Encyclopaedia Britannica [6, 5 ed.]

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Cncpclopaetita 33rttanmta OR, A

DICTIONARY OP

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE; ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.

THE FIFTH EDITION.

Jllufltratet) toitj) nearly tftjc DunOreO Cngtratiinga. VOL. VI.

INDOCTI DISCANT; AMENT MEMINISSE PERITI.

EDINBURGH: Printed at the Encyclopedia Press, FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, AND THOMSON BONAR, EDINBURGH: GALE, CURTIS, AND FENNER, LONDON ; AND THOMAS WILSON AND SONS, YORK,

1815.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA,

C

CHI

HINA, a country of Afia, fituated on the moft eafterly part of that continent. It is bounded on the north by Tartary j from which it is divided, Boundaries, partly by a prodigious wall of 1500 miles in length, extent, &c and partly by high, craggy, and inacceffible mountains. On the eaft, it is bounded by the ocean j on the weft, by part of the Mogul’s empire, and India beyond the Ganges, from which it is parted by other ridges of high mountains and fandy deferts 5 on the fouth, it is bounded partly by the kingdoms of Lao, Tonquin, Ava, and Cochin-China, and partly by the fouthern or Indian fea, which flows between it and the Philippine iflands. There are feveral ways of computing its length and breadth. According to fome of thefe, it is reckoned 1269, 1600, or 1800 miles in length, and as much in breadth : however, by the beft and lateft accounts, this vaft country is fomewhat of an oval form, the breadth being lefs than the length by little more It contains 15 provinces, excluDivifion in. than a fourth part. to provin- live of that of Lyau-tong, which is fituated without the ces. great wall, though under the fame dominion. Their names are, 1. Shenfi, 2. Shanfi, 3. Pecheli, which are fituated on the north fide, along the wall ; 4. Shantong, 5. Kyan-nang, 6. Che-kyang, 7. Fo-kyen, which are fituated along the eaftern ocean *, 8. Quangtong, 9. Quang-fi, 10. Yu-nan, 11. Se-chuen, which ftretch themfelves towards the fouth and fouth-we ft $ and, 12. Honan, 13. Hu-quand, 14. Quey-chew, 15. Kyang-fi; which take up the middle part. For a particular defeription of all thefe, fee their proper articles. . . 3 The origin of all nations is involved in obfeurity Chinefe pretenftons and fable, but that of the Chinefe much more fo than to antiqui- any other. Every nation is inclined to affume too ty. high an antiquity to itfelf; but the Chinefe carry theirs beyond all bounds. Indeed, though no people on earth are more exaft in keeping records of every memorable tranfa&ion, yet fuch is the genius of the Chinefe for fuperftition and fable, that the firft part of their hiftory is defervedly contemned by every rational 4 Why their perfon. What contributes more to the uncertainty of the Chinefe hiftory is, that neither we, nor they themhiftory is £b uncer- felves, have any thing but fragments of their ancient tain. hiftorical books; for, about 213 years before Chrift, the reigning emperor Si-whang-ti caufed all the books in the empire to be burned, except thofe written by lawyers and phyficians. Nay, the more effeflually to deftroy the memory of every thing contained in them, VOL. VI. Part I. China.

CHI he commanded a great number of learned men to be China, buried alive, left, from their memories, they Ihould —‘“Y""*" commit to writing fomething of the true memoirs of the empire. The inaccuracy of the Chinefe annals is complained of even by their moft refpe&ed author Confucius himfelf; who alfo affirms, that before his time many of the oldeft materials for writing fuch annals had been deftroyed. 5 According to the Chinefe hiftories, the firft mo- Fabulous narch of the whole univerfe (that is, of China), wasloftory °f called or Pucn-cu. This, according to fome, ima' was the firft man ; but according to Bayer and Menzelius, two of the greateft critics in Chinefe literature that have hitherto appeared, the word fignifies the highejl antiquity. Puon-ku was fucceeded by Tienehoang, which fignifies the emperor of heaven. They call him alfo the intelligent heaven, the fupreme king of the middle heaven, &c. According to fome of their hiftorians, he was the inventor of letters, and of the cyclic chara&ers by which they determine the place of the year, &c. Tiene-hoang was fucceeded by Ti-hoang (the emperor of the earth), who divided the day and night, appointing 30 days to make one moon, and fixed the winter folftice to the nth moon. Ti-hoang was fucceeded by Gine-hoang (fovereign of men), who with his nine brothers Ihared the government among them. They built cities, and furrounded them with Avails ; made a diftindtion between the fovereign and fubjedls ; inftituted marriage, &c. The reigns of thefe four emperors make up one of what the Chinefe called hi, “ ages,” or “ periods,” of which there were nine before Fo hi, whom their moft fenfible people acknowledge as the founder of their empire. The hiftory of the fecond hi contradicts almoft every thing faid of the firft ; for though we have but juft now been told that Gine-hoang and his brethren built cities furrounded with walls ; yet, in the fucceeding age, the people dwelt in caves, or perched upon trees as it were in nefts. Of the third hi we hear nothing ; and in the fourth, it feems matters had been ftill worfe, as we are told that men were then only taught to retire into the hollows of rocks. Of the fifth and fixth we have no accounts. Thefe fix peiflods, according to fome Avriters, contained 90,000 years ; according to others, 1,100,750. In the feventh and eighth f/, they tell us over again Avhat they had faid of the firft ; namely, that men beA gan

CHI [ China, gan to leave their caves and dwell in houfes, and were '“■""Y-—^ taught to prepare clothes, &c. Tchine-fang, the firft monarch of the eighth ki, taught his fubjefts to take off the hair from fkins with rollers of wood, and cover themfelves with the fkins fo prepared. He taught them alfo to make a kind of web of their hair, to ferve as a covering to their heads againft rain. They obeyed his orders with joy, and he called his fubjefts people clothed with Jkins. His reign lafted 350 years ; that of one of his fucceffors, alfo, named Yeou-tfao-chi, lafted more than 300 ; and his family continued for 12 or 18,000 years. But what is very furprifing, all thefe thoufands and millions of years had elapfed without mankind’s having any knowledge of fire. This was not difcovered till towards the clofe of this period, by one Souigine. After fo ufeful a difcovery, he taught the people to drefs their vifluals ; whereas before they had devoured the flefh of animals quite raw, drunk their blood, and fwallowed even their hair and feathers. He is alfo faid to have been the inventor of fifliing, letters, &c. In the ninth period, we find the invention, or at Leaft the origin of letters, attributed to one Tfang-hie, who received them from a divine tortoife that carried them on his (hell, and delivered them into the hands of Tfang-hie. During this period alfo, mufic, money, carriages, merchandife, commerce, &c. were invented. There are various calculations of the length of thefe it or periods. Some make the time from Puan-ku to Confucius, who flourilhed about 479 years before Chrift, to contain 279,000 years j others, 2,276,000; fome, 2,759,860 years; others, 3,276,000; 6 and fome no lefs than 96,961,740 years. Fabulous Thefe extravagant accounts are by fome thought hiftory ex- to conta;n obfcure and imperfeft hints concerning the P 1 £ ' cofmogony and creation of the world, &c. Puon-ku, the firft emperor, they think, reprefents eternity preceding the duration of the world. The fucceeding ones, Tiene-hoang, Ti-hoang, and Gine-hoang, they imagine, fignify the creation of the heavens and earth, and the formation of man. The ten it or ages, nine of which preceded Fo-hi, mean the ten generations preceding Noah. This may very poflibly be the cafe; for about 300 years before Chrift, fome jews travelled into China, who might have made the Mofaic writings known there. What we have now related, contains the fubftance of that part of the Chinefe hiftory which is entirely fabulous. After the nine ki or “ ages” already taken notice of, the tenth commenced with Fo-hi; and the hiftory, though ftill very dark, obfcure and fabulous, 7 begins to grow fomewhat more confiftent and intelReign of ligible. Fo-hi was born in the province of Shenfi. Fo-hi. pjjs mother walking upon the bank of a lake in that province, faw a very large print of a man’s foot in the fand there ; and, being furrounded with an iris or rainbow, became impregnated. The child was named Fo-hi; and, when he grew up, was by his countrymen elefted king, on account of his fuperior merit,, and ftyled Tyent-tfe, that is, “ the fon of heaven.” He invented the eight qua, or fymbols, confifting of three lines each, which, differently combined, formed 64 charafters that were made ufe of to exprefs every thing. To give thefe the greater credit, he pretended that 2

2

]

CHI

he had feen them infcribed on the back of a dragon- China, horfe (an animal fhaped like a horfe, with the wings —\r-—* and fcales of a dragon), which arofe from the bottom of a lake. Having gained great reputation among his countrymen by this prodigy, he is faid to have created mandarins or officers, under the name of dragons. Hence we may affign a reafon why the emperors of China always carry a dragon in their banners. He alfo inftituted marriage, invented mufic, &c. Having eftablifhed a prime minifter, he divided the government of his dominions among four mandarins, and died after a reign of 115 years. 3 After Fo-hi followed a fucceffion of emperors, of Miraculous whom nothing remarkable is recorded, except that in the reign of You, the feventh after Fohi, the fun did not fet for ten days, fo that the Chinefe were afraid of a general conflagration. This event the compilers of the Univerfal Hiftory take to be the fame with that Hypothefis mentioned in the book of Joftiua, when the fun andtlu concerning moon flood ftill for about the fpace of a day. Fo-hi ^ they will have to be the fame with Noah. They ima-an gine, that after the deluge this patriarch remained fome time with his defcendants ; but on their wicked combination to build the tower of Babel, he feparated himfelf from them with as many as he could perfuade to go along with him ; and that, ftill travelling eaftward, he at laft entered the fertile country of China, and laid the foundation of that vaft empire.—But, leaving thefe fabulous and conjectural times, we (hall proceed to give fome account of that part of the Chinefe hiftory which may be more certainly depended on. As the Chinefe, contrary to the pradtice of almoft all nations, have never fought to conquer other countries, but rather to improve and content themfelves with their own, their hiftory for many ages furnifties nothing remarkable. The whole of their emperors, abftrafting from thofe who are faid to have reigned in the fabulous times, are comprehended in 22 dynafties, mentioned in the following table. 9

1. 2. 3. 4. 5* 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

containing or Ing,

Hya, Shang, Chew, Tlin, Han,

Hew-han, Tftn, Sontr. T/

Lyang, Chin, Swi, Twang, Hew-lyang, Hew-tang, Hew-tjin, Hew-han, Hew-chew, Song, Iwen, Ming, Tfing,.

Emperors

I?

28 35 4 2 5

2

*5

8 5 4 4 3

Before Chrift.

2207

1766 1122

248 206 After Chrift. 220 465 220 479 502 557

20 2

907

4

923

618

2

936

2

947

3 18 9 16

960 1280 1368

95i

1645

This

C H I [ 3 1 CHI This table is formed according to the accounts of of emperor j founded the 16th dynafty; and changed the Jefuit Du Halde, and is commonly reckoned to be his name to that of Kuut-fu. But the Kitan general — the moft authentic ; but according to the above-men- refufing to acknowledge him, he was obliged to purtioned hypothefis of the compilers of the Univerfal chafe a peace by yielding up to the Tartars 16 cities Hiftory, who make Yuu cotemporary with Jolhua, the in the province of Pecheli, befides a yearly prefent of dynafty of Hya did not commence till the year before 300,000 pieces of filk. Chrift 1357 ; and to accommodate the hiftory to their This fubmiffion ferved only to inflame'the avarice hypothefis, great alterations muft be made in the dura- and ambition of the Kitan. In 959, they broke the treaty when leaft expedted, and invaded the empire tion of the dynafties. The moft interefting particulars of the Chinefe hi- afrefti. Tfi-vang, the emperor at that time, oppofed Incurfions oftarsthe Tar- ftory relate only to the incurfions of the Tartars, who them with a formidable army; but through the treach* at laft conquered the whole empire, and who (till con- ery of his general Lyew-ehi-ywen, the Tartars weretinue to hold the fovereignty ; though by transferring allowed to take him prifoner. On this, Tfi-vang was the feat of the empire to Peking, and adopting the glad to recover his liberty, by accepting of a fmali Chinefe language, manners, &c. Tartary would feem principality ; while the traitor became emperor of all rather to have been conquered by China, than China China, and, changing his name to Kaut-fu, founded by Tartary. Thefe incurfions are faid to have begun the 17th dynafty. The Tartars, in the mean time, very early ; even in the time of the emperor Shun, ravaged all the northern provinces without oppofition, fuecefibr to Yau above mentioned, in whofe reign the and then marched into the fouthern. But being here miraculous folftice happened. At this time, the Tar- flopped by fome bodies of Chinefe troops, the genetars were repulfed, and obliged to retire into their own ral thought proper to retire with his booty into Tarterritories. From time to time, however, they conti- tary. In 962, Kaut-fu dying, was fucceeded by his nued to threaten the empire with invafions, and the fon In-ti. The youth of this prince gave an opportunorthern provinces were often a£hially ravaged by the nity to the eunuchs to raife commotions ; efpecially Tartars in the neighbourhood. About the year before as the army was employed at a diftance in repelling Chrift 213, Shi-whang-ti, having fully fubdued all the the invafions of the Tartars. This army was comprinces, or kings as they were called, of the different manded by Ko-ghey, who defeated the enemy in feveprovinces, became emperor of China with unlimited ral battles, and thus reftored peace to the northern power. He divided the whole empire into 36 pro- provinces. In the mean time, In-ti was (lain by his vinces ; and finding the northern part of his domi- eunuchs, and the emprefs placed his brother on the nions much incommoded by the invafions of the neigh- throne : but Ko-gbey returning in triumph, was fabouring barbarians, he fent a formidable army againft luted emperor by his viftorious army ; and the em11 them, which drove them far beyond the boundaries of prefs being unable to fupport the rights of her fon, Great wall China. To prevent their return, he built the famous was obliged to fubmit, while Ko-ghey, affuming the U1 ' wall already mentioned, which feparates China from name of Tay-tfu, founded the 18th dynafty. Nine Tartary. After this, being elated with his own ex- years after this, however, the grandees of the empire, ploits, he formed a defign of making pofterity believe letting afide Kong-ti, the third in fucceffion from Taythat he himfelf had been the firft Chinefe emperor tfu, on account of his non-age, proclaimed his guarthat ever fat on the throne. For this purpofe, he or- dian, named Chau-quang-yu, emperor ; who, affuming dered all the hiftorical writings to be burnt, and caufed the name of Kau-tfu, founded the 19th dynafty, called many of the learned to be put to death, as already men- Song or Tfong. tioned. Under this monarch the empire began to recover Kitan Tar- What eflfeft the great wall for fome time had in itfelf; but the Kitan ftill continued their incurfions. tars fettle preventing the invafions of the Tartars, we are not The fucceflbrs of Kau-tfu oppofed them with various in China. told 5 but in the tenth century of the Chriftian era, fuccefs; but at laft, in 978, the barbarians became fo thofe of Kitan or Lyau got a footing in China. The ftrong as to lay fiege to a confiderable city. TayKitan were a people of eaftern Tartary, who dwelt to tfong, fucceflbr to Kau-tfu, detached 300 foldiers, each the north and north-eaft of the province of Pecheli in carrying a light in his hand, againft them in the nightChina, particularly in that of Lyau-tong, lying with- time, with orders to approach as near as poffible to the out the great wall. Thefe people having fubdued the Tartar camp. The barbarians imagining, by the numcountry between Korea and Kaftigar, became much ber of lights, that the whole Chinefe army was at hand, more troublefome to the Chinefe than all the other immediately fled, and, falling into the ambufcades laid Tartars. Their empire commenced about the year Fr them by the Chinefe general, were almoft all cut 916, in the fourth year of Mo-ti-kyan-ti, fecond em- to pieces. peror of the 14th Chinefe dynafty called Hew-Lyang. This check, however, did not long put a flop to In 946, Mingt-fong, fecond emperor of the 15th dy- the ravages of the Kitan. In the year 999, they laid nafty, being dead, Sheking-tang his fon-io-law rebelled fiege to a citv in the province of Pecheli ; but Chingagainft Mingt-fong, his fon and fueceflbr, whom he tfong, fuceeflbr to Tay-tfong, came upon them with deprived of his crown and life. This he accompliftif'd his army fo fuddenly, that they betook themfelves to by means of an army of 50,000 men furniftied by the flight. The emperor was advifed to take advantage Kitan. Fi-ti, the fon of Mingt fong, being unable to of their confternation, and recover the country which refill the ufurper, fled to the city Ghey-chew ; where had been yielded to them ; butinftead of purfuing his (hutting himfelf up with his family and all his valuable viflory, he bought a peace by confenting to pay aneffefts, he fet fire to the palace, and was burnt to nually 100,000 tael (about 34,000!.), and 200,000 allies. On his death, Sheking-tang afliimed the title pieces of filk. The youth and pacific difpofition of A2 Jin-tfong,

C H I [ 4 J CHI Jin-tfong, fucceffor to the Ching-tfong, revived the cou- Meng that fhe had been divorced, they left her be- China ^ rage of the Kitan ; and, in 1035, war would have hind. This proved the means of faving the empire j —y— been renewed, had not the emperor condefcended to for by her wifdom and prudence fhe got the crown as fhameful a treaty as that concluded by his father. placed on the head of Kau-tfong, nipth ion of the emTwo years after, the Tartars demanded reftitution of peror Whey-tfong by his divorced emprefs. Kau-tfong fixed his court at Nanking the capital ten cities in the province of Pecheli, which had been taken by Ko ghey founder of the 18th dynafty : upon of Kyang-nan; but foon after was obliged to remove which Jin-tfong engaged to pay them an annual tri- it to Kang-chew in Che-kyang. He made feveral efbute of 200,000 taels of filver, and 300,000 pieces of forts to recover fome of his provinces from the Kin, filk, in lieu of thefe cities. but without efFeft. Ili-tfong the Kin monarch, in the From this time the Kitan remained in peaceable pof- mean time, endeavoured to gain the efteem of his ven out by feffion of their Chinefe dominions till the year 1117. Chinefe fubjefls by paying a regard to their learning the eaftern Whey-tfong, at that time emperor, being able nei- and learned men, and honouring the memory of ConTartars; ther to bear their ravages, nor by hiifcfelf to put a fucius. Some time after he advanced to Nanking, flop to them, refolved upon a remedy which at laft from whence Kau-tfong had retired, and took it: but, proved worfe than the difeafe. This was to call in receiving advice that Yo-fi, general of the Song, or the Nu-che, Nyu-che, or Eaftern Tartars, to deftroy fouthern Chinefe, was advancing by long marches to the kingdom of the Kitan. From this he was diffua- tjie relief of that city, they fet fire to the palace, and6 ded by the king of Korea, and moft of his own mini- retired northward. However, Yo-fi arrived t™ pr0grefs of flers 5 but, difregarding their falutary advice, he join- enough to fall upon their rear-guard, which fuflfered the Km ed his forces to thofe of the Nu-che. The Kitan were very much j and from this time the Kin never dared checked, then everywhere defeated j and at laft reduced to to crofs the rivar Kyang. In a few years afterwards fuch extremity, that thofe who remained were forced the Chinefe emperor fubmitted to become tributary to to leave their country, and fly to the mountains of the the Kin, and concluded a peace with them upon very weft. dilhonourable terms. This fubmiflion, however, was 14 Thus the empire of the Kitan was totally deftroyed, of little avail: for, in 1163, the Tartars broke the who affume the but nothing to the advantage of the Chinefe j for the peace, and, invading the fouthern province with a for.Dame of Tartar general, elated with his conqueft, gave the midable army, took the city of Yang-chew. The Kin, and name of Kin to his new dominion, affumed the title of king, having approached the river Kyang, near its invade Chi emperor, and began to think of aggrandizing him- mouth, where it is wideft as well as moft rapid, comna. felf, and enlarging his empire. For this purpofe, he manded his troops to crofs it, threatening with his immediately broke the treaties concluded with the drawn fword to kill thofe who refufed. On recei, Chinefe emperor j and, invading the provinces of Pe- ving fuch an unreafonable command, the whole archeli and Shenfi, made himfelf mafter of the greater my mutinied; and the king being killed in the bepart of them. Whey-tfong, finding himfelf in danger ginning of the tumult, the army immediately reof lofing his dominions, made feveral advantageous tired. jg propofals to the Tartar $ who, feeming to comply Frojn this time to the year 1210, nothing remark-They are with them, invited him to come and fettle matters by able occurs in the Chinefe hiftory ; but this year, attacked by a perfonal conference. The Chinefe monarch com- Jenghiz-khan, chief of the weftern Tartars, Moguls plied : but, on his return, the terms agreed on feemed or Mungh, quarrelled with Yong-tfi emperor of thej^f^j*” intolerable to his minifters ; fo that they told him the Kin j and at the fame time the king of Hya, difgufted 0f Hya. treaty could not fubfift, and that the moft cruel war at being refufed afliftance againft Jenghiz-khan, threatwas preferable to fuch an ignominious peace. The ened him with an invafion on the weft fide. Yong-tfi Kin monarch, being informed of all that pafled, had prepared for his defence j but in 1211, receiving news recourfe to arms, and took feveral cities. Whey- that Jenghiz-khan was advancing fouthward with his tfong was weak enough to go in perfon to hold a fe- whole army, he was feized with fear, and made pro- I 9 cond conference 5 but, on his arrival, was immediate- pofals of peace, which were reje&ed. In 1212, the grea t wa]j 'S He was kept prifoner un- Mogul generals forced the great wall j or, according forced by They take ly feized by the Tartar. the empe- der a ftrong guard during the remaining part of his to fome writers, had one of the gates treacheroufly Jenghiaror prifon- life j and ended his days in 1126, in the defert of opened to them, to the north of Shanfi j and made in-^0, Shamo, having nominated his eldeft fon Kin-tfong to curfions as far as Peking, the capital of the Kin emfucceed him. pire. At the fame time the province of Lyau-tong Kin-tfong began his reign with putting to death fix was almoft totally reduced by feveral Kitan lords who minifters of ftate, who had betrayed his father into had joined Jenghiz-khan; feveral ftrong places were the hands of the Kin Tartars. The barbarians in taken, and an army of 300,000 Kin defeated by the the meantime purfued their conquefts without oppo- Moguls. In autumn they laid fiege to the city of fition. They croffed the Whang-ho, or Yellow river, Tay-tong-fu j where, although the governor Hujaku which a handful of troops might have prevented ; and fled, yet Jenghiz-khan met with confiderable refinmarching dire&ly towards the imperial city, took and ance. Having loft a vaft number of men, and being i Near thefe cities there are two canals, the waters of which do not communicate, and which differ ten or twelve feet in their level. To render this place paffable for boats, the Chinefe have conftru&ed a double glacis, of large ftones, or rather two inclined planes, which unite as an acute angle at their upper extremity, and extend on each fide to the furface of the water. If the bark is in the lower canal, they pufti it up the plane of the firft glacis by means of feveral capftans until it is raifed to the angle, when by its own weight it glides down the fecond glacis, and precipitates itfelf into the water of the higher canal with the velocity of an arrow. It i» aftonifhing that thefe barks, which are generally very long and heavily loaden, never burft afunder when they are balanced on this acute angle ; however, we never hear of any accident of this kind happening in the paffage. It is true they take the precaution of ufing for their keels a kind of wood which is exceedingly hard, and proper for refilling the violence of fuch an effort. The following remarkable phenomenon in a Chinefe river is related by Father le Couteux, a French mif- able river fionary. “ Some leagues above the village Che-pai, which part (fays he), the river becomes confiderably fmaller, al_ jy iir*ks unthough none of its waters flow into any other channel j er 8louri * and eight or nine leagues below, it refumes its former breadth, without receiving any additional fupply, excepting what it gets from a few fmall rivulets, which are almoft dry during the greater part of the year. Oppofite to Che-pai it is fo much diminilhed, that, excepting one channel, which is not very broad, I have paHed and repaffed it feveral times by the jielp of a conjB 2

mui,

CHI

[

China, '

nion pole. I was always furprifed to find this river fo narrow and (hallow in that place : but I never thought of inquiring into the caufe of it, until the lofs of a bark belonging to a Chriftian family afforded me an opportunity. In that place where the river diminifhes almoft of a fudden, it flows with great impetuofity 5 and where it refumes its former breadth it is equally rapid. At the fixth moon, when the water was high and the wind Itrong, the bark I have mentioned arriving above Che-pai, was driven on a fand-bank 5 for between thefe two places the river is full of moveable fands, which are continually fhifting their fituation. The mafter of the boat dropped his anchor until the wind fhould abate, and permit him to continue his voyage \ but a violent vortex of moveable fand, which was caft up from the bottom of the river, laid the bark on its fide j a fecond vortex fucceeded ; then a third-, and afterwards a fourth, which fhattered the bark to pieces. When I arrived at the place where this bark had been loft, the weather was mild and ferene j I perceived eddies in the current everywhere around, which abforbed, and carried to the bottom of the river, whatever floated on the furface j and I obferved, at the fame time, that the fand was thrown violently up with a vortical motion. Above thefe eddies the water was rapid, but without any fall; and in the place below, where the river refumes its ufual courfe, no eddies are to be feen, but the fand is thrown up in the fame violent manner j and in- fome places there are water-falls and a kind of fmall iflands fcattered at fome diftance from one another. Thefe iflands which appear above the furface of the water, are not {olid earth, but confift of branches of trees, roots, and herbs colle&ed together. I was told that thefe boughs rofe up from the water, and that no one knew the place from whence they came. I was informed that thefe mafles, which were 40 or 50 feet in extent on that fide on which we pafled, were immoveable and fixed in the bottom of the river 5 that it was dangerous to approach them, becaufe the water formed whirlpools everywhere around them 5 that, however, when the river was very low, the filhermen fometimes ventured to colled the bullies that floated on its furface, and which they ufed for fuel. I am of opinion, that, at the place, of the river which is above Che-pai, the water falls into deep pits, from whence it forces up the fand with that vortical motion j and that it flows under-ground to the other place, eight or nine leagues below, where it carries with it all the boughs, weeds, and roots, which it waflies down in its courfe, and thus forms thofe iflands which appear above its furface. We know there are fome rivers that lofe themfelves entirely, or in part, in the bowels of the earth, and which afterwards arife in fome other place : but I believe there neves was one known to lofe part of its water below its own channel, and again to re^ cover it at the diftance of fome leagues.” Why China It has already been faid, that China is, in general, islubjedl toa fertile country j and indeed all travellers agree in this re e fy &» and make encomiums on the extent and beauty its°^ *ts plains. So careful are the hufhandmen of this fertility! empire to lofe none of their ground, that neither inclofure, hedge, nor ditch, nay, fcarce a Angle tree, are ever to be met with. In feveral places the land yields two crops a-year 5 and even in the interval be-

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tween the harvefts the people fow feveral kinds of pulfe and fmall grain. The plains of the northern provinces yield wheat j thofe of the fouthern, rice, becaufe the country is low and covered with water. Notwithftanding all this fertility, however, the inhabitants are much more frequently afflidted with famine than thofe of the European nations, though the countries of Europe produce much lefs than China. For this two caufes are afligned. 1. The deftrudlion of the rifing crops by drought, hail, inundations, locufts, &c. in which cafe China cannot like the European countries be fupplied by importation. This i» evident by confidering how it is fituated with regard to other nations. On the north are the Mogul Tartars, a lazy and indolent race, who fubfift principally on the flelh of their flocks j lowing only a little millet for their own ufe. The province of Leatong, which lies to the north-eaft, is indeed extremely fertile, but too far diftant from the capital and centre of the empire to fupply it with provifions ; and befides, all carriage is impradlicable but in the winter, when great quantities of game and fifti, preferved in ice, are lent thither. No corn is brought from Corea to China j and though the Japan iflands are only three or four days failing from the Chinefe provinces of Kiang-nan and Che-kyang, yet no attempt was ever made to obtain provifions from thence j whether it be that the Japanefe have nothing to fpare, or on account of the infults offered by thefe iflanders to foreign merchants. Formofa lies oppofite to the province ol Fo-kien ; but fo far is that ifland from being able to fupply any thing, that in a time of icarcity it requires a fupply from China itfelf. The province of Canton is alfo bounded by the fea, and has nothing on the ibuth but iflands and remote countries. One year, when rice was exceedingly fearce there, the emperor fent for F. Parranin, a Jefuit miffionary, and alked him if the city of Macao could not furnifli Canton with rice until the fupply he had ordered from other provinces Ihould arrive : but was informed that Macao had neither rice, corn, fruit, herbs, nor flocks, and that it generally got from China what was neceffary for its fubfiflence.—The only method, therefore, the Chinefe can take to guard againfl; famines arifing from thefe caufes, is to ertef granaries and public magazines in every province and moft of the principal cities of the empire. This has at all times been a principal objetfl of care to the public minifters ; but though this mode of relief ftill takes place in theory, fo many ceremonies are to be gone through before any fupply can be drawn from thofe public repofitories, that it feldom arrives feafonably at the places where it is wanted : and thus numbers of unhappy wretches perifti for want. 2. Another caufe of the fcarcity of grain in this empire, is the prodigious confumption of it in the compofition of wines, and a fpirituous liquor called rack. But though government is well apprized that this is one of the principal fources of famine throughout the empire, it never employed means fufficient to prevent it. Proclamations indeed have frequently been iffutd, prohibiting the diftillation of rack ; and the appointed officers will vifit the ftill-houfes and deftroy the furnaces if nothing is given them ; but on flipping fome money into their hands? they fliut their eyes, and go fometvherc

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where elfe to receive another bribe. When the mandarin bimfelf goes about, however, thefe diftillers do not efcape quite fo ealily, the workmen being whipped and imprifoned, after which they are obliged to carry a kind of collar called the Cangue ; the mailers are likewife obliged to change their habitations and conceal themfelves for a.fhort time, after which they generally refume their operations. It is impoflible, however, that any method of this kind can prove effectual in fupprefling thefe manufactories while the liquors themfelves are allowed to be fold publicly } and againft this there is no law throughout the empire. Our author, however, jultly obferves, that in cafe ot a prohibition of this kind, the grandees would be obliged to deny themfelves the ufe of thefe luxuries, which would be too great a facrifice for the good of the em58 pire. ... # Xmmenfe 1'he population of China, is fo great, in comparigopulation. fun with that of the European countries, that the accounts of it have generally been treated as fabulous by the weftern nations j but by an accurate inveiligation of fome Chinefe records concerning the number of perfons liable to taxation throughout the empire, M. Grofier has (bowed that it cannot be lefs than 200 millions. Fur this extraordinary population he afligns the following caufes. I. The ftriCt obfervance of filial duty throughout the empire, and the prerogatives of fraternity, which make a fun the mod valuable property of a father. 2. The infamy attached to the memory of thofe who die without children. 3. The unirerfal cuilom by which the marriage of children becomes the principal concern of the parents. 4. The honours beftowed by the date on thofe widows who do .not marry a fecond time. 5. Frequent adoptions, which prevent families from becoming extinCF 6 The return of wealth to its original flock by the difinheriting of daughters. 7. The retirement of wives, which renders them more complaifant to their hutbands, faves them from a number of accidents when big with child, and conftrains them to employ themfelves in the care of their children. 8. The marriage of foldiers. 9. The fixed ftate of taxes •, w'bich being always laid upon lands, never fall but indireftly on the trader and mechanic. 10. The fmall number of failors and travellers. 11. To thefe maybe added the great number of people who refide in China only by intervals $ the profound peace which the empire enjoys •, the frugal and laborious manner in which the great live 5 th^little attention that is paid to the vain and ridiculous prejudice of marrying below one’s rank ; the ancient policy of giving diftimffion to men and not to families, by attaching nobility only to employments and talents, without fuffering it to become hereditary. And, 12. kftly, A decency of public manners, and a total ignorance of fcandalous intrigues and gallan’ry. Extravagant, however, and almoft incredible as this account of the population of China may appear to fume, we have very high and refpe&able authority for believing that it is much below the truth. Whether the caufes of this phenomenon, as above enumerated by M. Grofier, be the only ones aflignable, it is certain that the immenfe population of this country amounted *In 1703. to 333>000>000 at the time when Sir George Staunton* China.

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vxfited it in the capacity of fecretary to the Eritifli pienipotentiary, as appears from the following eftimate of the population of each province, made by Chuw-ta-zhin, and taken from his official documents. Provinces.

Population.

Pe-che-lee, Kiang-nan, two provinces, Kiang-fee, Fche-kiang, Fo-chen, Hou-nan, j Houquang, Ho-nan, Shan-tung, Shan-fee, Shen-fee, Kan-fou, Se-chuen, Canton, Quang-fee, Yu-nan, Koei-cheou,

38,000,000 32,000,000 19,000,000

Chma.

" v—

59 Pi pulation of the different provinces.

21,000,000

{

15,000,000 14,000,000 13,000,000 25,000,000 24,000,000 27,000,000 18,000,000 12,000,000

27,000,000 21,000,000 10,000,000

8,000,000 9,000,000 333,GOO,000

This prodigious fum total may exceed the belief of thofe who are only accuftomed to calculate from analogy, not recollecting that China cannot have its population reduced by thofe fertile caufes, war and debauchery, the former deflroying mankind by thoufands, and the latter rendering them unproductive. 60 The government of China, according to the Abbe Unlimited Grofier, is purely patriarchal. The emperor is more unlimited in his authority than any other potentate on pCror. earth ; no fentence of death, pronounced by any of the tribunals, can be executed without his confent, and every verdiCl in civil affairs is fubjeCt to be revifed by him ; nor can any determination be of force until it has been confirmed by the emperor: and, on the contrary, whatever fentenee he paffes is executed without delay •, his ediCts are refpeCled throughout the empire as if they came from a divinity ; he alone has the difpofal of all offices, nor is there any fuch thing as the purchafe of places in China; merit, real or fuppofed, raifes to an office, and rank is attached to it only. Even the fucceflion to the throne is not altogether hereditary. The emperor of China has a power of choofing his own fucceffor without confulting any of his nobility} and can feleCt one not only from among his own children, but even from the body of his people 3 and there have been feveral inftances of his making ufe of this right : and he has even a power of altering the fucceffion after it has once been fixed, in cafe the perfon pitched upon does not behave towards him with proper refpeCl. The emperor can alfo prevent the princes of the blood from exercifing the title, with which, according to the conftitution of the empire, they are invefled. They may, indeed, notwithffanding this, poffefs their hereditary dignity ; in which cafe they are allowed a revenue proportioned, to their high birth, as well as a palace, officers, and a

CHI [ i China, a court ; but they have neither influence nor power, '——v——' an(j their authority is lower than that of the meaneft mandarin. Mandarins mandarins are 0f two daffes, viz. thofe of letof different ters, and the inferior fort ftyled mandarins of arms, claffes. The latter by no means enjoy the fame confideration with the former fort; indeed in China the literati are highly honoured, and to their influence M. Grofier fuppoies that we may in a great meafure afcribe the xnildnefs and equity of the government; though he thinks that the balance may incline rather too much in their favour. Several degrees, anfwering to thofe of bachelor, licentiate, and dodtor, mull be paffed through before one can attain to the dignity of a mandarin of letters ; though fometimes, by the favour of the emperor, it is conferred on thofe who have attained only the .two firft degrees : but even the perfons who have .gone through all the three, enjoy at firft .only:the government --of a city of the fecond or third clafs. When feveral vacancies happen in the government of cities, the emperor invites to court a correfponding number of the literati, w-hofe names are written down in a lift. The names of the vacant governments are then put into a box, raifed fo high that the candidates are able only to reach it with their hands ; after which they draw in their turns, and each is appointed governor of the city whofe name he has drawn. There are eight orders of thefe mandarins in China. X. The ca/ao, from whom are chofen the minifters of ftate, the prefidents of the fupreme courts, and all the fuperior officers among the militia. The chief of this order prefides alfo in the emperor’s council, and enjoys a great (hare of his confidence. 2. The le-hiofe, or man of acknowledged ability, is a title beftowed upon every mandarin of the fecond rank ; and from thefe are feledled the viceroys and prefidents of the fupreme council in the different provinces. 3. The tchong-tchueo, or fchool of mandarins, a£! as fecretaries to the emperor. 4. T-tchuen-tao. Thefe keep in repair the harbours, royal lodging houfes, and barks which belong to the emperor, unlefs particularly engaged in fome other office by his order. 5. The tingpi-tao have the infpe£tion of the troops. 6. The tuntien-hao have the care of the highways 7. The hotao fuperintend the rivers. 8. The hai-tao infpeft the fea coafts. Thus the whole adminiftration of the Chinefe empire 'is intrufted to the mandarins of letters; and the homage paid by the. common people to every mandarin in office almoft equals that paid to the emperor himfelf. This indeed flows from the nature of their government. In China it is a received opinion that the emperor is the father of the whole empire; that the governor of a province.is the father of that province; and that the mandarin who is governor of« city is alfo the father of that city. This idea is produ6live of the higheft refpe£l and fubmiffion, which is not at all leffened by their great number; for though the mandarins of letters amount to more than 14,000, the-fame refpeft is paid to every one of them. The mandarins of arms are never indulged with any {hare in the government of the ftate; however, to attain to this dignity, it is alfo neceffary to pafs through ths degrees of bachelor, licentiate, and doSor of arms.

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CHI The accomplilhments neceffary for a mandarin of arms China, are, ftrength of body, with agility and readinefs in per- ^ ^ forming the various military exercifes, and comprehending the orders requifite for the profeffion of arms; an examination on thefe fubjedls mull be undergone before the candidate can attain the wilhed-for dignit 7; mandarins . of, arms have tribunals, the members Tribunal to of Ihe of which are felefted from among their chiefs; andtr|iens arm9 among thefe they reckon princes, counts, and dukes ; ‘ * for all thefe dignities, or fomething equivalent to them, are met with in China. The principal of thefe tribunals is held at Peking, and confifts of five claffes : 1. The mandarins of the rear-guard, called heou fou. 2. Of the left wing, or tfa-fou. 3. Of the right wing, ox yeou-feou. 4. Of the advanced main-guard, or tehong fou. 5. Of the advanced guard, or ijien-fou. Thefe five tribunals are fubordinale to one named iong-tchingfou; the prefident of which is one of the great lords of the empire, whofe authority extends over all the military men of the empire. By his high dignity he could render himfelf formidable even to the emperor ; but to prevent this inconvenience, he has for his affeffor a mandarin of letters, who enjoys the title and exercifes the function of fuperintendant of arms. He muft alfo take the advice of two infpe&ors who are named by the emperor ; and when thefe four have agreed upon any meafure, their refolution muft ftill be fubmitted to the revifal of a higher court named f>ing-pou which is entirely of a civil nature. The chief of thefe mandarins is a general of courfe, whofe powers are equivalent to thofe of our commanders in chief; and below him are other mandarins who a£l as fubordinate officers. Thefe two claffes of mandarins compofe what is called the nobility of China : but as we have already hinted, their office is not hereditary ; the emperor alone continues or confers it. They have the privilege of femonftrating to the emperor, either as individuals or in a body, upon any part of his condufl which appears contrary to the intereft of the empire. Thefe remonftrances are feldom ill received, though the fovereign complies with them only when he bimfelf thinks proper. The number of literary mandarins in China is computed at upwards of 14,000 ; and thofe of arms at 18,000 ; the former, however, are confidered as the principal body in the empire; and this preference is thought to damp the military ardour of the nation in general, and to be one caufe of that weaknefs in war for which the Chinefe are remarkable. ^ The armies of this empire are proportioned to its Military vaft extent and population ; being computed in time force, of peace at more than 700,000. Their pay amounts to about two-pence halfpenny and a meafure of rice per day, though fome of them have double pay, and the pay of a horfeman is double that of a foot foldier ; the emperor furnilhes a horfe, and the horfeman receives two meafures of fmall beans for his daily fubfiftence; the arrears of the army being pundlually paid cap every three months. The arms of a horfeman are, a helmet, cuirafs, lance, and fabre ; thofe of a foot foldier are a pike and fabre ; fome have fufees, and others bows and arrows. All thefe are carefully infpefled at every review; and if any of them are found in the leaft rufted, or othcrwife t

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in bad condition, the poffeffor is inftantly punifhed^ if a Chinefe, with 30 or 40 blows of a flick j or if a Tartar, with as many ladies. 6 UfecAreThough the ufe of gun-powder is certainly very arms loft ancient in China, it appears to have been afterwards and revi- totally loft, at leaft fire-arms feem to have been alVed ‘ moft entirely unknown fome centuries ago. Three or four cannon were to be feen at that time about the gates of Nanking ; but not a Angle perfon in China knew how to make ufe of them j fo that, in 1621, when the city of Macao made a prefent of three pieces of artillery to the emperor, it was found neceffary alfo to fend three men to load them. The utility of thefe weapons was quickly perceived by the execution which the three cannon did againft the Tartars, at that time advanced as far as the great wall. When the invaders threatened to return, the mandarins of arms gave it as their opinion, that cannons were the beft arms they could make ufe of againft them. They were then taught the art of catting cannon by F. Adam Schaal and Verbieft, two Jefuit miflionaries, and their artillery was increafed to the number of 320 pieces at the fame time that they were inftru&ed in the method of fortifying towns, and conlkuiting fortreffes and other buildings according to the rules of modern architecture. The beft foldiers in China are procured from the three northern provinces, the others being feldom called forth, but allowed to remain at peace with their families ; indeed there is not often occafion for exerting their military talents, unlefs it be in the quelling of an infurreCtion, when a mandarin or governor ufually accompanies them. They march in a very tumultuous manner, but want neither Ikill nor agility in performing their different evolutions. They, in general, handle a fabre well, and (hoot very dexteroufly with bows and arrows. There are in China more than 2000 places of arms 5 and through the different provinces there are difperfed about 3000 towers or caftles, all of them defended by garrifons. Soldiers continually mount guard there j and on the firft appearance of tumult, the neareft fentinel makes a fignal from the top of the tower, by hoifting a ftag in the day-time, or lighting a torch in the night ; when the neighbouring garrifons immediately repair to the place 5 where their prefence is neceffary. Account of The principal defence of the empire againft a fowall^621

re

’£n enemy is the great wall which feparates China from Tartary, extending more than 1500 miles in length, and of fuch a thicknefs that fix horfemen may eafily ride abreaft upon it. It is flanked with towers two bow-ftiots diftant from one another j and it is faid that a third of the able-bodied men in the empire were employed in conftrufting it. The workmen were ordered, under pain of death, to place the materials fo clofely, that not the leaft entrance might be afforded for any inftrument of iron •, and thus the work was conftru&ed with fuch folidity, that it is ftill almoft entire, though 2000 years have elapfed fince it was conftrufled. This extraordinary work is carried on not only through the low lands and valleys, but over hills and mountains ; the height of one of which was computed by F. Verbieft at 1 236 feet above the level of the fpot where he flood. According to F. Martini it begins at the gulf of Lea-tong, and reaches I

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to the mountains near the city of Kin on the Yellow China, river j between which places it meets with no inter- 1 “ v™""" ruption except to the north of the city of Suen in the province of Pecheli, where it is interrupted by a ridge of hideous and inacceflible mountains, to which it is clofely united. It is likewife interrupted by the river Hoang-ho j but for others of an inferior fize, arches have been conftrufled, through which the water paffes freely. Mr Bell informs us, that it is carried acrofs rivers, and over the tops of the higheft hills, without the leaft interruption, keeping nearly along that circular range of barren rocks which inclofes the country j and, after running about 1200 miles, ends in impaffable mountains and Tandy deferts. The foundation confifts of large blocks of ftone laid in mortar ; but all the reft is of brick. The whole is fo ftrong and well built, that it fcarcely needs any repairs ; and, in the dry climate in which it Hands, may remain in the fame condition for many ages. When carried over fteep rocks, where no horfe can pafs, it is about 15 or 20 feet high, but when running through a valley, or crofting a river, it is about 30 feet high, with fquare towers and embrafures at equal diftances. The top is flat and paved with cut ftone j and where it rifes over a rock or eminence, there is an afcent made by an eafy ftone (lair. “ This wall (our author adds) was begun and completely finilhed in the Ihort fpace of five years; and it is reported, that the labourers flood fo clofe for many miles, that they could hand the materials from one to another. This feems the more probable, as the rugged rocks among which it is built muft have prevented all ufe of carriages ; and neither clay for making bricks, nor any kind of cement are to be found among them.” To this account of the moft aftoniftiing produflion of human labour and induftry to be met with on the face of the earth, we may add, that if to its prodigious length of 1500 miles, we affume as true, the probable, conjeflure that its dimenfions throughout are nearly the fame as where it was croffed by the Britifti embaffy, it contains materials more than fufficient to ert£t all the dwelling houfes in England and Scotland, even admitting their number to be 1,800,000, and each to contain 2000 cubic feet of mafonry. In this calculation the huge projedling maffes of ftone called towers, are not included, which of themfelves would ere£t a city as large as London. To aflift the conceptions of our readers ftill farther refpefting this Angular and ftupendous fabric, we fhall only obferve, that were its materials converted into a wall 12 feet high and four feet thick, it would poffefs fufticient length to furround the globe, at its equatorial circumference. The whole civil government of China is managed Courts by by the following courts. I. The emperor’s grand the council, compofed of all the minifters of ftate, prefi-diVl1 §0' dents and affeffors of the fix fovereign courts, and of*L™^I]t three others, to be afterwards mentioned. This isged. never affembled but on affairs of the greateft importance ; the emperor’s private council being fubflituted to it in all cafes of fmaller moment. 2. The chief of the other courts furnilhes mandarins for the different provinces, watches over their conduft, keeps a journal of their tranfaflions, and informs the emperor of them, who rewards or punilhes according to the report he gets.

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Partiality ef govern-

I his fecond tribunal, which may be called a kind of civil inquifition, is fubdivided into four others j the firlf entrulted with the care of leleiting thole who, on account of their learning or other good properties, are capable of filling the otfiees of government ; the fecond appointed to take care of the condufl of the mandarins j the third affixing the feals to the different public a£ts, giving the feals to mandarins, and examining thofe of the different difpatchesj while the fourth inquires into the merit of the grandees of the empire, not excepting the princes of the imperial blood themfelves. The principal fovereign court to which thefe four laft are fubordinate is called Lii-pou. 2. Hou-pou, or the grand treafurer, fuperintends all the finances of the ftate ; is the guardian and protector of the treafures and dominions of the emperor, keeping an account of his revenues, &c. fuperintending the management and coining of money, the public magazines, cuftomhoufes ; and, laftly, keeping an exaff regifter of all the families in the empire. To affiil this court, 14 others are appointed throughout the different provinces of the empire. 3. Li-pou, or the court ef ceremonies. “ It is an undoubted fa£t (lays 1VI. Grofier), that ceremonies form, in part, the bafe of the Chinefe government. This tribunal therefore takes care to fupport them, and enforce their obfervance j it infpeffs alfo the arts and fciences. It is confulted by the emperor when he defigns to confer particular honours; takes care of the annual facrifices offered up by him, and even regulates the entertainments which he gives either to ffrangers or to his own fubjedfs. It alfo receives and entertains foreign ambaffadors, and preferves tranquillity among the different religious fedfs in the empire. It is affifted by four inferior tribunals. 4. Ping-fiou? or the tribunal of arms, comprehends in its jurifdidlion the whole militia of the empire j infpedfing alfo the fortreffes, magazines, arfenals, and ftore-houfes of every kind, as well as the manUtfadlories of arms both offenfive and defenfive ; examininoand appointing officers of every rank. It is com^ pofed entirely of mandarins of letters ; and the four tribunals depending upon it confift alfo of literati.” 5. The haig-pon, is a criminal bench for the whole empire, and is affifted by 14 fubordinate tribunals. 6. The cong pou, or tribunal of public works, furveys and keeps in repair the emperor’s palaces, as well as thofe of the princes and viceroys, and the buildings where the tribunals are held, with the temples, tombs of the fovereigns, and all public monuments. It has befides the fuperintendance of the ftreets, public highways, bridges, lakes, rivers, and every thing relating either to internal or foreign navigation. Four inferior tribunals affift in the difeharge of thefe duties; the firft drawing the plans of public works; the fecond ffirefting the work-fhops in the different cities of the empire ; the third furveying the caufeways, roads, bridges, canals, &c. ; and the fourth taking care of the emperor’s palaces, gardens, and orchards, and receiving their produce. All the tribunals are compofed, one half of Chinefe, and the other of Tartars; and one of the pre-

wani^the Chinefe.

^orn‘

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u er r eac ^ f P i° tribunal is always a Tartar None of the courts above deferibed, however,

^ents °‘

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has abfolute authority even in its own jurifdi&ion ; nor can its decifions be carried into execution without the concurrence of another tribunal, and fometimes of feveral others. The fourth tribunal, for inftance, has indeed under its jurildictiun the whole troops of the empire; but the payment of them is entrufted with the fecond ; while the fixth has the care of the arms tents, chariots, barks, and ftores neceffary for military operations ; fo that nothing relative to thefe can be put in execution without the concurrence of all the three tribunals. Lo prevent any unlawful combination among theCenfors. tribunals, each has its cenfor appointed. This is an officer vvhofe duty is merely to watch over the proceedings of the court, without deciding upon any thing hi ml elf. He affifts tnerefore at all affemblies, reviles all their a£fs, and vvitnout acquainting the court in the leaft with either his ientinients or intentions, immediately informs the emperor of what he judges to be amifs. He likewife gives information of the behaviour of the mandarins, either in the public adminiftration of affairs, or in their private conduct ; nay, fometimes he will not fcruple to reprimand the emperor for what he fuppofes to be erroneous in his conduct. Thefe cenfors are never removed from their places but in order to be promoted ; and thus, holding their offices lor life, they have the greater courage to fpeak out when they .obferve any impropriety or abufe. Their accufation is fufficient to fet on foot an inquiry, which generally leads to a proof; in which cafe the accufed is difeharged from his office, and never held in any eftimation afterwards. The complaints of the cenfors, however, are referred to the very tribunal againft whole members they complain ; though, being afraid of an accidatson themfelves, they very feldom pafs fentence againft the accufers. Etfides all this, the cenfors alfo form a tribunal of their own, named tou-tche-yvcn. Its members have a right of remonftrating with the emperor, whenever his own intereft or that of the public renders it nec«ffary. They infpeft all lawyers and military men in public employments. “ In ffiort (fays M. Grofier), they are, morally fpeaking, placed between the prince and tiie mandarins , between tne mandarins and the people ; between the people and families ; between families and individuals ; and they generally unite to the importance of their office incorruptible probity and invincible courage. The fovereign may, if he proceeds to rigour, take away their lives ; but many of them, have patiently fuffered death, rather than betray the caufe of truth or wink at abufes. It is not fufficient therefore to have got rid of one, they muft all be treated in the fame manner ; the laft that might be fpared would tread in the fame fteps with no lefs refolution than thofe who went before him. In the annals of no nation do we find an example of fuch a tribunal, yet it appears to be neceffary in all without exception. We muft not, however, imagine, that the privileges of a cenfor give him a right to forget his duty to his fovereign, or to communicate to the public thofe remarks which he takes the liberty of making to him : were he only to give the leaft hint of them^to his colleagues, he would be puniffied with death ; and he would ftiare the fame fate did he, in any of his reprefentations,

CHI China, 6

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fentations, fuffer a Angle word, inconfiftent with moderation or refpeft, to efcape him.” There are ftill two other courts in China, both of

peculiar11^5 Pecldiar to the empire, which deferve to be menChina. tioned. The firft is that of princes $ and which, in conformity with its title, is compofed of princes only. In the regifters of this tribunal are infcribed the names of all the children of the imperial family as foon as they are born : and to thefe are alfo configned the dignities and titles which the emperor confers upon them. This is the only tribunal where the princes can be tried ; and here they are abfolved or punilhed according to the pleafure of the judges. The other tribunal is that of hiftory, called by the Chinefe han-lin-yvan. It is compofed of the greateft geniufes of the empire, and of men of the moft profound erudition. Thefe are entrufted with the education of the heir apparent to the throne, and the compilation and arrangement of the general hiltory of the empire; which lad part of their office renders them formidable even to the emperor himfelf. From this body the mandarins of the firft clafs, and the prefidents of the fupreme clafs, are generally chofen. Filial piety The bafis of all the civil laws of the Chinefe is ,fithe bafis Hal piety. Every mandarin, who is a governor either laws^ t^6ir

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a rov nce or P i city, mull inftruft the people aflembled round him twice a-month, and recommend to them the obfervance of certain falutary rules, which are fummed up in a few ffiort fentences, and fuch as no perfon can ever be fuppofed capable of forgettin

£-

Of their The Chinefe are allowed only to have one wife, marriages, whofe rank and age muft be nearly equal to that of their hufbands ; but they are allowed to have feveral concubines, whom they may admit into their houfes without any formality, after paying the parents a fum of money, and entering into a written engagement to ufe their daughters well. Thefe concubines, however, are all in fubjeftion to the lawful wife ; their children are coniidered as hers 5 they addrefs her as mother, and can give this title to her only. A perfon that has once been married, whether man or woman, may lawfully marry again, but it is then no longer necelfary to ftudy equality of age or condition. A man may choofe his fecond wife from among his concubines j and, in all cafes, this new marriage requires very few formalities. A widow is abfolute miftrefs of herfelf, and can neither be compelled by her parents to marry again, nor continue in a ftate of widowhood, contrary to her own inclination. Thofe of moderate rank, however, who have no children, do not enjoy the fame privilege; as the parents of the former huffiand can difpofe of her in marriage, not only without her confent, but without her knowledge. The law authorizes the difpofal of them in this manner, in order to indemnify the relations of the deceafed hufband for the money they may have coft him. If the wife is left big with child, this cannot take place, until Ihe is delivered ; nor can it be done at all if (he brings forth a fon. There are likewife two exceptions 5 1. when the parents of the widow affign her a proper maintenance } 2 7 and, 2. if the widow embraces a religious life, and beBl vor< , f,’ comes a bonzeffe. unlawful marriages, -Divorces are allowed in China in cafes of adultery, &c. mutual diflike, incompatibility of tempers, jealoufy, VOL. VI. Part I.

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&c. No hulhand, however, can put away or fell his wife until a divorce is legally obtained j and if this regulation be not Ilriftly obferved, the buyer and feller become equally culpable. If a wife, lawfully married, privately withdraws herfelf from her hufband, he may immediately commence an a£Hon at law ; by the fentence of which (he becomes his Have, .and be is at liberty to fell her to whom he pleales. On the other hand, if a hufband leaves his wife for three years, the is at liberty, after laying her cafe before the mandarins, to take another hufband; but if ffie were to anticipate their confent, ffie would be liable to a fevere puniffiment. Marriage is deemed illegal in China in the following cafes. I. If the young woman has been betrothed to a young man, and prefents have been given and received by the parents of the intended hufband and wife. 2. If in the room of a beautiful young woman another be fuflituted of a difagreeable figure $ or if the daughter of a free man marry his Have ; or if any one give his Have to a free woman, pretending to her parents that he is his fon or relation. In all thefe cafes the marriage is null and void j and all thofe who have had any ffiare in making up the match are feverely puniffied. 3. Any mandarin of letters is forbidden to form an alliance with any family refiding in the province or city of which he is governor. 4. No Chinefe youth can enter into a ftate of marriage during the time of mourning for his father or mother; and if promifes have been made before, they ceafe immediately on that event taking place. After the ufual time of mourning is expired, however, the parents of the intended bride are obliged to write to thofe of the young man, putting him in mind of his engagement. 5. Marriage is glfo fufpended when a family experiences any fevere misfortune, and even if a near relation were thrown into prifon j though this may be fet afide, provided the unfortunate perfon gives his confent. 6. Two brothers cannot marry two lifters; nor is a widower at liberty to marry his fon to the daughter of a widow whom he choofes for his own wife. A man is alfo forbidden to marry any of his own relations, however diftant the degree of confanguinity between them. In China, every father of a family is refponfible for the conduct of his children, and even of his domeftics; all thofe faults being imputed to him which it was his duty to have prevented. Every father has the power of felling his fon, “ provided (fays the law) the fon has a right of felling himfelf.” This cuftom, however, is barely tolerated among the middling and inferior ranks ; and all are forbidden to fell them to comedians, or people of infamous charafter or very mean ftations. In China a fon remains a minor during the whole lifetime, and is even liable for the debts contrafled by his father, thofe from gaming only excepted. Adoption is authorized by law, and the adopted child immediately enters into all the rights of a lawful fon ; only the law gives a right to the father of making a few difpofitions in favour of his real children. The children, however, whether adopted or not, cannot fucC ceed

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China, ceed to the dignity or titles of their father, though they ' v ' may to his eltace. The emperor alone can confer honours ; and even then they muft oe refigned when the perfon attains the age of 70 j though this refignation is confidered as an advice rather than a law. The will of a father cannot be fet afide in China on account of any informality j nor can any mother in this empire make a will. Though the Chinefe laws authorise flavery, yet the power of the mafter extends only to thofe matters which concern his own fervice $ and he would be punilhed with death for taking advantage of his power to debauch the wife of his Have. By the laws of China hufhandmen are exempt from the payment of taxes after they have begun to till the earth to the beginning of harveft. Criminal It appears, from recent information refpefting many code. interefting particulars relating to China, that the utmoft attention feems to have been paid to the different degrees of enormity attached to thole actions of men which are denominated criminal. The code of laws is pronounced the reverfe of fanguinary, and it is affirmed by competent judges, that if the practice in all refpedls coincided with the theory, few nations could boaft of a milder or more effectual adminiftration of juftice. But while they do not confider the crime of pilfering a few fmall pieces of money as of equal enormity with the Ihedding of human blood, yet they pay too little attention to the three different circumftances under which that action may exift; either as accidental, unintentional as to the extent of taking away life, or malicioufly premeditated. Even foreigners who have the misfortune to kill a Chinefe, however cafually it may be done, have been puniffied in the very fame manner as a traitor or deliberate affaffin. As foreigners intending to relide in China may be at a lofs to determine howr, when, and by what various means their lives may be endangered, the following abftraft of the criminal code of that country may perhaps be beneficial to fome of our readers. 1. A man who kills another on the fuppofition of theft, fhall be ftrangled, according to the law of homicide committed in an affray. 2. A man who fires at another with a mufket, and kills him, ffiall be beheaded, as in cafes of wilful murder. If the fufferer be wounded, but not mortally, the offender ffiall be fent into exile. 3. A man who puts to death a criminal who had been apprehended, and made no refiftance, ffiall be ftrangled, according to the law againft homicide committed in an affray. 4. A man who falfely accufes an innocent perfon of theft (in cafes of greateft criminality) is guilty of a capital offence ; in all other cafes the offenders, whether principals or acceffarres, ffiall be fent into exile. 5. A man who wounds another unintentionally, ftiall be tried according to the law refpedling blows given in an affray, and the puniffiment rendered more or lefs fevere, according to the degree of injury fuftained. 6. A man who, intoxicated with liquor, commits outrages againft the laws, ffiall be exiled to a defert country, there to remain in a ftate of fervitude. For this abftraft we are indebted to the humane in2

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terference of the fupercargoes of the Eaft India Com- china, pany, on account of the difagreeable dilputes which 1 -n v — frequently took place with the Chinefe government, owing to accidents of the molt trivial nature, which the people fometimes met with from the Bntiffi in the port of Canton. The blood of a traitor is fuppofed to be contaminated in this country to the 10th generation, although the law in general is conceived to be fatisfied with implicating the neareft male relatives in the guilt of the actual perpetrator of the crime, but with commutation of puniffiment from death to exile. It appears to us, that nothing can be conceived more tyrannical than a law which pretends to inflift puniffiment on an innocent perfon, fince no man can be a traitor, merely from the circumftance of his being the relation of one, and the abfurdity of fuppofing that a non-exiftence b capable of committing a crime, muft be obvious to every man. The fifth law in the forementioned extract is peculiarly cruel and unjuft, finee it fubjefls a man to different degrees of puniffiment, according to the different effe£ts which thofe aftions may produce. It is with a degree of national pride that we turn from this cruel, abfurd fpecimen of Chinefe legiflation, this ftrange judicial thermometer, if we may be allowed the expreffion, to the nice diferiminations which are made by the laws of our own country refpe£ting the (bedding of blood, the gradations of guilt attending which we have already mentioned, and which are diftinguiffied by the appropriate names of manjlaughter, culpable homi~ cide, and ivilful murder. The denunciations of Mofes, it may be faid, have fome refemblance to this gothic code of the Chinefe, efpecially when he declares that the deity would vifit the iniquities of the fathers upon the children to the third and fourth generation. It is not our province in this account of China, to write an apology for Mofes in this particular inftance, although it muft be granted that he had a moft obftinate and refraftory race of beings to govern, and to preferve a becoming degree of order and fubordination among them. He might therefore have nothing more in view than political expedience, an opinion which we are the more encouraged to entertain, when we find the prophet Ezekiel reprobating the idea of making the innocent fuffer for the guilty, in the following beautiful paffage. “ What mean ye that ye ufe this proverb concerning the land of Ifrael, laying, the fathers have eaten four grapes, and the children’s teeth are fet on edge ? As I live, faith the Lord, ye {hall not have occafion any more to ufe this proverb in Ifrael. Behold all fouls are mine ; as the foul of the father, fo alfo the foul of the fon, is mine. The foul that finneth, it (hall die. The fon (hall not bear the iniquity of the father, neither (hall the father bear the iniquity of the (on : the righteoufnefs of the righteous fhali be upon him, and the wickednefs of the wicked ffiall be upon liiml'1 In criminal matters every perfon accufed muft be examined before five or fix tribunals ; and whole inquiries are dire&ed not only againft him, but againft his accufer, and the witneffes that appear in the caufe. He is, however, obliged to remain in prifon during the procefs : “ but (fays M. Grofier) the Chinele prifons are not horrible dungeons like thofe of fo many other nations j they are fpacious, and have even a

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degree of convenience. One of the mandarins is obliged to infpefl them frequently •, and this he does with the greater pundluality, as he muft anfwer for thofe who are fick. He is obliged to fee them properly treated, to fend for phyficians, and to fupply them with medicines at the emperor’s expence. If any of them dies, he muft inform the emperor, who perhaps will order fome of the higher mandarins to examine whether the former has difcharged his duty faithfully or not. 74 The ftighteft punifhment in China is the baftinado ; Method, of, inflicting and the number of blows is to be determined by the the bafti- degree of the offender’s guilt. Twenty is the loweft na 0 ^ ' number : and in this cafe the puniftiment is confidered as having nothing infamous in it, but being only a Ample paternal correftion. In this way the emperor fometimes orders it to be infli&ed on his courtiers j which does not prevent them from being afterwards received into favour, and as much refpedled as before. Every mandarin may inflift the baftinado when any one forgets to falute him, or when he fits in judgment in public. The inftrument of corre&ion is called pantfee, and is a piece of bamboo a little flatted, broad at the bottom, and polifhed at the upper extremity^ in order to manage it more eafily with the hand. When the puniftiment is to be inflitted, the magiftrate fits gravely behind a table, having on it a bag filled with fmall flicks, while a number of petty officers ftand around him, each furniftied with thefe pantfees, and waiting only for his fignal to make ufe of them. The mandarin then takes out one of the little flicks contained in the bag, and throws it into the hall of audience. On this the culprit is feized and ftretched out with his belly towards the ground $ his breeches are pulled down to his heels, and an athletic domeftic applies five fmart blows with his pan-tfee. If the judge draws another fmall flick from the bag, another officer fucceeds, and beftows five more blows; and fo on until the judge makes no more fignals. When the puniftiment is over, the criminal muft throw himfelf on his knees, incline his body three times to the earth, and thank the judge for the care he takes of his education. F°r faults of a higher nature, the carrying of a or wooden wooden collar, called by the Portuguefe the cangue, is collar. inflidled. This machine is compnfed of two pieces of wood hollowed out in the middle, which, when put together, leave fufficient room for the neck. Thefe are laid upon the ffioulders of the criminal, and joined together in fuch a manner, that he can neither fee his feet nor put his hands to his mouth j fo that he is incapable of eating without the affiftance of another. This difagreeable burden he is obliged to carry day and night j its weight is from 50 to 200 pounds, according to the enormity of the crime, to which the time of carrying it is alfo proportioned. For robbery, breaking the peace, or difturbing a family, or being a notorious gambler, it is generally carried three months. During all this time the criminal is not allowed to take ftielter in his own houfe, but is ftationed for a certain fpace of time, either in fome public fquare, the gate of a city or temple, or perhaps even of the tribunal where he was condemned. On the expiration of his term of punUhment, he is again brought before the judge, who exhorts him in a friendChina.

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ly manner to amend •, and after giving him 20 found Cliiaa. blows difeharges him. Baniftunent is inflifted for crimes of a nature infe-^.7^ rior to homicide, and the duration is often for life, ifmer.t, See. the criminals be fent into Tartary. Some culprits are condemned to drag the royal bark for three years, or to be branded in the cheeks with a hot iron, indicating the nature of their tranfgreffions. Robbery between relations is more feverely punifhed than any other •, and that is accounted the moft atrocious where younger brothers or nephexvs appropriate to themfelves beforehand any part of the fucceffion in which they have a right to (hare with their elder brothers or nephexvs. Information againft a father or mother, grandfather Puniflior grandmother, uncle or eldeft brother, even though p1601 ot the accufation be juft, is puniffied with 100 bloxvs of the pan-tfee and three years baniftrment. If the accufa-‘r^nts ^ tion be falfe, it is puniffied xvith death. Deficiency in proper filial refpedd to a father, mother, grandfather, or grandmother,is puniftied with 100 bloxvs of the pan-tfee j abufive language to thefe relations is death byftrangling; to ftrike them is puniffied by beheading ; and if any one prefumes to hurt or maim them, his fleffi is torn from his bones with red-hot pincers, and he is cut into a thoufand pieces. Abufing an elder brother is puniffied xvith 100 bloxvs of the pan-tfee j ftriking him, xvith the puniffiment of exile. yg Homicide, even though accidental, is puniffied xvith Capital pudeath in China. A rope about fix or feven feet in length, with a running noofe, is thrown over the criminal’s head ; and a couple of domeftics belonging to the tribunal pull it ftrongly in different dire£lions. They then fuddenly quit it, and in a few moments give a fecond pull; a third is feldom neceffary to finiffi the bufinefs. Beheading is accounted in China the mod diffionourable of all puniffiments, and is referved only for defperate affaffins, or thofe xvho commit fome crime equally atrocious xvith murder. To be cut in a thoufand pieces is a puniffiment inflifled only upon ftate criminals or rebellious fubje£Is. It is performed by tying the criminal to a poft, fealping the (kin from the head and pulling it over the eyes. The executioner then tears the flefti from different parts of the unhappy wretch’s body ; and never quits this horrible employment till mere fatigue obliges him to give over: the remains of the body are then left to the barbarous fpe&ators, xvho finiffi xvhat he has begun. Though this puniftiment, hoxvever, has been infli&ed by fome emperors with all the dreadful circumftances juft mentioned, the laxv orders only the criminal’s belly to be opened, his body to be cut into feveral pieces, and then throxvn into a ditch or river. The torture, both ordinary and extraordinary, is ufed in China. The former is applied to the hands or feet: for the hands, fmall pieces of xvood are applied diagonally between the fingers of the criminal j his fingers are then tied clofe xvith cords, and he is left for fome time in that painful fituation. The torture for the feet is dill worfe. An inftrument, confiding of three crofs pieces of wood, is provided, that in the middle being fixed, the others moveable. The feet of the criminal are then put into this machine, which fqueezes them fo clofe that the ankle bones become flat. The extraordinary torture confifts in C 2 making

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C H I 20 C H I China- making fmall gafhes in the body, and then tearing off dernefs and lenity, being accounted innocent until “"—v"-— the fkin like thongs. It is never applied but for their guilt be clearly proved ; and even then, liberty China. fome great crime, fuch as treafon, or where the crimi- excepted, they are fcarce allowed to want for anything. nal’s guilt has been clearly proved, and it is neceffary A jailor is puniffied who behaves rigoroully towards to make him difcover his accomplices. 79 his prifoners; and the judges muft likewife anfwer at M. GroNotwithllanding thefe dreadful punifhments, M. their peril for any additions to the feverity of the law; fier’s gene depolition being the flighted punifliment inflifted upral view of Grofier is at great pains to prove that the laws of the the Chinefe Chinefe, with regard to criminal matters, are extremeon them. taws. ly mild. “ One law (fays he) will no doubt appear Subftitution is fometimes allowed by the laws of exceedingly fevere and rigorous ; it inflifts the punilh- China j fo that the near relation of a guilty perment of death on thofe who ufe pearls. Thole who fon may put himfelf in the criminal’s place, proread the hiftory of China will be apt to fall into cer- vided however, that the chaftifement be flight, and tain miftakes refpefting the penal laws of that na- the accufed his ancient friend. The fons, grandtion. Some of its fovereigns have indulged them- fons, wife, and brothers of a baniflied Chinefe, are alfelves in gratifying fanguinary caprices which were lowed to follow him into exile ; and the relations of all not authorized by the laws, and which have often been perfons are permitted to vifit them in prifons, and to confounded with them 5 but thefe princes are even yet give them every affiftance in their power ; to do which ranked among the number of tyrants, and their names good offices they are even encouraged, inftead of being are Hill abhorred and detefted throughout the whole prevented. empire. 1 he Chinefe, in their criminal procedure, Every city in China is divided into different quar-of the cihave a great advantage over all other nations: it is ters, each of which is fubje&ed to the infpedtion of ties and almoft impoflible that an innocent man fliould ever be- a certain officer, who is anfwerable for whatever paffesgocome a viflim to a falfe accufation : in fuch cafes the in. the places under his jurifdi&ion. Fathers of fa.vernment* accufer and witneffes are expofed to too much danger. milies, as we have already obferved, are anfwerable for The llownefs of the procefs, and the nuraberlefs re- the condudt of their children and domeftics. Neighvifions it undergoes, are another fafeguard for the ac- bours are even obliged to anfvver for one another, cufed. In Ihort, no fentence of death is ever carried and are bound to give every help and affiftance in cafes into execution until it has been approved and con- of robbery, fire, or any accident, efpecially in the firmed by the emperor. A fair copy of the whole night-time. All the cities are furniffied with gates, procefs is laid before him ; a number of other copies which are barricaded on the commencement of night. are alfo made out, both in the Chinefe and Tartar Centinels are alfo polled at certain diftances throughlanguages, which the emperor fubmits to the exami- out the ftreets, who ftop all who walk in the night, nation of a like number of doctors, either Tartars or and a number of horfemen go round the ramparts for Chinefe. When the crime is of great enormity, and the fame purpofe j fo that it is almoft impoffible to eclearly proved, the emperor writes with his own hand lude their vigilance by favour of the darknefs. A ftri6t at the bottom of the fenience, “ When you receive watch is alfo kept during the day-time j and all this order, let it be executed without delay.” In thofe who give any fufpicion by their looks, accent, or cafes where the crime, though punilhable by death behaviour, are immediately carried before a mandarin, according to law, is ranked only in the ordinary and fometimes even detained until the pleafure of the elafs, the emperor writes at the bottom of the fen- governor be known. tence, “ Let the criminal be detained in prifon, and Private quarrels do not often happen in China, and executed in autumn $” that being the feafon in it is rare that they are attended with a fatal iffue. which they are generally executed, and all on the fame The champions fometimes decide the quarrel with day. 80 their fills, but moll frequently refer the cafe to a manCafes in The emperor of China never figns an order for the darin, who very often orders them both a found drubwhich . ^ execution of a criminal till he has prepared himfelf by bing. None but military people are permitted to 7 be pardonLike other monarchs he has the power of wear arms in public; and this privilege is extended «d. giving pardons; but in this refpedl is much more li- even to them only during the time of war, or when mited than any other. The only cafes in which the they accompany a mandarin, mount guard, or attend Chinefe monarch can remit the punithment inflicted a review. Proftitutes are not allowed to remain within by law are, 1. To the fon of a widow who has not the walls of a city, or to keep a houfe of their own married again j 2. To the heir of an ancient family ; even in the fuburbs. They may, however, lodge in 3. The defendants of great men or citizens who have the houfe of another ; but that other is accountable deferved well of their country j and, 4. laftly, The fons for every difturbance which may happen on their acor grandfons of a mandarin, who has become illuftri- count. ... „ 82 ous, and diftinguifhed himfelf by faithfully difcharIn all the Chinele cities, and even in fome of their Borrowing ging the duties of his office. Neither a child, nor a ordinary towns, there is an office where money may be°fmoney* man of very advanced age, can be cited before a tri- borrowed upon pledges at the common rate of the bunal. The fon of a very aged father and mother is country ; which, however, is no lefs than 30 per cent. pardoned, if private property or the public peace be Every pledge is marked with a number when left at not hurt by giving him a pardon *, and if the fons of the office, and mull be produced when demanded j fuch a father and mother be all guilty, or accomplices but it becomes the property of the office if left there in the fame crime, the youngeft is pardoned in order a Angle day longer than the term agreed upon for the to comfort his parents. payment of the money. The whole tranfa6lion In China the accufed are always treated with ten- remains an inviolable fecretj not even the name of

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21 ] C H t very large bells of caft iron* According to law thefe Ghina. towers ftiould be only five lys, about half a Frenchv——' g4 This mode of procuring a fupply of money for the league, diftant from one another. There is no public poft-office in China, though fe-Method of exigencies of the moment, has been long known in conve Britain, and the people who thus lend money on pledges veral private ones have been eftabliftied ; but the cou-ance y* * under the fan&ion of government, have a moil exor- riers and officers charged with difpatches for the embitant intereft, as well as in China, but we are forry pire have only a right to make ufe of them. This into add, that it is by no means conduced with fuch convenience, however, excepted, travellers find conprofound fecrecy. The perfon’s name and furname veyance very eafy from one part of China to anowho offers a pledge muft be inferted in the pawn-bro- ther. Great numbers of porters are employed in every ker’s books, who is thus enabled to make the tranf- city, all of whom are affociated under the conduct of a&ion as public as he pleafes. Inftitutions of this na- a chief, who regulates all their engagements, fixes the ture are no doubt of confiderable utility to the modeft price of their labour, receives their hire, and is refponpoor during a period of embarralfment j but the mon- iible for every thing they carry. When porters are ftrous evils to which they have given rife are more wanted, he furnifhes as many as may be neceffary, and than fufficient to counterbalance their advantages. We gives the fame number of tickets to the traveller; who fhould deem an open avowal of poverty and want to returns one to each porter w'hen they have conveyed be infinitely preferable to an application to fuch a fink their loads to an appointed place. Thefe tickets are of corruption and extortion, affured that genuine dil- carried back to the chief, who immediately pays them trefs will never want a friend among the fons of bene- from the money he received in advance. On all the great roads in China there are feveral offices of this g3 volence or philanthropy. Of the ChiGreat attention is paid by the adminiftration of kind, which have a fettled correfpondence with others; aefe roads. China to the conveniency of travellers. The roads the travellers therefore have only to carry to one of are generally very broad, all of them paved in the thefe offices a lift of fuch things as they wifh to have fouthern provinces, and fome in the northern ; but tranfported : this is immediately written down in a neither horfes nor carriages are allowed to pafs along book ; and though there fhould be occafion for two, thefe. In many places valleys have been filled up, and three, or four hundred porters, they are inftantly furrocks and mountains cut through, for the purpofe of nithed. Every thing is weighed before the eyes of making commodious highways, and to preferve them their chief, and the hire is fivepence per hundred as nearly as poffible on a level. They are generally weight for one day’s carriage. An exaft regifter of bordered with very lofty trees, and in fome places every thing is kept in the office ; the traveller pays with walls eight or ten feet high, to prevent travellers the money in advance, after which he has no occafion from going into the fields ; but openings are left in to give himfelf any farther trouble ; on his arrival at proper places, which give a palfage into crofs roads the city he defigns, his baggage is found at the corthat lead to different villages. Covered feats are refponding office, and every thing is delivered to him erefted on all the great roads, where travellers may with the moft fcrupulous exa&nefs. The cuftomhoufes are here regulated by the gene-cu^0l^_ {belter themfelves from the inclemency of the weather 5 temples and pagods are alfo frequent, into which tra- ral police of the country ; and according to M. Gro-houfes. vellers are admitted without fcruple in the day-time, fier’s account, thefe cuftomhoufe officers are the moft but often meet with a refufal in the night. In thefe civil in the world. They have no concern with any the mandarins only have a right to reft themfelves as clafs of people but the merchants, whom they take long as they think proper. There is, however, no care not to diftrefs by any rigorous exadlions ; neiwant of inns on the great roads, or even the crofs ones ther, though they have authority to do fo, do they in China ; but they are ill fupplied with provifions ; flop travellers till their baggage is examined, nor do and thofe who frequent them are even obliged to car- they ever require the ftnalleft fee from them. Duties ry beds along with them to deep on, or elfe take up are paid either by the piece or by the load ; and in the former cafe credit is given to the merchant’s book with a plain mat. Towers are eredled on all the roads of this great without afking any queftions. A mandarin is appointempire, with watch-boxes on the top, with flag-ftaffs, ed by the viceroy of each province to infpeft the cuffor the convenience of fignals in cafe of any alarm. tomhoufes of the whole diftritft; and the mandarins Thefe towers are fquare, and generally conftrufled of have alfo the care of the poft-offices. In former times the only money uled in China wasMoney0f brick, but feldom exceed twelve feet in height. They are built, however, in fight of one another, and are made of fmall fhells, but now both filver and copper the empire, guarded by foldiers, who run with great fpeed from coin are met with. The latter confifts of round one to another, carrying letters which concern the pieces about nine-tenths of an inch (A) in diameter, emperor. Intelligence of any remarkable event is alfo with a fmall fquare hole in the middle, infcribed with conveyed by fignals j and thus the court is informed two Chinefe words on one fide, and two Tartar ones with furprifing quicknefs of any important matter. on the other. The filver pieces are valued only by Thofe which are built on any of the roads conducing their weight. For the convenience of commerce the to court, are furniftied with battlements, and have alfo metal is therefore caft into plates of different fizes : and ch;na.

of the perfon who leaves the pledge being inquired

(A)

parts.

