Cenozoic era

— the era of recent

North America, South America and northThick coal deposits in North America cover an immense area (100,000 sq.mi.) and are also found in Germany, Japan and New Zealand. It is mostly of bituminous and lignitic posits are widespread in

ern Africa.

Geologic

Time Chart

CENOZOIC ERA

See J. Gillow, Bibliographical Dictionary of English Catholics, vol. i, There is a sympathetic portrait of Cressy in pp. 592-596 (18S5). (M. D. K.) J. H. Shorthouse's novel John Inglesant (1902).

made

( 1

906-

)

,

U.S. composer, whose

is

Mode., .

Oligocene

CRES'WELL CRAGS,

through a localized ridge of Permian limestone near Creswell in

Rise of flowering pla-*First placental i

Paleocene

MESOZOIC ERA .

Triassic

Extinction of dinosaurs Dinosaurs' zenith, primitive birds, first small mammals Appearance of dinosaurs

PALEOZOIC ERA

;

a ravine about 500 yd. long cutting

.

Eocene

accessible

;

Early Large carnivores Whales, apes, grazing forms Large browsing mammals i

mod-

and effective through rhythmic vivacity and harmonic euphony, was born in New York city, Oct. 10, 1906, in an Italo-American family; his real name is Joseph Guttoveggio. He studied organ but was self-taught in composition. Among his works are five symphonies (1940, 1944, 1950, 1951, 1955), some of them with programmatic connotations (the third symphony is subtitled Three Mysteries) Two Choric Dances for orchestra (1938); Threnody for orchestra (1938); saxophone concerto (1941); piano concerto (1949); Walt Whitman, symphonic poem (1951) hivocation and Dance for orchestra (1953) chamber music for various combinations; sacred vocal pieces, and piano music. Creston was also active as a lecturer and conductor. In 1956 he was elected president of the National Association for American Composers and Conductors. (N. Sy.) ernistic style

or modern

Many rocks of Cretaceous

age are of notable economic importance and are used for a variety of purposes: building stones, ceramic products, glass sand and cement. The most important products, however, are oil and gas and coal and water. Oil delife.

tion.

CRESTON, PAUL

asso-

ciated with this assemblage has not been confirmed.

Reptiles developed, conifers

abundant Carboniferous Upper (Pennsylvanian)

Lower (Mississippian)

.

.

•

.

First reptiles, coal forests

Sharks abundant Amphibians appeared, fishes ahiundant

.... ....

Earliest land plants

animals

and

Kirst primitive fishes

.

Marine invertebrates

.

PRE-CAMBRI-\N TIME Few

fossils

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM luality.

729

Porous Cretaceous sandstones are locally important

lources of artesian water.

The Cretaceous was a period of dramatic change in the distribuof land and sea on the earth and in the plants and animals that hhabitcd it; it was the time of the much discussed extinction of jhe dinosaurs and other groups of animals; and toward the end if the Cretaceous the flowering plants became the dominant vegeiation cover of the land areas of the world. The Cretaceous period I

jion

asted approximately 75,000,000 years, beginning about 130,000,ioo to 140,000,000 years ago; it was characterized by notable

hountain-building activity and by vast inundations of continental Volcanic activity was lively at times along the •reas by the sea. dajor submarine depressions, the geosynclines that ringed the Pa.ific ocean and extended in approximate east-west direction across orthern South America, the Mediterranean area and from there iagonally toward Australia "ethys.

to

form an ancient sea

called the generally considered to to temperate even in the higher latitudes.

The climate

of the Cretaceous

is

ave been warm The Cretaceous Rocks. The name Cretaceous (as Cretace, rom Lat. crcta, "chalk") in its present application was suggested

—

'

Omalius d'Halloy in 1822. It refers to a characteristic rock deduring late Cretaceous time over much of northwestern Europe where, exposed along the English channel, it forms a faailiar landmark (the white cliffs of Dover). Chalk, however, is ot the predominant type of rock formed during this period. On he land thick deposits of sandstone, shale, coal and conglomerate ?ere accumulated; in the seas (besides chalk) mudstone, limestone md some thick beds of material of volcanic origin were formed. I'he vertical sequence of these rocks is usually divided into two ortions, the Lower and the Upper Cretaceous sequences. In order b compare the relative ages of rock sequences the world over, a tandard of named stages representing succeeding time intervals 'as established for the European sequence, beginning with the Jeocomian (the oldest) and ending with the Danian. The chart hows in much simplified form the relative age of Cretaceous rock

Fig

1.

— DISTRIBUTION

that spanned the continent lengthwise

ly

the Arctic ocean.

'osited

into

eposits in various parts of the world. Age correlation of Creta€0us beds in geographically separated parts of the world is based, a the case of marine sediments, largely on widely distributed pecies of ammonites which are among the more reliable guide or ndex fossils of the period. In the continental deposits plant assmblages and dinosaurs have been used to identify and correlate le beds of rocks. {See Fossil.)

PHYSICAL HISTORY I

Mountain-Building Activity.

—

Sedimentary rocks are the of destruction by erosion of highlands and mountain During the Cretaceous period many ancient mountain sys'ms and old uplands as well as mountain ranges formed during le latter part of the Jurassic were severely dissected or virtually roduct inges.

iveled; fresh jarts

movements

of the earth's crust occurred in

many

and at different times during the period, and mountain ranges thus formed were likewise reduced

of the world

'lany of the

This explains the vast quantity of Cretaceous deLocal mountain-building activity occurred at the very leginning of the Cretaceous period in extreme western North Lmerica, in Europe and in the far east (Japan), and again at the fid of the Lower Cretaceous. In North America the end of the retaceous coincides with very profound crustal movements (Larmide revolution that gave rise to the Rocky mountains. Distribution of Land and Sea. The distribution of water Ad land in the early part of the Cretaceous period was notably 3

peneplains.

OF LAND AND SEA DURING LOWER (EARLY) CRETA-

CEOUS TIME

The continent

from the Gulf of Mexico to

of Africa likewise

became divided

two land masses with a very shallow, lagoonal sea arm connecting the Tethys with the South Atlantic. Almost all of western Europe, except for a few islands and the Scandinavian shield, as well as large areas of the Asiatic continent lay covered

by

the ex-

panding Tethys. While the picture of land and water distribution during the Cretaceous is generally one of gradually increasing surface area of the seas, the opposite trend, regressive movements with emergence of land areas, occurred locally in a number of places and at various times. A striking example of this is seen in the long sea arm that extended from the Arctic ocean across the Russian plain toward the Caspian sea. It was formed in the late Jurassic period and existed until just prior to Apfian time in the Cretaceous, when it was replaced by an arm of the Tethys entering the Russian plain from the south. The fossil faunas enclosed in the sediments of these sea arms are thus of strikingly different nature, one belonging to the cool arctic province, the other to the subtropical Tethys.

—

Volcanic Activity. It has long been recognized that volcanic major crustal disturbances of the earth, and

activity accompanies

that volcanoes usually are arranged in lines that follow the edges of structurally active geosynclinal troughs.

In Cretaceous time (as

periods) such major geosynclines ringed the Pacific ocean and were an outstanding feature of the Tethys sea. Volcanic activity occurred all through the Cretaceous period along

was true

in earlier

same time or with the same intensity. In the early phase of the period, volcanic activity centred primarily around the Pacific where by Danian or late Cretaceous time it became very active along the eastern fringe of the Asiatic continent. Activity along the geosynclines of the Tethys occurred with varying intensity during the late Cretaceous; it was particularly notable along the southern edge of the Asiatic continent (Indochina, peninsular India, Black sea area) and around the Carthese synclinal basins, but not everywhere at the

losits.

)

—

from what it is today (sec figs, i and 2). The North merican continent was partially covered by advancing seas both the north and in the south. The Caribbean area was an island, large parts of western Europe and the Mediterranean area east the Caspian sea were covered by the Tethys and the ancient I'orth sea. An eastern extension of the Tethys geosyncline sepajifferent

ji

|)

peninsular India from the Asiatic continent. long arm of the Arctic ocean penetrated deeply into the Rusjan plain. Toward late Cretaceous time the transgression of the iited 1

A

North its maximum extent. became completely bisected by an immense, shallow sea

— DISTRIBUTION

pas over former land areas reached

FIG.

'merica

CEOUS TIME

2,

OF LAND AND SEA DURING UPPER (LATE) GRETA-

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM

730

Cretaceous Sequences

European stages

3

1|

CRETE the correlation of rock

samples from well cuttings (see Forami^nifera). Sponges and corals were locally abundant in parts of the Tethys sea and elsewhere, but they and the brachiopods never played a major role in the faunas of this period. Of the echinoderms it was the sea urchins that populated the Tethys waters in rather large numbers, and some species were sufficiently widespread to serve now as guide fossils. The sea lilies ( crinoids on the other ihand. were rare. The most abundant and varied invertebrate animals of this period were the moUusks. To the historical geologist they are of great interest because many species evolved rapidly and thus persisted for only a brief time while achieving wide geographic two requirements that make an organism a useful distribution ?uide fossil. Among the lamellibranches (clams and relatives) the most characteristic types were the rudistids, massive sessile shells that formed reeflike masses and were typical members of the warm-water faunas especially abundant in the Mediterranean section of the Tethys. Oyster beds, likewise, were of notable imThe marine gastropods (snails), whose anatomy is portance. unknown except for the shapes of their shells, were locally common ind many of them had characteristic shapes and ornamentations. While the clams and snails survived the end of the Cretaceous period, most of the cephalopods (relatives of the squids and NautiNor did the belemnites (squidlike animals with long 'lus) did not. dublike backward projections from their internal skeletons) and the unusually varied group of the ammonites, distant relatives of the living Nautilus. Both these groups were very conspicuous elements of the Mesozoic faunas and both died out at the end of the ) ,

was 483,258. This I.

—

Cretaceous.

Among

the vertebrates the fishes present a picture similar to

that of the plants in the sense that the earlier

ganoid iq.v. or garwere largely replaced by the modern bony fishes, the ;eleosts. What little is known of the amphibians suggests that i-nodern types were already present in the early phase of the period. For the reptiles, in contrast, the Cretaceous brings to a close r.heir rule on the earth. The dinosaurs, the most conspicuous land iinimals, gradually died away until only the ceratopsians (horned iinosaurs) were left and they, too, did not survive the end of the leriod {see Dinosaur). In the sea the ichthyosaurs (fish replies), the plesiosaurs and the marine lizards, the mosasaurs, all )

tike fishes

predators of the oceans, vanished, as did the 'lying reptiles (pterosaurs). Only the turtles, lizards and snakes, he crocodiles and the rhynchocephalians survived to the present. lighly successful

is known of the birds of the period and the mammals, alhough present since the end of the Triassic, were small and rather

Jttle

inconspicuous creatures.

Numerous

i

possible causes have been suggested to account for

dramatic faunal upheaval during late Cretaceous time, but no could have been responsible. It would seem clear, lowever, that the world-wide structural disturbances resulting in Intense orogenic or mountain-building and volcanic activity toward ihe close of the period resulted in profound environmental alteraions that required physical adaptability greater than that of the his

ingle factor

reptiles and ammonites. For further information see Paleobotany;

lighly specialized ;

Paleontology;

Seology. See also references under "Cretaceous System" in the Index ''

folume. Bibliography. ;

vise,

— E. Dorf, "The Earth's Changing Climates," Weather-

C. O. Dunbar, Historical Geology (1949) T. Just, the Origin of Angiosperms," Bot. Gaz., vol. E. Neaverson, Stratigraphical Paleontology (1955) H. Termier

vol. 10 (1957)

;

;

no

Gymnosperms and 1948)

;

;

G. Termier, Hisloire Geologique de la Biosphere (1952); W. A. -obban and J. B. Reeside, Jr., "Correlation of the Cretaceous Formalions of the Western Interior of the United States," Bull. Geol. Soc. inter., vol. 63 (1952); R. W. Imlay, "Correlation of the Cretaceous "ormations of the Greater .Antilles, Central America and Mexico," iull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. J- B- Reeside, Jr., "Paleoecology s.i (1944) f the Cretaceous Seas of the Western Interior of the United States," (R- Zl.) Memoir 67, Geol. Soc. Amer. (1957). '.nd

731

110 mi. from Cape Krio (Akra Krios) in Asia Minor, the interval being partly filled by the islands of Karpathos and Rhodes; its northwestern extremity. Cape Vouxa (Akra Vouxa, also called Grabusa), is about 60 mi. from Akra Malea in the Morea (Peloponnese). Crete thus forms the natural southern boundary of the Aegean. The island's area is 3,218 sq.mi. Its population in 1961 article contains the following sections

2.

Physiography

3.

Climate Vegetation and Animal Life

4.

IT.

and subsections:

Physical Geography 1. Geology and Structure

Archaeology 1.

2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

E.->icavations Sites

Nomenclature and Chronology Egyptian Contacts Origins and Development Palatial Architecture

Minoan Towns

8.

Sanctuaries

9.

Tombs

11.

Painting Sculpture and Modeling

12.

Metalwork

10.

13. Seals 14. Scripts 15. Later Periods History 1. Ancient History 2. Medieval Period 3. Turkish Domination 4. Union With Greece IV. Population and Administration V. The Economy

III.

1.

Agriculture

2.

Mining and Industry Communications

3.

I.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Geology and Structure.— The

island of Crete is a remnant of a range of mountains which formerly linked the chains of the 1.

Peloponnese with those of southwestern Turkey. This range was thrown up, like those of the Greek mainland, during the earth movements of Tertiary times and took the shape of a wide arc, of which the east-west trending range of Crete is the most southerly section. Subsequently this mountain range was broken by rifts and dislocations and much of it foundered beneath the sea. In

what is now Crete, these fractures left the four main mountain masses standing above three fallen sections which, after being covered by the sea in late Tertiary times, are now isthmuses composed of Pliocene sediments. During the process of rifting, the residual mountain masses of Crete were upheaved and tilted toward the north and northeast, with the result that while on the south they fall abruptly into the sea along a straight coast line, they descend more gradually to the north in a series of natural steps, to meet a more indented and gently shelving shore. The very porous limestone rocks of Crete rest on the impervious basement beds of the island and springs of water are commonly found at their junction. The basement rocks are chiefly found in the extremities of the island, especially in the western districts around the Gulf of Kisamos (Kolpos Kisamou) and Palaiokhora (Selino Kastelli). There the topography is much more gentle and rounded and surface streams are far more common than in the limestone regions with their precipitous slopes and underground drainage. These metamorphic rocks of western Crete, which are largely Triassic in origin, form a series about 9,000 to 10,000 ft. in thickness and include gypsum, dolomite, conglomerates, phyllites and a basic series of eruptive rocks (gabbros, peridotites and

;

CRETE (Gr. Kriti; Krete), the largest island of Greece and, fter Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus and Corsica, the largest island in he Mediterranean, is situated between 34° 55' and 35° 41' N. Its north|ititude and between 23° 30' and 26° 19' E. longitude. jastern extremity, Cape Sidero (Akra Sidheros), is distant about

serpentines).

Resting on these basal formations are sedimentary rocks sevthousand feet thick of Jurassic, Cretaceous and Eocene age,

eral

consisting largely of unstratified gray and black limestones but in-

cluding some sandstones and conglomerates.

At the western foot

of the Psiloriti (Idhi; ancient Ida) massif calcareous beds with corals

and brachiopods {Rhynchonella inconstans,

etc.)

have been

CRETE

732

found, the fossils indicating the horizon of the Kimeridge clay. schists, with radiolarian cherts,

Lower Cretaceous limestones and

are extensively developed; and in many parts of the island Upper Cretaceous limestones with Rudista and Eocene beds with numThe arrangement of these series is mulites have been found. complicated by a great thrust plane which has brought the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous beds upon the Upper Cretaceous and Eocene beds. The Miocene marine beds (with Clypeaster) lie almost undisturbed upon the coasts and the low-lying ground, especially in the isthmuses of lerapetra and Rethimnon. They are largely composed of conglomerates, though they include also some marls, chalks and sandstones, which have weathered into a low rolling landscape. With the Jurassic beds is associated an extensive series of eruptive rocks (gabbro, peridotite, serpentine, diorite, granite,

which outcrop

end of the Asidheroto range and to the south of the Lasithi (Dhikti) mountains. They are chiefly of Jurassic age, but the eruptions may have continued into the etc.)

Lower Cretaceous.

at the eastern

The small

and Quaternary deposits,

Physiography.—The

Upper Tertiary Mesara and Canea

plains of alluvial

in particular

(Khania), include some of the most

those of

fertile districts of Crete.

island is of elongated form its length 152 mi., its breadth from north to south varies from 35 to 7| mi. The northern coast line is much indented. On the west the Gulf of Kisamos is formed by two narrow mountainous promontories, the western terminating in Cape Vouxa (ancient Corycus), the eastern in Cape Spatha; beyond the Bay of Canea (Kolpws Khanion) to the east, the rocky peninsula 2.

from

east to west

;

is

of

Akrotiri shelters the magnificent natural harbour of Suda (Kolpos Soudhas, Z\ sq.mi.), the only completely protected anchorage for large vessels which the island affords. Farther east are the bays of Candia (Kolpos Irakliou) and Mallia (Kolpos Mallion), the deep Mirabella gulf (Kolpos Merabellou) and the Bay of Sitia (Limin Sitias). The south coast is less broken and possesses no natural harbours, the mountains in many parts rising almost like a wall from the sea. The greater part of the island is occupied by ranges of mountains which form four principal groups. In the western portion rises the massive range of the Levka Ori (White mountains), directly overhanging the southern coast with spurs projecting toward the west and northwest (highest summit, Pachnes, 8,045 ft.). In the centre is the smaller, almost detached mass of Psiloriti culminating in the Stavros (8,058 ft.), the highest summit on the island. To the east are the Lasithi mountains with Afendis Khristos (7,024 ft.) and farther east the mountains of Sitia with Thrifti Oros (4,757 ft.). The Asterusia (4,039 ft.) mountains separate the central plain of Mesara (Pedhias Mesaras) from the southern coast. The isolated peak of louktas (2,661 ft.), nearly due south of Iraklion (Candia), was regarded with veneration in antiquity as the burial place of Zeus. The principal groups of mountains are for the greater part of the year covered with snow, which remains in the deeper clefts throughout the summer; the intervals between them are filled by connecting chains which sometimes reach the height of 3,000 ft. The largest plain is that of Monofatsion and Mesara, a fertile tract extending between Mt. Psiloriti and the Asterusia range, about 15| mi. in length and 83 mi. in breadth. The smaller plain, or rather slope, adjoining Canea and the valley of Alikianou, through which the Platanias (ancient lardanos) flows, is of great beauty and fertility. A peculiar feature is the level upland basins which furnish abundant pasturage during the summer months; the more notable are the Omalos in the Levka

Ori (about 3,445 ft.) drained by subterranean outlets, Nida in Psiloriti (about 4,396 ft.) and the Lasithi plain (about 2,657 ft.), a more extensive area, on which are several villages. Also characteristic are the deep narrow ravines bordered by precipitous cliffs, which traverse the mountainous districts; into some of these the daylight scarcely penetrates. Numerous large caves exist in the

mountains; among them are the famous cave of Ida in Psiloriti, the caves of Melidhonion in Milopotamos and Sarchu in Malevizion, which sheltered hundreds of refugees after the insurrection of 1866, and the cave of Dicte in Lasithi, which disputes with Ida the honour of being the birthplace of Zeus. The so-called Labyrinth, near the ruins of Gortyna, was a subterranean quarry from

which the city was built. The principal rivers are the leros and the Anapodharis, which drain the plain of Mesara and enter the southern sea west and east respectively of the Asterusia range; the Platanias, which flows northward from the Levka Ori into the Bay of Canea; and the Milopotamos (ancient Oaxes) flowing northward from Psiloriti to the sea east of Rethimnon. 3. Climate. In summer Crete lies in the path of the very regular etesian winds, which blow steadily from the north. The air is dry and hot, especially in the interior plains like that of Mesara, which do not experience the daily sea breeze. In winter, by contrast, the winds are more tempestuous and variable. If the eastward-moving cyclones pass to the north of the

—

island, they give rise to southerly winds, while

if they pass to draw in winds from the Aegean. In either case they cause rain or snow, and Crete receives almost all its precipitation in the torrential showers of the winter months, particularly between November and January. Iraklion has an average annual rainfall of 20 in., 5 in. more than Athens. Snow lies through the winter at altitudes above about 1,600 ft., but in general winter in Crete is much milder than at comparative altitudes on the mainland because of the tempering influence of the winds from the sea, and the average January temperature at Iraklion (54° F.) is S°

the south, they

higher than that at Athens. The soOth coast in particular suffers from frequent gales in the winter season; the north wind descend-

from the mountains causes severe squalls which are a danger to navigation, while the southerly winds also often meet the exposed coast at gale force. If these last winds continue into late spring, they bring very hot and dry air from north Africa, which ing

may damage

the ripening crops.

The mountains

are not only colder and wetter than the plains,

but they also receive thunderstorms. 4.

much more

rain in

Vegetation and Animal Life.

summer, mainly from

—The

flora

of Crete, as

might be expected in view of its geological history, is similar to those of the Peloponnese and Asia Minor. It includes also a few Cyrenaican plants. The forests of Crete have almost completely disappeared as a result of reckless felling, overgrazing and soil erosion. The woods of wild cypress {Cupressus sempervirens var. horizontalis) of western Crete now only survive on the slopes of the Levka Ori, while the Aleppo pine forests, once common in the eastern districts, are represented by a few scattered copses, for example on the southern slopes of the Lasithi mountains. The largest remaining stand of holm oak {Quercus ilex) is on the eastern slopes of the Lasithi range, and on the lower hills by the south coast the Spanish chestunt (Castanea sativa) is occasionally found.

Brushwood of carob or locust tree (Ceratonia siliqua), strawberry tree {Arbutus unedo), wild olive and juniper and, along the streams, of plane and willows is less common in Crete than the low shrubby communities of prickly plants like the bumet (Poterium spinosum), broom (Genista acanthoclada) and rockrose (Cistus villosus var. creticus) which exudes labdanum (used in perfume manufacture). Grassland is very scarce, but there are numerous colourful herbaceous plants such as pinks and milkworts, and such, bulbous species as the asphodel. Bones of the elephant and pigmy hippopotamus were found in geologically recent cave deposits, and the deer only became extinct in historic times. In the 1960s there were fewer than 20 species of mammals on the island, 9 of which were endemic. Of these species the largest is the agrimi or wild goat (Capra aegagrus) which is found in the Levka Ori and the Psiloriti mountains. There is also a Cretan variety of dog, a large variety of weasel and a light-coloured hare.

The wildcat

badger and mouflon or wild sheep. and no wolves on the island. II.

The historic

is

found, along with the marten,

There are no poisonous snakes

(Wm.

C. B.)

ARCHAEOLOGY

archaeological importance of Crete lies chiefly in its preremains, which have revealed the development in the

Aegean Bronze -Age of a culture comparable in and material achievement with the contemporary civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt. This Cretan culture extended in its maturity to the whole of Greece and exercised considerable, island during the

artistic

CRETE

Plate

SCENES

Church

John the Hermit in Khania nomas: one of the first churches was originally a cave used for Christian assemblies

of St.

in Crete, it

IN

CRETE

I

CRETE

I'lATE II

-iijl.

A View

of

Rethymnon with

the Psiloriti

(IVIt.

Ida) in the

background

Thousands of these windmills Windmills on the Lasilhi tableland. used by Cretan farmers to pump ground water for irrigation

:

CRETE ^

more

distant regions of Europe. (See Aegean CiviliAncient literary references to Crete as the source of

nfluence in

733

which

palace at Knossos indicate that these elaborate structures need not have been royal. The sanctuaries are either walled enclosures on hilltops, as at Mt. louktas near Knossos and Petsofa near Palaiokastron, or mountain caves, of which the best known are those of

Heinrich Schliemann (q.v.) and others had discovered in mainland Greece in the second half of the 19th century, but the disturbed jclitical condition of the island at that time was an obstacle to

Neolithic habitation; they were next used as communal burial places; and finally as receptacles for votive offerings to divine or

nethodical excavation.

chthonian powers.

single,

in built or

is

;ation.)

nany elements

in Hellenic culture

and

religion

icholars to expect there the origins of the

had

led several

Mycenaean

art

—

Excavations. Schliemann visited Crete in 1886 and was Knossos where casual explorations had revealed the existence of large prehistoric buildings. But he was prevented "rem indulging his enthusiasm in the excavation of that complex dte by administrative and personal objections. An Italian exDedition supported by the Archaeological Institute of America had jxplored and excavated in southern districts of the island since 1884, but with no special interest in any particular period of 1.

ittracted to

mtiquity.

The

first

investigator

defining its place in

who worked

Aegean

in

civilization

Evans (g.v.) of Oxford university.

Crete with the purpose of J. (later Sir Arthur)

was A.

He made

his first visit in

of a class of seal stones engraved with pictographic :haracters which he had identified as Cretan, and in the same /ear he acquired ownership of part of the site of Knossos. But t was not until 1899, when the provisional Greek government was ;stablished, that he was able to complete the purchase and begin In the same year in the southern plain (Mesara) lis excavation. he Italian expedition began the excavation of the palace of PhaisA smaller palace at Ayia Triada between Phaistos and the os. .894, in search

;outhern sea

was

also discovered

and explored.

The American Ex-

jloration society, affiliated with the University of Pennsylvania, ient

an expedition in 1901, under Harriet Boyd of Smith college, excavated town sites at Gournia and Vasiliki. The work continued after 1905 by Richard Seager. With the support

ivhich

ms

and museums and of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens Seager excavated towns and tombs on he islands of Mochlos (Mokhlos) and Psira in the Gulf of Mirapella and tombs at Pakhia Ammos on the isthmus of lerapetra. Dther important cemeteries on the two limestone hills of Sphounjaras and Vrokastro in the same district were explored by the j^merican School. The British School of Archaeology at Athens bxcavated houses and tombs at Knossos, cave sanctuaries at Psikhro in Lasithi (ancient Dicte) and Kamares on Mt. Ida (Psilodti) and towns at Palaiokastron and Zakros on the east coast. The French School at Athens excavated the third large palace ^own in Crete, at Mallia on the north coast east of Knossos. A small palace or large house west of Ida at Monastiraki was excavated by Germans during their military occupation of Crete in )f

U.S. universities

.942.

The

work of the Greek authorities has been active and imgovernment has liberally permitted foreign work!;rs to undertake the more extensive excavations, using its own esources mainly to deal with the numerous accidental finds of ombs or buildings and the rapid accumulation of material in the .Cretan museum at Iraklion (Candia). The nucleus of that unique collection had been formed by the local archaeological society, the ^yllogos, in the days of Turkish rule. The first Cretan ephor of field

I

.Mrtant, but the

mtiquities

and director of the museum that was built in 1908 who had been president of the Syllogos. He

vas J. Khatsidakis,

:xcavated a large house at Tylissos, west of Knossos, and began the exploration of Mallia. His successor, S. Xanthoudides, excavated

Khamaizi and Nirou Khani and an important tombs in the Mesara.

louses at parly 2.

Sites.

—The

series of

prehistoric sites explored are those of towns,

oyal palaces, large houses, sanctuaries and tombs. Towns are best epresented at Gournia, Palaiokastron, Psira, Mochlos and Vasiliki. fhe great palaces at Knossos, Phaistos and Mallia were centres f civic life, but continuous habitation in historical times has

destroyed the prehistoric cities. The large buildings now Ayia Triada, Tilissos, Monastiraki and elsewhere may been administrative centres of small communities, like that of iournia, or religious establishments: not temples but priestly esidences. Several such houses built in close proximity to the

largely

solated at lave

Ida and Dicte.

Most

of these caves

have produced evidence of

Later burials, communal and dug tombs of great variety. There cremation during the Bronze Age in Crete.

Nomenclature and Chronology.

were made no evidence of

—

In order to make the Cretan art and its derivative in their mature and later developments many mainland (Helladic) elements, Evans proposed the name Minoan for the Cretan Bronze Age. He defined three principal epochs, Early, Middle and Late Minoan, distinguished by the successive phases of decoration of pottery viewed as an index of artistic development. Each main epoch was divided into three numbered periods on the principle of the rise, maturity and decline of each ceramic style. The names of the nine periods are usually abbreviated to their initial letters and numbers, E.M. I, etc. Absolute chronology rests upon reciprocal contacts with Egypt, where dates are fairly well established. The sequence and synchronisms of the prehistoric Cretan periods are as follows 3.

distinction

between the

original

Mycenaean forms, which contained

Egypt

Crete Neolithic

Pre- and protodynastic

E.M. E.M. E.M.

I

2nd-3rd dynasties

II Ill

4th-6th dynasties 7th-llth dynasties llth-12th dynasties 12th-13th dynasties 14th-17th dynasties

M.M. M.M. M.M.

I

II Ill

L.M. I L.M. II L.M. Ill Sub-Minoan

18th (to 18th (to

c.

Tuthmose III) dynasty Amenhotep III) dynasty

18th-19th dynasties

20th-22nd dynasties

Years B.C. 4000-3000 3000-2800 2800-2500 2500-2200 2200-2000 2000-1750 1750-1580 1580-1475 1475-1400 1400-1200 1200-1000

Closer study of the pottery and its stratification has made possible a further division of the M.M. and L.M. styles into earlier

and

later phases,

M.M.

phases are recognized,

la,

M.M.

lb, etc.,

and

in

L.M. Ill three

b and

c. It has also become evident that there were local variations in ceramic decoration and particularly that two styles which are characteristic of the periods M.M. II

a,

and L.M. II

at Knossos were not produced at other centres. Some confusion arises from the use of the same names for the chronowhich must be fixed, and for the ceramic styles, which tend to be variable in time and place. It is desirable to logical periods,

keep the names that were originally applied to the pottery, as Vasiliki ware for the distinctive eastern fabric of E.M. II and III, Kamares ware for the Knossian polychrome style of M.M. I and II, the Palace style for that of L.M. II, and to name the periods only in dating the styles.

—

4. Egyptian Contacts. Fragments of pre- or protodynastic stone vessels were found in a Late Neolithic stratum at Knossos. The technique of stone vases found in E.M. burials at Mochlos is manifestly derived from Egypt, and many of their shapes are imitations of those of the Old Kingdom. Signets of E.M. Ill are also imitations of Egyptian work, the models being seals and de-

vices of the First Intermediate period.

Scarabs of the 11th and 12th dynasties have been found in M.M. I burials. The inscribed base of a diorite statuette of the early 12th dynasty was found in a M.M. II stratum at Knossos, and M.M. II pottery has been

found in Egypt in 12th dynasty deposits at the Pyramid of El Lahun and Harageh and in a tomb at Abydos (al-'Arabat alMadfuna). An alabaster lid bearing the cartouche of the Hyksos Pharaoh Khyan was found in an early M.M. Ill context at Knossos. Wall paintings in Egyptian tombs of the early 18tK dynasty show Minoan envoys bearing vessels of L.M. I forms; in the latest of these (tomb of Rekhmire, minister of Tuthmose III) the envoys wear the kilt which first appears at Knossos in frescoes of L.M. II. A seal of Tiy, queen of Amenhotep III, comes from an L.M. II tomb at Ayia Triada. Aegean pottery found in Egypt after that time seems to be of mainland (Mycenaean) style and fabric; the synchronisms with Crete are therefore indirect, but

CRETE

734 not less certain.

Many

shards of the

Mycenaean

style parallel

L.M. Ilia were found at Tell-el-Amama in the city founded by Ikhnaton (Amenhotep IV) and abandoned after his Relations between the Aegean world and Egypt became death. hostile during the 19th dynasty and no material contacts with Crete are visible before the end of the Bronze Age, when a few beads and seals of the 20th-22nd dynasty types appear in Prototo that of

geometric burials at N'rokastro.

—

Origins and Development. The earliest Neolithic artifound in Crete are considerably advanced in character and Since access to the indicate that their makers were immigrants. island was easy from the east and south, and the Stone Age settlecentral regions, it seems eastern and mainly in the were ments likely that the people came from the shores of Africa or Asia 5.

facts

or both. The first foreign material that is identifiable is obsidian in flakes and cores from the island of Melos; but the Cyclades seem not to have been inhabited at that time. Contact with Egypt, probably through Libya, is seen in fragments of stone

Minor

vases found in the latest Neolithic strata at Knossos. The large knoll on which the palace stands is topped with about 24 feet of deposit from Stone Age habitation. The conjectural date of 4000 B.C. for the beginning of the Neolithic Age is based upon an esti-

mate

of about 1,000 years for the accumulation of so

the lower date

is

much

supplied by the Egyptian stone vases.

refuse;

Neolithic

deposits elsewhere are mostly found in caves and rock shelters, but this does not mean that the Cretans of the Stone Age did not

Stone footings of house walls are associated with a rock shelter at Magasa near Palaiokastron, and complexes of rectangular rooms with fixed hearths were found below the Minoan court at Knossos. The Cretan material shares the general character of the Neolithic culture that was prevalent in coastal regions of Syria and Egypt. The earlier pottery is generally dark-faced, often decorated with modeled pellets, punctuation or simple linear incision. Its development was technical rather than artistic, as better firing produced clear or mottled surfaces. There is no connection with the contemporary painted wares of mainland Greece. But steatopygous female figures and small animals modeled in build houses.

stone or clay and implements of polished stone resemble those of all

adjacent regions. Artistic progress

began toward the end of E.M. I with painted on a light clay surface. This

linear decoration in black glaze

period was the beginning of the Copper Age. Bronze was not made before M.M. I. But the use of metal and contact with its sources led to rapid advance in E.M. II and III. Most notable in E.M. II a series of stone vases found at Mochlos. These reproduce some Egyptian shapes but their brightly coloured materials, veined marbles and mottled breccias are Cretan and obviously initiated the style of polychrome painting that is characteristic of M.M. ceramic art. Short copper daggers appear in E.M. II and the production of engraved seals and gold jewellery was begun. In E.M. II the surfaces were sometimes covered with ferruginous pigment on which accidents of firing produced irregular variation (Vasiliki ware). In E.M. Ill the fired decoration was replaced by painted designs of white and red stripes and curves, including spiral coils. The most remarkable products of E.M. Ill are ivory and steatite signets carved in animal forms and engraved with devices which often imitate Egyptian patterns. Polychrome pottery painted with formal designs in red and white on the black glazed ground reached its highest point of development in M.M. I and II (Kamares style). That was also the time of the first Minoan writing, the

is

hieroglyphic script.