The Chinefe foot is longer by one hundredth part than the French, and the inch is divided into ten

CHI

[2 2 ]

China, and for want of fmall coin, a Chinefe always carries u -—v—about him his fcales, weights, and a pair of fciflars to cut the metal. This operation is performed by putting the filver between the fciflars, and then knocking them againft a (tone till the pieces drop off. In giving of change, however, people have no right to value filver by the numerical value of copper, this being entirely regulated by the intrinfic value of the metals. Thus, an ounce of filver will fometimes be worth IQOO copper pieces, and fometimes only 800 ; and thus the copper money of China may frequently be fold for more than it would pafs for in commerce. The emperor would lofe much by this recoinage, were he not the foie proprietor of all the copper mines in China. It is, however, exprefsly forbidden to employ copper coin in any manufaflure where it might be employed as plain copper, and it is alfo forbidden to be fold for the purpofe of melting : but, if the price of the metal has not fallen, the infraction of this law is not very feverely punilhed. On the other hand, if the value of unwrought copper exceeds that of the coin, a quantity of the latter is ilfued out to reftore the equilibrium. To keep up a conftant circulation of all the coin in the empire, the Chinefe government are attentive to preferve an equilibrium between the proportional value of the gold and filver j that is, to regulate the intrinfie value of each in fuch a manner that the poffeflfor of filver may not be afraid to exchange it for copper, nor the poffeffor of copper for filver. The method ufed for this purpofe is, when filver becomes fcarce, to make all the payments for fome time in filver j but if copper, to make them all for fome time in that metal onl 87 y* Of the ChiThe commerce of China is under the infpeClion of nefe com- the tribunal of finances $ but on this fubjeCt the Chimerce. nepe entertain an opinion quite different from that of the Europeans. Commerce, according to them, is only ufeful as far as it eafes the people of their fuperfluities, and procures them neceffaries. For this reafon they confider even that which is carried on at Canton as prejudicial to the intereft of the empire. “ They take from us (fay the Chinefe) our filks, teas, and porcelain : the price of thefe articles is raifed throughout the provinces : fuch a trade therefore cannot be beneficial. The money brought us by Europeans, and the high-priced baubles that accompany it, are mere fuperfluities to fuch a ftate as ours. We have no occafion for more bullion than what may be neceffary to anfwer the exigencies of government, and to fupply the relative wants of individuals. It was faid by Kouan-tfe, two thoufand years ago, That the money introduced does not enrich a kingdom in any other way than as it is introduced by commerce. No commerce can be advantageous long, but that which confifts in a mutual exchange of things neceffary or ufeful. That trade, whether carried on by barter or money, which has for its objefl the importing of articles that tend to the gratification of pride, luxury, or curiofity, always fuppofes the exiftence of luxury : but luxury, which is an abundance of fuperfluities among certain claffes of people, fuppofes the want of neceffaries among a great many others. The more horfes the rich put to their carriages, the greater will be the number of thofe who are obliged to walk on

CHI

foot $ the larger and more magnificent their houfes china are, fo much the more confined and wretched muff ■ thofe of the poor be j and the more their tables are covered with a variety of difhes, the more muff the number of thofe increafe who are reduced to the neceflity of feeding upon plain rice. Men, united by fociety in a large and populous kingdom, can employ their induftry, talents, and economy, to no better purpofe than to provide neceflfaries for all, and procure convenience for fome.” gg The only commerce confidered by the Chinefe asHiftoryof advantageous to their empire, is that with Ruflia and th.e trade Ruf Tartary; by which they are fupplied with thofe furs * fo neceffary in the northern provinces. The difputes ia’ concerning the limits of the refpedtive empires of Ruflia and China feem to have paved the way to this commerce. Thefe difputes were fettled by treaty on the 27th of Auguft 1689, under the reign of Ivan and Peter Alexiowitz. The chief of the embaffy on the part of Ruflia was Golovin governor of Siberia ; and two Jefuits were deputed on the part of the emperor of China ; and the conferences were held in Latin, with a German in the Ruffian ambaffador’s train, who was acquainted with that language. By this treaty the Ruffians obtained a regular and permanent trade with China, which they had long defired ; but in return they yielded up a large territory, befides the navigation of the river Amour. The firfi intercourfe had taken place in the beginning of the 17th century ; at which time a fmall quantity of Chinefe merchandife was procured by fome Ruffian merchants from the Kalmuck Tartars. The rapid and profitable fale of thefe commodities encouraged certain Siberian wayvodes to attempt a direft and open communication with China. For this purpofe feveral deputations were fent to the emperor ; and though they failed of obtaining the grant of a regular commerce, their attempts were attended with fome confequences of importance. Thus the Ruffian merchants were tempted to fend traders occafionally to Peking ; by which means a faint connexion was j u with that metropolis. This commerce, however, was at laft interrupted by the commencement of hoftilities on the river Amour ; but after the conclufion of the treaty in 1689, was refumed with uncommon alacrity on the part of the Ruffians : and the advantages thence arifing were found to be fo confiderable, that a defign of enlarging it was formed by Peter the Great. Ifbrand Ides, a native of the duchy of Holflein, then in the Ruffian fervice, was therefore defpatched to Peking in 1692 ; by whofe means the liberty of trade, before confined to individuals, was now extended to caravans. In the mean time, private merchants continued to trade as before, not only with the Chinefe, but alfo at the head quarters of the Mogul Tartars. The camp of thefe roving Tartars, which w'as generally Rationed near the confluence of the Orhon and Toula rivers, between the fouthern frontiers of Siberia and the Mogul defert, thus became the feat of an annual fair. Complaints, however, were foon made of the diforderly behaviour of the Ruffians ; on which the Chinefe monarch threatened to expel them from his dominions entirely, and to allow them neither to trade with the Chinefe nor Moguls. This produced another embaffy to Peking in 1719, when matters were again adjufted to the

CHI [ 23 ] CHI China, the fatisfa£Uon of both parties. The reconciliation army of 1,800,000 men. Yet upon the fuppofition : Chin*,1 v ■—» 1 was of no long duration ; for the Ruffians having foon that each individual is taxed equally, this enormous renewed their diforderly behaviour, an order for their fum will amount to no more than 4s. a head annually, expulfion was iffued in 1722, and all intercourfe be- while the fame analogy applied to Britain will make tween the two nations forbidden. The differences an individual ftiare amount to 3I. There is reafon, were once more made up in 1727, and a caravan al- however, to conclude, that the Chinefe, in the above lowed to go to Peking once in three years, provided eftimate of their {landing army, have been rather hyit confifted of no more than a hundred perfons 5 and perbolical, for Lord Macartney, from the information that during their flay their expences fhould not, as for- communicated by Vang-ta-zin, makes the whole of the merly, Ije defrayed by the emperor of China. The expences of government to leave a furplus for the ufe Ruffians at the fame time obtained permiffion to build of the emperor of 14,043,743!. fterling, which we a church within the precin&s of the caravanfary ; and prefume would be impoffible, were their Handing arfour priefts were allowed to refide at Peking for my as enormous as fome of the Chinefe pretend. the celebration of divine fervice j the fame indulgence being granted to fome Ruffian fcholars, for the pur- Sum total of the revenue, L. 66,000,00a pofe of learning the Chinefe language, and qualifying Civil eftablilhment, L. 1,973,333 themfelves for being interpreters between the two na- Military ditto, 49,982,933 tions. This intercourfe continued till the year 1755 j 51,956,266 fince which time no more caravans have been fent to China. It was firft interrupted by a mifunderftanding Surplus for the emperor, L. 14,043,734* * Barrow** Travels, betwixt the two courts j and though that difference was afterwards made up, no caravans have been fent The annual expences of government are indeed im-P’4°7* ever fince. The enaprefs of Ruffia, fenfible that the menfe, but they are regulated in fuch a manner as monopoly of the fur trade (which was entirely confin- never to be augmented but in cafes of the utmoft need to the caravans belonging to the crown, and pro- ceffity. It even happens very often that adminiftration hibited to individuals) was prejudicial to commerce, makes greater favings every year. When this happens gave it up in favour of her fubjedts in 1762 j and the to be the cafe, the furplus ferves to inereafe the genecentre of commerce betwixt the two nations is now at ral treafure of the empire, and prevents the neceffity Kiatka. Here the trade is entirely carried on by bar- of new impofitions in time of war, or other public cater. The Ruffians are prohibited from exporting their lamities. The greater part of the taxes are paid in own coin ; finding it more advantageous to take goods kind ; thofe, for inftance, who breed filk worms, pay in exchange than to receive bullion at the Chinefe their taxes in filk,. the hufbandmen in grain, the garftandard. The principal exports from Ruffia are furs deners in fruits, &c. This method, at the fame time of different kinds ; the moft valuable of which are that it is exceedingly convenient for the fubjeft, is na thofe of fea otters, beavers, wolves, foxes, martins, way detrimental to the public intereft. There are fables, and ermines; the greater part of which are numbers of people everywhere in the fervice of governbrought from Siberia and the newly difcovered iflands j ment, who are thus furniffied with food and clothing ; but as they cannot fupply the demand, there is a ne- fo that the commodities collefled as taxes are almoft ceffity for importing foreign furs to Peterfburg, which confumed in the provinces where they are levied j are afterwards fent to Kiatka. Various kinds of cloth what remains is fold for the behoof of the emperor, are likewife fent to China, as well as hardware, and and the money depofited in the imperial treafury* live cattle, fuch as horfes, camels, &c. The exports The taxes paid in money arife principally from the cafrom China are raw and manufadtured filk, cotton, ftoms and fale of fait (which belongs entirely to the porcelain, rhubarb, mufk, &c. The government of emperor), from the duties paid by veffels entering any Ruffia likewife referves to itfelf the exclufive privilege port, and from other impofts on various branches of of purchafing rhubarb. It is brought to Kiatka by manufaftures. Excepting thefe, the trader fcarcely fome Bukharian merchants, who have entered into a contributes any thing to the exigencies of the ftate, contradl to fupply the crown with it in exchange for and the mechanic nothing at all; the whole burden of furs : the exportation of the belt rhubarb is forbidden taxation thus falling upon the hufbandman. This burunder fevere penalties, but yet is procured in fufficient den is regulated in proportion to the extent and fertir quantities, fometimes by clandeftinely mixing it with lity of his lands ; and the greateft care has been taken inferior roots, and fometimes by fmuggling it diredtly. to manage matters fo, that he may neither be overGreat part of Europe is fupplied with rhubarb from charged in the impofition nor haraffed in the levying Ruffia. revenue of the duties. “ The regiftering of lands (fays M. s Grofier), fo often and to no purpofe projected in Empew’s °f emperor of China amounts to France, has been long praftifed in this empire, noferevenue. wore than 41 millions fterling j and might eafily be increafed, did the fovereign incline to burden his fub»- withftanding its prodigious extent.” jedls with new impofitions. When Lord Macartney The levying of taxes in China is as fimple as the na- Of the vifited this vaft empire in the capacity of his Britan- ture of the thing will admit of. The duties levied taxes in nic majefty’s ambaffador, the revenue of the Chinefe from towns and villages are carried to cities of the^”13* emperor was not lefs than 66 millions fterling ; but it third clafs ; then they are conduced to thofe of the cannot be fuppofed that a very large ffiare of this enor- fecond j then to thofe of the firft; and at laft to the mous fum is adtually expended by the emperor, after capital. The levying and impofition of taxes is fubdedudting the almoft incalculable number of falaries mitted to the tribunal of finances; and matters are fo which it is deftined to pay, together with a {landing managed, that befides the confumption in each diftrift for.

CHI CHI [ 24 3 for difcharging the ordinary expences of government, power to carry his produce to a free and open market. China. fomething is left by way of referve for anfwering ac- Part of the crop is allowed to be ufed in diftillation 5 v~—> cidental demands, and to be ready in cafes of neceffity. but if the harveft happens to be bad, this operation is 93 This fum becomes gradually lefs from the capital to prohibited. In China, the tillage of the earth is not Ceremony cities of the firlf, fecond, and third clafs. A proper only encouraged by law, but alfo by the example ofot tIieem“ ftatement of what is paid in the provinces, of what is the emperor, who annually tills the earth with his own referved in the different cities, or contained in the dif- hands. The beginning of fpring in China is always^fth ferent treafuries of the empire, is fubjefted to the exa- reckoned to be in the month of February j but it be-his own mination of the grand tribunal of finances. This longs to the tribunal of mathematics to determine the hands, revifes the whole, and keeps an exa£l account of precife day. The tribunal of ceremonies announces it what is confumed, and of whatever furplus may be to the emperor by a memorial j in which every thing 9l. left. requifite to be done by him is mentioned with the molt Of lending Lending money upon intereft has been in ufe in fcrupulous exaflnefs. The fovereign then names 12 money, and defi- China for about 2000 years. It has often been abo- of the moft illutlrious perfons in his court to accompaciencies in lilhed, and as often eftablilhed. The interefl, as has ny him, and to hold the plough after he has performpaying in- been already hinted, is no lefs than 30 per cent, and ed his part of the ceremony. Among thefe there are tereft. the year is only lunar. A tenth part of this interert is always three princes of the blood, and nine prefidents paid monthly : and concerning neglefts of payment, of fupreme courts ; and if any of them are too old and the following laws have been enafted. “ However infirm to undergo the fatigue, the fubflitutes muft be much the debt may have accumulated by months 01- authorized by the emperor. The feftival is preceded years, the principal and intereft (hall remain always by a facrifice, which the emperor offers up to Chang-ti the fame. Whoever infringes this law (hall receive 40 (the ffipreme God) 5 after which he and his attendblows of a pan-tfee ; or an hundred, if he ufes any ar- ants prepare themfelves by three days falling and contifice to add the principal and intereft together.” This tinence. Others are appointed by the emperor, on the law is explained by the following. “ Whoever (hall evening before the ceremony, to go and proftrate be convicted before a mandarin of not having paid a themfelves at the fepulchre of his anceftors, and to acmonth’s intereft, ftiall receive ten blows; twenty for quaint them, that, on the day following, he intends two months, and thirty for three ; and in this manner to celebrate a grand facrifice. This is offered upon a as far as fixty ; that is to fay, to the fixth month. The fmall mount a few furlongs diftant from the city, debtor is then obliged to pay principal and intereft 5 but which, by the indifpenfable rules of the ceremony, thofe who obtain payment by ufing violence and force muft be 50 feet in height. The Chang-ti is invoked are condemned to receive 24 blows. by the emperor, who facrifices under the title of foveMany Chinefe writers have endeavoured unfuccefs- reign pontiff, and prays for an abundant harveft in fafully to fliow why government Ihould allow fuch ex- vour of his people. He then defcends, accompanied orbitant intereft to be taken for money j but the moft by the three princes and nine prefidents who are to fatisfadlory and rational account feems to be, that the put their hands to the plough along with him 5 the great intereft of money prevents the rich from pur- field fet apart for this purpofe being at a fmall diftance chafing much land ; as landed eftates would only em- from the mount. Fortj- labourers are fcledled to yoke barrafs and impoverilh them, their produce being fo the oxen, and to prepare the feed which the emperor much inferior to that of money. The patrimony of a is to fow ; and which are of five different kinds, viz. family in China is feldom divided j and it never hap- wheat, rice, two kinds of millet, and beans. They pens there, as in almoft every other country, that are brought to the fpot in magnificent boxes, carried wealth and riches are engroffed by one part of the na- by perfons of the moll diftinguiftied rank. The empetion, while the other poffeffes nothing. ror then lay* hold of the plough, and turns up feveral Agriculture is by the Chinefe confidered as the firft furrows; the princes of the blood do the fame, and Agriculture great- and moft honourable of all profeflions $ fo that in this then the prefidents ; after which the emperor throws ly encou- empire the huftbandman enjoys many and great privi- into the furrows the five kinds of feeds already menraged. leges, while the merchant and mechanic are much lefs tioned : laftly, four pieces of cotton cloth, proper for efteemed. He is confidered as next in dignity to offi- making dreffes, are diftributed to each of the labourcers of ftate, from whom indeed they very frequently ers, who affift in yoking the oxen and preparing the originate. The foldier in China cultivates the ground, feeds; and the fame prefents are made to forty other and even the priefts are employed in agriculture, when perfons who have only been fpe&ators of the ceretheir convents happen to be endowed with land. From mony. the principle that the emperor is ablblute proprietor of “ We muft not (fays M. Grofier) judge of the Chi- Of the peathe foil, one would imagine that the tenant muft hold nefe peafants from thofe of Europe, efpecially in what fants. his lhare of it by a very precarious tenure, yet it is relates to the lights acquired by education. Free certain that when any man is difpoffeffed, his own cul- fchools are very numerous in every province of China, pable condudf is the caufe. The Chinefe are fo habi- and even fume of the villages are not deftitute of this tuated to confider a piece of land as their own, while advantage. The fons of the poor are there received they continue to be punctual in the payment of their as readily as thofe of the rich ; their duties and their rent, that a Portuguefe refident in Macao who at- ftudies are the fame; the attention of the matters is tempted to raife the rent of his tenants, ran the hazard equally divided between them ; and from this obfcure of lofing his life. T here are no prodigioufly over- fource talents often fpring, which afterwards make a grown farms in China, no monopolizers of farms, no confpicuous figure on the grand ftage of life. Nowholefale dealers in grain, but every man has it in his thing is more common in China than to fee the fon of China.

CHI

25 ] ' CHI regard to his public decifioms private condivd, and China. €hina °f peafant governor of that province in which his fometimes even with regard toorboth. Nothing, howv y, —y father had long toiled in cultivating only a few acres. The father hirafelf, if taken from his plough, and ele- ever, is contained in this gazette that has not immedivated to a fuperiur fphere, might, by reviving the in- ately come from the emperor, or been lubmitted to bis ftru£lion he received in his youth, and efpecially it he infpedion •, and immediate death would be the confe97 be endowed with genius, find himfeif fully competent quence of inferting a falfehood in this minifttrial paper. No law or fentence, as has already been faid, i5 0f SeaK of the for his new employment. to Grower’s The Chinefe have been greatly reproached with the any force, until the emperor’s feal has been affixed ^naarms, defence of inhuman pradice of murdering their children j but it. This is about eight inches fquare, and is made ofg£C> G llnefe the ‘ though our author cannot deny that they are guilty fine jafper, a kind of precious ftone much efteemed ehTgeot of this pradiee, he excufes them by faying, that “ the in China ; of which only the emperor is allowed to murdering crime when committed in China is commonly owing have a feal. Thofe given to princes as marks of hoand expo- to the fanaticifm of idolatry •, a fanaticifm which pre- nour are compofed of gold ; the feals of the viceroys and great mandarins, of filver j while thofe of inferior va s on at un ^ jn 0^yht>dience n g the loweft of the is. ei- mandarins and magiftrates are made only of lead or c^klren^ wren. ^er to the oracle of apeople. bonze, toItdeliver themfelves from the power of magic fpells, or to dif- copper. The fize of thefe feals is greater or fmaller charge a vow, that thefe infatuated wretches precipi- according to the rank their poflefiors hold in the tritate their children into the river: they imagine that, bunals or as mandarins j and when any of them hapbv fo doing, they make an expiatory facrifice to the pens to be worn out, intimation muft be fent to the f;>irit of the river. All nations of antiquity almoft next fuperior tribunal on winch a new one is fent, have difgraced themfelves by the like horrid pradices ; and the old one muft then be delivered up. The combut the Chinefe are far from countenancing this barba- miffion of every infpedtor fent into the provinces muft rity on that account. Befides, thefe criminal facrifices alfo be confirmed by the emperor’s feal. The duty are. never pradifed but in certain cantons of China, of thefe officers is to examine into the conduft of gowhere the people, blinded bv idolatry, are the dupes vernors, magiftrates, and private individuals ; and inof prejudice, fanaticifm, and fuperllition.—It often ftances are recorded of emperors themfelves affuming happens alfo, that the bodies of thofe children which the office of infpedlors in fome of the provinces. Thefe are feen floating on the water have not been thrown officers are not only fuperior to all the magiftrates, into it till after their death ; and this is likewife the but even to the viceroys of the provinces themfelves. cafe with thofe which are found in the ftreets, or lying When a fuperior magiftrate behaves ill to an inferior near the public roads. The poverty of the. parents fug- one, the former inftantly becomes the prifoner of the gelts this difmal refource, becaufe their children are infpeiftor, and is fufpended from his office until he has then buried at the expence of the public. Expofing cleared himfeif from every imputation laid to his of children in public places is a cuftom tolerated in charge. The viceroy, however, is allowed to enjoy his China •, and government employs as much vigilance office until the report of the infpeftor has been tranfto have them carried away in the morning, as it be- mitted to the emperor. Thefe viceroys are diftinguilhed by the title olTfong- Pi wer of ftows care on their education. This is certainly giving people intimation toexpofe their children in the. night- ton, and are always mandarins of the firft clafs, poflcfl- thevicetime, and no doubt encourages the pradice j but the ing an almoft unlimited power within their diftri&s. didates of humanity are here united to thofe of found They march abroad with all the pomp of royal magpolicy. No law in China authorizes mutilation : there nificence, never quitting their palaces, on the molt are indeed eunuchs in the empire, but their number is trifling occafion, without a guard of 100 men. A much lei’s than what it is generally fuppoftd to be by viceroy is the receiver-general of all the taxes collectEuropeans. The greater part of the eunuchs belong- ed in the province, tranfmitting them to the capital, ing to the emperor and empreffes have no higher em- after having referved what he judges neceffary for the demands of his diftriCl. All law-fuits muft be brought ^ ployment than that of fweeping the courts of juft ice.” Gazette of Like the capital cities of European kingdoms, Pe- before his tribunal j and he has the power of palling f'sking. king, the metropolis of the Chinefe empire, is furniih- fentence of death, but it cannot be put in execution withed with a gazette, which circulates into the remoteft out being firft carried to the emperor. Every three provinces, and which is even confidered by admini- years he fends to court a report of the conduCI of the ftration as an effential part of the political conftitu- mandarins fubordinate to him *, and according to the tion. It is printed daily at Peking, and contains an contents, they are either continued or difgraced. Thofe account of all thefe objeds to which the attention of of whom he makes an unfavourable report are puniftied adminiftration is direded. In this gazette may be in proportion to their delinquency j while, on the other feen the names of all thofe mandarins who are ftripped hand, thofe who have the good fortune to be well re^ of their employments, and the caufes of their difgrace j ported are rewarded in a fimilar proportion. The principal mandarins are fometimes broken and Degradait mentions alio the names of all thofe delinquents who n of are punilhed with death ; of the officers appointed to difmilTed from all their employments, while others are tiinant 'ar*ns* fill the places of the difgraced mandarins 5 the cala- only removed fotne degrees lower. Thofe who have mities which have afflided any of the provinces ; the been degraded ten fteps run a great rilk of never berelief given by government 5 and the expences incur- ing employed again. Thefe degraded mandarins are red by adminiftrktion for the fubfiftence of the troops, kept in perpetual remembrance of their misfortune, by fupplying the wants of the people, repairing or erod- being obliged to mention it in every public order they ing public works •, and, laftly, the remonftrances made iffue fort h in their inferior ftation •, thus : “ I fuch a to the fovereign bv the fuperior tribunals, either with mandarin, degraded one, two, three, &c. fteps, comD mand Vol. VI. Part I. a

r

China,

CHI [ 26 ] CHI mand and older,” &c. Over tliefe inferior tnanda- tyrants who in other countries prey upon an devour cfnna'. rins the infpe&or of the province has a very unlimited them. Every fuperior mandarin is obliged to inform ' v— authority, and can, by his own power, deprive them of himfelf of the faults of his inferiors and expofe them ; their employments for a great offence 5 nor does he nay, he would be punilhtd for them himfelf if he did not. confult the court excepting where the immediate puVery little regard, as we have already had occafion nifhment of the criminal is not neceffary. Every one to obferve, is paid to hereditary rights in China. Even ()f ,;nn“e, of the mandarins, of whatever rank or denomination, the princes ot the blood enjoy no other privilege by &c. in Chiis obliged, once in three years, to give in writing an birth but that of wearing a yellow girdle 5 and thenaexadd account of the faults he has committed in the names of their children, with the exact time of their execution of his office. If he is a mandarin belonging birth, are infcribtd in a yellow book appropriated to to any of the four firft claffes, this confeffion is exami- that purpofe. Collateral princes are diltinguifhed by ned at court -r but if it is made by any of the infe- an orange girdle, and their children are marked in a rior ones, it muff be laid before the provincial tribunal book of a red colour. The furnames of the princes of the governor. Government, however, is not fa- of the reigning iamily are determined by the empetisfied even with this confeffion j inquiry is made into ror alone j the reft not being allowed to affume any the truth of it, and the conduit of the mandarin is fcru- name that too much refembles thofe of the Moguls or tinized with the utmoft feverity, the informations be- Chinefe. T he rank even of the emperor’s Ions dimiing fubjefted to the tribunal of mandarins ; where they niffies one degree every generation ; fo that, at the . are carefully examined, the merits and demerits of feventh, only the eldt-ft branch has a title to wear the thdfe fubjeited to this political inquifition carefully yellow girdle, the reft being funk into the rank of balanced, and their names afterwards divided into three plain citizens. An hereditary fovereignty, however, claffes. The firft confifts of thofe for whom rewards paffes from one eldeft fon to another; and this title and preferment are intended: the fecond, for whom cannot be forfeited, unlefs the poffeffor be guilty of gentle reproof and admonition are thought neceffary j fome crime. In this cafe the emperor appoints to the and the third, of thofe who are to be fufpended for fucceffion either one of his younger brothers or a coufome time, or removed altogether, from their offices. fin j but thefe muft be always chofen from the fame Of thefe laft fome are allowed to continue $ but they branch, as the lawful branch cannot be deprived of its receive no falary, and are not only deprived of all right without the condemnation of all who compofe it. their emoluments, but even of their honours. If they The only hereditary authority of the other princes exhave been guilty of any a&ion tending to opprefs the ifts among thefe troops called the I'artar bands. There people, or to occafion a famine or fcareity among the they enjoy, without oppofition, that rank which they lower ranks, their punifhment is not confined to dif- derive from their birth, but in every thing elfe are on miffion from their offices, but they are alfo criminally a level with others. They are fubjedted to a military impeached. The family burying-place of every Chi- examination at ftated periods, and are always promonefe is accounted facred ; none dares cut down the ted or degraded according to the degree of fkill they trees with which it is overthadowed until they become exhibit. The fame trial is undergone by the heir apdecayed with age j and even then, not until their con- parent and his fons 5 the only indulgence ftiewn them dition has been attefted by a mandarin : but for cer- being, that fchools are appointed for their particular tain crimes againft government or the people, the bu- ufe. The princes are likewife indulged with a triburying-place of a mandarin is rafed to the foundation. nal appropriated on purpofe for them, and before No kind of puniffiment, however, inflidled on a fa- which alone they can be tried. An infult offered to a ther, is fuppofed in the leaf! to affeft the chara£l:er of prince decorated with the yellow girdle is puniftied his fon j and therefore, when the latter is aflced by with death ; but if he has omitted to put it on, the the emperor concerning his family, he will perhaps aggreffor efcapes with a baftinading. A prince may coolly anfwer, “ My father was difgraced for fuch a be put to death with the emperor’s confent 5 but he eCrime, my grandfather was beheaded for fuch ano- fcapes every ffighter corporal puniftiment by paying a ther,” without the acknowledgement being in the lead fine. Untitled princes have very few privileges fuperior detrimental. On the contrary, by great and import- to thofe of common citizens ; and are generally very ant fervices, it is poffible for him to wipe out thefe poor, unlefs poffeffed of fome lucrative office. Thus ftains from the memory of his anceftors. they are fometimes reduced to the neceffity of acceptThough the empire of China is governed by Tartar ing the higheft pay of a common foldier in the Tartar princes, the latter feem to bellow much more care bands. When they, or any of their children, howand attention on the Chinefe than their own natural ever, enter into the marriage-ftate, the emperor ufufubjefts. Should any difpute arife between a Chinefe ally makes them a prefent of too ounces of filver. He and Tartar, the former muff have greatly deviated will alfo relieve them on other occafions, affift their from the rules of juflice, if he is not acquitted even widows and orphans, &c. but in all this never departs by thofe tribunals which are compofed of half Chinefe from the moft exaft rules of economy ; fo that the and half 7'artars. The flighteft fault committed by a mandarins in this refpedi are much better than the reTartar mandarin is always feverely puniffied j but the lations of the fovereign himfelf. I0I punilhment of the Chinefe is often mitigated if the deWith, regard to the ancient religion of China, F. p. Amiot’s linquent be a Chinefe ; and the fame feverity is exer- Amiot informs us, that, after making every poffible account of cifed towards thofe of the military department. Thofe refearch, comparing and reafoning upon his obferva-the ancient faults, however, are punilhed with the greatell feveri- tions, he at laft concluded, that “ The Chinefe are areligi°nof ty which hurt the interells of the people j for which diftinft people, who have ftill preferved the chara6lerif-^mU* reafon they feldoai fall a facrifice to that clafs of petty tic marks of their frrft origin j a people whtfe primitive.

[ 27 1 CHI C H I live doflrine will be found, by thofe who take the trou- is the union of the three tfni (powers, principles, or ble of inveftigating it thoroughly, to agree in its ef- intelligences j for, united, they direft, create, and fential parts with the do&rine of the chofen people, nourilh together. The image^r; (three united in one before Mofes, by the command of God himfelf, had configned the explanation of it to the facred records •, figure) is not fo obfeure in itfelf; however, it is difficult to reafon upon it without being deceived : on this 8 people, in a word, whofe traditional knowledge, ■when freed from whatever the ignorance or fuperlti- fubjeft it is difficult to fpeak.” “ Father Amiot, fpite of all the obje&ions which tion of later ages has added to it, may be traced back the critics of Europe may make, feems to conjecture, from age to age, and from epoch a to epocha, without interruption, for the fpace of 4000 years, even to that the chara&er A might have been, among the anthe renewal of the human race by the grandfon of cient Chinefe, the fymbol of the moft holy Irinity ; Noah.” The king, or canonical books of the Chinefe, ‘ and the more fo (he adds), as the ancient books everywhere inculcate the belief of a Supreme Being, furnifti a number of texts, which give us reafon to the author and preferver of all things. Under him fuppofe them to have been poffefled of fome knowthey mention the names of Tien, or heaven ; Chnng- ledge of this fublime myftery.’ The book See-ki fays, tien, or Supreme heaven Chang ti, or Supreme Lord 5 ‘ The emperor formerly offered up a folemn lacrifice and of Hoang-chan-ti, Sovereign and Supreme Lord : every three years to the Spirit, Irinity and Unity, “ Names (fays M. Grofier) correfponding to thofe Chin-fan-ye? The following celebrated text of Laowhich we ufe when we fpeak of God, the Lord, the tfe has long been known in Europe. ‘ Tao is one by nature : the firft begot the fecond ; two produced the Almighty, the Moft High.” According to the Chinefe books, the Supreme Be- third *, the three created all things.’ “ F. Amiot quotes another paftage, which appears ing is the principle of every thing that exifts, and the father of all living •, he is eternal, immoveable, and to be no lefs Angular. He who is, as it were, viindependent j his power knows no bounds 5 his fight fible, and cannot be feen, is named Khi; he who may equally comprehends the paft, prefent, and the future, be heard yet fpeaketh not to the ears, is called Hi ; penetrating even into the inmoft receffes of the heart. he whom, in a manner, we feel, yet cannot touch, is Heaven and earth are under his government *, all named Ouei. In vain do we interrogate our fenfes reevents, all revolutions, are the confequences of his will ; fpeCling thefe three ; our reafon, which alone can give he is pure, holy, and impartial ; wickednefs offends us any fatisfaClion, will tell us that they make only his fight ; but he beholds with an eye of complacency one. Above there is no light ; below there is no darkthe virtuous adlions of men. Severe, yet juft, he pu- nefs. He is eternal; there is no name which can be nifties vice in a ftriking manner even on the throne, given him. He refembles nothing that exifts; he is and often precipitates from thence the guilty, to place an image without figure; a figure without matter : upon it the man who walks after his own heart, whom his light is furrounded by darknefs. If we look up. to he hath raifed from obfcurity. Good, merciful, and him above, we behold no beginning; if we follow him, full of pity, he relents on the repentance of the wic- we difeover no end. From what the Tao hath been ked : public calamities, and the irregularities of the fea- at all times, conclude what he is, viz. that he is eterfons, are onlyfalutary warnings, which his fatherly good- nal : he is the beginning of wifdom.’ The commennefs gives to men to induce them to reform and amend. taries which explain this paffage fpeak in fuch ftrong The performance of religious worlhip at the pro- and precife terms, that F. Amiot forbears to quote per and appointed times, has given occafion to the great them, left he might incur the cenfure of too many inexaflnefs with refpeifl to the kalendar, which is re- credulous readers (a).” The facrifices of the Chinefe were firft offered up in markable throughout the empire of China; and all the celebrated emperors have begun their reigns with the open fields, or on fome mountain, upon what they a reformation of it. Our hiftorians, however, not call the Tan, which fignifies a quantity of ftones contented with difeovering in the Chinefe religion the thrown together in a round form, or fimply a round fundamental principles of the ancient patriarchal reli- heap of earth. A double fence called Kino, compogion, have alfo found in it evident fymptoms of a fed of turf and branches of trees, was raifed around knowledge of the Trinity as believed among Chrifti- this; and, in the fpace left between the two fences, anc. “ Among the ancient Chinefe characters (fays two leffer altars were erefted on the right and left; M. Grofier), which have efcaped the ravages of time, upon which, immediately after the facrifice offered up we find the following A. According to the dictionary to the Tien, they facrificed alfo to the Cheng, or good of Kang-hi, this fignifies union 5 according to the fpirits of every rank, and to their virtuous anceftors. Choue-ouen (that book fo highly efteemed in China) A The fovereign alone had a right of facrificing upon is three united in one j it derives it from the charac- this Tan; and the cuftom of facrificing to inferior texsjou (to enter or penetrate), and ye, one; W’hence fpirits, according to the Chinefe commentators, may it concludes, that A means three united, penetrated, be traced even to the days of Fo-hi himfelf. I he fame or incorporated into one. According to another book, writers add, that, in addrefling themfelves to the accounted a learned and accurate explanation of the Chang-ti, they confidered him as the fovereign lord of ancient charaflers, ‘ a fignifies ftridf union, harmony, the univerfe, clothed with all that power which was the chief good of man, of heaven, and of earth ; it neceffary to fatisfy them with regard to the different D 2 objefls (a) It is a Angular eircumftance that F. Amiot ftrould have paffed over in filence fuch unintelligible mummery, without a fingle animadverfion. Reafon humbly confeffes every word of it to be abfolutely incompiehenfible*; and faith itfelf has almoft as hard a ftruggle in believing it as the never-to-be-fathomed creed of Athanafius*

CHI [2 8 ] CHI China, obje&s of their requefts j but that, in offering up their themfelves by retirement, faffing, and continence ; no China, —v-—— prayers to the inferior objects of worfhip, they only im- audience is given by the emperor, and the tribunals y— plored their proteftion and mediation with the Chang-ti. are entirely fhut ; marriages, funerals, rejoicings, and While the empire was confined within narrow i ntertainments of every kind, are then forbidden. At bounds, one mountain was fufficient for the facrifices *, laft, on the day appointed, the emperor appears, atbut in procefs of time it became neceflary to confeerate tended by an innumerable multitude, and his perfon four others. Thefe were fituated at the extremities of furrounded by a vaft number of princes, lords, and ofthe empire, and were fuppofed to correfpond with the ficers, while every part of the temple feems to correfour quarters of the world ; and the prince went fuc- fpond with the magnificence of the fovereign ; all the ceffively every year to one of thefe mountains to offer vafes and utenfils employed in the facrifices are of up facrifices ; taking occafion at the fame time to gold, and cannot, be applied to any other purpofe ; fliow himfelf to his people, and to inform himfelf of even the inftruments of mufic are of enormous magtheir wants. This cuftmn fubfifted for a long time j nitude, and never ufed anywhere elfe. All this granbut at length it was found convenient to add a fifth deur, however, ferves only to difplay in a more emimountain in the centre of the empire; and ever fince nent manner the humility and abalement of the mothefe have been called the five 2o, or the five moun- narch during his devotion ; at which time he rolls in tains of facrifice. This method of fubjecting the em- the duff, and fpeaks of himfelf before the Chang-ti in peror to regular annual journeys could not but be at- terms of the moli afcjeff fubmiffion and humiliation. tended with many inconveniencies. It was found necefThe purity of the ancient Chinefe religion has, Sea^ fary on this account to confecrate fome fpot in the ho wever, been long contaminated by many idolatrous Tao-ffe. neighbourhood of his palace, which might be fubfti- and fanatical feds. Among thefe, one named Tao-Jfe tuted for the To upon all occafions when the emperor was founded by a philofopher called Lao hiun or Laocould not repair to them. An edifice was therefore tfe, who was born 603 B. C. He died in an advanced erefted, which at once reprefented the Kiao, Tan, and age, leaving-to his diftiples a book entitled Tao te, bethe Hall of ancejlors. This lafl was a neceffary part ing a col led ion of 5000 fentences. His morality has of the edifice ; becaufe it was incumbent on thofe who a great refemblance to that of Epicurus. It confifts offered up facrifices, firft to repair to this hall, and ac- principally in banilhing all vehement defires and pafquaint their anceflors with what they were about to fions capable of diflurbing the peace and tranquillity perform ; and thither alfo they returned after facrifi- of the foul. According to him, the care of every wife cing, to thank the fame anceflors for the protection man ought to be only to endeavour to live free from they had received from the Chang-ti ; after which they grief and pain, and to glide gently down the ftream offered up a facrifice of thankfgiving in honour of them, of life devoid of anxiety and care. To arrive at this and performed certain other ceremonies to (how their happy Hate he advifes his followers to banifli all thoughts refpect. The building contained five feparate halls, of the paft, and to abltain from every vain and ufelefs appropriated to different purpofes ; originally it had inquiry concerning futurity, as well as all tormenting neither paintings nor ornaments of any kind, and a thoughts of ambition, avarice, &c. It was found by ftaircsfe of nine fteps conducted to the principal en- the difciples of this philofopher, however, that all their trance. Afterwards, however it was much more rich- endeavours to obtain a perfed tranquillity of mind ly ornamented, each of the five halls being decorated were vain, as long as the thoughts of death intervened ; with columns, over which others were placed that fup- they therefore declared it poffible to difcover a compoported a fecond roof. In fucceeding times it was drip- fition from which drink might be made that would renped of all its ornaments, with a view to bring back re- der mankind immortal. Hence they were led to the ligion to its primitive fimplicity. Its four gates w’ere ftudy of chemiftry ; and, like the weftern alchemills, covered with fine mofs, reprefenting the branches of wearied themfelves in fearch of the philofopher’s ftone, which the double fence of the ancient Kiao were form- until at laft they gave themfelves up to all the extravaed. The ridge of the roof was covered with the fame, gancies of magic. and the whole was eneompaffed by a canal filled with The defire of avoiding death, together with the water at the time of offering up the facrifices. To credulity natural to unenlightened minds, quickly this a fecond building was added, which they called produced a number of converts to the fed of Tao /fe. the temple of neatnefs, and which was ufed only for pu- Magical pradices, the invocation of fpirits, and the rifications and ceremonies, the former being entirely art of foretelling events by divination, quicklv difFufed confecrated to the worfhip of the Chang-ti. themfelves over the empire, and the imbecility of the At prefent there are only two temples in Peking, emperors contributed to propagate the deception. named the Tian tan and the Titan; in the conftruc- Temples confecrated to fpirits quickly reared their tion of which all the elegance of Chinefe architedlure is heads in every corner of the empire ; and two of the difplaved. Thefe are both dedicated to the Chang-ti, moft celebrated of the fed were authorized to maintain but under different titles ; in the one he is adored as public worfhip there after the form which had been the eternal fpirit; in the other, as the creator and pre- prefcribed by their mafter. At the fame time they ferver of the world. The ceremonies of the modern diftributed and fold at a dear rate, images of the imafacrifices are greatly multiplied ; and nothing can ex- ginary fpirits with which they had peopled the heavens ceed the fplendour and magnificence with which thefe and the earth. Thefe were, by their command, worfolemnities are performed. Sometimes before the day fhipped as fo many deities independent of the Supreme appointed for the grand ceremony, the monarch, the Being : and in like manner, feveral of the ancient emgrandees of the court, and all thofe whom ►heir em- perors were invoked as gods. ployments qualify to affift at the folemnity, prepare Being patronized by the emperors of feveral dynaftieSj

CHI [ 29 ] CHI China, nafties, this (eft became more and more powerful. ffiort, that all things had proceeded from a vacuum China, —-y-—-' At laft they had the impudence to affix, during the and nothing, and to that they muft return. This doc- ~y— night-time, to one of the gates of the imperial city, trine produced a correfponding mode of a£lion, or raa book filled with myflic characters and magical fi- ther of ina&ion, in thofe who believed it: for thus the gures. At break of day they informed the emperor great happinefs of man was made to confift in abfolute of the fudden appearance of this book, and publicly annihilation : and therefore the nearer he could bring declared that it was fallen from heaven. This trick himfelf to this ftate during life, the happier he Avas eafily impofed upon the weak prince. He immediate- fuppofed to be. ly repaired, with a numerous train, to the fpot where The common do£lrine, however, which admits of a the facred volume appeared j and having taken it into diftindlion between good and evil, finds more profehis hands in a refpedtful manner, carried it in triumph lytes among the vulgar, whofe fituation in life will not to his palace, where he ffiut it up in a, golden box. allow them to fpend their time in perpetual idlenefs. Another emperor carried his reverence for the fe£t to According to this, the righteous will be rewarded and fuch a height of impiety and extravagance, as to or- the wicked puniffied after death. They fay alfo, that der a celebrated Tao JJe to be publicly worffiipped un- the god Fo came to fave mankind, and to expiate their der the name of Chang-ti. The feCt thus patronized fins j and that he alone can procure them a happy reby the princes, and accommodated to the credulity of generation in the life to come. Five precepts are the vulgar, continued to gain ground in fpite of every likewife inculcated on thofe who adopt this do£lrine: oppofition from the wifer part of the people, and is I. Not to kill any living creature $ 2. Not to take fliJI very powerful in China. At prefent they offer away the goods of another^ 3. Not to pollute themup three different viClims, a hog, a fowl, and a fiffi, to felves by uncleannefs $ 4. Not to lie ; and, 5. Not to a fpirit whom they invoke. Various ceremonies, fuch drink wine. Above all, they recommend to them to as howling, drawing fantaftical figures upon paper, ma- perform afts of mercy, to treat their bonzes Avell, build king a hideous noife with kettles and drums, are ufed temples, &c. in their incantations ; and though it may readily be The doftrine of metempfyehofis has introduced into believed that they are for the moft part unfuccefsful, China an infinite number of idols, who are all worffiipyet their credit is ftill kept up by thofe cafes in which ped on the fuppofition that the fpirit of Fo has tranfthey fucceed by accident. migrated into the animals they reprefent. Thefe idols, The chief of the Tao-Jfe is inverted by government however, feem not to be worffiipped Avith great finwith the dignity of grand mandarin, which is enjoyed cerity j but, like the images of faints in the more fuby his fucceffors : he refides in a fumptuous palace in perftitious countries of Europe, are beaten and thrown a town of Kiang-fi; and the fuperftitious confidence in the dirt Avhen their votaries happen not to obtain of the people attracts an immenfe number thither from their defires, Avhich they impute to the obitinacy or all parts of the empire. Some arrive in order to be weaknefs of the idol. Nay, M. Grofier gives an accured of difeafes, others to get an inlight into futurity. count of one man, Avho having ineffcftually paid a fum The importer dillributes to them fmall bits of paper fill- of money to the bonzes of a certain idol for the cure of ed with magical charadters $ and the ignorant wretches his daughter, brought a formal accufation againft the depart well fatisfied, without grudging the expence of idol himfelf; and in fpite of all that the bonzes could 104 their journey, though ever fo long. its behalf, got its Worffiip fuppreffed throughout Of the wor- A ftill more pernicious and mure widely diffufed fedl fay inprovince. ,0j flnppers of js that of the idol Fo, which came originally from In- theThe bonzes of China are reprefented as a moft ava* Bad .ha-of dia. The Tao-Jfe had promifed to the brother of one ricious and hypocritical race of men, ready to pradlifera* llead of being the ignorant fuperflitious race already pofe they are furnifhed with large leaves of paper, on defcribed, they ought to be the moft intelligent people which are written or printed with red ink very big in the world. The book of ceremonies diredis the edu- characters ; and all they are required to do is to cover cation of a child to commence as foon as it is born, thofe red characters with black ink, and to follow exand defcribes exadlly the qualities which its nurfe actly their ftvape and figure ; which infenfibly accufought to have. She. muft fpeak little, adhere ftridlly toms them to form the different ftrokes. After this to truth, have a mild temper, behave with affability they are made to trace other characters, placed under to her equals, and with refpedl; to her fuperiors. The the paper on which they write. Thefe are black, and child is taught to ufe the right hand as foon as it can much fmaller than the other. It is a great advantage put its hand to its mouth, and then it is weaned. At to the Chinefe literati to be able to paint charafters fix years of age, if a male, he is taught the numbers well ; and on this account they beftow great pains in molt in ufe, and made acquainted with the names of forming the hands of young people. This is of the the principal parts of the. world) at feven? he is fepa- utmoft confequence to literary fludepts ip the. examinations CHI

CHI CHI [3 2 ] tons, placed at a little didance from one another. The china, iMiina. 1 naiions which tiiey are obliged to undergo before they V’"’— can be admitted to the fiift degree. Du Halde gives deeves are wide towards the dioulder, growing narrow- * ■■■ v ■■■■■*< a remarkable in dance, viz. that “ a candidate for de- er as they approach the wrid, where they terminate in grees having, contrary to order, made ufe of an ab- the form of a horfe dine, covering the hands entirely, breviation in writing the charader wrt, which fignifies and leaving nothing but the ends of the fingers to be .. a horfe, had the mortification of feeing his compofi- feen. Round their middle they wear a large girdle tion, though in other refpecls excellent, rejected merely of filk, the ends of which hang down to their knees. on that account ; befides being feverely rallied by the From this giidle is fufpended a dieath containing a mandarin, who told him a horle could not walk unlefs knife and two of thofe fmall dicks which they ufe as forks. Below this robe they wear a pair of drawers, he had all his legs.” After the fcholar has made himfelf mailer of the in fummer made of linen, and in winter ot latin lined characters, he is then allowed to compofe j but the with fur, fometimes of cotton, and in dime of the fubjeCt of his compofition is pointed out to him only northern provinces of fkins. Thefe are fometimes coby one word. Competitions are likewife eltablilhed vered with another pair of white taffety. Their darts in China, but molt of them are of a private nature. are always very Ibort and wide, of different kinds of Twenty or thirty families, who are all of the fame cloth, according to the feafon. Under thefe they wear name, and who confequently have only one hall for a filk net to prevent it from adhering to the Ikin. In the names of their anceftors, agree among themfeives warm weather they have their necks always bare j to fend their children twice a month to this hall in or- when it is cold, they wear a collar made of liik and der to compofe. Each head of a family in turn gives fable, or fox’s Ikin, joined to their robe, which in winthe fubjeCl of this literary conteft, and adjudges the ter is trimmed with th »pfkin, or quilted with iilk and prize •, but this cods him a dinner, which he mud caufe cotton. That of people oi quality is entirely lined to be carried to the hall of competition. A fine of about with beautiful fable fkins brought from Tartary, or tenpence is impofed on the parent of each fcholar who with the fined fox’s fkin, trimmed with fable j and in the fpring it is lined with ermine. Above their robe abfents himfelf from this exercife. Befides thefe private competitions, every dudent is they wear alfo a kind of furtout with wide fleeves, but obliged to compete at lead twice a-year under the in- very Ihort, which is lined in the fame manner. The fpeCtion of an inferior mandarin of letters dyled Hio- emperor and princes of the blood only have a right to kouctn. It frequently happens alfo, that the mandarins wear yellow ; certain mandarins have liberty to wdar of letters order thefe dudents to be brought before fatin of a red ground, but only upon days of ceremony : them, to examine the progrefs they have made in their in general they are clothed in blw k, blue, or violet. ftudies, to excite a fpirit of emulation among them, and The common people are allowed i > wear no other comake them give fuch application as may quality them lours but blue or black ; and their drefs is always comfor any employment in the date. Even the governors pofed of plain cotton cloth. Formerly the Chinefe were at great pains to pre-Chinefe of cities do not think it below their dignity to take oh e this care upon themfeives j ordering all thofe dudents fcrve their hair ; but the Tartars, who fubdued tbem, hg d who refide near them to appear before their tribunal compelled them to cut off the greater part of it, and once a month : the author of the bed competition is alter the form of their clothes after the Tartar fadrion. tjieu. hair< honoured with a prize, and the governor treats all the This revolution in drefs was not effefted without bloodcandidates on the day of compofition at his own ex- died, though the conquerors at the lame time adopted pence. In every city, town, and village in China, in other refpefts the laws, manners, and cuftoms of the there are fehoolmaders who teach fuch fpiences as are conquered people. Thus the Chinefe are painted as known in that country. Parents poffeffed of a certain if bald, but they are not fo naturally : that frnall porfortune provide maders for their children, to attend tion of hair which they preferve behind, or on the and indraft them, to form their minds to virtue, and tops of their heads, is all that is now allowed them. to initiate them in the rules of good breeding and the This they wear very long, and plait like a tail. In accudomed ceremonies, as well as to make them ac- fummer they wear a kind of cap diaped like an invertquainted with the laws and hidory, if their age will ed cone, lined with fatin, and covered with ratan or admit. Thefe maders have, for the mod part, at- cane very prettily wrought. The. top terminates in a tained to one or two degrees among the literati, and not point, to which they fix a tuft of red hair, which unfrequently arrive at the find employments of the date. fpreads over it, and covers it to the brim. This hair The education of the Chinefe women is confined to grows between the legs of a kind of cow, and is cagiving them a tade for folitude, and accudoming pable of taking any colour, efpecially a deep red. This them to modedy and filence j and if their parents are ornament is much ufed, and any perfon who choofes rich, they are likewife indrufted in fuch accomplith- may wear it. The mandarins and literati wear a cap of the fame ments as may render them agreeable to the other fex. 1X1 irefs. There is little didinftion in China between the or- form as the foregoing, only it is lined with red fatin, dinary drefs of men and women. Rank and dignity and covered on the outfide with white. A large uift are didinguilhed by certain acceffary ornaments; and of the fineft red filk is fixed over it, which is fuffered the perfon would be feverely ehadifed who diould pre- to hang down or wave with the wind. Peopie of di- fume to affume them without being properly authori- ftinftion generally ufe the common cap when they zed. The drefs in general confids of a long ved which mount on horfebaek or during bad weather j being reaches to the ground. One part of this ved, viz. better calculated to keep off rain, and Ihelter thofe that on the left fide, folds over the other, and is faden- who wear it from the rays of the fun. F >r winter ed to the right by four or five fmall gold or filver hut- they have another cap bordered with fable, ermine, or fox’s

CHI [ S3 1 CHI Ghina. fox’s ikin, and ornamented with a tuft of filk like the grow. So prevalent is the force of cuftom, however, l china. former. In thefe fur-trimmings they are very curious, that as the child grows up flie voluntarily fubmits to —-~v fometimes expending 40 or 50 ounces of filver upon new tortures, in order to accomplilh the purpofe more effe&ually. Thus the Chinefe women are deprived althem. The Chinefe people of rank never go abroad with- moft entirely of the ufe of their feet; and are fcarce out boots made of fatin or fome other filk, and fome- able to walk, in the moft awkward hobbling manner, for times of cotton, but always dyed. They have neither the fhortcft fpace. The ftioe of a full grown Chinefe heel nor top, and are made to fit the foot with the woman will frequently not exceed fix inches. greateft exa£lnefs. When they travel on horfeback, The Chinefe ufe white as the Colour proper for however, they have others made of the (kin of a cow mourning j and though a fon cannot wear this while or horfe made very pliable. Their boot-ftockings are his father and mother are alive, he can ufe no other of filk fluff, quilted and lined with cotton, reaching for three years after their death j and ever afterwards above the top of their boot, and ornamented with a his clothes muft be of one colour. The law has forborder of velvet or cloth. In fummer they wear a bidden the ufe of filk and furs to children $ and has cooler kind, and in their houfes a fort of flippers made even prefcribed the time when they are firft to wear a of filk fluff. The common people are contented with cap. This is put upon their heads by the mafter of black flippers made of cotton cloth. The fan is alfo a ceremonies himfelf, who addreffes them in the followneceffary appendage of the Chinefe drefs, and is rec- ing manner : “ Confider that you now receive the drefs of thofe who have attained to maturity, and that koned equally neceffary with the boots. The drefs of the women confifts of a long robe quite you ceafe to be children j renounce, therefore, all childclofe at top, and long enough to cover even their toes, ilh thoughts and inclinations, affume a grave and fewith fleeves fo long that they could hang down upon rious deportment, apply with refolution to the ftudy the ground, did they not take care to tuck them up 5 of virtue and wifdom, and endeavour to merit a long but their hands are feldom feen. The colour of their and happy life.” “ This ceremony (fays M. Grofier), dreffes is entirely arbitrary, but black and violet are which may appear trifling, is attended with the hapgenerally chofen by thofe advanced in life. The young pieft effefta. The Chinefe give a kind of importance ladies, like thofe of Europe, make ufe of paint to give to every thing which can infpire youth with a tafte for a bloom to their complexions j but this, though not morality and a love of good order. It might be ufethe fame with the kind ufed in Europe, agrees with it ful to mankind at every fixed epocha of their lives, to in the effeft of foon wrinkling the fkin. Their gene- remind them of thofe new duties impofed by each fucral head-drefs confifts in arranging their hair in feveral ceflive change j but, by uniting the folemnity of a pucurls, among which are interfperfed fmall tufts of gold blic ceremony to this inftruftion, it will make a deeper or filver flowers. According to Du Halde, fome of impreflion, and remain much longer imprinted on their them ornament their heads with the image of a fabulous memories.” bird, concerning which many ftories are told. This Nothing can appear more irkfome to an European Exceffive is made of copper or filver gilt, its wings extended and than the multitude of ceremonies ufed on all occafions0ceremonilying pretty clofe to the head-drefs, embracing the up- by the Chinefe. An invitation to an entertainment is ?fn®^.lof per part of their temples, while the long fpreading not fuppofed to be given with fincerity until it haSp f ’ tail forms a kind of plume on the top of the head. Its been renewed three or four times in writing. A card e e< body is dire&ly over the head, and the neck and bill is fent on the evening before the entertainment, anohang down, the former being joined to the body by a ther on the morning of the appointed day, and a third concealed hinge, in order that it may play freely, and when every thing is prepared and the guefts ready to move about on the leaft motion of the head. The fit down to the table. The mafter of the houfe alwhole bird adheres to the head by means of the claws, ways introduces his guefts into the hall, where he fawhich are fixed in the hair. lutes them one after another. He then orders wine to Ladies of quality fometimes wear feveral of thefe be brought him in a fmall cup made of filver, porcebirds made up into a fingle ornament, the workmanftiip lain, or precious wood, and placed upon a fmali varof which is very expenfive. Young ladies wear alfo a nifhed falver. He lays hold of it with both his hands, . crown made of pafteboard, the fore part of which rifes makes a bow to all the furrounding guefts, and advanin a point above the forehead, and is covered with ces towards the fore part of the hall, which generally jewels. The reft of the head is decorated with natural looks into a large court. He there raifes his eyes and or artificial flowers, among which fmall diamond pins the cup towards heaven; after which he pours the are interfperfed. The head-drefs of the ordinary clafs on the ground, He afterwards pours fome wine of women, efpecially when they are advanced in years, wine into a filver or porcelain cup, makes a bow to the moft confifts only of a piece of very fine filk wrapped round confiderable perfon in company, and then goes to place their heads. I13 the cup on the table before him ; for in China every Abfurdcuf. All authors agree, that an abfurd cuftom prevails gueft has a table for himfelf. The perfon for whom pr t rou out he intends this honour, however, generally faves him ventlrf j®6‘ ^311 8 S^n China, of confining the feet of female in- the manner trouble of placing the cup $ calls for wine in his * *to nearatheir never allowed maleoffein- ^grow full that fize.theyTheare fmallnefs of theirto turn, and offers to place the cup on the mafter’s table, fants from feet is accounted fuch a valuable beauty, that the Chiwho to prevent him, with a thoufand apogrowing. nefe women never think they can pay too dear for it. logiesendeavours and compliments according to the rules of ChiAs foon therefore as a female infant is born, the nurfe nefe politenefs. domeftic condudls the wraps up its feet in very tight bandages ; and this principal gueft to Aan fuperior elbow-chair covered with rich torture muft be endured until their feet have ceafed to flowered filk, where the ftranger again begins his comV-OL. VI. Part I. E • pliments,

China,

CHI [ 34 ] CHI pliments, and begs to be excufed from fitting in fuch drink no green), is taken in the morning, and thrown China, an honourable feat, which neverthelefs he acct pts of; into a veffel adapted to the number in family. This""Y"** and all the reft of the guefts do the fame, otherwife the ftands till milk-warm j in which ftate it is kept the cermonial would be gone through with each of them. whole day, and a cup drank now and then without The entertainment is concluded by fome theatrical re- fugar or milk, in order to exhilarate the fpirits when prefen tations, accompanied with the mufic of the coun- exhaufted by fatigue: and if a ftranger call by accident, try 5 which, however, would give but little pleafure or a vifitor by appointment, the firft thing prefented, to an European. Befides the guefts, a certain num- after the ufual ceremonies of meeting, is a very fmall ber of people are admitted into the court in order to pipe filled with tobacco of their owm growth, and a cup behold thefe theatrical reprefentations $ and even the of the tea already mentioned, or of fome freftt made women are allowed to view them through a wicket, of better quality, together with fweetmeats, &c. Tea contrived fo that they may behold them without being is the daily beverage in China, and is drank by all ranks of people. feen themfelves. The entertainments of the Chinefe are begun, not Some change has been made in the ceremonial of by eating, but by drinking ; and the liquor they drink the Chinefe by the Tartar conqueft, and fome new muft always be pure wine. The intendant, or maitre dithes alfo introduced by the fame means; and here d'hotel, falling down on one knee, firft invites the M. Grofier obferves, that the Tartars are much better guefts to take a glafs ; on which each of therri lays cooks than the Chinefe. All their difties are highly hold with both hands of that which is placed before feafoned ; and by a variation in the proportions of him, raifing it as high as the forehead, then bringing their fpiceries, they are able to form a variety of difties it lower down than the table, and at laft putting it to out of the fame materials. None of their viands, his mouth : they all drink together, and very {lowly, however, are more efteemed than flags finews, and the taking three or four draughts. While they are drink- nefts of a particular fpecies of birds, which have the ing, the difties on each of the tables are removed, and property of giving a moft agreeable relifh to whatothers brought in. Each of the guefts has twenty- ever is mixed w'ith them. Other difties are introdufour fet before him in fucceflion ; all of them fat, and ced at thefe repafts, which would be accounted very in the form of ragouts. They never ufe knives in their difagreeable with us j fuch as the flefh of wild horfes, repafts j and two fmall pointed fticks, ornamented the paws of a bear, and the feet of feveral wild with ivory or filver, ferve them inftead of forks. They animals. The greater part of thefe provifions are never begin to eat, however, until they are invited by brought preferved in fait from Siam, Camboya, and the maitre d'hotel; and the fame ceremony muft be Tartary. . _ ,IS gone through every time they are going to take a cup The wines of China have no refemblance to ours Chinefe wines of wine, or begin a new difti. Towards the middle either in tafte or quality, being procured from rice, * of the entertainment the foup is brought in, accom- and not from the vine. A particular kind of rice is panied with fmall loaves or meat pies. Thefe they employed for making them, and the grain is fteeptake up with their fmall fticks, fteep them in the ed for 20 or 30 days in water, into which ingredients {bup, and eat them without waiting for any fignal, or of a different nature are fucceffively thrown : they afbeing obliged to keep time with the reft of the guefts. terwards boil it; and as foon as it becomes diffolved The entertainment, however, continues in other re- by the heat, it immediately ferments, and throws fpe&s with the utmoft formality until tea is brought up a vaporous fcum not unlike new wine. A very in; after which they retire from table and amufe pure liquor is found under this fcum, which is drawn themfelves in another hall, or in the garden, for a ftiort off and put into veffels well glazed : From the retime, until the deffert be brought in. This, like the maining leys an inflammable fpirit is made, little inentertainment itfelf, confifts of 24 diflies, which are ferior, and fometimes even fuperior to the Euromade up of fweetmeats, fruits differently prepared, pean. Another kind of wine is ufed by the Chinefe, hams and falted ducks which have been baked or dried or rather Tartars, called lamb wine. It is very ftrong, in the fun, with fliell and other kinds of fifti. The and has a difagreeable fmell j and the fame may be fame ceremonies which preceded the repaft are now believed of a kind of fpirit diftilled from the flefh renewed, and every one fits down at the fame place of (beep ; though this laft is fometimes ufed by the he occupied before. Larger cups are then brought emperors. in, and the matter invites the guefts to drink more Thefe entertainments exceed the bounds of ordinary freely. repafts ; the Chinefe being naturally fober, and thofe Thefe entertainments begin towards evening, and in eafy circumftances living chiefly on pork ; for which never end till midnight. A fmall fum of money is reafon a great number of hogs are. bred in the country. given to the domeftics; when every one of the guefis ’I heir flefh is much eafier of digeftion, and more agreegoes home in a chair preceded by feveral fervants, able to the tafte than thofe of Europe. The Chinefe who carry large lanthorns of oiled paper, on which hams are in high eftimation. The common people are infcribed the quality, and fometimes the name, live very poorly ; being fatisfied, in time of fcarcity, of the mafter. Without fuch an attendance they with the fleftr of dogs, horfes, cats, and rats, which would be taken up by the guard ; and the day follow- laft are fold publicly in the ftreets. 1 here are feveral public feftivals annually celebrated Public fefr ing they never fail to return a card of thanks to the officer. in China. One is that already mentioned, in whichtlvals’ Their method of drinking tea is not like that of the emperor tills the ground with his own hands. This other nations. A fmall quantity of bohea, fufficient is alfo celebrated on the fame day throughout the emto tinge the water and render it palatable (for they pire. In the morning the governor of every city comes forth

CHI C 35 3 CHI China, forth from his palace crowned with flowers, and en- as if it were a real ferpent. During the fame feftival chin*, -‘-“v—"”' ters his chair amidft the noife of different inftruments all the varieties of the Chinefe fire-works, fo juftly ad- —v—. which precede it; a great number of people attend- mired, and which, fome time ago at leaft, furpaffed ing, as is ufual on all fuch occafions. The chair is every thing of the kind that could be done in Europe, furrounded by litters covered with filk carpets, on are exhibited. Every publifc ceremony in China is carefully ren-Magnifiwhich are reprefented either fome illuftrious perfons who have fupported and encouraged agriculture, or dered as linking as poflible. A viceroy never quitsc tl5 rate from the origin to the confummation of nature, the teftimonies of fenfe, but can never refute them. ® 7 was obvious at a glance of thought. If, therefore, our fenfes inform us that fnow is white, chriftianiNatural It has already been hinted, that the fa&s which we in vain would the moft learned and fubtile philofopher ty. ca e< natt endeavour to convince us, that it was of a contrary and how*31’ ^aV6uman ^ ^ *ral, not only agree with the analogy colour. He might confound, but never could perconducive events, and corroborate each other, a ^ to the elu- great many emergencies nobly illuftrate the but hifioryin fuade us. Such changes, therefore, as appear to hapcidatiou of of nature in general. For this a Chriftian might offer pen in fenfible objefts, muft either be real or fallaci•biftory. one'mfiance, of which pbilofophy will not perhaps be ous. If real, the miracle is admitted ; if fallacious, able to produce any tolerable folution, without having there muft be a caufe of deception equally unaccountrecourfe to the fads upon which Chrifiianity is found- able from the powers of nature, and therefore equally ed. For if mankind were originally defeended from miraculous. If the veracity or competency of the one pair alone, how ftiould it have happened that long witneffes be queftioned, the Chriftian anfwers, that before the date of authentic hiftory every nation had they muft be competent, becaufe the fafts which they its own diftimfi language ? Or, if it be fuppofed, as relate are not beyond their capacity to determine. fome late philofophers have maintained, that man is They muft likewife be faithful, becaufe they had no an indigenous animal iji every country ; or, that he fecular motives for maintaining, but many for fupprefwas originally produced in, and created for, each par- fing or difguifing, what they teftified. Now the Chrifticular foil and climate which he inhabits j ftill it may tian appeals to the whole feries of hiftory and expebe demanded, whence the prodigious multiplicity, the rience, whether fuch a man is or can be found, as will immenfe diverfity of languages ? Is the language of offer a voluntary, folemn, and deliberate facrifice of Ia every nation intuitive, or were they dictated by exi- truth at the ftirine of caprice. But fuch fads as after Prophecy gences, and eftabliftied by convention ? If the laft of a long continuance of time have been found exafllyitsown evident by thefe fuppofitions be true, what an immenfe period of agreeable to predifb'ons formerly emitted, muft fu_ natime muft have paffed l How many revolutions ofr perfede the fidelity of teftimony, and infallibly prove material and intelle£hial nature muft have happened , that the event was known to the Being by whom hits vehiWhat acceflions of knowledge, refinement, civiliza- was foretold. ^ In vain it has been urged, that prophe-cle*. tion, muft human intercourfe have gained before the cies are ambiguous and equivocal. For though they formation and eftablilhment even of the moft fimple, may prefigure fubordinate events, yet if the grand ocimperfeft, and barbarous language ! Why is a period currences to which they ultimately relate, can alone fo vaft obliterated fo entirely as to efcape the retrofpeft fulfil them in their various circumftances, and in their of hiftory, or tradition, and even of fable itfelf ? Why utmoft extent, it is plain, that the Being by whom was the acquifition and improvement of other arts fo they were revealed muft have been a&ually prefeient infinitely diftant from that of language, that the era of of tbofe events, and muft have had them in view when the latter is entirely loft, whilft we can trace the for- the. prediaions were uttered. For this fee a learned 4 and

1 ] C H R C H R [ 61 fuccefsful. Hence the heterogeneous and irreconcile- chriftiaand ingenious Diflertation on the Credibility of GofChriftianity. pel-hiftory, by Dr M‘Knight 5 where the evidences able principles which operate in his nature. Hence rnty. urged by the Chriftian in defence of his tenets, which that inexplicable medley of wifdom and folly, of recappear detached and fcattered through innumerable titude and error, of benevolence and malignity, of volumes, are aflembled and arranged in fuch a manner fincerity and fraud, exhibited through his whole conas to derive ftrength and luftre from the method in du Is it not, fays the Chriltian, equalapplied to the miferies of a future ftate denotes dura- lyterior worthy of the divine interpofition to rcftore order tion without end, and they alfert that all the judgehappinefs where they are loft, as to communicate ments infli&ed on nations and individuals here upon and them where they never have been ? Is not infinite earth, are manifeftly the ehaftifements of a father for goodnefs equally confpicuous in relieving mifery as in the recovery of delinquents, in which light they alfo diffufing happinefs ? Is not the exiftence of what we confider the punilhments to be infli&ed in the world call evil in the world, under the tuition of an infiniteto come. It is our province to give a candid ftatement ly perfect Being, as infcrutable as the means exhibited of both fides of a queftion, leaving it to our readers to by Chriftianity for its abolition ? Vicarious punilbform a judgment for themfdves. T4 ment, imputed guilt and righteoufnefs, merit or deChriftian The two grand principles of adlion, according to transferred, are certainly not lefs reconcileable morality, the Chriftian, are, The love of God, which is the fove- merit reafon, a priori, than the exiftence of vice reign paflion in every perfeft mind j and the love of toandhuman punilhment in the productions of infinite wifdom, man, which regulates our actions according to the va- power, and goodnefs: when it is conrious relations in which we ftand, whether to commu- fidered, that the virtuesparticularly and difplayed by a nities or individuals. This facred conne&ion can ne- perfeft Being in a Hate ofexerted humiliation fuffering, ver be totally extinguilhed by any temporary injury. muft be meritorious, and may therefore and It ought to fubfift in fome degree even amongft ene- by the reftored felicity of inferior creaturesbe inrewarded propormies. It requires that we fhould pardon the offences tion to their glory and excellence 5 and that fuch meof others, as we expeft pardon for our own j and that rit may apply (he blelfings which it has defervcd, in we fhould no farther refill evil than is neceffary for the whatever manner, in whatever degree, and to whom. prefervation of perfonal rights and focial happinefs. foever it pleafes, without being under any necefiity to violate

e h r C H R [ 63 1 Chriftia- violate the freedom of moral agents, in recalling them tation between this and any other religion extant, he Chriftiamty. to the paths of virtue and happinefs by a mechanical could freely truft the determination of a queftion fo nity. * ■ ancJ irrefiltible force. important to the candid decifion of real virtue and imMiracu^ granted to philofophy by the Chrillian, partial philofophy. It mud be allowed that the utmoft extent of human lous as pof- that as no theory of mechanical nature can be formed fib!e, ■tnd without prefuppofing facred and eltablithed laws from inveftigation and refearch into the dodrine of a future perhaps as which file ought rarely if ever to deviate, fo in fad neceffary, ftie tenacioufly purfues thefe general inftitutions, and life, reached no farther than fplendid conjedure before the promulgation of Chriftianity, at which period life as natural from their con 11 ant obfervance refult the order and and immortality were clearly brought to light. It is events. regularity of things. But he cannot admit, that the therefore a fingular circumftance that the deift fhould • important ends of moral and intelledual improvement not perceive the wonderful fuperiority of the Chriftian may be uniformly obtained by the fame means. He over every other fyftem, if it had nothing elfe to boaft; affirms, that it the hand of God ffiould either remain of but this fingle dodrine, fo pregnant with unalloyed always entirely invitible, or at lead only perceptible felicity. If Chriftianity be falfe, the believer of it in the operation of fecond caufes, intelligent beings has nothing to lofe, fince it inculcates a mode of conwould be apt in the courfe of time to refolve the inter- dud which muft ever be amiable in the eye of infinite pofitions of Deity into the general laws of mechanifm $ goodnefs; but if it be true, he has every thing to gain : to forget his connexion with nature, and confequently while upon this hypothefis the deift has every thing to their dependence upon him. Hence, according to the lofe and nothing to gain. This is a momentous condidates of common fenfe, and to the unanimous voice fideration, and that man muft; be truly infatuated who of every religion in every age or clime, for the pur- can treat fuch an idea with contempt. pofes of wifdom and benevolence, God may not only Mr Gibbon, in his Hiftory of the Decline and Fall Mr ^b_ controul, but has adually controuled, the common of the Roman Empire, mentions five fecondary caufes bon atcourfe and general operations of nature. So that, as in to which he thinks the propagation of Chriftianity, tempts to the material world the law of cavfe and ej}e£l \s general- and all the remarkable circumftances which attended Prove>that ly and fcrupuloufly obferved for the purpofes of natu- it, may with good reafon be aferibed. He feems tol1't^of~ ral fubfiftence and accommodation: thus fufpenfes infinuate, that Divine Providence did not a£i in a fin-ohriftianiand changes of that univerfal law are equally neceflary guiar or extraordinary manner in diffeminating thetywasowfor the advancement of moral and intelledual perfec- religion of Jefus through the world ; and that, if every inS t0 caution. other argument which has been adduced to prove the I7 ChriftianiBut the difciple of Jefus not only contends, that no facred authority of this religion can be parried or re-JioV'of™ ty not only fyftem of religion has ever yet been exhibited fo con- futed, nothing can be deduced from this fource to pre- which no ar ument fiftent with the^heno co congruous to philofophy and the vent it from (haring the fame fate with other fyftems ang e e* mmon mena. but . mankind, as Chriftianity ; he like- of fuperftition. The caufes of its propagation w’ere in\ k, .^ " confoles wife avers that it is infinitely more produddve of real his opinion founded on the principles of human nature proof ofits the mife- and fenfible confolation than any other religious or and the circumftances of fociety. If we aferibe not authenti« nesofhu- philofophical tenets, which have ever entered into the the propagation of Mahometilm, or of the doflrines c‘ty* ture.na* fou1’ or keen applied to the heart of man. For what of Zerduft, to an extraordinary interpofition of Divine is death to that mind which confiders eternity as the Providence, operating by an unperceived influence on career of its exiftence ? WFat are the frowns of for- the difpofitions of tire human heart, and controuling tune to him who claims an eternal world as his inhe- and confounding the ordinary laws of nature $ neither ritance ? What is the lofs of friends to that heart can we, upon any reafonable grounds, refer the promulwhich feels, with more than natural convidion, that gation of Chriftianity to fuch an interpofition. it ffiall quickly rejoin them in a more tender, intimate, The fecondary caufes to which he aferibes thefe efand permanent intercourfe than any of which the pre- fe£ls are, 1. I he inflexible and intolerant zeal of the (^e cau“ fent life is fufceptible ? What are the fluduations and Chriftians j derived from the Jewifti religion, but puviciffitudes of external things to a mind which ftrongly rified from the narrow and unfocial fpirit which, inand uniformly anticipates a ftate of endlefs and immu- ftead of inviting, deterred the Gentiles from embracing table felicity ? What are mortifications, difappoint- the law of Mofes. 2. The do&rine of a future life, imments, and inluits, to a fpirit which is conlcious of be- proved by every additional circumftance which could ing the original offspring and adopted child of God ; give weight and efficacy to that important truth. which knows that its omnipotent Father will, in pro- 3. The miraculous powers aferibed to the primitive per^ time, effeduaily affert the dignity and privileges church. 4. The pure and auftere morals of the Chriof its nature ? In a word, as earth is but a fpeck of ftians. 5. The union and difeipline of the Chriftian creation, as time is not an inftant in proportion to republic, which gradually formed an independent and eternity, fuch are the hopes and profpeds of the Chri- increafing ftate in the heart of the Roman empire. fiian in comparifon of every fublunary misfortune or Before we enter on the examination of Mr Gibbon’s difficulty. It is therefore, in his judgment, the eternal caufes in the order in which they are here enumerated wonder of angels, and indelible opprobrium of man-, we beg leave to remark, that we cannot perceive the that a religion fo worthy of God, fo fuitable to the propriety of denominating fome of thefe fecondary frame and circumlfances of our nature, fo confonant caufes, fince the miraculous powers aferibed to the prito all the didates of reafon, fo friendly to the dignity mitive church, if they were real, muft have conftituted and improvement of intelligent beings, pregnant with a primary caufe, and if fallacious, could have been no genuine comfort and delight, fhould be rejeded and caufe at all, if not of its complete fubverfion. As litdeipifed. Were there a poflibility of fufpenfe or hefi- tle can we conceive how fuch an elegant and learned author,.

e H R [ 64 ] C H R C.hriftla- author could imagine a zeal ftri&ly and properly in* hot and intolerant, that they could have no focial inter- Chriftiadrxible and intolerant, as qualified to produce any courfe with thofe who ftill adhered to the worlhip of nity. v ' other effeft than the deftruftion of the fyftem which Heathen deities. In this cafe, how could they propathey are allowed to have been anxious to promote. gate their religion l Nay, we may even alk, How But our fentiment of thefe caufes afligned by Mr Gib- could they live ? If they could not mingle with the bon will be more fully developed as we proceed in our Heathens in the tranfaffions either of peace or war ; candid and impartial examination of them. nor witnefs the marriage or the funeral of the deareft 20 Caufe I. In pointing out the connexion between the JirJl of friend, if a heathen ; nor praffife the elegant arts of ? thefe caufes and the effefls which he reprefents as ari- mufic, painting, eloquence, or poetry ; nor venture to Jing from it, this learned and ingenious writer obferves, ufe freely in converfation the language of Greece or of that the religion of the Jews does not feem to have Rome ;—it is not eafy to fee what opportunities they been intended to be propagated among the Heathens, could have of difleminating their religious fentiments. and that the converfion of profdytes was rather acci- If, in fuch circumftances, and obferving rigidly fuch dental than confident with the purport of the general a tenor of conduff, they were yet able to propagate fpirit of the inftitutions of Judaifm. The Jews were, their religion with fuch amazing fuccefs as they are of confequence, ftudious to preferve themfelves a pecu- faid to have done ; they mult furely either have pracliar people. 'I heir zeal for their own religion was in- tifed fome wondrous arts unknown to us, or have tolerant, narrow, and unfocial. been aflifted by the fupernatural operation of divine In Chriftianity, when it made its appearance in the power. 'world, all the better part of the predominant fpirit of But all the hiftorical records of that period, whether Judaifm was retained; but whatever might have a facred or profane, concur to prove, that the primitive tendency to confine its influence within narrow limits Chriftians in general did not retire with fuch religious was laid afide. Chriilians were to maintain the doc- horror from all intercourfe with the Heathens. They trines and adhere to the conftitutions of their religion refufed not to ferve in the armies of the Roman emwith facred fidelity. They were not to violate their pire : they appealed to Heathen magiftrates, and fuballegiance to Jefus by entertaining or profefling any mitted refpe&fully to their decifion ; the hulhand was reverence for Jupiter or any other of the Heathen often a Heathen, and the wife a Chrittian ; or, again, deities; it was not even neceffary for them to comply the hufband a Chriftian, and the wife a Heathen. with the pofitive and ceremonial inftitutions of the Thefe are fads fo univerfally known and believed, that law of Mofes,—although thefe were acknowledged to we need not quote authorities in proof of them. have been of divine origin. The zeal, therefore, which This refpedable writer appears therefore not to their religion inculcated, was inflexible. It was even have ftated the fads wMeh he produces under this head intolerant: for they were not to content themfelves with fufficient ingenuoufnefs; and he has taken care to with profefling Chriftianity and conforming to its exaggerate and improve thofe which he thinks ufeful laws; they were to labour with unremitting afliduity, to his purpofe with all the dazzling and delufive colours and to expofe themfelves to every difficulty and every of eloquence.- But had the zeal of the firft Chriftians danger, in converting others to the fame faith. been fo intolerant as he reprefen ts it, it muft have But the fame circumftances which rendered it thus been, highly unfavourable to the propagation of their intolerant, communicated to it a more liberal and a religion : all their withes to make converts would, in lefs unfocial fpirit than that of Judaifm. The religion that cafe, have been counteraded by their unwillingof the Jews was intended only for the few tribes; Chri- nefs to mix in the ordinary intercourfe of life, with ftianity was to become a catholic religion ; its advan- thofe who were to be converted. Their zeal and the tages were to be offered to all mankind. liberal fpirit of their religion, were indeed fecondary All the different fefts which arofe among the pri- caufes which contributed to its propagation : but their mitive Chriftians uniformly maintained the fame zeal zeal was by no means fo ridiculoufly intoierant as this for the propagation of their own religion, and the fame writer would have us believe ; if it had, it muft have abhorrence for every other. The orthodox, the Ebi- produced effeds diredly oppofite to thofe which he r unites, the Gnoftics, were all equally animated with afcribes to it. ■the fame exclufive zeal, and the fame abhorrence of In illuftrating the influence of the fecond of thefe fe- Caufe II. :idolatry, which had diftinguiftied the Jews from other condary caufes to which he afcribes the propagation of nations. 21 Chriftianity, Mr Gibbon difplays no lefs ingenuity than ObfervaSuch is the general purport of what Mr Gibbon ad- in tracing the nature and the effeds of the firft. The tions in an- vances concerning the influence of the firft of thofe fe- dodrine of a future life, improved by every additional lwer ’ condary caufes in the propagation of Chriftianity. It circumftance which can give weight and efficacy to that would be uncandid to deny, that his ftatement of faffs important truth, makes a confpfcuous figure in the appears to be, in this inftance, almoft fair, and his de- Chriftian fyftem ; and it is a dodrine highly flattering ductions tolerably logical. The firft Chriftians were to the natural hopes and wifhes of the human heart. remarkable for their deteftation of idolatry, and for Though the Heathen philofophers wertypot unacthe generous difinterefted zeal with which they labour- quainted with this dodrine; yet to them the-fpiritued to convert others to the fame faith. The firft of ality of the human foul, its capacity of exiftence in a thefe principles, no doubt, contributed to maintain the feparate ftate from the body, its immortality, and its dignity and purity of Chriftianity ; and the fecond profped of lafting happinefs in a future life, rather to diffeminate it through the world. But the faffs appeared things poffible and defirable, than truths which he relates are fcarce confiflent throughout. He fully eftablidled upon folid grounds. Thefe dodrines, feems to reprefent the zeal of the firft Chriftians as fo Mr Gibbon would perfuade us, had no influence on the

C H R C H R [ 65 Chriftia the moral fentiments and general conduct of the Hea- event. Another circumftance which contributed to Chriftianity. thens. Even the philofophers, who amufed themfelves render the fame doftrine fo favourable to the propaga- nity. with difplaying their eloquence and ingenuity on thofe tion of Chriftianity was that the firft Chriftians dealt fplendid themes, did not allow them to influence the damnation without remorfe, and almoft without making tenor of their lives. The great body of the people, any exceptions, on all who died in the belief of the who were occupied in purfuits very different from the abfurdities of Heathen fuperftition. Thus taught, and fpeculations of philofophy, and were unacquainted with improved with thefe additional and heightened cirthe queftions difcufled in the fchools, were fcarce ever cumftances, this doftrine, partly by prefenting allurat pains to refleft whether they confifted of a material ing profpefts and exciting pleafing hopes, partly by and a fpiritual part, or whether their exiftence was to working upon the fears of the human heart with rebe prolonged beyond the term of the prefent life j and prefentations of terror, operated in the moft powerful they could not regulate their lives by principles which manner in extending the influence of the Chriftian they did not know. faith. 2 l Obferva3 Here, too, fafts are rather exaggerated, and the In the popular fuperftition of the Greeks and Romans, the do£lrine of a future ftate was not omitted. inferences fcarce fairly deduced. It muft be confeffed tions in at!Mankind were not only flattered with the hopes of that the fpeculations of the Heathen philofophers did^wer* 'continuing to exift beyond the term of the prefent not fully and undeniably eftablilh the doftrine of the life •, but different conditions of exiftence were promi- immortality of the human foul 5 nor can we prefume to fed or threatened, in which retributions for their con- affert, in contradiftion to Mr Gibbon, that their arguduff in human life vvere to be enjoyed or fuffered. ments could imprefs fuch a conviftion of this truth as Some were exalted to heaven, and affociated with the might influence in a very ftrong degree the moral fengods j others were rewarded with lefs illuftrious ho- timents and conduft. They muft, however, have pronours, and a more moderate ftate of happinefs, in duced fome influence on thefe. Some of the moft ilElyfium ; and thofe, again, who by their eondudl in luftrious among the Heathen philofophers appear to life had not merited rewards, but punifhments, were have been fo ftrongly impreffed with the belief of the configned to Tartarus. Such were the ideas of a fu- foul’s immortality, and of a future ftate of retribution, ture ftate which made a part of the popular fuperfti- that their general conduft was conftantly and in a high tion of the Greeks and Romans. But they produced degree influenced by that belief. Plato and Socrates only a very faint impreflion on the minds of thofe are eminent and well known inftances. And if, in among whom they prevailed. They were not truths fuch inftances as thefe, the belief of thefe truths profupported by evidence ; they were not even plaufible; duced fuch confpicuous effefts, it might be fairly inthey were a tiffue of abfurdities. They had not there- ferred, though we had no further evidence, that thofe fore a more powerful influence on the morals, than charafters were far from being Angular in this refpeft. the more refined fpeculations of the philofophers. It is a truth acknowledged as unqueftionable in the hiEven the Jews, whofe religion and legiflature were ftory of arts and fciences, that wherever any one percommunicated from heaven, were in general, till with- fon has cultivated thefe with extraordinary fuccefs, in a very (hort time before the propagation of the go- fome among his contemporaries will always be found fpel, as imperfeftly acquainted with the doflrine of a to have rivalled his excellence, and a number of them future ftate as the Greeks and Romans. This doflrine to have been engaged in the fame purfuits. On this made no part of the law of Mofes. It is but darkly occafion we may venture, without hefitation, to reafon and doubtfully inlinuated through the other parts of upon the fame principles. When the belief of the imthe Old Teftament. Thofe among the Jew's who mortality of the human foul produced fuch illuftrious treated the facred Scriptures with the higheft reve- patterns of virtue as a Plato and a Socrates, it muft rence, always denied that fuch a doftrine could be de- certainly have influenced the moral fentiments and conduced from any thing which thefe taught j and main- duft of many others, although in an inferior degree. tained that death is the final diffolution of man. We fpeculate, we doubt, concerning the truth of maThe rude tribes who inhabited ancient Gaul, and ny doftrines of Chriftianity j many who profefs that fome other nations not more civilized than they, en- they believe them, make this profeflion only becaufe tertained ideas of a future life, much clearer than they have never confidered ferioufly whether they be thofe of the Greeks, the Romans, or the Jews. true or falfe. But, notwithftanding this, thefe truths Chriftianity, however, explained and inculcated the ftill exert a powerful influence on the fentiments and truth of this doffrine in all its fplendour and all its manners of fociety in general. Thus, alfo, it appears dignity. It exhibited an alluring, yet not abfurd, view that the doftrines of ancient philofophy concerning a of the happinefs of a future life. It conferred new hor- future life, and even the notions concerning Olympus, rors on the place of punilhment, and added new feve- Elyfium, and Tartarus, which made a part of the pority to the tortures to be inflifted, in another world. pular fuperftition, did produce a certain influence on The authority on which it taught thofe do&rines, and the lentiments and manners of the Heathens in genedifplayed thefe views, was fuch as to filence inquiry and ral. That influence was often indeed inconfiderable, doubt, and to command implicit belief. What added and not always happy ; but ftill it was fomewhat to the influence of the doftrine of a future ftate of ex- greater than Mr Gibbon feems willing to allow. Chriiftence, thus explained and inculcated, was, that the ftians have been fometimes at pains to exaggerate the firft Chriftians confidently prophefied and fincerely be- abfurdities of Pagan fuperftition, in order that the adlieved that the end of the world, the confuramation of vantages of Chriftianity might acquire new value from all things, wras faft approaching, and that the genera- being contrafted with it. Here we find one who is ration then prefent fliould live to witnefs that awful ther difpofed to be the enemy of Chriftianity, difplayVol. VI. Part I. ln g

C H R [ 66 ] C H R an undue value j yet they appear to have been confi- ChrftliaGhriftia- ing, and even exaggerating, thofe abfurdities for a very nit y- different purpofe. But the truth may be fafely admit- dered as the mod: orthodox of the different fedls which nity. * '' ted ; it is only when exaggerated that it can ferve any prevailed among the Jews: the Sadducees were rather purpofe inimical to the facred authority of our holy re- regarded as innovators. But though we are of opinion, that this ingenious ligion. Mr Gibbon certainly reprefents the religious doftrine of the ancient Gauls, in refpedt to the immor- writer allows to the dodlrine of the Greek and Roman tality of the human foul and a future date, in too fa- philofophers, concerning the immortality of the human . vourable a light. It is only becaufe the whole fyftem foul, as well as the notices concerning a future ftate, of fuperftition which prevailed among the barbarians which made a part of the popular fuperftitions of thofe is fo imperfectly known, that it has been imagined to nations, lefs influence on the moral fentiments and conconfift of more fublime doCtrines than thofe of the po- dudt of mankind than what they really exerted ; though pular fuperftition of the Greeks and Romans. The we cannot agree with him in allowing the ideas of the evidence which Mr Gibbon adduces in proof of what immortality of the foul and of a future ftate, which he afferts concerning thefe opinions of the ancient were entertained by the Gauls and fome other rude Gauls, is partial, and far from fatisfaCtory. They did nations, to have been much fuperior in their nature, or indeed alfert and believe the foul to be immortal 5 but much happier in their influence, than thofe of the this doCtrine was blended among a number of abfurdi- Greeks and Romans j and though, in confequence of ties much grofler than thofe which characterize the reading the Old Teftament, we are difpofed to think popular religion of the Greeks and Romans. The lat- that the Jews knew fomewhat more concerning the imter was the fuperftition of a civilized people, among mortality of the human foul, and concerning the fuwhom reafon was unfolded and improved by cultiva- ture ftate in which human beings are deftined to exift, tion, and whofe manners were poliftied and liberal; the than Mr Gibbon reprefents them to have known : yet former was that of barbarians, among whom reafon was, ftill we are very fenftble, and very well pleafed to adas it were, in its infancy, and who were ftrangers to mit, that “ life and immortality were brought to light the improvements of civilization. When hafty obfer- through the gofpel.” vers found that thofe barbarians were not abfolutely The dodtrine of a future life, as it was preached by ftrangers to the idea of immorality, they were moved the firft Chriftians, was eftabliftitd on a more folid bato undue admiration ; their furprife at finding what lls than that on which it had been before maintained 5 they had not expeCled, confounded their underftanding, was freed from every abfurdity j and was, in fhort, fo and led them to mHconceive and mifreprefent. What much improved, that its influence, which, as it was we ought to afcribe to the favage ferocity of the cha- explained by Heathen poets and philofophers, muft be racter of thofe rude tribes, has been attributed by mif- confeffed to have been in many inftances doubtful, now take to the influence of their belief of a future ftate. became favourable only to the interefts of piety and In the law of Mofes, it mult be allowed, that this virtue, and to them in a very high degree. It undoftrine is not particularly explained nor earneftly in- doubtedly contributed to the fuccefsful propagation of culcated, The author of the Divine Legation of Chriftianity ; for it was calculated to attradl and pleafe Mofes, &c. has founded upon this faCt an ingenious both the fpeculating philofopher and the fimple unentheory, which we ftiall elfewhere have occafion to lightened votary of the vulgar fuperftition. The views examine. The reafons why this do&rine was not which it exhibited were diftindf \ and all was plaufible more fully explained to the Jews, we cannot pretend and rational, and demonftrated by the fulleft evidence. to aflign, at leaft in this place ^ yet we cannot help But the happinefs which it promifed was of a lefs fenthinking, that it was more generally known among fual nature than the enjoyments which the Heathens the Jews than Mr Gibbon and the author of the Di- expe&ed on Olympus or in Elyfium ; and would therevine Legation are willing to allow. Though it be fore appear lefs alluring to thofe who were not very not ftrongly inculcated in their code of laws, yet there capable of refined ideas, or preferred the gratifications is fome reafon to think that it was known and general- of the fenfes in the prefent life to every other fpecies of ly prevalent among them long before the Babylonith good. If the firft-'Chriftians rejoiced in the hope of captivity ; even in different paffages in the writings of beholding all the votaries of Pagan idolatry affli£ted Mofes, it is mentioned or alluded to in an unequivocal with the torments of hell in a future ftate, and boafted manner. In, the hiftory of the patriarchs, it appears of thefe hopes with inhuman exultation, they would in that this dodlrine was known to them; it appears to all probability rather irritate than alarm thofe whom have had a ftrong influence on the mind of Mofes they fought to convert from that fuperftition : the himfelf. Was David, was Solomon, a ft ranger to this Heathens would be moved to regard with indignant dodtrine ? We cannot here defcend to very minute fcorn the preacher who pretended that thofe whom particulars •, but furely all the efforts of ingenuity muft they venerated as gods, heroes, and wife men, were be infufficient to torture the facred Scriptures of the condemned to a ftate of unfpeakable and lafting torOld Teftament, fo as to prove that they contain no- ment. Would not every feeling of the heart revolt thing concerning the dodirine of a future ftate any- againft the idea, that a parent, a child, a huiband, a where but in the writings of the later prophets, and wife, a friend, a lover, or a miftrefs, but lately loft, that even in thefe it is only darkly infinuated. Were and ftill lamented, was configned to eternal torments the Jews, in the earlier part of their hiftory, fo totally for adtions and opinions which they had deemed highly fecluded from all intercourfe with other nations, that a agreeable to fuperior powers ? dodtrine of fo much importance, more or lefs known We may conclude, then, with refpedt to the into all around, could not be communicated to them ? fluence of this fecondary caufe in promoting the proThe Pharifees did admit traditions, and fet upon them pagation of Chriftianity? that the circumftances of the Heathen 3

C H R CHE [ 67 ] Chriftia- Heathen world were lefs favourable to that influence racles, were moft neceffary to Chriftians to enable them nity. than Mr Gibbon pretends; that the means by which to affert the truth and dignity of their religion. he reprefents the primitive Chriftians, as improving its The Heathens were no ftrangers to pretended miefficacy, were fome of them not employed, and others racles and prophecies, and other feeming interpofitions rather likely to weaken than to ftrengthen it; and that of fuperior beings, difturbing the ordinary courfe of therefore more is attributed to the operation of this nature and of human affairs : but the miracles to which caufe than it could poffibly produce. they were familiarized had been fo often detefted to Caufe III. The third caufe, the miraculous powers of the pri- be tricks of impofture or pretences of mad enthufiafm, mitive church, is with good reafon reprefented as ha- that, inftead of being prepared to witnefs or to receive ving conduced very often to the convidtion of infidels. accounts of new miracles with eafy credulity, they muft Mr Gibbon’s reafonings under this head are, That nu- have been in general difpofed to view them with jeamerous miraculous works of the mofl: extraordinary loufy and fufpicion. Befides, the miracles to which kind were oflentatioufly performed by the firfl: Chri- they had been accuftomed, and thofe performed by the ftians : that, however, from the difficulty of fixing the apoftles and the firft preachers of Chriftianity, were diperiod at which miraculous powers ceafed to be com- reddly contradictory; and therefore the one could receive municated to the Chriflian church,' and from fome no affiftance from the other. other circumftances, there is reafon to fufpedt them to Yet we muft acknowledge, notwithftanding what we have been merely the pretences of impofture ; but this have above advanced, that as difagreements with re(to ufe a phrafe of his own) is only darkly infinuated : fpedt to the principles and inftitutions of their reliand, laftly, that the Heathens having been happily gion very early arofe among Chriftians j fo they likeprepared to receive them as real by the many wonders wife fought to extend its influence, at a very early penearly of a fimilar nature to which they were aceuf- riod, by the ufe of pious frauds. Pious frauds, too, tomed in their former fuperftition, the miracles which appear to have fometimes ferved the immediate purthe firft Chriftians employed to give a fandtion to their pofes for which they were employed, though eventudodtrines, contributed in the moft effedtual manner to ally they have been highly injurious to the caufe of 2^ the propagation of Chriftianity. Chriftianity. ObfervaIn reply to what is here advanced, it may be foo-We conclude, then, that Chriftianity was indebted tions in re- gefted, that the miracles recorded in the New Tefta- to the influence of miracles in a confiderable degree ply. °ment,• as having - • •been performed • •by the ■ firft Chriftians for its propagation : but that the real miracles of our when engaged in propagating their religion, as well Saviour and his apoftles, &c. were not among the feas a number of others recorded by the Fathers, are condary caufes of its fuccefs : that the Heathens who eftabliffied as true, upon the moft indubitable evidence ■were to be converted were not very happily prepared which human teftimony can afford for any fadt. Mr for receiving the miracles of the gofpel with blind creHume, who was too fond of employing his ingenuity dulity : that, as it is poffible to difcern between fuffiin undermining truths generally received, has endea- cient and infufficient evidence, fo it is not more diffi- . voured to prove, that no human teftimony, however cult to diftinguifti between true and falfe miracles: and, ftrong and unexceptionable, can afford fufficient evi- laftly, that falfe miracles were foon employed by Chridence of the reality of a miracle. But his reafonin«s ftians as engines to fupport and propagate their relion this head, which once excited doubt and wonder, gion, and perhaps not unfuccefsfully 5 but were, upon have been fince completely refuted ; and mankind ftill the whole, more injurious than ferviceable to the caufe continue to acknowledge, that though we are all lia- which they were called in to maintain. 26 ble to miftakes and capable of deceit, yet human tefd he fourth of this feries of fecondary caufes, which ^au^e timony may afford the moft: convincing evidence of this author thinks to have been adequate to the propathe moft: extraordinary and even fupernatural fa6ts. gation of Chriftianity, is the virtues of the primitive ‘The reader will not expett us to enter, in this place, Chriftians. Thefe he is willing to attribute to other into a particular examination of the miracles of our and lefs generous motives, rather than to the pure inSaviour and his apoftles, and the primitive church. fluence of the dodtrines and precepts of their religion. An inquiry into thefe will be a capital objeft in anoThe firft converts to Chriftianity were moft of them ther part of this work (Theology.) We may here from among the loweft and moft worthlefs charadlers. confider it as an undeniable and a generally acknow- The wife, the mighty, and thofe who were diftinguilhledged faff, that a certain part of thofe miracles were ed by fpecious virtues, were in general perfedlly fatisreal. Such as were real undoubtedly contributed, in fied with their prefent circumftances and future proa very eminent manner, to the propagation of Chri- fpedls. People whofe minds were naturally weak, unftianity ; but they are not to be ranked among the na- enlightened, or opprefled with the fenfe of atrocious tural and fecondary caufes. guilt, and who were infamous or outcafts from fociety, It is difficult to diftinguiffi at what period miracu- were eager to grafp at the hopes which the gofpel held lous gifts c.eafed to be conferred on the members of the out to them. primitive church ; yet wTe diftinguiffi, if we take When, after enlifting under the banner of Chrift, pains to inquire with minute attention, at what period they began to confider themfelves as “ born aeain to the evidence ceafes to be fatisfa&ory. We can alfo, by newnefs of life remorfe and fear, which eafily preconfidering the circumftances of the church through vail over weak minds; felfiih hopes of regaining their the feveral ftages of its hiftory, form fome judgment reputation, and attaining to the honours and happinefs concerning the period during which the gifts of pro- of thofe manfions which Jefus was faid to have gone to phefying, and fpeaking with tongues, and working mi- prepare 5 with a defire to raife the honour and extend I 2 the

C H R [ 68 ] C H R The principles, too, from which the virtues of the chrifHa. Chriftia- the influence of the fociety of which they were become nit y* members: all together operated fo powerfully as to firft Chriftians originated, were not peculiarly mean v nity. t _ v enable them to difplay both aftive and paffive virtue and felfiih j nay, they feem to have been uncommonly —->/——■ in a very extraordinary degree. Their virtues did not fublime and difinterefted. Remorfe in the guilty mind flow from the pureft and nobleft fource $ yet they at- is a natural and reafonable fentiment ; the defire of trafled the notice and moved the admiration of man- happinefs in every human breaft is equally fo. It is kind. Of thofe who admired, feme were eager to uncandid to cavil againft the firft Chriftians for being, imitate j and, in order to that, thought it neceflary to like the reft of mankind, influenced by thefe fentiments : And when we behold them overlooking temadopt the fame principles of adtion. Their virtues, too, were rather of that fpecies which porary poffeflions and enjoyments, extending their excite wonder, becaufe uncommon, and not of effen- views to futurity, and “ living by faith j” when we tial utility in the ordinary intercourfe of fociety ; than obferve them “ doing good to thofe who hated them, of thofe which are indifpenfably neceflary to the exift- blefling thofe who curfed them, and praying for thofe can we deny ence of focial order, and contribute to the eafe and con- by whom they were defpitefully ufed venience of life. Such virtues were well calculated to their virtues to have been of the moft generous and difengage the imitation of thofe who had failed egregiouf- interefted kind. We allow then that the virtues of the firft Chrily in the practice of the more focial virtues. Thus they praftifed extraordinary, but ufelefs and ftians muft have contributed to the propagation of their unfucial virtues, upon no very generous motives j thofe religion : but it is with pain that we obferve this revirtues drew upon them the eyes of the world, and in- fpeftable writer ftudioufly labouring to mifreprefent the principles from which thofe virtues arofe ; and not only 27 duced numbers to embrace their faith. ObfervaWe muft, however unwillingly, declare that this is the principles from which they arofe, but alfo their imtions in an- p]ainJy an uncandid account of the virtues of the pri- portance in fociety. 2g The Jifth caufe was the mode of church government Caufe V. mitive Chriftians, and the motives from which they owit fi oktoriginated. The focial virtues are ftrongly recommend- adopted by the firft Chriftians, by which they wereYatl0ns * ed through the gofpel. No degree of mortification or knit together in one fociety j who preferred the church felf-denial, or feclufion from the ordinary bufinefs and and its interefts to their country and civil concerns. amufements of focial life, was required of the early We wifh not to deny, that the mutual attachment of converts to Chriftianity ; fave what was indifpenfably the primitive Chriftians contributed to fpread the inneceflary to wean them from the irregular habits in fluence of their religion \ and the order which they which they had before indulged, and which had ren- maintained, in confequence of being animated with this dered them nuifances in fociety, and to form them to fpirit of brotherly love, and with fuch ardent zeal for new habits equally neceflary to their happinefs and the glory of God, muft no doubt have produced no their ufefulnefs in life. We allow that they praftifed lefs happy effe&s among them than order and regulavirtues which in other circumftances would, however rity produce on every other occafion on which they fplendid, have been unneceflary. But in the difficult are ftricily obferved. But whether the form of churchcircumftances in which the firft Chriftians were placed, government, which was gradually eftabliftied in the the virtues which they pradifed were in the higheft Chriftian church, was actually the happieft that could degree focial. The moft prominent feature in their poflibly have been adopted ; or whether, by eftablifhcharafter was, “ their continuing to entertain fenti- ing a diftindt fociety, with feparate interefts, within ments of generous benevolence, and to difeharge feru- the Roman empire, it contributed to the diflfolution of puloufly all the focial duties,” towards thofe who ex- that mighty fabric, we cannot here pretend to inquire. ercifed neither charity nor humanity, and frequently not Thefe are fubjedls of difeuflion, with refpedl to which even bare integrity and juftice, in their conduct towards we may with more propriety endeavour to fatisfy our readers elfewhere. them. From the whole of this review of what Mr Gibbon concJufioB General It cannot be faid with truth, that fuch a proportion of the primitive Chriftians were people whofe charac- has fo fpecioufly advanced concerning the influence of nc e r '“ t h "jn ters had been infamous and their circumftances defpe- thefe five fecondary caufes in the propagation of rate, as that the chara&er of the religion which they gofpel, we think ourfelves warranted to conclude,fl^ence oT embraced can fuffier from this circumftance. Nor were That the zeal of the firft Chriftians was not, as he re-the five they only the weak and illiterate whom the apoftles and prefents it, intolerant: That the dodlrine of the im-caufes* their immediate fuccefibrs converted by their preach- mortality of the human foul was fomewhat better uning. The criminal, to be fure, rejoiced to hear that derflood in the Heathen world, particularly among the he might obtain abfolution of his crimes 5 the mourner Greeks and Romans, and the jews, than he reprefents was willing to receive comfort ; minds of refined and it to have been; and had an influence fomewhat hapgenerous feelings were deeply affe6ted with that good' pier than what he aferibes to it : That the additional nefs which had induced the Son of God to fubmit to circumftances by which, he. tells us, the firft preachers the puniftiment due to finners: but the fimplicity, the of Chriftianity improved the eflfedls of this dotfrine, rationality, and the beauty of the Chriftian fyftem, like- were far from being calculated to allure converts : wife prevailed in numerous inftances over the pride and That the heathens, therefore, were not quite fo well prejudices of the great and the wife : in fo many in- prepared for an eager reception of this do&rine as he ftances, as are fufficient to vindicate the Chriftian church would perfuade us they were ; and, of confequence, from the afperfions by which it has been reprefented as could not be influenced by it in fo confiderable a debeing in the firft period of its exiftcnce merely a body gree in their converfion : That real, unqueftionable miracles, performed by our Saviour, by his apoftles, and of criminals and idiots* by

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69 ] C H R Cbriftia- ^7 fucceffbrs, did contribute fignally to the pro- renounce Jefus Chrift. And we find that, even in the Chriftianj. niry, pagation of ChrifHanity j but are not to be ranked third century, they endeavoured to get into their 1—v—^ Cliriftians among the fecondary caufes: That weaknefs and blind hands Chriftian women, in order to fcourge and ftone * zeal did at times employ pretended miracles for the them in their fynagogues. They curfed the Chriftians fame purpofe not altogether ineffe&ually : That though folemnly three times a-day in their fynagogues, and thefe defpicable and wicked means might be in fome their rabbins would not fuffer them to converfe with inflances fuccefsful j yet they were, upon the whole, Chriftians upon any occafion. Nor were they contentmuch more injurious than beneficial : That the virtues ed to hate and deteft them ; but they defpatched emifof the primitive Chriftians arofe from the moft gene- faries all over the world to defame the Chriftians, and rous and noble motives, and were in their nature and fpread all forts of calumnies againft them. They actendency highly favourable to focial order, and to the cufed them, among other things, of worfhipping the comfort of mankind in the focial Hate : And, laftly, fun and the head of an afs. They reproached them That the order and regularity of church-government, with idlenefs, and being an ufelefs race of people. which were gradually eftablilhed among the firft Chri- They charged them with treafon, and endeavouring flians, contributed greatly to maintain the dignity and to ereft a new monarchy againft that of the Romans. fpread the influence of their religion j but do not ap- They affirmed, that, in celebrating their myfteries, pear to have disjoined them from their fellow-fubjefts, they ufed to kill a child and eat its flefti. They acor to have rendered them inimical to the welfare of the cufed them of the moft (hocking incefts, and of intemftate of which they were members. perance in their feafts of charity. But the lives and Upon the whole, then, we do not fee that thefe fe- behaviour of the firft Chriftians were fufficient to recondary caufes were equal to the effedfs that have fute all that was faid againft them, and evidently debeen afcribed to them ; and it feems undeniable, that monftrated that thefe accufations were mere calumny others of a fuperior kind co-operated with them. We and the effect of inveterate malice. earneftly recommend to the perufal of the reader a Pliny the younger, who was governor of Pontus valuable performance of Lord Hailes’s, in which he and Bithynia between the years 103 and 105, gives a inquires into Mr Gibbon’s affertions and reafonings, very particular account of the Chriftians in that proconcerning the influence of thefe five caufes, with the vince, in a letter which he wrote to the emperor Trautmoft accuracy of information, ftrength, and clearnefs jan, of which the following is an extra£l : “ I take of reafoning, and elegani fimplicity of ftyle, and with- “ the liberty, Sir, to give you an account of every out virulence or paflion. “difficulty which'arifes to me. I have never been CHRISTIANS, thofe who profefs the religion of “ prefent at the examination of the Chriftians; for Chrift : See Christianity and Messiah.—The name “ which reafon I know not what queftions have been ChriJIian was firfl: given at Antioch, in the year 42, to “ put to them, nor in what manner they have been fuch as believed in Chrift, as we read in the Acts : till, “ puniftied. My behaviour towards thofe who have that time they were called difciples. “ been accufed to me has been this : I have interroThe firft Chriftians diftinguifhed themfelves in the “ gated them, in order to know whether they were moft remarkable manner by their condud and their “ really Chriftians. When they have confeffed it, I virtues. The faithful, whom the preaching of St Pe-. “ have repeated the fame queftion two or three times, ter had converted, hearkened attentively to the exhor- “ threatening them with death if they did not retations of the Apoftles, who failed not carefully to in- “ nounce this religion. Thofe who have perfifted ftrudt them, as perfons who were entering upon an “ in their confeffion, have been, by my order, led to entirely new life. They went every day to the temple “ punifhment. I have even met with fome Roman with one heart and one mind, and continued in pray- “ citizens guilty of this phrenfy, whom, in regard to ers ; doing nothing different from the other Jews, be- “ their quality, I have fet apart from the reft, in orcaufe it was yet not time to feparate from them. But “ der to fend them to Rome. Thefe perfons dethey made a ftill greater progrefs in virtue ; for they “ dare, that their whole crime, if they are guilty, fold all that they pofieffed, and diftributed their goods “ confifts in this ; that, on certain days, they aflemin proportion to the wants of their brethren. They “ ble before funrife, to fing alternately the praifes ate their meat with gladnefs and Jinglenefs of heart, “ of Chrift, as of a god, and to oblige themfelves, praijing God, and having favour with all the people* “ by the performance of their religious rites, not to St Chryfoftom, examining from what fource the emi- “ be guilty of theft, or adultery, to obferve inviolably nent virtue of the firft Chriftians flowed, afcribes it “ their word, and to be true to their truft. This principally to their diverting themfelves of their pof- “ depofition has obliged me to endeavour to inform feflions : “ For (fays the father) perfons from whom “ myfelf ftill farther of this matter, by putting to the “ all that they have is taken away, are not fubjeft to “ torture two of their women-fervants, whom they “ fin ; whereas, whoever has large pofTeflions, wants “ call deaconnejfes; but I could learn nothing more “ not a devil or a tempter to draw him into hell by a “ from them than that the fuperftition of thefe peo“ thoufand ways.” “ pie is as ridiculous as their attachment to it is aftoThe Jews were the firft and the moft inveterate “ niffiing.” enemies the Chriftians had. They put them to death There is extant a juftification, or rather panegyric, as often as they had it in their power : and when of the Chriftians, pronounced by the mouth of a Pa- . they revolted againft the Romans in the time of the gan prince. It is a letter of the emperor Antoninus, emperor Adrian. Barcochebas, the head of that re- written in the year 152, in anfwe.r to the States of volt, employed againft the Chriftians the moft rigo- Afia, who had accufed the Chriftians of being the rpus punifhments to compel them to blafpheme and caufe of fome earthquakes which had happened in, %

C H II [ 70 ] C H R Ghriftians. that part of the world. The emperor advifes them whence it often happens, that thofe who are difpof- chrifti, to “ take care, left, in torturing and punching thofe feffed of evil fpirits embrace the faith and are received —v— whom they accufed of Atheifm (meaning the Chri- into the church. Others know what is to come, fee ftians), they thould render them more obftinate, in- vifions, and deliver oracles as prophets. Others heal ftead of prevailing upon them to change their opinion 5 the fick by laying their hands on them, and reftore lince their religion taught them to fuffer with plea- them to perfect health : and we find feme who even fure for the fake of God.” As to the earthquakes raife the dead.—It is impoffible to reckon up the gifts which had happened, he put them in mind, “ that and graces which the church has received from God— they themfelves are always difcouraged, and fink un- what they have freely received they as freely beftow. der fuch misfortunes; whereas the Chriftians never They obtain thefe gifts by prayer alone, and invocadifcovered more cheerfulnefs and confidence in God tion of the name of Jefus Chrift, without any mixture than upon fuch occafions.” He tells them, that of enchantment or fuperftition.” “ they pay no regard to religion, and negleft the We {hall here fubjoin the remarkable ftory, altefted worlhip of the Eternal 5 and, becaufe the Chriftians by Pagan authors themfelves, concerning the Chriftian honour and adore Him, therefore they are jealous of Legion in the army of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. them, and perfecute them even to death.” He con- That prince having led his forces againft the Quadi, cludes : “ Many of the governors of provinces have a people on the other fide of the Danube, was furformerly written to my father concerning them 5 and rounded and hemmed in by the enemy in a difadvanhis anfwer always was, that they Ihould not be moleft- tageous place, and where they could find no water. ed or difturbed, provided they quietly fubmitted to the The Romans were greatly embarraffed, and, being authority of the government. Many perfons have like- prefied by the enemy, were obliged to continue unwife confulted me upon this affair, and I have returned der arms, expofed to the violent heat of the fun, and the fame anfwer to them all; namely, that if any one almoft dead with tbirft; when, on a fudden, the clouds accufes a Chriftian merely on account of his religion, gathered, and the rain fell in great abundance. The the accufed perfon {hall be acquitted, and the accul'er foldiers received the water in their bucklers and helhimfelf punifhed.” This ordinance, according to Eu- mets, and fatisfied both their own thirft and that of febius, was publicly fixed up at Ephefus in an affembly their horfes. The enemy, prefently after, attacked of the ftates. them ; and fo great was the advantage they had over It is no difficult matter to difcover the caufes of the them, that the Romans muft have been overthrown, many perfecutions to which the Chriftians were ex- had not Heaven again interpofed by a violent ftorm of pofed during the three firft centuries. The purity of hail, mixed with lightning, which fell on the enemy, the Chriftian morality, dire&ly oppofite to the cor- and obliged them to retreat. It was found afterruption of the Pagans, was doubtlefs one of the moft wards, that one of the legions, which confifted of powerful motives of the public averfion. To this may Chriftians, had by their prayers, which they offered be added, the many calumnies unjuftly fpread about upon their knees before the battle, obtained this faconcerning them by their enemies, particularly the Jews. vour from heaven : and from this event that legion And this occafioned fo ftrong a prejudice againft them, was furnamed The Thundering Legion. See, however that the Pagans condemned them without inquiring in- the criticifm of Mr Moyle on this ftory in his Works, to their do&rine, or^ permitting them to defend them- vol. ii. p. 81—390. See alfo Mojheim's Church Hijlofelves. Befides, their worffiipping Jefus Chrift as God, ry, vol. i. p. 124. was contrary to one of the moft ancient laws of the Such were the primitive Chriftians, whofe religion Roman empire, which exprefsly forbade the acknow- has by degrees fpread itfelf over all parts of the world, ledging of any God which had not been approved by though not with equal purity in all. And though, by the fenate. the providence of God, Mahometans and Idolaters But notwithftanding the violent oppofition made to have been fuffered to poffefs themfelves of thofe places the eftabliffiment erf the Chriftian religion, it gained Greece, Alia, and Africa, where the Chriftian reground daily, and very foon made a furprifing pro- ligion formerly moft flourilhed ; yet there are ftill fuch grefs in the Roman empire. In the third century, remains of the Chriftian religion among them as to there were Chritlians in the camp, in the fenate, in the give them opportunity fufficient to be converted. palace : in ffiort everywhere, but in the temples and For, m the dominions of the Turk in Europe, the the theatres : they filled the towns, the country, the Chriftians make two third parts at leaft of the inhaiflands. Men and women of all ages and conditions, bitants 5 and in Conftantinople itfelf there are above and even thofe of the firft dignities, embraced the faith twenty Chriftjan churches, and above thirty in Thefinfomuch that the Pagans complained that the reve- falonica. Philadelphia, now called A/a-Jhahiir, has no nues of their temples were ruined. They were in fuch fewer than twelve Chriftian churches. The whole great numbers in the empire, that (as’Tertullian ex- ifland of Chio is governed by Chriftians-, and fome prefles it) were they to have retired into another coun- iflands of the Archipelago are inhabited by Chriftians try, they would have left the Romans only a frightful only. In Africa, befides the Chriftians living in E& folitude. ' gypt, and in the kingdom of Congo and Angola, the The piimitive Chriftians were not only remarkable iflands upon the weftern coafts are inhabited bv Chrifor. the praftice of every virtue •, they were alfo very ftians ; add the vaft kingdom of Abyffinia, fuppofed eminently diftinguifhed by the many’miraculous gifts to be as big as Germany, France, Spain, and Italy, and graces beftowed by God upon them. “ Some put together, is poffeffed by Chriftians. In Afia, moft of the Chriftians (fays Irenaeus) drive out devils, not part of the empire of Ruffia, the countries of Circaffia In appearance only, but fo as that they never return : and Mingrelia, Georgia, and Mount Eibanus, are inhabited

C H ft [ 71 ] C H ft tafte for abftra&ed fpeculations $ and amufed herfelf Chriftina. Chrifliaris habited only by Chriftians. In America, it is notori1 || ous that the Chriftians are very numerous, and fpread with language and the fciences, particularly that of -— Chrittina. over parts of that vaft continent. legiflation and government. She derived her knowL “ v CHRISTIANS of St John, a fe£l of Chriftians very nu- ledge of ancient hiftory from its fource ; and Polybius merous in Balfara and the neighbouring towns: they and Thucydides were her favourite authors. As Hie formerly inhabited along the river Jordan, where St was the fovereign of a powerful kingdom, it is not John baptized, and it was from thence they had their flrange that almoft all the princes in Europe afpired name. They hold an anniverfary feaft of five days j to her bed. Among others, were the prince of Denduring which they all go to the biftiop, who baptizes mark, the eledlor Palatine, the eledftor of Brandenthem with the baptifm of St John. Their baptifm is burg, the king of Spain, the king of the Romans, Don alfo performed in rivers, and that only on Sundays : Jehn of Auftria, Sigifmund of Rockocci, count and they have no notion of the third perfon in the Trinity ; general of Caffovia 5 Staniflaus king of Poland; John nor have they any canonical book, but abundance full Caffimir his brother ; and Charles Guftavus duke of of charms, &c. Their bishoprics defcend by inheri- Deux Ponts, of the Bavarian Palatinate family, fon of tance, as our eftates do, though they have the cere- her father the great Guftavus’s lifter, and consequently mony of an eleftion. her firft coufin. To this nobleman, as well as to all CHRISTIANS of St Thomas, a fort of Chriftians in a his competitors, flie conftantly refufed her hand ; but peninfula of India on this fide of the gulf: they in- ftie caufed him to be appointed her fucceffor by the habit chiefly at Cranganor, and the neighbouring ftates. Political interefts, differences of religion, and country : thefe admit of no images j and receive only contrariety of manners, furniffied Chriftina with prethe crofs, to which they pay a great veneration : they tences for rejecting all her fuitors; but her true moaffirm, that the fouls of the faints do not fee God till tives were the love of independence, and a ftrong averafter the day of judgment : they aeknovdedge but fion fhe had conceived, even in her infancy, from the three facraments, viz. baptifm, orders, and the eucha- marriage yoke. “ Do not force me to marry (faid rift 5 they make no ufe of holy oils in the adminiftra- {lie to the ftates) ; for if I ffiould have a fon, it is not tion of baptifm j but, after the ceremony, anoint the more probable that he ftiould be an Auguftus than a infant with an unftion compofed of oil and walnuts, Nero.” without any benediiftion. In the eucharift, they conAn accident happened in the beginning of her reign, fecrate with little cakes made of oil and fait, and in- which gave her a remarkable opportunity of difplaying Head of wine make ufe of water in which raifins have the ftrength and equanimity of her mind. As fhe w'as been infufed. at the chapel of the caftle of Stockholm, affifting at CHRISTIANA, a town of Norway, in the province divine fervice with the principal lords of her court, a of Aggerhuys, fituated in a bay of the fea. E. Long'. poor wretch, who was difordered in his mind, came 10. 20. N. Lat. 59. 30. to the place with a defign to affaffinate her. This man, CHRISTIANOPLE, a port-town of Sweden, fitu- who was preceptor of the college, and in the full viated on the Baltic fea, in the territory of Bleckingen, gour of his age, chofe, for the execution of his'deand province of South Gothland. E. Long. 15. 47. fign, the moment in which the affembly was performN. Lat. 570. ing what in the Swedifti church is called an ad of reCHRISTIANSTADT, a ftrong fortified town of colleBion; a filent and feparate a£t of devotion, perSweden ; fituated in the territory of Bleckingen and formed by each individual kneeling and hiding the face province of South Gothland. It was built in 1614 by with the hand. Taking this opportunity, he ruflied Chriftian IV. king of Denmark, when this province through the crowd, and mounted a balluftrade within belonged to the Danes j and finally ceded to the Swedes which the queen was upon her knees. The Baron by the peace of Rolkild in 1658. The town is fmall Braki, chief juftice of Sweden, was alarmed, and cried but neatly built, and is efteemed the ftrongeft fortrefs out ; and the guards croffed their partifans, to prevent in Sweden. The houfes are all of brick, and moftly his coming further : but he ftruck them furicufly on ftuccoed white. It Hands in a marffiy plain clofe to one fide ; leaped over the barrier ; and, being then the river Helgeia, which flows into the Baltic at Ahus, clofe to the queen, made a blow at her with a knife about the diftance of 20 miles, and is navigable only which he had concealed without a {heath in his fleeve. for fmall craft of feven tons burden. Engliffi veffels an- The queen avoided the blow, and pufhed the captain nually refort to this port for alum, pitch, and tar. The of her guards, who inftantly threw himfelf upon the inhabitants have manufa&ures of cloth and filken fluffs, affaffin, and feized him by the hair. All this happenand carry on a fmall degree of commerce. E. Long. ed in lefs than a moment of time. The man was known 14. 40. N. Lat. 56. 30. to be mad, and therefore nobody fuppofed he had any CHRISTINA, daughter of Guflavus Adolphus accomplices : they therefore contented themfelves with king of Sweden, was born in 1626 •, and fucceeded to locking him up ; and the queen returned to her devothe crown in 1633, when only feven years of age. tion without the leaft emotion that could be perceived Ihis princefs difcovered, even in her infancy, what the by the people, who were much more frightened than afterwards expreffed in her memoirs, an invincible an- herfelf. tipathy for the employments and converfation of woOne of the great affairs that employed Chriftina men ; and {he had the natural aukwardnefs of a man while ffie was upon the throne, was the peace of with refpeft to all the little works which generally fall Weftphalia, in which many claftiing interefts were to to their {hare. She was, on the contrary, fond of vio- be reconciled, and many claims to be afcertained. It lent exercifes, and fuch amufements as confift in feats was concluded in the month of Oiffober 1648. The of flrength and adlivity. She bad alfo both ability and fuccefs Qf the Swedifti anus rendered Chriftina the arbitreff

C H R C H R C v- 1 ^Omflina. bitrefs of this treaty j at leaft as to the affairs of Swe- a narrow plank, with Admiral Fleming, his foot (lipChriftina. *~' ^en» ^ which this peace confirmed the pofieffion of ping, he fell, and drew the queen with him into the '■ many important countries. No public event of im- fea, which in that place was near 90 feet deep. Anportance took place during the reft of Chriftina’s thony Steinberg, the queen’s firft equerry, inftantly reign j for there were neither wars abroad, nor trou- threw himfelf into the water, laid hold of her robe, bles at home. I his quiet might be the effe6f of and, with fuch afliftance as was given him, got the chance j but it might alfo be the effeft of a good, ad- queen athore : during this accident, her recolle&ion miniftration, and the great reputation of the queen ; was fuch, that the moment her lips were above water, and the love her people had for her ought to lead us (he cried out, “ Take care of the admiral.” When to this determination. Her reign was that of learn- (he was got out of the water, (he difcovered no emoing and genius.. She drew about her, wherever ftie tion either by her gefture or countenance j and (he was, all the diftinguiftied characters of her ti me : Gro- dined the fame day in public, where (he gave a hutius, Pafchal, Bochart, Defcartes, Gaflendi, Saumaife, morous account of her adventure. Naude, Voflxus, Heinfius, Meibom, Scudery, MeBut though at firft (he was fond of the power and nage, Lucas, Holftentius, Lambecius, Bayle, Madame fplendour of royalty, yet (he began at length to feel that Dacier, Filicaia, and many others. The arts never it embarrafled her ; and the fame love of indepenfail to immortalize the prince who proteCts them ; and dency and liberty which had determined her againft almoft all thefe illuftrious perfons have celebrated Chrif- marriage, at laft made her weary of the crown. As, tina, either in poems, letters, or literary productions after her firft difguft, it grew more and more irkfome of fome other kind, the greater part of which are now to her, (lie refolved to abdicate} and, in 1652, comforgotten. They form, however, a general cry of municated her refolution to the fenate. The fenate praife, and a mafs of teftimonials which may be confi- zealoufly remonftrated againft it } and was joined by dered as a folid bafis of reputation. Chriftina, how- the people ; and even by Charles Guftavus himfelf, ever, may be juftly reproached with want of tafte, in who was to fucceed her : (he yielded to their importunot properly affigning the rank of all thefe perfons, nities, and continued to facrifice her own pleafure to whofe merits, though acknowledged, were yet une- the will of the public till the year 1654, an^ then (lie qual ; particularly for not having been fufficiently fen- carried her defign into execution. It appears by one fible ot the fuperiority of Defcartes, whom (he difguft- of her letters to M. Canut, in whom (he put great coned, and at laft wholly negleCted. The rapid fortune fidence, that (he had meditated this project for more which the adventurer Michon, known by the name of than, eight years ; and that (he had communicated it Bourdeht, acquired by her countenance and liberality, to him five years before it took place. was alfo a great fcandal to literature. He had no preThe ceremony of her abdication was a mournful fotenfions to learning j and though fprightly was yet in- lemnity, a mixture of pomp and fadnefs, in which decent. He was brought to court by the learned Sau- fcarce any eyes but her own were dry. She contimaife ; and, for a time, drove literary merit out of it, nued firm and compofed through the whole } and, as making learning the objeCt of his ridicule, and exact- foon as it was over, prepared to remove into a couning from Chriftina an exorbitant tribute to the weak- try more favourable to fcience than Sweden was. nefs and inconftancy of her fex ; for even Chriftina, Concerning the merit of this a&ion, the world has alwith. refpeCt to this man, (bowed herfelf to be weak ways been divided in opinion'} it has-been condemned and inconftant. At laft (he was compelled, by the alike both by the ignorant and the learned, the trifler public indignation, to banilh this unworthy minion ; and the fage. It was admired, however, by the and he was no fooner gone than her regard for him great Conde : “ How great was the magnanimity of was at an end. She was alhamed of the favour (he had this princefs (faid he), who could fo eafily give up mown him ; and, in a (hort time, thought of him with that for which the reft of mankind are continually natred or contempt. This Bourdelot, during his af- deftroying each other, and which fo many throughcendency over the queen, had fupplanted Count Mag- out their whole lives purfue without attaining !” It nus de la G.ardie, fon of the conftable of Sweden, who appears, by the. works of St Evremond, that the abdiwas a relation, a favourite, and perhaps the lover of cation of Chriftina was at that time the univerfal toChnft.ina. M. de Mottville, who had feen him ambaffador m France, fays, in his memoirs, that he fpoke pic of fpeculation and debate in France. Chriftina, oefides. abdicating her crown, abjured her religion : ot Ins queen in terms fo paflionate and refpeftful, that but this aft was univerfaliy approved by one party every one concluded his attachment to her to be’more and cenfured by another} the Papifts triumphed, and ardent and tender than a mere fenfe of duty can the Proteftants were offended. No prince, after a produce. This nobleman fell into difgrace becaufe he long imprifonment, ever (hewed fo much joy upon (bowed an inclination to govern ; while M. Bourdelot being reftored to his kingdom, as Chriftina did in feemed to aim at nothing more than to amufe; and emitting hers. When (he came to a little brook, which concealed, under the unfufpeaed charafter of a droll leparates Sweden from Denmark, (he got out of her the real afcendency which he exercifed over the queen’s’ carriage ; and leaping on the other fide, cried out in mind. a tranfport of joy, “ At Jaft I am free, and out of About this time, an accident happened to Chriftina which brought her into ftill greater danger than that Sweden, whither, I hope, I (hall never return.” difmiffed her women, and laid by the habit of which has been related already. Having given or- She her fex : “ I would become a man (faid (lie) } yet I ders for fome (hips of war to be built at the port of do not love men becaufe they are men, but becaufe Stockholm, (he went to fee them when they were fiwomen She •fiilhed $ and as (he was going on board of them, crofs Bruilels} n0t ” the her abjuration at where die faw great Conde, who, after his

C H R [ 73 ] C H R Chriflina. Hs defe^ion, made that city his afylum. “ Coufin, (hould take (belter in his arms.” A mufician having Chriftina (laid (he), wha would have thought, ten years ago, quitted her fervice for that of the duke of Savoy, (he I! that we ihould have met at this diilance from our was lo tran(ported with rage as to difgrace hertelf by Lhriftopher’s. countries thefe words, in a letter written with her own hand : i he inconftancy of Chritlina’s temper appeared in “ He lives only for me : and if he does not dng for her going continually from place to place : from Bruf- me, he (hall not fing long for any body.” fels (he went to Rome j from Rome to France, and Bayle was alfo threatened for having faid that the from France (he returned to Rome again j after this letter which Chridina wrote, upon the revocation of fhe went to Sweden, where (lie was not very well re- the edi(R of Nantes, was “ a remain of Protedantifm j” ceived } from Sweden (he went to Hamburgh, where but he made his peace by apologies and fubmidion. (he continued a year, and then went again to Rome j See the article Bayle. from Rome (he returned to Hamburgh ; and again Upon the whole, die appears to have been an unto Sweden, where (he was (fill worfe received than common mixture of faults and great qualities 5 which, before j upon which (he went back to Hamburgh, however it might excite fear and refpeil, was by no and from Hamburgh again to Rome. She intended means amiable. She had wit, tade, parts, and learnanother journey to Sweden*, but it did not take place, ing : (he was indefatigable upon the throne; great in any more than an expedition to England, where private life ; firm in misfortunes ; impatient of contraCromwell did not feem well difpofed to receive her j diction j and, except in her love letters, incondant and after many wanderings, and many purpofes of in her inclinations. The mod remaikable indance of wandering dill more, (he at lait died at Rome in this ficklenefs is, That after (he had abdicated the 1689. crown of Sweden, die intrigued for that of Poland. It mud be acknowledged, that her journeys to She was, in every action and purfuit, violent and arSweden had a motire of neceflity ; for her appoint- dent in the higheit degree ; impetuous in her defires, ments were very ill paid, though the dates ofte‘n con- dreadful in her refentment, and fickle in her confirmed them after her abdication : but to other places duCt. (he was led merely by a roving difpodtipn; and, She fays of herfelf, that, “ (he was midrudful, amwhat is more to her discredit, (he always didurbed bitious, padionate, haughty, impatient, contemptuous, the quiet of every place (he came into, by exacting fatirical, incredulous, undevout, of an ardent and viogreater deference to her rank as queen than (he had lent temper, and extremely amorous ;” a difpofition, a right to expedl, by her total non-conformity to the however, to which, if (he may be believed, her pride cudoms of the place, and by continually exciting and and her virtue were always fuperior. In general, her fomenting intrigues of date. She was indeed always failings were thofe ot her ftx, and her virtues the virtoo bufy, even when (he was upon the throne ; for tues of ours. there was no event in Europe in which (he was not Santa Christina, one of the Marquesas IJlands. ambitious of ailing a principal part. During the CHRISTMAS day, a fedival of the Chndian troubles in France by the fadlion called the Fronde, church } obfervtd on the 25th of December, in medie wrote with great eagernefs to all the intereded’ mory of the nativity or birth of Jefus Chrid. As to parties,^ officioudy offering her mediation to recon- the antiquity of this fedival, the fird footdeps we find cile their intereds, and calm their padions, the fecret of it are in the fecond century, about the time of the fprings of which it was impoflible (he (hould know. emperor Commcdus. The decretal epidles indeed I his was fird thought a dangerous, and afterwards a carry it up a little higher; and (ay that Telefphorus, ridiculous behaviour. During her refidence in France who lived in the reign of Antoninus Pius, ordered di(he gave univerfal difgud, not only by violating all the vine fervice to be celebrated, and an angelical hymn to cudoms of the country, but by pradifing others di- be fung the night before the nativity of our Saviour. reitly oppofite. She treated the ladies of the court However, that it was kept before the times of Conwith the greated rudenefs and contempt : when they dantine, we have a melancholy proof: for whild the came to embrace her, (he, being in man’s habit, cried perfecution raged under Diocledan, who then kept out, “ What a drange eagernefs have thefe women to his court at Nicomedia, that prince, among other aCts kiis me ! is it becaufe I look like a man ?” of cruelty, finding multitudes of Chridians affembled But though (he ridiculed the manners of the French court, die was very folicitous to enter into its intrigues. together to celebrate Chrid’s nativity, commanded the church doors where they ivere met to be (hut, and fire Louis XIV. then very young, was enamoured of Ma- to be put to it, which, in a (hoi t time, reduced them detnoifelle de Mancini, niece to Cardinal Mazarine : Chridina flattered their paflion, and offered her fer- and the church to adies. CHRIS 1 OF rlER’s, St, one of theCaribbee idands, vme. “ I would fain be your confidant (laid (he) : if in America, lying on the north-wed of Nevis, and you love, you mud marry.” about 60 miles wed of Antigua. It was formerly inThe murder of Monaldechi is, to this hour, an in- habited by the French and Englidi; but, in 1713, it icrutable mydery. It is, however, of a piece with the was ceded entirely to the latter. In 1782, it'was expreffions condantly ufed by Chridina in her letters, with refpeft to tbofe with whom (he was offended : taken by the French, but redored to Britain at the or le . carce ever fignified her difpleafure without peace. It is about 20 miles in breadth, and feven in threatening the life of the offender. “ If you fail in length ; and has high mountains in the middle, whence rivulets run down. Between the mountains are dreadd aiC t0 ,!er fecretat lT\ u7’ after ^aid her 7> all whom fent of to ful rocks, horrid precipices, and thick woods; and Stockholm abdication), not thedie power the king of Sweden dial! fave your life, though you in the fouth-wed part of the idand, hot fidphureous fprings at the foot of them. The air is good ; the foil Vol. VI. Part I. K light,

C H R [ 74 ] C H R entering into the enharmonic fpecies $ but two major Chromatic,J light, fandy, and fruitful j but the ifland is fubjeft to f.hriftopher’s hurricanes. The produce is chiefly fugar, cotton, gin- femitones twice follow each other in the chromatic orv— i! ger, indigo, and the tropical fruits. W. Long. 62. 32. der of the fcale. Chromatic. N. Lat. 17. 30. The mofl: certain procedure of the fundamental bafs CHRO AST ACES, an old term in Natural Hi/lory, to generate the chromatic elements in afcent, is alterapplied to gems, and comprehending all thofe of vari- nately to defcend by thirds, and rife by fourths, whilft able colours, as viewed in different lights and in dif- all the chords carry the third major. If the fundaferent pofitions y of which kinds are the opal and the mental bafs proceeds from dominant to dominant by perfect cadences avoided, it produces the chromatic in ajleria or cat’s eye. CHROMATIC, a kind of mufic which proceeds defcending. To produce both at once, you interweave by feveral femitones in fucceflion. The wqrd is de- the perfect and broken cadences, but at the fame time rived from the Greek wupx,, which fignifies colour. avoid them. As at every note in the chromatic fpecies one mull For this denomination 1’everal caufes are afligned, of which none appear certain, and all equally unfatisfac- change the tone, that fucceflion ought to be regulated tory. Inftead, therefore, of fixing upon any, we flrall and limited for fear of deviation. For this purpofe, it offer a conjedture of our own ; which, however, we will be proper to recoiled!, that the fpace moft luitable do not impofe upon the reader as more worthy of his to chromatic movements, is between the extremes of the attention than any of the former. X^upct, may per- dominant and the tonic in afcending, and between the haps not only fignify a colour, but that of a (hade of a tonic and the dominant in defcending. In the major colour by which it melts into another, or what the mode, one may alfo chromatically delcend from the doFrench call nuance. If this interpretation be admitted, minant upon the fecond note. This tranfition is very it will be highly applicable to femitones j which being common in Italy ; and, notwithftanding its beauty, bethe fmalleft interval allowed in the diatonic fcale, will gins to be a little too common amongft us. mofl: eafily run one into another. To find the reafons The chromatic fpecies is admirably fitted to exprefs affigned by the ancients for this denomination, and grief and affliction ; thefe f unds boldly ftruck in aftheir various divifions of the chromatic fpecies, the cending tear the foul. Their power is no lefs magireader may have recourfe to the fame article in Rouf- cal in defcending \ it is then that the ear feems to be feau’s Mufical Didlionary. At prefent, that fpecies pierced with real groans. Attended with its proper confifls in giving fuch a procedure to the fundamental harmony, this fpecies appears proper to exprefs every bafs, that the parts in the harmony, or at leaf! fome thing j but its completion, by concealing the melody, of them, may proceed by femitones, as well in riling facrifices a part of its expreffion j and for this difas defcending •, which is moll frequently found in the advantage, arifing from the fulnefs of the harmony, minor mode, from the alterations to which the lixth and it can only be compenfated by the nature and gefeventh note are fubjedled, by the nature of the mode nius of the movement. We may add, that in proporitfelf. tion to the energy of this fpecies, the compofer ought The fucceffive femitones ufed in the chromatic fpe- to ufe it with greater caution and parfimony ; like cies are rarely of the fame kind ; but alternately ma- thofe elegant viands, which, when profufely adminijor and minor, that is to fay, chromatic and diatonic: ftered, immediately forfeit us with their abundance } for the interval of a minor tone contains a minor or as much as they delight us when enjoyed with temperchromatic femitone, and another which is major or dia- ance, fo much do they difguft when devoured with protonic ; a meafure which temperament renders common digality. to all tones : fo that we cannot proceed by two minor Chromatic, Enharmonic. See Enharmonic. femitones which are conjun&ive in fucceflion, without

CHROMATICS; r

T ’HAT part of optics which explains the feveral properties of the colours of light, and of natural bodies. t Different Before the time of Sir Ifaac Newton, we find no hypothefes hvpothefis concerning colours of any confequence. cencerning opinions of the old philofophers, however, we colours. briefly mention, in order to gratify the curiofity of our readers. The Pythagoreans called colour the fuperfices of body. Plato faid that it was a flame iffuing from them. According to Zeno, it is the firft configuration of matter j and Ariftotle faid, it was that which moved bodies a where the glafles were a little feparated from between each other, rings of different colours appeared. To two glafs obferve more nicely the order of the colours,produced plates. jn this manner, he took two objeCt-glaffes j one of them a plano-convex one belonging to a 14 feet re' fraCting telefcope, and the other a large double convex one for a telefcope of about 50 feet j and laying the former of them upon the latter, with its plain fide downwards, he preffed them flowly together ; by which means the colours very foon emerged, and appeared diftinft to a confiderable diftance. Next to the pellucid centrical fpot, made by the contad of the glaffes, fucceeded blue, white, yellow, and red. The blue was very little in quantity, nor could he difcern any violet in it ; but the yellow and red were very copious, extending about as far as the white, and four or five times as far as the blue. The next circuit immediately furrounding thefe, confifted of violet, blue, green, yellow, and red : all thefe were copious and vivid, except the green, which was very little in quantity, and feemed more faint and dilute than the other colours. Of the other four the violet was the leaf! in extent ; and the blue lefs than the yellow or red. The third circle of colours was purple, blue, green, yellow, and red. In this the purple feemed more reddilh than

A T I C S. 75 the violet in the former circuit, and the green was more confpicuous ; being as brilk and copious as anv of the other colours, except the yellow •, but the red began to be a little faded, inclining much to purple. The fourth circle confifted of green and red $ and of thefe the green was very copious and lively, inclining on the one fide to blue, and on the other to yellow j but in_ this fourth circle there was neither violet, blue, nor yellow, and the red was very imperfect and dirty. All the fucceeding colours grew more and more imperfeis that of air ; for he found, that, if he only gave the firft obfervations, he firft breathed upon one of his plates ■ plates' a flight coating of any kind of greafe, the rings of glafs, and then rubbed them againft one another, woulu without fndlion. Alfo dipping them when the colours appeared in the fane order as before’ flightly appear in vv’ater, or wiping them with his finger, would but darker, and difperfed in confufion in the places octhe lame purpofe. He verified his corije£fures cupied by the vapours: but when be made ufe of fire, an.ue. by means of the air-purrvp : for, dipping two pieces to diffipate the watery particles, the colours refumed of grafs in water, one of which had been wiped, and their luftre. the other not, the former appeared to have no bubbles “ Newton, having introduced a drop of water between his two objeft-glaffes, obferved, that in pronor- adhering to it when the air was exhaufted, whereas the tion as the water infinuated itfelf between the ^laffes other had. \\ hen one of the glaffes is convex, our author the colours grew fainter, and the rings were contracted : and afcribing thefe colours to the thicknefs of the obferves, that the particles of air may more eafily plate of water, as he afcribed the former to that of the make their efcape by preflure only ; whereas their replate of air, he meafured the diameters of the colour- treat is in a manner cut off when they are compreffed two flat furfaces. The air-pump, he found, ed rings made by the plate of water, and concluded oetween that the intervals between the glaffes at the fimilar was not able to detach thefe particles of air from the rings of thefe two mediums were nearly as three to jur.aces to which they adhere ; leaving thefe flat plates four ; and thence he inferred, that in all cafes, thefe for a confiderable time in an exhaufted receiver, was intervals would be as the fines of the refraCHons of thefe not fufficient to prepare them fo well for the experiment as wiping them. ^ mediums. Befides the obfervations on the colours of thin11161115 Experi-on The “ Mazeas, in order to affure himfelf whether, agreeable to this rule, the coloured rings of p ates, it has been feen that Sir Ifaac Newton ima- G0 0U by bis glaffes depended upon the thicknefs of the water gined he could account for the colours exhibited by i ecf.10n * only, dipped one of the edges of his coloured glaffes thic.Y ones in fome cafes in a fimilar manner; parti-^ in a veffel of water, having taken care to wipe and cularly m thofe curious experiments in which he adwarm them well, before he produced his colours by mitted a beam of light through a hole in a piece of friCtion. . The water was a confiderable time in ri- palteboard, and obferved the rings of colours reflefted fing as high as the glaffes ; and in proportion as it back upon it by a concave glafs mirror of equal thickafcended, he perceived a very thin plate of water, which neis in all places. Thefe experiments were refumed, feemed to pafs over the matter which he thought and happfty purfued by the Duke de Chaulnes, who produced the colours, without mixing with it j for afcnbed thefe colours to the infleaion of light*. Chance * !ed the duke to obferve, that when the nearer furface^ beyond this plate of water, he fiill perceived the co- ot the glafs mirror was clouded by breathing upon it, fo
35 ] Chryfalis. butterfly backwards firft occafions this He obferves, that hefi’s eggs, of which we make fo chryfan——v—**' crack j and a few repetitions of the fame motion open many ufes, and eat in fo many forms, are properly a themum fort of chryfalis of the animal; their germ, after they Chryfos II it the whole length of the line. °' The clearing itfelf, however, entirely is a work are impregnated by the cock, containing the young ' , of more time in this cafe, than is the pafling of the animal alive; and waiting only a due degree of warmth < chryfalis out of the body of the caterpillar. In that to be hatched, and appear in its proper form. Eggs cafe there is a crack fufficiently large in the fldn of the tranfpire notwithftanding the hardnefs of their {hells; back, and the whole chryfalis being loofe comes out and when they have been long kept, there is a road at once. But in this cafe, every particular limb, and found near one of their ends, between the ftiell and part of the body, has its feparate cafej and thefe are the internal membrane, which is a mark of their being almoft inconceiveably thin and tender, yet it is necef- ftale, and is the effedl of an evaporation of part of fary that every part be drawn out of them before it their humidity : and the fame varnifti which had been appear naked to the open air. As foon as all this is ufed to the chryfalis, being tried on eggs, rvas found to effe&ed, and the animal is at full liberty, it either con- preferve them for two years, as frelh as if laid but the tinues fome time upon the remains of its covering, or fame day, and fuch as the niceft palate could not dicreeps a little way diftant from it, and there refts. ftinguifti from thofe that w’ere fo. See Eggs. The wings are what we principally admire in this creaIt is not yet known how much farther this ufeful ture. Thefe are at this time fo extremely folded up, fpeculation might be carried, and whether it might and placed in fo narrow a compafs, that the creature not be of great ufe even to human life, to invent fomefeems to have none at all ; but they by degrees ex- thing that ftiould aft in the manner of this varnifti, by pand and unfold themfelves ; and finally, in a quarter being rubbed over the body, as the athletes did of old, of an hour, or half an hour at the utmoft, they appear and the favages of the Weft Indies do at this time, at their full fize, and in all their beauty. The man- without knowing Avhy. But to return to the infefts ner of this fudden unfolding of the wings is this : the Avhich are the fubjefts of this article; their third ftate, fmall figure they make when the creature firlt comes that in whicli they are winged, is always very ftiort, out of its membranes, does not prevent the obferving and feems deftined for no other aftion but the propathat they are at that time confiderably thick. This is gation of the fpecies. See Entomology Index. owing to its being a large wing folded up in the niceft CHRYSANTHEMUM, Corn-Marygold : A manner, and with folds fo arranged as to be by no genus of the polygamia fuperflua order, belonging to the means fenfible to the eye, for the wing is never feen fyngenefia clafs of plants. See Botany Index. to unfold •, but, when obferved in the moft accurate CHRYSES, the prieft of Apollo, father of Aftymanner, feems to grow under the eye to this extent. nome, called from him Chryfeis. When Lyrneffus was When the creature is firft produced from the (hell, it taken, and the fpoils divided among the conquerors, is everywhere moift and tender j even its wings have Chryfeis fell to the (hare of Agamemnon. Chryfes no ftrength or ftiffhefs till they expand themfelves;, upon this went to the Grecian camp to folicit his but they then dry by degrees, and, with the other daughter’s reftoration; and when his prayers Avere parts, become rigid and firm. But if any accident fruitlefs, he implored the aid of Apollo, Avho vifited prevents the wings from expanding at their proper the Greeks Avith a plague, and obliged them to reftore time, that is, as foon as the creature is out of its Ihell, Chryfeis. they never afterwards are able to extend themfelves j CHRYSIPPUS, a Stoic philofopher, born at Sobut the creature continues to wear them in their con- los in Cilicia, Avas difciple to Cleanthus, Zeno’s fuctrafled and wholly ufelefs ftate ; and very often, when ceffor. He Avrote many books, feveral of which rethe wings are in part extended before fuch an accident lated to logic. None of the philofophers fpoke in happens, it flops them in a partial extenfion, and the ftronger terms of the fatal neceffity of every thing, nor creature mull be contented to pafs its whole life with more pompoufly of the liberty of man, than the Stoics, them in that manner. Chryfippus in particular. He Avas fo confiderable M. Reaumur has proved, that heat and cold make among them, as to eftablifti it into a proverb, that if it great differences in the time of hatching the butterfly had not been for Chryfippus, the porch had never been. from its chryfalis ftate: and this he particularly tried Yet the Stoics complained, as Cicero relates, that he with great accuracy and attention, by putting them in had collefted fo many arguments in favour of the feepveffels in warm rooms, and in ice-houfes; and it feem- tical hypothefis, that he could not anfwer them himed wholly owing to the haftening or retarding the eva- felf; and thus had furnifhed Carneades, their antagoporation of the abundant humidity of the animal in the nift, with weapons againft them. There is an apophchryfalis ftate, that it fooner or later appeared in the thegm of this philofopher preferved, which does him butterfly form. He varnifhed over fome chryfalifes, honour. Being told that fome perfons fpoke ill of him, in order to try what would be the effe£l of thus wholly “ It is no matter (faid he), I will live fo that they preventing their tranfpiration ; and the confequence (hall not be believed.” was, that the butterfly came forth from thefe two CHRYSIS, or Golden-fly. See Entomology months later than their natural time. Thus was the Index. duration of the animal in this ftate lengthened j that is, CHRYSITRIX. See Botany Index. its exiftence was lengthened : but without any advanCHRYvbOBOLANUS, Cocoa Plum. See Botage to the creature, fince it was in the time of its tany Index. ftate of inaftion, and probably of infenfibilitv. CHRYSOCOMA, Goldy-locks. See Botany Though this was of no confequence, M. Reaumur Index. deduces a hint from it that feetns to be of fome ufe. CHRYSOGONUM, See Botany Index. CHRYSOLARUS,