The

first

elements of the palaces belong to

M.M.

I.

The mound

and its top was leveled for the central court. The new buildings were more or less isolated structures around the court. At the end of M.M. II there seems to have occurred one of the destructive earthquakes to which Crete is still liable; destruction is visible on all sites and some were not reoccupied. But the damage gave opportunity for extensive reconstruction of the palaces, the final plans of which were mainly determined at the beginning of M.M. III. An apparently new feature was the addition of colonnades to the courts. The elaborate fresco paintings which belong to this period were not a of Knossos was cleared of earlier buildings

1

examples of the naturalistic new style which was perfected in M.M. III. Its influence on the minor art of ceramic decoration is seen in the replacement of formal polychromy by white on black designs incorporating simple motifs drawn from floral and marine life. Human and animal figures were not admitted to the ceramic repertory but were freely exploited The hieroglyphic symbols in fresco painting and seal engraving. were replaced by a linear script in M.M. III. At the end of the period there was another destructive earthquake, followed at most sites by rebuilding. This was the moment at which the arts and influence of Crete began to be extended to mainland Greece where they were further and strongly developed as Mycenaean, It is a remarkable and unexplained fact that there was no significant contact between Crete and the mainland before L.M. I, although the two cultures met in the midway island of process but there are

Melos early

Most

in the

M.M.

no

earlier

period.

of the external details and internal decoration of the pal-

aces date from L.M.

I.

A

complete change of technique

in ceramic

painting seems to have been due to need for clearer expression in representing natural subjects, which were, however, still restricted to plant

glazed

and marine

medium on

life.

The

designs were painted in the black-

the light-yellow surface of the clay, which was

This was the technique of Mycenaean pottery in the Late Helladic periods of mainland Greece. Much of the pottery of L.M. II at Knossos was decorated in a formal and grandiose manner which is appropriately called the Palace style. Another peculiarity at Knossos in this period was the replacement of the first Script B has been linear script (A) by an enlarged version (B). found on numerous clay tablets, precisely similar to those of Knossos, at Pylos and Mycenae, and the language written with it Knossos (See Scripts below.) has been recognized as Greek. must therefore have passed into Hellenic control at least two generations before the destruction of what Evans called the "Last Palace" which occurred at the end of L.M. II (c. 1400). Since all the towns and palaces of Crete were destroyed or damaged by fire at the same time, it is evident that the destruction was caused by enemy action. The enemies could only have been the Mycenaean powers of mainland Greece, which did, in fact, replace the Minoans in Aegean relations with Egypt and Syria in L.M. III. also lustrous.

The

general catastrophe did not destroy

Minoan

prosperity, but

to have reduced Crete to a subordinate position in the Aegean world. A notable sequel, if not a consequence of the destruction, was the extension of settlement toward the west of the island in L.M. III. The only considerable western establishment

seems

is known before that time is the M.M. house at Monastiraki, palaces were not rebuilt nor fully reoccupied, but a curious feature was the installation of small and rather primitive religious shrines in most of them toward the end of L,M. III. The only newpalatial building of L.M. Ill date was a large megaron of Myce-

that

The

naean type, imposed upon the Minoan ruins at Ayia Triada. The period of transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age is called SubMinoan. It was a time of stress and turmoil in the Aegean world, following the fall of the Hittite empire and the attacks made upon the Syrian and Egyptian coasts by the Peoples of the Sea. It was marked in Crete by retreat from coastal sites to mountain fastnesses and great loss of population.

The new

settlements were

represented at Kavousi and Vrokastro, where buildings were few and poor, and burial excavations show the intrusion of fibulae and large pins indicating new fashions of dress, iron weapons and the funeral rite of cremation. No Aegean material of this period has been found in Egypt, but a few hieroglyphic seals and beads from

Vrokastro may be as late as the 22nd dynasty. 6. Palatial Architecture. Palaces and palatial houses are the most remarkable Minoan monuments their magnificence ma> have been partly due to the fact that in the absence of temple; they were centres of religious cult as well as of royal or civic administration. The most important palaces, at Knossos, Phaisto; and Mallia, had the same general plan and similar architectura details. Their buildings surrounded large rectangular courts ol Their mean measurement! practically idenrical shape and size. were precisely those of the court at Phaistos, 56 by 25 yd. Tw(

—

;

sides of the central court of Mallia, at least

one at Phaistos

anc

CRETE Knossos were bordered with colonnades which seem to ••.ave been fenced with timber between the pillars. These proviions and the iixed dimensions suggest that the courts were inended for some common purpose, and it has been plausibly laimed on this and other evidence that they were the arenas of he bull-leaping performances, which certainly had religious signiiiance. There was a monumental shrine in the centre of the west ide of the Knossos court, and doubtless similar structures in the The irregularities of Cretan sites were ingeniously exthers. loited by the architects and wide flights of steps leading from one ;vel to another were designed as decorative features. The prinipal entrance to the palace at Phaistos was a flight of 12 steps irobably at

Similar long steps set at right angles to each other 1 the so-called theatral areas of the outer courts seemed to have ';rved as stands or seats for spectators at pubhc functions. A reg5 ft.

lar

wide.

design in entrances

from the courts

to

upper

floors

was a

:epped porch with a central column.

—

The site at Knossos is a large knoll which slopes Knossos. own sharply to the Kairatos (Katsaba) river on the east and to le deep bed of a tributary torrent on the south. When space was eeded on the eastern slope for extension of the palace in M.M. II, le ground was cut down 25 ft. vertically and the domestic apartlents

were built

in

two

stories

below the central court and ap-

monumental staircase. These buildings were pro;cted by their position from destruction by fire and earthquake id were filled up in the course of time by debris from the higher roached by a

which held their stone floors and steps in place until the tcavators dug them out and replaced the original supporting timEach flight of stairs was carried 'ers with steel and concrete. y wooden columns standing on the stone balustrade of the flight 'slow. These two stories and the four flights of the grand stairise leading down to them are unique examples of construction ^vels,

id design.

Since the inner wall was necessarily windowless, be-

backed by solid earth, air and light were supplied to the stairise and adjoining rooms through small open courts or light wells, he large rooms opened on these through heavy colonnades, and leir inner walls were pierced with wide doorways with jambs laced in the lines of the columns and recessed to conceal the bors when opened. This was a regular and effective feature of ternal planning. Interior columns were made of wood and were :t on ornamental stone bases. Shafts have left impressions of ieir cyUndrical or tapered shapes on earth or plaster in which they ^ere subsequently embedded. They were also decorated with )ncave, convex or spiral flutes, which must have been applied in 'ig

aster.

The

open courts and terraced roofs presented problems which were ingeniously met at Knossos by the mstruction of stone-built conduits and clay water pipes, which ere also used for sanitation. Since there was no source of water the palace hill, the flushing system could only have been effecye in the rainy season, for a small part of the year, and the admced ideas of sanitation that have been recognized there must ive been backward in performance. The administrative and ceremonial quarters at Knossos were on 'le west side of the central court. Most remarkable was the throne '.om, which still contains the high-backed gypsum chair of the ng. Stone benches were built along the walls, which were deco.ted with a painted frieze of griffins. The room was connected ith a sunk lustral area entered by two flights of steps with a colnned balustrade like those of the great staircase. The lustral eas existed in all the palaces and in some of the large houses, hey were at first thought to be baths, but since they were found be lined with gypsum, which is not waterproof, and had no large series of

•ainage

1

'

"ovision for drainage,

they must have served some other purpose,

•obably lustration with oil or water in religious rites.

The

ritual

ay have been directed to the propitiation of divine powers conoUing earthquakes, a cult that is reflected also in pillar crypts, liars or basement rooms containing main supporting piers over hich were the columns of the upper rooms. Some of the piers iere marked with the sign of the double axe and some of the jypts contained sacred furniture. The administrative quarters all

the palaces

were marked by

series of long

narrow basements

735

which were evidently built and used as magazines for stores and treasure. There were 22 of these in the west wing at Knossos. Some still contain large earthenware jars for com or wine or oil, and cists sunk in the stone floors and sometimes lined with lead retained fragments of gold objects that had been secured in them. The walls of the long corridor which led to this part of the palace from the southwest entrance were painted in the last period of Minoan grandeur (L.M. II, to which the throne room also belonged) with a processional frieze of many life-size figures. The well-known "Cupbearer," one of the first things found at Knossos, was one of these.

The approach

to the palace

from the south was carried up the

steep slope of the torrent bed in a long stairway with a roof sup-

The road

which this was the northern end and a port on the southern sea at Komo, through which traffic passed with Libya and Egypt. At the Knossian end was an elaborately built inn or resthouse (the "Caravanserai"), which was amply supplied with water for men and beasts and decorated with fresco paintings. The road was carried along the edge of the ravine on a massive viaduct of which the stepped piers remain. Several other buildings must have been dependencies of the palace. The largest, the Little Palace, and the Royal Villa on the bank of the Kairatos seem to have served religious uses; others were merely residences, but were built in palatial ported on columns.

of

led across the island to Phaistos

(See also Pre-Hellenic Architecture: Minoan Crete.) The best example of these is at Gournia. It lies on a small hill in a valley near the sea, but was not a seaport and may not have been so near the sea in ancient times. Several other towns in eastern Crete, at Vasiliki, Palaiokastron, Zakros, Mochlos and Psira, have been partially destroyed by coastal subsidence or only partly excavated. Their houses and building methods were similar to those at Goumia, though the plans were complicated there by the steep slopes on which the town was built. The remains show no signs of formal planning. Rooms were rectangular but various in size and number and had the appearance of complexes built or enlarged as space or other means allowed. The walls were constructed with small stones laid in clay or sun-dried bricks on stone footings and were stiffened and tied with wooden Internal surfaces were smoothed with hard posts and beams. The richer houses plaster which was painted in plain colours. doubtless had figured frescoes. A fragment of painted plaster reRoofs were lief comes from Psira, but none was found at Gournia. probably flat and made of clay rolled hard over reeds and joists. The outward appearance of ordinary town houses on the site is represented in a series of coloured faience plaques from Knossos. These show small buildings of two or three stories marked with squares or bands or disks as if to distinguish construction in cut style.

Minoan Towns

7.

—

stone from brick or rubble reinforced with beams; the disks are the

beam

ends.

the roofs were

many

Windows were few and mostly flat.

At Gournia the cross

in the

upper

floors;

streets are stepped in

and the main town were not more than five feet wide. Streets at Palaiokastron, a larger seaport town, were wider, and all were paved with stone. The highest point at Gournia was occupied by the palace, a It direct though modest imitation of those in the royal cities. covered about 1 2 times the space of the ordinary town house. The whole town occupied about the same area (6 ac.) as the palace at places, climbing the slopes with the houses,

streets leading through the

Knossos. 8. Sanctuaries.

—The

ritual furniture

found

at

Knossos and

Mallia shows that the palaces were centres of religious cult. A fresco painting at Knossos with a picture of an edifice or frontage composed of baetylic pillars standing between sacred horns is believed to represent a shrine which stood on the west side of the central court. A furnished shrine belonging to the late reoccupation period (L.M. Illb) was found intact in the palace. The only public sanctuaries that have been found are in walled enclosures on hilltops and in mountain caves. Sacred groves left no material

woodland places of worship are shown in seal gold ring signet shows a woman praying at a tall post to which a young god descends in response to the prayer. Minoan deities are represented in the forms and dress of men and records, but such

engravings.

A

CRETE

736 women, and

it is

not always possible to distinguish between

human

and divine figures, nor can it be known if the latter represent a single god and goddess in various aspects or several of each sex. The hilltop sanctuaries at louktas and Petsofa contained ashes from sacrificial or other fires and votive offerings of pottery

human and animal figures modeled in clay. Numerous caves which had ser\'ed for habitation in the Stone Age and for E.M. times were subsequently used for deposits of votive offerings, fine pottery at Kamares on Mt. Ida, small bronze vessels and burials in

objects in the cave of Dicte, bronze swords and votive axes at

Arkalokhori. The large cave of Ida, celebrated in historical times as the birthplace of Zeus, does not seem to have been a sanctuary

Minoan period. Tombs. Cave burials were succeeded in E.M. times by communal burial in large stone-built enclosures which may or may until the last 9.

—

In the east of Crete they were rectangular, southern district of the Mesara plain, circular. These were believed the lower courses of tholos or beehive tombs at first to be such as were built much later in mainland Greece. But the walls, so far as they are preser\-ed, are vertical, and their construction was not solid enough to support a heavy dome; they may have had thatched roofs. \'aluable offerings were buried with the dead: not have been roofed. in the

ivory and stone signets, gold jewels and copper weapons. The brilliant stone vases of Mochlos came from E.M. tombs. Single burials in earthenware coffins or large inverted jars are found in

E.M. and M.M.

graves, but communal burial or votive offerings at Next come the such burial places persisted into M.M. times. chamber tombs, artificial caves cut in soft rock on hillsides. These seem to have been family burial places, and since they were easily accessible and repeatedly used, valuable tomb furniture is seldom found in them. Transition from the rock-cut chamber to the built tomb of masonry was easy and attractive in an age of monumental architecture; but there were probably not many of these.

A

magnificent example was the so-called royal tomb at Isopata near Knossos, which was destroyed during World War II. It consisted of a forehall and an inner chamber built underground but roofed with a keel or barrel vault which would have risen above ground and was probably covered with a mound. The latest burial was in L.M. II, but the structure seems to have belonged to L.M. I. The temple tomb at Knossos, the last discovery made there by Evans, must have been a royal tomb. It was an elaborate twostoried structure, mainly above ground, leading to a rock-cut burial chamber. The plan was unique in the Minoan world. Although the architecture is Minoan, the idea of deification or worship which it suggests may have been adopted from Egypt or Caria. Shaft graves covered with stone slabs were frequent at Knossos in and in earthenware L.M. I II, but burial chests or baths in chamber tombs was the usual L.M. practice. Built beehive tombs with burials earlier than the middle of L.M. Ill were not found in Crete until the mid-20th century and those were not of the normal mainland form but had square chambers under circular vaults. But an elaborate tholos of earlier date and regular Mycenaean form was discovered at Knossos in 1955. It had been constantly re-used in L.M. times and there were no identifiable remains of the original interment. The structure, however, is certainly no later than the beginning of L.M. I and perhaps as early Burials of the transitional Sub-Minoan as the end of M.M. III. known from Kavousi, Mouliana and Vrokastro. At Kavousi the funeral rite was inhumation, at Vrokastro cremation, and tombs in both cemeteries produced fibulae and iron

period are best

weapons. A small built tholos at Mouliana, east of Mirabella, probably belonging to one family, contained two burials, an earlier inhumation with bronze fibulae and weapons and a slightly later cremation with remains of an iron sword. 10. Painting. The master art of Minoan Crete was fresco painting. Its influence is visible in the pictorial character and content of the minor arts of ceramic decoration, embossed metalwork and seal engraving. Interior wall surfaces were necessarily plastered in rubble-built houses; some red-painted fragments at Vasiliki belonged to E.M. II. But the material was too fragile to survive rebuilding to any considerable extent. The later frescoes that have been found had fallen from standing walls and are ex-

—

tremely fragmentary; the pieces seldom Illustrate more than details of the work. The earliest designs seem to have been painted reproductions of structural elements covered by the plaster, grained timber beams and rows of coloured disks representing ends of logs. The polished stone veneers of palatial walls were also imitated in paint, as coloured veins of marbles were reproduced on M.M. polychrome pottery. Some figured plaster fragments of

M.M.