C H R [I 36 ] C H R Chryfolarus CHRYSOLARUS, EmANUEL, one of thofe learn- M. Achard fays that it is never found cryftallized, e , jj d men in the 14th century who brought the Greek and that it is femi-tranfparent. By others it is rec- Chryfoliterature into the weft. He was a man of rank j and koned among the quartz, and its colour is fuppofed to ^ ftom. «•— defcended from an ancient family, faid to have removed be owing to the mixture of cobalt, as it gives a fine with Conftantine from Rome to Byzantium. He was blue glafs when melted with borax, or with fixed alfent info Europe by the emperor of the eaft to im- kali. M. Achard, however, found the glafs of a deep plore the afliflance of Chriftian princes. He after- yellow when the fufion was made with borax j and wards taught at Florence, Venice, Pavia, and Rome ; that it really contains fome calx of copper inftead of and died at Conijantinople, in 1415, aged 47. He cobalt. M. Dutens fays, that fome gold has been wrote a Greek grammar, and fome other fmall pieces. found in this kind of ftone ; but this laft belongs in CHRYSOLITE, or Yellowish-green Topaz ; all probability,' fays M. Magellan, to another clafs of a precious ftone of a grafs-green colour, found in the fubftances, viz. the vitreous fpars. Eaft Indies, Brazil, Bohemia, Saxony, Spain, in AuTo the latter belongs moft probably the aventurine, vergne and Bourbon in France, and in Derbyfhire in whofe colour is generally a yellow brown red ; though England. Some are likewife found with volcanic la- fometimes it inclines more to the yellow, or greenifti, vas, as in the Vivarais, where fome large lumps have than to the red. Thefe ftones are not quite tranfpabeen feen of 20 or 30 pounds weight; but it is re- rent : fome indeed fhine with fuch a brilliancy, as to markable, that fome of thefe chryfolites are partly de- render them of confiderable value, but they are very compofed into an argillaceous fubftance. All chry- rare. The common aventurine is but an artificial glafs folites, however, are far from being of the fame kind. of various colours, with which powder of gold has The oriental is the fame with the peridot, and differs been mixed ; and thefe imitated aventurines fo freonly by its green hue from the fapphires, topazes, and quently excel the native ones in fplendcur, that the rubies of the fame denomination- This becomes elec- efteem of the latter is now much lowered. With retric by being rubbed ; has a prifmatic form of fix, or gard to the chryfoprafus, its name, from TTgas-ey, fliows fometimes of five, ftriated faces ; and does not lofe its it to be of a greenifti blue colour, like the leaves of a colour or tranfparency in the fire, which the common leek j it only differs from the chryfolite in its bluilh chryfolite often does ; becoming either opaque, or hue. melting entirely in.a ftrong heat. The inftant it melts, CHR\ SOSTOM, St John, a celebrated patriit emits a phofphoric light like the bafis of alum and arch of Conftantinople, and one of the moft admired gypfeous fpar : with borax it produces a thin colour- fathers of the Chriftian church, was born of a noble lefs glafs. Its fpecific gravity is between 3.600 and family at Antioch, about the year 347. He ftudied 3.700 ; according to Briffon it is 2.7821, or 2.6923 5 rhetoric: under Libavius, and philofophy under Andraand that of the Spanifti chryfolite 3.0980. gathus, after which he (pent fome time in folitude in 1 he fubftance of this precious ftone. is lamellated in the mountains near Antioch ; but the aufterities he enthe direction of the axis of its primitive form 5 but the dured having impaired his health, he returned to Anchryfolite from Saxony is foliated in a perpendicular tioch, where he was ordained deacon by Meletius. direction to the fame axis. The chryfolite of the an- Flavian, Meletius’s fucceffor, railed him to the office cients was the fame gem which is now called topaz,, and o. prefbyter five years after : when he diftinguiftied the name, of itfelf, indicates that it ought to be fo. himfelf fo greatly by his eloquence, that he obtained Pliny fays that the colour of the chryfolite is yellow the furname of Golden Mouth. Neftarius patriarch of like gold. Conftantinople dying in 397, St Chryfoftom, whofe Chb TS0L1TE-Pajle, a kind of glafs made in imita- fame was fpread throughout the whole empire, was tion of natural chryfolite, by mixing two ounces of chofen in his room by the unanimous confent of both prepared cryftal with ten ounces of red lead, adding 12 the clergy and the people. The emperor Arcadius grains of crocus martis made with vinegar ; and then this eledlion, and caufed him to leave Anbaking the whole for 24 hours, or longer, in a well confirmed tioch privately, where the people were very unwilling luted cucurbit. to part with him. He was ordained bifliop on the CHRYSOMELA, a genus of infetffs belonging to 26th of February 398 ; when he obtained an order the order of coleoptera. See Entomology Index. CHrr\ SOPHYLLUM, or Bully-tree. See Bo- from the emperor againft the Eunomians and Montanifts j reformed the abufes which fubfifted amongft his tany Index. clergy 5 retrenched a great part of the expences in CHRYSOPLENIUM. See Botany Index. which his predeceflors had lived, in order to enable CHRYSOPRASUS, or Chrysoprasius, the 10th of the precious ftones mentioned in the Revelation, as him to feed the poor and build hofpitals, and preached forming the foundation of the heavenly Jerufalem. with the utmoft zeal againft the pride, luxury, and The chryfoprafius is by mintralogrfts reckoned to be a avarice of the great. But his pious liberty of fpeech variety of the chrvfolite. and by Cronftedt called the procured him many powerful enemies. He differed yellowifh green and cloudy topaz. He conjectures that it with Theophilus of Alexandria, who got him depofed may perhaps be the fub' ance which ferves as a matrix and banifhed ; but he was foon recalled. After this, to the chryfolite ; as thofe that he had feen were like declaiming againft the dedication of a ftatue ere&ed to the emprefs, (he banifhed him into Cucufus in Armethe clear-veined quartz, called in Sweden milk cry ft aL nia, a moft barren inhofpitable place j afterwards, as which is the firft degree of cryftallization. The chryfoprafus, according to M. Magellan, is of they were removing him from Petyus, the foldiers a green colour, deeper than the chryfolite, but with a treated him fo roughly, that he died by the way, A. D. yellowilh tinge inclining to blue like the green leek. 407. The beft edition of his works is that publifhed at Pans in 1718, by Montfau^on, CHRYSTAL,

C H U [ 137 ] C H U to be the Saviour of mankind. This is what the an- cWel?. CHRYSTAL. See Crystal. Clin dal y—— CHUB, or Chubb, in Ichthyology. See Cyprinus, cient writers call the catholic ox univerfalchurch. Some0 Church Ichthyology Index. times the word church is confidered in a more exten^ The reforts of this filh are eafily found, for they five fenfe, and divided into feveral branches; as the are generally holes overthadovved by trees, and this filh church militant, is the affembly of the faithful on the will be feen floating in fuch almoft on the furface of earth ; the church triumphant, that of the faithful althe water in a hot day in great numbers. They are ready in glory ; to which the Papifts add the church but a poor fifh for the table, and are very full of bones ; patient; which, according to their dodtrines, is that of but they entertain the angler very much, and are of the faithful in purgatory. 2. Church is applied to any particular congregatioa the number of thofe that are eafily taken. CHUBB, Thomas a noted polemical writer, of Chriftians, who affociate together and concur in the born at Eaft Harnham, a village near Salifbury, in participation of all the inflitutions of Jefus Chrift, with 1679. He was put apprentice to a glover at Salif- their proper paftors and minifters. Thus we read of bury, and afterwards entered into partnerlhip with a the church of Antioch, the church of Alexandria, the tallow chandler. Being a man of ftrong natural parts, church of Thelfalonica, and the like. 3. Chuich denotes a particular fedf of Chriftians he employed all his leifure in reading ; and though a ftranger to the learned languages, became tolerably diftinguilhtd by particular dodfrines and ceremonies. verfed in geography, mathematics, and other branches In this fenfe, we fpeak of the Romifh church, the of fcience. His favourite ftudy was divinity } and he Greek church, the Reformed church, the church of formed a little fociety for the purpofe of debating up- England, &c. The Latin or Weftern church, comprehends all the on religious fubjefts, about the time that the Trinitarian controverfy was fo warmly agitated between churches of Italy, France, Spain, Africa, the north, Clarke and Waterland. This fubjefl, therefore, fall- and all other countries whither the Romans carried ing under the cognizance of Chubb’s theological af- their language. Great Britain, part of the Netherlands fembly, he at their requeft drew up and arranged his of Germany, and of the North, have been feparated fentiments on it, in a kind of differtation ; which was from hence ever fince the time of Henry VIII.; and afterwards publiihed under the title of The Supremacy conftitute what we call the Reformed Church, and what of the Father ajferted, &c. In this piece Mr Chubb the Romanifts call the Weftern fchifm. (bowed great talents in reafoning, and acquired fo The Greek or Eaftern church, comprehends the much reputation, that the late Sir Jofeph Jekyll, ma- churches of all the countries anciently fubjedt to the fter of the rolls, took him into his family to enjoy his Greek or eaftern empire, and through which their lanconverfation : but though he is faid to have been guage was carried j that is, all the (pace extended from tempted to remain with him by the offer of a genteel Greece to Mefopotamia and Perfia, and thence int® allowance, he did not continue with him many years ; Egypt. This church has been divided from the Roman but chofe to return to his friends at Salifbury. He pub- ever fince the time of the emperor Phocas. lifhed afterwards a 410 volume of trafts, which Mr The Gallican church, denotes the church of France, Pope informs his friend Gay, he “ read through with under the government and diredlion of their refpedtiv® admiration of the writer, though not always with ap- bifliops and paftors. This church has always enjoyed probation of his dofbrine.” He died a Angle man in certain franchifes and immunities ; not as grants from the 68th year of his age, and left behind him two vols. popes, but as derived to her from her firft original, «f pollhumous trafts, in which he appears to have and which (he has taken care never to relinquilhv had little or no belief in revelation. But however li- Thefe liberties depend upon two maxims \ the firft, centious his way of thinking may be deemed, nothing that the pope has no authority or right to command irregular or immoral has been fairly imputed to him in or order any thing, either in general or in particular, his life and aftions. in which the temporalties and civil rights of the kingCHUDLEIGH, Lady Mary, was born in 1656, dom are concerned 5 the fecond, that, notwithftanding and married to Sir George Chudleigh, Baronet, by the pope’s fupremacy is owned in cafes purely fpiritual, whom (lie had feveral children : her poems and eflays yet in France his power is limited and regular by the have been much admired for delicacy of ftyle. She decrees and canons of ancient councils received in that died in 1710 j and is faid to have written feveral dra- realm. matic pieces, which, though not printed, are preferved 4. The word church is tifed to fignify the body of in the family. ecclefiaftics, or the clergy, in contradiftinftion to the CHUPMESSAHITES, a feft among the Maho- laity. See CLERGY. metans, who believe that Jefus Chrift is God, and the 5. Church is ufed for the place where a particular true Mefliah, the Redeemer of the world j but without congregation or fociety of Chriftians aflemble for the rendering him any public or declared worfhip. The celebration of divine fervice. In this fenfe churches word in the Turkifh language fignifies Proteftor of the are varioufly denominated, according to their rank, deChrijiianu Recaut fays that there is abundance of thefe gree, difeipline, &c. as Metropolitan church, PatriChupmeflahites among the people offafhion in Turkey, archal church, Cathedral church, Parochial church, and feme even in the feraglio. Collegiate church, &c. See METROPOLIS, PATRICHURCH, has different fignifications, according ARCH, &c. to the different fubjefts to which it is applied. In ecclefiaftical writers we meet with grand churchy I. It is underftood of the colleflive body of CHirif- for the chief church of a place ; particularly in the tians, or all thofe over tire fate of the whole earth Greek liturgy, for the church of St Sophia at Conwho profefs to believe in jChrift, and acknowledge him ftantinople, the fee of the patriarch, founded by ConVol. VI. Part I. , S ftantine9

C H U [ I 3& ] c it u Churches, ftantine, and c'onfecrated under Juftinian. It was at knowledge the title of William III. to the crown of churchej. v "T that time fo magnificent, that Jullinian is Taid to have Great Britain, under a notion that James II. though Churchill, cried out in the confecration thereof, Ewx>) iik, and cheefe : they lay upon draw-beds, in tunics and cowls \ they rofe at midnight to prayers } they fpent the day in labour, reading, and prayer, and in all their exercifes obferved a continual filence. The habit of the Ciftercian monks is a white robe, in the nature of a caflock, with a black fcapulary and hood, and is girt with a wooden girdle. The nuns wear a white tunic, and a black fcapulary and girdle. CISTERN, denotes a fubterraneous refervoir of rainwater j or a veffel ferving as a receptacle for rain or other water, for the neceffary ufes of a family. There are likewife lead-cifterns, jar-citlerns, &c. Authors mention a cidern at Condantinople, the vaults of which are fupported by two rows of pillars, 212 in each row, each pillar being two feet in diameter. They are planted circularly, and in radii tending to that of the centre. Anciently there were ciderns all over the country in Paledine. There Were fome likewife in cities and private houfes. As the cities for the mod part were built on mountains, and the rains fell regularly in Judea at two feafons in the year only, in fpring and autumn, people were obliged to keep water in ciderns in the country for the ufe of their cattle, and in cities for the conveniency of the inhabitants. There are dill ciderns of very large dimenfions to be leen in Paledine, fome whereof are 150 paces long, and 54 wide.’ There is one to be feen at Ramah of 32 paces in length, and 28 in breadth. Wells and ciderns, fprings and fountains, are generally confounded in feripturelanguage. CISTUS, the Rock rose. See Botany Index. Cl 1 ADEL, a place fortified with five or fix badions, built on a convenient ground near a city, that it may command it in cafe of a rebellion. CITADELLA, the capital town in the ifland of Minorca, in the Mediterranean, with a new harbour. This, with the whole ifland, was taken by General Stanhope and the confederate fleet in 1708, and ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713 j but it was taken by the French, after a brave defence, in 1756, and redored by the peace. In 1782, it was taken by the Spaniards, and confirmed to them at the fubfequent peace. It is 27 miles wed of Port-Mahon. E. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 39. c8. Cl I ADINESC A, in NaturalHi/iory, a name given by fome writers to the Florentine marbh-, which is fuppofed to reprefent towns, palaces, ruins, rivers, &c. Ihefe delineations are merely accidental, and are 00msionly much aflifled by the imagination, though the Vol. VL Part I.

C I T 69 ] natural lines of a done may fometimes luckily enough Citadlnefca reprefent the ruins of fome ancient building, or the (] courfe of a river. In England there is a kind of fep- ‘ hr.nus. ^ v taria, or ludus Helmontii, which has fometimes prettv beautiful, though very irregular, delineations of this kind. The Florentine marble, as we fee it wrought up in the ornaments of cabinets, &c. owes a great deal to the fkill of the workmen, who always pick out the proper pieces from the mafs, and difpofe them in the work fo as to reprefent what they pleafe. CITATION, in ecclefiadical courts, is the fame with fumrnons in civil courts. See Summons. Citation, is alfo a quotation of fome law authority, or pafiage of a book. Cl I H/ERON, in Ancient Geography, a mountain and forth of Boeotia, celebrated both in fable and long. To the wed it ran obliquely, a little above the Sinus Criflseus, taking its rite contiguous to the mountains of Megara and Attica 5 then levelled into plains, it terminates at Thebes, famous for the fate of Pentheus and Aftaeon $ the former torn by the Bacchse, the latter by his dogs 5 as alfo for the orgia, or revels of Bacchus. CITHARA, in antiquity, a mufical indrument, the precife drufture of which is not known j fome think it refembled the Greek delta A ; and others the fliape of a half-moon. At fird it had only three drings, but the number was at different times increafed to 8, to 9, and laflly to 24. It was ufed in entertainments and private houfes, and played upon with a plt&rum or quill, like the lyre. CITH AREXYLON, Fiddle wood. See Botany Index. Cl 1IUM, Cetium, or Cittium, in Ancient Geography, a town of Cyprus, fituated in the fouth of the ifland, famous for the birth of Zeno, author of the feft called Stoics ; didant two hundred dadia to the wed of Salamis (Diodorus Siculus). A colony of Phoenicians, called Chetim: And hence it is that not only Cyprus, but the other iflands and many maritime places, are called Chetim by the Hebrews; now called Chiti. Cl TIZEN, a native or inhabitant of a city, vefled with the freedom and liberties of it. A citizen of Rome was didinguilhed from a flranger, becaufe he belonged to no certain commonwealth fubjeft to the Romans. A citizen is either by birth or eleftion ; and fons may derive the right from their fathers. To make a good Roman citizen, it was neceffary to be an inhabitant of Rome, to be inrolled in one of the tribes, and to be capable of dignities. Tbofe to whom were granted the rights and privileges of Roman citizens were only honorary citizens. It was not lawful to fcourge a citizen of Rome. CITRINUS, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of a peculiar fpecies of fprig crydal, which is ©f a beautiful yellow. Many of the common crydals, when in the neighbourhood of lead mines, are liable to be accidentally tinged yellow', by an admixture of the particles of that metal j and all thefe, w hether finer or coarfer, have been too frequently confounded together under the name citrine ; but Dr Hill has afeertained this to be a peculiar fpecies of cryflal different from all the others in form as well as in colour ; and didinguifhed by the n?jne of ellipomacrofylum lucidvm flaY vefeens.

c I T [ 170 ] 0 I T vefcens, pyratnide brevi. It is never found colourlefs tants j and urbs becaufe it is in due form furrounded city, 1 like the other cryftals, but has great variety of tinges, with walls. .1 T from that of the deeper ochres to a pale lemon colour. Kingdoms have been fald to contain as many cities Xt is very plentiful in the Weft Indies, and is fome- as they have feats of arehbiftiops and bifliops ; but, actimes found in Bohemia. Our jewellers have learned cording to Blount, city is a word that hath obtained from the French and Italians, who are very fond of it, fince the conqueft ; for, in the time of the Saxons,, to call it citrine; and often cut ftones for rings out of there were no cities, but all the great towns were it, particularly out of the pyramid, which is always finer called burghs, and even London was then called Lonthan the column \ and thefe, after they have palled donburgh, as the capital of Scotland is called Edinburgh.. through two or three hands, are generally miftaken for And long after the conqueft the word city is ufed prutopazes. mifeuoufly with the burgh, as in the charter of LeiceCITRON-tree. See Citrus, Botany Index. fter, where it is both called civitas and burgus ; which CITRON Water, a well-known ftrong water or cordial, {hows that thofe writers were miftaken who tell us which may be thus made : Take of fine thin lemon- every city was, or is, a bilhop’s fee. And though the peel, 18 ounces j of orange-peel, 9 ounces j perfeft word ezhy fignifies with us fuch a town corporate as hath nutmegs, 4 ounces j the fineft and belt alcohol 2 ufually a bifhop and a cathedral church, yet it is not gallons and a half., Digeft in balneo mariae for always fo. one night : draw off with a flow fire ; then add as As to the ancient ftate of cities and villages, whilft. much water as will juft make the matter milky (which the feudal policy prevailed, they held of fome great will be about 7 quarts or 2 gallons ; and laftly, add 2 lord on whom they depended for prote&ion, and were pounds of fine lugar. Ti his compofition may be im- fubjetft to his arbitrary jurifdi£tion. The inhabitants proved by frelh elder flowers, bung in a cloth in the were deprived of the natural and moft unalienable head of the ftill, fprinkled with ambergris in powder, rights of humanity. They could not difpofe of the or its effrnce. effects which their own indultry had acquired, either ClTRON-Wood, the wood of an American tree, call- by a latter will or by any deed executed during their ed by the natives candle-wood, becaufe, being cut life. They had no right to appoint guardians for their into fplinters it burns like a candle. The tree is fre- children during their minority. They were not perquent in the Leeward illands, and grows to a conft- mitted to marry without purchafing the confent of the derable fize : the leaves are like thole of the bay-tree, lord on which they depended. If once they had combut of a finer green the flower is fweet, and much menced a law-fuit, they durft not terminate it by an like thofe of the orange ; the fruit fucceeding thefe is accommodation, becaufe that would have deprived the black, and of the fize of a pepper-corn. The trunk lord, in whofe court they pleaded, of the perquilites is fo like the yellow faunders in colour, that there was due to him on pafling his lenience. Services of vari- Robertforis once an opinion that it was the fame tree, and much ous kinds no lefs difgraceful than oppreffive were ex- Charles V. of it was imported into Europe, and fold as fuch ; but afted from them without mercy or moderation. The they were foon found to be different \ the faunders be- fpirit of induftry was checked in fome cities by abfurd ing of a fweet feent, and but moderately heavy and regulations, and in others by unreafonable exaflions; relinous : but the citron-wood conliderably heavy, nor would the narrow and oppreflive maxims of a milivery oily, and of a ftrong fmell. It is of no known tary ariftocracy have permitted it ever to rife to any ufe in medicine j. but is uftd in France and Germany degree of height or vigour. by the turners, being a fine firm-grained wood, and The freedom of cities was firft eftablilhed in Italy, taking a fine polith, and with age becoming of a very owing principally to the introdu&ion of commerce.. beautiful brown. As loon as they began to turn their attention towards CITRUS, the Citron-tree. See Botany Index. this objeeft, and to conceive fome idea of the advanThis genus includes the citron, the lemon, the lime, tages they might derive from it, they became impathe orange, of which there are different varieties, the tient to (hake off the yoke of their infolent lords, and Ihaddock, and the forbidden fruit. to eftabhlh among themfelves fuch a free and equal CITIERN, a mulical inftrument much refembling government as would render property fecure and inthe guitar, for which it has been frequently miftaken. duftry flourilhing. The German emperors, efpecially Anciently it was called the cijlrum, and till lately was thofe of the Franconian and Suabian lines, as the feat held in great contempt both in France and Britain. of their government was far diftant from Italy, poffeffcd: The practice on it being very eafy, it was formerly a feeble and imperfect jurifdittion in that country.. the amufement and recreation of lewd women and Their perpetual quarrels, either with the popes or their their vifitorq infomuch, that in many of the old Eng- own turbulent vaffals, diverted their attention from the lifh dramatic writers, it is made the fymbol of a wo- interior police of Italy, and gave eonftant employment man that lived by proftitution. It was alfo the com- for their arms.. Ihefe circumflances induced fome of mon amufement of waiting tuftomers in barbers fhops, the Italian cities towards the beginning of the 11th as being the moft eafy of all inftruments to play on, centurv, to affome new privileges*, to unite together and therefore it was thought that almoft every body more clofely, and to form themftlves into bodies policould make ufe of it.. tic, under the government of laws eftablilhed by comCl 1 Y, according to Cowel, is a town corporate mon confent. The rights which many cities acquired which hath a bifhop and cathedral church ; and is call- by bold or fortunate ufurpations, others purchafed from ed civitas, oppidum, and urbs: civitas, in regard it is the emperors, who deemed themfelves gainers when governed by juftice and order of magiftracy ; oppi- they received large fums for immunities which they dum, becaufe it contains a great number of inhabi- were no longer able to withhold ; and fome cities obtained

Citrinus || Clt £| v —'

C I T [ 1 71 ] CIV City. tained them gratuitoufly from the facility or generofi- ftate of flavery, but a confirmation of privileges which city —V—' ty of the princes on whom they depended. The great they had already enjoyed*. The EngJifti cities, how||' increafe of wealth which the cruiades brought into ever, were very conliderable in the 12th century. A ^lvic Italy, occafioned a new kind of fermentation and ac- clear proof of this occurs in the hiftory juft referred Crown- . tivity in the minds of the people, and excited fuch a to. Fitz-Stephen, a contemporary author, gives a de- * see Lord general paffion for liberty and independence, that, be- fcription of the city of London in the reign of Hen- Lyttlet n's fore the conclufion of the laft cruiade, all the confider- ry II. and the terms in which he fpeaks of its trade, Hijiory of able cities in that country had either purchafed or had its wealth, and the number of its inhabitants, would ^ extorted large immunities from the emperors. fuggeft no inadequate idea of its ftate at prefent, when ^ \\n. This innovation was not long known in Italy before it is the greateft and moft opulent city in Europe. it made its way into France. Louis the Grofs, in or- But all ideas of grandeur and magnificence are merely der to create fome power that might counterbalance comparative. It appears from Peter of Blois, archthofe potent vaflals who controlled or gave law to the deacon of London, who flouriftied in the fame reign, crown, firft adopted the plan of conferring new privi- and who had good opportunity of being informed, that leges on the towns fituated within his own domain. this city, of which Fitz-Stephen gives fuch a pompous Thefe privileges were called charters of community, by account, contained no more than 40,000 inhabitants. which he enfranchifed the inhabitants, abolilhed all I he other cities were ftuall in proportion, and in no marks of fervitude, and formed them into corporations condition to extort any extenfive privileges. That or bodies politic, to be governed by a council and ma- the conftitution of the boroughs of Scotland in many giftrates of their own nomination. Thefe magiftrates cireumftances refembles that of the towns of France had the right of adminiftering juftice within their own and England, is manifeft from the Leges Burgorum anprecin&s j of levying taxes ; of embodying and train- nexed to the Regiam Majejiatem. ing to arms the militia of the town, which took the CIVET, a kind of perfume which bears the name field when required by the fovereign under the com- of the animal it is taken from, and to which it is pecumand of officers appointed by the community. The liar. See Viverra. great barons imitated the example of their monarch, Good civet is of a clear, yellowifh, or brownifh coand granted like immunities to the towns within their lour ; not fluid nor hard, but about the confiftence of territories. They had wafted fuch great fums in their butter or honey, and uniform throughout ; of a very expeditions to the Holy Land, that they were eager to ftrong fmell, quite offenfive when undiluted, but agreelay hold on this new expedient for railing money by the able when only a fmall portion of civet is mixed with fale of thofe charters of liberty. Though the conftitu- a large one of other lubftances. It unites eafily with tion of communities was as repugnant to their maxims oils both exprefled and diftilled, but not at all with of policy as it was adverfe to their power, they difre- water or alcohol j nor can it be rendered mifcible garded remote confequences in order to obtain prefent with water by the mediation of fugar. The yolk of relief. In lefs than two centuries, fervitude was abo- an egg feems to difpofe it to unite with water j but in lilhed in molt of the cities of France, and they became a very little while the civet feparates from the liquor, free corporations, inftead of dependent villages without and falls to the bottom, though it does not prove of jurifdiflion or privileges. Much about the fame period fuch a refinous tenacity as when treated with fugar and the great cities of Germany began to acquire like im- alcohol. It communicates, however, fome ftiare of munities, and laid the foundations of their prefent li- its fmell both to watery and fpirituous liquors : hence berty and independence. The practice fpread quickly a fmall portion of it is often added in odoriferous tincover Europe, and was adopted in Spain, England, tures, and fufpended in the ft ill head during the diftilScotland, and all the other feudal kingdoms. lation of odoriferous waters and fpirits. It is rarely The Spanilh hiftorians are almoft entirely filent con- if ever employed for medicinal purpofes. The Italians cerning the origin and progrefs of communities in that make it an ingredient in perfumed oils, and thus obkingdom ; fo that it is impoffible to fix with any degree tain the whole of its fcent $ for oils wholly diflolve the of certainty, the time and manner of theiir firft intro- fubftance of it. It is very rare, however, to meet with duction there. It appears, however, from Mariana, civet unadulterated. The fubftances ufually mixed with that in the year 1350 eighteen cities had obtained it are lard and butter, which agreeing with it in its a feat in the Cortes of Caftile. In Arragon, cities feem general properties, render all criteria for diftinguifliing early to have acquired extenfive immunities, together the adulteration impoffible. A great trade of civet is with a ftiare in the legiflature. In the year 1 j 18, the carried on at Calicut, Baffora, and other parts of the citizens of Saragoffa had not only obtained political li- Indies, and in Africa, where the animal that produces berty, but they were declared to be of equal rank with the perfume is found. Live civet-cats are to be feen the nobles of the fecond clafs 5 and many other immu- alfo in France and Holland. The French keep them nities, unknown to perfons in their rank of life in other only as a rarity; but the Dutch, who keep a great numparts of Europe, were conferred upon them. In Eng- ber, draw the civet from them for fale. It is moftly land, the eftabliftiment of communities or corporations ufed by confeftioners and perfumers. was pofterior to the conqueft. The praClice was borClVET-Cat, the Englifh name of the animal which rowed from France, and the privileges granted by the produces the civet. See Viverka, Mammalia Incrown were perfe&ly fimilar to thofe above enumerated. dex. It is not improbable, that fome of the towns in England CIVIC CROWN, was a crown given by the ancient were formed into corporations under the Saxon kings ; Romans to any foldier who had faved the life of a citiand that the charters granted by the kings of the Nor- zen in an engagement. man race were not charters of enfranchifements from a The civic crown was reckoned more honourable ' Y2 than

c 1 v C I V [ 172 1 it. And though the clergy were attached to it, the civil Law Civic than any other crown, though compofed of no better Crown materials than oak boughs. Plutarch, in the life of laity rather wiflied to p eferve the old conftitution. |1 However, the zeal and influence of the clergy preW21-Civil Law Coriolanus, accounts as follows for ufing on vailed *, and the civil law acquired great reputation ' this oecafion the branches of this tree before all others: ' becaufe, fays, he, the oaken wreath being facred to from the reign of King Stephen to the reign of King Jupiter, the great guardian of their city, they thought Edward the III. both inclufive. Many tranferipts of Juit the moft proper ornament for him who had pre- ftinian’s Inllitute are to be found in the writings of our * Lib- xvi. ferved the life of a citizen. Pliny *, fpeaking of the ancient authors, particularly of Bra6fon and Fieta j ■‘0' honour and privileges conferred on thofe who had and Judge Blackflone obferves, that the common law merited this crown, fays, “ They who had once ob- would have been loft and overrun by the civil, had it tained it, might wear it always.” When they appeared not been for the incident of fixing the court of common at the public fpedtacles, the fenate and people rofe to pleas in one certain Ipot, and the forming the proleflion do them honour, and they took their feats on thefe of the municipal law into an aggregate body. It is allowed that the civil law contains all the prinoccafions among the fenators. They were not only perfonally excufed from all troublefome offices, but ciples of natural equity ; and that nothing can be betprocured the fame immunity for their father and grand- ter calculated to form good fenfe and found judgment. Hence, though in feveral countries it has no other aufather by the father’s fide. CIVIDAD de-las-Palmas, the capital town of thority but that of reafon and juftice, it is everywhere the ifland of Canary, with a bifhop’s fee, and a good referred to for authority. It is not received at this harbour. The houfes are well built, two ftories high, day in any nation without fome alterations ; and fomeand fiat-roofed. The cathedral is a very handfome times the feudal law is mixed with it, or general and ftru&ure *, and the inhabitants are gay and rich. The particular cuftoms ; and often ordinances and ftatutes air is temperate, and free from extremes of heat and cut off a great part of it. cold. It is defended by a fmall caftle feated on a hill. In Turkey, the Bafilics are only ufed. In Italy, W. Long. 14. 35. N. Lat. 28. o. the canon law and cuftoms have excluded a good part CiVIDAD Real, a town of Spain, in New Caftile, and of it. In Venice, cuftom hath almoft an abfolute gocapital of La Mancha. The inhabitants are noted for vernment. In the Milanefe, the feudal law and pard re fling leather extremely well for gloves. W. Long. ticular cuftoms bear fway. In Naples and Sicily, the 4. 15. N. Lat. 39. 2. confutations and laws of the Lombards are faid to CiVIDAD Roderigo, a ftrong and confiderable town prevail. In Germany and Holland, the civil law is of Spain, in the kingdom of Leon, with a bifhop’s fee. efteemed to be the municipal law ; but yet many parts It is feated in a fertile country, on the river Agueda, of it are there grown obfolete ; and others are altered, in W. Long. 6. 52. N. Lat. 40. 38. either by the canon law or a different ufage. In ClVIDAD-di-Fnu/i, a fmall but ancient town of Italy, Friefland, it is obferved with more ftriftnefs j but in in Friuli, and in the territory of Venice*, feated on the the northern parts of Germany, the jus Saxonicum, river Natifona. E. Long. 13. 25. N. Lat. 46. 15. Lubecenfe, or Culmenfe, is preferred before it. In CIVIL, in a general fenfe, fomething that regards Denmark and Sweden, it hath fcarce any authority at the policy, public good, or peace, of the citizens or all. In France, only a part of it is received, and that fubje&s of the iiate j in which fenfe we fay, civil go- part is in fome places as a cuflomary law ; and in thofe vernment, civil law, civil right, civil war, &c. provinces neareft to Italy it is received as a municipal Civil, in a popular fenfe, is applied to a complai- written law. In criminal caufes, the civil law is more fant and humane behaviour in the ordinary intercourfe regarded in France j but the manner of trial is regulaof life. See Civility. ted by ordinances and edicts. In Spain and Portugal, Civil, in a legal fenfe, is alfo applied to the ordi- the civil law is connedfed with the jus regium and cunary procedure in an a61ion, relating to fome pecuniary ftom. In Scotland, the ftatutes of the federunt, part matter or intereft *, in which fenfe it is oppofed to cri- of the regiam majeftatem, and their cuftoms, controul minal. the civil law. CIVIL Death, any thing that cuts off a man from In England, it is ufed in the ecclefiaftical courts, in civil fociety *, as a condemnation to the galleys, perpe- the high court of admiralty, in the court of chivalry, tual banifhment, condemnation to death, outlawry, and in the two umverfities, and in the courts of equity j excom mun ication. yet in all thefe it is reftrained and direfted by the comCIVIL Law, is properly the peculiar law of each ftate, mon law. country, or city: but what we ufually mean by the CIVIL Society. See Law Index. civil law, is a body of laws compofed out of the befl ' ClVIL State, in the Britifh polity, one of the geneRoman and Grecian laws, compiled from the laws of ral divifions of the Laity, comprehending all orders of nature and nations ; and, for the mod part, received men, from the higheft nobleman to the meaneft peafant, and obferved, throughout all the Roman dominions for that are not included under the Military or Mariabove 1200 years. See Law Index. time ftates; though it may fometimes include indiviIt was firft brought over into England by Theobald duals of thefe as well as of the Clergy j fince a noblea Norman abbot, who was elefted to the fee of Can- man, a knight, a gentleman, or a peafant, may become terbury in 1138; and he appointed a profeflor, viz. either a divine, a foldier, or a feaman. The divifion Roger furnamed Vicarius, in the univerfity of Oxford, of this ftate is into Nobility and Commonalty. See to teach it to the people of this country. Never- thefe articles. thelefs, it gained ground very flowly. King SteCivil War, a war between people of the fame ftate,, phen iffued a proclamation, prohibiting the ftudy of or the citizens of the fame city. Civil.

CIV [ 173 ] CIV Civil Year ClVIL 7ear, is the legal year, or annual account of beneficent without expence. A fmile, an affable ad- civility (j II time, which every government appoints to be ufed drefs, a look of approbation, are often capable of givCivnity. wii hin its own dominions j and is fo called in contra- ing a greater pleafure than pecuniary benefits can be-Cm^a ^ur_ "v diftin&ion to the natural year, which is meafured ex- flow. The mere participation of the fludies and amufe. afllv by the revolution of the heavenly bodies. ments of others, at the fame time that it gratifies ourCIVILIAN, in general, denotes fomething belong- felves, is often an aft of real humanity 5 becaufe others ing to the civil law ; but more efpecially the do6lors would not enjoy them without companions. A friendly and p 'te(f>r« thereof are called civi/ians. vifit in a folitary hour, is often a greater aft of kindCIVILITY, a term ufed in common life as fyno- nefs than a valuable prefent. nymous with complaifance or good-breeding. “ It Is really matter of furprife, that thofe who are Civility i^ juftly inculcated by didaftic writers as a diftinguiftied by rank and opulence fhould ever be unduty of no flight confideration. Without civility, or popular in their neighbourhood. They muft know the good-breeding, a court would be the feat of violence value of popularity ; and furely nothing is more eafily and defolation. There, all the paffions are in fermen- obtained by a fuperior. Their notice confers honour, tation ; becaufe all purfue what but few can obtain j and the afpiring heart of man is always delighted with there, if enemies did not embrace, they would dab $ diftinftion. A gracious look from them diffufes hapthere, fmiles are often put on to conceal tears ; there, pinefs on the lower ranks. But it ufually happens, mutual fervices are profeffed, while mutual injuries are that an overgrown rich man is not the favourite of a intended ; and there, the guile of the ferpent fimulates neighbouring country *, and it is unfortunate, that the gentlenefs of the dove. To what a degree mull: pride or inadvertence often prevent men from afting good breeding adorn the beauty of truth, when it can the godlike part of making others happy, even when th us foften the deformity of falfehood ? On this fubjeft they might do it without inconvenience to themfelves.” we have the following elegant obfervations in Knox’s CIVITA-DI Penna, an ancient town of Italy, in EtTays, N° 91;. the kingdom of Naples, and in the Farther Abruzzo, “ However juft the complaints of the mifery of with a biftiop’s fee. It is fituated near the river Salilife, yet great occafions for the difplay of beneficence no, 25 miles north-eaft of Aquila. E. Long. 13.3. and liberality do not often occur. But there is an N. Lat. 42. 25. hourly neceffity for the little kind offices of mutual ciClVlTA Cajiellana, a town of Italy, in St Peter’s vility. At the fame time that they give pleafure to patrimony, feated on a river, which, feven miles from others, they add to our own happimfs and improvement. thence, falls into the Tiber. E. Long. 13. 5* N. Lat. Habitual a&s of kindnefs have a powerful efteft in 42. 15. foftening the heart. An intercomfe with polifhed and ClVJTA Turchrno, a place in Italy, about two miles humane company tends to improve the difpofition, be- north of the town of Corneto in the patrimony of caufe it requires a conformity of manners. And it is St Peter. It is a hill of an oblong form, the fummit certain, that a fenfe of decorum, and of a proper ex- of which is almoft one continued plain. From the ternal behaviour, will reftrain thofe whofe natural tem- quantity of medals, intaglios, fragments of kifcripper would otherwife break out in acrimonious and tions, &c. that are occafionally found here, this is bepetulant converfation. Even the affeftation of philan- lieved to be the very fpot where the ancient and thropy will in time contribute to realife it. The plea- powerful city of Tarquinii once flood. At prefent it fure refulting from an aft of kindnefs naturally excites is only one continued field of corn. On the foutha wilh to repeat it ; and indeed the general efteem eaft fide of it runs the ridge of a hill which unites it which the chara&er of benevolence procures, is fuffi- to Corneto. This ridge is at leaf! three or four miles cient to induce thofe to wilh for it who only a£f from in length, and almoft entirely covered with artificial the mean motives of felf-intereft. hillocks, called by the inhabitants monti-rojji. About “ As we are placed in a world where natural evil twelve of thefe hillocks have at different times been abounds, we ought to render it fupportable to each opened •, and in every one of them have been found other as far as human endeavours can avail. All that feveral fubterranean apartments cut out of the lolid can add a fweet ingredient to the bitter cup muft be rock. Thefe apartments are of various forms and diinfufed. Amid the multitude of thorns, every flower menfions 5 fome confift of a large outer room, and a that will grow muft be cultivated with care. But nei- fmall one within ; others of a fmall room, at the firft ther pomp nor power are of themfelves able to alleviate entrance, and a large one within 5 others are fupthe load of life. The heart requires to be foot bed by ported by a column of the folid rock left in the centre, fympalhv. A thoufand little attentions from all around with openings on every part. The entrance to them us are neceffary to render our days agreeable. The all is by a door about five feet high, by two and a appearance of negleft in any of thofe with whom we half broad. Some of them have no light but from are conne&ed, chills our bofom with chagrin, or kindles the door, while others feem to have had a fmall light the fire of refentment. Nothing therefore feems fo from above, through a hole of a pyramidal form. likely to enfure happinefs as our mutual endeavours to Many of thefe apartments have an elevated port that promote it. Our fingle endeavours, originating and runs all round the wall, being a part of the rock left terminating in ourfelves, are ufually unfuccefsful. Pro- for that purpofe. The moveables found in thefe apartvidence has taken care to fecure that intercourfe which ments confift chiefly of Etrufcan vafes of various forms. is neceffary to the exiftence of fociety, by rendering it In fome indeed have been found fome plain farcophagi the greateft fweetener of human life. of ftone, with bones in them. The whole of thefe By reciprocal attentions we are enabled to become apartments are ftuecoedj and ornamented in various > l manners;:

c L A [ 1 74 ] G L A Ir Civita manners : fome indeed are plain ; but others, particuIn 1790—1798. -1755Clackman 1 urchino larly three, are richly adorned, having a double row nan Dollar, S'l II Clackman ^tru^can infcriptions running round the upper part Tillicoultry Clamp. of the walls, and under them a kind of frieze of fi757 v ~-v—~ gures in painting ; fome have an ornament under the fi9°o3 gures, which feems to fupply the place of an archi8 trave. The paintings feem to be in frefco; and in 749* general referable thofe which are ufually feen upon * Stati/l, 2 Decreafe, Hi/l. Etrufcan vafes •, though fome of them are perhaps 54 fuperior to any thing as yet feen of the Etrufcan art in painting. In general they are flight, but well conClackmannan, a fmall town of Scotland, and caceived *, and prove, that the artift was capable of pro- pita! of the county of that name, is fituated on the ducing things moreftudied and better finiftied ; though, northern ihore of the Forth, in W. Long. 3. 40. in fuch a fubterraneous fituation, the delicacy of a fi- N. Lat. 56. 15. It (lands on a hill, on the top of which nifhed work would in a great meafure have been is the caftle, commanding a noble prolpedt. It was thrown away. It is probable, however, that among long the feat of the chief of the Bruces, who was herethe immenfe number of thefe apartments that yet re- ditary (heriff of the county before the jurifdidlions were main to be opened, many paintings and infcriptions abolifhtd. The large (quare tower is called after the may be found, fufficient to form a very ufeful and en- name of Robert Bruce, whole great fword and cafque tertaining wotk. At prefent this great fcene of anti- are (fill preferved here. The hill is prettily wooded ; quities is almoft entirely unknown, even in Rome. Mr and, with the tower, forms a pi6turefque objedl. ClackJenkins, refident at Rome, was the firit Engliihman mannan is Kill the feat of the Bruces of Kcnnet. who vifited it. CLAGENFURT, a ftrong town of Germany, and , ClVITA Vecchta, a fea port town of Italy in the pa- capital of Carinthia, fituated in E. Long. 13. 36. trimony of St Peter, with a good harbour and an N. Lat. 46. 50. arfenal. Here ihe Pope’s galleys are ftationed, and it CLAGE1, William, an eminent and learned dihas lately been made a free port ; but the air is very vine, born in 1646. He was preacher to the fociety of Gray’s Inn, which employment he exercifed until unwholefome. E. Long. I2s 31. N. Lat. 45. 5. * CIVOLI, or Cigoli, Ijewts, an Italian painter, he died in 1688, being then al(b one of the king’s whofe family name was,was born at the caftle chaplains. Archbifhop Sharp gives him an excellent of Cigoli, in Tufcany, in the year 1559. Plis ecce ho- character ; and Biftiop Burnet has ranked him among mo, which he performed as a trial of Ikill with Barochio thofe worthy men whofe lives and labours contributed and Michael Angelo de Caravaggio, was judged better to refeue the church from the reproaches which the than thofe executed by them. He excelled in de- follies of others had drawn upon it. Dr Claget pufigning, and was employed by the popes and princes of bliihed feveral things 5 but his principal work is his his time. He died at Rome in 1613. “ Difcourfe concerning the Operations of the Holy CIUS, in Ancient Geography, a town and river of Spirit 5” nor muft it be forgotten that he was one of .Bithynia, which gave name to the Sinus Cianus. The thofe excellent divines who made a noble (land againft town was afterwards called Prufia, Cius having been the deiigns of James II. to introduce popery. Four deflroyed by Philip father of Perfeu«, and rebuilt by volumes of his fermons were publiftied after his death Prufias king of Bithynia. In the river, Hylas, the fa- by his brother Nicholas Claget, archdeacon of Sudvourite boy of Hercules, was drowned j (Apollonius bury, father of Nicholas Claget afterwards bi(hop of Rhodius). Exeter. > CL AC, among countrymen. To clack wool, is to CLAIM, in La%v, a challenge of intereft in any cut off the (beep’s mark, which makes the weight lefs, thing that is in pofleflion of another. and yields lefs cuftom to the king. CLAIR OBSCURE. See CLARO Obfcuro. CLACKMANNAN, the name of a fmall (hire in CLAIRAUL1, Alexis, of the French acadeScotland, not exceeding eight miles in length and five my of fciences, was one of the moft illuftrious matheIn breadth. It is bounded on the fouth by the frith maticians in Europe. He read to the academy in of Forth j on the north and weft by Perthfhire ; and 1726, when he was not 13 years old, “ A Memoir on the eaft by Fife. The country is plain and fertile upon Four new Geometrical Curves of his own invenand fupported the chara&er he thus laid a towards the frith, producing corn and pafture in abun- tion dance. It likewife yields, great abundance of excel- foundation for by various publications from time to lent coal, confiderable quantities of which are (hipped time. He publifhed Piemens de Geometric, 1741, in to (apply Edinburgh with fuel. It is watered by the 8vo •, Elemens- d' Algebre, 1 746, in 8vo ; Theorie de la rivers Forth and Devon, and joins the^hire of Kinrofs Figure de la Terre, 1743, in 8vo. 5 Tables de la Lune, 1754, in 8vo. He was concerned alfo in the ’journal in fending a member alternately to parliament. de Ctfavans, which hefurnhhed with many excellent exPopulation* of the different Parifhes in this County at two trafts. He died in 1765. He was one of the academicians who were fent into the north to determine the Periods. figure of the earth. In rye 5. In 1790—1798. CLAM, in Zoology, a Ihell fifli. See Venus. CLAMP, a piece of wood joined to another. C816 4802 Alloa, Clamp is likewife the term for a pile of unburnt Clackmannan, . 2528 bricks

C L A F 17s ] C L A bricks built up for burning. Thefe clamps are built fo natural to the human mind. How formidable were much'after the fame manner as arches are built in kilns, nobles at the head of followers, who, counting that Clans n viz. with a vacuity betwixt each brick’s breadth for the caufe juft and honourable which their chief approved, c,arerK,onfire to afcend by ; but with this difference, that in- were ever ready to take the field at his command, and ' ' ftead of arching, they trufs over, or over-fpan ; that is, to facrifice their lives in defence of his perfon or of his the end of one brick is laid aboilt half way over the fame ! Againft fuch men a king contended with great end of another, and fo till both fides meet within half disadvantage j and that cold fervice, which money pura brick’s length, and then a binding brick at the top chafes, or authority extorts, was not an equal match for finiihes the arch. their ardour and zeal. Clamp in a Jhip, denotes a piece of timber applied to Some imagine the word clan to be only a corruption a mail or yard to prevent the wood from burfting j and of the Roman colonia ; but Mr Whittaker afferts it to alfo a thick plank lying fore and aft under the beams be purely Britifh, and to fignify z family. of the frrft orlop, or fecond deck, and is the fame that ^-UAP, in Medicine^ the firft ftage of the venereal the rifing timbers are to the deck. difeafe, more ufually called a Gonorrhoea. CLAMP Nai/s, fuch nails as are ufed to fallen on CLAP-Net, in birding, a fort of net contrived for clamps in the building or repairing of Ihips. the taking of larks with the looking-glafs, by the meCLAMPETIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of thod called daring or daring. The nets are fpread the Bruttii, one of thofe which revolted from Hanni- over an even piece of ground, and the larks are invibal (Livy ;) called Lampetia by Polybius. Now ted to the place by other larks faftened down, and by jimantia, or Mantia, a town of Calabria Ultra, near a looking-glafs compofed of five pieces, and fixed in a the bay of Euphemia. E. Long. 16. 20. N. Lat. 39 frame fo that it is turned round very fwittly back15wards and forwards, by means of a cord pulled by a CLAMPING, in joinery, is the fitting a piece of perfon at a confiderable diftanee behind a hedge See b board with the grain to another piece of board crofs the Boring. grain. Thus the ends of tables are commonly clampCLAR, or Claer, in Metallurgy, bone-alhes pered, to prevent their warping. fectly calcined, and ^finely powdered, kept purpofely CLANDES PINE, any thing done without the for covering the infides of Cupels. knowledge^ of the parties concerned, or without the proCLARAMONT powder, a kind of earth, called per folemnities. Thus a marriage is faid to be clande- terra de Baira, from the place where it is found ; it is fline, when performed without the publication of bans, famous at Venice, for its efficacy in flopping hemorrhathe confent of parents, &c. gies of all kinds, and in curing malignant feversw CLANS, in hiftory, and particularly in that of ScotPrecept o/" CL ARE constat, in Scots la%v, the land. The nations which overran Europe were origi- warrant of a fuperior for entering and infefting the heir nally divided into many fmall tribes ; and when they of his former vaffal, without the interpofition of an incame to parcel out the lands which they had conquer- queft. ed, it was natural for every chieftain to bellow a porNuns of St CLARE, were founded at Affifa in Italy, tion, in the fird place, upon thofe of his own tribe or about the year 1212. Thefe mins obferved the rule famdy. Thefe all held their lands of him ; and as the of St Francis, and wore habits of the fame colour with laiety of each individual depended on the general thofe of the Francifcan friars ; and hence were called union, thefe fmall focieties clung together, and were Minoreffes; and their houfe, without Aldgate, the Midimnguilhed by fome common appellation, either pa- nories, where they were fettled when firft brought over tronymical or local, long before the introduaion of into England, about the year 1293. They had only lurnames or enfigns armorial. But when thefe be- three houfes befides this. came common, the defcendants and relations of every Clare, a market-town of Suffolk, 13 miles fouth chieftain alfumed the fame name and arms with him ; of Bury. E. Long. o. 35. N. Lat. 52. 15. It gives other vaflals were proud to imitate their example ; the title of earl to the duke of Newcaitle. and by degrees they were communicated to all thofe Clare is alfo the capital of a county of the fame obertron'svho held of the fame fnperior. Thus clanfhips were .name in the province of Connaught, in Ireland, fituaoJand. nUy . ed ,’ ®ndwas,nata firft Station or two, that imaginary, confangui- ted about 17 miles north-weft of Limerick. W.Longv whic.i in a great meafure 6 * was believed to be real. An artificial union was con- 9- O. N. Lat. 52. 40. CLARENCIEUX, the fecond king at arms, fo verted into a natural one : men willingly followed a called from the duke of Clarence, to whom he firlf beleader, whom they regarded both as the fuperior of longed ; for Lionel, third fon to Edward III. having their lands and the chief of their blood ; and ferved by his wife the honour of Clare in the county of Thohim not only with the fidelity of valfals, but the affection of friends. In the other feudal kingdoms, we mond, was afterwards declared duke of Clarence ; which dukedom afterwards efeheating to Edward iv! may obferve fuch unions as we have dtfcribed im- he made this earl a king at arms. His office is tope-feaiv formed ; but in Scotland, whether they were marftial and difpofe of the funerals of all the lower noth. production of chance, or the effeCt of policy, or bility, as baronets, knights, efquires, on the fouth fide lengthened by their preferving their geneafogies of the Trent; whence he is fometimes called furroy or both'genuine, and fabulous, clanfhips were univerfal. fouth roy, in contradiftin&ion to norroy. Such a confederacy might be overcome ; it could not CLARENDON, Confitutions of certain conftitube broken ; and no change of manner or governmenj has been able, in fme parts of the kingdom, to ations made in the reign of Henry II. A. D. 1164, in parliament held at Clarendon, whereby the king ciliolve affociations which are founded upon prejudices checked the power of the pope and his clergy, and 4 greatly Clamp II Clans.

C L A [i Clarendon greatly narrowed the total exemption they claimed H from fecular jurifdidlion. Clangatio.' CLARENDON, Earl of. See HYDE. v CLARENNA, (Tabulae), in Ancient Geography, a town of Vindelicia, at the confluence of the Lyeus and Danube. Now Rain, a town of Bavaria, on the fouth fide of the Danube, at the confluence of the Lech. E. Long. II. O. N. Lat. 48. 45. CLARENZA, the capital of a duchy of the fame name in the Morea j it is a fea-port town, fituated on the Mediterranean. E. Long, 21.40. N. Lat. 37. 40. CLARET, a name given by the French to luch of their red wines as are not of a deep or high colour. See Wine. CLARICHORD, or Manichord, a mufical inftrument in form of a fpinet. It has 49 or 50 flops, and 70 firings, which bear on five bridges j the firft whereof is the higheft, the. reft diminifhing in proportion. Some of the firings are in unifon, their number being greater than that of the flops. There are feveral little mortizes for pafling the jacks, armed with brafs-hooks, which flop and raile the chords inftead of the feather ufed in virginals and fpinets *, but what ditlinguifhes it moft is, that the chords are covered with pieces of cloth, which render the found fweeter, and deaden it fo that it cannot be heard at any confiderable diftance ; whence it comes to be particularly in ufe among the nuns, who learn to play, and are unwilling to difturb the fifence of the dormitorv. CLARIFICATION, the a£l of cleaning or fining any fluid from all heterogeneous matter or feculencies. The fubftances ufually employed for clarifying liquor, are whites of eggs, blood, and ifinglafs. The two firft are ufed for fuch liquors as are clarified whilft boiling hot ; the laft for thofe which are clarified in the cold, fuch as wines, &c. The whites of eggs are beaten up into a froth, and mixed with the liquor, upon which they unite with and entangle the impure matters that float in it j and prefently growing hard by the heat, carry them up to the furface in form of a fcum, no longer diffoluble in the liquid. Blood operates in the fame manner, and is chiefly ufed in purifying the brine from which fait is made. Great quantities of ifinglafs are confumed for fining turbid wines. For this purpofe fome throw an entire piece, about a quarter of an ounce, into a wine cafk ; by degrees the glue diflblves, and forms a Ikin upon the furface, which at length fubfiding, carries down with it the feculent matter which floated in the wine. Others previoufly dififolve the ifinglafs 5 and having boiled it down to a flimy confiftence, mix it with the liquor, roll the calk ftrongly about, and then fuffer it to lland to fettle. Neumann queftions the wholefomentfs of wines thus purified, and affures us that he himfelf, after drinking only a few ounces of fack thus clarified, but not fettled quite fine, was feized with ficknefs and vomiting, followed by fuch a vertigo, that he could not Hand upright for a minute together. The giddinefs continued with a naufea and want of appetite for feveral days. CLARIGATIO, in Roman antiquity, a ceremony that always preceded a formal declaration of war. It was performed in this manner : firft four heralds crowned with vervain were fent to demand fatisfa&ion

6 ] C L A for the injuries done the Roman ftate. Thefe heralds clan'gatia taking the gods to witnefs that their demands were |i juft, one of them, with a clear voice, demanded reftitu- Clarke, tion within a limited time, commonly 33 days, which ^ J being expired without reftitution made, then the pater patratus, or prince of the heralds, proceeded to the enemies frontiers, and declared war. CLARII Aeollinis Fanum (Strabo, Pliny), a temple and grove of Apollo, fituated between Colophon and Lebedos, in Ionia j called Claras (Thucydides, Ovid). The name alfo of a town and mountain there (Nicander) ; and of a fountain (Clemens Alexandrinus), the waters of which infpired with prophetic fury. Clarius the epithet of Apollo (Strabo). CLARION, a kind of trumpet, whofe tube is narrower and its tone acuter and (hriller than that of the common trumpet. It is faid that the clarion, now ufed among the Moors, and Portuguefe who borrowed it from the Moors, ferved anciently for a treble to feveral trumpets, which founded tenor and bafs. CLARISSES, an order of nuns fo called from their founder St Clara or St Clare. (See St Clare.) She was in the town of Aflifa in Italy ; and having renounced the world to dedicate herfelf to religion, gave birth to this order in the year 1212; which comprehends not only thofe nuns that follow the rule of St Francis, according to the ftrift letter, and without anv mitigation, but thofe likewife who follow the fame rule foftened and mitigated by feveral popes. It is at prefent one of the moft flourilhing orders of nuns in Europe. After Ferdinand Cortez had conquered Mexico for the king of Spain, Ifabella of Portugal, wife of the emperor Charles V. fent thither fome nun* of the order of St Clara, who made feveral fettlements there. Near their monafteries were founded communities of Indian young women, to be inftrufted by the clarilfes in religion, and fuch works as were fuitable to perfons of their fex. Thefe communities are fo confiderable that they ufually confill of four or five hundred. CLARKE, Dr Samuel, a preacher and writer of confiderable note in the reign of Charles II. was, during the interregnum, and at the time of the ejection, minifter of St Dennet Fink in London. In November 1660, he, in the name of the Prefbyterian minifters, prefented an addrefs of thanks to the king for his declaration of liberty of confcience. He was one of the commiftioners of the Savoy, and behaved on that occafion with great prudence and moderation. He fometimes attended the church as a hearer and communicant, and was much efteemed by all that knew him, for his great probity and induftry. The moft valuable of his numerous works are faid to be his Lives of the Puritan Divines and other perfons of note, 22 of which are printed in his Martyrology 5 the reft are in his Lives of fundry eminent Perfons in this latter Age, folio ; and his Marrow of Ecelefiaftical Hiftory, in folio and quarto. He died in 1680. CLARK, Samuel, the fon of the former, was fellow of Pembroke-hall in Cambridge j but was ejected from his fellowlhip for refufing to take the engagements, as he was alfo afterwards from his reflory of Grendon in Buckinghamihire. He applied himfelf early to the ftudy of the Scriptures, and his Annotations on the Bible, printed together with the facred text, is highly commended

C L A [ I 77 ] C L A Clarice, commended by Dr Owen, Mr Baxter, and Dr Calatny. in order to fit himfelf for the facred fun&ion, he ftudied Clarke. J -—- He died in 1701, aged 75. the Old Teflament in the original Hebrew, the New ' v CLARKE, Dr Samuel, a very celebrated Englilh in the original Greek, and the primitive Chriftian divine, was the fon of Edward Clarke, Efq. alderman writers. Having taken holy orders, he became chapof Norwich, and one of its reprefentatives in parlia- lain to Moore bilhop of Norwich, who was ever after ment for feveral years; and born there October II. his conftant friend and patron. In 1699 he publiflied 1675. He was inftrufted in claflical learning at the two treatiles : one entitled “ Three practical Eflays on fret-fchool of that town; and in 1691 removed thence Baptifm, Confirmation, and Repentance;” the other, to Caius College in Cambridge, where his uncommon “ Some Reflexions on that part of a book called abilities foon began to difplay themfelves. Though Amyntor, or a Defence of Milton’s Life, which rethe philofophy of Des Cartes was at that time the lates to the Writings of the Primitive Fathers, and the eitablilhed philofophy of the univerfity, yet Clarke Canon of the New Teftament.” In 1701 he publifhed eafily maftered the new fyilem of Newton ; and in or- “ A Paraphrafe upon the Gofpel of St Matthew ; der to his tirft degree of arts, performed a public ex- which was followed in 1702 by the “ Paraphrafes upercife in the fchools upon a quetlion taken from it. on the Gofpels of St Mark and St Luke,” and foon He greatly contributed to the eftablilhment of the after by a third volume “ upon St John.” They ivere Newtonian philofophy by an excellent tranflation of, afterwards printed together in 2 volumes 8vo ; and have and notes upon, Rohault’s “ Phyfics,” which he fi- fince undergone feveral editions. He intended to have nilhed before he was 22 years of age. The fyftem of gone through the remaining books of the New Teftanatural philofophy then generally taught in the univer- ment, but fomething accidentally interrupted the exefity was that written by Rohault, founded altogether cution. upon Cartefian principles, and very ill tranflated into Meanwhile Bilhop Moore gave him the reXory of Latin. Clarke gave a new tranflation, and added to Drayton, near Norwich, and procured for him a parifli it fuch notes as might lead ftudents infenfibly and by in that city ; and thefe he ferved himfelf in that feadegrees to other and truer notions than could be fon when the bifhop refided at Norwich. In 1704 found there. “ And this certainly (fays Bilhop Hoad- he was appointed to preach Boyle’s leXure; and the ly) was a more prudent method of introducing truth fubjeX he chofe was, “ The being and attributes of unknown before, than to attempt to throw afide this God.” He fucceeded fo well in this, and gave fuch treatife entirely, and write a new one inftead of it. high fatisfaXion, that he was appointed to preach the The fuccefs anfwered exceedingly well to his hopes ; fame leXure the next year; when he chofe for his fuband he may juftly be ftyled a great benefaftor to the jeX “ The evidences of natural and revealed religion.” univerfity in this attempt. For by this means the true Thefe fermons were firft printed in two diftinX vophilofophy has, without any noife, prevailed ; and to lumes; the former in 1705, the latter in 1706. They this day the tranflation of Rohault is, generally fpeak- have been fince printed in one volume, under the geing, the {landing -text for ledlures, and his notes the neral title of “ A Difcourfe concerning the Being and firll dire£lion to thofe who are willing to receive the Attributes of God, the Obligations of natural Relireality and truth of things in the place of invention gion, and the Truth and Certainty of the Chriftian and romance.” Whifton relates, that in 1697, while Revelation, in oppofition to Hobbes, Spinoza, the Auhe was chaplain to Moore bifliop of Norwich, he met thor of the Oracles of Reafon, and other Deniers of young Clarke, then wholly unknown to him, at a cof- natural and revealed Religion.” Clarke having endeafeehoufe in that city ; where they entered into a con- voured in the firft part of his work to {how, that the verfation about the Cartefian philofophy, particularly being of a God may be demonftrated by arguments Rohault’s “ Phvfics,” which Clarke’s tutor, as he tells dpriori, is unluckily involved in thecenfure which Pope us, had put him upon tranflating. “ The refult of has palled upon this method of reafoning in the folthis converfation was (fays Whifton), that I was great- lowing lines. They are put into the mouth of one ly furprifed that fo young a man as Clarke then was of his dunces, addrefling himfelf to the goddefs Dulfliould know fo much of thofe fublime difcoveries, nefs: which were then almoft a fecret to all but to a few “ Let others creep by timid fteps and flow, particular mathematicians. Nor do I remember (con“ On plain experience lay foundations low, tinues he) above one or two at the moft, whom I had “ By common fenfe to common knowledge bred, then met with, that feemed to know fo much of that “ And loft to nature’s caufe through nature led. philofophy as Clarke.” This tranflation of Rohault “ All-feeing in thy mills, ive want no guide, was firll printed in 1697, ^vo* There have been four “ Mother of arrogance, and fource of pride ! editions of it, in every one of which improvements “ We nobly lake the high priori road, have been made ; efpecially in the laft in 1718, which “ And reafon downward, till we doubt of God.” his the following title : Jacobi Rohau/ti Rhyjica. LaDunciad, b. 4. 1. 455. tine vertit, recenfuit, et uberioribus jam Ann ot at iambus, ex illujlrijimi Ifaaci Newtoni Phi/ofophia maximum par Upon which we have the following note : “ Thofe who, tern hattflis, ampl'jicayit et ornavit S. Clarke, S. T. P. from the eff< Xs in this vifibk wr rid, deduce the eterAccedunt etiam m liac quarto editione novce aliquot tabu- nal power and godhead of the Firll Caufe, though they ice cert incifee, et Annotationes multum funt aublce. Dr cannot attain to an adequate idea of the Deity, yet John Clarke, late dean of Sarum, and our author’s difeover fo much of him as enables them to fee the brother, tranflated this work into Englifh, and publifh- end of their creation and the means of their happied it in 2 vols 8vo. nefs ; whereas they who take this high priori road, Afterwards he turned his thoughts to divinity : and as Hobbes, Spinoza, Des Cartes, and fome better reaVol. VI. Part I. Z foners,

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C L A [ 178 ] > C L A Claike. foners, for one that goes right, ten lofe themfelves in truly reprefented. Bifhop Hoadly obferves, that in Clarke, “"'v——- mift, or ramble after vifions, which deprive them of this letter he anfwered Mr Dodwell in fo excellent a -y—» all fight of their end, and millead them in the choice manner, both with regard to the philofophical part, of wrong means.” Clarke, it is probable, would not and to the opinions of fome of the primitive writers, have denied this ; and the poet perhaps would have upon whom thefe dodlrines were fixed, that it gave fpared bis better reafoners, and not have joined them univerfal fatisfadlion. But this controverfy did not flop with fuch company, had he recollected our author’s here 3 for the celebrated Collins, coming in as a feapology for ufing the argument a priori. “ The argu- cond to Dodwell, went much farther into the philofoment a pojieriori (fays he) is indeed by far the moft phy of the difpute, and indeed feemed to produce all generally ufeful argument, molt eafy to be underftood, that could poffibly be faid againft the immateriality of and in fome degree fuited to all capacities j and there- the foul, as well as the liberty of human aftions. This fore it ought always to be infilled upon : But for as enlarged the feene of the difpute, into w Inch our aumuch as atheillical writers have fometimes oppofed the thor entered, and wrote with fuch a fpirit of clearbeing and attributes of God by fuch metaphyfical rea- nefs and demonifration, as at once fhoived him greatfonings, as can no otherwife be obviated than by ar- ly fuperior to his adverfaries in metaphyfieal and phyguing a priori; therefore this manner of arguing alfo fical knowledge, and made every intelligent reader reis ufeful and neceffary in its proper place.” To this joice, that fuch an incident had happened to provoke may be added the aniwer he made to Mr Whifton up- and extort from him that plenty of ftrong reafoning on this occafion, as narrated by the latter in his Hif- and perfpicuity of expreffion, which were indeed very torical Memoirs. “ When Clarke brought me his much wanted upon this intricate and obfeure fubjebt. book, I was in my garden againfl: St Peter’s college in “ And I am perfuaded (continues the bifliop), that Cambridge, where I then lived. Now I perceived as what he has written in this controverfy comprehends that in thefe fermons he had dealt a great deal in ab- the little that the ancients had faid well, and adds ftill ftraCl and metaphyiical reafoning. 1 therefore afked more evidence than ever appeared clearly before, and him how he ventured into fuch fubtleties, which I ne- all in words that have a meaning to ihtm, it will rever duril meddle with ? and fhowing him a nettle, or main the ftandard of good fenfe on that fide of the fome contemptible weed in my garden, I told him queftion, on which he fpent fo many of his thoughts, that weed contained better arguments for the being and as upon one of his favourite points.” Clarke’s letter attributes of God than all hi* metaphyfics. Clarke to Dodwell was foon followed by four defences of it, confefftd it to be fo ; but alleged for himfelf, that fince in four feveral letters to the author of “ A letter to fuch philofbphers as Hobbes and Spinoza had made ufe the learned Mr Henry Dodwell, containing fome Reof thofe kind of fubtle ties again!!, he thought proper to marks on a pretended Demonftration of the Immatefhowthat the like way of reafoning might be made better riality and natural Immortality of the Soul, in Mr ufe of on the fide of, religion ; which reafon or excufe Clarke’s Anfwer to bis late Epiftolary Difeourfe, &c.” I allowed to be not inconfiderable.” Undoubtedly, They were afterwards all printed together 3 and the as the prefent editor of the Biographia Britannica ob- “ Anfwer to Toland’s Amyntor” added to them. ferves, the grand, the proper, the decifive proof of In the midft of all theie labours, he found time to the exiftence, perfedlions, and providence of the Deity, fhow his regard to mathematical and phyfical ftudies, mull be drawn from his works. On this proof, as be- and exa£t knowledge and fkill in them. And his naing equally fatisfadlory to the profoundeft philofopher tural affeftion and capacity for thefe ftudies were not and the meaneft peafant, the caufe of religion will a little improved by the friendfhip of Sir Ifaac Newever Hand fecure. Neverthelefs, if there be fuch a ton, at whofe requeft he tranfiated his “ Optics” inthing as an argument a priori, why may not fpecula- to Latin in 1706. With this verfion Sir Ifaac was fo tive men be employed in its examination ? Several able highly pleafed, that he prefented him with the fum of divines and philofophers have thought, and ftill think, 500I. or 1 col. for each child, Clarke having then five that this argument for the being and attributes of God children. This year alfo, Bifhop Moore, who had long formwill Hand the tell of the fevereft ferutiny j and therefore they cannot be blamed for endeavouring to fet it ed a defign of fixing him more confpicuoufly, procurin a convincing light to others. As to the merit, in- ed for him the redlory of St Bcnnet’s, Paul’s Wharf, deed, of the whole work under confideration, including in London ; and foon after carried him to court, and the evidences of natural and revealed religion, it is un- recommended him to the favour of Queen Anne. She doubtedly of the firft order. Difficulties may be raifed appointed him one of her chaplains in ordinary ; and, on particular points, and the ableft and moft candid in confideration of his great merit, and at the requeft inquirers may fometimes fee caufe to hefitate with re- of the bifhop, prefented him to the redtory of St gard to the validity of the reafoning j but ftill, in ge- James’s, Wefiminfter, when it became vacant in 1709. neral, .the book refledts honour on the age as Well as Upon his advancement to this ftation, he took the the author that produced it, and will defeend, with degree of D. D. when the public exercife which he diftinguiflied reputation, to a late pofterity. The de- performed for it at Cambridge was prodigioufly admifence, in particular, of the facred original and autho- red. The queftions which he maintained were thefe : I. “ Nullum firiei Chriftianae dogma, in facris feripturity of Chriftianity is admirably condufled. In 1706 he publifhed “ A Letter to Mr Dodwell $” ris traditum, eft redfae rationi diffentaneum j” that wherein all the arguments in his epiftolary difeourfe is, “ No article of the Chriftian faith, delivered in the againft the immortality of the foul are particularly an- Holy Scriptures, is difagfeeable to right reafon.” 2. fwered, and the judgment of the fathers, to whom “ Sine a&ionum humanarum libertate nulla poteft efiie Mr Dcdwell had appealed concerning that matter, religio j” that is, “ Without the liberty of human actions.

c L A C L A [I 79 ] Ckrke. tions there can be no religion.” His tlielis was upon the firft into any art, generally carries it to greater Clarke.' the firft of thefe quellions, which being thoroughly heights than any other country in the world.” This—v—’'" lifted by that moft acute difputant Profeffor James, noble work has rifen in value from that time to the prehe made an extempore reply, in a continued difcourfe fent. A copy of this edition in large paper, mofi: for near half an hour, with fo little helitation, that fplendidly bound in morocco, was fold at the Hon. many of the auditors declared themfelves aftonilhed; Mr Beauclerk’s fale for forty-four pounds; and it was and owned, that if they had not been within fight of faid to be purchafed by the duke of Grafton. “ To him, they fhould have fuppofed him to have read every a prince or a nobleman (fays Dr Harwood), it was a word of it from a paper. After this, through the cheap purchafe ; for it was the moft magnificent book courfe of the fyllogiftical difputation, he guarded fo I ever beheld.” The binding coft Mr Beauclerk five well again ft the arts which the profefibr was a com- guineas. plete matter of; replied fo readily to the greateft difThe fame year, 1712, he publiftied his celebrated ficulties fuch an objeftor could propofe ; and preffed book entitled, “ The Scripture Doctrine of the Trihim fo clofe and hard with clear and intelligible an- nity,” &c. which is divided into three parts. The fwers, that perhaps there never was fuch a conflict firft is, a colledlion and explication of all the texts in heard in thofe fchools. The profeffbr, who was a man the “ New Teftament,” relating to the dodtrine of the of humour as well as learning, faid to him at the end Trinity : in the fecond, the foregoing dodlrine is fet of the difputation, “ Profeflo, me probe exercuifti 5” forth at large, and explained in particular and dittindt that is, “ On my word, you have worked me fuffi- propofitions ; and in the third, the principal paflages ciently j” and the members of the univerfity went in the liturgy of the church of England, relating to away, admiring, as indeed they well might, that a man the dodlrine of the Trinity, are confidered. Biftiop even of Clarke’s abilities, after an abfence of fo many Hoadly applauds our author’s method of proceeding, years, and a long courfe of bulinefs of quite ano- in forming his fentiments upon fo important a point: ther nature, ftiould acquit himfelf in fuch a manner, as “ He knew (fays he), and all men agreed, that it was if this fort of academical exercife had been his conftant a matter of mere revelation. He did not therefore re employment ; and with fuch fluency and purity of ex- tire into his clofet, and fet himfelf to invent and forge preflion, as if he had been accuftomed to no other lan- a plaufible hypothefis, which might fit eafily upon his guage in convsrfation but J^atin. The fame year mind. He had no recourfe to abftradt and metaphy1709, he revifed and corredled Whifton’s tranflation fical reafonings to cover or patronize any fyftem he of the “ Apoftolical Conftitutions” into Englifti. might have embraced before. But, as a Chriftian, he Whifton tells us, that his own ftudies having been laid open the New Teftament before him. He fearchchiefly upon other things, and having rendered him in- ed out every text in which mention was made of the capable of being alfo a critic in words and languages, three perfons, or any one of them. He accurately exhe defired his great friend and great critic Dr Clarke amined the meaning of the words ufed about every one to revife that tranflation, which he was fo kind as to of them ; and by the beft rules of grammar and criagree to. tique, and by his Ikill in language, he endeavoured to In 1712, he publiftied a moft beautiful and pom- fix plainly what was declared about every perfon, and pous edition of Caefar’s commentaries, adorned with what was not. And what he thought to be the truth, elegant fculptures. It is entitled, “ C. Julii Caefaris he publiftied under the title of ‘ The Scripture Docquae extant, accuratiflime cum libris editis et mflf. opti- trine of the Trinity.’ “ I am far (fays the biftiop) mis collata, recognita, et corredla ; acceflerunt annota- from taking upon me to determine, in fo difficult a tiones Samuelis Clarke, S. T. P. item indices loeorum, queftion between him and thofe who made replies to rerumque et verborum, utiliflimge.” It was printed in him ; but this I hope I may be allowed to fay, that 1712, folio; and afterwards, in 1720, 8vo. It was de- every Chriftian divine and layman ought to pay his dicated to the great duke of Marlborough, “ at a time,” thanks to Dr Clarke for the method into which he fays Biftiop Hoadly, “ when his unequalled vidlories brought this difpute ; and for that colleflion of texts and fucceffes had raifed his glory to the higheft pitch of the New Teftament by which at laft it muft be deabroad, and leflened his intereft and favour at home.” cided, on which fide foever the truth may be fuppofed In the publication of this book, the do&or took par- to lie.” Whifton informs us, that fome time before the ticular care of the punctuation. In the annotations, publication of this book, there was a meflage fent to he felefted what appeared the beft and moft judicious him from Lord Godolphin and others of Queen Anne’s in former editors, with fome corrections and emenda- minifters, importing, “ That the affairs of the public tions of his own interfperfed. Mr Addifon has fpoken were with difficulty then kept in the hands of thofe of this folio edition of Caefar’s commentaries in the fol- that were for liberty; that it was therefore an unfealowing words : “ The new edition, which is given us fonable time for the publication of a book that would of Caefar’s commentaries, has already been taken notice make a great noife and difturbance ; and that thereof in foreign gazettes, and is a work that does ho- fore they defired him to forbear till a fitter oppornour to the Englifh prefs. It is no wonder that an tunity ftiould offer itfelf;” which meffage (fays he) edition ftiould be very correCt, which has pafied through the doftor had no regard to, but went on according the hands of one of the moft accurate, learned, and ju- to the di&ates of his own confcience with the publidicious writers this age has produced. The beauty of cation of his book. The minifters, however, were very the paper, of the charaCler, and of the feveral cuts right in their conjeftures ; for the work made noife with which this noble work is illuftrated, makes it the and difturbance enough, and occafioned a great numfineft book that I have ever feen; and is a true inftance ber of books and pamphlets, written by himfelf and of the Englifti genius, which, though it does not come others. Z2 Books