II date at Knossos are printed with impressions of a sponge, and whether these were meant to reproduce mottled stone or were regarded as decorative devices in themselves is not clear. These formal patterns were used in later paintings for dadoes or frames of pictorial scenes. The earliest pictures that exist belong to M.M. Ill, but their mature development shows that they were not the first of their kind. They were mostly landscapes and seascapes enlivened with animals and fishes. A cat stalking a pheasant and deer leaping among rocks and flowers come from Ayia Triada. Fragments from a house at Knossos show blue monkeys prowling over rocks, a bird in flight and apparently a jet of water in a garden. Scenes from marine life, such as a picture of brightly coloured fish swimming among rocks and sea urchins from the domestic apartments at Knossos, are highly naturalistic. The handling of human subjects was realistic and vivid. Most notable is a series of miniature frescoes from Knossos illustrating public festivals. One of them depicts elaborately dressed ladies engaged in lively conversation beside a pillar shrine, around which a crowd of people is represented by massed heads drawn in outline and enlivened with white eyes and necklets and some waving arms. The only subjects from the living world that were stylized decoratively and thus adopted by ceramic painters were creatures of the sea: a large pottery jar from Pakhia Ammos has painted pebbles at its foot, swimming dolphins on the body and spray and bubbles at the top. Men and animals had no place in ceramic painting until the latest Minoan times; birds began to appear in L.M. II, perhaps as Mycenaean innovations. The marine designs characteristic of L.M. II pottery were not pictures but patterns. They were sometimes based on the single figure of the octopus sometimes formed with grouped nautiluses and shells, rocks and seaweed. The Knossian Palace style of that period preferred large formal schemes of flowers modeled on the Egyptian papyrus. These and the architectural elements in the designs mark them a; excerpts from wall paintings. Egyptian or Mycenaean influence seems also to be reflected in the large processional scenes that were the latest decorations at Knossos. The long corridor leading from the southwest entrances to the palace was painted with large numbers of life-size figures, boys and girls, priestesses or goddesses carrying or receiving ritual instruments. No L.M. Ill wall paint-

ings are

known

the end of

L.M.

in Crete,

but to the beginning of that period

o:

II belongs a painted stone sarcophagus which wa;

found at Ayia Triada. This bears detailed pictures of a sacrifice performed at the grave of a dead man. The ritual consists o libations of blood drawn from the throat of a slaughtered bull am offerings carried to king or hero w^ho stands in graveclothes out side his

tomb.

It is

an instructive

illustration of the personal

wor

ship that is indicated in the construction of the temple tomb. Sculpture in the round wa 11. Sculpture and Modeling. not an art in which the Minoans excelled, unless it was on a smal

—

and in material such as ivory and steatite which could h carved easily in fine detail. This technique is represented at it best by the ivory statuette of a goddess holding gold snake (in the Boston [Mass.] Museum of Fine Arts), and by the figur of a leaping boy from Knossos. No statues have been found, bu scale

there are many statuettes in clay, faience and bronze. They pro vide the earliest records of Minoan dress, men's loincloths wor with tight belts and women's long voluminous skirts and bodice exposing the breasts. In L.M. I or II a short kilt was adopted b Lively but summary cla the men {see Dress: The Aegean). Coloure figures came from the M.M. I sanctuary at Petsofa.

faience statuettes of goddesses or priestesses, furniture of a M.M. Ill shrine, were found at Knossos. Cast bronzes are late

but their technique

One in

of the

is

generally imperfect and the detail coarsi

most successful

prayer (in the

museum

is

the figure of a

man

with arms

of Leiden, Netherlands).

raise

Animal

sul

CRETE were more congenial to the Minoan artist. magnificent bull's head in black steatite comes from the Little Palace at Knossos, and there are similar ritual vessels in alabaster Large plaster friezes of bulls among olive trees deco'ind silver. rated the northern entrance to the palace. But the masterpieces )f sculpture in relief are three small black steatite vases from which bear ritual Triada scenes, of boxing and bullfighting, \yia sacrificial offering to the king, and a procession of 27 people engaged in an agricultural ceremony. This exquisite miniature vork, of which there are several fragmentary examples, was closely as in painting,

I'ects,

\

'i

elated to reliefs in metal.

Metalwork.^The

finest examples of Minoan metalwork embossed gold cups which were found in the Vaphio omb in Laconia, and bronze dagger blades inlaid with pictorial lesigns in gold and silver from the shaft graves at Mycenae. The

12.

'

a pair of

ire

cenes on the cups are contrasted episodes in the handling of wild Few rich graves have been found in domesticated cattle. >ete and inhabited sites do not retain much treasure. But some arge bowls and ewers of bronze and silver, extremely well designed nd ornamented with formal patterns, have come from houses Shapes of early pottery vessels are largely .nd tombs at Knossos. netallic in origin, but very few examples of the prototypes have The earliest and best is an elegant silver goblet from urvived. Simple gold jewellery was found in E.M. burials at 'loumia. .nd

ilochlos;

it is

composed of flowers and leaves cut from

inked together with delicate wire chains.

A

remarkable

foil

and

M.M.

I

from Mallia has the form of two bees holding a finely ranulated disk, and there are other early examples of granulation nd filigree. An exceptionally large bronze sword with gold-plated ilt and crystal pommel was found in the palace at Mallia and has 'een assigned to M.M. I; but weapons of early date are rarely ound for the same reason that jewellery is scarce, because sucessive burials in chamber tombs gave opportunity for removal f valuable furniture. Most tombs produced a few gold beads that scaped the activities of the removers. These were often in the old jewel

hapes of nautiluses or shells or flowers; strings of such beads are

epresented in paintings and reliefs, which also showed that swellery 'riada

was worn.

The king on

much

from Ayia necklace and carries a

the small steatite vase

has bracelets, armlets and a triple

agger in his belt.

L.M. II date have produced many embossed gold-plated hilts like those from the haft graves at Mycenae. Gold ring signets have also come from Dmbs. They usually have long oval bezels on which a device is ngraved and broad beaded or ribbed hoops. These seem to be 30 small for a finger and were probably designed to be worn as Shaft graves at Knossos of

)ng swords with

endants. Most of the engraved designs are pictorial, but a ring rom Knossos has a circular bezel engraved spirally with linear ;ript.

—The

II

first

made

of ivory

or spiral

\ttices, scrolls

^M.

Minoan

seals were Egyptian in material and engraved with linear patterns, Some of them can be dated in but the great age of seal engraving began in E.M. Ill,

13. Seals.

nd design, being

coils.

'hen the soft native stone, steatite,

The

nported ivory.

came

into general use beside

forms were cylinders, not

earliest

like the

but short sections of tusk with devices cut on 'le two circular ends. A pointed section made a stamp seal with a andle, which was also carved in natural forms of seated monkeys, [riental roll seals

ons, birds or

mong 3

heads of animals.

dopted for the Egyptian scarab

The new

three- or four-sided prism was the form hieroglyphic inscriptions of M.M. I; the

was known but not chosen

;ones, cornelian, agate, crystal,

se for hieroglyphic seals, ig animals, Iso

Simple pictorial subjects were and prism beads were added

the devices of that time, disks

the shapes.

were frequent

Hard

pictorial devices, usually represent-

and in

for this purpose.

chalcedony or jasper, came into

M.M. II. In M.M. human and animal

the great age of painting,

Ill,

which was were

activities

and the displacement of hieroglyphs by linear which was not suitable for seals, left an open field for Ictorial development. New forms were invented for these larger pictures; flattened cylinders, oval amygdaloids and circular len)ids replaced the disks and prisms. Many of the engraved devices :eely illustrated, :ript,

737

known from

which have been made for official reference, at Knossos, Ayia Triada and Zakros. Those from Zakros are largely fantastic or comic in character, with figures or faces of imps and bogies. They may be related to a class of amuletic gems which were engraved with summary representations of sacred horns and branches, gabled doorways or similar structures. Gold and silver stamp seals were replaced in M.M. Ill and later by ring signets with large bezels of amygdaloid shape. Most of those that have been found belong to L.M. I and were engraved with elaborate cult scenes. The lentoid stone tended to displace the amygdaloid in this period and the next, apparently because its circular field invited the contorted attitudes in which the Minoan artist liked to pose his living subjects. These are the common motives of L.M. Ill gems: cows suckling calves, lions or men struggling with bulls or animals writhing by themselves. A few cylinder seals which belonged to the end of this last period were probably Mycenaean innovations, for the oriental roll cylinder, like the Egyptian scarab, was a form that the Minoans had known and rejected. 14. Scripts. The hieroglyphic script, which appears first on M.M. I seal stones, is Egyptian in character and contains a few Egyptian signs, but seems to be otherwise an independent system. are

seem

large deposits of

stamped clay

sealings,

to

—

Most of the signs are summary representations of common objects, human figures and limbs, animals, birds, insects, tools, weapons and the like. They have not been interpreted. A clay disk impressed on both sides with pictographic signs in spiral sequence was found in an M.M. Ill context at Phaistos, but this is generally believed to be from Asia Minor. The Minoan hieroglyphs were incised on clay bars and labels in M.M. II as well as being cut on seal stones.

This development was completed in

M.M.

a linear script appears on small rectangular clay tablets labels.

This was incised with a sharp point;

ink and cut in stone.

About a

third of the

Ill,

when

and round

was

also written in

known

characters are

it

This script, now known as Linear A, was in general use, but comparatively few tablets have been found. Most of them (about ISO) come from Ayia Triada and about 10 from Knossos. The duration of the A script has not been everywhere determined, but it was superseded at Knossos in L.M. II by the Linear B script. This is similarly incised on thin clay tablets, which have been found in large numbers (nearly 2,000) in the palace but not elsewhere in Crete. Determinative derivatives from the hieroglyphs.

which accompany the texts, representing men, women, horses, weapons and other commodities, and numerical notations indicate that the documents were mostly inventories. Script B is evidently an enlargement of A and about half the known characters Both scripts are syllabic. When these of A are found in B. tablets were excavated at Knossos no similar documents were known in mainland Greece, but after 1939 more than 1,000 had been found at Pylos and Mycenae in chronological contexts which are not earlier than the end of the 13th century (L.M. Illb). The recognition of verbal inflections in B which are not found in A points to a difference of language, and that of the B (Mycenaean) texts has been identified as Greek. It is surprising to find the Greek language in Crete so early as the end of the ISth century, but it would be surprising not to find it on the mainland Interpretation of the texts is so late as the end of the 13th, signs

chariots,

The script comprises some 90 not a straightforward process. The characters are first syllabic characters and 120 ideograms. transcribed into alphabetic syllables in accordance with a genThe erally but not wholly accepted scheme of phonetic values. syllables are next combined in actual or possible Greek words, which are separated in the texts by interpuncts. The words are which are often indicated by ideograms and numerical notations. Results so far produced are therefore cautiously received by scholars who appreciate the hazards of phonetic and philological equations. No progress has yet been made in the interpretation of Script A. As current records and not archives the Linear B documents may be expected to belong But to the latest years of the buildings in which they were found. there were two destructions of the last palace at Knossos, at the Some of the beginning and the end of L.M. Ill respectively. tablets were associated there with the earlier occupation, but finally translated in contexts

CRETE

738 others, particularly in the western magazines

were recognized as having fallen from upper flo"ors, and could not be dated stratiThese may have belonged to the regular, if partial, reoccupation which is indicated by the shrine of the dove goddess and other late structural elements. The Minoan language has not been determined, but place names and certain groups of words in the later Greek vocabulary suggest connections with Asia Minor. Si.x inscriptions on stone in Greek letters and an unknown language, found at Praisos, and one from Dreros (near Neapolis), would seem to record the survival of the native speech in eastern Crete in the 5th and 4th centuries. Sec Minoan Linear Scripts. 15. Later Periods. The two or three centuries which followed the destruction of Mycenaean culture in Greece are marked in Crete by evident loss of population and desertion of urban sites, particularly of coastal towns. Settlements and several shrines furnished with terra-cotta images have been found in Lasithi and graphically.

—

other mountain districts, where re-used Mycenaean tombs contain the pottery with linear decoration which is known as Protogeo-

The funeral rite In the period which is known from the character of its ceramic decoration as Geometric, the archaeology of Crete presents no distinctive features. But toward the end of that time the island took a prominent place in the renewal of metric, together with fibulae and iron weapons.

was commonly cremation.

contacts with Magna Graecia and Asia Minor. The population was replenished, probably by immigrants from Greece, and several large cities were founded in the west. This move e.xplains the displacement of the cave of Dicte by that of Ida as the principal religious sanctuan.'.

Among

the offerings deposited there

was a

bronze shields and disks embossed and engraved with designs of oriental character but apparently of local technique. These are generally dated to the 8th century. Statuettes made of bronze plates hammered over a wooden core have been found in a Geometric temple at Dreros. A later temple at Prinias in central Crete was decorated with stone reliefs and figures in the round which belong to the 7th century, and statues of the same style found in mainland Greece were evidently derived from Crete. series of

ill.

HISTORY

—

no part in Greek history commensurate with its was not involved in the Greco-Persian or Peloponnesian

island played It

Wars.

mentioned in the Odyssey of Homer with respect as the hundred cities, and with some curiosity in regard to its inhabitants, who are enumerated as Dorians, Achaeans. Pelasgians (qq.v.), Cydonians and Eteocretans. The general sense of these statements is clear and they were doubtless true in the poet's time (8th or 7th century e.g.). The dominant element in the population was then and later Dorian, but there is no archaeoIt

is

island of a

logical or historical evidence for the time or

manner

of their ar-

Later Greek interest was attracted by the political and sowho seemed to be more Spartan than the Spartans. As in Laconia, the people were distinguished as full citizens, unprivileged citizens, serfs and slaves. The full citizens were the Dorians, the unprivileged apparently the rival. cial

constitution of the Cretans,

Achaeans and the serfs the Eteocretans or Minoans. The great inscription of Gortyna {q.v.) defines these classes. The system of communal life and military education were similar to those of Sparta.

(E. J. F.)

—

2. Medieval Period. In a.d. 826 Crete fell into the hands of Arabs exiled from Spain, Thereafter it became a formidable nest of pirates and a great slave mart; it defied all the efforts of the Byzantine sovereigns to recover it till 960, when it was reconquered by Nicephorus II Phocas. After the capture of Constantinople during the fourth crusade by the Latins in 1204, Crete was allotted to Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, but was sold by

to the Venetians, to whom it continued subject for more than four centuries. LTnder the Venetian government Candia draklion, q.v.). a for-

him

by the Arabs, and called by them Khandax, government and capital of the island, to which

tress originally built

became the gave

its

seat of

name.

The Venetian administration secured

much

the island

to provide material prosper-

ity and encourage commerce and industry; under it Crete was probably more prosperous than at any other time. But the system was arbitrary and oppressive, and gave rise to many insurrections. Comte Pierre Antoine Daru in his Histoire de Venise (1819) mentions 14 between the years 1207 and 1365, the most important being that of 1361-64, when the Venetian colonists rose against the republic. Disappointed in the hope of a Genoese occupation, the Cretans turned to the Turks. 3. Turkish Domination. The Turks made no serious attempt to conquer the island until 1645 but in that year they landed an army of 50,000 men and soon reduced Canea. Rethimnon fell the following year, and in 1648 the Turks laid siege to Candia. After a siege of more than 20 years the city surrendered in Sept. 1669, and its fall was followed by the submission of the island. Venice was allowed to retain possession of Grabusa (Cape Vouxa), Suda (Soudha) and Spinalonga on the north, but in 1692 Grabusa, and in 1715 the other two strongholds fell to the Turks, and the

—

;

was finally lost to Venice. Under Ottoman rule many of

island

the Cretans

embraced Islam, and

thus secured the chief share in the administration of the island. But this did not benefit the population, and in 1837 Crete was considered the worst governed province of the Turkish empire.

In

770 an abortive attempt at revolt, the hero of which was "Master" John, a Sfakiot chief, was repressed with great cruelty. In 1813 the ruthless severity of the governor general, Haji Osman, who obtained the co-operation of the Christians, broke the power of the janizaries; but after Osman had fallen a victim to the suspicions of the sultan, Crete again came under their control. Wher 1

Hellenic building styles appear in houses and temples in the 8th century, and revival of the coastal towns and maritime commerce was followed by the reception of Oriental influences which gave Crete for a time the foremost place in artistic progress. This was the time of the famous hundred cities, which were well equipped with temples, agoras and civil buildings. Elaborate polychrome pottery, embossed metalwork and monumental statutes of stone and hammered bronze were produced and exported abundantly. There were the works which formed the earliest archaic arts of Greece and were later attributed to the legendary

master craftsman Daedalus

providers of formidable corsairs. It was this proclivity which brought the island ultimately into disastrous collision with Rome. A final ill-advised alliance of the confederacy with Mithradates VI Eupator of Pontus was followed after his defeat by the invasion of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus, and Crete was annexed by the Romans in 67 B.C. The Italian excavations at Gortyna, the administrative capital, revealed a model Roman city, with its conventional provision of temples and civic buildings, circus, amphitheatre and baths. As a favoured province securing the seaways to Syria, Egypt and Cyrene, Crete enjoyed a long period of unbroken peace and prosperity, until the beginning of Arab attacks on the southern borders of the Byzantine empire.

external tranquillity, and did

the

size.

other mercenary soldiers, the cities contracted short-lived alliances with dominant Hellenistic powers, and became notorious as

it

Ancient History. In historical times nothing remained of Minoan civilization except a tradition that the first thalassocracy or sea power was that of a Cretan king Minos (q.v.). The 1.

having led the way was displaced by the greater resources of the mainland. It may be that the Dorian constitution which attracted Greek philosophers and historians did not encourage artistic and commercial progress. In historical times the strongly fortified cities were largely engaged in attacking one another, perhaps because of the confederacies which Cretans favoured and of which the most powerful states, Knossos, Lyttos or Gortyna, from time to time disputed the leadership, A consequence of these rivalries was that as Cretan men sought employment abroad as archers or

{q.v.).

But as

in

Minoan

times, Crete

1821 the revolution broke out in continental Greece, the Cretans headed by the Sfakiots, revolted and occupied all the open countr\'. while the Turks and Muslims took refuge in the fortified cities The island was reduced to submission in 1S24 by Mohammed Ali The alliec pasha of Egypt, whose help the sultan had asked. powers (France, Great Britain and Russia) decided that Cretf in

J •

•

CRETE hould not be included among the islands annexed to the kingdom /fif Greece; but obtained from the Turkish sultan Mahmud II its ession to Eg>-pt, which was confirmed by a firman of Dec. 20, 832. This change of masters brought some relief to the Cretans; he enlightened government (1832-52) of Mustafa Pasha, an Vlbanian like

Mohammed

who encouraged

Ali,

agriculture, im-

)roved the roads, introduced an Albanian police

and put down has been called the "golden age" of Crete. In 1840 Crete was taken from Mohammed Ali and replaced inder the dominion of the Turks, but Mustafa retained his govrnorship until appointed grand vizier in 1852. In Feb. 1856 an nsurrection broke out as a result of the violation of the provisions imperial decree whereby liberty of conscience and equal ;f an ights and privileges with Muslims had been conferred upon Chris-

.jrigandage.

dans.

The promised concessions were confirmed

in July 1858, but A petition to the sultan in 1864 elicited only n injunction to obedience. A general insurrection which broke lut in 1866 was put down with great severity, but the organic tatute granted by the sultan in 1868 brought some reforms and

gain repudiated.

'.

kind of constitutional government. Constitutional Experiments. Under this instrument which was fterward proposed, under article xxiii of the treaty, at the Con-

—

of Berlin (q.v.). as a basis for reforms in other parts of the )ttoman empire, various privileges already acquired by the Chriswere confirmed; a representative general council vas brought into existence, composed of deputies from every disrict; mixed tribunals were introduced, together with a highly laborate administrative system, under which all the more impor:ress

ian population

ant functionaries. Christian

and Muslim, were provided with an The new constitution, however,

ssessor of the opposite creed.

and unworkable, and failed to satisfy either section if the population. In 1878 the Greek government, finding Hellenic spirations ignored by the treaty of San Stefano, gave the signal for gitation in the island. An insurrection followed, accompanied by iroved costly

larbarities

on both

sides.

Eventually the Cretan chiefs invoked which Turkey, exhausted by its

he mediation of Great Britain,

and the pact of Halepa was drawn 1878 under the auspices of the British consul and Adossides .'asha, both of whom enjoyed the confidence of the Cretan populaion. The privileges conferred by the organic statute were conrmed; the judicial and administrative systems maintained; the truggle with Russia, accepted,

ip in

udges were declared independent of the executive, and an assemAy composed of 49 Christians and 31 Muslim deputies took the >lace of the former general council. The ensuing party government was a mere scramble for office and its rewards. In 1889 a risis occurred, when the "conservative" leaders, finding themelves in a minority, took up arms and withdrew to the mountains. The latent fanaticism of both creeds was aroused, and the island

became a scene of devastation. The Porte seized the oclaw and abrogate many important proviions of the Halepa pact. The Christians boycotted the elections nder the new system, and for the next five years Crete was :0verned by a succession of Muslim valis; the deficit in the budget pcreased, the gendarmerie, which received no pay, became insubordinate, and crime multiplied. In 1894 the Porte, at the intance of the powers, nominated a Christian, Karatheodory Pasha, the governorship, and the Christians agreed to take part in the ssembly which soon afterward was convoked; no steps, however, The refusal of the vere taken to remedy the financial situation. 'orte to refund considerable sums illegally diverted from the "retan treasury, or even to sanction a loan to meet immediate equirements, caused great exasperation, which was increased by he recall of Karatheodory (March 1895). Before that event an '.pitrope, or "committee of reform," had ap»peared in the mounains. The Epitrope was at first nothing more than a handful of iscontented politicians, but its membership swelled rapidly, and Civil war ii April 1896 it invested the garrison town of Vamos. egan. Serious disturbances broke out at Canea (Khania) on -lay 24 and were only quelled by the arrival of foreign warships. gain

asion to proclaim martial

)espite the intervention of the foreign consuls, the sultan pro-

eeded to crush the rising by force. The resulting devastation, nd the excitement it aroused in Greece, quickened the energies

739

of the powers.

Austria proposed an international blockade of the island, but Great Britain rejected this. At the representations of the powers, the sultan restored the pact of Halepa, the troops

were withdrawn from the interior, financial aid was promised, a Christian governor general was appointed, the assembly was summoned and an imperial commissioner was dispatched to negotiate an arrangement. The Christian leaders proposed a moderate scheme of reforms, based on the Halepa pact, which, with a few exceptions, was approved by the powers and eventually sanctioned by the sultan. Revolt of 1897. On Sept. 4, 1896, the assembly formally accepted the new constitution and declared its gratitude to the powers. The Muslim leaders acquiesced in the arrangement, which the powers undertook to guarantee. It soon became evident, however, that the Porte was endeavouring to obstruct the execu-

—

tion of the reforms.

The

indignation of the Christians increased,

a state of insecurity prevailed and the

Muslim peasants refused

homes. Hitherto the Greek government had loyally co-operated with the powers in their Cretan policy, but toward the close of the year a secret society known as the Ethnike Etaireia began to arrogate to itself the direction of Greek foreign policy. Its aim was war with Turkey with a view to the acquisition of Macedonia, and it found ready allies in the Cretan Christians. Emissaries of the society appeared in Crete, large consignments of arms were landed and at the beginning of 1897 the island was practically in a state of insurrection. On Jan. 21 the Greek fleet was mobilized. A series of conflicts took place at Canea on Feb. 4; the Turkish troops fired on the Christians, a conflagration broke out in the town and thousands of Christians took refuge on the foreign warships. The Greek government now dispatched an ironclad and a cruiser to Canea, which were followed a few days later by a torpedo flotilla commanded by Prince George. The prince soon retired to Melos, but on the night of Feb. 4 a Greek force landed at Kolimbari, near Canea, and its commander, Colonel Vassos, proclaimed the occupation of the island in the name of King George. This move caused immense excitement among the Christian population, who indulged in terrible massaThe powers, however, occupied cres of the Muslim peasantry. Canea, and afterward Iraklion and other towns, blockaded the They then precoast and bombarded the insurgents' position. sented collective notes to the Turkish and Greek governments announcing their decision that: (1) Crete could in no case in present circumstances be annexed to Greece; (2) in view of the delays caused by Turkey in the application of the reforms Crete should be endowed with an effective autonomous administration under the suzerainty of the sultan. Cretan autonomy was proclaimed March 20, the Greek force left on May 9 and the insurgent assembly, under its president, loannis Sphakianakis, co-operated with the international commanders to maintain order. After Germany and Austria had withdrawn from the European concert (April 1898) the remaining powers divided the island into four departments, which they severally undertook to administer. The last Turkish soldiers left the island on Nov. 14, 1898. 4. Union With Greece. ^On Nov. 26 the powers nominated Prince George of Greece as high commissioner for three years. He landed on Dec. 21. Order prevailed, but the Muslims, reduced to great distress by the prolonged insurrection, emigrated in large numbers. On April 27, 1899, a new autonomous constitution was voted by a constituent assembly, and in the following June, Cretan Prince George's apofficials took over the local administration. pointment was prolonged in 1901 and his extensive powers inThe arbitrary methods of government awoke strong creased. opposition, led by Eleutherios 'Venizelos, who had played an important part in the insurrection, but had been dismissed from his post of councillor in 1901. In March 1905 Venizelos, with the to return to their

—

moral support of Sphakianakis, led a revolt at Theriso in the Levka Ori and proclaimed the union of the island with Greece, and this example was speedily followed by the assembly at Canea. The powers, however, reiterated their decision to maintain the status quo, and increased their military and naval forces the Greek flag was hauled down at Canea and Iraklion, and some desultory engagements with the insurgents took place, the international troops ;

CRETE

7+0

co-operating with the local gendarmerie. In the autumn Venizelos and his followers, having obtained an amnesty, laid down their

On July 25, 1906, the powers announced a series of reforms, including the reorganization of the gendarmerie and militia under Greek otTuers as a preliminary to the eventual withdrawal arms.

of the international troops, and the extension to Crete of the sys-

tem of financial control established in Greece. On Sept. 25 Prince His successor, Alexandros Zaimis, a George left the island. former and later prime minister of Greece, arrived in Crete on Oct,

1.

On to the

Feb. 22, 1907, Zaimis, as high commissioner, took the oath new constitution elaborated by the national assembly. His

position was one of singular difficulty.

Apart from the rivalry

of the factions within the assembly, there was the question of the

Muslim minority, reduced to 40,000 but still a force to be Zaimis showed great skill and studied impartialand his administration was a marked success. Order was

reckoned with. ity,

restored, and, Zaimis having called the attention of the

the fact that the conditions they had laid

down

powers

to

as preliminary to

—

(1) the organization of a local gendarmerie ; (2) the maintenance of the tranquillity of the island; (3) the complete security of the Muslim population had now been fulfilled, the powers informed him on May U, 1908, of their intention to begin the evacuation at once and complete it within a year. The first withdrawal of the troops (July 27), hailed joyfully by the Cretan Christians, led to rioting by the Muslims, who believed themselves abandoned to their fate. Meanwhile Zaimis had made a further advance toward the annexation of the island to Greece by a visit to Athens, where he arranged for a loan with the Greek National bank and engaged Greek officers for the new gendarmerie. The issue was precipitated by news of the revolution in Turkey. On Oct. 12 the Cretan as.sembly once more voted the union with Greece, and, in the absence of Zaimis, elected a committee of five to govern the island

evacuation

—

name of the king of Greece. July 26, 1909, the powers withdrew their remaining troops. The Cretans hoisted a Greek flag: the Turkish government adopted a minatory tone to Greece, and the powers cut down the offending flagstaff; war was postponed, but the humiliation was not forgotten. in the

On

On

Oct. 14, 1912, the eve of the First Balkan War, Venizelos, then Greek premier, admitted the Cretan deputies to the Greek

chamber; Stefanos Dragoumis was sent ministrator.

to Crete as general ad-

London (1913) ceded Crete history was merged in that of

Article 4 of the treaty of

After that time its Greece (q.v.). The island still from time to time, however, played a separate part on the international stage. It was on Crete that in March 1935 Venizelos, then in voluntary exile from Athens, put himself at the head of the abortive revolution which sought in vain to frustrate the restoration of the Greek monarchy. It was to Crete that the Greek king George II and his government retired, with their British allies, after German forces had overrun mainland Greece in April 1941. With a view to establishing a legitimate government on Greek soil, the king then appointed a Cretan, Emmanuel Tsouderos, as prime minister as well as a Cretan minister of war; but barely a month later German air-borne troops captured Crete, and the king and government with most of the British forces retreated from Crete to Egypt, (Sec World War II The Balkan Campaigns.) Resistance to German occupation on the island never entirely lapsed between 1941 and 1945. But the resistance movement never reached the same scale or violence as on the mainland, partly because the Greek communists found less fertile soil in Crete for their revolutionary activities, and partly because a high proportion of Cretans of military age, who had formed the Cretan division in the mainland army, were unable to return to the island during the remaining years of the war. Liberation came to Crete only with the, final surrender of Germany in May 1945, though most of the countryside had already long passed out of German control. (J. D. B.; W. M.; C. M. We.) to Greece.

:

IV.

POPITLATION

AND ADMINISTRATION

At the Turkish conquest (see History above) part of the popula-

Departments (Nomoi) With Their Capitals and 1961 Populations Nomci

CRETINISM ference which

explained by the inferior quality of the soils on The fertile plain of Mesara, which was one of the ^the island. jreat granaries of the Roman empire, produces much of the island's but in addition considerable quantities have regularly to be rt'heat is

:

neW

741

4 vol. (1906-32) R. Wagner, Der kretische Auj stand 1866-67 (1908); J. Ballot, Histoire de I'insurrection cretoise (1868); W. Miller, "Finlay's 'History of the Insurrectioh in Crete,'" Annual oj the British School at .Athens, vol. xxvii (1927) Victor Berard, Les Affaires de Crete (1S9S) Theodore Stephanides, Climax in Crete (1946) A. M. Rendel, Appointment in Crete (1953). For the period of Prince George's rule as high commissioner see The Cretan Drama: the Memoirs oj H.R.H. Prince George oj Greece (1959). See Leland G. AUbough, Crete, a Case Study oj an Undeveloped Area (1953) Xan Fielding, The Stronghold (19S3). isola

di

Creta,

;

;

;

imported. Most of the arable land

;

worked

in small holdings

by independvillages. At progressively up the hill slopes are raised fruits, vines, olives, cereals and animals, and together these provide most of the necesSheep and goats produce an important part of the sities of life. standard diet, as well as w'ool and hair. The shepherds are seminomadic and each summer drive their flocks to the high mountain This system of farming is essentially for local suboastures. sistences and in it the cultivation of the cash crops of tobacco ind cotton, which are important on the Greek mainland, plays virtually no part. There is, however, some commercial cultivation The olive, which is the only 3f olives, of grapes and of oranges. possible crop over many hilly tracts, is of great importance, and

,

who

jnt proprietors

is

live

nearby

in

higher levels

more than a third of the total olive producCretan wines and sultanas are famous for their high quality and Crete alone in Greece produces raisins. There is a regular export of these commodities, as well as of olive oil, The oranges and manfor the most part to the Greek mainland. darins of Crete, also of high quality, come mainly from the disThe only other important agricultural export is !;rict of Canea. the carob, of which Crete produces about nine-tenths of the Greek mainly for sending to France. crop, 2. Mining and Industry. Although in past times Crete proCrete accounts for

tion of

Greece.

—

.

duced a range of minerals, its present output, except for limestone, gypsum and other quarry stones, is negligible. The deposits of copper, lignite, iron,

chrome, lead and zinc are now small, of

ooor quality and remote. The industries of Crete are on a small scale and mainly concerned with the processing of foodstuffs; for example, milling, Soap from the olive olive crushing and the drying of grapes.

Canea and Rethymnon, and some is Canea have some small tanneries, textile Cottage inmills and steel foundries for making farming tools. dustries, notably weaving, embroidery and wood carving, are comresidue

is

exported.

made

at Iraklion,

Iraklion and

mon, but not organized. .

3.

Communications.

5hort mineral lines.

—-Crete has no railways, except for some

There

is

ent quality, the length of the

Dften impassable

in winter,

one main metaled road, of indiffernorth coast and four branch roads, the south coast at Palaiokhora,

to

Timbakion and Serapetra. See also references under "Crete" in the Index volume. (Wm. C. B.) Bibliography. Archaeology: A. J. Evans, The Palace of Minos at Knossos, vol. i-iv and Index (1921-36), an illustrated survey of all ,;he significant material to that date; L. Pernier et al., II Palazzo minoico ii Festos, vol. i undii (19J5-S1) Eludes cretoises (Mallia and Tylissos), Vol. i-ix (1928-53); F. Matz, Forschungen in Krela 1942 (1951); University of H. Boyd-Hawes el al., Gournia; Vasiliki etc. (1912) R. B. Seager, Pseira Pennsylvania, Anthropological Publications: (1910), Mochlos (1912), Pachyammos '(1916), and E. H. Hall, Sphoungaras (1912), Vrokaslro (1914) S. Xanthoudides, The Vaulted Tombs oj the Mesara (1924). Handbooks: J. D. S. Pendlebury, The irchaeology oj Crete (1939), .4 Handbook to the Palace oj Minos, Knnssos (1954). For a pictorial survey, see H. T. Bossert, The Art Curoj Ancient Crete (1937); R. Matton, La Crete Antique (1955). rent discoveries are published in archaeological journals to which reference is made in the handbooks, particularly the annual .irchaeo'ogical Reports of the British School at Athens and Kreiika Chronika Scripts: A. J. Evans, (1947 et seq.) for Greek work in the island. Scripta Minoa, vol. i (1909), vol. ii ed. by J. L. Myres (1952); M. Ventris and J. Chadwick, Documents in Mycenaean Greek (1956). Later periods: R. J. H. Jenkins, Dedalica (1936); P. Demargne, La Crete dedalique (1947); E. Kunze, Kretische Bronzereliejs (1934); D. Levi, Early Hellenic Pottery oj Crete (1945) R. Martin, Recherches Mr I'Agora Grecque (1951); L. Pernier and L. Banti, Guida degli Scavi Italiani in Creta (1947). For an account of the controversy :ieginning in 1958 about the date of the Linear B tablets see articles 3y M. F. S. Hood, L. R. Palmer and J. R. Boardman in Antiquity, 'ol. xx.\v, no. 137-140 (1961). Historv: J. H. Freese, A Short Popular History oj Crete (1897); B. Psilakis, History oj Crete E. Gerland, (1901-10) (in Greek) Histoire de la noblesse cretoise au moyen age (190S) W. Miller, .Essays on the Latin Orient (1921) G. Gerola, Monumenti Veneti

'Khora Sfakion,

—

\

;

;

;

;

;

CRETINISM

is a condition resulting from the failure of the thyroid gland to secrete its hormone from the time of intrauterine life or very early infancy. The absence of thyroid hormone during this critical period leads to a characteristic failure of growth and

development and a serious mental deficiency. Cretinism can seldom be diagnosed before the age of three months. Its earliest manifestations sluggishness, a heavy expression and piglike appearance of the eyes and a yellowish tint of the cheeks are difBcult to detect. As time passes, however, the fullblown syndrome, including many of the characteristic signs of adult myxedema (hypothyroidism), becomes clearly recognizable. The face is so typical that all cretins closely resemble each other. It is round and yellowish with a wide, flat, thick nose, thick lips and enlarged, often protruding tongue with associated drooling. The voice sounds deep and harsh. The skin is dry and thickened with sparse, dry, brittle hair. Growth is markedly retarded, the resulting dwarfism being characterized by disproportionately short extremities. The belly protrudes and umbilical hernias are not

—

—

unusual.