C L A [ 180 ] C L A Clarke. Books and pamphlets, however, were not all which verfion is almoft entirely new, and annotations are Clarke, —v—the “ Scripture Do61rine of the Trinity” occafioned : added to the bottom of the pages. Homer, Biffiop it made its author obnoxious to the power ecclefiaftical, Hoadly tells us, was Clarke’s admired author, even to a and his book to be complained of by the Lower Houfe degree of fomething like enthufiafm, hardly natural to of convention. The doffor drew up a preface, and af- his temper, and that in this he went a little beyond terwards gave in feveral explanations, which feemed to the bounds of Horace’s judgment, and was fo unwillfatisfy the Upper Houfe j at leaft the affair was not ing to allow the favourite poet ever to nod, that he brought to any iffue, the members appearing defirous has taken remarkable pains to find out, and give a to prevent diffenfions and divifions. reafon for every paffage, word, and title, that could In 1715 and 1716, he had a difpute with the cele- create any fufpicion. “ The tranflation, (adds the brated Leibnitz, relating to the principles of natural Biffiop), with his correflions, may now be ftyled acphilofophy and religion j and a collection of the pa- curate, and his notes, as far as they go, are indeed a pers which paired between them was publifhed in 1717. treafury of grammatical and critical knowledge. He This performance of the doCtor’s is infcribed to her was called to his talk by royal command j and he has late Majefty Queen Caroline, then princefs of Wales, performed it in fuch a manner, as to be worthy of the who was pleafed to have the controverfy pafs through young prince, for whom it was laboured.” The year her hands. It related chiefly to the important and of its publication was the laft of this great man’s lifedifficult fubjeCts of liberty and neceffity. Though not robuft, he had always enjoyed a firm ftate In 1718, Dr Clarke made an alteration in the forms of health, without any indifpofition bad enough to of doxology in the finging pfalms, which produced no confine him, except the fmall-pox in his youth ; till fmall noife and difturbance, and occafioned fome pam- on Sunday May 11. 1729, going out in the morning phlets to be written. The alteration was this : to preach before the judges at Sergeant’s-Inn, he was there feized with a pain in his fide, which made it To God, through Chrift, his only Son, impoffible for him to perform the office he was called Immortal glory be, &c. to 5 and quickly became fo violent, that he was obliAnd ged to be carried home. He went to bed, and thought To God, through Chrift, his Son, our Lord, himfelf fo much better in the afternoon, that he would All glory be therefore, &c. not fuffer himfelf to be bled j againft which remeA confiderable number of thefe feleft pfalms and dy, it is remarkable that he had entertained ftrong hymns having been difperfed by the Society for Pro- prejudices. But the pain returning violently about moting Chriftian Knowledge, before the alteration of two the next morning, made bleeding abfolutely nethe doxologies was taken notice of, he was charged ceffary j he appeared to be out of danger, and contiwith a defign of impofing upon the fociety; whereas, nued to think himfelf fo, till the Saturday morning in truth, the edition of them had been prepared by following; when, to the inexpreffible furprife of ail him for the ufe of his own parith only, before the fo- about him, the pain removed from his fide to his ciety had thoughts of purchafing any of the copies ; head ; and, after a very fliort complaint, took away and as the ufual forms of doxology are not eftablifhed his fenfes fo, that they never returned any more. He by any legal authority, ecclefiaftical or civil, in this he continued breathing till within feven and eight qf the had not offended. evening of that day, which was May 17. 17295 an£l About this time he was prefented by the lord Lech- then died, in his 54th year. mere, the chancellor of the duchy of Lancafter, to the Soon after his death were publiffied, from his origimafterfhip of Wigfton’s hofpital in Leicefter. In 1724, nal manufcripts, by his brother Dr John Clarke, dean he publiffied 17 fermons preached on feveral occafions, of Sarum, “ An Expofition of the Church Catechifm,” 11 of which were never before printed : and the year and ten volumes of fermons, in 8vo. His “ Expofifollowing, a fermon, preached at the parifli-church of tion” is made up of thofe le&ures he read every St James’s, upon the ere&ing a charity-fchool for the Thurfday morning for fome months in the year, at St education of women fervants. In 1727, upon the James’s church. In the latter part of his time he redeath of Sir Ifaac Newton, he was offered by the court vifed them with great care, and left them completely the place of mafter of the mint, worth communibus an- prepared for the prefs. As to the fermons, few difnis 1200 or 1500!. a-year. But to this fecular prefer- courfes in the Engliffi language are more judicious, ment he could not reconcile himfelf, and therefore ab- and fewer ftill are equally inftruftive. The reafoning folutely refufed it. Whifton feems to wonder, that and the pra&ical parts are excellent, and the explanaClarke’s eulogifts ffiould lay fo little ftrefs upon this re- tions of Scripture are uncommonly valuable. Though fufal, as to mention it not at all, or at leaft very negli- Dr Clarke had not the turn of mind which qualified gently j while “ he takes it,” he fays, “ to be one of him for moving the paffions, and indeed did not make the moft glorious aftions of his life, and to afford un- it his object, his fentiments, neverthelefs, are frequentdeniable convi&ion, that he was in earneft in his reli- ly expreffed with fuch a clearnefs of conception, and gion.” In 1728, was publiffied, “ A Letter from fuch a force of language, as to produce in well difpoDr Clarke to Mr Benjamin Hoadly, F. R. S. occa- fed readers all the effeft of the pathetic. Several vofioned by the controverfy, relating to the Proportion lumes of fermons have been publilhed fince his time, of Velocity and Force in Bodies in Motion $” and which are far fuperior in point of elegance and beauty, printed in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, N° 40i. and we have the higheft fenfe of their merit. But ftill In 1729, he publiffied the 12 firft books of “ Ho- if we were called upon to recommend difcourfes, which mer’s Iliad.” This edition was printed in 4to, and abound with the moft folid inftru&ion, and promife dedicated to the duke of Cumberland. The Latin the moft lafting improvement, we ffiould never forget a

€ L A [i a Clarke and a Jortin. Three years after the do£tor’s death appeared alfu the Twelve Laft books of the Iliad, publifhed in 410 by his fon Mr Samuel Clarke, who informs us, in the preface, that his father had finifhed the annotations to the three firft of thefe books, and as far as the 359th verfe of the fourth 5 and had revifed the text and verfion as far as verfe 510 of the fame book. Dr Clarke married Catharine, the daughter of the reverend Mr Lockwood, reftor of Little Miflingham in Norfolk ; in whofe good fenfe and unblameable behaviour he was happy to his death. By her he had feven children, two of whom died before and one a few weeks after him. Of the chara&er of this great divine, the following fhort delineation appeared fome years fince in the Gentleman’s Magazine : “ Samuel Clarke, D. D. redtor of St James’s, Weftminfter: in each feveral part of ufeful knowledge and critical learning, perhaps without a fuperior; in all united, certainly without an equal ; in his works, the belt defender of religion ; in his practice, the greateft ornament to it; in his converfation communicative, and in an uncommon manner inftru&ive •, in his preaching and writings, ftrong, clear, and calm ; in his life, high in the etleem of the wife, the good, and the great; in his death, lamented by every friend to learning, truth, and virtue.” In the fame publication fome not incurious anecdotes concerning him are printed, collefted by the Rev. Mr Jones of Welwyn. We learned from them, that Dr Clarke was of a very humane and tender difpofition. When his young children amufed themfelves with tormenting and killing flies upon the windows, he not only forbade fuch praftices, but calmly reafoned with them, in fuch a familiar manner, as was calculated to make a powerful impreflion upon their minds. He was very ready and condefcending in anfwering applications to him with refpefl to fcruples ; numberlefs inflances of which occurred in the courfe of his life. One thing of which Dr Clarke was peculiarly cautious, was not to lofe the lead minute of his time. He always carried fome book about with him, which he would read whilft riding in a coach or walking in the fields, or if he had any leifure moments free from company or his other ftudies. Nay, he would read even in company itfelf, where he might take fuch a liberty without offence to good manners. His memory was remarkably ftrong. He told Mr Pyle of Lyn, that he never forgot any thing which he had once thoroughly apprehended and underftood. The Doftor, with his intimate friends, was perfefHy free and eafy •, but if ftrangers were introduced, he behaved with much circumfpedion, converfing only upon common topics. When he vifited Dr Sykes, his ufual way was to fit with him upon a couch, and, reclining upon his bofom, to difcourfe with him, in the moft familiar manner, upon fuch fubjefts as were agreeable to the tafte and judgment of both. When Sir John Germaine lay upon his deathbed, and was in great confufion and trouble of mind, he fent for Dr Clarke, and requefted to know of him whether he fhould receive the facrament, and what he ftiould do in his fad condition. The Dodlor, who was well acquainted with Sir John’s purfuits and courfe of life, fedately replied, that he could not advife him to receive the facrament, and 2

81 ] C L A that he did not think it likely to be of any avail to him Clarke, with refpeift to his final welfare. Having faid this, he 1 ■■ ■ y—» departed without adminiftering the communion, having firft recommended the dying man to the mercy of God. Dr Clarke was of a cheerful, and even playful difpofition. An intimate friend of his, the late Rev. Mr Bott, ufed to relate, that once when he called upon him, he found him fwimming upon a table. At another time, when the two Dr Clarkes, Mr Bott, and feveral men of ability and learning were together, and amufing themfelves with diverting tricks, Dr Samuel Clarke, looking out at the window, faw a grave blockhead approaching to the houfe ; upon which he cried out, “ Boys, boys, be wife, here comes a fool.” This turn of his mind hath fince been confirmed by Dr Warton, who, in his obfervations on the following line of Mr Pope, “ Unthought-of frailties cheat us in the wife,” fays, “ Who could imagine that Locke was fond of romances ; that Newton once ftudied aftrology ; that Dr Clarke valued himfelf on his agility, and frequently amufed himfelf in a private room of his houfe, in leaping over the tables and chairs ; and that our author himfelf was a great epicure!” With refpefl to what is here recorded of Dr Clarke, we can fcarcely perfuade ourfelves to confider it as a frailty. To be po fie fled of fuch a temper as he was, muft have been no fmall degree of bappinefs ; as it probably enabled him to purfue his important and ferious ftudies with greater vivacity and vigour. To be capable of deriving amufement from trivial circumftances, indicates a heart at eafe, and may generally be regarded as the concomitant of virtue. Clarke, William, an Englifh divine, was born at Haghmon-abbey in Shropfhire, 1696; and after a grammar-education at Shrewfbury fchool, was fent to St John’s college Cambridge, of which he wras eleffed fellow, Jan. 17. 1716; B. A. 1731 ; M. A. 1735. He was prefented by Archbifhop Wake in 1724 to the rectory of Buxted in Suflex, at the particular recommendation of Dr Wotton, whofe daughter he married. In 1738 he was made prebendary and refidentiary of the cathedral church at Chichefter. Some years before this he bad given to the public a fpecimen of his literary abilities, in a preface of his father-in law Dr Wotton’s Leges Wallice Kcclejiajlicce et Civiles Hoeli Boni, ct ahorum Wallice Principum; or Ecclefiaftical and Civil La ws of Howel D Da, and other princes of Wales. There is reafon likewife to furmife, that an excellent Difcourfe on the Commerce of the Romans, which was highly extolled by Dr Taylor in his Elements of the Civil Law, might have been written by our author. It came either from his hand or from that of his friend Mr Bowyer, and is reprinted in that gentleman’s Mifcellaneous Trails. But Mr Clarke’s chief work was, the Connexion of the Roman, Saxon, and Englifh Coins ; deducing the Antiquities, Cuftoms, and Manners of each people to modern times : particularly the Origin of Feudal Tenures, and of Parliaments ; illuftrated throughout with critical and hiftorical Remarks on various Authors both facred and profane. This work was publiftred, in one volume quarto, in 1767 ; and its appearance from the prefs was owing to ths.

c L A r 182 1 CL A

C L E C L E [ 189 1 CLEMENS RoMANUS, biftiop of Rome, where he Clemens, Clemency, fatlons, and even the intereft of the Rate to authorize —v—— fuch a claim, that by the exemplary feverities fuch is faid to have been born ; and to have been fellow- Clement, *' ' * enormous crimes might be prevented for the future. labourer with St Peter and St Paul. We have noBut Thrafybulus riling above thefe fentiments, from the thing remaining of his works that is clearly genuine, fuperiority of his more extenfive genius, and the views excepting one epiftle, written to quiet fome difturbanof a more difcerning and profound policy, forefaw, that ces in the church of Corinth ; which, next to holy by giving into the punilhment of the guilty, eternal writ, is efteemed one of the moft valuable remains of feeds of difcord and enmity would remain, to weaken ecclefiaftical antiquity. the public by domeific divifions, when it was neceffary CLEMENS A/exandrinus, fo called to diftinguilh him to: unite againft the common enemy, and alfo occafion from the former, was an eminent father of the church, , the lofs to the ftate of a great number of citizens, who who flouriftied at the end of the fecond and beginning might render it important fervices from the view of of the third centuries. He was the fcholar of Pantaenus, and the inftruftor of Origen. The beft edition making amends for paft milbehaviour. 4. Such conduct, after great troubles in a ftate, has of his works is that in 2 vols folio, publifhed in 1715, always appeared to the ableft politicians, the moft by Archbiftiop Potter. certain and ready means to reftore the public peace and CLEMENT V. Pope, the firff who-made a pubtranquillity. Cicero, when Rome was divided into lic fale of indulgences. He tranfpl'anted the holy fee two factions upon the occafion of Casfar’s death, who to Avignon in France ; greatly contributed to the fuphad been killed by the confpirators, calling to mind preflion of the knights templars; and was author of a this celebrated amnefty, propofed, after the example compilation of the decrees of the general councils of of the Athenians, to bury all that had palled in eternal Vienne, ftyled Clementines. He died in 1314. oblivion. Clement VII. Julius de Medicis, Pope, memo5. Cardinal Mazarine obierved to Don Lewis de rable for his refufing to divorce Catharine of ArfaHaro, prime minifter of Spain, that this gentle and hu- goa from Henry VIII. ; and for the bull he publifhed mane Conduit in France had prevented the troubles and upon the king’s marriage with Anne Boleyn, which, revolts of that kingdom from having any fatal confe- according to the. Romifh authors, loft him England. quences, and “ that the king had not loft a foot of land He died in 1534. -# by them to that day whereas “ the indexible feverity Clement XIV. Francis Laurentius Ganganelh\ oi the Spaniards was the occafion that the fubjeits of Pope, was born at St Angelo, in the duchy of Urthat monarchy, whenever they threw off the malk, bino, in October 1705; and chofen pope, though never returned to their obedience but by the force of not yet a biftiop, in 1769: at which time the fee of arms; which fufficiently appears (fays he) in the ex- Rome was involved in a moft difagreeable and danample of the Hollanders, who are in the peaceable pof- gerous conteft with the houfe of Bourbon. His reign, feffion of fo many provinces, that not an age ago were was rendered troublefome by the collifion of parties the patrimony of the king of Spain.,r on the affairs of the Jefuits and it is pretended that od, 6. Leonidas the Lacedaemonian having, with 3.00. his latter days were embittered by the apprehenfions^ • er p. x. men only, difputed the pafs of Thermopylae againft the of poifon. Though this report was probably apocry27> 7s- whole a- my of Xerxes, and being killed in that engage- phal, it is faid that he often complained of the heavy ment, Xerxes, by the advice of Mardonius one of his burden which he was obliged to bear; and regretted, generals, caufed his. dead body to be hung upon a gal- with great fenfibility, the lofs of that tranquillity which, lows, making thereby the intended dilhonour of his ene- he enjoyed in his retirement when only a fimple Franmy his own immortal lhame. But fome time after, cifcan. He was, however, fortunate in having an < Xerxes being defeated, and Mardonius flain, one of opportunity, by a fingle a£l,, to diftinguifh a fhort adthe principal citizens of /Egtna came and addreffed miniftration of five years in fuch a manner as will ever himfelf to Pa'ufaaaias, dtfiring him to avenge the indig-, prevent its finking into obfcurity. His death was imnity that Mardonius and Xerxes had (hown ta Leoni- mediately attributed to poifon, as if an old man of 70, das, by treating Mardonius’s body after the fame man- loaded with infirmities and difbrders, could not quit ner. As a farther motive for doing fo, he added, that the world without violence. His proceedings againft by thus fatisfying the . manes of thofe who were killed the Jefuits furnifhed aplaufible pretence for this charge, . at Thermopylae, he would be fure to immortalize his and the malevolence of their enemies embelliftied it with own name throughout all Greece, and make his memo- circumftances. It even feems as if the minifters of ry precious to the lateft pofterity. “ Carry thy bafe thofe powers who had procured their diffolution did counfels elfewhere (replied Paufanias) ^ thou muft have not think it beneath them to countenance the report } a very wrong notion of true glory to imagine, that the as if falsehood was receffary to prevent the revival of a wav for me to acquire it is to refemble the barbarians. body which had already funk, in its full ftrength, unIf the efteem of the people of iEgina is not to be der the weight of real mifcondiuft. The charge was purchafed but by fuch a proceeding, I ftiall be con- the more ridiculous, as the pontiff had undergone a tent with preferving that of the Lacedaemonians only, long and painful illnef®, which originally proceeded amongft whom the bafe and ungenerous pleafure of re- from a fuppreflioh of urine, to which he was fubjeiff ; venge is never put in competition with that of (bowing yet the report was propagated with the greateft inclemency and moderation ta their enemies, efpecially duftry ; and though the French-and Spanifti minifters after their death. As for the fouls of my departed were prefent at the opening of his body, the moft horcountrymen, they are fufficiently avenged by the death rible circumftances were publifhed relative to that opeof the many thoufand Perfians flain upon the fpot in ration. It was confidently told that the head fell off the laft engagement,’, from the body, and that the ftench poifoned and killed * the

C L E [ 190 ] C L E Glement tlie operators. It availed but little that tbe operators dules, one at each ftnus of the calyx except the lowed ; Cleoiuf II fliowed themfelves alive and in good health, and that the petals all rifing upwards; the filiqua unilocular and H corne * the furgeons and phyficians proved the falfehood of bivalved. There are 15 fpecies, all of them, except Cleopatra, every part of the report. Clement XIV. appears to two, natives of warm climates. They are herbaceous have been a man of a virtuous character, and poffeffed plants, riling from one to two feet higli; and are adornof confiderable abilities. He died much regretted by ed with flowers of various colours, as red, yellow, flelhhis fubje£ts. colour, &c. They are propagated by feeds, and reCLEMENTINE, a term ufed among the Augu- quire no other care than what is common to other exftins, who apply it to a perfon who, after having been otics which are natives of warm countries. nine years a fuperlor, ceafes to be fo, and becomes a CLEOMENES, king of Sparta, conquered the private monk, under the command of a fuperior. The Argives, and freed Athens from the tyranny of the Piword has its rife hence, that Pope Clement, by a bull, fiftratidae. By bribing the oracle, he pronounced Deprohibited any fuperior among the Auguftins from con- maratus, his colleague on the throne, illegitimate, betinuing above nine years in his office. caufe he refufed to punilh the people of Aigina, who Clementines, in the canon law, are the conftitutions had deferted the Greeks. He killed himfelf in a fit of of Pope Clement V. and the canons of the council of madnefs. Vienne. CLEOMENES II. fucceeded his brother Agefipolis II. CLENARD, Nicholas, a celebrated grammarian He reigned 34 years in the greateft tranquillity, and in the 16th century, was born at Dieft ^ and after ha- was father to Acrotatus and Cleonymus. He was fucving taught humanity at Louvain, travelled into France, ceeded by Areus I. fon of Acrotatus. Spain, Portugal, and Africa. He wrote in Latin, 1. Cleomenes III. fucceeded his father Leonidas. Tetters relating to his Travels, which are very curious He was of an enterprifing fpirit, and refolved to reftore and fcarce. 2. A Greek Grammar, which has been the ancient difcipline of Lycurgus in its full force. He xevifed and corre&ed by many grammarians $ and other killed the Ephori, and removed by poifon his royal colWorks. He died at Grenoble in 1542. league Eurydamides, and made his own brother EucliCLEOBIS and BtToN, two youths, fons of Cy- das king, againft the laws of the ftate, which forbade dippe the prieilefs of Juno at Argos. When oxen more than one of the fame family to fit on the throne. could not be procured to draw their mother’s chariot He made war againft the Achteans, and attempted to to the temple of Juno, they put themfelves under the deftroy the Achaean league. Aratus the general of the yoke, and drew it 45 ftadia to the temple, amidrt the Achaeans, who fuppofed himfelf inferior to his enemy, acclamations of the multitude, who congratulated the called Antigonus to his affiftance ; and Cleomenes, mother on account of the piety of her fons. Cydippe when he had fought the unfortunate battle of Sellafia, intreated the goddefs to reward the piety of her fons retired into Egypt to the court of Ptolemy Euergetes, with the beft gift that could be granted to a mortal. where his wife and children had gone before him. They went to reft and awoke no more j and by this the Ftolemy received him with great cordiality ; but his goddefs ftiow'ed that death is the only true happy event fucceflbr, weak and fufpicious, foon exprefled his jealoufy that can happen to a man. The Argives raifed them of this noble ftranger, and imprifoned him. Cleomenes ftatues at Delphi. killed himfelf, and his body was flayed and expofed on CLEOBULUS, fon of Evagoras, and one of the a crofs, 140 Olymp. Grecian fages ; he was valiant, a lover of learning, CLEON, the name of feveral noted men of antiand an enemy to vice. Flouriftied about c6o years be- quity. 1. Of an Athenian, who, though originally a fore Chrift. tanner, became general of the armies of the ftate by his CLEOMBROTUS, a king of Sparta, fon of An- intrigues and eloquence. He took Thoron in Thrace, ■axandrides. He was deterred from building a wall and was killed at Amphipolis in a battle with Brafidas acrofs the ifthmus of Corinth againft the approach of the Spartan general,. Olymp. 89th. 2. A general of the Perfians, by an eclipfe of the fun. He died in the Meflenia, who difputed with Ariftodemus for the fove75th Olympiad, and was fucceeded by Pliftarchus, fon reignty. 3. A ftatuary. 4. A poet, who wrote a of Leonidas, a minor. poem on the Argonauts. 5. An orator of HalicarnafCleombrotus II. fon of Paufanias king of Sparta, fus who compofed an oration for Lyfander, in which .after his brother Agefipolis I. He made war againft he intimated the propriety of making the kingdom of the Boeotians, and left he ffiould be fufpefled of treach- Sparta eleftive. 6. A Magnefian who wrote fome comerous communications with Epaminondas, he gave that mentaries, in which he fpeaks of portentous events, See. general battle at Leu&ra, in a very difadvantageous CLEONiE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arplace. He was killed in the engagement, and his army golis, above Mycenm, on the road which leads from deftroyed, in the year of'Rome 382. Argos to Corinth ; {landing on an eminence, on every Cleombrotus III. a fon-in-law of Leonidas king fide occupied by houfes. In the foreft near this town of Sparta, who for a while ufurped the kingdom after was {lain by Hercules the huge lion (Sil. Italicus, Sethe expulfion of his father-in-law. When Leonidas neca). Cleonccus the epithet. Cleonecum Sidus, the was recalled, Cleombrotus wTas banifhed, and his wife lion.Another Cleonce on Mount Athos in ChalChelonis, who had accompanied her father, now accom- cidice. panied her huiband in his exile. CLEOPATRA, the celebrated queen of Egypt, CLEOME, in Botany, a genus of the liliquofa was daughter of Ptolemy Auletes. By her extraor-order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of plants j dinary beauty, (he fubdued the two renowned Roman ^ and in the natural method ranking under the 25th or- generals Julius Crefar and Mark Antony ; the latter of ’der, Put amines. There are three nectariferous glan- whom, it is thought, loft the empire of Rome by his attachment

C L E [191] C L E attachment to her. At length Mark Antony being 3> 5s 7s 9> ^c* ih- altitude, computed from the twelfth Clepiydra II fubdued by O&avius Caefar, the tried the force of her hour, will be as the fquares of the times, 1, 4, 9, 16, declining charms upon the conqueror, but in vain ; up- 25, &c. therefore the fquare of the whole time 144 ^^rc* on which, expecting no mercy from him, (he poifoned comprehends all the parts of the altitude of the veflel herfelf, 30 years before Chrift. According to fome to be evacuated. But a third proportional to I and authors, (he was the reftorer of the Alexandrian libra- 12 is the fquare of 12, and confequently it is the numry, to which (he added that of Pergamos $ and it is ber of equal parts into which the altitude is to be difaid, that (lie ftudied philofophy to confule her for the vided, to be diftributed according to the feries of the abfence of Antony. With her death ended the family unequal numbers, through the equal intervals of hours. of the Ptolemies in Egypt, after it had reigned from Since in lieu of parts of the fame veflel, other lefs vefthe death of Alexander 294 years : for Egypt, after fels equal thereto may be fubftituted, the altitude of a this, was reduced to a Roman province, in which de- veflel emptied in a given fpace of time being given, the pendence it remained till it was taken from them by altitude of another veflel to be emptied in a given time may be found ; viz. by making the altitudes as the the Saracens, A. D. 641. CLEOPATRIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of fquares of the time. For a further defcription, fee HyEgypt, on the Arabian gulf. See Arsinoe. Now faid drodynamics Index. CL ERG, John ee, a moft celebrated writer and to be Sue*, fituated at the bottom of the gulf of the Red fea. E. Long. 34. 30. N. Lat. 30. O. univerfal fcholar, born at Geneva in 1657. After he CLEOSTRATUS, a celebrated aftronomer, born had pafled through the ufual courfe of ftudy at Geneva, in Tenedos, was, according to Pliny, the firft who dif- and had loft his father in 1676, he went to France in covered the figns of the zodiac ; others fay, that he 1678 ; but returning the year after, he was ordained only difcovered the figns Aries and Sagittarius. He with the general applaufe of all his examiners. In alfo corrected the errors of the Grecian year about the 1682, Le Clerc vifited England with a view to learning 306th year before Chrift. the language. He preached feveral times in the French CLEPSYDRA, an inftrument or machine ferving churches in London, and vifited feveral biftiops and to meafure time by the fall of a certain quantity of wa- men of learning 5 but the fmoky air of the town not ter. agreeing with his lungs, he returned to Plolland within The word comes from uMn-loi, condo, and aqua, the year, where he at length fettled. He preached “ water though there have likewife been clepfydrae before a fynod held at Rotterdam by the remonftrants made with mercury. in 1684 j and was admitted profeflor of philofophy, The Egyptians, by this machine, meafured the polite literature, and the Hebrew tongue, in their courfe of the fun. Tycho Brahe, in our days, made fchool at Amfterdam. The remainder of his life afufe of it to meafure the motion of the ftars, &c. and fords nothing but the hiftory of his works, and of the Dudley ufed the fame contrivance in making all his controverfies he was engaged in ; but thefe would lead maritime obfervations. The ufe of clepfydrse is very into too extenfive a detail. He continued to read reancient ; they were invented in Egypt under the Pto- gular ledtures ; and becaufe there was no fingle author lemies, as were alfo fun-dials. Their ufe was chiefly full enough for his purpofe, he drew up and publiftied in the winter •, the fun-dials ferved in the fummer. his Logic, Ontology, Pneumatology, and Natural PhiThey had two great defefls ; the one, that the water lofophy. He publiftied Ars Critic a; a Commentary ran out with a greater or lefs facility, as the air was on the Old Teftament ; a Compendium of Univerfal more or lefs denfe ; the other, that the water ran Hiftory ; an Ecclefiaftical Hiftory of the two firft; Cenmore readily at the beginning than towards the con- turies $ a French Tranflation of the New Teftament, clufion. M. Amontons has invented a clepfydra free &c. In 1686, he began, jointly with M. de Crofe, from both thefe inconveniences j and which has thefe his Bibhotheque Umverfelle et Hijiorique, in imitation of three grand advantages, of ferving the ordinary pur- other literary journals j which was continued to the pofe of clocks, of ferving in navigation for the difco- year 1693 inclufive, in 26 vols. In 1703, he began very of the longitude, and of meafuring the motion of his Bibhotheque Choifie, and continued it to 1714, and the arteries. then commenced another work on the fame plan, called ConJlruBion of a CLEPSTLHA. To divide any cy- Bibhotheque Ancienne et Moderne, which he continued lindric veflel into parts to be emptied in each divifion to the year 1728 ; all of them juftly deemed excellent of time*, the time wherein the whole, and that wherein ftores of ufeful knowledge. In 1728 he was feized any part, is to be evacuated, being given. with a palfy and fever j and after fpending the laft fix Suppofe, for example, a cylindric veflel, whofe years of his life with little or no underftanding, died in charge of water throws out in 1 2 hours, were required J736* to be divided into parts to be evacuated each hour. Clerc, John le, called Chevalier, an eminent hifto1. As the part of time 1 is to the whole time 12 ; fo is rical painter, was born at Nanci in 1587, but ftudied the fame time 12 to a fourth proportional, 144. in Italy, where he refided for 20 years} and was a 2. Divide the altitude of the veflel into 144 equal parts: difciple of Carlo Venetiano, with whom he worked here the laft will fall to the laft hour; the three next a long time, and whofe ftyle he fo effe&ually ftudied above to the laft part but one ; the five next to the and imitated, that feveral of the pictures which were tenth hour, &c. j laftly, the 23 laft to the firft hour. finiftied by Le Clerc were taken for the work of VeFor fince the times increafe in the feries of the natural netiano. He was moft highly efteemed at Venice for numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. and the altitudes, if the his extraordinary merit } and as a token of public renumeration be in retrograde order from the twelfth fpeft, he was made a knight of St Mark. His freehour, increafe in the feries of the unequal numbers 1, dom of hand was remarkable } he had a light pencil } 1 and

Cleopatra II Clepiydra. *

C L E C L E T i 92 ] Cierc, 2nd in ins colouring he refembled his mailer. He died any number "of converts was made, as loon as they Clergy, Clergy. jn ,6^^. were capable of being formed into a congregation or '—y—* Clerc, SebnJUan / N> Lat< 5I_ 45< dridlnefs, there are feveral climates in the breadth of CLIENT, among the Romans, a citizen who put one zone. Each climate only differs from its contihimfelf under the protedlion of fame great man, who guous ones, in that the longed day in dimmer is longer in refpedl of that relation was called patron. or ffiorter by half an hour in the one place than in the This patron affifted his client with his protection, in- other. As the climates commence from the equator, tereft, and goods ; and the client gave his vote for his the fird climate at its beginning has its longed day patron, when he fought any office for himfelf or his precifely 12 hours long; at its end, 12 hours and a friends. Clients owed refpedf to their patrons, as thefe half: the fecond, which begins where the fird ends, owed them their protedlion. viz. at twelve hours and a half, ends at 13 hours ; and The right of patronage was appointed by Romulus, fo of the red, as far as the polar circles, where, what to unite the rich and poor together, in fuch a manner the geographers call hour-climates, terminate, and monthas that one might live without contempt and the climates commence. An hour climate is a fpace comother without envy •, but the condition of a client, in prifed between two parallels of the equator, in the courfe of time, became little elfe than a moderate fla- fird of which the longed day exceeds that in the latter very. by half an hour ; fo the month-climate is a fpace terClient is now ufed for a party in a law-fuit, who minated between two circles parallel to the polar cirhas turned over his caufe into the hands of a counfellor cles, whofe longed day is longer or ffiorter than that of or folicitor. its contiguous one by a month or 30 days. CLIFFORTIA. See Botany Index. The ancients who confined the climates to what CLIMACTERIC, among phyficians, (from cli- they imagined the habitable parts of the earth, only ma&er) “ a ladder”), a critical year in a perfon’s allowed of feven. The fird they made to pafs through life. Meroe, the fecond through Sienna, the third through According to fome, this is every feventh year ; but Alexandria, the fourth through Rhodes, the fifth others allow only thefe years produced by multiplying through Rome, the fixth through Pontus, and the 7 by the odd number 3, 5, 7, and 9, to be climadleri- feventh through the mouth of the Borydhenes. The cal. Thefe years, they fay, bring with them fome moderns, who have failed further toward the poles, remarkable change with refpe£t to health, life, or for- make 30 climates on each fide ; and, in regard the tune : the grand climadleric is the 63d year ; but obliquity of the fphere makes a little difference in the fome, making two, add to this the 81ft : the other length of the longed day, indead of half an hour, remarkable climadterics are the 7th, 2ift, 35th, 49th, fome of them only make the difference of climates a and 56th. quarter. CLIMATE, or Clime, in Geography^ a part of Vulgarly the term climate is bedowed on any counthe furface of the earth, bounded by two circles try or region differing from another either in refpedf parallel to the equator, and of fuch a breadth, as of the feafons, the quality of the foil, or even the that the longed: day in the parallel nearefc the pole manners of the inhabitants; without any regard to exceeds the longed day in that next the equator by the length of the longed day. Abulfeda, an Arabian fome certain fpaces, viz. half an hour. The word author, didinguiffies the fird kind of climates by the comes from the Greek inclinamentum, “ an in- term real climates, and the latter by that of apparent clination.” climates. Varenius gives us a table of 30 climates; The beginning of the climate is a parallel circle but without any regard to the refraftion. Ricciolus wherein the day is the ffiorted. The end of the cli- furniffies a more accurate one, wherein the refra&ions mate, is that wherein the day is the longed. The are allowed for; an abdradt of which follows : climates therefore are reckoned from the equator to Middle Lonreft of Clim. Day. I II III IV V VI VII

Latit.

12th 30 7~ 13 o *5 r 3 3° 23 14 o 29 r 4 30 35 15 o 40 r 5 30 44

18 36 8 49 35 32 42

Middle Longeft of Clim. Day. VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV

Latit.

Middle of Clim.

Latit.

16th O 48 15 XV 66 17 O 53 46 XVI 69 18 57 44 XVII 73 60 39 XVIII 78 !9 20 62 44 XIX 84 22 6c 10 XX 90 6 24 5 54

CLIMAX, or Gradation, in Rhetoric, a figure wherein the word or expreffion which ends the fird member of a period begins the fecond, and fo on ; fo that every member will make a didindl fentence, taking its rife from the next foregoing, till the argument and period be beautifully finiffied ; as in the following

Cont. Light.

53 31° 30 62 o 93 6 124 o 156 188

North Night.

Cont. South Light. Night.

270 58 87 IJ 7 148 180

3° 60 89 120 150 178

2 8d 59 88 118 149 177

gradation of Dr Tillotfon. “ After we have pradliled good adlions a while, they become eafy ; and when they are eafy, we begin to take pleafure in them ; and when they pleafe us we do them frequently ; and by frequency of adls, a thing grows into a habit; and confirmed habit is a kind of fecond nature : and fo far as any

C L I C L I l *99 1 Climax any thing is natural, fo far it is neceffary; and we can a farther extirpation fubjefts the patient to an involun- Clitoris 0. hardly do othervvife; nay, we do it many times when tary difcharge of urine. Clitoris. we do not think of it.” CLITUMNUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Clive. CLINCH, in the fea language, that part of a cable Umbria, on this fide the Apennines. According to which is bended about the ring of the anchor, and then Pliny, it was a fountain confifting of feveral veins, feized or made fart. fituated between Hifpellum and Spoletium ; which foon CLINCHING, in the fea language, a kind of flight after fwelled into a very large and navigable river, caulking ufed at lea, in a profpedt of foul weather, running from eaft to weft into the Tinia, and both toabout the ports : it eonfifts in driving a little oakum gether into the Tiber. A river famous for its milkinto their feams, to prevent the water coming in at white flocks and herds, (Virgil). The god of the rithem. ver was called Clitumnus. CLINIC, a term applied by the ancient churchCLITUS, brother to Alexander the Great’s nurfe, hiftorians to thofe who receive baptifm on their death- followed that prince in his conquefts, and faved his life bed. by cutting off the hand of Rofaces, who held an axe Clinic Medicine, was particularly ufed for the me- lifted up to kill him at the paffage of the Granithod of vifiting and treating, fick perfons in bed, for cus. Alexander, who had a great regard for him, the more exaft difcovery of all the fymptoms of their fome time after invited him to fupper j when Clidifeafe. tus, at the end of the repaft, being heated with w’ine, . CLINIAS, a Pythagorean philofopher, and mufi- diminilhed the exploits of that prince, in order to cian, in the 65th Olympiad. He was wont to affuage magnify thofe of Philip his father. This fo enraged his paffion, being very choleric, by his lyre. Alexander, that he killed him with his own hand j CLINOPODIUM, Field Basil. See Botany but he was afterwards fo affli&ed at it, that he atIndex. tempted his own life. CLIO, in Pagan mythology, the firft of the mufes, CLIVE, Robert, Lord, fon of Richard Clive, Elq. daughter of Jupiter and Mnemofyne. She prefided of Styche near Drayton in Salop, was born in 1725,. over hiftory. She is reprefented crowned with laurels, Toward the clofe of the war in 1741, he was fent as holding in one hand a trumpet, and a book in the a writer in the Eaft India fervice to Madras ; but beother. Sometimes fhe holds a plectrum or quill with a ing fonder of the camp than the compting-houfe, he lute. Her name fignifies honour and reputation, xAsaj, foon availed himfelf of an opportunity to exchange gloria; and it was her office faithfully to record the his pen for a pair of colours. He firft diftinguiflied aftions of brave and illuftrious heroes. She had Hya- himfelf at the fiege of Pondicherry in 1748; a■* 60 minutes whilft the plate abed ihifts its place one der the time, in the twenty-four hour circle, of the hour under the fixed index A. There is another open- moon’s coming to the meridian j the XII under the ing, e f g, through which the feconds are feen on a fun handing tor noon, and the oppofite XII for midflat moveable ring at the extremity of a fleur-de-lis en- night. I he moon M is fixed to another circular plate graved on the dial-plate. A in fig. 6. is the great (fig. 6.) of the fame diameter with that which carries '*£• wheel of this clock, containing 120 teeth, and turn- the fun, part of which may be feen through the opening round in 12 hours. The axis of this wheel bears ing, over which the fmall wires r and b pafs in the the plate of hours, which may be moved by a pin paf- moon-plate. I he wire a (hows the moon’s age and fing through fmall holes drilled in the plate, without time of her coming to the meridian, and b fhows the affe&ing the wheel-work. The great wheel A turns time of high-water for that day in the fun-plate. The a pinion B of ten leaves round in an hour, and car- diftance of thefe wires anfvvers to the difference of time ries the minute hand B on its axis round the dial- between the moon’s coming to the meridian and highplate in the fame time. On this axis is a wheel C of water at the place for which the clock is made. At 120 teeth, turning round a pinion D of fix leaves in London their difference is two hours and a half. three minutes j on the axis of which there is a wheel Above the moon-plate there is a fixed plate N, fupE of 90 teeth, that keeps a pendulum in motion, vi- ported by a wire A, joined to it at one end, and fixed at brating feconds by palettes, as in a common clock, right angles into the dial plate at the midnight XII. when the pendulum-wheel has only 30 teeth, and goes This plate may reprefent the earth, and the dot L round in a minute. In order to fhow the feconds by London, or the place to which the clock is adapted. this clock, a thin plate mufi: be divided into three Around this plate there is an elliptic lhade on the times fixty, or 180 equal parts, and numbered io, 20, moon-plate, the highert points of which are marked 30, 40, 50, 60, three times fucceflively ; and fixed on high-water, and the lowefl low-water. As this plate the fame axis with" the wheel of 90 teeth, fo as to turns round below the plate N, thefe points come fucturn round near the back of the dial-plate ; and thefe ce{lively even with L, and ftand over it at the time* divifions will (how the feconds through the opening when it is high or low water at the given place j efS h, fig- 5- Th is clock will go a week without which times are pointed by the fun S on the dialwinding, and always fliow the precife hour j but this plate and the plate H above XII at noon rifes or clock, as Mr Fergufon candidly acknowledges, has two falls with the tide. As tire fun S goes round the dialdifadvantages of which Dr Franklin’s clock is free. plate in twenty-four hours, and the moon M in twentyWhen the minute-hand B is adjufted, the hour plate four hours fifty minutes and a half, it is plajn that the muft alfo be fet right by means of a pin-, and the fmall- moon makes only twenty-eight revolutions and a half, nefs of the teeth in the pendulum-wheel will caufe the whilft the fun makes twenty-nine and a half j fo that pendulum-ball to deferibe but fmall arcs in its vibra- it will be twenty-nine days and a half from conjunctions ; and therefore the momentum of the ball will be tion to conjunflion. And thus the wire a fliifts over lels, and the times of the vibrations will be more affe£t- one day of the moon’s age on the fun-plate in twentyed by any unequal impulfe of the pendulum-wheel on four hours, f he phafes of the moon for every day of the palettes. Befides, the weight of the flat ring on her age may be feen through a round hole rn in the which the feconds are engraved will load the pivots of moon-plate: thus at conjunction or new-moon, the the axis of the pendulum-wheel with a great deal of whole fpace feen through //; is black j at oppofition or fri£Hon, which ought by all poflible means to be avoid- full moon this fpace is white j at either quadrature ed. To remedy this inconvenience, the fecond plate half black and half white ; and at every polition the might be omitted. white part refembles the vifible part of the moon for A clock fimilar to Dr Franklin’s was made in Lin- every day of her age. The black-fhaded fpace N^F / colnfhire about the end of the lyth century or begin- (fig. 8.) on the fun-plate ferves for thefe appearances. F; s ning of the 18th ; and is faid to be in London in the N reprefents the new moon, F the full moon, and f S' ’ pofleflion of a grandfon of the perfon who made it. her firft quarter, and / her laft quarter, &c. The A clock, fliowing the apparent diurnal motions of wheel-work and tide-work of this clock are reprethe fun and moon, the age and phafes of the moon, fented in fig. 9. A and B are two wheels of equal D'g. p with the time of her coming to the meridian, and the diameters ; A has fifty-feven teeth, with a hollow axis times of high and low water, by having only two that pafles through the dial of the clock, and carries wheels and a pinion added to the common movement, the fun-plate with the fun S. B has fifty-nine teeth, was contrived by Mr Fergufon, and deferibed in his Se- with a folid Ipindle for its axis, which turns within the Plate left Exercifes. The dial-plate of this clock (fig. 7.) hollow axis of A, and carries the moon-plate with the XLVII contains all the twenty-four hours, of the day and night. moon M : both wheels are turned round by a pinion %■ 7- S is the fun, which ferves as an hour index by going C of nineteen leaves, and this pinion is turned round round the dial-plate in twenty-four hours ; and M is by the common clock-work in eight hours j and as the moon, which goes round in twenty-four hours fifty nineteen is the third part of “fifty-feven, the wheel A minutes and a hair, the time of her going round in the will go round in twenty-four hours ; and the wheel B heavens from one meridian to the fame meridian again. in twenty-four hours fifty minutes and a half j fiftyThe fun is fixed to a circular plate (fee fig. 8.) and feven being to twenty-four as fifty-nine to twenty-four carried round by the motion of that plate on which the houis fifty minutes and a half very nearly. On the twenty-four hours are engraven ; and within them is a back of the wheel B is fixed an elliptical ring D, which, circle divided into twenty-nine and a half equal parts in its revolution, raifes and lets down a lever EF, whofe -or the days of the moon’s age, reckoning from new centre of motion is on a pin at F j and this, by the upCc 2 right Clock.

C L O [ 204. ] C L O right bar G, raifes and lets down the tide-plate H M of the machine, which wheel by its teeth fhall com- Clock, v twice in the time of the moon’s revolving from the me- municate with the train of wheels, Sec. on the other'—"v— ridian to the meridian again : this plate moves between fide, and the power of the weight be juft equal to the four rollers R, R, R, R. A clock of this kind was fridtion or refiftance of the train, it will remain motionadapted by Mr Fergufon to the movement of an old lefs as it did before when it was fixed ; and confewatch: the great wheel of a watch goes round in four quently the clock alfo will be at reft on the inclined hours j on the axis of this he fixed a wheel of twenty plane. But fuppofing the power of the weight P to teeth, to turn a wheel of forty teeth on the axis of the be fuperior to the refiftance of the train, it will then •pinion C ; by which means that pinion was turned put it into motion, and of courfe the clock likewife j round in eight hours, the wheel A in twenty-four, and which will then commence a motion down the plane j the wheel B in twenty-four hours fifty minutes and a while the weight P, its vettis PM, and the wheel I, half. all conftantly retain the fame pofition which they have To this article we fhall fubjoin a brief account of at firft when the clock begins to move. Hence it is two curious contrivances. The firfl, for giving motion eafy to underftand, that the weight P may have fuch to the parts of a clock by making it to defcend along an intrinfic gravity as (hall caufe it to ad upon the an inclined plane, is the invention of Mr Maurice train with any required force, fo as to produce a moWheeler ; the clock itfelf was formerly feen in Don tion in the machine of any required velocity ; fuch, for Saltero’s coffee-houfe at Chelfea. DE, fig. 10. is the infiance, as (hall carry it once round in twenty-four Plate inclined plane on which the clock ABC defcends *, hours : then, if the diameters of the plates ABC be ■CXLVIII. this confilts externally of a hoop about an inch broad, four inches, it will defcribe the length of their circum•fig. 10. ancl or plates Handing out beyond the hoop ference, viz. 1256 inches, in one natural day 5 and about one-eighth of an inch all round, with indented therefore, if the plane be of a fufficient breadth, fuch edges, that the clock may not Hide, but turn round a clock may go feveral days, and would furnifti a w hi lit it moves down. One of thefe plates is infcribed perpetual motion, if the plane were infinitely exwith the twenty-four hours, which pafs fucceflively tended. Let SD be drawn through M perpendicular Fig. ir. under the index LP, fig. 11. which is always in a pofi- to the inclined plane in the point D ; alfo let LD be tion perpendicular to the horizon, and ftiows the hour perpendicular to the horizontal line HH, paffing on the top of the machine : for this reafon the lower through Dj then is the angle HDE=rLDS=DMT j part of the index, or HL, is heavieft, that it may pre- whence it follows that the greater the angle of the ponderate the other HP, and always keep it pendu- plane’s elevation is, the greater will be the arch DT j lous, with its point to the vertical hour, as the move- and confequently the further will the common centre ment goes on. Infiead of this index, an image may of gravity be removed from M ; therefore the power be fixed for ornament on the axis g, which with an of P will be augmented, and of courfe the motion of erefted finger performs the office of an index. In or- the whole machine accelerated. Thus it appears, that der to defcribe the internal part or mechanifm of this by duly adjufting the intrinfic weight of P, at firft to clock, let LETQ be the external circumference of produce a motion ihowing the mean time as near as the hoop, and f f the fame plate, on which is placed poffiblc, the time may be afterwards corrected, or the the train of wheel work 1, 2, 3, 4, which is much the clock made to go fafter or flower by railing or depreffame as in other clocks, and is governed by a balance fing the plane, by means of the ferevv at S. The anand regulator as in them. But there is no need of a gle to which the plane is firft raifed is about ten defpring and fufee in this clock: their effefts being grees. The marquis of Worcefter is alfo faid to have otherwife anfwered as we {hall fee. In this machine contrived a watch that moved on a declivity. See the great wheel of 1 is placed in the centre, or upon the farther PhiU Tratif. Abr. vol. i. p. 468, &c. or N° axis of the movement, and the other wheels and parts i6t. towards one fide, which would therefore prove a bias The other contrivance is that of M. de Gennes for to the body of the clock, and caufe it to move, even making a clock afeend on an inclined plane. To this on a horizontal plane, for fome ffiort diftance : this end let ABC (fig. 12.) be the machine on the inclined Fi any outward or inward box-cafe or dial-plate, of quotient is but half the number of pins. 3. As many Clock. —v—~ gold, filver, brafs, or other metal, for clock or watch, turns of the pin-wheel as are required to perform the without the movement in or with every fuch box, &c. ftrokes of 12 hours (which are 78), fo many turns muft made up fit for ufe, with the maker’s name engraven the pinion of report have to turn round the count-wheel thereon ; nor dvdl any perfon make up any clock or once *, or thus the quotient of 78, divided by the numwatch without putting his name and place of abode ber of ftriking-pins, ftiall be the quotient for the pior freedom, and no other name or place, on every nion pf report and the count wheel j and this is in clock or watch ; on penalty of forfeiting every fuch cafe the pinion of report be fixed to the arbor of the box, cafe, and dial-plate, clock and watch, not made pin-wheel, which is commonly done. up and engraven as aforefaid j and 20I. one moiety An example will make all plain : The locking-wheel to the king, the other to thofe that (hall fue for the being 48, the pinion of report 8, the fame. pin-wheel 78, the ftriking pins are 13, Clocks, Portable, or commonly denominated and fo of the reft. Note alfo, that 78 8) 48 ( 6 Watches. See the article Watch. divided by 13 gives 6, the quotient of CLOCK-Work, properly fo called, is that part of the the pinion of report, As for the warn- 6) 78 (13 movement which ftrikes the hours, &c. on a bell; in ing-wheel and fly-wheel, it matters little 6) 60 (xo contradiftinttion to that part of the movement of a what numbers they have j their ufe being 6) 48 ( 8 clock or watch which is defigned to meafure and ex- only to bridle the rapidity of the motion hibit the time on a dial-plate, and which is termed of the other wheels. Watch-work. The following rules will be of great fervice in this Plate I* Of the Clock part. T he wheels compofing this calculation. 1. To find how many Jlrokes a clock Jlrikes KLVTII. pat t are ; "I he great or firft wheel H, which is moved tn one turn of the fufee or barrel: As the turns of the by the weight or fpring at the barrel G : in fixteen or great wheel or fufee are to the days of the clock’s thirty-hour clocks, this has ufually pins, and is called continuance ; fo is the number of ftrokes in 24 hours, the pin-wheel; in eight-day pieces, the fecond wheel viz. 156, to the ftrokes of one turn of the fufee. I is commonly the pin-wheel, or ftriking wheel, which 2. To fnd how many days a clock will go : As the is moved by the former. Next the ftriking wheel is ftrokes in 24 hours are to thofe in one turn of the futhe detent-wheel, or hoop-wheel K, having a hoop fee ; fo are the turns of the fufee to the days of the almoft round it, wherein is a vacancy at which the clock’s going. clock locks. 1 he next is the third or fourth wheel, 3. To find the number of turns of the fufee or barrel t according to its diftance from the firft, called the warn- As the ftrokes in one turn of the fufee are to thofe of ing-wheel L. The la ft is the flying pinion £), with a 24 hours ; fo is the clock’s continuance to the turns of fly or fan, to gatner air, and fo bridle the rapidity of the fufee or great wheel. the clock’s motion. To thefe muft be added the pi4. To find the number of leaves in the pinion of renion of report, which drives round the locking-wheel, port on the axis of the great wheel: As the number of called alfo. the count wheel} ordinarily with eleven ftrokes in the clock’s continuance is to the turns of the notches in it, unequally diftant, to make the clock ftrike fufee j fo are the ftrokes in 12 hours, viz. 78, to the the hours. quotient of the pinion of report fixed on the arbor of Befides the wheels, to the clock part belongs the the great wheel. rafh or ratch j a kind of wheel with twelve large fangs, S' 10 find the jlrokes in the clock's contitnumce : As 12 running concentrical to the dial-wheel, and, ferving to is to 78 ; fo are the hours of the clock’s continuance to lift up the detents every hour, and make the clock the number of ftrokes in that time. ftrike . the detents or flops, which being lifted up By means of the following table, clocks and and let fall, lock and unlock the clock in ftriking watches may be fo regulated as to meafure true equal the hammer, as S, which ftrikes the bell R; the harm time. mer-tails, as T, by which the ftriking pins draw back The ftars make 366revolutions from the hammers ; latches, whereby the work is lifted up any point of the compafs to the fame ^suU H. M. S. and unlocked ; and lifting-pieces, as P, which lift up point again in 365 days and one '-IC/I and unlock the detents. minute •, and therefore they gain a 1 The method of calculating the numbers of a piece 365th of a revolution every 24 hours 3 56 2 of clock-work having fomething in it very entertain- of 7 52 mean folar time, near enough for 11 48 ing, and at the fame time very eafy and ufeful, we 3 any clock or watch. 4 fhall give our readers the rules relating thereto : 1. Re- regulating 44 This acceleration is at the rate of 19 40 5 gard here needs only be had to the counting-wheel, 3 min. 55 fee. 53 thirds, 59 fourths 2 6 3 36 ftnking-wheel, and detent-wheel, which move round in 24 hours ; or in the neareft round 2 m this proportion : the court-wheel commonly goes 7 32 7 8 round once in 12 or 24 hours ; the detent-wheel moves numbers, 3 minutes, 56 feconds; by 3i 28 which quantity of time every ftar 9 round every ftroke the clock ftrikes, or fometimes but comes round fooner than it did on the 35 24 10 once in two ftrokes : wherefore it follows, that, 2. day before. 39 20 11 As many pins as are in the pin-wheel, fo many turns 43 16 Therefore if you mark the precife 12 hath the detent-wheel in one turn of the pin-wheel • 47 12 or, which is the fame, the pins of the pin-wheel are moment ftiown by a clock or watch 13 5i 8 the quotients of that wheel divided by the pinion of when any ftarvanifhes behind a chim- H 55 4 the detent-wheel. But if the detent-wheel moves but ney, or any other objeft, as feen 15 59 o through a fmall hole in a thin plate 16 2 56 ®Rce round in two ftrokes of the clock, then the faid of metal, fixed in a window-ftmtter j 6 52 18 m

€!oc5c.

c L O f 206 -3 -C L O and do this for feveral nights fuccef- on the arbor or the great wheel ; and ferves to drive n r H. M. S. lively (as fuppofe twenty) ; if, at the the dial-wheel, as that ferves to carry the hand. end of that time, the ftar vanifhes as For the illuftration of this part of the work which lies ID 48 much fooner than it did the firft night, concealed, let ABC (fig. 14*) reprefent the uppermoft Fig. 14, 18 44 by the clock, as anfvvers to the time fide of the frame-plate, as it appears when detached 19 18 40 denoted in the table for fo many days, from the dial-plate : the middle of this plate is perforated 20 22 36 the clock goes true ; otherwife not. with a hole, receiving that end of the arbor of the 21 26 32 If tlie difference between the clock centre wheel which carries the minute hand ; near 22 30 28 and ftar be lefs than the table Ikows, the plate is fixed the pinion of report « £ of 10 teeth ; 24 34 24 the clock goes too faft ; if greater, this drives a wheel c d of 40 teeth ; this wheel carries 38 20 it goes too ilow 5 and muft be re- a pinion efui 12 teeth ; and this again drives a wheel 25 42 16 gulated accordingly, by letting down g h with 36 teeth. 26 46 12 or raifing up the ball of the pendulum, 27 As in the body of the watch the wheels every50 8 by little and little, by turning the where divide the pinions; here, on the contrary, the 28 29 54 4 fcrew-nut under the ball, till you find pinions divide the wheels, and by that means diminiih the motion, which is here neceffary ; for the hour 58 o it keeps true equal time. 3° 1 hus fuppofing the ftar ftiould difappear behind a hand, which is carried on a focket fixed on the wheel chimney, any nig'ht when it is XII. by the clock; g h, is required to move but once round, while the and that, on the 20th night afterward, the fame ftar pinion a b moves twelve times round. For this purftiould difappear when the time is 41 minutes 22 fe- pofe the motion of the wheel r // is ^ of the pinion a b. corids paft X, by the clock; which being fubtra&ed Again, while the wheel c d, or the pinion e f, goes from 12 hours o min. o fee. leaves remaining 1 hour once round, it turns the wheel £ h but -J- part round ; 18 minutes 40 feconds for the time the ftar is then confequently the motion of ^ h is but | of f of the mofafter than the clock: look in the table, and againft tion of a b y but y of ^ is ; 1. e. the hour-wheel g h 20, in the left hand column, you will find the acce- moves once round in the time that the pinion of releration of the ftar to be 1 hour 18 min. 40 fee. port, on the arbor of the centre of the minute wheel, agreeing exaftly with what the difference ought to be makes 12 revolutions, as required. Hence the ftrucbetween the clock and ftar; which ftiows that the ture of that part of a clock or watch which (hows the clock meafures true equal time, and agrees with the time may be eafily under flood. jmean folar time, as it ought to do. i he cylinder A (fig, 13.) put into motion by a II. Of the Watch part of a clock or watch. This weight or inclofed fpring moves the fufee B, and the is that part of the movement which is defigned to great wheel C, to which it is fixed by the line or cord meafure and exhibit the time on a dial-plate ; in con- that goes round each, and anfwers to the chain of % tradiftinttion to that part which contributes to the watch, jftriking of the hour, 8tc. I he method of calculation is eafily7 underftood by The feveral members of the watch part are, 1. The the fequel of this article ; for, fuppofe the great wheel balance, confiftingof the rim, ivhich is its circular part ; C goes round once in 12 hours, then if it be a royal .and the verge, which is its fpindle; to which belong pendulum clock, vibrating feconds, we have 60 X 60 X 12 two palettes or leaves, that play in the teeth of the :=43200 feconds or beats in one turn of the great crown-wheel. 2. The potence, or pottance, which wheel. But becaufe there are 60 fwings or feconds is the ftrong ftud in pocket watches, whereon the lower in one minute, and the feconds are (hown by an index pivot of the verge plays, and in the middle of which on the end of the arbor of the fwing-wheel, which in one pivot of the balance wheel plays; the bottom of thofe clocks is in an horizontal polition ; therefore it the pottance is called the foot, the middle part the is neceffary that the fwing-wheel F(hould have 30 teeth; nofe, and the upper part the (houlder. 3. The cock, whence i— 720, the number to be broken into which is the piece covering the balance. 4. The re- quotients tor finding the number of teeth for the other gulator, or pendulum fpring, which is the fmall fpring, wheels and pinions. in the new pocket-watches, underneath the balance. In fpring-clocks, the difpofition of the wheels in 5. The pendulum (fig. 13.) ; whofe parts are, the verge the watch part is fuch as is here reprelented in the fi.r, palettes 5, 5, cocks yyy, the rod, the fork, £, the gure, where the crown-wheel F is in an horizontal poflatt 2, the bob or great ball 3, and the corre6ior or (ition ; the feconds not being (hown there by an index, regulator, 4, being a contrivance of Dr Derham for as is done in the large pendulum clocks. Whence in bringing the pendulum to its nice vibrations. 6. The thefe clocks the wheels are difpofed in a different man•wheels, which are the crown wheel F in pocket- ner, as reprefented in fig. 15. where Cis the great wheel, pjg ^ pieces, and fwing-wheel in pendulums; ferving to and D the centre or minute rvheel, as before : but drive the balance or pendulum. 7. The contrate-wheel the contrate wheel E is placed on one fide, and F the E, which is that next the crown-wheel, &e. and fwing-wheel is placed with its centre in the fame per\yhofe teeth and hoop lie contrary to thofe of other pendicular line GH with the minute-wheel, and with wheels; whence the name. 8. The great, or firft its plane perpendicular to the horizon, as are all the wheel C ; which is that the fufee B, &c. immediately others. Ihus the minute and hour hands turn on drives, by means of the chain or firing of the fpring- the end of the arbor of the minute wheel at o, and box or barrel A ; after which are the fecond wheel the fecond hand on the arbor of the fwing-wheel D, third wheel, &.c, Laftlv, between the frame and at b. - dial-plate., is the pinion of report, which is that fixed Theory and calculation of the Watch-partt as laid down bv

C L G [ 207 ] C L 0 Clock, by the Rev. Dr Derham.— r. The fame motion, it is pocket-watch), or a flower of about 16,000 (the train Clock, -V—• evident, may be performed either by one wheel and of the new pendulum pocket-watches), or any other ——y—one pinion, or many wheels and many pinions j pro- train. Next, refolve on the number of turns the fufee vided the number of turns of all the wheels bear the is intended to have, and the number of hours the proportion to all the pinions which that one wheel piece is to go : fuppofe e. gr. 12 turns, and to go 30 bears to its pinion : or, which is the fame thing, if hours, or 192 hours (i. e. 8 days), &c» Proceed now the number produced by multiplying all the wheels to find the beats of the balance or pendulum in one together be to the number produced by multiplying turn of the fufee j thus in numbers j 12 : 16 :: 20,000 : all the pinions together, as that one wheel to that 26666. Wherefore 26666 are the beats in one turn one pinion. Thus, fuppofe you had occafion for a of the fufee or great wheel, and are equal to the quowheel of 1440 teeth, and a pinion of 28 leaves j tients of all the wheels unto the balance multiplied toyou make it into three wheels of 36, 8, and 5, and gether. Now this number is to be broken into a conthree pinions of 4, 7, and r. For the three wheels, venient parcel of quotients; which is to be done thus : 36, 8, and 5, multiplied together, give 144O for the firft, halve the number of beats, viz. 26666, and you wheels, and the three pinions, 4, 7, and I, multiplied have 13333 ’ pitch on the number of the crowntogether, give 28 for the pinions. Add, that it mat- wheel, fuppofe 17: divide 13333 by 17, and you have ters not in what order the wheels and pinions are fet, 784 for the quotient (or turns) of the reft of the or which pinion runs in which wheel ; only for con- wheels and pinions j which, being too big for one or venience fake, the biggeft numbers are commonly put two quotients, may be belt broken into three. Choofe to drive the reft. therefore three numbers ; which, when multiplied all 2. Two wheels and pinions of different numbers may together continually, will come neareft 784 : as fupperform the fame motion. Thus, a wheel of 36 drives pofe 10, 9, and 9, multiplied continually, give 8io, a pinion of four j the fame as a wheel of 45 a pinion which is fomewhat too much j therefore try again oof 5 j or a wheel of 90 a pinion of 10 ; the turns of ther numbers, 11, 9, 8: thefe, drawn one into anoeach being 9. ther continually, produce 7925 which is as near as 3. If, in breaking the train Into parcels, any of can be, and is a convenient quotient. Having thus the quotients ftiould not be liked ; or if any other two contrived the piece from the great wheel to the banumbers, to be multiplied together, are defired to be lance, but the numbers not falling out exadlly, as you varied, it may be done by this rule. Divide the two firft propofed, correft the work thus: firft multiply 792, numbers by any other two numbers which will mea- the product of all the quotients pitched upon, by 17 fure them ; multiply the quotients by the alternate di- (the notches of the crown-wheel) •, the product is vifors j the produft of thefe two laft numbers found 13464, which is half the number of beats in one turn will be equal to the product of the two numbers firft of the fufee : Then find the true number of beats in an given. Thus, if you would vary 46 times 8, divide hour. Thus, 16 : 12 :: 13464 : 10098 which is half thefe by any two numbers which will evenly meafure the beats in an hour. Then find what quotient is to be them : fo, 36 by 4 gives 9; and 8 by 1 gives 8 ; now, laid upon the pinion of report (by the rule given under by the rule, 9 times x is 9, and 8 times 4 is 32 * fo that word). Thus, 16 : 12 :: 12 : 9, the quotient of that for 364-8, you have 324-9 *, each equal to 288. the pinion of report. Having thus found your If you divide 36 by 6, and 8 by 2, and multiply as quotients, it is eafy to determine what numbers the before, you have 244-12—364-8=288. wheels lhall have, for choofing what numbers the pi4. If a wheel and pinion fall out with crofs num- nions (hall have, and multiplying the pinions by their bers, too big to be cut in wheels, and yet not to be quotients, the produift is the number for altered by thefe rules ; in feeking for the pinion of re- the wheels. Thus the number of the 4' 3® ( 9 port, find two numbers of the fame, or a near propor- pinion of report is 4, and its quotient is ^ ’ tion, by this rule j as either of the two given num- 9 ; therefore the number for the dial-wheel ^5 C11 bers is to the other, fo is 360 to a fourth. Divide muft be 4X9, or 36 : fo the next pinion 5) 45 (9 that fourth number, as alfo 360, by 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, being 5, its quotient II, therefore the ^ 4::) ( 8 12, 15, (each of which numbers exaflly meafures 360), great wheel muft be 5x11 = 555 and fo 1 or by any of thofe numbers that bring a quotient near- of the reft. 7 eft to an integer. As fuppofe you had 147 for the Such is the method of calculating the numbers of a wheel, and 170 for the pinion ; which are too great to 16 hour watch. Which watch may be made to go be cut into fmall wheels, and yet cannot be reduced longer by leffening the train, and altering the pinion into lefs, as having no other common meafure but unity ; of report. Suppofe you could conveniently flacken the fay, as 170 : 147 :: 360 : 311. Or, as 147 : 170 :: train to 16000 ; then fay, As 4 16000 or 8000 : 360 : 416. Divide the fourth number and 360 by 13464 :: 12 : 20 5 fo that this watch will go 20 hours. one of the foregoing numbers 5 as 311 and 360 by 6, Then, for the pinion of report, fay (by the rule given it gives 52 and 60 j divide them by 8, you have 39 under that word), as 20 : 12 :: 12 : 7. So that 7 and 45 j and if you divide 360 and 416 by 8, you is the quotient of the pinion of report. have 45 and 52 exactly. Wherefore, inftead of the And as to the numbers, the operation is ^ 7 two numbers 147 and 170, you may take 52 and 60, the fame as before, only the dial-wheel" " or 39 and 45, or 43 and 52, &c. is but 28; for its quotient is altered to 7. 55 (11 5. I o come to praftice in calculating a piece of If you would give numbers to a watch of 5) 45 ( 9 watch-work : Firft pitch on the train or beats of the about 10,000 beats in an hour, to have 12 5' 4° (8 balance in an hour ; as, whether a fwift one of about turns of the fufee, to go 170 hours, and 20,000 beats (the ufual train of a common 30 hour 17 notches in the crown-wheel 5 the work 4 is

c L O [ 208 ] C L O Clock. Is the fame, in a manner, as in the laft example : and will fhow the hour ; or it may be done by the minute- dock \r ' confequently thus : as 12 : 170 :: 10000 : 141666, wheel. Clodia. ■which fourth number is the beats in one turn of the It is requifite for thofe who make nice aftronomical ''"““V"iufee $ its half, 7°^33> being divided by 17, gives obfervations, to have watches that make fome exadt 4167 for the quotient j and becaufe this number is too number of beats per fecond, without any fradtion j but big for three quotients, therefore choofe four, as 10, we feldom find a watch that does. As four beats per 8, 8, 6 f; vvhofe produft into 17 makes 7x808, near- fecond would be a very convenient number, we {hall ly equal to half the true beats in one turn of the fu- here give the train for fuch a watch, which would (like fee. Then fay, as 170 : 12 : 7x808 : 5069, which is moft others) ge 30 hours, but is to be wound up once half the true train of your watch. And again, 170 : in 24 hours. 12 :: I2x4£, the denominator of which expreffes the The fufee and firft wheel to go round in four hours. pinion of report, and the numerator is the number of 1 his wheel has 48 teeth, and it turns a pinion of 12 the dial-wheel. But thefe numbers being too big to be leaves, on whofe axis is the fecond wheel, which goes cut in fmall wheels, they muft be varied by the fourth round in one hour, and carries the minute-hand. This rule above. Thus: wheel has 60 teeth, and turns a pinion of 10 leaves 3 As 144 : 170 :: 360 : 425 : on whofe axis is the third wheel of 60 teeth, turning Or 170 144 360 : 305. a pinion of 6 leaves 3 on whofe axis is the fourth (or 24) 20 Then dividing 360, and either of thefe contrate) wheel, turning round in a minute, and cartwo fourth proportionals (as direfted by rying the fmall hand that {hows the feconds, on a 6) 6o (10 the rule), fuppofe by 15 ; you will have fma!l circle on the dial-plate, divided into 60 parts : or 6) 48 ( 8 -53-} then the numbers of the whole this contrate wheel has 48 teeth, and turns a pinion 0 5) 4 C ^ movements will Hand as in the margin. of 6 leaves 3 on whofe axis is the crown or balance5) 33 ( 6f Such is the calculation of ordinary wheel of 13 teeth, which makes 30 beats in each revowatches, to fhow the hour of the day : lution. 17 in fuch as Ihow minutes, and feconds, the The crown-wheel goes 480 times round in an hour, procefs is thus : and 30 times 480 make 14400, the number of beats I. Having refolved on the beats in an hour, by di- in an hour. But one hour contains 3600 feconds j and viding the defigned train by 60, find the beats in a mi- 14400 divided by 3600 quotes 4, the required number nute ; and accordingly, find proper numbers for the of beats in a fecor.d. •crown-wheel and quotients, fo as that the minute-wheel The fufee muft have 74 turns, to let the chain go fa ftiall go round once in an hour, and the fecond wheel many times round it. Then, as 1 turn is to 4 hours, once in a minute. fo is 74 turns to 50 hours, the time the watch would Suppofe, you {hall choofe a pendulum of feven go after it is wound up. inches, which vibrates 142 ftrokes in a minute, and See further the articles Movement, Turn, &c. 8520 in an hour. Half thefe fums are 71, and And for the hiftory and particular conftrudlion of 4260. Now, the firft work is to break this 71 into Watches, properly fo called, fee the article Watch. a good proportion, which will fall into one quotient, CLODIA LEX, tie Cijpro, was enabled by the triand the crown-wheel. Let the crown-wheel have 15 bune Ciodius, in the year of Rome 607, to reduce Cynotches j then 71, divided by 15, gives nearly 3 } fo prus into a Roman province, and expofe Ptolemy a crown-wheel of 15, and a wheel and pinion whofe king of Egypt to fale in his regal ornaments. It emquotient is 5, will go round in a minute to carry a powered Cato to go with the prsetorepn power and hand to fhow feconds. For a hand to go fee the audion of the king’s goods, and commiflion4° ( 5 round in an hour to {how minutes, becaufe ed him to return the money to Rome. Another, de there are 60 minutes in an hour, it is but Magijiratibus, 693, by Ciodius the tribune. It for15 breaking 60 into good quotients (fuppofe bade the cenfors to put a ftigma or mark of infamy 10 and 6, or 8 and 74-> &c.) : and it is upon any perfon who had not been adfually accufed 8) 64 ( 8 done. I hus, 4260 is broken as near as and condemned by both the cenfors. Another, de Re8) 60 ( 74 can be into proper numbers. But fince ligione, by the fame, 696, to deprive the prieft of Cy8) 4° ( 5 it does not fall out exa611y into the above bele, a native of Peftinuns, of his office, and confer the — numbers,a you muft correct Ano(as priefthood mentioned upon Brotigonus, Gallogrecian. 15 before diredted), and find the true number ther, de Provincus, 693, which nominated the proof beats in an hour, by multiplying 13 by vinces of Syria, Babylon, and Perfia, to the conful 3, which makes 73 5 and 73 by 60 makes 4300, which Gabinus, and Achaia, Theffaly, Macedon, and Greece, is half the true train. Then find the beats in one turn to his colleague Pifo, with proconfular power. It of the fufeej thus, 16 : 192 :: 4300 : 34000 j which empowered them to defray the expences of their laft is half the beats in one turn of the fufee. This march from the public treafury. Another, 693, which 34000 being divided by 4300 (the true required the fame diftribubtion of corn among the 9) 108 (12 numbers already pitched on), the quo- people gratis, as had been given them before at fix 8) 64 ( 8 tient will be 10 •, which, not being too big afles and a triens the bulhel. Another, 693, by the 8) 60 ( 74 for a fingle quotient, needs not be divided fame, de Judiciis. It called to an account fuch as 8) 4° ( 5 in^° more : and the work will {land as had executed a Roman citizen without a judgin the margin. As to the hour-hand, the ment of the people and all the formalities of a trial. 15 great wheel, which performs only one re- Another, by the fame, to pay no attention to the volution in 12 turns of the minute-ivheel, appearances of the heavens while any affair was before

CLOCK.

PLATE CJlLVI.

-17

Fig. 3.

fc/ls/Z?

** *

WJrc/ubald SciUj> t

PLATE

CXJA'UL

C L O [ 209 ] C L 0 fore the people. Another, to make the power of the weft, and the chapter on the eaft ; fpiritual medi- cloifter the tribunes free in making and propofing laws. |] Cloifter. , Another, to re-eftablifh the companies of artiiis which tation, &c. being referved for the church. Lanfranc obferves, that the proper ufe of the cloifter was for Clofe-hauiet had been inftituted by Numa, but fince his time abo- the monks to meet in, and converfe together, at cer*’ Jilhed. tain hours of the day. u—-y——/ CLODIUS, Publius, a Roman defcended of an I he form of the cloifter was fquare ; and it had its illuftrious family. He made himfelf famous for his li- name claujlrum, from claudo, “ I ffiut or clofe as centioufnefs, avarice, and ambition. He committed being inclofed on its four fides with buildings. Hence inceft with his three fitters, and introduced himfelf in in architecture, a building is itill faid to be in form of women’s clothes into the houfe of Julius Ctefar, whilit a cloifter, when there are buildings on each of the four Pompeia, Caefar’s wife, of whom he was enamoured, fides of the court. was celebrating the myfterles of Ceres, where no man CLONMELL, the aftize town of the county of was permitted to appear. He was accufed for this Tipperary in Ireland, is fituated on the river Suir, hath violation of human and divine laws; but he made him- a barrack for two troops of horfe, and is governed by feR tribune, and by that means fcreened himfelf from a mayor, recorder, bailiffs, and town-clerk. The river jultice. He defcended from a patrician into a ple- is navigable from this town to Garrick and Waterford ; beian family to become a tribune. He was fuch an and there is fome trade carried on here in the woollen enemy to Cato, that he made him go with praetorian branch, particularly by the Quakers, who are very nupower, in an expedition againft Ptolemy king of Cy- merous in this neighbourhood. Near this place is a prus, that by the difficulty of the campaign he might fpring of Spa water, that iffues from the fide of a ruin his reputation, and deftroy his intereft at Rome rifing ground, and is overlooked by a pretty fteep during his abfence. Cato, however, by his uncommon hill, on that fide of the river Suir, which is in the fuccefs, fruftrated the defigns of Clodius. He was alfo county.of Waterford. The cures performed by drinkan inveterate enemy to Cicero, and by his influence he ing this water in the feurvy, and other chronic dibaniffied him from Rome, partly on pretence that he ftempers, drew thither, fome years ago, a great rehad punifhed with death and without trial the adhe- fort of people ; but faffiion, which reigns with an abrents of Catiline. He wreaked his vengeance upon Ci- folute authority, has brought other waters of late into cero’s houfe, which he burnt, and fet all his goods to higher credit. It was in this town that the celebrated fale ; which, however, to his great mortification, no and reverend Laurence Sterne was born, on the 24th one offered to buy. In fpite of Clodius, Cicero was of November 1713. The town confifts of four crofs recalled, and all his goods reftored to him. Clodius ftreets, and has a fpacious bridge of 20 arches over was fome time after murdered by Milo, whofe defence the river Suir ; the market-houfe is ftrong and well Cicero took upon himfelf. built, and there is a charter-fehool here for forty chilCLOGHER, an epifcopal town of Ireland, in the dren, to which the late John Dawfon, Efq. and Sir county of Tyrone, and province of Ulfter. It fent Charles Moore, Bart, were confiderable benefaftors. two members to the Irifli parliament. In a very early A Dominican friary was founded at Clonmell, in age an abbey of regular canons, dedicated to the Vir- 1269, and dedicated to St Dominick. In the fame gin Mary, was founded here. St Patrick is faid to year Otho de Grandifon erefled one of the moft maghave prefided over the church of Clogher ; and having nificent in Ireland. In it was kept an image of St ■appointed St Kertenn to be his fucceffor, he refigned Francis, refpefting the miracles wrought by which this government, and went to Armagh, where he found- many marvellous ftories are circulated. This town « ed his celebrated abbey. On the 20th of April 1396, very ancient, being built before the invafion of the a dreadful fire burnt to the ground the church, the Danes : it was formerly defended by a fquare wall. two chapels, the abbey, the court of the bifliops, and Oliver Cromwell, who found more refiftance from this thirty-two other buildings, with all the facerdotal veft- place than any other of his conquefts in the kingdom, ments, utenfils, &c. belonging to the biffiop’s chapter demoliffied the caftles and fortifications, of which now and church. In the year 1610, on the 24th of July only the ruins remain : the chief Gothic church here whilfl; George Montgomery was bifliop of Clogher, is ftill kept in good repair. W. Long. 7. 27. N. Lat King James annexed this abbey and its revenues to I 4that fee. The fee (valued in the king’s books at 350I. J4-CLOSE, in Heraldry. When any bird is drawn in per annum by extent returned 15th James I.) is re- a. coat of arms with its wings clofe down about it, puted to be worth 4000I. annually. W. Long. 6. qo. (i. e. not difplayed), and in a ftanding pofture, they N. Lat. 54. 30. blazon it by this word clofe ; but if it be flying, they .CLOIS PER a habitation furrounded call it volant. See Volant. with walls, and inhabited by canons or religious, &c. Close, in Mujic. See Cadence. In a more general fenfe, cloifter is ufed for a monaCLOSE-Hau/cd, in Navigation, the general arrangeftery of religious, of either fex. In a more rettrain- ment or trim of a ffiip’s fails when ftie endeavours to ed fenfe, cloifter is ufed for the principal part of a re- make a progrefs in the neareft direflion poffible togular monaftery, confiding of a fquare built around ; wards that point of the compafs from which the wind ordinarily between the church, the chapter-houfe, and blows. In this manner of failing, the keel commonly the. refe&ory ; and over which fs the dormitory. The makes an angle of fix points with the line of the wind*cloifters ferved for feveral purpofes in the ancient mo- but floops and fome other fmall veffels are faid to fail nafte . Petrus Blefenfis obferves that it was here almoft a point nearer. All veffels, however, are fup. the monks held their ledlures : the ledlure of morali- pofed to make nearly a point of leeway when clofety at the north fide, next the church : the fchool on hauled? even when they have the advantage of a good Vol. VI. Part I, Di failing CV’ua

C L O [21 o ] c l o failing breeze and fmootli water. The angle of lee- 12. It muft be prefled cold, not hot-prefled, the latter Cloti way, however, increafes in proportion to the increafe being very injurious to woollen cloth. ' Manufacluring of white Cloths which are intended for of the wind and fea. In this difpofition of the fails, dyeing. The beft wool for the manufacturing of cloths f they are all extended fidewife on the (hip, fo that the wind as it crofl'es the fliip obliquely toward the Hern are thofe of England and Spain, efpecially thofe of from forwards, may fill their cavities. But as the cur- Lincolnfhire and Segovia. To ufe thofe wools to the • rent of wind alfo enters the fails in an oblique direc- beft advantage, they muft be fcoured, by putting them tion, the effort of it to make the fhip advance is confi- into a liquor fomewhat more than luke-warm, compofed derably diminifhed : fhe will therefore make the leaft of three parts of fair water and one of urine. After progrefs when failing in this manner. The fhip is the wool has continued long enough in the liquor to faid to be clofe-hauled, becaufe at this time her tacks, foak, and diffolve the greafe, it is drained and well or lower corners of the principal fails, are drawn clofe wafhed in running Mater. When it feels dry, and has down to her fide to windward, the fheets hauled clofe- no fmell but the natural one of the fheep, it is faid to aft, and all the bow-lines drawn to their greateft ex- be duly fcoured. tenfion to keep the fails fteady. After this, it is hung to dry in the fliade ; the heat CLOSE-^uarters, certain ftrong barriers of wood, of the fun making it harfh and inflexible : when dry, ilretching acrofs a merchant-fhip in feveral places. it is beat with rods upon hurdles of wood, or on cords, They are ufed as places of retreat when a fhip is to cleanfe it from duft and the groffer filth 5 the more boarded by her adverfary, and are therefore fitted it is thus beat and cleanfed, the fofter it becomes, and with feveral fmali loop-holes through which to fire the the better for fpinning. After beating, it muft be •well fmall arms, and thereby annoy the enemy, and defend picked, to free it from the reft of the filth that had efthemfelves. They are likewife furnifhed with feveral caped the rods. caifons called powder-chefls, which are fixed upon the It is now in a proper condition to be oiled, and deck, and filled with powder, oid nails, &c. and may carded on large iron cards placed flopewife. Olive oil be fired at any time from the clofe-quarters upon the is efteemed the beft for this purpofe ; one-fifth of which boarders. ftiould be ufed for the wool intended for the woof, and Falconer's We have known an Englifh merchant-fhip of 16 a ninth for that defigned for the warp. After the JMl. of the an(j properly fitted with clofe-quarters, defeat wool has been well oiled, it is given to the fpinners, the united efforts of three French privateers who who firft card it on the knee, with fmall fine cards, and boarded her in the lafl war, after having engaged at then fpin it on the wheel, obferving to make the thread fome diftance nearly a day and a half, with very few of the warp fmaller by one-third than that of the woof, intervals of reft. Two of the cruifers were equipped and much compaCler twifted. with twelve guns each, and the other with eight. The The thread thus fpun, is reeled, and made into French failors were, after boarding, fo much expofed Ikeins. That defigned for the woof is wound on little to continued fire of mufquetry and cohorns charged with tubes, pieces of paper, or rufhes, fo difpofed as that granadoes, that a dreadful fcene of carnage enfued, in they may be eafily put in the eye of the ihuttie. That which the decks were foon covered with the dead bodies for the warp is wound on a kind of large wooden bob1 of the enemy, feveral of which the boarders, in their bins, to difpofe of it for warping. When warped, it is hurry to efcape, had left behind. ftiffened with fize ; the beft of which is that made of CLOT-bird : a fpecies of Fringilla. See Or- fhreds of parchment •, and when dry, is given to the nithology Index. weavers, who mount it on the loom. CLOTH, in commerce, a manufa&ure made of The warp thus mounted, the weavers, who are two wool, wove in the loom. to each loom, one on each fide, tread alternately on Cloths are of divers qualities, fine or coarfe. The the treddle, firft on the right ftep, and then on the goodnefs of cloth, according to fome, confifts in the left, which raifes and lowers the threads of the warp following particulars : I. That the wool be of a good equally j between which they throw tranfverfely the quality, and well dreffed. 2. It muft be equally fpun, fhuttle from the one to the other; and every time carefully obferving that the thread of the warp be that the ftiuttle is thus thrown, and a thread of the finer and better twilled than that of the woof. 3. The woof inferted within the warp, they ftrike it conjundlcloth muft be well wrought, and beaten on the loom, ly with the fame frame, wherein is fattened the comb fo as to be everywhere equally compaft. 4. The or reed, between whofe teeth the threads of the warp wool muft not be finer at one end of the piece than in are paffed, repeating the ftroke as often as is necefthe reft. 5. The lifts muft be fufficiently ftrong, of fary. the fame length with the fluff, and muft confift of The weavers having continued their work till the good wool, hair, or oftrich-feathers ; or, what is ftill whole warp is filled with the woof, the cloth is finifhbetter, of Danifh dog’s hair. 6. The cloth muft be ed ; it is then taken off the loom by unrolling it from free from knots and other imperfe&ions. 7. It muft the beam whereon it had been rolled in proportion as it be well fcoured with fullers earth, well fulled with was wove ; and now given to be cleanfed of the knots, the bell white foap, and afterwards wafhed in clear ends of threads, ftraws, and other filth, which is dons water. 8. The hair or nap muft be well drawn out with iron nippers. In this condition it is carried to the fullery, to be with the teazel, without being too much opened. 9. It muft be fhorn clofe without making it thread- fcoured with urine, or a kind of potters clay, well bare. 10. It muft be well-dried. 11. It muft not be fteeped in water, put along with the cloth in the tenter-ftretched, to force it to its juft dimenfions. trough wherein it is fulled. The cloth being again cleared Clofehauled II Cloth.

] C L O , C L O [2 ii but it is no eafy matter to account for the long conti- Cloud, Cloth cleared from tlie earth or urine, is returned to the v former hands to have the leffer filth, fmall ftraws, &c. nuance of fome very opaque clouds without diffolving ; II Cloud. taken off as before: then it is returned to the fuller or to give a reafon why the vapours, when they have to be beat and fulled with hot water, wherein a once begun to condenfe, do not continue to do fo till fuitable quantity of foap has been diflolved $ after ful- they at laft fall to the ground in the form of rain or ling, it is taken out to be fmoothed or pulled by the fnow, Sec. The general caufe of the formation of lifts lengthwife, to take out the wrinkles, crevices, clouds, it has been fuppofed, is a feparation of the latent heat from the water of which the vapour is com&c. The fmoothing is repeated every two hours, till pofed. The confequence of this feparation muft be the the fulling be finifhed, and the cloth brought to its condenfation of that vapour, in fome degree at leaft : proper breadth ; after which it is wafhed in clear wa- in fuch cafe, it will firft appear as a frnoke, mift, or ter, to purge it of the foap, and given wet to the -fog; which, if interpofed betwixt the fun and earth, carders to raife the hair or nap on the right fide with will form a cloud ; and the fame caufes continuing to the thiftle or weed. After this preparation, the cloth- ad, the cloud will produce rain or fnow. But though worker takes the cloth, and gives it its firft cut or the feparation of this latent heat in a certain degree is {hearing j then the carders relume it, and after wet- the immediate caufe of the formation of clouds, the reting, give it as many more courfes with the teazle, mote caufe, or the changes produced in the atmofphere, as the quality of the fluff requires, always obferving whereby fuch a feparation may be induced, are much to begin againft the. grain of the hair, and to end with more difficult to be difeovered. In common obferva2 it; as alfo to begin with a fmoother thiftle, proceed- tion, we fee that vapour is moft powerfully condenfed ing ft ill with one fharper and (harper, as far as the fixth by cold fubftances, fuch as metals, water, &c. But Not always cold alone cannot in all cafes caufe the condenfation of owing to degree. coW After thefe operations, the cloth being dried, is re- the atmofpherical vapours, otherwife the nights behov- * turned to the cloth-worker, who (hears it a fecond ed to be always foggy or cloudy, owing to the vatime, and returns it to the carders, who repeat their pours, raifed throughout the day by the heat of the operation as before, till the nap be well ranged on the fun, being condenfed by the fuperior coldnefs of the furface of the cloth, from one end of the piece to the night. Great rains may happen in very warm weather, when the union of the vapours with the atmofphere other. The cloth thus wove, fcoured, napped, and fliorn, is ought rather to be promoted than diflolved, if cold were fent to the dyer ; when dyed, it is wafhed in fair wa- the only agent in their condenfation. The ferenity ef ter, and the worker takes it again wet as it is, lays the the atmofphere, alfo, in the moft fevere frofts, abunnap with a brufh on the table, and hangs it on the dantly fhows that fome other caufe befides mere heat or tenters, where it is ftretcbed both in length and breadth cold is concerned in the formation of clouds, and con^ fufficiently to fmooth it, fet it fquare, and bring it to denfation of the atmofpherical vapours. The eleftric fluid is now fo generally admitted as Elecftricity its proper dimenfions, without (training it too much ; obferving to brufh it afrefh, the way of the nap, while an agent in all the great operations of nature, that it probably is no wonder to find the formation of clouds attributed conccrne many cafes a promoter of evaporaprefide over the moment that we are born. She held tion ; but no experiments have yet been brought to the diftaff in her hand, and fpun the thread of life, prove that eledtrified air parts with its moifture more whence her name xX&Suv, to fpin. She was reprefen ted readily than fuch as is not eledlrified ; fo that, till the wearing a crown with feven ftars, and covered with a properties of eledlrified air are farther inveftigated, it is variegated robe. impoffible to lay down any rational theory of the formaCLOUD, a colledlion of vapours fufpended in the tion of clouds upon this principle. 4 But whether the clouds are produced, i. e. the in- Clouds ofaufe of atmofphere. That the clouds are formed from the aqueous va- vifible vapours floating in the atmofphere condenfed t?n Pro(fiie formaon of pours, which before were fo clofely united with the fo as to become vifible, by means of eledlricity or noti fe^Uri|c^* ouds un- atmofphere as to be invifible, is univerfally allowed ; it is certain that they do contain the eledlric fluid in Wain. Dd2 prodigious

C L O [21 prodigious and inconceivable quantities, and many very terrible and deftruftive phenomena have been occafioned by clouds very highly electrified. The molt extraordinary inftance of this kind perhaps on record happened in the ifland of Java, in the Eaft Indies, Terrible in Auguft 1772. On the 11th of that month, at middeftrutftion night, a bright cloud was obferved covering a mounby an elec- tain in the diftrift called Cheribon, at the fame time trifled cloud fey.erai reports were heard like thofe of a gun. The people who dwelt upon the upper parts of the mountain not being able to fly fait enough, a great part of the cloud, almoft three leagues in circumference, detached itfelf under them, and was feen at a dif. tance rifing and falling like the waves of the fea, and emitting globes of fire fo luminous, that the night became as clear as day. The efftdts of it were altonifbing ; every thing was deftroyed for feven leagues round $ the houfes were demolifhed ; plantations were buried in the earth j and 2140 people loft their lives, befides 1500 head of cattle, and a vaft number of By another horfeS’ Soat3> &c. * in the ifland Another inftance of a very deftruClive cloud, the ef Malta, eleftric quality of which will at prefent fcarcely be doubted, is related by Mr Brydone, in his Tour through Malta. It appeared on the 29th of October 1757. About three quarters of an hour after midnight, there was feen to the fouth-weft of the city of Melita, a great black cloud, which, as it approached, changed its colour, till at laft it became like a flame of fire mixed with black fmoke. A dreadful noife was heard on its approach, which alarmed the whole city. It palled over the port, and came firft on an Englifh ftiip, which in an inftant was torn in pieces, and nothing left but the hulk \ part of the mails, fails, and cordage, were carried to a considerable diftance along with the cloud. The fmall boats and felloques that fell in its way were all broken to pieces and funk. The noife increafed, and became more frightful. A fentinei, ter^ rified at its approach, ran into his box 5 but both he and it were lifted up and carried into the fea, where he perilhed. It then traverfed a confiderable part of the city, and laid in ruins almoft every thing that flood in its way. Several houfes were laid level with the ground, and it did not leave one fteeple in its pafiage. The bells of fome of them, together with the fpires, were carried to a confiderable diftance j the roofs of the churches demolilhed and beat down, &c. It went off at the north-eaft point of the city, and demolilhing the light-houfe, is faid to have mounted up into the air with a frightful noife ; and paffed over the fea to Sicily, where it tore up fome trees, and did other damage ; but nothing confiderable, as its fury had been moftly fpent at Malta. The number of killed and wounded amounted to near 200 \ and the lofs of (hipping, &c» was very confiderable. The effefts of thunder-ftorms, and the vaft quantity ©f eleflricity collected in the clouds which produce thefe florms, are fo well known, that it is fuperfiuous to mention them. It appears, however, that even the clouds are not fo highly electrified as to produce e e( s 011 Inftance of t^e*r ^ ^ thofe who are immerfed in them, two people It is only the difeharge of part of their eleClricity upinvolved in on fuch bodies as are either not eledtrified at all, or a thunder- not f0 highly eleCtrified as the cloud, that does all the t-kmd. xnifehief. We have, however, only the following inCloud.

2 ] C L O ftance on record, of* any perfons being immerfed in the Cloud, body of a thunder-cloud. Profeffor Sauffure and young y—^ Mr jaiabert, when travelling over one of the high Alps, were caught among clouds of this kind ; and, to their aftonilhment, found their bodies fo full of eledlrical fire, that fpontaneous flafhes darted from their fingers with a crackling noife, and the fame kind of fenfalion as when ftrongly eledrified by art. g The height of clouds in general is not great 5 the Height of fummits of very high mountains being commwnly quite the clouds, free from them, as Mr Brydone experienced in his journey up Mount /Etna ; but thofe which are moft highly eleClrified defeend loweft, their height being often not above feven or eight hundred yards above the ground $ nay, fometimes thunder-clouds appear actually to touch the, ground with one of their edges * r.* See but the generality of clouds are fufpended at the height^, of a mile, or little more, above the earth. Some*, however, have imagined them to arife to a moft incredible and-extravagant height. Maignan of Thouloufe, in his Treatife of PerfpeCtive, p. 93, gives an account of an exceeding bright little cloud that appeared at midnight in the month of Auguft, which fpread itfelf almoft as far as the zenith. He fays that the fame thing was alfo obferved at Rome; and from thenca concludes that the, cloud was a colledion of vapours raifed beyond the projeClion of the earth’s ftiadow, and of eonfequence illuminated by means of the fun. This, however, can by no means be credited j and it is much more probable that this cloud owed its fplendor to eleClricity, than to the reflection of the folar beams. In the evenings after funfet, and mornings before Their van* funrife, we often obferve the clouds tinged with beau-ous colours ccouate tiful colours. They are- moftly red ; fometimes o-^ ^ tor range, yellow, or purple , more rarely bluifh ; and ’ feldom or never green. The reafon of this variety of colours, according to Sir Ifaac Newton, is the different fize of the globules into which the vapours are cendenfed. This is controverted by Mr Melville, who thinks that the clouds refleCt the fun’s light precifely as it is tranfmitted to them through the atmofphere. This refleCls the moft refrangible rays in the greateft quantity ; and therefore ought to tranfmit the leaft refrangible ones, red, orange, and yellow to the clouds, which accordingly appear moft ufually of thofe colours. In this opinion he was greatly confirmed by obferving, when he was in Switzerland, that the fnowy fummits of the Alps turned more and more reddifh after funfet, in the fame manner as the clouds •, and he imagines that the femitranfparency of the clouds, and the obliquity of their fituation, tend to make the colours in them much more rich and copious than thofe on the tops of fnowy mountains. The motions of the clouds, though fometimes di-Q£tjie reCled by the wind, are not always fo, efpecially whentions of thunder is about to enfue. In this cafe they-feem to clouds, move very flowly, and often to be abfolutely ftationary for fome time. The reafon of this moft probably is, that they are impelled by two oppofite ftreams of air neatly of equal ftrength j by which means their velocity is greatly retarded. In fuch cafes both the aerial currents feem to afeend to a very confiderable height $ for Meff. Charles and Roberts, when endeavouring to avoid a thunder-cloud in one of their aerial voyages, could.

C L O [ 213 ] C L O could find no alteration in the courfe of the current, mofphere ; in doing which, when eleCtrified to a great Ckud || though they afcended to the height of 4000 feet from degree, they fometimes produce very terrible effeCts j Clouts. the furface of the earth. In forne cafes the motions of which inftances have been already given. CLOVE-tree. See Caryofhyllus, Botany /a- '■""‘"‘v— of the clouds evidently depend on their electricity, independent of any current of air whatever. Thus, in dex. Clove, a term ufed in weights of wool. Seven a calm and warm day, we often fee fmall clouds meeting each other in oppofite directions, and fetting out pounds make a clove. In ElTex, eight pounds of cheef* from fuch fhort dittances, that we cannot fuppofe any and butter go to the clove. Clove July flower. See Dianthus, Botany Inopponte winds to be the caufe. Thele clouds, when they meet, initead of forming a larger one, become much dex. CLOVER-grass. See Trifolium, Botany /alefs, and fometimes vaniih altogether 5 a circumftance undoubtedly owing to the difcharge of oppofite elec- dex, and Agriculture Index. CLOUGH, or Draught, in commerce, an allowtricities into each other. This ferves alfo to throw fome light on the true caufe of the formation of clouds j ance of two pounds in every hundred weight for the for if two clouds eleCtrified, the one pofitively and the turn of the fcale, that the commodity may hold out other negatively, dellroy each other in contaCl; ij; weight when fold out by retail. CLOVIO, Giorgio Giulio, hiftory and portrait follows, tiiat any quantity of vapour fufpended in the atmofphere, while it retains its natural quantity of painter, was born in Sclavonia, in 1498. Having in eleCIricity, remains inviiible, but becomes a cloud when the early part of his youth applied himielf to literature,, eleftrified either plus or minus. A difficulty, however, his genius prompted him to purfue the art of painting ftill occurs j viz. in what manner a fmall quantity of for a profeflion ; and at 18 years of age he went to vapour furrounded by an immenfe ocean of the fame Rome, where he fpent three years to perfect his hand, kind of matter, can acquire either more or lefs eleftri- in drawing, and devoted himfelf entirely to painting city than that which furrounds it j and this indeed we in miniature. His knowledge of colouring was eftafeem not as yet to have any data to folve in a fatisfac- blilhed by the inftruflions of Julio Romano, and his tafte of compofition and defign was founded on the obtory manner. II lieir The ffiapes of the clouds are likewife undoubtedly fervations he made on the works of Michael Angelo tiapes. owing to their eleftricity $ for in thofe feafons in which Buonaroti. By thofe afliftances he arrived at fuch a great commotion has been excited in the atmofphe- a degree of excellence in portrait as well as in hiftory, rical eleClricity, we ffiall perceive the clouds afluming that in the former he was accounted equal to Titian, ftrange and whimfical fhapes, which vary almoft every and in the latter not inferior to Buonaroti.. He died moment. This, as well as the meeting of fmall clouds in 1578. His works are exceedingly valuable, and in the air, and vanifiiing upon contaCt, is an almoft in- are at this day numbered among the euriofities of Rome. 12 Vafari, who had feen the wonderful performances of fallible fign of thunder. 'onnecBefides the phenomena of thunder, rain, &c. the Clovio, with inexpreffible aftonifliment, enumerates ion of the lotuls with clouds are intimately connected with thofe of wind, many of his portraits and hiftorical compofitions, and and always affume a particular ftiape, when a ftrong feems to be almoft at a lofs for language fufficiently ex/iud. continued wind is about to enfue j though it is remark- preffive of their merit. He mentions two or three able, that in the ftrongeft winds we fhall often obferve pictures on which the artift had beftowed the labour them ftationary. Sometimes alfo,. on the approach of of nine years ; but the principal pifture reprefented a cloud, we fhall find afudden and violent guft of wind Nimrod, building the Tower of Babel ; which was fo arife ; and at others, the wind, though violent before- exquifitely finiflied, and fo perfect in all its parts, that fhall ceafe on the approach of a cloud, and recover its it feemed quite inconceivable how the eye or the penftrength as foon as the cloud is paft. This connection, cil could execute it. He fays it is impoflible to imaof the clouds with wind is moft remarkable in moun- gine any thing fo admirably curious ; whether one containous countries, when the peaks are fufficiently high fiders the elegance of the attitudes, the richnefs of the to have their tops involved in clouds. A very remark- compolition, the delicacy of the naked figures, the able mountain of this kind is met with at the Cape of perfpeftive proportion of the objefts, the tender dlGood Hope, from the clouds on whofe top, accord- ftances, the feenery, the buildings, or other ornaments; ing to the relations of travellers, the winds iflue forth for every part is beautiful and inimitable. He alfo as if they had been confined in a bag ; and fomething takes notice of a fingle ant introduced in one of the fimilar has been obferved of mountains in other parts pi61ures of this mafter; whish, though exceedingly and T incredibly fmall, is yet fo perfect, that even the moft of the world. .3 •heir ufes. The ufes of the clouds are. evident : as from them minute member was as diflintt as if it had been paintproceeds the rain which refrefties the earth ; and with- ed of the natural fize. CLOVIS I. was the real founder of the French moout which, according to the prefent fyftem of nature, the whole furface of the earth muft be a mere defert. narchy ; for he was the firft conqueror of the feveral They are likewife of great ule as a fcreen interpofed provinces of Gaul, pofleffed before his time by the Robetween the earth and the fcorching rays of the fun mans, Germans, and Goths. Thefe he united to the which are often fo powerful as to deftroy the grafs and then fcanty dominions of France, removtjd the feat of other tender vegetables. In the more fecret operations government from Soiffons to Paris, and made this the of nature alfo, where the eleCtrical fluid is concerned, capital of his new kingdom. He died in 511, in the the clouds bear a principal lhare ; and ferve efpecially 46th year of his age and 31ft of his reign. See (Hifl. as a medium for conveying that fluid from the atmo- of) France. CLOUTS, in Gunnery, are thin plates of iron nailfpliere into the earth, and from the earth into the ated, Cloud.

e l u [21 Clouts ed on that part of the axle-tree of a gun-carriage which II comes through the nave, and through which the linfpin clun y-UL J goes. ""' ‘ CLOYNE, a town of Ireland, in the county of Cork and province of Munfler. W. Long. 8. o. N. Lat. 51. 40. It is but a fmal! place, though an epifcopal refidence. A church was built, and a bilhopric erected here, by St Colman, who died on the 4th of November 604-, and in 707 an abbey was alfo founded here. In 1430, the biftiopric was united to that of Cork*, and the union continued till the nth of November 1638, when Dr George Synge was confecrated biihop of Cloyne j fince which time this fee has been governed by its own prelates, one of whom was the celebrated Berkeley. This fee is not taxed in the king’s books ; but is now reputed to be worth 2500I. a-year. The chapter of Cloyne is compofed of a dean, chapter, chancellor, treafurer, an archdeacon, and fourteen prebendaries. The diocefe is divided into four rural deaneries, and the collegiate church of St Mary of Youghal is united to the bilhopric. The cathedral is a decent Gothic building. The nave is about 120 feet long j having lateral allies, befides the crofs allies, divided by Gothic arches, five on each fide. In the choir there is an excellent organ. The bilhop’s palace, which rvas rebuilt at the beginning of the prefent century, is large and convenient. To the northweft of Cloyne is a reputed holy well, dedicated to St Colman, which is much frequented on the 24th of November, being the patron day. CLUE of A sail, the lower corner ; and hence CLUE-Garnets are a fort of tackles faftened to the clues, or lower corners of the mainfail or forefail to trufs them up to the yard as occafion requires, which is ufually termed clueing up the fails. CLUE-Lines are for the fame purpofeas clue-garnets $ only that the latter are confined to the courfes, whereas the former are common to all the fquare fails. See thefe ropes as reprefented in the article Ship. CLUNIA, in Ancient Geography, a principal town of the Hither Spain, a Roman colony, with a conventus juridicus, on the Durius, to the weft of Numantia, Now Corunna del Conde. CLUNIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Corfica, near Baftia. Now St Catharine. CLUNY, or Clugny, a celebrated abbey of Benedi&ine monks, in a city of that name j being the head or chief of a congregation denominated from them. It is fituated in the Mafonnois, a little province of France, on the river Crone j and was founded by William duke of Berry and Aquitain j or, as others fay, by the abbot Bernon, fupported by that duke, in the year 910. This abbey was anciently fo very fpacious and magnificent, that in 1245, a^ter t^ie holding of the firft. council of Lyons, Pope Innocent IV. went to Cluny, accompanied with the two patriarchs of Antioch and Conftantinople, 12 cardinals, 3 archbiftiops, 15 biftiops, and a great number of abbots; who were all entertained, without one of the monks being put out of their place ; though S. Louis £). Blanche his mother, the duke of Artois his brother, and his fitter, the emperor of Conftantinople, the fons of the kings of Arjagon and Caftile, the duke of Burgundy, fix counts,

4 ] C L U and a great number of lords, with all their retinues, ciunv, were there at the fame time. Clupea. Cluny, at its firft erection, was put under the im- ■v—■ mediate protection of the apoftolic fee, with exprefs prohibition to all fecular and ecclefiafiio powers, to difturb the monks in the pofieffion of their effefts, or the eleCtion of their abbot. By this they pretended to be exempted from the jurifdiCtion of biftiops 5 which at length gave the hint to other abbeys to infill on the fame. Cluny is the head of a very'numerous and extenfive congregation : in effeCt, it was the firft congregation of divers monafteries united under one chief, fo as only to conftitute one body, or, as they call it, one order, that ever arofe. This order of monks was brought into England by William, earl of Warren, fon-in-law to William the Conqueror, who built a houfe for them at Lewes in Suflex about the year 1077. There were 27 priories and fells of this order in England, which were governed by foreigners, afterwards made denizens. CLUPEA, or Herring, in Ichthyology, a genus belonging to the order of abdominalcs. The upper jaw is furniftied with a ferrated myftachej the branchioftege membrane has eight rays j a fcaly ferrated line runs along the belly from the head to the tail $ and the belly-fins have frequently nine rays. There are 11 fpecies, viz. 1. The harengus, or common herring, has no fpots, and the under jaw is longer than the upper one. A herring dies immediately after it is taken out of the water; whence the proverb arifes, As dead as a herring. The meat is everywhere in great efteem, being fat, foft, and delicate j efpecially if it is drefled as foon as caught, for then it is incomparably better than on the next day. The herring was unknown to the ancients. Notwithftanding the words and pxtvis are by tranflators rendered halec, the charaClers given to thofe fifti are common to fuch numbers of different fpecies as render it impofiible to fay which they intended. Herrings are found from the higheft northern lati-jqerr;nggy tudes yet known, as low as the northern coafts of where France j and except one inftance, brought by Dod, offound. a few being once taken in the bay of Tangier, none are ever found more foutherly. They are met with in vaft ftioals on the coaft of America, as low as Carolina. In Chefapeak-bay is an annual inundation of thofe fifti, which cover the ftiore in fuch quantities as to become a nuifance. We find them again in the feas of Kamti’chatka, and probably they reach Japan j for Kempfer mentions, in his account of the fifti of that country, fome that are congenerous. The great winter rendezvous of the herring is within the ar£Hc circle : there they continue for many months in order to recruit themfelves after the fatigue of {pawning; the feas within that fpace fwarming with infeft food in a far greater degree than thofe of our warmer latitudes. 2 This mighty army begins to put itfelf in motion in thelmmenfe fpring; we diftinguilh this vaft body by that name ; ^oals of for the word herring comes from the German heerf^™" “ an army,” to exprefs their numbers. They begin to appear off the Shetland ifles in April and May ; thefe are only the forerunners of the grand Ihoal which comes

C L U [ 215 ] C L U they depofit their fpawn. The young herrings begin Clupea. comes in June ; and their appearance is marked byv-—»* certain figns, by the number of birds, fuch as gannets to approach the (hores in July and Auguft, and are and others, which follow to prey on them ; but when then from half an inch to two inches long j thofe in the main body approaches, its breadth and depth is Yorkfhire are called herring Jile. Though we have no yout^ one8 fuch as to alter the appearance of the very ocean. It particular authority for it, yet as very few young her-probably with is divided into diftimSl columns of five or fix miles in rings are found in our feas during winter, it feems moft tretire *ieir Pa' length, and three or four in breadth, and they drive certain that they muft return to their parental hauntsrents ’ the water before them with a kind of rippling : fome- beneath the ice, to repair the vaft deftrudlion of their times they fink for the fpace of ten or fifteen minutes, race during fummer by men, fowl, and fi(h. Some of and then rife again to the furface ; and in fine wea- the old herrings continue on our coaft the whole year : ther refleft a variety of fplendid colours like a field of the Scarborough fifttermen never put down their nets the mod precious gems $ in which, or rather in a much but they catch a few j but the numbers that remain are more valuable, light (hould this ftupendous gift of Pro- not worth comparifon with thofe that return. See vidence be confidered by the inhabitants of the Britilh Herring-FlSHER T. The Dutch are moft extravagantly fond of this fi(h illes. The firft check this army meets in its march fouth- when it is pickled. A premium is given to the firft; ward is from the Shetland ifles, which divide it into bufs that arrives in Holland with a lading of this their two parts •, one wing takes to the eaft, the other to ambrofia, and a vaft price given for each keg. There the weftern (Imres of Great Britain, and fill every bay is as much joy among the inhabitants on its arrival, as and creek with their numbers $ others pafs on to- the Egyptians (how on the firft overflowing of the wards Yarmouth, the great and ancient mart of her- Nile. Flanders had the honour of inventing the art Pickling of rings : they then pafs through the Britifh Channel, of pickling herrings. One William Beauklen of Bi- herrings and after that, in a manner difappear. Thofe which verlet, near Sluys, hit on this ufeful expedient j from take towards the weft, after offering themfelves to the him was derived the name pickle, which we borrow from Hebrides, where the great ftationary filhery is, pro- the Dutch and German. Beauklen died in 1397. The ceed to the north of Ireland, where they meet with a emperor Charles V. held his memory in fuch venerafecund interruption, and are obliged to make a fecond tion for the fervice he did to mankind, as to do his divifion : the one takes to the weftein fide, and is tomb the honour of a vifit. It is very Angular that fcarce perceived, being foon loft in the immenfity of moft nations give the name of their favourite difh to the Atlantic ; but the other, that pa(fes into the Irifh the facetious attendant on every mountebank. Thus fea, rejoices and feeds the inhabitants of moft of the the Dutch call him pickle herring; the Italians macacoafts that border on it. Thefe brigades, as we may roni; the French, jean pottage; the Germans hans call them, which are thus feparated from the greater wurji, that is, jack faufage; and the Englith dignify ^ columns, are often capricious in their motions, and do him with the name of jack pudding. 2. The fprattus has 13 rays in the back fin. It is agprattus, not (how an invariable attachment to their haunts. Vonderful Were we inclined to confider this partial migration native of the European feas, and has a great refem-where iftindt of in a moral light, we might refledt with veneration and blance to the herring, only it is of a lefs fize. They (outhefe crea- awe on the mighty power which originally impre(fed come into the river Thames below bridge in the beures. on this moft ufeful body of his creatures the inftindt ginning of November, and leave it in March ; and are, that diredfs and points out the courfe, that blelfes and during that feafon, a great relief to the poor of the caenriches thefe iflands, which caufes them at certain pital. At Gravefend and at Yarmouth they are cured and invariable times to quit the vaft polar deeps, and like red-herrings ; they are fometimes pickled, and are offer themfelves to our expedting fleets. That bene- little inferior in flavour to the anchovy, but the bones ^ volent Being has never been known, from the earlieft will not diflblve like thofe of the latter. 3. The alofa, or Jhad, has a forked fnout, and black Alofa, or account of time, once to withdraw this blefling from at w ere the whole ; though he often thinks proper to deny it fpots on the (ides. According to Belonius and Haf-^ounch h to particulars, yet this partial failure (for which we fee felquift, this is a fifli of paflage in the Nile. The laft^ ^* no natural reafon) fhould fill us with the moft exalted fays, it is found in the Mediterranean near Smyrna, and grateful fenfe of his providence for imprefling fuch and on the coaft of Egypt near Rofetta ; and that in an invariable and general inftindt on thefe fifli towards the months of December and January it afcends the a fouthward migration when the whole is to be bene- Nile as high as Cairo, where the people fluff it with g fited, and to withdraw it when only a minute part is to pot marjoram ; and when dreffed in that manner, it will very nearly intoxicate the eater. In Great Bri-xhefinefl: fuffer. the This inftindi was given them, that they might re- tain the Severn affords this fifti in higher perfection inhabit evem • move for the fake of depofiting their fpawn in warmer than any other river. It makes its firft appearance^ Teas, that would mature and vivify it more affuredly there in May, but in very warm feafons in April j for than thofe of the frozen zone. It is not from defedt its arrival fooner or later depends much on the temper of food that they fet themfelves in motion ; for they of the air. It continues in the river about two months, come to us full of fat, and on their return are almoft and then is fucceeded by a variety which we (hall have univerfally obferved to be lean and miferable. What occafion to mention hereafter. The Severn (had is efteemed a very delicate fifli their food is near the pole we are not yet informed ; but in our feas they feed much on the onifcus marinus, about the time of its firft appearance, efpecially in that part of the river that flows by Gloucefter, where they a cruftaceous infedt, and fometimes on their own fry. They are full of roe in the end of June, and conti- are taken in nets, and ufually fell dearer than falmon : aue in perfedtion till the beginning of winter, when fome are fent to London, where the fiflimongers diftinguilb 3

C L U [2 ftinguifti them from thofeof the Thames by the French name a/q/e. Whether they fpawn in this river and the Wye is not determined, for their fry has not yet been difcovered. The old fifh come from the fea into the river in full roe. In the months of July and Auguft, multitudes of bleak frequent the river near Gloucefter; fome of them are as big as a fmall herring, and thefc . the fifhermen erroneoufly fuppofe to be the fry of the Iliad. Numbers of thefe are taken near Gloucefter, in thofe months only, but none of the emaciated (had are ever caught in their return. The Thames Iliad does not frequent that river till the latter end of May or beginning of June, and is efteemed a very coarfe and infipid fort of fifh. The Severn (had is fometimes caught in the Thames, though rarely, and called a///s (no doubt a/q/e, the French name) by the fifhermen in that river. About the fame time, and rather earlier, the variety called, near Glou9 Twaite de-cefter, the twaite, makes its appearance, is taken in fcribed. great numbers in the Severn, and is held in as great difrepute as the (had of the Thames. The differences between each variety are as follow: the true fhad Weighs fometimes^ eight pounds; but their general fize is from four to five. The twaite, on the contrary, weighs from half a pound to two pounds, which it never exceeds. The twaite differs from a Ihad only in having one or more round black fpots on the Tides ; if only one, it is always near the gill; but commonly there are three or four, placed one under the other. 10 4» The encraJicohiSy or anchovy, has its upper jaw Anchovy defcribed. longer than the under one, and is about three inches long. They are taken in vaft quantities in the Mediterranean, and are brought over here pickled. The great fifhery is at Georgia, a fmall ifle weft of Leghorn. See Anchovy-Fisher T, The other fpecies are, 5. The atherinoides has a fliining line on each fide, and fmall belly-fins. It is a native of Surinam. 6. The thriffa has 28 rays in the fin at the anus. It is found in the Indian ocean. 7. The fima has yellow fins, thofe of the belly being very fmall. The mouth is flat; the upper jaw is very Ihort j the body is of a fhining filver colour, and the fins are yellow. It is a native of Afia. 8. The fternicla has no belly-fins, and the body is broad. It is a native of Surinam. 9. The myftus is fhaped like a fword, and the fins at the anus are united. It is found in the Indian ocean. 10. The tropica has a wedge-like tail, and a white, broad, compreffed body. It is found at Afcenfion ifland. 11. The finenfis is very like the common herring, but broader. It has no teeth, and is a native of China. CLUSI A, the Balsam-tree. See Botany Index. CLUSINA palus, in Ancient Geography, a lake of Tufcany, extending north-weft between Clufium and Arretium, and communicating with the Arnus and Clanis. Now Chiana Pah/dc. CLUSINI Fontes, (Horace), baths in Tufcany, in the territory of Clufium, between this laft to the north, and Acula to the fouth, at the diftance of eight miles from each. Now Bagni di S. Cafciana. CLUSIUM, anciently called Caviars, (Virgil, Livy) ■, a town of Tufcany, at the fouth end of the Palus Clufina, where it forms the Clanis $ the royal refidence of Porfenna, three days journey from Rome to 'Ciupea II Clufium. ""

16 ] C L Y the north, (Polybius). Clujimis the epithet. Chtjtni Veteres the people. Now Chiuji. E. Long. 130, Lat. 430.—Clujium Novum, was a town of Tufeany, near the fprings of the Tiber, in the territory of Arretium 5 where lies the Ager Clufinus : now called Cafentino. Clujini Novi, the people, (Pliny). CLUTIA. See Botany Index. CLUVIER, Philip, in Latin C'uverius, a celebrated geographer, born at Dantzic in 1580. He travelled into Poland, Germany, and the Netherlands, in order to ftudy law 5 but, being at Leyden. Jofeph Scaliger perfuaded him to give way to his genius for geography. Cluvier followed his advice, and for this purpofe vifited the greateft part of the European ftates. He was well verfed in many languages ; and wherever he went, obtained illuftrious friends and prote&ors. At his return to Leyden, he taught there with great applaufe ; and died in 1623, aged 43. Pie wrote, 1. De tribus Rheni alveis. 2. Germania antiqua. 3. Sicilia antiqua. 4. Italia antiqua. 5. In~ troduEho in univerfum Geographiam. All jufliy efteemed. CLYDE, a large river of Scotland, which, with the rivers Tweed and Annan, has its fource at the head of Annandale, and joins the fea at Greenock, where it forms the Frith of Clyde. It is navigable for fmall veffels up to Glafgow. The canal, which joins the Forth, falls into it ten miles below that city. The cataraft called the Falls of the Clyde, oppofite to Lanark, is a great natural curiofity, and the firft fcene of the kind in Great Britain. This tremendous (heet of water for about a mile falls from rock to rock. At Stone-byres, the firft fall is about 60 feet •, the next at Cora-Lynn, is over folid rock, and is ft ill higher. At both thefe places this great body of water exhibits a grander and more interefting fpe&acle than imagination can pofiibly conceive. At Cora-Lynn, the falls are feen to moft advantage from a pavilion placed in a lofty fituation, and which is furnilhed with mirrors which produce a fine effeft. The catarabl is full in view, feen over the tops of trees and bufhes, precipitating itfelf, for an amazing way, from rock to rock, with Ihort interruptions, forming a rude flope of furious foam. The fides are bounded by vaft rocks, clothed on their tops with trees : on the fummit and very verge of one is a ruined tower, and in front a wood overtopt by a verdant hill. A path conduits the traveller down to the beginning of the fall, into which projects a high rock, in floods infulated by the water •, and from the top is a tremendous view of the furious ftream. In the clift's of this favage retreat the brave Wallace is faid to have concealed himfelf, meditating revenge for his injured country. On regaining the top, the walk is formed near the verge of the rocks, which on both fides are perfectly mural and equidiftant, except where they overhang : the river is pent up between them at a diftance far beneath *, not running, but rather Aiding along a ftony bottom floping, the whole way. The fummits of the rock are wooded ; the fides fmooth and naked ; the ftrata narrow and regular, forming a flupendous natural mafonry. After a walk of above half a mile on the edge of this great chafm, on a hidden appears the great and bold fall of Boniton, in a foaming ftieet, far projecting into a hollow, in which the water ftiows a violent

C L Y [2 ■Clyde Violent agitation, and a wide extending mift arifes || from the furface. Above that is another fall j two Olytia. iefl’er fucceed ; beyond them the river winds, grows " more tranquil, and is feen for a confiderable way, bounded on one fide by wooded banks, on the other by rich and fwelling fields* The great fall of Stone-byres, firft mentioned, has more of the fublime in it than any of the others, and is feen with more difficulty : it confifts of two precipitous cataracts falling one above the other into a vaft chafm, bounded by lofty rocks, forming an amazing theatre to the view of thofe who take the pains to defcend to the bottom. Between this and Cora-Lynti there is another fall called DundoJJlin* GLYMENE, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter of Oceanus, who, being beloved by Apollo, he had by her Phaeton, Lampatia, Egle, and Phebe. See Phaeton. CLYPEOLA, Treacle-mustard. See Botany Index. CLYSSUS, an extract prepared, not from one, but feveral bodies mixed together j and, among the moderns, the term is applied to feVeral extracts prepared from the fame body, and then mixed together. CLYSTER, is a liquid remedy, to be inje&ed chiefly at the anus into the larger inteftines. It is ufually adminiftered by the bladder of a hog, fheep, or ox, perforated at each end, and having at one of the apertures an ivory pipe faftened with packthread. But the French, and fometimes the Dutch, ufe a pewter fyringe, by which the liquor may be drawn in with more eafe and expedition than in the bladder, and likewife more forcibly expelled into the large inteftines. This remedy ftiould never be adminiftered either too hot or too cold, but tepid ; for either of the former will be injurious to the bowels. Clyfters are fometimes ufed to nourifti and fupport a patient who can fwallow little or no aliment, by reafon of fome impediment in the organs of deglutition j in which cafe they may be made of broth, milk, ale, and deco&ions of barley and oats with wine. The Englilh introduced a new kind of clyfter, made of the fmoke of tobacco, which has been ufed by feveral other nations, and appears to be of confiderable efficacy when other clyfters prove ineffedlual, and particularly in the iliac paflion, in the hernia incarcerata, and for the recovery of drowned perfons. CL YTEMNESTR A, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter of Jupiter and Leda. She married Agamemnon j but while that prince was at the fiege of Troy, (he had an amorous intrigue with ASgifthus, whom Ihe engaged to murder Agamemnon at his return to his dominions. Her fon Oreftes, however, revenged the death of his father by killing Aigifthus, with his mother Clytemneftra ; but was afterwards haunted by the Furies as long as he lived. CLYTIA, or Clytie, daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, beloved by Apollo. She was deferted by her lover, who paid his addreffes to Leucothoe j and this fo irritated her, that fhe difcovered the whole intrigue to her rival’s father. Apollo defpifed her the more for this; and (he pined away, and was changed into a flower, commonly called a fun-Jlower, which ftill turns its head towards the fun in bis courfe in token of her love. Vor.. VI. Part I.

7

1 C O A CNEORUM, Widow-wail. See Botany iWe#. Cirorum CNICUS, Blessed-thistle. See Botany Index. || CNIDUS, in Ancient Geography, a Greek town of l~uaMounta n for it is generally found, that a chain of mountains oroUsUfltHj/ hills rifing to a great height, and very fteep on thet^onS4 ftdes, are commonly compofed of ftrata much harder and of different kinds from thofe before deferibed And the remainder is the depth of that wherein coal is found to lie, and therefore unfavourcoal at E 6 yards. able to the production of coal; and thefe mountainous Bwle 4tli. Or fuppofe that the place at B is 500 yards the fituations are alfo more fubjedt: to dikes and troubles contrary way, or to the full dip of the coal at A } if a than the lower grounds j fo that if the folid ftrata comview of the folid ftrata cannot be obtained, then by pofing them gave even favourable fymptoms of coaly proceeding in the fame manner as before, the depth yet the laft circumftance would render the quality bad, and the quantity precarious. And, on the whole, of the coal at that place may be computed. Thus, it may be obferved, that mountainous lituations are To the depth of the coal at the pit A 80 found more favourable to the produdlion of metals Add the defcent or inclination of the than of coal. It is like wife generally found that thofe jjms an4coal in 500 yards, which, as before, diftridls abounding with valleys, moderately rifing hills,valleys, is - 5° and interfperfed with plains, fometimes of confiderable extent, do more commonly contain coal,, and This fum would be the depth, if the thofe kinds of ftrata favourable to its produdlion, than ground was level - - - - either the mountainous or champaign countries j and But as the ground defcends towards B, a country fo lituated as this laft deferibed, efpecially deduft the quantity of that, which if at fome confiderable diftance from the mountains, fuppofe ought to be the firft part appointed for particular examination. Plains, or level grounds of great extent,piaiug. 0 Remains the depth of the coal at B - 5 yards. generally fituated by the fides of rivers, or betwixt If the place to be examined be neither to the full fuch moderate rifing grounds as laft deferibedy are dip nor full rife, but in feme proportion towards ei- alfo very favourable to the produdlion of coal, if the ther, the fame method may be purfued, computing folid ftrata, and other circumftances in the higher how much the coal rifes or dips in a certain diflance in grounds adjoining, be conformable ; for it will fiercely be found, in fuch a fituation, that the ftrata are fathat dire&ion. If there is known to be a dike in the workings of vourable in the rifing grounds, on both fides of the the pit at A, which elevates or deprefles the flrata to- plain, and not fo in the fpace betwixt them. Though wards the place under examination, then the quantity plains be fo favourable, in fuch circumftances, to the produ&ion of coal, yet it is often more difficult to be of the elevation or depreffion muft be accordingly ad- difeovered in fuch a fituation, than in that before deded to or deduced from the computed depth of the coal at that place. Suppofe there is an upcaft dike feribed ; becaufe the clay, foil, and other lax matter, jo fathoms or 2Q yards towards B, then deduct 20 brought off the higher grounds by rains and other from 50, the depth before computed, there will re- accidents, have generally covered the furfaces of fuch to a confiderable depth, which prevents the exmain 30 yards or 13 fathoms for the depth of the coal plains ploration of the folid ftrata there, unlefs they be exat B. to view by digging, quarrying, or fome fuch But it often happens that coal is to be fearcbed for pofed operation. in a part of the country, at fuch a confiderable diflance That part of the diftrift being fixed upon which from all other coaleries, that by reafon of the interven- abounds with moderate hills and valleys as propereft tion of hills, valleys, unknown dikes, &c. the con- to begin the examination at, the firft ftep to be taken nexion or relation of the ftrata with thofe of any other is to examine all places where the folid ftrata are excoalery cannot be traced by the methods laft mention- pofed to view (which are called the crops of the ftraed •, in which cafe a more extenfive view muft be tak- ta), as in precipices, hollows, &c. tracing them as acen of all circumftances than was neceffary in the for- curately and gradually as the circumftances will allow, mer •, and a few general rules founded on the foregoing obfervations, and on conclufions drawn from them, from the uppermoft ftratum or higheft part of the o-round to the very undermoft : and if they appear t» will greatly aflifl: in determining, fometimes with a be of the kinds before deferibed, it will be proper to nreat degree of probability, and fometimes with abfo- note in a memorandum book their different thickneffes;. lute certainty, whether coal be in any particular di- the order in which they lie upon each other 5 the point ftrifl of country or not. . i . The firft; proper ftep to be taken in fuch a caie,. is of the horizon to which they dip or incline, the quanKule 5th, tity of that inclination, and whether they lie in a reto take a general view of that diftridl of country in- gular ftate. This ftiould be done in every part of the tended to be fearched, in order to judge, from the out- ground where they can be feen, obferving at the fame ward appearance or face of the country, which parti- time, that if a ftratum can be found in one place, cular part out of the whole is the moft likely to con- which has a connexion with fome other in a fecond tain thofe kind of ftrata favourable to the produdlion place, and if this other has a connexion with another of coal ; and confequently fuch particular part being in a third place, &c. ; then, from thefe feparate confound, is the moft advifeable to be begun with in the nexions, the joint correfpondence of the whole may examination^ [ C O A This remainder would be the depth, if the coal was level - - - - 56 But as the coal rifes I in 10 yards, then dedu£t what it rifes in 500 yards, which is 50

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t

229 ] C 0 A not give a fatisfaftory indication of the coal ■, then a Coalery, Coalery. traced, and the ftrata, which in fome places are cot—y—1 vered, may be known by their correfpondence with further fearch may be made in all places where the outward furface, or the ftratum of clay or earth, is thofe which are expofed to view. If by this means the crops of all the ftrata cannot turned up by ploughing, ditching, or digging, partibe feen (which is often the cafe), and if no coal be cularly in the lower grounds, in hollows, and by the difcovered by its crop appearing at the furface : yet fides of ftreams. Thefe places fhould be ftri&ly exaif the ftrata that have been viewed confift of thofe mined, to fee if any pieces of coal be intermixed with kinds before defcribed, and are found lying in a regu- the fubftance of the fuperior laft ftrata 5 if any fuch be lar order, it is fufficiently probable that coal may be found, and if they be pretty numerous and in detached in that part of the diftrift, although it be concealed pieces, of a firm fubftance, the angles perfect or not from fight by the furface of the earth or other matter. much worn, and the texture of the coal diftinguiftiRule (5th. Therefore, at the fame time that the crops of the ftrata able, it may be concluded, that the ftratura of coal to are under examination, it will be proper to take notice which they originally did belong, is at no great difof all fuch fprings of water as feem to be of a mineral tance, but in a fituation higher with refpeft to the nature, particularly thofe known by the name of iron horizon j and if there be alfo found along with the water, which bear a mud or fediment of the colour of pieces of coal other mineral matter, fuch as pieces of ruft or iron, having a ftrong aftringent tafte. Springs fhiver or freeftone, this is a concurrent proof that it of this kind proceed originally from thofe ftrata which has come only from a fmall diftance. Though the two contain beds or balls of iron-ore ; but by reafon of fore-mentioned methods fliould only have produced a the tenacity of the matter of thofe ftrata, the water ftrong probability, yet if this laft-mentioned place*, only difengages itfelf fiowly from them, defcending where the pieces of coal, &c. are found in the clay, into fome more porous or open ftratum below, where, be in a fituation lower than the fprings j when this gathering in a body, it runs out to the furface in fmall circumftance is joined to the other two, it amounts to ftreams or rills. The ftratum of coal is the moft ge- little lefs than a moral certainty' of the ftratum of coal neral refervoir of this water; for the iron-ftone being being a very little above the level of the fprings. But lodged in different kinds of fhiver, and the coal com- if, on the contrary, thefe pieces of coal are found more monly connedted with fome of them, it therefore de- fparingly interfperfed in the fuperior ftratum, and if fcends into the coal, where it finds a ready paffage the angles are much fretted or worn off, and very litthrough the open backs and cutters. Sometimes, in- tle of other kinds of mineral matter connefted with deed, it finds fome other ftratum than coal to colleft them ; it may then be concluded, that they have come and tranfmit it to the furface ; but the difference is from a ftratum of coal fituated at a greater diftance eafily diftinguithable ; for the ochrey matter in the than in the former cafe 5 and by a ftri, a fcutcheon, or any other figure, ac- is fattened upon a very thick wooden table, and the cording to the cuftom of the times, within a (hort le- planchet being likewife laid flat upon the fame plate, gend. As one of thefe dyes was to remain dormant, the edge of the planchet may touch the two laminje and the other moveable, the former ended in a fquare on each fide, and in their thick part. prifm, that it might be introduced into the fquare hole One of thefe laminae is immoveable, and faftened of the block, which, being fixed very fad, kept the with feveral fcrews; the other Aides by means of a dye as fteady as any vice could have done. The plan- dented wheel, which takes into the teeth that are on chet of metal was horizontally laid upon this inferior the furface of the lamina. This Aiding lamina makes mafs, to receive the (lamp of it on one fide, and that the planchet turn in fuch a manner, that it remains of the upper dye, wherewith it was covered, on the (lamped on the edge, when it has made one turn. Onother. This moveable dye, having its round engraved ly crown and half-crown pieces can bear the imprtffion furface reding upon the planchet, had at its oppofite of letters on the thicknefs of their edges. extremity a flat, fquare, and larger furface, upon which The coining engine or mill is fo fitted for difpatch,F. they gave feveral heavy blows, with a hammer of an (fig. 2.), that a fingle man may (lamp 20,000 planch- 8* *’ enormous fize, till the double (lamp was diffidently, ets in one day : gold, filver, and copper planchets, are in relievo, impreffed on each fide of the planchet. all of them coined with a mill, to which the coining This being finiibed, was immediately fucceeded by an- fquares (fig. 3.) commonly called dyes are fallened ; other, and they thus became a ftandard coin, which that of the face under, in a fquare box furnilhed with had the degree of finenefs of the weight and mark de- male and female fcrews, to fix and keep it fteady ; and termined by the judgment of the infpeffors, to make it the other above, in a little box garniffied with the good current money; the ftrong tempering which fame fcrews, to fatten the coining fquare. The planchet

c o i r 2 Jotnage. diet !s laid flat on the fquare of the effigy, which is dormant 5 and they immediately pull the bar of the mill by its cords, which caufes the fcrew fet within it to turn. This enters into the female fcrew, which is in the body of the mill, and turns with fo much ftrengtb, 4;hat by pulling the upper Square upon that of the effigy, the planchet, violently prefled between both fquares, receives the impreffion of both at one pull, and in the twinkling of an eye. The planchet thus ftamped and coined, goes through e final examination of tne mint wardens, from whufe ■hands it goes into the world. In the COINING of Medals, theprocefs is the fame in jeffeft with that of money, the principal difference coniifiing in this, that money having but a fmall relievo, receives its impreffion at a Angle ftroke of the engine : •whereas for medals, the height of their relievo makes it neceffary that the ftroke be repeated feveral times : to this end the piece is taken out from between the -dyes, heated, and returned again } which procefs, in medallions and large medals, is repeated 15 or 20 times before the full impreffion be given : care muft be taken, every time the planchet is removed, to take off the fuperfluous metal ftretched beyond the circumference with a file. Medallions, and medals of a high -relievo, are ufually firft caft in fand, by reafon of the difficulty of ftamping them in the prefs, where they are put only to pede£t them ; in regard the fand does not leave them clear, fmootb, and accurate enough. Therefore we may fee that medals receive their form and impreffion by degrees, whereas money receives them all at once. Briti/h COINAGE, both by the beauty of the engraving, and by the invention of the impreffions on the edges, that admirable expedient for preventing the alteration of the fpecies, is carried to the utmoft perfec•tion. It was only in the reign of King William III. that the hammer money ceafed to be current in England, where till then it was llruck in that manner, as in other nations. Before the hammer fpecie was called in, the Englilh money was in a wretched condition, having been filed and clipped by natives as well as foreigners, infomuch that it was fcarce left of half the value : the retrieving this diftrefled ftate of the Englifh money is looked upon as one of the glories of King William’s reign. I he Britiffi coinage is now wholly performed in the Tower of London, where there is a corporation for it, under the title of the mint. Formerly there were here, as there are ftill in other countries, the rights of feinorage and braffage j but fince the eighteenth year of King Charles II. there is nothing taken either for the king or for the expenees of coining j fo that weight is returned for weight to any perfon who carries their gold and filver to the Tower. The fpecies coin d in Great Britain are efteemed contraband goods, and not to be exported. All foreign fpecies are allowed to be lent out of the realm, as well as gold and filver in bars, ingots, duft, &.c. _ Barbary COINAGE, particularly that of Fez and Tunis, is under no proper regulations, as every goldfmith, lew, or even private perfon, undertakes it at pleafure j which praflice renders their money exceedingly bad, and their commerce very unfafe.

>5

l C O K Mufcovite Coinage. In Mufcovy there is no other Coinage coin ftruck but filver, and that only in the cities of 1! Moicow, Novogorod, Twere, and Plelkow, to which < oke. v may be added Peterfburgh. The coinage of each of """J thefe cities is let out to farm, and makes part of the royal revenue. Perjian COINAGE. All the money made in Perfia is ftruck with a hammer, as is that of the reft of Afia j and the fame may be underftood of America, and the coafts of Africa, and even Mufcovy: the king’s duty, in Perfia, is feven and a half per cent, for all the moneys coined, which are lately reduced to filver and copper, there being no gold coin there except a kind of medals, at the acceffion of a new fophi. Spanijh COINAGE is efteemed one of the lead perfe& in Europe. It is fettled at Seville and Segovia, the only cities where gold and filver are ftruck. COIRE, or, as the Germans call it, Chur, a large and handfome town of Switzerland, and capital of the country of the Grifons, with a bifhop’s fee vvhofe prelate has the right of coining money. It is divided into two parts j the leaft of which is of the Roman Catholic religion, and the greatelt of the Proteftant. It is governed by its own laws, and feated in a plain, abounding in vineyards and game, on the river Pieffure, half a mile from the Rhine. E. Long. 9. 25. N. Lat. 46. 50. COITION, the intercourfe between male and female in the aft of generation. It is obferved that frogs are forty days in the aft of coition. Bartholine, &c. relate, that butterflies make 130 vibrations of the wings in one aft of coition. COIX, Job’s-tears. See Botany Index. In Spain and Portugal the poor people grind the feeds of this plant in times of fcarcity, and make a coarfe kind of bread of them. The feeds are inclofed in fmall capfules about the bignefs of an Engliih pea, and of different colours. Thefe are ftrung upon filk, and ufed inltead of bracelets by fome of the poorer fort in the Weft Indies, but efpecially by the negroes. COKE, or Cooke, Sir Edward, lord chief juftice of the king’s bench in the reign of James I. was defeended from an ancient family in Norfolk, and born at Milcham in 1549. When he was a ftudent in the Inner-Temple, the firft occafion of his diftinguifhing himfelf was the ftating the cafe of a cook belonging to the Temple fo exaftly, that all the houfe, who were puzzled with it, admired him and his pleading, and the whole bench took notice of him. After his marriage with a lady of great fortune, preferments flowed in upon him. The cities of Norwich and Coventry chofe him for their recorder •, the county of Norfolk, for one of their knights in parliament $ and the houfe of commons, for their fpeaker, in the 35th year of Queen Elizabeth. The queen appointed him folicitor-general in 1592, and attorney-general the next year. In 1603, he was knighted by King James I. ; and in November the fame year, upon the trial of Sir Walter Raleigh, &c. at Winchefter, he treated that gentleman with a feurrility of language hardly to be paralleled. June 27. he was appointed lord chief juftice of the common pleas j and in 1613, lord chief juftice of the king’s bench, and fworn one of the privy council. In 1615, he was very vigorous in the dileovery and profecution of the perfons employed in poifoning Sir

COL [ 256 1 COL Coke Sir Thomas Overbury in the Tower in 1612. His grandfather is faid to have been a wine merchant, and Colbert li conteft not long after with the lord chancellor Egerton, his father at firft followed the fame occupa ion •, but —— Colbert. with fome other cafes, haftened the ruin of his inte- afterwards became clerk to a notary. In 1648, his " ^_v reft at court ; fo that he was fequeftrated from the relation John Baptift Colbert, lord of S. Pouange, precouncil-table and the office of lord chief juftice. In ferred him to the fervice of Michael le Tellier, fecre1621, he vigoroufly maintained in the houfe of com- tary of ftate, whofe filler b* iiad married $ and here he mons, that no proclamation is of any force againft the diicovered fuch diligence, and exaClnefs in executing parliament. The fame year, being looked upon as all the commiffions that were entrufted to his care, that one of the great incendiaries in the houfe of commons, he quickly grew diltinguifhed. One day his mailer he was removed from the council of ftate with dif- fent him to Cardinal Mazarine, who was then at Segrace j the king faying, “ that he was the fitteft in- dan, with a letter written by the queen-mother j and ftrument for a tyrant that ever was in England he ordered him to bring it back, after that minifter had was aifo committed to the Tower, and his papers were feen it. Colbert carried the letter, and would not refeized. Upon the calling of a new parliament in turn without it, though the cardinal treated him rough1625, the court-party, to prevent his being elefted a ly, ufed feveral arts t® deceive him, and obliged him member, got him appointed (heriff of Buckingham- to wait for it feveral days. Some time after, the car(liire } to avoid the office, if poffible, he drew up ex- dinal returning to court, and wanting one to write his ceptions againft the oath of a fheriff, but was obliged agenda, or memoranda, defired Le Tellier to furnilk to undertake the office. In 1628 he fpoke vigoroufly him with a fit perfon for that employment : and Colupon grievances, and made a fpeech, in which he af- bert being prefented to him, the cardinal had fome refirmed, that “ the duke of Buckingham was the caufe membrance of him, and defired to know where he had of all our miferies” While he lay upon his death- feen him. Colbert was afraid of putting him in mind bed, his papers and laft will were feized by an order of Sedan, left the remembrance of his importunacy, in of council. He died in 1634, and publiftied many demanding the queen’s letter, fhould renew the cardiworks : the moft remarkable are his Inftitutes of the nal’s anger. But his eminency was fo far from hating Laws of England ; the firft part of which is only a him for his faithfulnefs to his late mafter, that he retranflation and comment of Sir Thomas Littleton, one ceived him on condition that he ftiould ferve him with of the chief juftices of the common pleas in the reign the like zeal and fidelity. Colbert applied himfelf wholly to the advancement of Edward IV. COKENHAUSEN, a ftrong town of Livonia in of his matter’s interefts, and gave him fo many marks Ruffia on the river Dwina. E. Long. 25. 50. N. Lat. of his diligence and fkill, that afterwards he made him his intendant. He accommodated himfelf fo dexte56. 30. COL, one of the weftern iflands of Scotland, is an- roufly to the inclinations of that miniiler, by retrenchnexed to the county of Argyle. It is 13 miles long, ing his fuperfluous expences, that he was entrufted and 9 broad. It abounds in corn, pafture, falmon, with the management of that gainful trade of felling eels, and cod. The inhabitants are chiefly employed benefices and governments. It was by Colbert’s counfel, that the cardinal obliged the governors of frontier in the fiflieries. W. Long. 7. 15. N. Lat. 57. COLAPIS, CoLOPS, ir. /indent Geography, a river places to maintain their garrifons with the contribuof Liburnia, which after a winding north-eaft courfe, tions they exacted j with which advice his eminency falls into the Savus at the Infula Segeftica. Now the was extremely pleafed. He was fent to Rome to neCulpe, the boundary of the Alps, running through Cro- gociate the reconciliation of Cardinal de Retz, for atia into the Save. Colapiani, the people living on it which the pope had ffiovved fome concern ; and to perfuade his holinefs to confent to the difincamerating of (Pliny). COLARBASIANS, or Colorbasians, a fet of Cafto, according to the treaty concluded with his preChriftians in the fecond century •, fo called from their deceffor Urban VIII. Upon the whole Mazarine had leader Colarbafus, a difciple of Valentinus $ who, with fo high an opinion of Colbert’s abilities, and withal M arcus, another difciple of the fame mafter, maintain- fuch a regard for his faithful fervices, that at his death, ed the whole plenitude and perfection of truth and re- which happened in 1661, he earneftly recommended ligion to be contained in the Greek alphabet •, and that him to Louis XIV. as the propereft perfon to regulate it was upon this account that Jefus Chrift was called the finances, which at that time ftood in much need the alpha and omega. This feCt was a branch of the of reformation. Louis accepted the recommendation, and made Colbert intendant of the finances. He apValentinians. See alfo Marcosians. COL BERG, a ftrong, handfome fea-port town of plied himfelf to their regulation, and fucceeded, Germany in Pomerania, belonging to the king of Pruf- though it procured him many enemies, and fome affia. It is remarkable for its fait works ; and is feated fronts. France is alfo obliged to this minifter for eftaat the mouth of the river Perfant, on the Baltic fea, 60 blilhing at that time her trade with the Eaft and Weft miles north-eaft of Stetin, and 30 north-eaft of Camin. Indies: a great defign, and from which ftie has reaped It was taken by the Ruffians in 1761, but reftored at innumerable advantages. In 1664, he became fuperintendant of the buildthe fubfequent peace. E. Long., 15. 39. N. Lat. ings y and from that time applied himfelf fo earneftly to 54. 22. COLBERT, John Baptist, Marquis of Segnelai, the enlarging and adorning of the royal edifices, that one of the greateft ftatefmen that France ever had, they are at prefent fo many mafterpieces of architecwas born at Paris in 1619 ; and defcended from a fa- ture : witnefs the palaee of the Thuilleries, the Loumily that lived at Rheims in Champagne, no way vre, St Germain, Fountainbleau, and Chambord. As confiderable for its fplendour and antiquity. His for Verfailles, it may be faid that he raifed it from the

COL [2 37 1 COL ground. It was formerly a dog-kennel, where Louis ried many years, had Tons and daughters grotvn up, Colbert, XIII. kept his hunting furniture : it is now a palace all of which, as occafion ferved, he took care to marry Colchetter. fit for the greateft monarch. But royal palaces were to great perfons. For though he had no reafon to not Colbert’s only care ; he formed feveral defigns for doubt of his mafter’s favour, yet he wifely fecured his increafing the beauty and convenience of the capital fortune by powerful alliances. However, bufinefs was city, and he did it with great magnificence and gran- certainly Colbert’s natural turn, and he not only loved deur. The public vras obliged to this fame minifter for it, but was very impatient to be interrupted in it, as the eftablifhment of the academy for painting and fculp- the following anecdote may ferve to fljow. A lady of ture in 1664. The king’s painters and fculptors, with great quality was one day urging him, when he was in other fkilful profeffors of thofe arts, being profecuted the height of his power, to do her fome piece of ferat law by the mafter-painters at Pari*., joined together, vice, and perceiving him inattentive and inflexible, and began to form a fociety, under the name of the threw herfelf at his feet, in the prefence of above 100 Royal Academy for Sculpture and Painting. Their perfons, crying, “ I beg your greatnefs, in the name defign was to keep public exercifes for the fake of of God, to grant me this favour.” Upon which Colimproving thofe fine arts, and advancing them to the bert, kneeling down over againft her, replied, in the higheft degree of perfe&ion. They put themfelves un- fame mournful tone, “ I conjure you madam, in the der the prote&ion of Mazarine, and chofe Chancellor name of God, not to difturb me.” Seguier their vice-proteflor; and after Mazarine’s This great minifter died of the ftone, September 6. death chofe Seguier their protestor, and Colbert their 1683, in his 65th year, leaving behind him fix fons vice-proteftor. It was at his folicitation that they and three daughters. He was of a middle ftature, rawere finally eftablifhed by a patent, containing new pri- ther lean than fat. His mien was low and dejedted, vileges, 1664. Colbert, being made proteflor af- his air gloomy, and his afpeft ftern. He flept little, ter the death of Seguier, thought fit that a hiftorjo- and was very fober. Though naturally four and mographer fhould be appointed, whofe bufinefs it fliould rofe, he knew how to aft the lover, and had miftreffes. tie to colled all curious and ufeful obfervations that He was of a flow conception, but fpoke judicimight be made at their conferences. This was ac- oufly of every thing after he had once comprehended cordingly done *, and his majefty was pleafed to fettle it. He underftood bufinefs pretty well, and he puron him a falary of 300 livres. To Colbert alfo the fued it with unwearied application. Thus he filled lovers of naval knowledge are obliged for the ere&ion the moft important places with high reputation and of the Academy of Sciences, for the making of which credit; and his influence diffufed itfelf through every the more ufeful, he caufed to be ereded, in 1667, the part of the government. He reftored the finances, royal obfervatory at Paris, which was firft inhabited the navy, the commerce $ and he erefted thofe various by Caffini. But thefe are not the only obligations works of art, which have ever fince been monuments France has to that minifter. She owes to him all the of his tafte and magnificence. He was a lover of advantages (he receives by the union of the two feas ; a learning, though he never applied to it himfelf; and prodigious work, begun in 1666 and finiftied in 1680. therefore conferred donations and penfions upon fcho* Colbert was alfo very intent upon matters of a more lars in other countries, while he eftablifhed and proprivate nature, fuch as regarded the order, decency, tefted academies in his own. He invited into France and well-being of fociety. He undertook to reform painters, ftatuaries, mathematicians, and artifts of all the courts of juftice, and to put a ftop to the ufurpa- kinds, who were any way eminent, thus giving new tion of noble titles, which it feems was then very life to the fciences, and making them flourifh, as they common in France. In the former of thefe attempts did, exceedingly. Upon the whole, he was a wife, ache failed, in the latter he fucceeded. tive, generous-fpirited minifter ; ever attentive to the In 1669, he was made fecretary of ftate, and en- interefts of his mafter, the happinefs of the people, the trufted with the management of affairs relating to the progrefs of arts and manufaftures, and in fhort to fea $ and his performances in this province were an- every thing that could advance the credit and intereft fwerable to the confidence his majefty repofed in him. of his country. He was a pattern for all minifters of He fuppreffed feveral offices, which were chargeable, ftate j and every nation may wifh themfelves bleffed but ufelefs ; and in the mean time, perceiving the with a Colbert. king’s zeal for the extirpation of herefy, he fhut up COLCHESTER, the chief town of Effex, is pleathe chamber inftituted by the edids of Paris and Roan. fantly fituated upon an eminence, gradually rifing on He propofed feveral new regulations concerning cri- the fouth fide of the river Colne. It is the ancient minal courts, and was extremely fevere with the par- Colonia Camuioclunum, from which word, Colonia, both liament of Thouloufe for obftruding the meafures he the town and the river Colne received their names. took to carry the fame into execution. His main de- The Saxons called it Colneceafter. That it flourifhed fign in reforming the tedious methods of proceeding at under the Romans, feveral buildings full of their bricks, law, was to give the people more leifure to apply them- and innumerable quantities of coin dug in and about felves to trading ; for the advancement of which he it, fully evince. In the year 1763, a curious teffeprocured an edid, to ered a general infurance-office lated or mofaic pavement was found in a garden three at Paris, for merchants, &c. In 1672, he was made feet under the furface of the earth. The emperor minifter of ftate *, for how bufied fo'ever he was in the Conftantine the Great was born here, his mother Heregulation of public affairs, yet Ire never negleded his len being daughter of Cool, governor or king of this own or his family’s intereft and grandeur, or miffed any diftrift under the Romans. She is faid to have found opportunity of advancing either. He had been mar- out the crofs of Chrift at Jerufalem j and on that acVol. VI. Part I. Kk count

COL [ 258 ] COL Colchefter count the arms of this town are a crofs regulee between dea. It was fruitful in poifonous herbs, and produced Colchis I three ducal coronets, two in chief and one in bafe, excellent flax. The inhabitants were originally Egyp- || tians, who fettled there when Sefoftris king of Egypt CoM. , Colchis. tj)e coronet ;n bafe palling through the crofs. The walls of the town are ftill tolerably entire on extended his conquefts in the north. *r"*" the fouth, eaft, and weft fides, but much decayed on COLCOTHAR, the fubftance remaining after the the north fide; they are generally about nine feet diftillation or calcination of martial vitriol or fulphate thick. By a ftatute of Henry VIII. this town was of iron. See Chemistry Index. made the fee of a fuffragan bilhop. COLD, in a relative fenfe, fignifies the fenfation This town is the moft noted in England for making produced by the abftraflion of heat from the body. of baize $ it is alfo of fpecial note for candying the The nature of cold, and the methods of producing eringo roots, and for oyfters. it artificially, have been treated of under the article In the conclufion of the civil war 1648, this town Chemistry, to which we refer the reader. fuftained a fevere fiege of 10 weeks-, and the befieged Great degrees of cold occur naturally in many parts making a very gallant defence, it was changed into a of the globe in the winter-time. In the winter of blockade, wherein the garrifon and inhabitants fuffer- 1780, Mr Wilfon of Glafgow obferved, that a thered the utmoft extremity of hunger, being reduced to mometer laid on the fnow funk to 2 j° below o; but the neceffity of eating horfe-flefti, dogs, and cats, and this was only for a (hort time $ and in general our atwere at laft obliged to furrender at difcretion, when mofphere does not admit of very great degrees of cold their two valiant chief officers, Sir Charles Lucas, and for any length of time. In 1732, the thermometer at Sir George Lifle, were (hot under the caftle walls in Peterlburg flood at 28° below o and in 1737, when cold blood. Colchefter is a borough by prefcription, the French academicians wintered at the north0 polar and under that right fends two members to parliament, circle, or near it, the thermometer funk to 33 below all their charters being filent on that head. The O; and in the Afiatic and American continent, ftill charter was renewed in 1763. The town is now go- greater degrees of cold are very common. verned by a mayor, recorder, 12 aldermen, 18 affif- The effects of thefe extreme degrees of cold are tants, 18 common-council men. Quarter feffions are very furprifing. Trees are burft, rocks rent, and riheld here four times in the year. vers and lakes frozen feveral feet deep $ metallic fubThe famous abbey-gate of St John is ftill (landing, ftances blifter the (kin like red-hot iron : the air, when and allowed to be a furprifing, curious, and beautiful drawn in by refpiration, hurts the lungs, and excites a piece of Gothic architeflure, great numbers of per- cough: even the effedls of fire in a great meafure fons coming from diftant places to fee it.aT1 It was feem to ceafe j and it is obferved, that though metals built, together with the abbey, in 1097 ? ^ Guido, are kept for a confiderable time before a ftrong fire, fteward to King William Rufus, laid the firft (lone. they will ftill freeze water when thrown upon them. St Ann’s chapel, (landing at the eaft end of the When the French mathematicians wintered at Torneo town, is valuable in the efteem of antiquarians as a in Lapland, the external air, when fuddenly admitted building of great note in the early days of Chriftianity, into their rooms, converted the moifture of the air and made no fmall figure in hiftory many centuries into whirls of (how ; ' their breads feemed to be pad. It is ftill pretty entire. St Botoph’s priory rent when they breathed it, and the conta£l of it was founded by Ernulphus, in the reign of Henry I. was intolerable to their bodies; and the alcohol, in the year mo. It was demolilhed in the wars of which had not been highly re&ified, burft fome of Charles I. by the parliament army under Sir Thomas their thermometers by the congelation of the aqueous Fairfax. The ruins ftill exhibit a beautiful (ketch of part. ^ncien^ mafonry, much admired by the lovers of anti- Extreme cold very often proves fatal to animals in quities. The caftle is ftill pretty entire, and is a mag- thofe countries where the winters are very fevere $ and nificent ftrufture, in which great improvements have thus 7000 Swedes perifhed at once in attempting to of late been made. Here is an excellent and valuable pafs the mountains which divide Norway from Sweden. library. It is not neceffary indeed, that the cold, in order to The markefs, which are on Wednefday and Satur- prove fatal to the human life, (hould be fo very intenfe day, are very well fupplied with all kinds of provi- as has been juft mentioned. There is only requifite a fions. There are no fewer than fix diffenting meet- degree fome what below 3 2° of Fahrenheit, accompaing houfes in this town. Colchefter is 51 miles from nied with fnow or hail, from which (belter cannot be London, and 22 ENE of Chelmsford. It had 16 obtained. The fnow which falls upon the clothes, or parifh churches, in and out of the walls, only 12 of the uncovered parts of the body, then melts, and by which are now ufed, the reffi being damaged at the a continual evaporation carries off the animal heat to fiege in 1648. E. Long. 1. o. N. Lat. 51. 55. fuch a degree, that a fufficient quantity is not left for COLCHI (Arrian, Ptolemy), a town of the Hi- the fupport of life. In fuch cafes, the perfon firft feels ther India, thought to be Cochin, on the coaft of Ma- himfelf extremely chill and uneafy j he begins to turn labar now a faflory and ftrong fort of the Dutch. liftlefs, unwilling to walk or ufe exercife to keep himE. Long. 75. o. N. Lat. 10. o. felf warm and at laft, turns drowfy, fits down to reCOLCHICUM, Meadow-saffron. See Botany freffi himfelf with deep* but wakes no more. An inIndex. ftance of this was' feen not many years ago at Terra COLCHIS, a country of Afia, at the fouth of del Fuego, when Dr Solander, with fome others, haAfiatic Sarmatia, eaft of the Euxine fea, north of Ar- ving taken an excurfion up the country, the cold was menia, and weft of Iberia. It is famous for the expe- fo intenfe, that one of their number died. The Docdition of the Argonauts, and as the birth-place of Me- tor himfelf, though he had warned his companions of 3