Dentition is retarded. Sexual maturation is held in abeyance. Hearing is impaired. Walking and talking are not undertaken at the usual age and mental growth is very slow. Imbecility is the rule in the untreated adult cretin. The general health of the untreated cretin is poor, and death has often occurred during early adult life from intercurrent ailments. In areas in which endemic goitres prevail, endemic cretinism is also observed. It is the general opinion that these endemics are due to the lack of sufficient iodine in the drinking water and food. Iodine is an integral part of the thyroid hormone. When faced with chronic iodine deprivation and a resulting difficulty in synthesizing hormone in sufficient quantity, the gland enlarges; a goitre develops, and in some cases hypothyroidism ensues. Endemic cretinism only occurs when the parents have endemic goitres. The thyroid gland in endemic cretinism is incapable of secreting hormone; a goitre is usually present, but atrophic glands have also been observed. Sporadic cretinism occurs in nongoitrous regions in the children of normal parents. It is thus

The thyroid gland is The cause or causes are unknown. The diagnosis of cretinism when it is fully developed is not The problem of differentiating it from particularly difficult. an unexpected but relatively rare disorder. usually atrophic or absent.

Mongolian idiocy has been frequently emphasized; although there be some superficial similarities, any confusion in diagnosis

may

should be resolved in relatively short order. The MongoHan idiot does not exhibit sluggishness, retarded growth and sexual developclassical signs of myxedema, such as thickened dry

ment nor the

Furthermore the basic defects of the Mongohan idiot are skin. not corrected by treatment with thyroid extract. It is imperative that the diagnosis of cretinism be made very early. The longer the organism as a whole is deprived of thyroid hormone the more irreversible become the defects of cretinism. If treatment is begun at three to six months of age, the child wdll probably develop in a normal fashion with no detectable residual. However, the longer the deficiency is untreated after this age the This is particugreater the Ukelihood of incomplete recovery. larly true with respect to the nervous system. When treatment is not begun until late childhood some general improvement may be noted, but the imbecihty persists. In some cretins the late introduction of therapy produces an unmanageable state of hyperirritability, and the patient is best managed by discontinuing this Treatment is with desiccated thyroid extract administered orally. The daily dosage varies with the age and size of the child, but in general the maximum nontoxic dose is given. specific treatment.

;

;

It

must be continued

for the remainder of the patient's Ufe.

If

it

CRETONNE—CREWE

742

is discontinued hypothyroidism develops. See also Endocrinology; Hormones. \'erteurate; Myxedema. Sec S. C. Wirner (ed.), Thyroid; a Fundamental and Clinical Text

(R. L. h.)

(105.';).

Crevecoeur

and, especially in America, as J.

and the "American Farmer."

Normandy,

Hector

St.

John

Bom

Jan. 31, 1735, at Caen, after studying in Jesuit schools and spending four

used chiefly for furniture upholstery, hangings,

years as an officer and map maker with Montcalm in Canada, he chose in 1759 to remain in the new world. He wandered in the Ohio and Great Lakes region, took out citizenship papers in New

and other household

York

cretonnes are also

Mehitable Tippet

CRETONNE,

name

the

of a class of printed cotton fabrics

window drapery, purpo.ses. The finer and lighter textures of made into smocks and other garments for women and children. The name is said to be derived from Creton, a village in Normandy where linen was made.

CREUSE,

departemcnt of central France, comprising most Marche {q.v.'). Pop. (1962) 163, .MS. Area 2,165 sq.mi. Bounded north by Indre and Cher, east by Allicr and Puy-de-D6me, south by Correze and west by Haute-V'ienne, it is situated in the northwestern part of the Massif Central and is comprised mostly of granite and other ancient crystalline rocks which form plateau country, inclined northward from the highest tracts in the south where the altitude exceeds 3,000 ft. Most of the dcpartcmcnt lies in the upper basin of the Creuse river, but portions of the westward drainage to the upper Vienne and the northeastward drainage to the upper Cher are included. The poor, acid and often badly drained soil and a chilly, wet climate limit farming. The arable area, as well as the moorland, has been reduced in favour of improved grasslands, and on the remaining arable land in the valleys poor grain crops have tended to be replaced by fodder crops. Farming has become increasingly pastoral and concerned with the rearing of livestock, especially cattle. There are a small coal field at Ahun and some scattered, unimportant ore workings. Some old established textile and leather industries siirvive; Aubusson is noted for its carpets, and Bourganeuf its porcelain industry. But the departement is a rural backwater, off main railways and roads, and Gueret and Aubusson (g^.TJ.). the centres of the two arrofidissements that constitute the departement, are the only towns with more than 5,000 inhabitants. Gueret is the capital of the departement which, with Haute-Vienne, forms the diocese of Limoges. The court of appeal is also at Limoges. Creuse forms part of the educational division (acadeinie) of Clermont. (Ar. E. S.) see Le CREUSOT, LE: Creusot. a

of the ancient province of

CREUTZ, GUSTAV PHILIP, Count

(i 731-1785),

Swed-

ish poet, whose mastery of formal elegance reflected a sophisticated Epicureanism and greatly influenced Swedish poetic style, in May 1731, at Anjala, a family estate in Finland. In he went to Stockholm. Creutz and a young friend of his with literary ambitions, Count Gyllenborg, became closely associated with an already well-known poet, Hedvig Charlotta Nor-

was born 1

75

1

some of their works were published together. From 1756 Creutz held a post at court, and he was sent to Madrid as ambassador in 1763, and to Paris in 1766. Gustavus III recalled him in 1783 and heaped honours upon him. Creutz died at Stockholm on Oct. 30, 1785. Creutz's literary output is slight; in 1763 he practically closed his career as a poet. His unusually musical diction and his striving for correctness in metre and style made him outstanding as an innovator in Swedish poetic diction. His masterpiece is Atis och denflycht;

Camilla (published 1762), a pastoral epic, for long the most adin the Swedish language. Bibliography. Creutz's collected poems were published in Vitterhetsarbeten af Creutz och Gyllenborg (1795). See also G. Castren, Gustav Philip Creutz (1917) O. Levertin, "Var fbrnamsta herdedikt," in Svenska gestalter (1903) L. Breitholtz, "Frihetstidens episka dikt-

mired poem

—

;

;

ning" in Sludier

i

jrihetslidens litteratur (1956).

(L. G. Bz.)

in

When

became a farmer in Orange county, and married in 1769, by whom he had three children. American Revolution broke out Crevecoeur, the

1765, the

peaceful, contented farmer, found himself in an untenable position because his wife was from a Loyalist family and he had friends

and neighbours among the opposite faction. Persecuted by both sides, he left rebel country only to languish for months in an English army prison in New York city before sailing for Europe in 1780, accompanied by one son. In London, using his American name of J. Hector St. John, he arranged for the publication m 1782 of twelve essays called Letters From an American Farmer. Within two years this book, charmingly written, optimistic and timely, went through eight editions in five countries and immediately made its author famous, gaining him influential patrons such as Buffon, Franklin and Mme D'Houdetot, a membership in the Academy of Sciences, and an appointment as consul to three of the new states in America. Before assuming his duties in 1784, Crevecoeur translated and added to the original twelve essays, and in that year his two-volume Lettres d'un Cultivateur Americain was published in Paris. In America again, Crevecoeur found his home burned, his wife dead and his daughter and second son with strangers in Boston. Reunited with his children, he set about organizing a packet service between the United States and France, continued an interest in botany and published articles on agriculture and medicine. A two-year furlough in Europe resulted in a larger, second edition of the French Letters, in three volumes in 1787. Recalled from his consulship in 1790, Crevecoeur wrote one other book on America, published in 1801 in three volumes as Le Voyage dans la Haute Pensylvanie et dans I'Etat de New York. He lived quietly in France and Germany until his death in 1813. Because of his letters, Crevecoeur was not only for a while the most widely read commentator on America, but also a great favourite with romanticists like Lamb and Campbell and with revolutionists like Brissot. His stature was further increased in the 1920s when a bundle of his unpublished English essays was discovered in an attic in France. These were brought out in 1925 as Sketches of Eightee?ith Century America, or More Letters From an American Farmer. Crevecoeur's books outline the steps through which new immigrants passed, analyze the religious problems of the new world, describe the life of the whalers of Nantucket, reveal much about the Indians and the horrors of the Revolution, and present the colonial farmer his psychology and his daily existence more completely than any contemporaneous writings were able to do it. The passage containing his "melting pot" theory and answering the question "What is an American?" is widely quoted, and historians of the frontier depend heavily on his documented account of the stages by which the log cabin became the opulent farmhouse. For the lover of literature Crevecoeur provides natural history essays like those of Thoreau, descriptions of nature, Indian legends, poignant tales of the Revolution and melancholy, sentimental stories of slavery and the disappearance of the red men. His charming style, keen eye and simple philosophy are universally admired.

—

—

—

Bibliography. The best books on Crevecoeur are in French, Robert de Crevecoeur, Saint John de Crevecoeur, Sa Vie et Ses Ouvrages (18S3) Howard C. Rice, Le Cultivateur .Americain (1933), which has an excellent bibliography; in English, Julia Post Mitchell, St. Jean de Crevecoeur (1916). The Letters From an American Farmer is available in the Everyman edition but with an introduction that is much out of date. (P. G. A.) ;

CREVASSE,

a fissure

in

a glacier,

may

by tension due part generally moving

longitudinal, brought about

movement, the central and (or) movement over an uneven

gins,

be transverse or

to unequal rates of faster than the

surface.

mar-

Irregular pin-

nacles of ice between crevasses of great magnitude on steep slopes are know'n as seracs {see Glacier).

The word

crevasse

is

also applied to

wide cracks

in the raised

banks of rivers and canals.

CREVECOEUR, MICHEL GUILLAUME JEAN DE (1735-1813), French-American author known as St.

John de

CREWE, ROBERT OFFLEY ASHBURTON CREWE-MILNES, 1st Marquess of (1858-1945), British statesman, chiefly remembered for his part in securing the passage of the Parliament act of 1911, was born in London on Jan, 12, 1858, the only son of the 1st Baron Houghton (q.v.), and was educated at Harrow and at Trinity college, Cambridge. He was

brought up

in

the best Liberal traditions, in the society of the

i

J

W '

CREWE— CRIBBAGE ost interesting

people of the time.

He

soon developed a wide ^terest in European literatures, and like his father wrote occapnal verses (publishing Stray Verses in 1891), which he regarded i:th a modesty never shown by his more flamboyant parent. lines was also unlike his father in his love for the English coun;

and its traditional pursuits, especially the turf. While he comparatively young, he had to face a series of domestic igedies: the deaths of both his parents, of his young wife in 1887 id of his only son in 1890. Milnes became assistant private secretary to the foreign secreyside is

,

in 1884. He entered the house of lords on death in 1885. After a brief period as junior whip the house of lords, he was appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland Gladstone in 1892. The appointment was criticized on the ,ounds of his youth, but in Ireland he' displayed his great quali;s of wisdom, tact and detachment. He left Ireland with few grets after the Liberal defeat in 1895, and was given an earldom, cosing the title Crewe because his uncle Lord Crewe had recently ed bequeathing him large family estates. In 1899 Crewe married Lady Margaret Primrose, daughter of le former prime minister the earl of Rosebery. He held various ry,

s

Lord Granville,

father's

|-

ajor offices after the Liberal victory of

1905, notably that of 1908-10, and secretary for India, 1910-15, len he implemented the Morley-Minto Indian reforms and atAded George V to the Delhi durbar (1911). He was also leader the house of lords from 1908. At one moment he became ill om overwork. H. H. Asquith called him "the most underrated in in England." He played a major part in the constitutional isis of 1909-11, directing Liberal strategy in the lords, and haning relations with the crown together with Asquith he was the lonial

secretary,

;

most virulent Tory abuse. Crewe, who had been made imarquess in 1911, remained in the cabinet until 1916, when resigned with Asquith. He held office once more, in Ramsay tt

of the

acDonald's short coalition of 1931.

In 1922 Crewe wanted to retire, because of the tragic death his only son by his second marriage, but the foreign secretary !ird Curzon persuaded him to become ambassador in Paris, and I

such he strengthened the entente at a period of acute strain i Anglo-French relations. On his return to London in 1928, lewe gradually withdrew from public life, although he was still ;'

beral leader in the house of lords. He occupied his leisure in brary pursuits, and wrote his Lije of Rosebery (1931). He died his home in Surrey on June 20, 1945. Crewe inspired general respect by his keen intelligence, wide :

(Iture and singular absence of prejudice. In his lifetime he was cen called "the last of the great English gentlemen," but more tin this he was a striking example of a great landowner whose [litical motives were invariably disinterested, and who calmly

al consistently csly radical

by

upheld political convictions regarded as dangerhis

own

class.

James Pope-Hennessy, Lord Crewe (1955). (J. P.-H.) a municipal borough (incorporated 1877) of Cheshi, Eng., is 24 mi. E.S.E. of Chester. Pop. 1961 53,394. The tvn, built on the old Oak farm estate in the parish of Monks (ppenhall, took its name from Crewe hall, seat of Lord Crewe. iiw one of the main railway junctions of England, it was created iithe 19th century by its situation on a nodal point for lines from Indon, Manchester, north Wales and Holyhead, north Staffordsre and Hereford. The site was selected by the former London ai North-Western railway for its workshops and marshaling >"d. The modern town, still mainly dependent on the railway iustry, is inhabited chiefly by railway employees. CRIBBAGE, a game of cards in which the object is to form unting combinations that usually are scored by moving pegs a special cribbage board, the dealer scoring an extra hand, crib, formed of discards. According to English antiquary .ihn Aubrey {Brie] Lives), cribbage was invented by Sir John Sckling (1609-42). It was probably an improvement of an older (ne, noddy, in which the game was 15 or 21 up, marked with iee

CREWE,

{

)

i

'

'i;

unters or by

means of a special scoring board. At cribbage, was formerly called "knave noddy," now cornobs." Cribbage is essentially a game for two

iimave in the crib ibted to

"his

players, although of 52 cards

game

is

it

used.

usually

743 can be played by three or four.

The

The

full

pack

right to deal alternates; the loser of each

dealer in the next.

Formerly each of the two players was dealt five cards, but in modern play the number is six. Nondealer cuts the balance of the pack, and dealer turns up the top card of the lower packet. This card, left face up, is the starter. If

it

is

is

first

a knave, dealer pegs (scores)

Scoring

called pegging because

is

2,

called "2 for his heels." is

it

done by moving pegs

on a special scoring device, the cribbage board. This consists essentially of a tablet with 60 holes for each player, in two rows of 30. Two pegs are furnished to each player, and each increment to the score is marked by jumping the rearmost peg ahead of the

Game is either 61 points (once around) or 121 points (twice around); it is a "lurch," and counts as two games for the winner, if his opponent has scored fewer than 31 or 61 points, respectively. Scores must be pegged in order, and the final point of a game is marked by pegging into an extra game hole at the head other.

end of the board. By custom the pegs are moved away from the game hole on the outer rows and back on the inner rows. The hands dealt, but before the starter is turned, each player lays away two cards, the four cards together forming the crib,

which belongs

to the dealer.

Nondealer leads any card, and cards

They are not gathered in tricks; each player retains his own cards in a pile before himself. As each card is played, the owner announces the new total of pips on this card together with others previously played. The ace counts 1, while king, queen, knave and ten each count 10 (being therefore called tenth cards). The total of pips must never are played alternately except as noted below.

be carried beyond 31, and one object of play is to score a "go" by playing the last card in a series, to which the opponent cannot play without exceeding 31. Reaching exactly 31 allows the player to peg 2 winning a go on a lesser total pegs 1. When one player cannot play a card without carrying the total beyond 31, he calls "Go," and the other must add what cards he can and stay under 31. Thus it is possible for one hand to play two or three times ;

in succession.