COL [ 259 ] COL COLD-SHIRE Iron, that which is brittle when Cold-flure Cold the danger of fleeping in that fituation, yet could not B . # || be prevented from making that dangerous experiment cold. COLE, William, the moft famous botanift of his ,( o eiain-, •jld-fincli. • and though he was awakened with all pofiible v-"” expedition, his body was fo much ihrunk in bulk, that time, was born at Adderbury in Oxfordlhire about hi:> (hoes fell off his feet, and it was with the utmoft the year 1626, and ftudied at Merton college in Oxford. He at length removed to Putney, near London j difficulty that he was recovered. In thofe parts of the world where vaft maiTes of ice and publiffied “ The Art of Simpling j and Adam in are produced, the accumulation of it, by abforbing the Eden, or Nature's Paradife.” Upon the reftoration ol heat of the atmofphere, occafxons an abfolute llerility King Charles II. he was made fecretary to Dr Dupin the adjacent countries, as is particularly the cafe pa, biffiop of Winchefter ; but died two years after, with the ifland of Iceland, where the vaft collections aged 37. COLE-fish, a fpecies of Gadus. See Ichthyoof ice floating out from the northern ocean, and flopped on that coaft, are fometimes feveral years in logy Index. COLE-Seed, the feed of the napus fativa, or longthawing. Indeed, where great quantities of ice are colledled, it would feem to have a power like fire, rooted, narrow-leaved rapa, called in Englifti nuveiO, both augmenting its own cold and that of the adjacent and reckoned by Linnaeus among the brafficas, or cabbodies. ’An inftance of this is related under the article bage kind. See Brassica. This plant is cultivated to great advantage in many Evaporation, in Mr Wedgewood’s experiment, where the true caufe of this phenomenon is alfo pointed parts of England, on account of the rape oil exprefled from its feeds. The pra&ice of fowing it was firft inout. troduced by the Germans and Dutchmen who drainCold, in Medicine. See Medicine Index. ed the fens of Lincolnfture j and hence the notion Cold. See Farriery Index. hath generally prevailed, that it will thrive only in-a COL DENI A. See Botany Index. COLDINGHAM, fuppofed to be the Colonia of marffiy foil j but this is now found to be a miftake. In Ptolemy, and called by Bede the city Coldana and of preparing the land which is to receive it, care mull Colud (Co/udum), fituated on the borders of Scot- be taken to plough it in May, and again about midland, about two miles from Eyemouth, was a place fummer, making the ground as fine and even as poffamous many ages ago for its convent. I his was the fible. It is to be fown the very day of the laft plougholdeft nunnery in Scotland, for here the virgin-wife ing, about a gallon on an acre. In the months of JaEtheldreda took the veil in 670 ; but by the ancient nuary, February, and March, it affords very good food name Coludum it ffiould feera that it had before been for cattle, and will fprout again when cut 5 after which inhabited by the religious called Culdees. In 870 it it is excellent nouriffiment for ffieep. After all, if it was deftroyed by the Danes, but its name rendered is not too clofely fed, it will bear feed againft next immortal by the heroifm of its nuns j who, to pre- July. The fame caution, however, is requifite with ferve themfelves inviolate from thofe invaders, cut off this food as with clover, till cattle are accuftomed to their lips and nofes •, and thus rendering themfelves it, otherwife it is apt to fwell them. When this plant objedls of horror, were, with their abbefs Ebba, burnt is cultivated folely with a view to the feed, it muft in the monaftery by the difappointed favages. After be fown on deep ftrong land without dung, and muft this it lay deferted till the year 1098, when King be fuffered to (land till one-half of the feeds at leaft Edgar founded on its fite a priory of Benedi&ines in are turned brown ; which, according to the feafons, will honour of St Cuthbert, and beftowed it on the monk of be fometimes fooner, fometimes later. In this ftate it is to be cut in the fame manner and with the fame Durham. Mr Pennant’s defcription of the black, joylefs, care as wheat j and every handful as it is cut is to be heathy moor where it was fituated, might be fufficient regularly ranged on (beets, that it may dry leifurely to guard the fair inhabitants of the nunnery were it in the fun, which will commonly be in a fortnight j ftill fubfifting. That defcription, however, is now al- after which it is to be carefully tbrelhed out, and cartogether inapplicable: The whole trait, five miles ried to the mill for expreffing the oil. The produce over, has been fince improved, and converted into corn of cole-feed is generally from five to eight quarters fields } the cheerlefs village of Old Cambus is no more j on an acre $ and is commonly fold at 20s. per quara decent inn with good accommodations has been efta- ter. COLEOPTERA, or Beetle, the name of Linbliftied at a convenient diftance ; and the paffage of the fteep glen called the Veafe, which terminates the naeus’s firft order of infefts. See Entomology Index. COLEWORT. See Brassica. moor on the road towards Edinburgh, and was formerCOLERAIN, a large town of Ireland, in the ly the terror of travellers, is now rendered fafe and eafy by means of a bridge extending from one fide of county of Londonderry and province of Ulfter ; feated on the river Bann, four miles fouth of the ocean, in the chafm to the other. COLDINGUEN, a town of Denmark, in North W. Long. 7. 2. N. Lat. 55. 10. It was formerly a Jutland, and diocefe of Ripen. It is remarkable for place of great confideration, being the chief town of a its bridge, over which pafs all the oxen and other cat- county ere&ed by Sir John Perrot, during his governtle that go from Jutland into Germany, which brings ment of Ireland 5 whereas it is now only the head of in a confiderable revenue to the king. It is feated on one of the baronies in the county of Londonderry j an eminence, in a pleafant country abounding with but it is ftill a corporation, and fends two members to parliament. It is of a tolerable fize, and very elegame. E. Long. 9. 25. N. Lat. 55. 35. COLD-finch, a fpecies of Motacilla. See Or- gantly built. The port is very indifferent, occafioned by the extreme rapidity of the river, which repels the nithology Index. Kk 2 tide,

COL [ 260 ] COL on the fouth fide of the choir of St Paul’s; and a c0kt Golerain tide, and makes the coming up to the town difficult y || II fo that it has but little trade, and might perhaps have ftone was laid over his grave, with no other infeription Colct. jefs, if it was not for the valuable falmon-fifhery, which than his name. Befides the preferments above mep- Colifeun* amounts to fome thoufand pounds a-year. If the na- tioned, he was re&or of the guild of Jefus at St vigation of the Bann could be opened, which is total- Paul’s, and chaplain to King Henry VIII. Dean Coly obftrufted by a ridge of rocks, it would quickly let, though a Papift, was an enemy to the grofs fuperchange the face of things j for then, by the help of ftitions of the church of Rome. He difapproved aurithis river, and the Newry canal, there would be a di- cular confeflion, the celibacy of the priefts, and fuch reft communication acrofs the kingdom, and, with the other ridiculous tenets and ceremonies as have ever affiflance of the Black-water river, which likewife falls been condemned by men of found underftanding in into Lough Neagh, almoft all the counties of the pro- every age and country. He wrote, 1. Rudimenta vince of Ulfter might have a correfpondence with each grammatices. 2. The con ft ruction of the eight parts of other by water-carriage, to their reciprocal and very i'peech. 3. Daily devotions. 4. EpifioLe ad Era/mum,. 5. Several fermons : and other works which ftill remain great emolument. COLES, Elisha, author of the well known Latin in manufeript. COL1BERTS (Coliherti'), in Law, were tenants in and Englifli diflionary, was born in Northamptonfhire about the year 1640 } and was entered of Magdalene foccage, and particularly fuch villeins as were manuCollege Oxford, which he left without taking a de- mitted or made freemen. But they had not an abfogree ; and taught Latin to young people, and Englilh lute freedom ; for though they were better than ferto foreigners, in London, about the year 1663. He vants, yet they had fuperior lords to whom they paid afterwards became an ufher in Merchant-taylors fchool j certain duties, and in that refpe6t might be called ferbut for fome great fault, nowhere exprefsly mentioned, vants, though they were of middle condition between be was forced to withdraw to Ireland, whence he never freemen and fervants. COLIC, a fevere pain in the lower venter, fo called returned. He -was, however, a good critic in the Englifh and Latin tongues ; and wrote feveral ufeful becaufe the colon was formerly fuppofed to be the part, affeded. See Medicine Index. books of inftru£lion in his profefTion. Colic, in Farriery.. See Farriery Index. COLET, John, dean of St Paul’s, the fon of HenCOLIGNI, Gaspard de, admiral of France, was ry Colet, knight, was born in London in the year 1466. His education began in St Anthony’s fchool in that born in 1516. He fignalized himfelf in his youth, in city, from whence, in 1483, he was fent to Oxford, the reigns of Francis I. and Henry II. and was made and probably to Magdalene college. After feven years colonel of infantry and admiral of France in i?52. ftudy of logic and philofophy, he took his degrees in Henry II. employed him in the moft important affairs; arts. About the year 1493, Mr Colet went to Paris but after the death of that pnnee, he embraced the and thence to Italy, probably with a dellgn to improve reformed religion, and became the chief of the Protehimfelf-in the Greek and Latin languages, which at flant party : he ftrongly onpofed the houfe of Guife, this time were imperfedlly taught in our univerfities. and rendered this oppofttion fo powerful, that it was On his return to England in 1497, he took orders -, and thought he would have overturned the French goreturned to Oxford, where he read le&ures gratis, on vernment. On the peace made after the battles of the epiftles of St Paul. At this time he poffefied the Jarnac and Montcontour, Charles IX. deluded Coligni reflory of St Dennington in Suffolk, to which he had into feciirity by his deceitful favours ; and though he been inftituted at the age of 19. He was alfo pre- recovered one attempt on his life, when he attended bendary of York, and canon of St Martin’s le Grand the nuptials of the prince of Navarre, yet he was inin London. In 1502 he became prebendary of Sarum ; cluded in the dreadful maffacre of the Proteftants on St prebendary of St Paul’s in 1505 •, and immediately af- Bartholomew’s day 1572, and his body treated with ter dean of that cathedral, having previoufly taken wantdn brutality by a mifguxded Popiih populace. COLIMA, a fea-port town of Mexico in North the degree of doftor of divinity. He was no fooner railed to this dignity, than he introduced the practice America, and capital of a fertile valley of the fame of preaching and expounding the feriptures-, and foon name. It is feated at the mouth •of a river, in W„ after eftablilhed a perpetual divinity lefture in St Paul’s Long, icp, 6. N. Lat. 18. 30. COLIOURE, a fmall, but ancient and ftrong town church, three days in every week ; an inftitution which gradually made way for the reformation. About the of France, in Roulillon, feated at the foot of the Pyyear 1508, Dean Colet formed his plan for the foun- renean mountains, with a fmall harbour. E. Long. 3. dation of St Paul’s fchool, which he completed in 1512, 10. N. Lat. 43. 24. COLIR, an officer in China, who may properly be and endowed with eftates to the amount of 122I. and upwards. The celebrated grammarian, William Lyle, called an infpe&or, having an eye over what paffes in was his firfl mafter, and the company of mercers were every court or tribunal of the empire. In order to appointed truftees. The dean’s notions of religion render him impartial, he is kept independent, by were fo much more rational than thofe ef his contem- having his poll for life.. The power of the colirs is porary priefts, that they deemed him little better than fuch, that they make even the princes of the blood a heretic j and on that account he was fo frequently tremble. COLISEUM, or Coliseum, in the ancient archimolefted, that he at laft determined to fpend the reft of his days in peaceful retirement. With this inten- tefture, an oval amphitheatre, built at Rome by Vefpafian, in the place where flood the bafon of Nero’s ti m he built a houfe near the palace of Richmond but being feized with the fweating ficknefs, he died gilded houfe. The word is formed from eolofeeum, on In 1519? in the 53d year of his age, .He was buried account of the coloffus of Nero that flood near it ;

COL

261 ] COL of each other. Thus, uncles, aunts, nephews, nieces, Collateral Coliftmn » According to NardinI, from the Italian colifeo. In H || this were placed flatues, reprefenting all the provinces and coufins, are collaterals, or in the lame collateral Collateral, 0f the empire ; in the middle whereof itood that of line : thofe in a higher degree, and nearer the common Collation. Rome, holding a golden apple in her hand. The fame root, reprefent a kind of paternity with regard to thofe “’Y"” term, colifeum, is alfo given to another amphitheatre of more remote. See Consanguinity. Collateral Succcjfion. When a defunft, for want the emperor Severus. In thefe colifea were reprefented games, and combats of men and wild beads j of heirs defeended of himfelf, is fucceeded in his eftate but there is now little remaining of either of them, by a brother or fifler, or their defeendants, the eflate is faid to have gone to collateral heirs? time and war having reduced them to ruins. COLL ATI A, \n Ancient Geography, a town of the COLLAERT, Adrian, an eminent engraver who flourilhed about 1550, was born at Antwerp. After Sabines, thought to be diftant between four and five having learned in his own country the firft principles miles from Rome to the eaft j fituated on an eminence of engraving, he went to Italy, where he refided fome (Virgil.) Of this place was Tarquinius Collatinus, time to perfect himfelf in drawing. He wrought en- married to Lucretia, ravifhed by Sextus Tarquinius tirely with the graver, in a firm neat ftyle, but rather (Livy) j fituated on this or on the left fide of thejAnio Riff and dry. The vaft number of plates executed by (Pliny). Extant in Cicero’s time, but in Strabo’s his hand fufficienlly evince the facility with which he day only a village ; now no trace of it remains.—Anengraved ; and though exceedingly neat, yet they are other fuppofed Coliatia of Apulia, near Mount Garganus, becaufe Pliny mentions the Collatini in Apulia, feldom highly finifhed. Collaert, Hans or John, fon to the foregoing, and Frontinus the Ager Collatinus. COLLATINA porta, a gate of Rome, at the was alfo an excellent artift. He drew and engraved exaftly in the Ryle of his father, and was in every Collis Hortulorum, afterwards called Ptnciana, from refpedt equal to him in merit. He muft have been the Pincii, a noble family. Its name Gollatina is from very old when he died ; for his prints are dated from Coliatia, to the right of which was the Via Collatina, 1 555 to 1622. He aflifted his father in all his great which led to that town. COLLINA, a gate of Rome at the Collis Ouiriworks, and engraved befides a prodigious number of plates of various fubjedls. One of his beft prints is nalis not far from the temple of Venus Erycina (Ovid) j Mofes Jlriking the rock, a large print, lengthwife, from called alfo Solaria, becaufe the Sabines carried their Lambert Lombard. A great number of fmall figures fait through it (Tacitus). Now Solar0. COLLATION, in the canon law, the giving or are introduced into this print •, and they are admirably well executed : the heads are fine, and the drawing bellowing of a benefice on a clergyman by a bifiiop, who has it in his own gift or patronage. It differs very correfl. COLLAR, in Roman antiquity, a fort of chain put from inflitution in this, that inflitution is performed generally round the neck of Raves that had run away, by the biffiop, upon the prefentation of another ; and after they were taken, with an infcription round it, in- collation is his own gift or prefentation •, and it diftimating their being deferters, and requiring their be- fers from a common prefentation, as it is the giving of the church to the perfon, and prefentation is the ing reRored to their proper owners, &c. Collar, in a more modern fenfe, an ornament con- giving or offering of the perfon to the church. But fiding of a chain of gold, enamelled, frequently fet collation fupplies the place of prefentation and inffiwith ciphers or other devices, with the badge of the tution, and amounts to the fame as inflitution where order hanging at the bottom, were by the knights of the bilhop is both patron and ordinary. Anciently the feveral military orders over their (houlders, on the right of prefentation to all churches was in the bifhop and now if the patron neglects to prefent to a mantle, and its figure drawn round their armories. Thus, the collar of the order of the Garter confiRs church, this right returns to the bilhop by collation. of S. S. with rofes enamelled red, within a garter en- If the bifhop neglefts to collate within fix months after the elapfe of the patron, then the archbilhop hath a amelled blue, and the george at the bottom. Lord Mayor's CoLLAfi is more ufually called chain. right to do it •, and if the archbilhop negle&s, then it devolves to the king ; the one as fuperior, to fupply See Chain. Knights of the COLLAB, a military order in the re- the defedls of bilhops, the other as fupreme, to fupply public of Venice, called alfo the order of St Mark, or all defeats of government. Collation, in common law, the eomparifon or the Medal. It is the doge and the fenate that confer this order ; the knights wear no particular habit, only prefentation of a copy to its original, to fee whether the collar, which the doge puts around their neck, or not it be conformable j or the report or a6t of the with a medal, wherein is reprefented the winged lion officer who made the comparifon. A collated a£l is equivalent to its original, provided all the parties conof the republic. COLLAR of a Draught-horfe, a part of harnefs made cerned were prefent at the collation. Collation, in Scots that right which an heir of leather and canvas, and Ruffed with Rraw or wool, has of throwing the whole heritable and moveable to be put about the horfes neck. COLLARAGE, a tax or fine laid for the collars ©Rates of the deceafed into one roafs, and lharing it of wine-drawing horfes. equally with the others in the fame degree of kindred, COLLATERAL, any thing, place, country, &c. when he thinks Rich ffiare will be more than the value fituated by the fide of another. of the heritage to which he had an exclufive title. Collation is alfo ufed among the Romanifts for Collateral, in genealogy, thofe relations which proceed from the fame flock, but not in the fame line the meal or repafl made on a fad day, in lie if'of a (upof afeendants or defeendants, but being, as it were, afide per. Only fruits are allowed in a collation : F. Lobineau or

[

COL l 262 ] COL Collation neau obferves, that anciently there was not allovyed bitants of a pariffi, &c. to raife or gather any kind of Colledlor |1 11 even bread in the collations in Lent, nor any thing tax. ^Collector, befides a few comfits and dried herbs and fruits ; which Collector, among botanifts, one who gets toge- College, 'r~'' cuftom, he adds, obtained till the year 1513. _ Cardi- ther as many plants as he can, without ftudying botany in a fcientifical manner. nal Humbert obferves farther, that in the middle of COLLEGATORY, in the Civil Law, a perfon the nth century there were no collations at all allowed in the Latin church in the lime of Lent ; and who has a legacy left him in common with one or more that the cuftom of collations was borrowed from the other perfons. COLLEGE, an affemblage of feveral bodies or foGreeks, who themfelves did not take it up till about cieties, or of feveral perfons into one fociety. the nth century. College, among the Romans, ferved indifferently Collation is alfo popularly ufed for a repaft between meals, particularly between dinner and fupper. for thofe employed in the offices of religion, of goThe word collation, in this fenfe, Du Cange derives vernment, the liberal and even mechanical arts and from collocutio, “ conference,” and maintains, that ori- trades j fo that, with them, the word fignified what we ginally collation was only a conference, or converlation call a corporation or company. In the Roman empire, there were not only the colon fubje&s of piety, held on faft days in monafteries ; but that, by degrees, the cuftom was introduced of lege of augurs, and the college of capitolini, i. e. of thofe bringing in a few refrefhments •, and that by the ex- who had the fuperintendance of the capitoline games j ceffes to which thofe fober repafts were at length car- but alfo colleges of artificers, collegium artifcum.; colried, the name of the abufe was retained, but that of lege of carpenters,or fabrorum tignariorum ; of potters, fgulorutn; of founders, cerariorum; the the thing loft. COLL ATION of Seals, denotes one feal feton the fame college of lockfmiths, fabrorum ferrariorum ; of engineers of the army, tignariorum; of butchers, lanioabel, on the reverfe of another. COLLEAGUE, a partner or aflbciate in the fame rum ; of dendrophori, dendrophororum ; of centenaries, centonariorum ; of makers of military cafques, y^arzoffice or magiftrature. See ADJUNCT. COLLECT, Collection, a voluntary gathering orum; of tent-makers, tabernaculariorum; of bakers, of money, for fome pious or charitable purpofe. Some piforum ; of muficians, tibicinum, &c. Plutarch obferves, that it was Numa who firft divided the people fay, the name colled, or colletlion, was ufed, by rea fon thofe gatherings were anciently made on the days into colleges, which he did to the end that each conof coile&s, and in colle&s, i. e. in aflemblies of Chrifti- fulting the interefts of their colleges, whereby they were divided from the citizens of the other colleges, ans; but, more probably, quia colligebatur pecunia. Collect, is fometimes alfo ufed for a tax, or impo- they might not enter into any general confpiracy afition, raifed by a prince for any pious defign. Thus, gainft the public repofe. Each of thefe colleges had diftintR meeting places or hiftories fay, that in 1166, the king of England coming into Normandy appointed a colledl for the relief halls j and likewife, in imitation of the ftate, a treaof the holy land, at the defire and after the example of fury and common cheft, a regifter, and one to reprefent them, upon public occafions, and a£ts of governthe king of France. See Croisade. Collect, in the liturgy of the church of England, ment. Thefe colleges had the privilege of manumitand the mafs of the Romanifts, denotes a prayer accom- ting Haves, of being legates, and making by-laws for modated to any particular day, occafion, or the like, their own body, provided they did not claffi with thofe of the government* See Liturgy and Mass. There are various colleges on foot among the moIn the general, all the prayers in each office are called co lie Els; either becaufe the prieft fpeaks in the derns, founded on the model of thofe of the ancients. name of the whole affembly, whofe fentiments and de- Such are the three colleges of the empire, viz. COLLEGE of KleBors, or their Deputies, affembled in fires he fums up by the word oremus, “ let us pray,” as is obferved by Pope Innocent III. or, becaufe thofe the diet of Ratifbon. COLLEGE of Princes; the body of princes, or their prayers are offered when the people are affembled together, which is the opinion of Pamelius on Tertul- deputies at the diet of Ratifbon. COLLEGE of Cities, is, in like manner, the body of lian. The congregation itfelf is in fome ancient authors deputies which the imperial cities fend to the diet. COLLEGE of Cardinals, or the Sacred COLLEGE; a called colleEl, The popes Gelafius and Gregory are faid to have been the firft whoeftabliffied collects. De- body compofed of the three orders of cardinals. See fpence, a doftor of the faculty of Paris, has an exprefs Cardinals. College, is alfo ufed for a public place endowed treatife on colleEls, their origin, antiquity, authors, with certain revenues, where the feveral parts of learn&c. COLLECTIVE, among grammarians, a term ap- ing are taught. An affemblage of feveral of thefe colleges conftiplied to a noun expreffing a multitude, though itfelf tutes an univerfity. The ere&ion of colleges is part of be only Angular ; as an army, company, troop, &c. calthe royal prerogative, and not to be done without the led colleEiive nouns. COLLECTOR, in general, denotes a perfon who king’s licenfe. The eftabliffiment of colleges or univerfities is a gets or brings together things formerly difperfed and remarkable period in literary hiftory. The fchools feparated. Hence, Collector, in ma er- of civi1 polity, is a perfon in cathedrals and monafteries confined themfelves appointed by the commiffioners of any duty, the inha- chiefly to the teaching of grammar. There were only

I COL [ 263 ] COL Jolfege. 1 Iy one or two matters employed in that office. But, lowed to pradlife, take on him the cure of any difeafe, College, ■ v " jn colleges, pro£effors are appointed to teach all the and the patient die under his hand, it is deemed felo- -v—— different parts of fcience. The firft obfcure mention ny in the pradliler. In 1696, the college made a fubof academical degrees in the univerfity of Paris (from fcription, to the number of forty-two of their memwhich the other univerfitjes in Europe have borrowed bers, to fet on foot a difpenfatory for the relief of the moft of their cuftoms and inftitutions), occurs A. D. fick poor: fince that they have eredted two other difpenfatories. 121$. COLLEGE of Civilians, commonly called DoEiors Com- Edinburgh COLLEGE ofPhysicians was eredted on the mons ; a college founded by Dr Harvey, dean of the 26th November 1681. The defign of this inftitution arches, for the profeffors of the civil law refiding in was, to prevent the abufes daily committed by foreign London *, where ufually, likewife, refide the judge of and illiterate impoftors, quacks, &c. For this reafon, the arches court of Canterbury, judge of the admi- his majefty, at the time above mentioned, granted letralty, of the prerogative court, &c. with other civi- ters patent to eredl into a body corporate and politic, lians j who all live, as to diet and lodging, in a col- certain phyficians in Edinburgh and their fucceffors, | legiate manner, commoning together ; whence, the ap- by the title of “ the Prefident and Royal College of pellation of DoEiors Commons. Their houfe being Phyficians at Edinburgh,” with power to choofe anconfumed in the great fire, they all refided at Exeter- nually a council of feven, on© whereof to be prefident: houfe in the Strand till 1672 j when their former houfe thefe are to eledt a treafurer, clerk, and other officers $ was rebuilt, at their own expence, in a very fplendid to have a common feal $ to fue and be fued 5 to make manner. To this college belong 34 proftors, who laws for promoting the art of phyfic, and regulating I make themfelves parties for their clients, manage their the pradlice thereof within the city of Edinburgh, town of Leith, and diftridts of the Canongate, Weftcaufes, &c. COLLEGE of Physicians, a corporation of phyficians port, Pleafance, and Potterrow : through all which in London, who, by feveral charters and a£ts of par- the jurifdidtion of the college extends. Throughout liament of Henry VIII. and his fueceffors, have cer- this jurifdidlion, no perfon is allowed to pradtife phytain privileges, whereby no man, though a graduate fic, without a warrant from the college, under the pein phyfic of any univerfity, may, without licenfe, un- nalty of 5I. fterling the firft month, to be doubled der the faid college-feal, pra&ife phyfic in or within monthly afterwards while the offence is continued j feven miles of Londonwith power to adminifter one-half the money arifing from fuch fines to go to oaths, fine and imprifon offenders in that and feveral the poor, the other to the ufe of the college. They are other particulars 5 to fearch the apothecaries (hops, &c. alfo empowered to punifti all licentiates in phyfic within and about London, to fee if their drugs, &c. be in the above-mentioned bounds, for faults committed Iwholefome, and their compofitions according to the againft the inftitutions of the college j and to fine them form prefcribed by the faid college in their difpenfa- of fums not exceeding 40s. On luch occafions, howtory. By the faid charter they are alfo freed from all ever, they muft have one of the bailies of the city to troublefome offices, as to ferve on juries, be conftable, fit in judgment along with them, otherwife their feirtence will not be valid. They are alfo empowered to keep watch, provide arms, &c. The fociety had anciently a college in Knight-rider-, fearch and infpedt all medicines within their jurifdicftreet, the gift of Dr Linacre, phyfician to King Hen- tion, and throw out into the ftreet all fuch as are bad ry VIII. Since that time they have had a houfe built or unwholefome. That they may the better attend them by the famous Dr Harvey, in 1652, at the end their patients, they are exempted from watching, of Amen-corner, which he endowed with his whole in- warding, and ferving on juries. They are, however, heritance in his lifetime j but this being burnt in the reftrained from eredting fchools for teaching the art of great fire in 1666, a new one was erefted at the ex- phyfic, or conferring degrees on any perfon qualified pence of the fellows, in War wick-lane, with a noble for the office of a phyfician j but are obliged to licenfe library, given partly by the marquis of Dorchefter, all fueh as have taken their degrees in any other univerfity, and to admit as honorary members all the proand partly by Sir Theodore Mayerne. Of this college there are at prefent a prefident, four feffors of phyfic in the reft of the univerfities of Scotland. cenfors, eight electors, a regifter, and a treafurer chp- Thefe privileges and immunities are not, however, to fen annually in Odtober ; the cenfors have, by charter, interfere with the rights and privileges of the apothepower to furvey, govern, and arreft, all phyficians, or cary-furgeons, in their pradtice of curing wounds, conothers praftifing phyfic, in or within feven miles of tufions, fradlures, and other external operations. London, and to fine, amerce, and imprifon them, at Edinburgh COLLEGE of Surgeons. This is but a difcretion. The number of fellows was anciently thir- very late inftitution, by which the furgeons of Edinty, till King Charles II. increafed their number to burgh are incorporated into a Royal College, and auforty j and King James II. giving them a new charter, thorized to carry into execution a fcheme for making allowed the number of fellows to be enlarged fo as not provifion for their widows and children, &c. They to exceed fourfcore ; referving to himfelf and fuccef- have alfo the privilege of examining and licenfing, if fors the power of placing and difplacing any of them found qualified, all pradlitioners in furgery within cerfor the future. tain bounds. The college is not very rigorous in afferting their COLLEGE of Jufiice, the fupreme civil court of Scotprivileges $ there being a great number of phyficians, land ; otherwife called Court of SeJJion, or of Council and fame of very good abilities, who pradlife in London, Se/Jion. See Law Index. &c. without their licenfe, and are connived at by the Sion COLLEGE, or the college of the London clergy, college 5 yet, by law, if any perfon not exprefsly al- which has been a religious houfe time out of mind, fometimes

COL [ 264 ] COL "College, fo me times under the denomination of a priory, fome- ftrudtion are fupported by it, and a number of charita- Collet Y || times under that of a fpital or hofpital : at its diflolu- ble eftablifirments connected with and conducive to the main objedl of its inftitution. Collegiate. tion under 31ft Henry VIII. it was called Elfon's S/>iAnother college of the fame denomination was efta-*tnlt from the name of its founder, a mercer, in 1329. At prefent it is a compofition of both, viz. a college bliftied by Urban VIII. in 1627, in conftquence of the for the clergy of London, who were incorporated in liberality of John Baptift Viles, a Spaniih nobleman. 1630, in purfuance to the will of Dr White, under This is fet apart for the inftrudtion of thofe who are the name of the Prejtdcnt and Fel/olus of Sion College ; defigned for the foreign miffions. It was at firft comand an hofpital for ten poor men and as many wo- mitted to the care of three canons of the patriarchal men. The officers of the corporation are the preir- churches; but ever fince the year 1641 it is under the dent, two deans, and four affittants, who are annually fame government with the former inftitution. COLLEGE of Heralds, commonly called the Herald's chdfen from among the reftors and vicars of London ; and are fubjedl to the vifitation of the biihop. They Office; a corporation founded by charter of King have a good library, built and flocked by Mr Simpfun, Richard III. who granted them feveral privileges, as -and furniffied by feveral other benefaftors, chiefly for to be free from fubfidies, tolls, offices, &c. They had the clergy of the city, without excluding other ftudents a fecond charter from King Henry VI. ; and a houfe on certain terms j and a hall, with chambers for ftu- built near Doctors Commons, by the earl of Derby, in dents, generally occupied by the minifters of the the reign of King Henry VII. was given them by the duke of Norfolk, in the reign of Queen Mary, which neighbouring pariffies. Gref mm COLLEGE, or COLLEGE of Philofophy ; a houfe is now rebuilt. This college is fubordinate to the earl marlhal of college founded by Sir Thomas Grefham, and endowed with the revenue of the Royal Exchange. One moiety England. They are affiftants to him in his court of of this endowment the founder bequeathed to the chivalry, ufually held in the common hall of the colmayor and aldermen of London and their fucceflors, lege, where they fit in their rich coats of his majefin truft, that they fhould find four able perfons to read ty’s arms. See Herald. College of Heralds in Scotland, confifts of Lyon within the college, divinity, geometry, aftronomy, and mufic ; who are chofen by a committee of the common king at arms, fix heralds, and fix purfuivants, and a council, confiding of the lord mayor, three aldermen, number of meffengers. See Lyon. COLLEGIANS, Collegiani, Collegiants, a and eight commoners, and allowed each, befides lodging, 50I. per annum. The other moiety he left to religious fedt formed among the Arminians and Anathe company of mercers, to find three more able per- baptifts in Holland, about the beginning of the fevenfons, ehofen by a committee of that company, confift- teenth century ; fo called becaufe of their colleges, or ing of the mafter and three wardens, during their of- meetings, twice every week, where every one, females fice, and eight of the court of affiftants, to read law, excepted, has the fame liberty of expounding the phyfic, and rhetoric, on the fame terms j with this li- Scripture, praying, &c. They are faid to be all eimitation, that the feveral lefturers ffiould read in term- ther Arians or Socinians; they never communicate in time, every day in the week, except Sundays j in the the college, but meet twice a-year from all parts of morning in Latin, in the afternoon the fame in Eng- Holland at Rhinffiergh, whence they are alfo called lifh j but that in mufic to be read only in Englifh. Rhinfberghers, a village two miles from Leyden, where By 8th Geo. III. cap. 32. the building appropriated they communicate together ; admitting every one that to this college was taken down, and the excife office prefents himfelf, profeffing his faith in the divinity of erefted in its room. Each of the profeflors is allowed the Holy Scriptures, and refolution to live fuitably to 50I. per annum, in lieu of the apartments, &c. relin- their precepts and dodlrines, without regard to his fed! quilhed by them in the college, and is permitted to or opinion. They have no particular minifters, but marry, notwithftanding the reftriftion of Sir Thomas each officiates as he is difpufed. They never baptize Grefliam’s will. The le&ures are now read in a room without dipping. COLLEGIikTE, or Collegial, churches, are over the Royal Exchange and the city and mercer’s company are required to provide a proper place for this tbofe which have no bifhop’s fee, yet have the ancient retinue of the bifhop, the canons and prebends. Such purpofe. In this college formerly met the Royal Society, that are Weftminfter, Rippon, Windfor, Stc. governed by noble academy, inftituted by King Charles II. and ce- deans and chapters. Of thefe collegiate churches there are two kinds ; lebrated throughout the world for their improvements in natural knowledge. See their hiftory and policy fome of royal, and others of ecclefiaftical foundation ; each of them, in matters of divine fervice, regulated under Society. College de Propaganda Fide, was founded at Rome in the fame manner as the cathedrals. There are in 1622 by Gregory XV. and enriched with ample re- even fome collegiate churches that have the epifcopal venues. It confifts of thirteen cardinals, two priefts, rights. Some of thefe churches were anciently abbeys, and a fecretary ; and was defigned for the propagation which in time were fecularized. The church of St and maintenance of the Romilh religion in all parts of Peter’s, Weftminfter, was anciently a cathedral ; but the world. The funds of this college have been very the revenues of the monaftery being by aft of parliaconfiderably augmented by Urban VIII. and many ment, I Elizabeth, veiled in the dean and chapter, private donations. Miffionaries are fupplied by this it commenced a collegiate church. In feveral caufes inftitution, together with a variety of books fuited to the ftyling it cathedral, inftead of collegiate church of their feveral appointments. Seminaries for their in- Weftminfter, has occafioned error in the pleadings. COLLET,

COL [ 265 ] COL ftudent of the Temple j but not relifhing the law, Collins, ,0i]et COLLET, among jewellers, denotes the horizontal || face or plane at the bottom of brilliants. See BriL- foon abandoned that ftudy. He was an ingenious ——y— Jollms. liakt. man, and author of feveral curious books. His tirft ** Lflay CoRLET, in glafs-making, is that part of glafs vef- remarkable piece was publifhed in fels which (licks to the iron inffrument whferevvith the concerning the ufe of reafon in propofitions, the evi? metal was taken out of the melting-pot s thefe are af- dence whereof depends on human teftimony.” In 1702, he entered into the controverfy between Mr terwards ufed for making green glafs. COLLETICS, in Pharmacy, denotes much the Clark and Dr Dodwell, concerning the immortality of the foul. In 1713, he publifhed his difcourfe on fame with Agglutinants or Vulneraries. COLLIER, JerEmy, a learned EngliiTi nonjuring free-thinking, which made a prodigious noife. In divine, born in 1650, and educated in Caius college 1725, he retired into the county of Effex, and afted Cambridge. He had firft the fmall reflory of Amp- as a juftice of peace and deputy lieutenant for the ton near St Edmund’s Bury in Suffolk, which in fix fame county, as he had done before for that of Midyears he refigned, to come to London, in 1685, dlefex and liberty of Wtfiminfler. The fame year, where he was made leiflurer of Gray’s Inn 5 but the he publifhed a “ Philofophical Effay concerning huchange of government that followed, foon rendered man liberty.” In 1718, he was chofen treafurer of the public exercife of his fundlion impraflicable. He the county of Effex ; and this office he difcharged was committed to Newgate for writing againft the with great honour* In 1724, he publifhed his “ Hirevolution ; and again, for carrying on a correfpon- ftorical and critical Effay on the 39 Articles.” Soon dence which that change of events made treafonable ; after, he publifhed his “ Difeourfe of the Grounds and but was releafed both times, without trial, by the in- reafons of the Chriftian religion $” to which is prefixtervention of friends. It is obfervable that he carried ed, “ An Apology for free debate and liberiy of his fcruples fo far, as to prefer confinement to the ta- writing 5 which piece was immediately attacked by cit acknowledgment of the jurifdi&ion of the court by a great number of authors. In 1726 appeared his accepting his liberty upon bail. Suitable to thefe “ Scheme ofliterary prophecy confidered, in a view of principles, he next a£fed a very extraordinary part the controverfy occafioned by a late book entitled, A with two other clergymen of his own way of think- difcourfe of the grounds,” &c. In this difcourfe he ing, at the execution of Sir John Friend and Sir Wil- mentions a MS. differtation of his, to fhovv the Sibylliam Perkins for the affaflination plot; by giving them line oracles to be a forgery made in the times of the folemn abfolution, and by impofition of hands. Ab- primitive Chriftians, who, for that reafon, were callfconding for which, he continued under an outlawry ed Siby'/jis by the Pagans 5 but it never appeared in to the day of his death in 1726. Thefe proceedings print. His Scheme of literary Prophecy was replied to having put a flop to his activity, he employed his re- by feveral writers and particularly by Dr John Rotired hours rather more ufefully in literary worksi gers, in his “ Neceflity of divine revelation aflerted.” In 1698, he attempted to reform our theatrical enter- In anfwer to which our author wrote, “ A letter to the tainments, by publifhing his “ Short view of the im- Reverend Dr Rogers, on occafion,” &c. His health morality and profanenefs of the Englifh flage,” which began to decline fiime years before his death, and he engaged him in a controverfy with the wits of the time } was Very much afflicted with the ftohe, which at laft but as Mr Collier defended his cenfures not only with put an end to his life at his houfe in Harley fquare in wit, but with learning and reafon, it is allowed that 1729. He was interred in Oxford chapel, where a the decorum obferved, for the mofl part, by fucceed* monument was ere£led to him, with an epitaph in Laing dramatic writers, has been owing to his animad- tin. His curious library was open to all men of letters, verfions. He next undertook a tranflation of Mor- to whom he readily communicated all the affiftance in reri’s great Hiftorical and Geographical I)i6lionary j his power he even furnifhed his antagonifts with a work of extraordinary labour, and which appeared books to confute himfelf, and dire&ed them how to give in 4 vols. folio. After this he publifhed “ An Eccle- their arguments all the force of which they were capafiaflical Hi (lory of Great Britain, chiefly of England,” ble. He was remarkably averfe to all indecency and in 2 vols. folio ; which is allowed to be written with obfcenity of difcourfe *, and was, independent of his great judgment, and even with impartiality. He was fcepticifm, a fincerely good man. Collins, John, an eminent accountant and mathebefides engaged in feveral controverfies, which his conduct and Writings gave rife to, not material to men- matician, born in 1624, and bred a bookfeller at Oxtion. In Queen Anrte’s reign, Mr Collier was tempt- ford. Befides feveral treatifes on practical fubje&s, ed, by offers of confiderable preferment, to a fubmif- he communicated fome curious papers to the Royal Sofion ; but as he was a nonjuror upon principle, he could cietv, of which he was a member, which are to be found in the early numbers of the Philofophical Tranfnot be brought to liffen to any terms. a&ions : and was the chief promoter of many other Collier, or C6allier. See Coallier. COLLIERY, Coalery, or Coalliery. See fcientifical publications in his time. He died in 1683 ; and about 25 years after, all his papers coming into the Coaler y. COLLINS, Anthony, a polemical writer, born hands of the learned William Jones, Efq. F. R. S. it at Heflen near Hounflow in the county of Middlefex appeared that Mr Collins held a conftant correfpondin 1676, was the fon of Henry Collins, a gentleman ence for many years with all the eminent mathematiof about 1500I. a-year. He was firft bred at Eton cians •, and that many of the late difcoveries in phyfical college, and then went to King’s-college Cambridge, knowledge, if not aftually made by him, were yet where he had for his tutor Mr Francis Flare, after- brought forth by his endeavours. Collins, William, an admirable poet, was born wards bifhop of Chichefter. He was afterwards a 1*1 Vol. VI. Part I.

COL £ 266 ] COL Collins, at Chichfcfter, about the year 1724. He received his COLLINSON, Peter, an eminent naturalift and Coll:nfo« ~ clafiical education at Winchefter, after tv Inch he flu- antiquarian, defcended ol an ancient family, was born ,j died at New college in Oxford, was admitted a com- on the paternal eftate called Hugo/ Hal/> or Height of moner of King’s college in the fame univerlity, and Hugo!, near Windermere lake, in the parilh of Stavely,. was at length defied a demy of Magdalene college. about ten miles from Kendal in Weftmoreland. Whilft While at Oxford, he applied himfelf to the lludy of a youth, he difcovered his attachment to natural hiftory.. poetry, and publilhed his Oriental Eclogues-, after He began early to make a collection of dried fpeciwhich he came to London. He was naturally pof- mens of plants, and had accefs to the beft gardens at feffed of an ear for all the varieties of harmony and that time in the neighbourhood of London. He bemodulation $ his heart was fufceptible of the fineft came early acquainted with the moft eminent naturalfeelings of tendernefs and humanity, and was particu- ifts of his time j the Drs Derham, Woodward, Hale, larly carried away by that high enthufiafm which gives Lloyd, and Sloane, were amongft his friends. Among to imagination its ftrongeft colouring; and he was at the great variety of articles which form that luperb once capable of foothing the ear with the melody of collection, now (by the wife difpofition of Sir Hans his numbers, of influencing the paflions by the force and the munificence of parliament) the Britifti Mu— of the pathos, and of gratifying the fancy by the luxu- feum, fmall was the number of thofe with whofe hi* ry of defcription. With thefe powers, he attempted ftory Mr Collinfon was not well acquainted $ he being lyric poetry j and in 1746, publiihed his Odes, de- one of thofe few who vifited Sir Hans at all times fafcriptive and allegorical; but the fale of this work be- miliarly j their inclinations and purfuits in refpeCl to ing not at all anfvverable to its merit, he burnt the natural hiftory being the lame, a firm friendlhip had remaining copies in indignation. Being a man of early been eftabliflied between them. Peter Collina liberal fpirit and a fmall fortune, his pecuniary re- fon was eleCted a fellow of the Boyal Society on the fources were unhappily foon exhaufted ; and his life 12th ol December 1728 ; and perhaps was one of ths became a miferable example of neceflity, indolence, moft diligent and ufeful members, not only in fupplyand diflipation. He projected books which he was ing them with many curious obfervations himfelf, but well able to execute ; and became in idea an hiftorian, in promoting and preferving a moft extenfive correa critic, and a dramatic poet j but wanted the means fpondence with learned and ingenious foreigners in all and encouragement to carry thefe ideas into- execu- countries and on every ufeful fubjeCl. Befides his attion. Day fucceeded day, for the fupport of which tention to natural hiftory, he minuted every ftriking he had made no provifion ; and he was obliged to fub- hint that occurred either in reading or converfation j, fift, either by the repeated contributions of a friend and from this fource he derived much information, as or the generofity of a cafual acquaintance. His fpi- there were very few men of learning and ingenuity rits became oppreffed, and he funk into a fullen de- who were not of his acquaintance at home j and molt fpondence. While in this gloomy Hate of mind, his foreigners of eminence in natural hiftory, or in arts and uncle Colonel Martin died, and left him a confiderable feiences, were recommended to his notice and friendfortune. But this came too late for enjoyment 5 he lhip. His diligence and economy of time were fuch, had been fo long baraffed by anxiety and diftrefs that that though he never appeared to be in a hurry, he he fell into a nervous diforder, which at length re- maintained an extenfive correfpondence with great duced the fineft un'derftanding to the moft deplorable punCluality j acquainting the learned and ingenious in, childifhnefs. in the firft ftages of this diforder he en- diftant parts of the globe with the difcoveries and imdeavoured to relieve himfelf by travelling, and pafled provements in natural hiftory in this country, and reinto France j but the growing malady obliged him to ceiving the like information from the moft eminent return and having continued, with ftiort intervals, in perfons in almoft every other. His correfpondence this pitiable ftate till the year 1756, he died in the with the ingenious Cadwallader Golden, Efq. of Newarms of his After. York, and the juftly celebrated Dr Franklin of PhilaThe following chara&er of the poetry of Collins is delphia, furnilh inftances of the benefit refulting fiorn drawn by Mrs Barbauld, and is extra&ed from an his attention to all improvements. The latter of thefe eflay prefixed to an edition of his works publiftied in gentlemen communicated his firft elfays on electricity 1797. “ He will be acknowledged to pofiefs imagi- to Mr Collinfon, in a feries of letters, which were then nation, fweetnefs, bold and figurative language. His publilhed, and have been reprinted in a late edition of numbers dwell on the ear, and eafily fix themfelves in the DoClor’s ingenious dilcoveries and improvements. the memory. His vein of fentiment is by turns ten- Perhaps, in fome future period, the account procured der and lofty, always tinged with a degree of melan- of the management of ftieep in Spain, publilhed in the choly, but not poflefling any claim to originality. His Gentleman’s Magazine for May and June 1764, may originality confifts in his manner, in the highly figu- not be confidered among the leaft of the benefits acrative garb in which he clothes abftraft ideas, in the cruing from his extenfive and inquifitive correfponfelicity of his expreflions, and his Ikill in embodying dence. His converfation, cheerful and ufefully enterideal creations. He had much of the myfticifm of taining, rendered his acquaintance much defired by poetry, and fometimes- became obfcure, by aiming at thofe who had a relilh for natural hiftory, or were ftuimpreffions ftronger than he had clear and well-de- dious in cultivating rural improvements j and fecured fined ideas to fupport. Had his life been prolonged, him the intimate friendlhip of fome of the moft emiand with life had he enjoyed that eafe which is necef- nent perfonages in this kingdom, as diftinguilhed by fary for the undifturbed exercife of the faculties, he their tafte in planting and horticulture, as by their rank, would probably have rifen far above moft of his contem- and dignity. He was the firft who introduced the poraries’.’ great variety of feeds and Ihrubs which are now the principal

ftl

COL [ 267 ] CO L COLLYR^E, or Collyrides, in antiquity, a cer- Collyres ollinfon principal ornaments of every garden ; and it was owjl II ing to his indefatigable induftry, that fo many perfons tain ornament of hair, worn by the women on tiieir 0 inan ollybus. 0£ diftindlion are now enabled to behold groves necks. It was made up in the form of the fmall ^ ~ * v eollyree. tranfplanted from the weftern continent flourifhing as roundifh cakes called COLLYRIDIANS, in church hiftory, a feft, toluxuriantly in their feveral domains as if they were already become indigenous to Britain. He had fome wards the clofe of the 4th century, denominated from collyridiar correfpondents in almotl every nation in Europe, fome a little cake, called by the Greeks in Afia, and even at Pekin ; who all tranfmitted to which they offered to the Virgin Maty. This fe£I, it feems, confifted chiefly of Arabian him the moft valuable feeds they could colleft, in return for the treafures of America. The great Lin- women, who out of an extravagance of devotion to naeus, during his refidence in England, contradled an the Virgin, met on a certain day in the year, to celeintimate friendlhip with Mr Callinfon, which was re- brate a folemn feaft, and to render divine honours to ciprocally increafed by a multitude of good offices, and Mary as to a goddefs, eating the cake which they continued to the laft. Befides his attachment to na- offered in her name. St Epiphanius, who relates the tural hiftory, he was very converfant in the antiquities hiftory of this fuperftitious ceremony, ridicules it. of our own country, having been elefted a member of They fprung up in oppofition to the Antidico-Mathe Society of Antiquaries April 7. 1737} and he rianites. COLLYRIUM, in Pharmacy, a topical remedy for fupplied them often with many curious articles of intelligence and obfervation, refpe&ing both our own a diforder of the eyes, defigned to cool and repel hot and other countries. He died in 1768, leaving be- fliarp humours. COLMAN, George, a mifcellaneous and theatrihind him many materials for the improvement of nacal writer, was born at Florence about the year 1733. tural hifforv. He was the fon of Mr Colman, at that time Britilh COLLINSONIA. See Botany Index. COLLIQU AMENTUM, in Natural an refident at the court of the duke of Tufcany, and of extreme tranfparent fluid in an egg, obfervable after a filter of the countefs of Bath. He received the early two or three days incubation, containing the firft ru- part of his education at Weftminfter fchool, where diments of the chick. It is included in one of its own Lloyd, Churchill, Bonnel, Thornton, and fome others proper membranes, diflinft from the albumen. Har- who became afterwards diftingniflied literary chara£ters, were among his intimate companions. While at fenool vey calls it the oculus. COLLIQJJATION, in Chemijlry, is applied to he appeared in the character of a' poet, having addrefled animal, vegetable, and mineral fubftances, tending to- a copy of verfes to his coufin Lord Pulteney, which were afterwards publifhed in the magazine of St James. wards fuflon. See Fusion. CoLLIQU AT I ON, in Pliijjic, a term applied to the He was next fent to Chrift Church College, Oxford, blood, when it lofes its crafis or balfamlc texture ; and where he gave many proofs of his lively genius, unitto the folid parts, when they wafte away by means of ing with Thornton in producing a weekly periodical the animal fluids flowing off through the feveral glands, paper, entitled the “ Connoiffeuf,” which was conand particularly thofe of the flein, fafter than they tinued from January 1754, to September 1756, and ought ; which occafions fluxes of many kinds, but afterwards publifhed in 4 vols. I 2mo. Although this work met not with an equal fhare of approbation with moftly profufe, greafy, and clammy fweats. COLLIQUATIVE FEVER, in Phy/ic, a fever at- the World, the Adventurer, and the Rambler, which made their appearance much about the fame time, yet tended with a diarrhoea, or with profufe fweats. COLLISION, the ftriking of one hard body it may with juftice be affirmed, that fome papers of it againfl another *, or the friclion or percuflion of bodies are fuperior to any which thefe performances contain, moving violently with different diredlions, and dafhing for a ludicrous delineation of the current manners, which has always been confidered as an effential deagainft each other, as flint and fteel. partment of every periodical work. When Mr ColCOLLUM, the fame with Neck. COLLUSION, in Law, a fecret underftanding man took the degree of A. M. he left the college and between two parties, who plead or proceed fraudulently refided in London. He entered at Lincoln’s Inn, and in proper time was admitted to the bar j but literary againft each, to the prejudice of a third perfon. COLLUTHIANS, a religions feft who rofe about purfuits were much more confonant to the bent of his the beginning of the fourth century, on occafion of genius. He publithed in 1760 a dramatic piece of the indulgence fhown to Arius by Alexander, patriarch great humour, called Polly Honeycombe, which vvasfucof Alexandria. Several people being fcandahzed at cefsfully afled in Drury-Lane •, and the following year fo much condefcenfion; and, among the reft, Colluthus, he gave the world his comedy of the Jealous Wife, a prieft of the fame city, he hence took a pretence for deemed the beft which had for many years appeared. holding feparate aflemblies, and by degrees proceeded By the demife of Lord Bath he came to the poffeffion to the ordination of priefts, as if he had been a bifhop, of a handfome fortune, and it was farther augmented, pretending a neceflity for this authority in order to op- by the death of General Pulteney, in 1767. He flill pofe Arius. To his fchifm he added herefy, teaching, continued to write for the ftage, and produced, along that God did not create the wicked •, that he was not with Garrick, that excellent comedy called the Clanauthor of the evils that befal men, &c. He was con- deftine Marriage. He alfo tranflated the comedies of demned by a council held at Alexandria by Ofius, in Terence into a kind of blank verfe, which gained him confiderable applaufe. the year 330. He foon after this made a purchafe of Haymarket COLLYBUS (RoAXvSo*), in antiquity, the fame theatre from Mr Samuel Foote, which he fupplied with with what is now called the rate of exchange* L12 pieces

COL [ 268 ] COL houfe of Nafiau Orange ; but by way of rccotnpenfe, Cologne, Colman pieces either original or tranflations, and felefted the || ablofl: aclors, particularly in comedy. To a tranflation the eleffor has confiderable dominions in Weftphalia, ——y—« ^'olo^ne' he made of Horace’s Art of Poetry, he prefixed an which they call the Domain. It contains the duchy of ingenious account of the intention ol its author; and Weftphalia, and the county of Rechlinchufen. This added importance to the whole work by many critical prelate is one of the eltCfors of the empire, and holds notes. The Genius, and the Gentleman, were other alternately with that of Treves the fecond or third two of his performances, as alfo a number of fmall rank in the eleftoral college. He is arch chancellor pit ces of the humorous kind. His underftanding was of the empire in Italy, which dignity was very immuch impaired by a ilroke of the palfy, which feized portant when the emperors were mafters of Italy, but him in the year 1789, in confequence of which me- now it is next to nothing. When the emperors were lancholy event, his fon was intruded with the manage- crowned at Aix-la-chapelle, the arcbbifhop of Cologne ment of the theatre. He died in the month of Auguft performed the ceremony, which caufed him to pretend to the fame right ellewhere ; but he was oppofed by 1794, in the year of his age. COLMAR, a confiderable town of France, in Up- the archbilhop of Mentz. This occafioned an order, per Alfaee, of which it is the capital. It has great that they (hould each of them have that honour in privileges, and the Protetlants have liberty of cnn- his own diocefe, but if it was done el few here, they fcience. It is feated near the river 111, in E. Long. {hould perform it alternately. The archbilhop of Cologne is eleCled by the chapter in that city, which is 7. 27. N. Lat. 48. 5. COLMARS, a town of France in Provence, and the moft illuftrious in all Germany. They are all the diocefe of Sens. It is feated near the Alps, in E. princes or counts, except eight dodors, who have no occafion to prove their nobility. Longr. 6. 35. N. Lat. 44 7. Cologne, an ancient and celebrated town of GerCOLMOGOROD, a town of the empire of Rudia, with an archbilhop’s fee, feated in an ifland formed by many, in the diocefe of that name, with an archbifhop’s fee, and a famous univerfity, feated on the river Rhine, the river Dwina, in E. Long. 39. 42. N. Lat. 64. 14. COLNBROOK, a town of Buckingbamfihire in in E. Long. 7. 10. N. Lat. 50. 55. In the times of England, feated on the river Coin, which feparates the Romans, this city was called Colonia Agrippina, and this county from Middlefex. It is a great thorough- Ubiorum, becaufe it was built by Agrippina, the wife fare on the wefiern road, and has feveral good inns. of Claudius I. and mother of Nero; and becaufe the Ubii inhabited this country on the Lower Rhine. In W. Long. o. 25. N. Lat. 51. 30. COLNE, a town of Lancafhire in England, feated 755 it w’as an archbiftiopric, and in 1260 entered into on a fmall hill near the confines of the county. W. the Hanfeatic league, which has now no exiftence. The univerfity was eftablifhed in 1388 by Pope Urban VI. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 53. 50. COLOCHINA, an ancient town of the Mnrea, in The city is fortified with ftrong walls, flanked with 83 Turkey in Europe. E. Long. 23. 22. N. Lat. 36. 32. large towers, and furrounded with three ditches; but COLOCYNTHIS, in Botany, a fpecies of Cu- tbefe fortifications being executed after the ancient manner, could make but a poor defence at prefent. It CUM1S. COLOCZA, a town of Hungary, feated on the lies in the drape of a half-moon, and is faid to have Danube, and capital of the county of Bath, with an 20 gates, 19 parifhes, 17 monafteries, and 365 churches archbilhnp’s fee. It was taken by the Turks in 1686, and chapels ; but the ftreets, in general, are dirty but afterwards retaken by the Imperialifts. ~ E. Long. and badly paved, the windows of the. houfes eompofed of fmall bits of round glafs, and the inhabitants are 18. 29. N. Lat. 46. 38. COLOGNA, a town of Italy, in Padua, and in the but few for fo large a place. It is inhabited moftly by territory of Venice. E. Long. 17. 27. N. Lat. 45. Papifts ; but there are alfo many Proteftants, who repair to the neighbouring town of Mulheim, in the 14COLOGNE, The Archbishopric or Diocese duchy of Berg, for public worftiip. Its trade, which of, one of the (fates that compofe the electoral circle is confiderable, efpecially in Rhenifti wine, is chiefly of the Rhine, in Germany. It is bounded on the north in the hands of Proteftants, and carried on by the by the duchy of Cleves and Gueldres, on the weft by Rhine. The (hips with which they trade to the Netherthat of Juliers, on the fouth by the archbifhopric of lands are of a particular conftru£lion, and confiderable Cleves, and on the eaft by the duchy of Berg, from burden. The clergy here are very numerous, and have which it is almoft wholly feparated by the Rhine. large revenues. That of the archbiftiop is 130,000!. This country is very fruitful in corn and wine, which Baron Polnitz fays, that though Cologne is one of the inhabitants difpofe of by embarking it on the the greateft cities, it is one of the moft melancholy in Rhine, it extending above feventy miles along that all Europe ; there being nothing to be feen but priefts, river. It is divided into the Higher and Lower Dio- friars, and ftudents, many of whom beg alms with a cefe : the Higher Diocefe contains that part which lies fong, and nothing to be heard but the ringing of above Cologne, wherein is Bonne, the capital town bells; that there are very few families of quality ; that of this electorate, and where the eleClor refides; be* the vulgar are very clownifti; and that the noblemen fides which there are Leichnich, Andernach, Bruyl,. of the chapter flay no longer in town than their duty, Zulich, and Kerpen. The Lower Diocefe is on the obliges them. Mr Wright, in his Travels, fays, that other fide of Cologne* and contains the towns of Zonz, the women go veiled ; and that the heft gin is that Neuys, Heizarwart, Rempen, Rhynberg, and Alpen. diftilled from the juniper berries which grow in this The city of Cologne and county of Meurs, though neighbourhood. This city is perhaps the moft rewithin the diocefe of Cologne, do not belong to it ; markable of any in the world for the great number of £or Cologne is a free city, and Meurs belongs to the precious relies it contains, of which the Popifli clergy, 1 no.

COL r 260 1 COL Cologne, no doubt mike their advantage. In the church of tor refides commonly at Bonn. Cologne furrendered to Cologne II —Y""—' St Urfula, they pretend to (how her tomb, and the the French in 1794. bones of the 11,000 pretended virgin martyrs, though COLOGNE-Earth, a kind of very light baftard ochre, Colon' ^hat dory is entirely owing to a midaken infcription. of a deep brown colour. The heads of fome of thefe imaginary martyrs are kept COLOMBO, a handfome, pleafant, and ftrong town in cafes of filver, others are covered with ftuffs of gold, of Afia, feated on the eaftern fide of the ifland of and fome have caps of cloth of gold and velvet. Bre- Ceylon in the Eaft Indies. It was built by the Porvat fays, he faw between 4000 and 5000 fkulls, decked tuguefe in 1638 $ and in 1638 they were driven from with garlands and coronets, ranged on (helves. The it by the natives, aflifted by the Dutch, who are now canoneffes of St Urfula, who muft be all counteffes, in poffeffxon of it. It is about three quarters of a mile have a handfome income. In their church they pre- long, and as much in breadth. The natives live in tend to (how three of the thorns of our Saviour’s the old town, without the walls of the new j the ftreets crown, and one of the veffels which contained the of this laft are wide and fpacious $ and the buildings water that he converted into wine at the marriage of are in the modern tafte, particularly the governor’s Cana. In the church of St Gereon are 900 heads of houfe, which is a handfome ftfu&ure. E. Long*- 80. 25. Moorilh cavaliers, faid to have been in the army of N. Lat. 7. 10. Conllantine before it was converted, and to have been COLOMEY, or Colomia, a town of Poland in beheaded for refufing to facrifice to idols. Every Red Ruflia, feated on the river Pruth, in E. Long. 25. one of the heads has a cap of fcarlet, adorned with 9. N. Lat. 48. 45. pearls. In the magnificent cathedral of St Peter, the COLOMNA, Fabio, a very learned botanift, born three wife men who came from the eaft to vifit our at Naples about the year 1367. He became Ikilled Saviour, are faid to be interred. They lie in a large in the languages, in mufic, defigning, painting, and purple ihrine fpangled with gold, fet upon a pedef- the mathematics j and died about the middle of the tal of brafs, in the. midft of a fquare maufoleum, faced 17th century. He wrote, l. ^ valies on alkalies green. It is equally certain, though not fo either by fire or the nitric acid. This is fo exceed-1110.^0" lours. generally known, that acids of all kinds generally tend mgly refractory as not only to be unalterable by al-f0rfinecc. to heighten red colours, fo as to make them approach kalies, acids, or the fun and weather, but even by louts, to the fcarlet or true crimfon ; and alkalies to darken, the focus of a very large burning mirror. It is beor make them approach to blue or purple. Mixed fides white as fnow, and capable of being reduced to with yellow colours, acids alfo univerfally tend to an extreme degree of finenefs, infomuch that it is brighten the yellow •, and alkalies to turn it to an made ufe of for polifhing metallic fpeculums. For n orange, and make it become more dull. But though thefe reafons, it is the moft proper bafis for all fine coPrecipitate' this is very generally the cafe, we are not to expe*5l lours. For coarfe ones, the white precipitate of lead,ieac ^mo^ that all acids are equally powerful in this refpedt. The mentioned under the article Chemistry, will anfwer very well. It hath a very ftrong body, i. e. is very nitric acid is found to heighten the moft of any, and the muriatic acid the leall of the mineral ones. The opaque*, and will cover well ; may be eafily ground vegetable, as might be expelled, are lefs powerful fine, and is much lefs apt to turn black than white than the mineral acids. Thus, if with a tin&ure of lead j it is befides very cheap, and may be prepared at cochineal, either in water or alcohol, is mixed the the fraall expence of 3d. per pound. l2 If what we have juft mnv obferved is attended to, General pure nitrous acid, it will change the colour to an exmet 0 ceeding high orange or flame colour, which it will the general method of extrafling colours from any ^ ^°f n vegetable or animal fubftance, and fixing them on a^'^ ^ impait to cloth. If fulphuric acid is ufed, a full fcarlet, inclining to crimfon rather than orange, is proper bafis, muft be very eafily underftcod. For produced. With muriatic acid, a true crimfon colour, this purpofe, a quantity of oxide of tin is to be procubordering on purple, is the confequence. Alkalies, red in proportion to the quantity of colour defired. both fixed and volatile, change the colour to a purple,’ This muft be well rubbed in a glafs mortar, with a which is brighter with the volatile than the fixed al- little of the fubftance defigned for brightening the colour, as alum, cream of tartar, fpirit of nitre, &c. kalies. Here it is obvious, that whatever colours are pro- after which it muft be dried, and left for fome time, that

e o l COL f 278 ] are heightened fo as to equal, Colom. 11 Golouri tliat tlie union between the two fubftanees may be eye-bright, iris, &c, making, as perfect as poflible. If the colour is to be a very if not excel, the blue produced by a folution of cop- making, i| 1 fine one, fuppofe from cochineal, the colouring mat- per in volatile alkali. In ftiort, this folution feems ter muft be extraded with alcohol without heat. to be of much more extenfive ufe in colour-making, When the fpirit is fufficiently impregnated, it is to when properly applied, than any thing hitherto thought be poured by little and little upon the oxide, rub- of. It is not, however, univerfally lerviceable. The bing it conftantly, in order to diftribute the colour colour of madder it totally deftroys, and likewife that equally through all parts of the oxide. The fpirit foon of faf-flower, changing them both to a dull orange. evaporates, and leaves the oxide coloured with the co- It likewife fpoils the colour of archil $ and what is ' |l chineal. More of the tin&ure is then to be poured very remarkable, the fine red colour of tin&ure of rofes on, rubbing the mixture conftantly as before 5 and made with fulphuric acid is by folution of tin changed thus, with proper management, may very beautiful to a dirty green. J5 j colours, not inferior to the beft carmine, be prepared The moft: important confideration in colour-making Diredions at a moderate expence. If, inftead of cochineal, we is to make choice of fuch materials as produce the cfor the fubftitute brazil-wood, turmeric, logwood, &c. differ- moft durable colours *, and if thefe can be produeed, h°ice of I ent kinds of red, yellow, and purple, will be produced. an ordinary colour from them is to be preferred to For the coarfer colours, aqueous decoftions aje to be a bright one from thofe which fade fooner. In what ufed in a fimilar manner j only, as thefe are much the difference confifts between the colours that fade longer in evaporating than the alcohol, very little and thofe which do not, is not known with any demuft be poured on at a time, and the colours ought gree of certainty. From fome appearances it would to be made in large quantity, on account of the tedi- feem, that thofe fubftances which are moft remarkable for keeping their colour, contain a vifcous glutinous oufnefs of the procefs. matter, fo combined with a refinous one as to be foEffects13 ot Hitherto we have confidered only the effe&s of the luble both in water and alcohol. The moft durable different pure and fimple falls, viz. acids and alkalies, on differkinds of ent colours; but by combining the acids with alka- red colour is prepared from gum-lac. This is very falls. lies, earths, or metals, thefe effects may be varied ftrongly refinous, though at the fame time fo far almoft in infinitum ; neither is there any rule yet laid glutinous, that the colouring matter can be extra&ed down by which we can judge a priori of the changes from it by water. Next to gum-lac are madder-roots of colour that will happen on the admixture of this or and cochineal. The madder is an exceedingly penethat particular fait with any colouring fubftance. In trating fubftance, infomuch that, when given to anigeneral, the perfeft neutrals a£t weakly $ the imper- mals along with their food, it tinges their bones of a fe& ones, efpecially thofe formed from metals, much deep red colour. Its colouring matter is foluble both more powerfully. Alum and fal ammoniac confider- in water and alcohol. Along with the pure red, howably heighten the colour of cochineal, brazil, turme- ever, there is in madder a kind of vifcous aftringent ric, fuftic, madder, logwood, &c. The fame thing fubftance, of a dark brown colour, which feems to is done, though in a lefs degree, by common fait, give the durability to the whole. The colouring Glauber’s fait, nitre, and many other neutrals. So- matter of cochineal, though foluble both in water and lutions of iron in all the acids ftrike a black with alcohol, is very tenacious and mucilaginous, in which every one of the above-mentioned fubftances $ and it bears fome refemblance to the purpura of the anlikewife with fumach, galls, and other aftringents. cients, which kept its colour exceedingly well. Where Solutions of lead, or faccharum faturni, univerfally the colours are fugitive, the tinging fubftance feems to debafe red colours to a dull purple. Solution of cop- be too refinous or too mucilaginous. Thus the colours per changes the purple colour of logwood to a pretty of brazil, turmeric, &c. are very refinous, efpecially good blue \ and, in general, folutions of this metal are the latter, infomuch that the colouring matter of turfriendly to blue colours. The effe61:s of folutions of meric can fcarcely be extra&ed by water. Both thefe gold, filver, and mercury, are not fo well known $ are periftiable, though beautiful colours j and much they mo feem toower produce dark colours of no great beauty. more are the red, purple, and blue flowers, commonly be met with. Thefe feem to be entirely mucilaSolution of ^ P ful folution, however, with regard to toginous, without the leaft quantity of refinous matter. tin the moft a great number of colours, is that of tin, made in nipowerful. tro-muriatic acid. Hence we may fee the fallacy of The yellow flowers are different, and in general keep * See CAro-Mr Delaval’s hypothefis concerning colours*, that their colour pretty well. rWhether it would be poflimatics, the leaft refrangible ones are produced by the moft ble, by adding occafionally a proper quantity of gum N' denfe metals: for tin, which hath the leaft denfity of or refin, to make the fugitive colours more durable, any metal, hath yet, in a ftate of folution, the moft ex- hath not yet been tried, but feems to have fome probatraordinary effe&s upon the leaft refrangible colours as bility. What tends a little to confirm this, is a pro- Mi Hellotl well as thofe that are moft fo. The colour of cochi- cefs given by M. Hellot for imparting durability to method oi neal is changed by it into the moft beautiful fcarlet j the colour of brazil. It confifts only in letting decoc- r a fimilar change is made upon the colouring matter tions of the wood ftand for fome time in wooden calks o“ £ra] of gum-lac. Brazil-wood is made to yield a fine pur- till they grow ftale and ropy. Pieces of woollen cloth zli.WOod. plifti crimfon j logwood, a beautiful dark purple ; tur- now dyed in the liquor acquired a colour fo durable, meric, fuftic, weld, and all yellow-colouring woods and that they were not in the leaft altered by expofure to flowers, are made to communicate colours far more the air during four months in the winter feafon. beautiful than can be got from them by any other me- Whether this change in the durability of the colour thod. The blue colour of the flowers of violets, was effe&ed by the ropinefs following the fermentation,

COL COL [ 279 ] Colourlolour- tion, or by fome other caufe, or whether the experi- flovvly under a copper-pan. All the foots were of a making. laking. ment can be at all depended upon, muft be referred to deeper black colour than thofe obtained from the fame y kinds of wood in a common chimney $ and very little, future obfervation. Having thus collected all that can as yet be de- if at all, inferior to thofe of the oils : they gave only pended upon for eftablilhing a general theory of co- a juft difcernible tinfture to water and alcohol, while lour-making, we fhall now proceed to give an account the foots of the chimney imparted a ftrong deep one of the different pigments generally to be met with in to both. The foot of mineral bitumens, in this clofe ivay of burning, appears to be of the fame qualities with the colour-fhops. I. Black. Thefe are lamp-black, ivory-black, blue- thofe of woods, oil, and refins : in fome parts of Gerblack, and Indian-ink. The firft is the fineft of what many, great quantities of good lamp-black are preare called the foot-blacks, and is more ufed than any pared from a kind of pit-coal. “ It appears, therefore, that the differences of foots other. Its preparation is defcribed in the Swedifh Tranfaflions for the year 1754, as a procefs dependent do not depend altogether on the qualities of the fubon the making of common refin : the impure refinous je£ls, but in a great meafure on the manner in which juice colledted from incifions made in pine and fir the fubjeft is burnt, or the foot caught. The foots trees, is boiled down with a little water, and drained produced in common chimneys, from different kinds of whilft hot through a bag $ the dregs and pieces of wood, refinous and not refinous, dry and green, do bark left in the drainer are burnt in a low oven, not differ near fo much from one another, as thofe from which the fmoke is conveyed through a long which are produced from one kind of wood in a compalfage into a fquare chamber, having an opening on mon chimney, and in the confined way of burning 20 the top on which is a large fack made of thin woollen above mentioned. Ivory-black is prepared from ivory or bones burnt Ivoryduff: the foot, or lamp-black, concretes partly in the chamber, from whence it is fwept out once in two or in a clofe veffel. This, when finely ground, forms atlack’ three days, and partly in the fack, which is now and more beautiful and deeper colour than lamp-black $ then gently druck upon, both for fhaking down the but in the common methods of manufacturing, it is fo foot, and for clearing the interdices betwixt the much adulterated with charcoal-dud, and fo grofsly lethreads, fo as to procure a fufficient draught of air vigated, as to be unfit for ufe. An opaque deep black through it. In this manner lamp-black is prepared at for water-colours, is made by grinding ivory-black the turpentine houfes in England, from the dregs and with gum water, or with the liquor which fettles from refufe of the refinous matters which are there manu- the whites of eggs after they have been fuffered to ftand a little. Some ufe gum water and the whites >9 . fa6!ured. r Lew.s’s On this fubjeft Dr Lewis hath fome curious obfer- of eggs together, and report, that a fmall addition of iferva- vations. “ The foot (fays he) arifing in common the latter makes the mixture flow more freely from JBS. chimneys, from the more oily or refinous woods, as the the pencil, and improves its gloflinefs. It may be obfir and pine, is obferved to contain more diffoluble ferved, however, that though ivory-black makes the matter than that from the other woods j and this dif- deepeft colour in W'ater as well as in oil painting, yet foluble matter appears, in the former, to be more of it is not on this account always to be preferred to an oily or refinous nature than in the latter, alcohol other black pigments. A deep jet-black colour is felextradling it mod powerfully from the one, and water dom wanted in painting 5 and in the lighter ftiades, from the other. The oilinefs and folubility of the whether obtained by diluting the black with w'hite foot feeming therefore to depend on thofe of the bodies, or by applying it thin on a white ground, the fubjefl it is made from, it has been thought that lamp- particular beauty of the ivory-black is in a great mea21 black mud poflefs thefe qualities in a greater degree fure loft. Blue black is faid to be prepared from the burnt Blue-Mack. than any kind of common foot. Neverthelefs, on examining feveral parcels of lamp-black, procured from ftalks and tendrils of the vine. Thefe, however, the different diops, I could not find that it gave any tinc- colour-makers feldom give themfelves the trouble of procuring, but fubftitute in its place a mixture of ivoryture at all, either to alcohol or to water. Sufpefting fome midake or fophidication, or that black, and the common blue ufed for clothes. 22 Indian-ink is an excellent black for water-colours. Indian-ink. the lamp-black had been burnt or charred, as it is to fit it for fome particular ules, I prepared myfelf fome It hath been difcovered by Dr Lewis to confift of a foot from linfeed-oil, by hanging a large copper pan mixture of lamp-black and common glue. Ivory black, over the flame of a lamp to receive its fmoke. In this or charcoal, he found to anfwer equally well, provided manner the more curious artids prepare lamp-black they w'ere levigated to a fufficient degree of finenefs, for the nicer purpofes j and from this collection of it which indeed requires no fmall trouble. 2. from the flame of a lamp, the pigment probably recei2. White. The white colours commonly to be met Whiteved its name. The foot fo prepared gave no tinCture with are, white-flake, white-lead, calcined hartffiorn, G0l°urs* either to water or to alcohol, any more than the com- pearl-white, Spaniffi-white, egg-fliell-white, and nimon lamp-black of the fhops. I tried different kinds trate of bifmuth. The flake-white and white-lead are of oily and refinous bodies with the fame refult $ even properly the fame. The preparation of the former is the foots obtained from fifb oils and tallow did not ap- kept a fecret; the method of preparing the latter is pear to differ from thofe of the vegetable oils and re- defcribed under Chemistry, N° 1856. Thefe are the fins. They were all of a finer colour than the lamp- only whites that can be ufed in oil, all the reft being black commonly fold. tranfparent unlefs they are laid on with water. Cal“ Some foot was colleded in like manner from fir cined hartdiorn is the mod ufeful of the earthy whites, and other woods, by burning fmall pieces of them as being the lead alkaline. Spanifti white is only finely ■3

c o L [ 280 ] ' CO L •Colour- finely prepared chalk. Pearl-white is made from Colcothar of vitriol, while hot, always appears of a Colourmaking. oyfter-ftiells 5 and egg-thell white from the (hells of very dark dulky purple. making. Of the preparation of vermilion and red-lead, an ac' eggs. All thefe, by their attraftion for acids, mull neceflarily dellroy fuch colours as have any acid or count is given under the article Chemistry, N° 1701. metallic fait in their compofition. The nitrate of bif- 1832. Thefe are very durable colours : the firft is the muth is apt to turn black, as are alfo flake-white and belt red ufed in oil painting, but does not anfwer well white-lead, when ufed in water. The white precipi- in water 5 the other is rather an orange •, and, like tate of lead recommended under Chemistry, N° 1856. other preparations of lead, is in fome cafes apt to turn is greatly fuperior as a water-colour to all thefe, being black. 25 4. Orange. The only true orange-coloured paints Orange perfeflly free of any alkaline quality, and not at all 00 01115, apt to lofe its own colour, or to injure that of other fub- are red orpiment and orange lake. The firff is a fub- ^ limate formed of arfenic and fulphur j the other may ffances. It is a carbonate of lead. 24 3. Red. The red colours ufed in painting are of be prepared from turmeric infilled in alcohol having ?teot in water, pouring off the tinePruffian blue is to be accounted of the bed quality ture, and then evaporating it to an extrafl j but Dr ^eWis’s when it is deep, bright, and not inclined to purple. Lewi- is of opinion, with M. Landois in the French It ought to be tried by mixture with white lead, as Encyclopedie, that the foot is either boiled in water,biftre™1^ the brightnefs of the colour will appear much more or grourd . :th a little liquid of fome kind into a fmooth when diluted than when concentrated in the! lumps of pafte ; it hen d luted with more water, and after the blue itfelf. danding t r about half an hour till the groffer fubThe preparation of blue verditer is kept a fecret, and ftance of the foot has fettled, the liquor is poured off Vol. VI. Part I. Nn into