If

any cards remain

who lost it must lead for The second object in play is

player

in the

new

a

hands after a go, the

series of plays.

peg for certain combinations in cards played consecutively. These combinations score whether the cards were played in strict alternation, or one player showed several cards in succession following a go, but do not score if interrupted by the play of a foreign card. Pair, two cards of the same rank, pegs 2. Pair royal, three of a kind, scores 6. Double pair royal, four cards of a kind, pegs 12. Run, three or more cards in sequence (regardless of suits), pegs 1 for each card in the sequence. The cards rank: king, queen, knave, ten and so on down to the ace. The order of play within the sequence is immaterial; e.g., the play of 9, 7, 8 in that order f>egs 3 for run. Fifteen, bringing the total of cards played to 15, pegs 2. The score in every case is pegged by the player whose card completes the combination. Playing is followed by showing; i.e., counting the value of the hands. The starter is construed to be a part of each hand and the crib, making five cards in each instance. Nondealer's hand shows first, then dealer's hand, then crib. Fifteens: each combination of two or more cards that sums to 15 counts 2. Combination is here used in the strict technical sense. Thus, a = 6 combinations that make 15, hand 8, 8. 7, 7, 7 contains and pegs 12 therefor. Pairs: each combination of two cards Runs: each combinathat are a pair pegs 2, just as in the play. tion of three or more cards in sequence of rank pegs i for each card in each sequence. Thus, K, Q, Q, J, 10 contains two runs of four cards each, plus a pair, pegging 10 therefor. Flush: four cards of the same suit in hand peg 4. or 5, if the starter also is to

2X3

of the

same

suit;

four cards of crib and starter

peg 5. His nobs: a knave starter pegs i. suit

in

hand or

crib of

all

of the

same

same

suit as the

The highest possible score is made by three 5s and a knave, with the starter the fourth 5, of the same suit as the knave. It scores 16 for 15s', 12 for double pair royal and i for his nobs, a No hand can make a score of 19, 25, 26 or 27. total of 29. Opportunity for skill arises in discarding and in play. Balking the adverse crib by laying away cards unlikely to make a

;

CRICCIETH— CRICKET

7++ score

is

a constant necessity.

Retaining cards that

for pegging is also a consideration.

Above

all,

may

be useful

must improvement by the player

be able to calculate quickly the probabilities of the starter, when the hand suggests alternative discards. In play, the question often arises whether to play on or play off. Playing on means adding a card that may enable the opjwnent to score, in order to counter with a greater score; playing off is endeavouring to prevent opposing scores, even though one's own scoring be likewise hindered. The first one or two cards played by one's opponent sometimes gives a clue to those remaining in his hand. Three-Hand Cribbage. Each player receives five cards and lays away one, the fourth card of the crib being added from the top of the pack. The turn to play and to show moves in clockwise rotation, beginning with the player at dealer's left. A triangular cribbage board is sometimes used. Four-Hand Cribbage. Players cut for deal and partners, and take seats, as at whist. Each player receives five cards and lays one in the crib. Play and showing are in rotation as in the three-hand game. One partner for each side pegs its scores. Five-Card Cribbage. This variation, for two players, is obsolescent. In this game, nondealer scores 3 to offset the dealer's advantage. Each player has only three cards in hand, having laid away two for the crib; if these cards are of the same suit they score 3 for flush, or 4 if the starter is of the same suit. The play, and showing of the hand and crib, are otherwise as in the

—

—

—

six-card game.

See Cavendish, Pocket Guide to Cribbage (1925).

CRICCIETH

out to enter the service of the duke of Mantua, to whose secretary; he had been recommended by the secretary of the cardinal d'Este. He was not, as has been alleged, the tutor of the young prince

Vincenzo Gonzaga, but he became a member of the duke's council and advised him on the fortification of his palace. In July 1582 he was slain in Mantua, at the instigation, and probably at the hand, of the young prince whose jealousy he had incited. Published letters show that Crichton had his weaknesses; it seems he was constantly in debt, while certain complaints suggesi that he was less robust than hitherto supposed. Yet his wid( acquaintance with the philosophers, his astounding memory, knacl for languages and skill in debate remain incontestable. He de served the adjective "admirable," applied to him as early as 160, in John Johnston's Heroes Scotici. Bibliography. P. Eraser Tytler, The Lije of Crichton, 2nd ed (182J); D. Crichton, The Admirable Crichton (1909). See also Si Thomas Urquhart, Works (1834); J. H. Millar, Scottish Prose in Ih, 17th and 18th Centuries (1912); D. Crichton, "James Crichton o

—

Eliock," Votiva Tabella (1911).

CRICK, FRANCIS

HARRY COMPTON

(Jn. D. M.)

(1916) Wilkins and J. D Watson, of the 1962 Nobel prize for medicine for discoverie concerning the molecular structure of the nucleic acids (q.v.) am its significance in genetics. He was born at Northampton, Eng. on June 8, 1916, and was educated at University college, London He gained his Ph.D. from Cambridge university in 1953 after do ing scientific work with the admiralty in World War II. Fron 1949, except for spending 1953-54 at the Protein Structure proj ect. Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, N.Y., Crick worked at th Medical Research council's unit for molecular biology, Cambridge Eng. He became a fellow of the Royal society in 1959. Crick's studies of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA began in 1952, when X-ray diffraction analysis techniques brough biophysicists into the field of biochemistry. Crick's and Watson' British biophysicist, co-winner, with

Mh.) town and urban (G.

(Cricieth), a seaside resort Caernarvon parliamentary division of Caernarvonshire, Wales, on Cardigan bay, 29 mi. S. of Caernarvon. Pop. (1961) 1,671. The castle, perched on a hill projecting into the sea, dates from about 1230 and was repaired in the time of Edward I, who granted the town a charter in 1284. In 1404 Owen Glendower (q.v.) captured the castle; by the 16th century it was a ruin, portions of two towers remaining. The view includes a wide sweep of Cardigan bay, backed by the Lleyn peninsula (west) and the Merionethshire hills with Harlech castle (east). Once a port for limestone and later for coal, there was also a big herring industry at Criccieth. Lloyd George, whose house, Brynawelon, is on a hill behind the town, is buried at Llanystumdwy, 2 mi. W., where there is now a Lloyd George museum. CRICHTON, JAMES (1S60?-1S82), commonly called the "Admirable Crichton," was born, probably at Eliock in Dumfriesshire in 1S60, the son of Robert Crichton, a lord of session (from 1560 till his death in 15S2 lord advocate), and Elizabeth Stewart of the house of Beith, through whom he claimed royal descent. The traditional account of Crichton's many-sided perfections owes much to the exaggerated picture of him in Sir Thomas Urquhart's Discovery of a Most Excellent Jewel (16S2), a book designed to show that before the Scottish nation had been loaded "with disrepute for covetousness and hypocrisy by the Presbyterians," it could produce gentlemen of the highest culture. The claims made by Urquhart are absurd; still, Crichton was a real person, and the achievements of his brief career are attested by good authority. He entered St. Andrews in 1570, became a B.A. in 1574 and went on to an M.A. in one year instead of the usual two. He may have been chosen as a companion for the young James VI certainly, like other young Scottish scholars, he went to France to continue his education. He seems to have distinguished himself at the College de Navarre in Paris. A handbill printed in Venice in 1580 attributes to him excellence in every form of athletics, skill in arms and in horsemanship, a command of ten languages, an encyclopaedic knowledge of the Schoolmen and Fathers and a remarkable ability in debate on any subject proposed. However, the first proof of Crichton's appearance on the continent is an oration which he delivered in July 1579 in the ducal palace of Genoa at an election of the senate. In Venice, where he arrived in 1580, he commended himself to Aldus Manutius (the grandson of the famous printer and himself a printer) to w-hom he dedicated a Latin ode. Manutius, probably the author of the handbill, brought the young Scotsman to the notice of wellknown humanists, whom he greatly impressed. As was the custom, district in the

Crichton displayed his talents by holding public disputations ii it seems, he worsted all his opponents save Giacomo Maz zoni. Two great disputations at Padua further enhanced his reputation in 1581. Manutius heard the debates; his edition of Cicero's Paradoxa (1581) carries a dedication to Crichton recording his success. Crichton returned to Venice and, in Feb. 1582, set which,

M. H.

F.

interpretation of Wilkins' X-ray crystallographic studies of

DNi

led to the elucidation of its structure as being of a double-strandec

complementary,

helical configuration.

Crick and Watson advance

a theory of genetic continuity and mutation dependent on the paii

ing of specific bases, the type of genetic instructions carried b

DNA

by the order of arrange In 1961 Crick and his colleagues discovere that a triplet arrangement of the bases would provide 64 possibl combinations for controlling the approximately 20 amino acids protein. (J. G. Th.) CRICKET, generally considered to be England's nation; summer sport, is a game of skill played with bat and ball in large field. It has millions of devotees throughout the world, pa the

ment

of the genes being determined

of the bases.

i

ticularly in the British Isles

and the commonwealth.

THE GAME The Ground.

—The

size of a cricket

ground varies from

X

great arenas of Lord's in London, Eng. (180

Melbourne, Austr., which

tt

145 yd.), and

(

even a little larger, to village green barrack squares, small meadows and unbroken stretches of con

mon

is

Well-rolled turf of fine texture

land.

is

the ideal surfac

The limits of the circular or oval playing area ai usually marked by a boundary line or fence. Equipment. The Bat. The blade of the originally paddli shaped bat is made of willow and must not be broader than 4| The length of the bat including the handle must not exceed 38 The ball has a core of cork built up with string and cased wil for cricket.

—

—

i'

i:

polished red leather. a baseball,

it

Slightly smaller, harder

must weigh between 5^

oz,

and S|

and heavier tha and be betwee

oz.

8Y-|in. and 9 in. in circumference. The wicket consists of three Stumps or stakes each 28 in. hif and of equal thickness (about 1;^ in. in diameter) stuck into tl ground and so spaced that the ball cannot pass between the:

—

.

CRICKET wood

"wo pieces of

745

called bails

e in grooves on top of the stumps nd project not more than A- in. bove them. The whole wicket is

*

These wickets, width. batsman defends and a

in

in.

a

''hich

are pitched ap-

'owler attacks,

iroximately in the centre of the

one another at ach end of the pitch, which is le area, 12 yd. long and 10 ft. ide, between the wickets. These are lines of Creases. 'hitewash marked on the ground facing

'round,

—

SHORT FINE LEG

each wicket as follows; the owling crease is in line with the cumps, 8 ft. 8 in. in length with a t

lort

arm marked

at

BACKWARD SHORT LEG

ON OR LEG SIDE

WICKETKEEPER

each end at

ght angles behind the wicket

—within

le

retwn crease

le

bowler's rear foot

which must be

rounded in delivering the ball; crease, which dele popping the batsman's ground,

larks

BATSMAN RECEIVING

THE BOWLING

is

with the bowling crease it, that is, 62 from the opposing bowling

arallel

in front of

ft. ;.

-ease.

Dress.

— Players

usually

wear

and

shirt,

bite flannel trousers

boots (shoes) of buck or tavas, a white woolen sweater, ften trimmed with club colours, ad club caps of kaleidoscopic vahite

;±T

BATSMAN READY TO RUN

The batsman wears white guards, a body protec-

ety.

ads, or leg ')r

and articulated batting gloves, of thick tubular rubber or

'sually

leather stuffed with hair.

The

'icketkeeper also wears pads

and

f

'^inforced

nlike

gauntlets

baseball

players,

when

ear gloves

(cricketers,

Language

do not

fielding).

Cricket.

of

—

Ticket has evolved a colourful

ocabulary of

own, as have

its

'any other sports.

ore

important

Many

terms

of the

are

exained in other sections of this (see also list. Methods of

!-ticle

Some of the variant multiple meanings of certain rms, and some additional terms

ismissal). '

CRICKET PLAYING FIELD

id phrases, follow.

Bowled for a duck.

—Dismissed

(put out) without scoring. Selected to play for England or other representative team

— Century. — 100 runs scored by Clean bowled. — Bowled out. —A match, especially

Capped. below)

ee

Fixture.

me

one batsman one of a

in a single innings.

series

held annually or at

other regular interval.

—

Follow on. Go in again to bat (out of turn) after scoring less than by a specified number (75 runs in a one-day match; 100 in two-day match; 150 in a match of three days or more). Hit a six. Hit a ball over the boundary (without first touching the ound) to score six runs. Innings. (1) A turn of a batsman to bat; (2) a turn of a team to it; (3) in recording a result, when one team still has a turn to bat Jt has scored more runs than the opposition, which already has cometed its two innings, the result is recorded as "an innings" (to go) 'id so many runs. (Hambledon beat "a representative England ;ven by an innings and 168 runs.") Pitch. (1) The area extending 5 ft. on either side of the centre ,ie between the wickets; (2) the distance between wicket and wicket; ,) the impact of the bowled ball on the ground (pitch). Point. Position of fieldsman more or less in line with batsman or Jponents

— —

—

—

popping crease on the

off side.

—

Representative team. Team of players who have been selected, on the basis of ability, to represent a county, a country, etc. (as distinguished from a club team or a minor team). Silly mid-og. Fielding position about halfway between normal mid-off and batsman, about 10 or IS yd. from batsman. Slip. Fielding position behind and to one side of wicket. Square leg. Behind the batsman as he faces the bowler. Sticky wicket. Pitch drying after rain and difficult for batsman. Stonewaller. Batsman who attempts only to protect wicket; excessively cautious batting. Wicket. (1) The goal, consisting of three stumps on top of which lie two sticks (bails), which the bowler attempts to hit and the batsman attempts to defend; (2) the area betw-een two sets of stumps_, synonymous with pitch; (3) a turn at bat, i.e., the partnership between two batsmen for the 1st wicket, 2nd wicket, etc.; (4) in scoring, when a side is batting last the number of batsmen still to be dismissed when the opponent's score is passed.

—

—

— — —

—

Conduct two sides of two umpires

of the

Game.

—A match

is usually played between one of whom is captain. There are to control the game according to the laws, and two

11 players each,

—

.

CRICKET

746

The object of the game is for one its progress. more runs (see below) than the other. start of a match the captain who wins the toss (of a

some accuracy. The ordinary ways in which

scorers to record

feat of

side to score

a batsman or striker can be dismissed (put out) are indicated in the accompanying list. When a batsman is out bowled, leg before wicket or hit wicket the credit and when he is out caught or stumped the main share of creditis taken by the bowler, who is said to have "taken the batsman's

At the coin) decides whether his own or the other side shall take first innings; i.e., proceed successively as batsmen the first two as a

—

—

wicket and tr>' to make as many runs as posAn insible against the bowling and fielding of their opponents. nings is completed when ten batsmen have been dismissed (the remaining batsman is "not out"), but the captain of the batting pair together

may

to the

have made enough runs, and sufficient time remains to bowl out the opponents for fewer runs. Results are recorded by the margin of runs, or, if the side

declare his innings closed

dismissed, by the

number

of their wickets

(i.e.,

batsmen still to be dismissed) outstanding. Matches are decided either by the number of runs scored in one innings each (usually one-day matches) or on the aggregate of runs made by each side in two innings. International (test) matches last five or six days (30 playing hours), other first-class matches from two to four days, and the bulk of club, school and village matches one day. Hours of play are usually 11 :30 a.m. to 6;30 P.M. for first-class matches, and for many one-day games. Suitable intervals are allowed for lunch and tea and between innings. Minor teams often play half -day games (say, 2:30 p.m7:00 P.M.).

How

the

Game Is Played.—The

tions in the field (see fig.).

One

nonbatting side take up posinumber bowls the ball

of their

from one wicket to the other. The first batsman (the striker) guards his wicket by standing with one foot behind the popping crease. His partner stands at the bowler's end within his ground; i.e., behind the popping crease. The object of the bowler is to hit the batsman's wicket, or dismiss him in other ways (see list of Methods of Dismissal).

The object of the batsman is to hit the ball sufficiently hard for him to score a run; i.e., to enable him to reach the other end any fieldsman can pick up the ball and throw it As soon as he runs, his partner (the nonstriker)

of the pitch before to the stumps.

runs toward him, and once they have crossed and each has made good his ground at the opposite end, one run is recorded to the striker; if there is time they will run back for a second run, crossing again: up to six runs can be scored from any one stroke. If

an even number is scored, the striker will receive the next ball, but, if an odd number, then the nonstriker will be at the wicket opposite the bowler and will face the next ball. Only runs scored from the bat count to the batsman, but to the side's score may be added the following extras: (1) byes (when a ball from the bowler passes the wicket without being touched by the bat and the batsmen are able to make good a run) (2) leg byes (when in similar circumstances the ball has touched any part of the batsman's body except his hand) (3) wides (when a ball passes out of reach ;

;

of the striker); (4) no-balls (for a fair delivery the ball must be bowled, not thrown or jerked, and at the moment of delivery a

bowler must have some part of one foot behind the bowling crease and within the return crease; a breach of these conditions constitutes a no-ball, off which a batsman cannot be cut except under Methods of Dismissal [5], [7], [8] and [9] [see list] and which he may therefore try with impunity to smite, apprised in time by

—

—

the umpire's cry of "no-ball").

When

from a

any of the extras mentioned above, reaches the boundary, running ceases and four runs are added to the score. If the batsman hits the ball full-pitch over the boundary he scores six runs.

The

a ball,

hit or

bowled from each wicket alternately in overs of and South Africa), not counting wides When the requisite number have been bowled, a new over is begun by a different bowler at the opposite end to the batsman at the former bowler's end, with a corresponding adjustment of the field. Subject to this alternation of overs, any member of the fielding side may bowl at either end as many overs as his captain decides, but the same bowler may not bowl two consecutive overs. If a bowler delivers a complete over without a run being scored from the bat, he has achieved a maiden over, a ball is

six balls (eight in Australia

and

no-balls.

Among

methods of dismissal

the

hitting the wicket,

handling the ball, hitting the ball twice and obstructing the are of rare occurrence.

his side

if

side batting last passes the other side's total before all their bats-

men have been

wicket."

Methods

—

field

of Dismissal

1. Bowled. The batsman is out bowled if the bowler breaks the wicket i.e., dislodges a bail with the ball. 2. Caught. He is out caught if a ball hit by the batsman is caught before it touches the ground. 3. Stumped. He is out stumped if, in playing a stroke, he is outside the popping crease (out of his ground) and the wicket is broken by the wicketkeeper with ball in hand. Essentially, 4. Leg before wicket (l.b.w.) illegal interference, whether accidental or intentional, with a ball that otherwise, in the opinion of the umpire, would hit the wicket: the batsman is out l.b.w. if he intercepts with any part of his person, except his hand, which is in line between wicket and wicket, a ball which has not first touched his bat or his hand and which has or would have pitched (hit the ground) in a straight line between the wickets or on the off side, provided the ;

— —

—

would have hit the wicket. 5. Run out. Either batsman is out run out if, while the ball is in play, his wicket is broken while he is out of his ground. If the batsmen have passed each other, the one running for the wicket that is broken is out ; if they have not crossed, the one running from that wicket is out. ball

—

—

6. Hit wicket. The batsman is out hit wicket if he breaks his own wicket with his bat or any part of his person while playing at the ball. 7. Handling the ball. Either batsman is out if he touches the ball with his hands while it is in play. 8. Hitting the ball twice. Batsman is out if he hits the ball, except in defense of his wicket, after it has been struck or stopped by any part of his person. 9. Obstructing the Field. Either batsman is out if he willfully obstructs the opposite side.

—

—

—

The disposition of the field will vary widely according to the technique of the bowler or of the batsman, the condition of the game, and the tactics determined by the captain. He may place his fieldsmen as he thinks best, and he may alter their positions, if he wishes, after each ball. There are no foul lines in cricket as there are in baseball so any hit is a fair pitch, the state of the

ball.

The his

objects of the captain of the fielding side are: (1) to place in positions where the batsman may give a catch (in base-

men

ball terminology, hit a line drive or a fly ball to a fielder)

;

and

(2) to save runs; i.e., to block the path of the ball from the batsman's scoring strokes (intercept or trap grounders). The tactical possibilities for a thoughtful

and ingenious captain

in directing

the battle of wits between his bowlers and fieldsmen and the bats-

men

are manifold and constitute one of the charms of the game

for player and spectator alike.

3.

The names of the generally accepted positions are shown in fig. As there are only 11 players in a team, two of whom must be

the bowler and wicketkeeper, only nine other positions can be

occupied at any one time. The field is spoken of as being divided lengthwise into "off" and "leg," or "on," sides in relation to the batsman's stance depending upon whether he bats right- or left-

handed the "off" side is the side facing the batsman and the "leg" or "on" side is the side behind him as he stands to receive the ball. ;

To sum up: man out, and

the object of the bowler is primarily to get the batsonly secondarily to prevent him from getting runs. The object of the batsman is to make runs, for only runs can win a match, but to make runs he must "stay in." The object of each fielder (and of the general distribution of the field) is first, to dismiss the batsman, and secondly, to prevent his making runs. The arts of batting, bowling and fielding are therefore a fusion of attack and defense, but ideally attack will always dominate.

Bowling can be right- or left-arm. For a fair delivery the ball must be propelled, usually overhand, without bending the elbow The bowler may run any desired jiumber of paces as a part of

hi-'i

delivery, as in bowling (with the restriction, of course, that

Jj

h(:

does not cross the bowling crease), but the ball is not rolled on thf ground although it generally hits the ground (the pitch) befort

\.^ :

j^

j^

CRICKET aching the batsman. The first requisite of a good bowler is command of length; i.e., the ability to pitch (bounce) the ball on a j'sired spot, usually at or slightly in front of the batsman's feet .i.d varying with the pace of the bowler, the state of the pitch and |e reach and technique of the batsman. The second requisite is of direction. On this foundation a bowler may elaborate variations of fingerspin, swerve, alteration of pace and flight, |e path of the ball and the manner in which it is propelled that id deceptiveness and uncertainty as to exactly where and how

fmmand |th

will pitch.

A

good-length ball

is

one which causes the batsman

doubt whether to come forward to play his stroke or to move ck. A half volley is a ball pitched so far up to the batsman that can drive it fractionally after it has hit the ground without havg to move forward. A yorker is a ball pitched on or inside the

i

A

lipping crease.

fore

it

hits the

jull pitch is a ball

A long

ground.

hop

which the batsman can reach is a ball short of good length

"short of a length."

'The primary purpose of the spin in bowling is to bring the ball from the pitch at an angle or in a direction that is difficult .

the

r

batsman

to anticipate.

the ball on pitching, that

The

varieties of spin are:

og-

hitting the ground, turns from of the wicket; leg break, the reverse of off-break; p-spin, the ball, on pitching, gathers pace but does not turn; figly, a ball bowled by a right-arm bowler which deceives the leak,

k

is,

off side

Hsman by turning from

the off, though apparently bowled with chinaman, an off-break ball bowled by a left-

ileg-break action;

Occasionally, left-arm bow'lers bowl a googly which, pitching, turns from the leg.

iH bowler. I,

The two swerves

are the inswinger, which moves in the air from and the away- or outswinger, which swerves from leg

to leg,

1

roff.

—

Batting. A batsman may play right-handed or left-handed, ood batting is based on a straight (i.e., vertical) bat with the :11 face presented to the ball. iThe chief strokes are: forward stroke, in which the batsman ad"nces his front leg to the pitch (direction) of the ball iin front of the .'.oke

loves

ide)

wicket

and plays

played with aggressive intent,

this

;

batsman's body,

t;

(if

becomes the drive) back stroke, in which the batsman his rear leg back before playing the ball; leg glance (or in which the ball, when pitched in a line with or outside is

deflected behind the wicket on the leg

which the batsman hits a ball on the uprise (after hitIfg the ground on the off side) over and dow-n behind the wicket through the slips with a vigorous w'hiplike action of the wrists. Fielding. The ideal fieldsman is a fast runner, with keen eyetht, quick reactions and ability to throw straight and far. He s.juld be able to anticipate the batsman's strokes, move to cut the ball in its path, and pick it up and throw it to the stumps iione movement. He must judge the flight of the ball in the air tmake a safe catch. By his alertness and skilful play he can save ns and contribute to a batsman's downfall. At; cut, in

(i

—

i\

The wicketkceper, or catcher,

is a

specialist position requiring

and courage. He is the must concentrate on ery ball, whether standing 12 to 15 yd. behind the stumps for t' fast bowlers, or crouching close to them for those of slow or

Jflormally quick reactions, sharp eyesight

l(rdest-worked

member

of the team, and

I'dium pace.

CRICKET IN ENGLAND

— Samuel

Johnson derives the name cricket from yce," Old English, a stick. The word still survives in Cornwall Devon in the sense of hedge sticks. The termination "et" ijtself a common diminutive, and the game would then take its Origin.

ad

fue from

its weapon of attack, a little staff, stick or bat. For the practice of cricket as an elementary form of club ball t.re is pictorial evidence as early as the middle of the 13th cent|y. The first written reference to the game is possibly to be

from the wardrobe accounts of 1300, in Edwhich referring to certain sums disbursed on behalf

fund in an extract

'rd I's reign,

young Prince Edward alludes to a game called creag. was being played by boys of the free school of Guildford about 1550. Oliver Cromwell is reported as having indulged

0.

the

C

cket

ior

in his

747

youth

in cricket

and

and

1650 a scholar at 'Winchester is referred to as "attempting to wield a cricket bat." There appears to have been a cricket club at St. Albans as early as 1666. In 1668 the proprietor of the Ram inn, Smithfield, London, had been rated for a cricket ground, and in 1707 Chamberlayne's football,

in

State of England included cricket among the people's recreations. Early History. Cricket has been played under recognized rules at least since the beginning of the 18th century. The first

—

definite

match

of which there

is record was played in Sussex in 1697, 11-a-side and for a stake of SO guineas. In 1719 the "Londoners" met the "Kentish men" in what was virtually the first

county match, London being synonymous with Middlesex. The greatest enthusiasm and the most expert skill were concentrated in the southern counties near London. There, on the short turf of the open downs, cricket was discovered by Society and transplanted to London and to the home grounds of its noble patrons, for example at the 'Vine at Sevenoaks, and at Goodwood park. In London, matches were played on all the southern commons from Chelsea to Clapham. But by far the most famous cricket centre was the Artillery ground, Finsbury, Here was played on June 18, 1744, the famous match Kent v. All England, the first game to be recorded in A. Haygarth's Scores and Biographies 17 44-1 S7 8. A feature of the play in those days was the heavy stake money and side bets that more often than not depended on big matches. The crowds were often disorderly and violently partisan. The next stage in the game's development was marked by the rise of the Hambledon club. On Broad-Halfpenny down (the historic site later acquired by Winchester college) this little Hampshire village for 30 years challenged and was a match for all comers. Indeed in June 1777, they beat a representative England eleven by an innings and 168 runs. This phenomenal ascendancy resulted in the main from the coincidence in the area of about a dozen men of extraordinary cricket genius who had a profound influence on the evolution of the game's technique. Fortunate, too, was the club in its historian, John Nyren. His Cricketers of my Time, together with The Young Cricketer's Tutor, edited by Cowden Clarke, both published in 1833, were the first prose classics in cricket's literature.

Hambledon played enough

its last

recorded match in

1

793, appropriately

London. This, the acknowledged Mecca of all opened in Dorset square as a private ground for certain members of the 'White Conduit club by Thomas Lord, a Yorkshireman who was ground superintendent and bowler to the club. In 1809, to avoid a rise in rent. Lord removed to part of the St. John's Wood estate, and four years later he moved again to the present situation. In each case he relaid the original Dorset square turf, and he enclosed his newest ground with a high fence and built on it a pavilion and a tavern. The Marylebone Cricket club (M.C.C.), with its home at Lord's, was founded in 1787 and in its first year it revised the laws, thus proving that from its inception its authority was paramount. It is accepted throughout the world at Lord's,

cricketers,

was

first

as the authoritative source of all cricket legislation.

For half a century at least, the M.C.C. was the great matchmaking, agency in cricket, inviting subscriptions from its members to meet match expenses, and advertising in advance at the chief London social clubs. Most of the big matches were still played for money and were a field for heavy wagering by professional backers, games being constantly arranged at odds, whether of numbers or of given men. In 1836 the first North v. South match was played, clear evidence of the spread of cricket. The missionary efforts of the M.C.C. began in 1846, seconded by the touring cricket of the AllEngland eleven, which played all over the country and was the focus of attraction wherever it went, winning to knowledge and appreciation of the game whole districts where hitherto it had been unappreciated or undeveloped. Its matches were great trials of budding talent, and many a young professional was discovered and launched on a successful career through its medium. Its success led in 1S52 to the secession of some of the leading professionals and their formation into the United All-England eleven. These two teams monopolized the best cricket talent in the country, and

CRICKET

748

the annual match between them at Lord's on Whitmonday, first played in 1862, was for nearly 20 years the great event of the seaEventually they both gave way before the rising tide of son. county cricket {see below). Technical Developments. Cricket was originally a game in which the country lads bowled at a tree stump, or at the hurdle gate into their sheeppens. This consisted of two uprights and a

—

crossbar resting on their slotted tops, the latter called a "bail" and the whole gate a "wicket." The fact that the bail could be dislodged when the wicket was struck made this preferable to the stump, which name was later applied to the hurdle uprights. Early manuscripts differ about the size of the wicket, but by 1706 the pitch was 22 yd. long. The ball was probably much the same in the 17th century as it Originally it weighed between five and six ounces. Its is today. modern weight and size were laid down in 1774 and 1838, and its circumference was slightly reduced in 1927. The primitive bat was no doubt a shaped branch of a tree, resembling a modern hockey stick, but considerably longer and very much heavier. The change to a straight bat was made to meet the cult of "length" bowling which had been evolved by the Hambledon cricketers. The bat was shortened in the handle and straightened and broadened in the blade, which led to forward play, driving and cutting. As few bowlers were able to combine length with break, swerve and flight, batting continued to dominate bowling in the 18th century. About the same time the first l.b.w. law was promulgated by which the umpire had the impossible task of deciding whether the obstruction had been deliberate. Early in the 19th century most bowlers favoured the high-tossed lob. The ne.xt bowling development was "the round arm revolution" in which many bowlers deliberately threw. Controversy raged furiously, and in 1835 the M.C.C. rephrased the law to allow the hand to be raised as high as the shoulder. The new style led to a great increase in pace. Gradually bowlers raised the hand higher and higher in defiance of the law, until it became more honoured in the breach than in the observance. Matters were brought to a head when all nine professionals of an England eleven playing against Surrey left the field at the Oval in protest against one of their number's being no-balled for throwing, and as a result, in 1864, the bowler was officially accorded full liberty to bowl overhand. From time to time umpires have had trouble with bowlers who threw, and G. A. R. Lock of Surrey and C. N. McCarthy, the South African fast bowler, when playing for Cambridge university, were no-balled for throwing in 1952. Lock was afterward noballed in the West Indies during the M.C.C. tour of 1954. In 1959 a storm arose in Australia over the suspect actions of some of the leading Australian bowlers, as a result of which a special meeting of the Imperial Cricket conference was held, though no drastic action

was taken.

Most bowling continued

be fast throughout the middle of the 19th century, and though the standard of wicketkeeping was high, the role of long stop, positioning a fieldsman to back up the wicketto

became most important. The batsmen now learned to prothemselves with additional armour. Pads and tubular batting gloves were invented, and the cane handle greatly increased the resilience of the bat. Thus fortified, batsmen developed their strokes. Hitting and pulling to the leg side became fashionable, forcing strokes on the leg side off the overpitched ball were developed, as were the classic principles of elegance and the straight bat. However, only the best professional batsman could cope with great speed because most pitches were bad. Until 1849, when permission was first given to sweep and roll the pitch at the beginning of each innings, it was unlawful to touch it from the beginning to end of a match. Gradually the grounds improved, because of the advent of the

keeper, tect

and attendance fell off. From such a fate the game was saved by a transfusion of new and vigorous blood. Profiting by the coaching of English professionals, Australians developed their cricket, especially their bowling, and when in 1882 they came to England and defeated its full strength, a further evolution in technique had taken place. Their great bowlers combined pace with spin and variety of flight. They bowled much straighter than the English, and were much more adaptable in their field placing. With the wicket taking off-spin, many catches were terest flagged

held in the then unprecedented place of silly mid-on.

A great

wicketkeeper,

J.

McC. Blackham,

stood up to the stumps

to a fast bowler, even dispensing with a long stop,

the ball cleanly, even on the leg side, set a

and by

new standard

taking

in wicket-

keeping.

The opening years of the 20th century produced such an orgy of run-getting that a reform of the l.b.w. law was debated, and the M.C.C. denounced the over-preparation of pitches. But the heavy scores were due primarily to the arrival of a generation of batsmen

who triumphed over much formidable and varied bowling by methods both versatile and individual. This was cricket's "Golden Age." There now appeared in cricketing vocabulary the googly, a word coined in Australia when B. J. T. Bosanquet, on the 1903-04 M.C.C.

bowl an off-break with a was brought to something like

tour, first exploited his ability to

This freak

leg-break action.

ball

perfection in South Africa, where the matting used to form the surface of the pitch intensified its spin.

Contemporarily bowlers discovered a new weapon for the

—

dis-

the swerve. Fast left-handers excomfiture of the batsmen ploited inswerve, and right-handers learned to swing the ball either way, especially into a head wind or in a heavy atmosphere. A final development was the ball from the right-hander which

swung into the batsman and dipped at the end of its flight. To supplement this inswinger, the field was largely reoriented, with the on side reinforced at the expense of the off. To meet these new problems batsmen had to adjust their technique. K. S. Ranjitsinhji and C. B. Fry led the way by abandonin; the long-striding forward stroke and making back play, together with a mastery of all on-side strikes, the foundation of their batBut with the less gifted majority of batsmen, a twoting. shouldered and right-handed defense off the back foot began to predominate, and batting lost its aggression and charm. Sucl methods played into the hands of bowlers of real pace and ol those

who

could

flight as well as spin the ball,

but the concentra

tion on defense and the increasingly elaborate preparation of

The most all but the greatest bowlers. and dramatic tactic was the so-called "body-line" attack 1930s (see Test Matches below). pitch often thwarted

th