COL [28 2 ] COL Colour- into another veffe], and fet by for two or three days, filter. The filtered liquor on flanding for fome time Colour, making that the finer parts may fall to the bottom, and this becomes turbid and full of fine black flakes : being making, fine matter is the biftre. This is a very ufeful colour freed from thefe by a fecond filtration, it again puts —Y'—' in water, being exceedingly fine, durable, and not apt on the fame appearance: and thus repeatedly till all to fpoil any other colours with which it is mixed. The the colouring parts are feparated, and the liquor has bebrown pink is faid to confift of chalk tinged with the come colourlefs. colouring matter of fuflic, heightened by fixed alkaDr Lewis, from whofe Philofophieal Commerce of line falls. It is therefore very perithable, and is fel- Arts this account is taken, further informs us, that this dom ufed. The other browns are a kind of ochreous colouring matter, when feparated from the liquor and earths; for a defcription of which fee their proper ar- dried, appeared of a deep black, which did not feem 32 ticles. to have fuffered any change from the air by expofure Attempts Having now confidered moll of the colouring fub- for upwards of four months. Made red hot, it glowed to make lake of all ftances ufually to be met with in the {hops, we {hall and burnt, but did not flame, and became a rufty next take notice of fome attempts that have been made brown powder, which was readily attradled by a magcolours. to produce all the different colours from vegetables, netic bar j though in its black ftate the magnet had after the manner of lakes •, which, though the methods no a61 ion upon it. Sulphuric acid, diluted with wahitherto tried have for the moll part failed of fuccefs, ter and digefted on the black powder, diffolved the may perhaps fome time or other be found applicable to greateft part of it, leaving only a very fmall quantity valuable purpofes. of whitiflx matter. Solution of pure fixed alkaline 33 Black from From infufions of aftringent vegetables mixed with fait diffolved very little of it : the liquor received a gri?en vitriol, is produced a deep black liquor of very reddifti brown colour, and the powder became blackiflv ^ extenfive ufe in dyeing*. The fubftances which pro- brown. This refiduum was attracted by the magnet duce the deepeft blacks are galls and logwood. When after being red hot, though not before : the alkaline a deco6Mon or infufion of the galls is dropped into a tinfture, paffed through a filter, and mixed %vith a folution of the vitriol largely diluted with water, the folution of green vitriol, {truck a deep brownifti black fir ft drops produce bluifh or purplifti red clouds, which colour, nearly the fame with that which refults from foon mingling with the liquor, turn it uniformly of mixing with the vitriolic folution an alkaline tinflure their own colour. It feems to be on the quality of of galls. ^ the water that this difference in the colour depends. It hath alfo been attempted to produce black from Black from With diftilled water, or the common fpring waters, a combination of other colours 5 as green may be pro-a eombina. the mixture is always blue. If we previoully diflblve duced from a mixture of blue and yellow. M. le Blon,1*011 °^0in the water the moft minute quantity of any alkaline in his Harmony of Colours, gives a method of forming ^^c0” fait, too fmall to be difcovered by any of the common blaek, by mixing together the three colours called means by which waters are ufually tried, or if the primitive, viz. blue, red, and yellow ; and M. Caftel, water is in the lead; putrid, the colour of the mixture in his Optique des Couleurs, publilhed in 1740, fays proves purple or reddifti. Rain-water, caught as it that this compound black has an advantage in paintfalls from the clouds in an open field in clean glafs- ing, above the fimple ones, of anfvvering better for veffels, gives a blue ; but fuch as is collected from the the darkening of other colours. Thus, if blue, by the tops of the houfes, grows purple with the mixture of addition of black, is to be darkened into the colour vitriol and galls : from whence it may be prefumed, called blue-blach, the fimple blacks, according to him, that this laft has contracted a putrid tendency, or re- if ufed in fufficient quantity to produce the requifite ceived an alkaline impregnation, though fo flight as not deepnefs, conceal the blue, while the compound blacks to be fenfible on other ways of trial. leave it diftinguiftiable. Le Blon does not mention Both the purple and blue liquors, on adding more the proportion of the three colours neeeffary for proof the aftringent infufion, deepen to a black, more ducing black. Caftel direfls 15 parts of blue, five of or lefs intenfe according to the nature of dilution : if red, and three of yellow ; but takes notice that thefs the mixture proves of a deep opaque blacknefs, it again proportions are rather fpeculatively than practicalbecomes bluifh or purplifti when further diluted. If ly juft, and that the eye only can be the true judge j fuffered to ftand in this diluted ftate for two or three our colours all being very imperfeCt, and our pigments days, the colouring matter fettles to the bottom in or other bodies of one denomination of colour being form of a fine black mud, which by {lightly {baking very unequal in their degree of intenfity. He obthe veffel is diffufed again through the liquor, and ferves, that the pigments ftiould all be of the deepeft tinges it of its former colour. When the mixture is and darkeft kind j and that inftead of taking one pigof a full blacknefs, this feparation does not happen, or ment for each colour, it is better to take as many as in a far lefs degree ; for though a part of the black mat- can be got; for the greater difcord there is of heteter precipitates in (landing, yet fo much remains dif- rogeneous and difcordant drugs, the more true and folved, that the liquor continues black. This fufpen- beautiful, he fays, will the black be, and the more fion of the colouring fubftance, in the black liquid, capable of uniting with all other colours, without mav be attributed in part to the gummy matter of the fupprefling them, and even without making them aftringent infufion increafing the confiftence of the tawny. watery fluid ", for the feparation is retarded in the Dr Lewis acquaints us, that by mixing different diluted mixture by a fmall addition of gum arabic. blue, red, and yellow colours, he has not been able to If the mixture either in its black or diluted ftate is produce a perfedl black; but has often obtained from poured into a filter, the liquor paffes through colour- them very dark colours, fuch as may be called browned } only a part of the black matter remaining on the blacks} or gray-blacks ; fuch as we commonly fee in the dark

COL [ 283 ] COL Colour- dark parts of paintings, and fuch as the charcoal and and more beautiful *, green lakes, prepared from thefe Colournuking, foot black* appear when diluted a little. The ingre- flowers by lime-water, have been ufed as pigments by making, » 1 dients being each of a dark deep colour is a very necef- the painter. The flowers of cyanus have been greatly " v"" fary condition ; for bright blues, bright reds, and bright recommended, as affording elegant and durable blue yellows, mixed in fuch proportions that neither colour pigments j but I have never been able to extract from prevailed, produced only a gray. In effe£t, all com- them any blue colour at all. They retain their colour pofitions of this kind, phyfically confidered, can be no indeed, when haftily dried, longer than fome other other than grays, or fome of the intermediate tints blue flowers j but they communicate nothing of it to betwreen whitenef* and da>-knefs } and thefe grays will any kind of menftruum. Infufions of them in watery, be fo much the lighter or darker as the component co- fpirituous, and oily liquors, are all of them more or Ids of a reddilh call, without any tendency to blue. lours of themfelves are bright or dark. With regard to the extra&ion of the colouring Alum, which is faid to heighten and preferve their matter from the different kinds of vegetables com- blue colour, changes it, like that of other blue flowers, monly to be met with of all colours, this would cer- to a purpiifh red j acids to a deep red ; alkalies and tainly be a very valuable acquifition, could the colours lime-water to a green : folution of tin added to the fo procured be made durable. On this fubjeft nothing watery infufinn, turns it to a fine crimfon j on Handhath yet appeared more fatisfadlory than what is de- ing, a beautiful red faecula fubfides, but it lofes all livered by Dr Lewis in his notes on Neumann’s cbe- its colour as foon as it is dry. The watery infufion, miftry. His obfervations are curious, but promife very infpiffated to the confiftence of an extradl, appears of little fuccefs to any who fhall attempt to fix thefe a dark reddilh brown : an extraft made with rectified fpirit is of a purplifh colour. The colour of both exvegetable colours. 3r Lewis’s “ Among the infinite variety of colours (fays he), tradts fpread thin, and expofed to the air, quickly xperiwhich glow in the flowers of plants, there are very fades. The flowers employed in thefe experiments nentson £evy w^ich have any durability, or whofe fugitive were thofe of the common blue-bottle of the cornofours. 6 beauty can be arrefted by art, fo as to be applied to fields. “ Red flowers readily communicate their own red any valuable purpofes. The only permanent ones are the yellow, the red, the blue ; and all the intermediate colour to watery menftrua ; among thofe that have (hades of purple, crimfon, violet, &c. are extremely been tried, there is not one exception. Thofe of a perilhable. Many of thefe flowers lofe their colours full red colour give to rediified fpirit alfo a deep red on being barely dried •, efpecially if they are dried tin&ure, brighter, though fomewhat paler, than the (lowly, as has been ufually dire£ted, in a fliady, and watery infufion' but the lighter red flowers, and not warm place. The colours of all of them perifh thofe which have a tendency to purplifh, impart very on keeping even in the clofeft veflels. The more little colour to fpirit, and feem to partake more of the haflily they are dried, and the more perfeflly they nature of the blue flowers than of the pure red. Infuare fecured from the air, the longer they retain their fions of red flowers are fuppofed to be heightened by beauty. The colouring matter extra&ed and ap- acids, and turn green by alkalies, like thofe of the plied on other bodies is ftill more perifhable : often- blue ; but this is far from being univerfal. Among times it is changed or deftroyed in the hands of the thefe I have examined, the rofe-colours and purplifh reds were changed nearly in the fame manner as the operator. “ The colour of many blue flowers is extra£led by blues ; but the full deep reds were not. The deep infufion in water; but there are fome from which water infufion of red poppies is changed by alkalies, not -to a gains only reddifh or purplifh blue. Of thofe that have green, but to dulky purple. “ The colours of yellow flowers, whether pale or been tried there is not one which gives any blue tincture to fpirituous liquors : fome give no colour at all, deep, are in general durable. Many of them are as and fome a reddifli one. The juice prefled out from much fo, perhaps, as any of the native colours of vethe frefh flowers is for the moft part blue. The blue getables. The colour is extrafled both by water and juices and infufions are changed red by all acids. The by fpirit. The watery infufions are the deepeft. Neimuriatic acid feems to ftrike the moft florid red. The ther alkalies nor acids alter the fpecies of the colour ; flowers themfelves, macerated in acid liquors, impart though both of them vary its fhade ; acids rendering alfo a deep red tindlure. Alkalies, both fixed and it paler, and alkalies deeper •, alum likewife confidervolatile, and lime-water, change them to a green. ably heightens it, though not fo much as alkalies. Thofe infufions of the juices which have nothing of An infufion of the flowers, made in alkaline ley, prethe native colour of the flowers, fuffer the fame changes cipitated by alum, gives a durable yellow lake. In fome from the addition of acid and alkaline liquors : even of the deep reddifh yellow, or orange-coloured flowers, when the flowers have been kept till their colour is the yellow matter feems to be of the fame kind with loft, infufions made from them acquire ftill a red co- that of the pure yellow flowered, but the red to be of lour from the one, and a green from the other, though a different kind from the pure red ones j watery menin a lefs degree than when the flowers were frefti. ftrua take up only the yellow, and leave the red, The red colour produced by acids is fcarcely more which may afterwards be exfradted by alcohol, or durable than the original blue : applied upon other by water acuated by fixed alkaline fait. Such parbodies and expofed to the air, it gradually degenerates ticularly are the faffron-coloured flowers of carthamus. into a faintifh purple, and at length difappears, leaving Thefe, after the yellow matter has been extrafted by hardly any ftain behind. The green produced by water, are faid to give a red tindhire to ley j from alkalies changes to a yellow, which does not fade fo which, on {landing at reft for fome time, a deep fbon. The green, by lime-water, is more permanent bright red fsecula fubfidescalled from one of the Nn2 names

COL [ 284 I COL Colour- names of the plant which produces it, fajflower ; and cording to Labat, gives a beautiful red dye. Some Colour, f making, from the countries whence it is commonly brought to - v •— SpaniJh-red, and China lake. This pigment im- experiments, however, made upon the juice of that making-. fruit, as brought into England, did not protnife to be V”—J pregnates alcohol with a beautiful red tin&ure, but of any great advantage 5 but the particulars I cannot communicates no colour to water. I have endea- now recolledl. voured to feparate, by the fame treatment, the red “ The ripe berries of buckthorn ftain paper of a matter of fume of the other reddilh yellow flowers, green colour. From thefe is prepared the fubftance as thofe of garden marigold, but without fuccefs. called fap green, a pigment fufficiently durable, reaPlain water extracted a yellow colour, and alkaline dily folubie in water, jbut not mifcible with oil. The ley extra&ed afterwards only a paler yellow : though berries dried while green, and macerated in alumthe digeflions were continued till the flowers had lort water, are faid to yield a yellow pigment } and when their colour, the tindures were no other than yellow, they have grown over ripe fo as to fall off fpontaneand not fo deep as thofe obtained from the pure yel- oufiy, a purple one. It is faid that the berry of the low flowers. The little yellow floeculi, which in fome heliotropum tricoccum, which grows wild about Montkinds of flowers are colleded into a compact round pelier, llains paper of a green colour, and that this difc, as in the daify and corn marigold, agree, fo far as green turns prefently to a blue : that the common blue they have been examined, with the expanded yellow paper receives its colour from this juice : and that the petala. Their colour is affeded in the fame manner red rags called turnfol, employed for colouring wines by acids, by alkalies, and by alum j and equally ex- and other liquors, are tin&ured by the fame juice traded by water and by fpirit, But the yellow farina, turned red by acids. According to M. Niflole of the or fine duft, lodged on the tips of the fiamina of flowers, French academy of fciences (as quoted by Savary in appears to be of a different kind. It gives a fine his Didlionnaire de Commerce), the following juice is bright yellow to fpirit, and a duller yellow to water} obtained, not from the berries, but from tops of the the undifl'olved part proving in both cafes of a pale plant gathered in Auguft, ground in mills, and then yellowifh white. Beth the watery and fpirituous tinc- committed to the prefs. '1 he juice is expofed to the tures were heightened by alkaline liquors, turned red fun about an hour, the rags dipt in it, dried in the by acids, and again to a deep yellow on adding more fun, moiftened by the vapour which arifes during the of the alkali : I know no other vegetable yellow that flacking of quicklime with urine, then dried again in is turned red by acids. the fun, and dipped again in the juice. The Dutch “ White flowers are by no means deftitute of co- and others are faid to prepare turnfol rags, and turnfol louring matter. Alkaline lixivia extrad from fome in the mals, from different ingredients, among which of them a green tindure, and change their colourlefs archil is a principal one. expreffed juices to the fame colour } but I have not “ In fome plants, peony for inftance, the feeds at obferved that they are turned red by acids. The a certain point of maturity are covered with a fine flowers of the common wild convolvulus or bind-weed, ftiining red membrane. The pellicles of the feeds of which in all their parts are white, give a deep yellow a certain American tree afford the red maffes brought or orange tindure to plain water} which, like the tinc- into Europe under the names of annotto, or/ean, and tures of flowers that are naturally of that colour, is raucou*. Mr Pott, in the Berlin Memoirs for the * ^ee An* rendered paler by acids, heightened a little by alum, year 1752, mentions a very extraordinary property o{n0tt0‘ and more cunfiderably by alkaline falts. The vapours this concrete. ‘ With fulphuric acid it produces a of the volatile fulphuric acid, or of burning fulphur, blue colour, of extreme beauty ; but with this capital which whiten or deftroy the colour of the coloured defeft, that all falts and liquors, and even common 35 flowers, make no change in the white. water, deftroy it.’ The fpecimen of annotto, which I Colours “ The red juices of fruits, as currants, mulberries, examined, was not fenfibly afted upon by fulphuric fcom fruits. ejc|er_|3erries^ morello, black cherries, &c. gently in- acid; it received no change in its own colour, and fpiflated to drvnefs, diffolve again almoft totally in communicated none to the liquor. Not did any vifible water, and appear nearly of the fame red colour as at changes enfue upon dropping the acid into tindlure of firft. Redified fpirit extrads the tinging particles, annotto made in water, or in fpirit. 37 leaving a confiderable portion of mucilaginous matter “ The green colour of the leaves of plants is ex-Colours undiffolved } and hence the fpirituous tindure proves tradled by rectified fpirit of wine and by oils. Thefrom of a brighter colour than the watery. The red folu- fpirituous tinftures are generally of a fine deep green,^e‘tVes* tions, and the juices themfelves, are fometimes made even when the leaves themfelves are dull-coloured, or dull, and fometimes more florid by acids, and gene- yellowifti, or hoary. The colour, however, feldom rally turned purplifb by alkalies. The colours of thefe continues long even in the liquor} much lefs when the juices are for the moft part perilhable. They refill, tinging matter is feparated in a folid form} and expoindeed, the power of fermentation, and continue al- fed with a large furface to the air. The editor of the moft unchanged, after the liquor has been converted Wirtemberg Pharmacopoeia obferves, that the leaves into wine } but when the juice is fpread thin upon of acanthus, brankurfine, or bear’s-breach, give a other bodies, exficcated, and expofed to. the air, the more durable green tindlure to fpirit than thofe of any colour quickly alters and decays } the bright lively red other herb. Alkalies heighten the colour both of the changes the fooneft : the dark dull red ftain from the tin6lures and green juices} acids weaken, deftroy, or juice of the black cherry, is of confiderable durability. change it to a brownifh : lime water improves both The fruit of the American opuntia or prickly pear, the colour and durability : by means of lime, not inthe plant upon which the cochineal infedl is produced, elegant green lakes are procurable from the leaves of is perhaps an exception : This bright red fruit, ae- acanthus, lily of the valley, and feveral other plants. I There,

COL : 85 ] coral li for me apicibus coccineis of Ray’s Synopfis ; the Colour"'oknir- There are very few. herbs which communicate any making lliare of their green colour to water •, perhaps none other the lichenoides tartareum, farinaceum, fcutel- making. ^ —v that give a green of any confiderable deepnefs. It is larum umbone fufco, of Dillenius. This lalt fs a white ' " faid, however, that the leaves of fome plants give a fubftance like meal clotted together, found on the fides green dye to woollen, without the addition of any and tops of hills. It is fliaved off from the rocks other colouring matter ; particularly thofe of the wild after rain, purified from the ftony matters intermixed cervil, or cow-weed, the common ragwort, and de- with it by waffling with water, then dried in the vil’s-bit. The leaves of many kinds of herbs and fun, ground in mills, and again wafhed and dried : it trees give a yellow dye to wool or woollen cloth that is then put into a veffel with urine, and fet by for a has been previoufly boiled with a fblution of alum and month : a little of this tinfture added to boiling water tartar. Weld, in particular, affords a fine yellow, makes the dyeing colour. In the fame TranfaClions and is commonly made ufe of for this purpofe by the for the year 1754, there is an account of another mofs dyers, and cultivated in large quantity in fome parts of which, prepared with urine, gives a beautiful and England. There is no colour for which we have durable red or violet dye to wool and filk. This is the fucb plenty of materials as for yellow. M. Hellot lichen foliaceus umbilicatus fubtus lacunenfis, Linn, obferves that all leaves, barks, and roots, which on flor. Suec. It grows upon rocks, and is readily dif* being chewed difcover a flight aftringency, as the tinguifbable from others of that clafs, by looking as if leaves of the almond, peach, and pear trees, afh bark, burnt or parched, confiding of leaves as thin as (efpecially that taken off after the firft rifing of the paper, convex all over on the upper fide, with correfap in the fpring), the roots of wild patience, &c. fponding cavities underneath, adhering firmly to the yield durable yellows, more or lefs beautiful accord- ftones by a little root under the leaves, and coming ding to the length of time that the boiling is conti- afunder, when dry, as foon as touched. It is gathered nued, and the proportions of alum and tartar in the after rain, as it then holds beft together, and parts preparatory liquor : that a large quantity of alum eafieft from the done. In France, a cruftaceous mofs, makes thefe yellows approach to the elegant yellow growing upon rocks in Auvergne, is prepared with of weld : that if the tartar is made to prevail, it in- lime and urine, and employed by the dyers as a fucclines them to an orange ; that if the roots, barks, or cedaneum for the Canary archil, to which it is faid to leaves be too long boiled, the yellow proves tarnifh- be very little inferior. M. Hellot relates, that he ed, and acquires (hades of brown.” See the article has met with feveral other moffes, vwhich on being prepared in the fame manner, acquire the fame coDyeing. The moft capital preparations from the leaves of lour. The moft expeditious way, he fays, of trying plants are thofe of indigo, and weld ; which are both whether a mofs will yield an archil or not, is to moiften very much ufed in dyeing, though the firft only in a little of it with a mixture of equal parts of fpirit painting *. Both the indigo and woad plants, give of fal ammoniac and ftrong lime water, and add a ’ out their colour, by proper management, to water, fmall proportion of crude fal ammoniac. The glafs 3g adudHon in form of a blue faecula or lake. M. Hellot fufpedts is then to be tied over with a piece of bladder, and indigo that a like blue faecula is procurable from many other fel by for three or four days. If the mofs is of the -ounted vegetables. Blue and yellow blended together, com- proper kind, the little liquor which runs from it. upon pofe a green. He fuppofes the natural greens in ve- inclining the veffel, will appear of a deep crimfon getables to be compounded in like manner of thefe colour ; and this afterwards evaporating, the plant two colours •, and that the blue is oftentimes the moft itfelf acquires the fame colour. Dr Lewis informs us, permanent, fo as to remain entire after the putrefac- that he has tried a good number of the common tion or deftruflion of the yellow. The theory is fpe- moffes, many both of the cruftaceous and foliaceous cious, and perhaps juft : we know of no other that kind, and not a few of the fungi j as alfo the herbs cha-i accounts in any degree for the production of the indigo momile and milfoil, which yield a blue effential oil; and and woad blue. Dr Lewis, however, informs us, that thyme, whofe oil becomes blue by digeftion with volahe never was able to produce the leaf! appearance of tile fpirits; but never met with any that yielded a coeither blue or yellow from any of the plants he tried lour like archil. Moft of them gave a yellow or by treating them in the manner ufed for the prepara- reddiftt brown tin6Iure. A few gave a deep red colour to the liquor : but when diluted, it (bowed a yel39 tion of indigo. lours There are fundry moffes, which in their natural lowifti caft, and when applied on cloth it gave only a yellowifti red. >ffes ftate) like the indigo and woad plants, promife nothing To thefe obfervations we (hall only add, that though Some* lug of the elegant colours that can be extracted from them by art. The moft remarkable of thefe is archil j for in general the blue colours of flowers are exceedingly flower* .naythe preparation of which, and the colours that may perilhable, there feem to be at lead two exceptions probably be produced from it,.fee the article. Linnaeus fu- to this Nrule 5 for the blue flowers of iris, or flower-yleld Perc0 fpefts that there are feveral other more common deduce, and thofe of columbine, when treated with " moffes from which valuable colours might be extract- folution of tin, yielded a colour tolerably permanent. ed : a quantity of fea-mofs, having rotted in heaps on Indeed when experiments are made with a view to the fhore, he obferved the liquor in the heaps to be extradl the colour from any part of a vegetable, it as red as blood ; the fea-water, the fun, and the will always be proper to try whether it can bear a putrefaCtion, having brought out the colour. Mr mixture with this folution. If the colour is not deKalm, in an appendix to Linnaeus’s paper, in 1745, ftroyed by it, there is a very great probability that the mentions two forts of moffes aCtually employed in folution will, by proper management, preferve, and Sweden for dyeing woollen red : one is the lichenoides give a durability to it, which could fcarce be obtained bjy t COL

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COL f 286 ] C O L C olour- by any other method. It mud, however, be obferved, judges it to be the beft way to break them in a mill, Colt. making that there are feveral fubftances ufed in colour-making, becaufe, that by endeavouring with their jaws to bruife sII which folution of tin cannot bear to be mixed with. and chew them, they ftretch and fwell their eye and Colt. Thefe are principally fugar of lead and cream of nether-jaw veins, which fo attraft the blood and hutartar, as well as all the calcareous earths and alka- 1 mours that they fall down upon the eyes, and frequently line falls. With alum it may be mixed very fafely, occafion the lofs of them ; fo that it is not the heating 4i and is in many cafes the better for it. The roots of quality of the oats, but the difficulty in chewing, that Colours fiom roots, plants, however, feem to promife more durability of is the caufe of their blindnefs. Further, colts thus fed with grain do not grow colour than the upper parts. We have feen a blue colour of confiderable durability and brightnefs prepar- thickifti upon their legs, but grow broader and better ed from the roots of common radifhes by expreffing the knit than if they had eaten nothing but hay and bran, juice, combining it with tobacco-pipe clay, and bright- and will endure fatigue the better. But above all ening it with a little alum. The root of the red beet they muft be kept from wet and cold, which are hurtis alfo faid to yield a durable colour of a beautiful red, ful to them, nothing being more tender than they are. inclining to fcarlet j but this we cannot affirm from our For proof of this, take a Spanifh ftallion, and let him cover two mares, which for age, beauty, and comeliown experience. 4* With regard to liquid colours for maps, &.c. we nefs may admit of no difference between them ; and Colours for maps. apprehend there can be very little difficulty in pre- if they produce both horfe-colts, or both fillies, which paring all the poffible varieties of them, if what we is one and the fame thing, let one run abroad, and the have above laid down is attended to. The only co- other be houfed every winter, kept warm, and ordinarilour with which there can be any difficulty is £/w; ly attended; and that colt which has been kept abroad but the common folution of indigo in alkalies or acids ffiall have la’ge fleftiy ffioulders, flabby and gnuty may be made to anfwer this purpofe, though, on ac- legs, weak patterns, and ill hoofs ; and fhall be a dull count of their ftrongly faline quality, they are not very heavy jade, in comparifon to the other which is houfed, proper. A very curious method of procuring a beau- and orderly kept; and which will have a fine forehead, tiful tranfparent blue colour is by extrafling the colour- be fine ffiaped, and have good legs and hoofs, and be ing matter from Pruffian blue, by means of a cauflic of good ftrength and fpirit ; by which you may know, alkali. This, when laid upon paper, appears of a dirty that to have the fineft ftallion, and the moft beautiful brown colour; but if waffied over with a weak folution mare, is nothing, if they are fpoiled in the breeding of green vitriol, is inftantly changed to a moft beauti- up. It is worth obfervation, that fome foals, under ful blue. This feems to afford a method of procuring fix months old, though their dams yield plenty of milk, blue tranfparent colours of greater beauty than they yet decay daily, and have a cough, proceeding from are ufually met with.—See fpecimens of tranfparent certain pellicles or fkins that breed in their ftomachs, colours prepared according to the above rules, on the which obftru£l; their breathing, and at laft deftroy them entirely. To remedy this malady, take the bag C/iar/ fubjoined to History. COLOURING, among painters, the manner of ap- wherein the colt was foaled, dry it, and give him as plying and conducing the colour of a piflure ; or the much of it in milk as you can take up with three finmixtures of light and ffiade, formed by the various co- gers ; but if you have not preferved the bag, procure the lungs of a young fox, and ufe it inftead of the lours employed in painting. See PAINTING. aforefaid powder. Colouring of Glafs. See Glass. It will be proper to let the colts play an hour or Colouring of 'Porcelain. See Porcelain. COLT, in Zoology, a general name for the young of two in fome court-yard, &c. when it is fair weather, the horfe kind : the male being likewife, for diftinc- provided you put them up again carefully, and fee that they take no harm. When the winter is fpent, tion’s fake, called a horfe-colt; the female, zflly. turn them into fome dry ground, where the grals is , After the colts have been foaled, you may fuffer r Dictionary, them to run with the mare till about Michaelmas, ftiort and fweet, and where there is good water, fooner or later, according as the cold weather comes in j that they may drink at pleafure ; for it is not necefthen they mull be weaned ; though fome perfons are for fary that a colt ffiould fill his belly immediately, like having them weaned after Martinmas, or the middle of a horfe that labours hard. The next winter you may November The author of the Complete Horfemnn is of take them into the houfe, and ufe them juft as you do opinion, that the reafon why moft foals advance fo (low- your other horfes; but let not your horfe-colts and ly, and are not capable of fervice till they are fix or fillies be kept together after the firft year. This mefeven years old, is becaufe they have not fuckled long thod may be obferved every fummer and winter till enough ; whereas, if they had fucked the whole winter you break them, which you may do after they have over, they would be as good at four or five years old been three years old ; and it will be a very eafy thing, if you obferve the aforefaid method of houfing them ; as they are now at eight. They ought now to be kept in a convenient houfe, for ordering them the fecond year as you do your with a low rack and manger for their hay and oats, other horfes, they will be fo tame and gentle, that which muft be fweet and good j with a little wheaten you need not fear their leaping, plunging, kicking, bran mixed with the oats to caufe them to drink, and or the like ; for they will take the faddle quietly. As to keep their bodies open. But, fince there are fome for all thofe ridiculous methods of beating and curbing who allege, that oats make foals become blind, or them, they are in effefl fpoiling them, whatever they their teeth crooked j the fame author is of opinion, call it, in ploughed fields, deep ways, or the like ; that oats will wear their teeth, and make them the inftead of which, let the rider ftrive to win them by fooner to change, and alfo to raze; therefore he gentle ufage, never corredting them but when it is neceffary,

COL C 287 ] C O L neceflavy, and then with judgment and moderation. meat till the evening, and then lead him out as be- Colt You will not need a caveffon of cord, which is a head fore ; and when you carry him in again to fet him ^ H drain, nor a pad of draw ; but only a common faddle* up, take off his faddle gently, clothing him for the , Conunba. and a common caveffon on his nofe, fuch as other night. COLTIE, a term ufed by timber-merchants, for a horfes are ridden with •, but it ought to be well lined with double leather ; and, if you pleafe, you may put defeiff or blemiih in fome of the annular circles of a on his mouth a watering bit, but without reins, -only tree, whereby its value is much diminidied. COLUBER, in Zoofogy, a genus of ferpents bethe head-dall, and this but for a few days; and then put on fuch a bit as he (hould be always ridden with ; longing to the order of amphibia. See Ophiology and be fure not to ufe fpurs for fome time after back- Index. COLUMB-KILL. See Iona. ing. Take notice, that as yearlings mud be kept aCOLUMBA, the Pigeon, in Ornithology, a genus broad together, fo thofe of two years old together ; and the like for thofe of three yearlings j which order- of birds belonging to the order of pafferes. See Ornithology Index.ing is mod agreeable to them. COLUMBA, St, in allufion to whofe name the In order to make him endure the faddle the better, the way to make it familiar to him will be by clap- iOand of Jona (one of the Hebrides), received its ping the faddle wdth your hand as it dands upon his name ; Jona being derived from a Hebrew word figback, by driking it, and fwaying upon it, dangling nifying a dove. This holy man, indigated by his zeal, the dirrups by his fides, rubbing them againd his tides, left his native country, Ireland, in the. year 565, with and making much of them, and bringing him to be fa- the pious defign of preaching the gofpel to the Puffs. miliar with all things about him ; as draining the It appears that he left hi* native foil with warm refentcrupper, fattening and loofening the girth*, and tak- ment, vowing never to make a fettlement within fight ing up and letting out the dirrups. Then, as to his of that hated idand. He made his fird trial at Oranmotion, when he will trot with the faddle obe- fay •, and finding that place too near to Ireland, tucdiently, you may wa(h a trench of a full mouth, and ceeded to his wifh at Hy, for that was the name of put the fame into his mouth, throwing the reins over Jona at the time of his arrival. He repeated here the the forepart of the faddle, fo that he may have a full experiment on feveral hills, ere£ting on each a heap of feeling of it •, then put on a martingale, buckled at dones; and that which he lad afeended is to thi* day fuch a length that he may but jud feel it when he called Carnan chul-reh-Einuni, or “ The eminence of jerks up his head ; then take a broad piece of leather, the back turned to Ireland. Columba was foon didinguidied by the fan fpades Ace j

Younger. Clubs, ace king — — • ■ nine Diamonds, ace king queen ■ knave —— nine Spades, ten Hearts, ten Rentree of the younger. Ten clubs Ten diamonds Ace hearts

If he againft ■whom you play, who is fuppofed to be elder hand, has named clubs for the repique, and has taken in five cards, you muft then lay out the qpeen, knave, and nine of diamonds, and you will have, with the three cards you take in, a fixiem major in clubs, and quatorze tens. If he leave one or trvo cards, you muft difcard all the diamonds. If he require to be repiqued in diamonds, then difcard the queen, knave, and nine of clubs : or all the clubs, if he leave two cards •, and will then have a hand of the fame ftrength as before. Note. If the adverfary ftiould difcard five of his hearts, you will not repique him, as he will then have a feptiem in fpades : or if he only take one card : but neither of thefe any one can do, who has. the .leaft knowledge of the game. If the perfon againft whom you play would be repiqued in hearts or Ipades, you muft deal the cards by twos, and the game will Hand thus; Elder hand. King Knave >- diamonds Nine Eight _

(e) This manoeuvre of piquet was invented by the cuuntefs of L ted by her to M. Guyot.,

Younger hand. Ace King } clubs Ace n T Queen ^ diamonds Queen (a French lady), and communica-

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Eider hand. Queen ") Knave | Nine J» clubs Eight | Seven J Sever, J1- hearts Eight Ipades Rentree Seven fpades Seven diamonds Nine 1 King V Tpades Ace J

COM Younger hand. Que< teen T Knave. ave > fpa des Ten J King Queen | Knave hearts Ten J Nine J Rentree. Ten clubs Ten diamonds Ace hearts

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If he require to be repiqued in hearts, you keep the quint to a king in hearts, and the ten of fpades, and lay out which of the reft you pleafe; then, even if he fh mid leave two cards, you will have a fixiem major in hearts, and quutorze tens, which will make a repique. But if he demand to be repiqued in fpades; at the end of the deal you nmft dexteroufly pafs the three cards that are at the h.’ttom of the ftock (that is, the ten of clubs, ten of diamonds, and ace of hearts) to the top (f), and by that means you referve the nine, king, and ace of fpades for yourfelf; fo that by keeping the quint in hearts, though you ftiould be obliged to lay out four cards, you will have a fixiem to a king in fpades, with which and the quint in hearts you muft make a repique. Obferve here likewife, that if the adverfary lay out only three cards, you will not make the repique ; but that he will never do, unlefs he be quite ignorant of the game, or has fome knowledge of your intention. Th is laft ftroke of piquet has gained great applaufe, when thofe that have, publicly performed it have known how to conduct it dexteroufly. Many perfons who underftand the nature of combining the cards, have gone as far as the paffxng the three cards from the bottom of the ftock, and have then been forced to confefs their ignorance of the manner in which it was performed. IX. “ The Metamorphofed Cards.” Provide 32 cards that are differently coloured, on which feveral different words are written, and different obje&s painted. Thefe cards are to be dealt two and two to four perfons, and at three different times, ftiuffling them each time. After the firft deal, every one’s cards are to be of the fame colour ; after the fecond deal they are all to have obje =‘ . ^ie bilhopric of Autun : on this account they w'ere fary fubje&ion ; or voluntary, with a defire of protec- CoinGlencalled commen da tor ij bifljops. tion ; and thofe who, by voluntary homage, put themIhis cuftora appears to be very ancient. St Atha- lelves under the protection of any man of power, were nafius fays of himfelf, according to Nicephoros, that fome times called homines ejus commendati, as often octhere had been given him in commendam, i. e. in ad- curs in Doomfday. Commendati dimidii were thofe who miniftration, another church befides that of Alexandria depended on two feveral lords, and paid one half of whereof he was ftated bifliop. their homage to each 5 and fub-commendati were like The care of churches, it feems, which had no paftor, under-tenants under the command of perfons that were was committed to a bifliop, till they were provided themfelves under the command of fome fuperior lord r tvith an ordinary : the regifler of Pope Gregory I. is alfo there were dimidii fub-commendati, who bore a full of thefe commiflions, or commendams, granted du- double relation to fuch depending lords. This phrafe ring the abfence or ficknefs of a bifliop, or the vacancy feems to be ftill in ufe in theufual compliment, “ Comof the fee. mend me to fuch a friend,” &c. which is to let him Some fay, that Pope Leo IV. firft eftabliflied the know7, “ I am his humble fervant.” modern commendams, in favour of ecclefiafties who had COMMENSURABLE, among geometricians, an been expelled their benefices by the Saracens j to whom appellation given to fuch quantities as are meafured by the adminifiration of the vacant churches was commit- one and the fame common meafure. ted for a time, in expectation of their being reftored 5 Commensurable Numbers, whether integers or though St Gregory is faid to have ufed the fame while fraCtions, are fueh as can be meafured or divided bv the Lombards defolated Italy. fome other number without any remainder ; fuch are In a little time the praCtice of commendams was ex- 12 and 18, as being meafured by 6 and 3. ceedingly abufed j and the revenues of monafteries giCOMMENSURABLE in Power, Is faid of right lines, ven to laymen for their fubfiftence. The biftiops alfo when their fquares are meafured by one and 'the fame procured feveral benefices, or even biflioprics, in com- fpace or fuperfices. mendam, which ferved as a pretext for holding them all COMMENSURABLE. Surds, thofe that being reduced without direCtly violating the canons. Part of the to their leait terms, become true figurative quantities abufe has been retrenched ; but the ufe of commendams of their kind j and are therefore as a rational quantity is ft ill retained as an expedient to take off the incompa- to a rational one. tibility of the perfon by the nature of the benefice. COMMENTARY, or Comment, in matters of liWhen a parfon is made bifliop, his parfonage becomes terature, an illuftration of the difficult or obfcure pafvacant j but if the king give him power he may ftill fages of an author. hold it in commendam. . Commentary, or Commentaries, likewife denotes a COMMENDATUS, one who lives under the pro* kind of hiftory, or memoirs of certain tranfaClions, teClion of a great man. Commendati homines, were wherein the author had a confiderable hand : fuch ars perfons who, by voluntary homage, put themfelves the Commentaries of Caefar.

COMMERCE, TS an operation by which the wealth, or work, either •A of individuals or of focieties, may be exchanged by a let of men called merchants, for an equivalent, proper for fupplylng every want, without any interruption to mduftry, or any check upon confumption. Chap. I. History of Commerce.. § I. General Hi/lory. It is a point as yet undecided by the learned, to what nation the invention and firft ufe of commerce belonged : fome attribute it to one people, fome to another, fim reafons that are too long to be difcuffed here. But it feems moft probable that the inhabitants of Arabia were thofe that firft made long voyages. It muft be allowed, that no country was fo happily fituated for this purpofe as that which they inhabited, being a peninfula waffied on three Tides by three famous leas, the Arabian, Indian, and Perfian. It is alfo certain, that it was very early inhabited j and the

firft notice we have of any confiderable trade refers it to the Iffimaelites, who were fettled in the hither part of Arabia. Lo them Jofeph was fold by his brethren, Avhen they were going down with their camels to Egypt with fpicery, balm, and myrrh. It may feem ftrange to infer from hence, that commerce was already pra£Hfed by this nation, fince mention is here, made of camels, or a caravan, which certainly implies an inland trade $ and it muft be likewife allowed, that balm and myrrh were the commodities of their country. But whence had they the fpicery ? Or how came Arabia to be fo famous in ancient times for fpices ? Or whence proceeded that miftake of many great authors of antiquity, that fpices actually grew there ? Moft certainly, becaufe thefe people dealt in them; and that they dealt in them the firft of any nation that we know of, appears from this very inftance. Strabo and many other good authors alfure us, that in fucceeding times they were very great traders : they tell us particularly what ports they had} what prodigious magazines they kept of the richeft* kinds

COMM tory, kinds of goods j what wonderful wealth they obtained ; y——' in what prodigious magnificence they lived, and into what exceffes they fell in refpedl to their expences for carving, building, and ftatues. All this (hows that they were very great traders j and it alfo (hows, that they traded to the Eaft Indies j and from thence only they could have their fpices, their rich gums, their fweet-fcented woods, and their ivory, all which it is exprefsly faid they had in the greateft abundance. This therefore proves, that they had an extenfive and flourilhing commerce j and that they had it earlier than any other nation, feems evident from their dealing at that time in fpices. Befides, there is much lefs difficulty in fuppofing that they firft difcovered the route to the Indies, than if we afcribe that difcovery to any other nation $ for, in the firft place, they lay neareft, and in the next they lay moft conveniently ; to which we may add, thirdly, that as the fituation of their country naturally inclined them to navigation, fo by the help of the monfoons they might make regular voyages to and from the Indies with great facility ; nor is it at all unlikely that this difcovery might be at firft owing to chance, and to fome of their veffels being blown by a ftrong gale to the oppofite coaft, from whence they might take the courage to return, by obferving the regularity of the winds at certain feafons. All thefe reafons taken together feem to favour this opinion, that commerce flouriffied firft among them ; and as to its confequences in making them rich and happy, there is no difpute about them. We find in the records of antiquity no nation celebrated more early for carrying all arts to perfedlion than the inhabitants of Egypt: and it is certain alfo, that ne art was there cultivated more early, with more affiduity, or with greater fuccefs, than trade. It appears from the foregoing inftance, that the richeft commodities were carried there by land ; and it is no iefs certain, that the moft valuable manufadlures were invented and brought to perfection there many ages before they were thought of in other countries j for, as the learned Dr Warburton very juftly obferves, at the time that Jofeph came into Egypt, the people were not only poffelfed of all the conveniences of life, but were remarkable alfo for their magnificence, their politenefs, and even for their luxury ; which argues, that traffic had been of long ftanding amongft them. To fay the truth, the great advantages derived from their country’s lying along the Red fea, and the many benefits that accrued to them from the Nile, which they very emphatically called The River, or The River of Egypt, and of which they knew how to make all the ufes that can be imagined, gave them an opportunity of carrying their inland trade not only to a greater height than in any country at that time, but even higher than it has been carried anywhere, China only excepted; and fome people have thought it no trivial argument to prove the defcent of the Chinefe from the Egyptians, that they have exaftly the fame lort of genius, and with wonderful induftry and care have drawn fo many cuts and canals, that their country is almoft in every part of it navigable. It was by luch methods, by a wife and well regulated government, and by promoting a fpirit of induftry amongft the people, that the ancient Egyptians became fo numerous, fo rich, fo powerful} and that

E R C E. 3°7 their country, for large cities, magnificent ftrmfture?, Hiftory. and perpetual abundance, became the glory and won- ' der of the world. The Phoenicians, though they pofteffed only a narrow flip of the coaft of Afia, and were furrounded by nations fo powerful and fo warlike that they were never able to extend themfelves on that fide, became famous, by erefting the firft naval power that makes any figure in hiftory, and for the raifing of which they took the moft prudent and effeflual meafures. In order to this, they not only availed themfelves of all the creeks, harbours, and ports, which nature had bertowed very liberally on their narrow territory, but improved them in fuch a manner, that they were no lefs remarkable for their ftrength than confiderable for their conveniency •, and fo attentive were they to whatever might contribute to the increafe of their power, that they were not more admired for the vaft advantages they derived from their commerce, than they were formidable by their fleets and armies. They were like wife celebrated by antiquity as the inventors of arithmetic and aftronomy ; and in the laftmentioned fcience they muft have been very confiderable proficients, fince they had the courage to undertake long voyages at a time when no other nation (the Arabians and Egyptians excepted) durft venture farther than their own coafts. By thefe arts Tyre and Sidon became the moft famous marts in the univerfe, and were reforted to by all their neighbours, and even by people at a confiderable diftance, as the great ftorehoufes of the world. We learn from the Scriptures how advantageous their friendffiip and alliance became to the two great kings of Ifrael, David and Solomon j and we fee, by the application of the latter for architefts and artifts to Hiram king of Tyre, to what a prodigious height they had carried manufactures of every kind. It is very certain that Solomon made ufe of their afliftance in equipping his fleets at Elath and Eziongeber; and it is very probable that they put him upon acquiring thofe ports, and gave him the firft hints of the amazing advantages that might be derived from, the pofleflion of them, and from the commerce he might from thence be able to carry on. Thefe ports were moft commodioufly fituated on the Arabian gulf 5 and from thence his veffels, manned chiefly by Phoenicians, failed to Ophir and Tharfis, wherever thofe places were. Some writers will needs have them to be Mexico and Peru, which is certainly a wild and extravagant fuppofition ; others believe that we are to look for Ophir on the coaft of Africa, and Tharfis in Spain ; but the moft probable opinion is, that they were both feated in the Eaft Indies. By this adventurous navigation, he brought into his country curiofities not only unfeen, but unheard of before, and riches in fuch abundance, that, as the Scripture finely expreffes it, “ He made filver in Jerufalem as ftones, and cedar-trees as fycamores that grow in the plains.” The metaphor is very bold and emphatical j but when we confider that it is recorded in this Hiftory, that the return of one voyage only to Ophir produced 450 talents of gold, which makes 51,328 pounds of our Troy weight, about 2,463,744!. fterling, we cannot doubt of the immenfe profit that accrued from this commerce. It is alfo obfervable that the queen of Qq2 Shebaa

3°8 COMM Hiftory. Sheba, or Saba, which lies in that part of Arabia be‘ v—fore mentioned, furprifed at the reports that were fpread of the magnificence of this prince, made a journey to his court on purpofeto fatisfy herfelf, whether fame had not exaggerated the fad j and from the prefents {he made him of 120 talents of gold (656,640!.), of fpices in great abundance, and precious hones, we may difcern the true reafon of her curiofity, which proceeded from an opinion that no country could be fo rich as her own. And there is another circumftance very remarkable, and which feems ftrongly to fortify what we have advanced in the beginning of this fedion ; it is added, neither were there any fuch fpices as the queen of Sheba gave to King Solomon j” which feems to intimate, that the Arabians had penetrated farther into the Indies than even the fleets of this famous prince, and brought from thence other fpices (perhaps nutmegs and cloves) than had ever been feen before. It was by his wifdom, and by his fteady application to the arts of peace, all of which mutually fupport each other, as they are all driven on by the wheel of commerce, which fupplies every want, and converts every fuperfluity into merchandife, that this monarch railed his fubjeds to a condition much fuperior to that of any of their neighbours, and rendered the land of Ifrael, while he governed it, the glory and wonder of the Eaft. He made great acquifitions without making wars $ and his fuccefi'or, by making wars, loft thole acquifitions. It was his policy to keep all his people employed ; and, by employing them, he provided equally for the extenfion of their happinefs, and his own power $ but the following kings purfued other meafures, and other confequences attended them. The trade of Judea funk almoft as fuddenly as it rofe, and in procefs of time they loft thofe ports on the Red, fea, upon which their Indian commerce depended,. The whole trade of the univerfe became then, as it were, the patrimony of the Phoenicians and the Egyptians. The latter monopolized that of the Indies, and, together with her corn and manufaftures, brought fuch a prodigious balance of wealth continually into the country, as enabled the ancient monarchs of Egypt to compafs all thofe memorable works that in fpite of time and barbarous conquerors remain the monuments of their wifdom and power, and are like to remain fo as long as the world fubfifts. The Phoenicians drew from Egypt a great part of thofe rich commodities and valuable manufaffures which they exported into all the countries between their own and the Mediterranean fea j they drew likewife a vaft refort to their own cities, even from countries at a great diftance 5 and we need only look into the prophets Ifaiah and Ezekiel in order to be convinced that fhefe governments, founded on trade, were infinitely more glorious and more liable than thofe that were ereffed by force. All this w'e find likewife confirmed by profane hiftories ; and by comparing thefe, it is evident, that the induftry of the inhabitants of this fmall country triumphed over all obftacles, procured the greateft plenty in a barren foil, and immenfe riches, where, without induftry, there mull have been the greateft indigence. It is true, that old Tyre was deftroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, but not till (he had flouxifhed for ages j and even then Ihe fell with- dig-

E R C E. nity, and after a refiftance that ruined the army of Hiflorr the great conqueror of Afia. Qut of the afties of1 ( this proud city the great fpirit of its inhabitants produced a phoenix, little, if at all, inferior in beauty to its parent. New Tyre was fituated on an ifland $ and though her bounds were very narrow, yet (he became quickly the miftrefs of the fea, and held that fuprenie dominion till fubdued by Alexander the Great, whom no power could refill. The ftruggle Ihe made, however, though unfuccefsful, was great, and very much to the honour of her inhabitants : it mull be owned,, that the Greek hero found it more difficult to mailer this fingle place, than to overcome the whole power of Perfia. The views of the Macedonian prince were beyond comparifon more extenfive than his conquefts $ and whoever confiders Alexander’s plan of power, and enters into it thoroughly, will think him more a politician than he was a conqueror. He framed in hK own mind an idea of univerfal monarchy, which it was indeed impoffible to aceomplilh } but the very notion of it does him far greater honour than all his victories. He thought of placing his capital in Arabia j and of dilpofing things in fuch a manner, as to have commanded the molt remote part of the Indies, at the fame time that he maintained a connexion with the moll diftant countries in Europe. He was for making ufe of force to acquire, but he very well knew, that commerce only could preferve, an empire,, that was to have no other limits than thole which nature had affigned the world. He delired to be mailer of all ; but at the fame time he was willing to be a wife and gracious mailer, and to place his happinefs in that of his people, or rather in making all the nations of the eaith but one people. A vaft, an extravagant, an impradicable feheme it was, of which he lived not long enough to draw the outlines; but the fample he left in his new city of Alexandria fufficiently Ihows how juft and how corred his notions were, and how true a judgment he had formed of what might be effeded by thofe methods upon which he depended. That city, which he might be faid to defign with his own hand, and which was built, as it were, under his eye, became in fuceeeding times ail that he expeded, the glory of Egypt, and the centre of commerce for feveral ages. While Tyre was in the height of her glory, and had y no rival in the empire of the fea, Ihe founded her noble colony of Carthage on the coaft of Africa. The fituation of the city was everywhere admirable, whether confidered in the light of a capital, of a ftrong fortrefs, or of a commodious port. It was equally diftant from all the extremities of the Pdediterranean fea, had a very fine country behind it, and was not in the neighbourhood of any power capable of reftraining its commerce or its growth. It is almoit inexprellible how' foon its inhabitants became not only numerous and wealthy, but potent and formidable. Ey degrtes they extended themfelves on all fides, conquered the bell part of Spain, and ereded there a new Carthage y the illands of Sicily and Sardinia, or at lealt the beft; part of them, fubmitted likewife to their yoke.. Their conquefts, however, were inconfiderable in extent, when compared with their navigation. On one lid? they ftretchsd as far vvdlward as Britain j and the

COMMERCE. 309 fiiftory. the Scdlly iflands, which are now fo inconfiderable, te&ed her inhabitant?, they took every meafure pofli- JJiftory. —y—j were to them an Indies, the route to which they ufed ble to preferve her commerce j and this with fo good y-"—* the utmoft induttry to conceal. On the other hand, an effecft, that (he a&ually preferved it longer than they difcovered a great part of the coaft of Africa, Rome herfelf could preferve her power. She followthe Canary iilands $ and fotne there are who believe ed, indeed, the fortune of the empire, and became at they firft found the way to America. While they laft dependent upon Conftantinople, when its founder xonfigned themfelves to trade, and the arts which be- removed thither the capital of the empire j and his longed thereto, their power was continually increa- fucceflbr found means to transfer alfo a part of the fing ; but when induftry gave way to luxury, and a trade of Alexandria to the fame place. Yet this city fpirit of ambition baniihed their old maxims of fruga- continued ftill to hold up her head, and though (he lity and labour, their acquifitions remained at a Hand. funk under the barbarous power of the Arabs, yet The Romans began to grow jealous of their naval they grew poliftied by degrees ; by degrees (he repower, which it coft them two obftinate wars of 40 covered fomewhat of her ancient pre-eminence j and years continuance to humble. When (he was at length though (he never rofe to any thing like her former deftroyed, her very ruins were majeftic j for at the luftre, yet (he remained the centre of what little trade beginning of the third fatal Punic war, this city con- there was in the world j which is more than can be faid tained 700,000 inhabitants alone, and had 300 cities of almoft any place that has fallen under the Mohamin Africa under her dominion. Such was the empire medan power. of Carthage, railed entirely by commerce : and to When the Roman empire was overrun by barbariwhich, if the had been content to have applied herfelf ans, and arts and fciences funk with that power which with the fame fteadinefs in her higheft profperity as in had cultivated and prote&ed them, commerce alfo viher early beginnings, there is no doubt (lie had pre- fibly declined; or, to fpeak with greater propriety, ferved her freedom much longer than (lie did j for as was overwhelmed and loft. When that irruption qf economy, diligence, and good faith, are the pillars of various nations had driven the Ronaan policy out qf a commercial (late ; fo when thefe are once (haken, it the greateft part of Europe, fome draggling people, is not only natural that (he (liould decline, but alfo either forced by necefflty, or led by inclination, took unavoidable. (belter in a few draggling iflands that lay near the The Ptolemies, who were the fucceffors of Alex- coaft of Italy, and which would never have been ander in Egypt, entered deeply into that hero’s fcheme, thought worth inhabiting in. a time of peace. This and reaped the benefit of his wife eftabliftunent. Pto- was in the 6th century ; and at their firft fixing there lemy Philadelphus, by encouraging trade, made his they had certainly nothing more in view than living in fubjefts immenfely rich, and himfelf inexpreflibly a tolerable ftateof freedom, and acquiring a fubfiftence powerful. We are told by an ancient author, that he as well as they could. Thefe illands being divided had 120 galleys of war of an enormous fize, and up- from each other by narrow channels, and thofe chanwards of 4000 other veffels, fmall and great. This nels fo encumbered by (hallows that it was impoflible would appear incredible, if other wonders were not for ftrangers te navigate them, thefe refugees found related of him, which feem to explain and confirm therafelves tolerably fafe ; and uniting amongft themthefe. He raifed a new city on the coaft of the Red felves for the fake of improving their condition, and fea; he was at an immenfe expence in opening har- augmenting their fecurity, they became in the 8th bours, conftrufling quays, in railing inns at proper century a well-fettled government, and affumed the diflances on the road, and in cutting a canal from fea form of a republic. to fea. A prince who comprehended the importance Simple and mean as this relation may appear, yet it of commerce to a degree that induced him to dajre is a plain and true account of the rife, progrefs, and fuch expences as thefe, might have what treafures, eftablilhment of the famous and potent republic qf Vewhat armies, what fleets he pleafed. In his time, nice. Her beginnings were indeed weak and (low j Alexandria appeared in pomp and fplendqur. She but when the foundation was once ivell laid, her owed her birth to Alexander 5 but it was Ptolemy, growth was quick, and the increafe of her power who caught a double portion of his mailer’s (pirit, amazing. She extended her commerce on all fides j which raifed her to that magnificence that ages could and taking advantage of the barbarous maxims of the not deface. We may guefs at what Ihe was in her Mohammedan monarchies, (he drew to herfelf the glory, .by what we are told was the produce of her profits of the Indian trade, and might, in fome fenfe, cuftoms, which fell little Ihort of two millions of our be faid to make Egypt a province, and the Saracens money annually ; and yet we cannot fuppofe that her fubje&s. By this means her traffic fwelled beyond Ptolemy, who underftood trade fo well, would cramp conception; (lie became the common mart of all nait by high duties, or extravagant impofitions. When tions ; her naval power arrived at a prodigiou? height; the revenue of the prince from a Angle port was fo and making ufe of every favourable conjun6iure, (he great, what muft have been the riches of his fubje&s ? ftretched her conqueft not only over the adjacent terBut what (hows us Alexandria in the higheft point ra firrua of Italy, but through the iflands of the Arof light, is the credit (lie maintained after Egypt funk chipelago, fo as to be at once miftrefs of the fea, of from an empire into a province. The Romans them- many fair and fruitful countries, and of part of the felves were (truck with the majefty of her appearance ; great city of Conftant.rnople itfelf. But ambition, and and though till then they had little regarded traffic, the defire of lording it over her neighbours, brought yet they were not long before they comprehended upon her thofe evils which firft produced a decay of the advantages of fuch a port, and fuch a mart- as trade and then a declenfion of power. General hxAlexandria: they confirmed her privileges, they pro- ftories indeed afcribe this to the league of Cambray, whea^

3io COMMERCE. Hiftory. when all the great powers in Europe combined againft obferved by the Greeks and Romans. The Teutonic this republic : and in truth, from that period the Hanfe grew in a ftiort time to fo high a rank in power finking of her power is truly dated : but the Venetian and authority by the immenfe riches it acquired, that writers very juftly obferve, that though this effedl princes themfelves rendered it a fincere homage from followed the league, yet there was another more la- principles of cfteem and admiration. Thofe of the tent, but at the fame time a more effedtual caufe, north principally had frequent occafion for their crewhich was, the falling off of their commerce ; and dit, and borrowed of them confiderable fums. The they have ever fince been more indebted to their wif- grand mafters of the Teutonic order, who were at dom than their power j to the prudent concealing that time fovereigns of Livonia, declared themfelves of their own weaknefs, and taking advantage of the confervators of the rights and privileges of the Hanfe : errors of their enemies, than to any other caufe, for all fucceeded, not only to, but beyond their wifties j their keeping up that part which they {till bear, and and Germany, charmed with their progrefs, looked which had been loft long ago by any other nation but on them with the fame eyes as a curious gardener themfelves. does on certain rare plants, though not of his own At the fame time that Venice rofe, as it were, out railing and culture. The kings of France and Engof the fea, another republic was eredted on the coaft land granted alfo various privileges to the Teutonic of Italy. There could not well be a worfe fituation confederacy; they exempted the ir veffels in cafe iof than the narrow, marftiy, unprofitable, and unwhole- ftiipvvreck from all demands whatfoever from the adfome iflands in the Adriatic, except the rocky, barren, miralty, or from private perfons ; they forbade any and inhofpitable {bores of Liguria ; and yet as com- difturbance to their navigation at all times, and even merce raifed Venice the Rich on the one, fo Are erect- when France was at war with the emperor, or the ed Genoa the Proud on the other. In fpite of ambi- princes of the north. In fine, during the courfe of tious and warlike neighbours, in fpite of a confined thefe unhappy wars which were ftyled Croifadej, the and unproducing country, and, which were ftill great- Hanfe was fignally confulted, and gave always puifer impediments, in fpite of perpetual factions and fant fuccours in money and in {hips to the Chriftians fucceflive revolutions, the trade of Genoa made her oppreffed by infidels. It is aftonilhing that cities at fo rich and great. Her merchants traded to all countries, great a diftance from each other, fubjeft to different and throve by carrying the commodities of the one to kings, fometimes in open war, but always jealous of the other. Her fleets became formidable ; and, be- their rights, ftiould be able to confederate and live tofides the adjacent ifland of Corfica, {he made larger gether in fo ftridt an union. But when this union had and important conquefts. She fixed a colony at Caffa, rendered them very rich and powerful, it cannot feem and was for fome time in poffeflion of the coafts on at all {{range, that on the one hand they grew arroboth fides of the Black fea. That emulation which gant and overbearing, took upon them not only to is natural to neighbouring nations, and that jealoufy treat with fovereigns on the foot of equality, but even which rifes from the purfuit of the fame miftrefs, com- to make war with them, and more than once with merce, begat continual wars between thefe rival re- fuccefs. It will, on the other hand, appear ftill lefs publics j which, after many obftinate and bloody bat- {{range, that fuch behaviour as this awakened various tles, were at laft terminated in favour of Venice, by princes to a more particular view of the dangers that that famous vidlory of Chiozzo gained by her doge fuch a league might produce, and the advantages that Andrew Contarini, from which time Genoa never pre- would naturally flow to their refpeftive ftates, by retended to be miftrefs of the fea. Thefe quarrels were covering their trade thus made over, at leaft in foms fatal to both 5 but what proved more immediately part to others, entirely to themfelves ; and thefe, in deftruftive to the Genoefe, was their avarice, which few words, were the caufes of the gradual declenfion induced them to abandon the fair profits of trade for of the Hanfeatic alliance, which is now totally difthe fake of that vile method of acquiring wealth by folved, although the cities of Lubeck, Hamburgh, ufury. All Italy is now fubjeft to France. and Bremen, maintain fufficient marks of that fplenBut we muft now look to another part of the world. dour and dignity with which this confederacy was In the middle age of the German empire, that is, once adorned. about the middle of the 13th century, there was We muft now turn our eyes to Portugal and Spain, formed a confederacy of many maritime cities, or at where in the fpace of about 50 years there happened leaft of cities not far from the fea. This confederacy a train of events which gradually led on to fuch diffolely regarded commerce, which they endeavoured to coveries as changed the whole face of affairs in the promote and extend, by interefting therein a great commercial world, and gave to the knowledge of laternumber of perfons, and endeavouring to profit by ages what for fome thoufand years had been kept fe« their different views and different lights. Though the cret from all mankind ; we mean a perfedf and diftindt cities of Germany held the principal rank in the Teu- notion of that terraqueous globe which they inhabit. tonic Hanfe, they did not however forbear affociating The kingdom of Portugal was fmall, but well cultivamany other cities, as well in France as in England and ted, very populous, and bleffed with a variety of good in the Low Countries } the whole, however, without ports j all which, however, had flood them in little hurting the authority, without prejudice to the fights ftead, if they had not had a fucceflion of wife princes of the fovereign on whom they depended. This confe- who, inftead of involving themfelves in war with deracy had its laws, its ordinances, and its judgments, their neighbours to gratify their ambition, endeavourwhich were obferved with the fame refpeft as the ma- ed to extend the happinefs and wealth of their fubjefts, ritime code of the Rhodians, who paffing for the ab- and confequently their own power, in the fofter and left feamen in all antiquity, their conftitutions were more fuccefsful method of protefting arts and fciences, encouraging

COMMERCE. 311 : Hiltory. encouraging induflry, and favouring trade. This, with eftablilhing colonies and manufaftures; of export- Hiftory. '"-—v the convenient fituation of their country, in the begin- ing and importing commodities, and of raifing, fet- -v— ning of the 15th century, prompted fome lively fpirits tling, and protediing new manufaftures. By this to attempt dilcoveries; and thefe, countenanced by a means, as the reader cannot but perceive, not only heroic young prince, pulhed on their endeavours with particular nations brought about fignal advantages to fuch fuccefs, that ftep by ftep the coaft of Africa was themfelves, but Europe in general received a lafting furveyed as far as the Cape of Good Hope, to which and invaluable benefit; for its potentates made themthey gave that name. The point they had in view felves formidable, and even terrible in thofe diftant was a new route to the Eaft Indies, which Vafquez parts of the earth, where their fame had hardly reachde Gama happily difcovered j and in a ftiort fpace of ed before. It is however true, that this has not been time Portugal, from one of the leaf! confiderable, grew carried, on as high as it might have been j for though to be one of the richeft powers in Europe, gained pro- there was room enough for every nation to have had digious dominions in Afia and Africa, and raifed a its ffiare, and though it might be demonftrated that naval power fuperior to any thing that had been feen the good of the whole would have contributed fuffifor many ages before. ciently to the profit of every ftate, the fubjecls See Colum- But while this was doing, Chriftopher Columbus, a of which had engaged in this traffic ; yet inftead of bus (Chrif- Genoefe of great capacity, though of almoft unknown profecuting fo natural and fo equitable a meafure^ tocher) original, who had been bred to the fea from his youth, they have taken a quite contrary courfe ; and by deand who had carefully fludied what others made a crying, attacking, and deftroying each other, have trade, formed in his mind the amazing projeft of very much leffened that prodigious reverence which countera&ing experience, and failing to the Indies by the Afiatics, Africans, and Americans, at firft had for a weftern courfe. He offered this projeft to the Portu- the inhabitants of Europe. guefe, by whom it was confidered and rejefted as a The naval power of the Portuguefe received an inchimera. He propofed it afterwards to other ftates, curable wound by falling under the power of the but with no better fortune j and at laft owed the dif- Spaniards $ and though human policy would have fugcovery of the New World to the high fpirit of a he- gefted, that this alone muft have raifed the latter to the roine, the famous Ifabella, queen of Caftile, who al- monopoly of commerce, and the. univerfal dominion xnoft at her own expence, and with very little counte- of the fea j yet the very purfuit of a defign fo vifibly nance from her hulband, who yet was ftyled Ferdi- detrimental to the intereft of mankind, proved very nand the Wife, furnilhed the adventurous Columbus quickly their ruin alfo. For the Spaniards, from the with that poor fquadron, with which, at once, in fpite natural haughtinefs of their temper, milled by the «f all the difficulties that the envy of his officers, and boundlefs ambition of their princes, and endeavouring 4he obftinacy of his mutinous crew, threw in his way, to become the lords of Europe, forced other nations in be perfefted his delign, and laid open a new Indies, their own defence to make a much quicker progrefs though in reality he aimed at the difcovery of the old. in navigation than otherwife they could have done. Neither was this noble effort of his matchlefs under- For the Engliffi and Dutch, who till this time feemed iftanding defeated j for after his deceafe, Ferdinand blind to the advantages of their fituation, had their Magellan, a Portuguefe, propofed to the emperor eyes opened by the injuries they received $ and by deCharles V. the difcovery of a paffage to the fpice grees the paffion of revenge infpired them with defigns iflands by the South feas, which was what Columbus that poffibly public fpirit would never have excited. In aimed at j and though Magellan lived not to return, ffiort, the pains taken by Spain to keep all the riches yet in one voyage the difcovery was perfedled. It is that flowed from thefe difcoveries to herfelf, and the inconceivable almoft how many and how great benefits dangerous, deteftable, and deftru&ive purpofes to accrued to Europe from thefe difcoveries j of which, which ftie applied the immenfe wealth that flowed in however, it is certain, that the Portuguefe made a upon her from them, produced effedls direttly oppofite very indifferent,#and the Spaniards a much worfe, ufe ; to thofe which ffie propofed, and made her enemies the former making flaves of, and the latter rooting rich, great, powerful, and happy, in proportion as her out the natives. This, as it was a moft ungrateful commerce dwindled away, and as her naval power return to divine Providence for fo high a bleffing 5 fo funk and crumbled to pieces, merely by an improper it might have been eafily forefeen it would prove, as difplay, an ill-managed exertion, and a wrong applicaexperience has ffiown it did prove, highly prejudicial tion of it. to their own interefts, by depopulating very fine counIt was from hence that the inhabitants of the Seven tries, which have been thereby turned into deferts : Provinces, whom her oppreffion had made poor, and her and though on their firft difcovery infinite treafures feverities driven mad, became firft free, then potent, were returned from them, which were coined in the and by degrees rich. Their diftreffes taught them mints of Spain $ yet by an obftinate purfuit of this the neceffity of eftabliffiing a moderate and equal gofalfe policy, the Spaniffi iflands in the Weft Indies are j the mildnefs of that government, and the now brought fo low as to be fcarce worth keeping. vernment which it procured to its fubjefts, raifed The confequences that naturally followed on the difco- bleffings their number elevated their hopes. The confevery of a paffage by the Cape of Good Hope, and quences becameandquickly and in a ffiort time of a fourth part of the globe in the weftern hemi- amazing both to friends vifible, enemies} every fiffifphere, were, as it has been already hinted, the caufe of ing village improved into a and trading town 5 their little an entire change in the ftate of Europe, and pro- towns grew up into large and magnificent cities j duced, not only in Portugal and Spain, but in moft other their inland boroughs were filled with manufactures $ Rations, a defire of vifiting thefe remote parts j of and in lefs than half a century the diftreffed States of Holland

3^2 COMM E R C E. Hifto-y. Holland becafne high and mighty $ nay, in fpite of tons, till by degrees perhaps they taught the latter to *—tlie dangers and expences which attended a war made make fome improvements in thofe flight leather ‘ all that time againft a fuperior force, thefe people, wicker boats, which they ufed for paffing their own furrounded with enemies, loaded with taxes, expofed rivers, and creeping along their coafts, till at laft they to perfonal fervice, and to a thoufand other difad- ventured therhfelves over to Gaul, and entered upon vantages, grew up to fuch a ftrength as not only made fome kind of correfpondence with their neighbours. the Spaniards defpair of reducing them any more un- All this is fo deducible from the laws of nature, that der th eir dominion, but inclined them to wifri^ and at we might have conceived thus much by the light of laft forced them to folicit, their friendfhip. reafon, if we had not the Commentaries of Caefar to ’I his, at lead as far as ancient or modern hiftories guide us, and to ftrengthen by the authority of hiftory, inform us, was the quickefl and ftrongeft of all the the fadls that might have been found out by the force produftions of commerce that the world has ever feen. of rational conjecture. For it is beyond difpute that the republic of the Things were precifely in this fituation when the United Provinces owes her freedom, her power, and Romans invaded Britain ; and there is no doubt that her wealth, entirely to induftry and trade. The our anceftors falling under the power of that empire, greateft part of the country is far from being fertile: and under its power at a time when, with refpeift to and what is fo, produces not enough to fuffice the tenth arts and fciences, it was in a moft flourifhing condition, part of the inhabitants for the tenth part of the year : was a great advantage to them $ and though from the climate is rather tolerable than wholfome; and their love of civil liberty, which, when under the diits havens are rather advantageous from the difficulty reftion of reafon, is the moft natural and laudable of of entering them, than from their commodioufnefs in all paffions, they made a long and vigorous, and in any other refpeft. Of native commodities they have fome fenfe a noble and glorious, refiftancej yet by few or none j timber and maritime ftores are entirely degrees they caught the manners and cuftoms of their wanting; their country cannot boaft fo much as of a coal- conquerors, and grew content to be happy rather than mine ; and yet thefe provinces upon whom nature has free. With learning and politenefs the Romans inbeftowed fo little, in confequence of an extenfive troduced foreign commerce $ and according to the trade, are enriched with all things. Their ftore- nature of their policy, as they made high roads through houfes are full of corn, even when the harveft in corn- the iftand, eftablifhed colonies in proper places, and countries fails j there is no commodity, however bul- fixed ftanding camps, which were a kind of fortreffes, ky, or fcarce and hard to be come at, which may not where they thought proper ; fo they were no lefs be had from their magazines. The fhipping of Hol- careful W'ith regard to marts or emporiums for the land is prodigious j and to fee the quantities of naval conveniency of traders, and of which what they found ftores with which their yards and ports abound, afto- was uncertain ; but that they left many, is without niffies thofe who are unacquainted with the vigour of queftion j and among the reft London, which is not 4hat caufe which produces this abundance. But above more famous for her prefent extenfive trade, than veall, the populoufnefs of this country is the greateft mi- nerable for her unrecorded antiquity. racle. That men fliould refort to a Canaan, and defire When the Romans unwillirfgly left Britain, and the to live in a land flowing with milk and honey, is no- Britons as unwillingly made way for the Saxons, a thing ftrange; but that they ffiould make it their new deluge of barbarity overflowed this ifland j alchoice to force nature, to raife palaces, lay out gar- moft all the improvements of our civilized conquerors dens, dig canals, plant woods, and ranfack all the were effaced j and upon the eftablifhment as it were quarters of the earth for fruits and flowers, to produce of a new people, things were all to begin again. an artificial paradife in a dead plain, or upon an un- This neceffarily took up a great deal of time ; and grateful heath in the midft of fogs and ftanding lakes, before they were in any tolerable pofture, the Saxons would in fo critical an age as this pafs for a fable, if found themfelves diftreffed by frefli fwarms of barbathe country did not lie fo near us a« to put the truth of rians. Yet there ftill remain fome evidences of their it out of queftion. It is now fubjefl to France. having been acquainted with, inclined to, and, if their circumftances would have permitted, moft certainly § 2. Britijh Hifiory. would have entered upon and carried foreign comWe may eafily conceive, that foreign commerce by merce to a great height. We have authentic teftithe natives of this ifland muft have been a work of monies, that Alfred the Great formed projects of vaft time ; for men firft think of neceffaries, then of con- difeoveries to the North, as he adlually fent perfons veniences, and laft of fuperfluities. Thofe who came of great prudence and abilities into the Eafl:; and the originally from the continent might have better no- curiofities which they brought home were for many tions of things *, but as it muft be prefumed that ei- ages preferved in the treafury of the church of Salifther fear of indigence drove them hither, fo it is eafy bury. to apprehend that fuccetding generations muft for fome As for the Danes, they were not long our mafters; time fink much below their anceftors in their notions but as they became fo by a maritime force, and as of the commodities of life $ and, deriving their man- their countrymen had eftabliftied themfelves not only ners from their circumftances, become quite another on the oppofite (bore of France, but in other parts of fort of people. But thofe on the oppofite continent, Europe, it is reafonable to believe that they held fome knowing that this ifland was inhabited, and having correfpondence with them from thence $ and that, the ufe, though in ever fo imperfeft a degree, of vef- if their dominion had lafted longer, this might have fels and of foreign traffic, came over hither, and bar- been better regulated, and produ&ive of many advantered their goods for the raw commodities of the Bri- tages. But they had foon to do with their brethren 2

t

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C O M iM E R C E. 315 Principle*. Hiftory. another way ) for the Normans, men of the fame Chap. II. Principles o/*Commerce. ' — ¥—.. race, but better eftabliihed in another country, difpoffeffed them here j and partly-under colour of right, Sect. I. Origin of Trade. partly by force, erefted that monarchy, which, not without various alterations and changes, fubfilfs even to our times, and to the fubfiftence of which, with the The moft fimple of all trade is that which is carhelp of thofe changes and alterations, we owe that ried on by bartering the neceffary articles of fubfifthappy.conftitution under which we live $ that univer- ence. If we fuppofe the earth free to the firlt poffal improvement which adorns the face of our country } feflbr, this perfon who cultivates it will firft draw that doitteftic trade which nourilhes fo numerous a peo- from it his food, and the furplus will be the objeft of ple, by plentifully rewarding their induftry ; and that barter : he will give this in exchange to any one who extenfive commerce which is at once the fource of our will fupply his other wants. This naturally fuppofes both a furplus quantity of food produced by labour, wealth and the fupport of our liberty. It cannot be expefled, that in a work like this we and alfo free hands $ for he who makes a trade of agriftiould attempt to trace the progrefs of trade through culture cannot fupply himfelf with all other neceffaries, every reign ; (how how it was encouraged and proteft- as well as food j and he who makes a trade of fupplyed, or difcountenanced and checked ; what occafions ing the farmers with fuch nectflaries, in exchange for were luckily ft ized, or what opportunities unfortunate- his furplus of food, cannot be employed in producing ly loft. It may be fufficient for us, after what has that food. The more the neceflities of man increafe, been already faid, to obferve, that the opinion com- the more free hands are required to fupply them $ and monly entertained, of our having little or no trade be- the more free hands are required, the more furplus food fore the reign of Queen Elizabeth, is very far from muft be produced by additional labour, to fupply their demand. being well founded. In fadl, the reign of that princefs was great and This is the leaft complex kind of trade, and may be glorious in whatever light we confider it; but it was carried on to a greater or lefs extent, in different moft fo in this, that under Providence, it became countries, according to the different degrees of the great and glorious by the wifdom and prudence of the wants to be fupplied. In a country where there is no queen and her minifters. The Englilh nation never money, nor any thing equivalent to it, the wants of was in fo defperate a condition as at her acceflion. mankind will be confined to few objefts j to wit, the The crown was in debt, the treafury empty, the na- removing the inconveniences of hunger, tbirft, cold, tion involved in a foreign war dire&ly againft her own heat, danger, and the like. A free man, who by his interefts, her coafts naked ; in a word, without credit induftry can procure all the comforts of a fimple life, abroad, and without concord at home, no fettled reli- will enjoy his reft, and work no more $ and, in genegion, the great men fplit into factions, and the com- ral, all increafe of work will ceafe, fo foon as the demon people diftrafted and dejected. Sad cireumftances mand for the purpofes mentioned comes to be fatisfiedthefe ! and yet from hence arofe the grandeur of that There is a plain reafon for this. When the free hands reign, and the eftablilhment of our commerce. The have procured, by their labour, wherewithal to fupply queen found herfelf obliged to aft with great caution, their wants, their ambition is fatisfied ; fo foon as the to derive afliftance from every quarter, to employ it hulbandmen have produced the neceffary furplus for faithfully, and to promote to the utmoft of her power relieving theirs, they work no more. Here then is the welfare of her fubjefts, whom nothing but the pu- a natural ftop put to induftry, confequently to barblic-fpiritednefs of her government could enable to tering. grow rich enough to fupport the necelfary expences of The next thing to be examined is, how bartering the crown. It was this gave a popular turn to her grows into trade, properly fo called, and underftood, councils. She encouraged her fubjefts to arm againft according to the definition given of it above ; how the Spaniards, that they might be accuftomed to the trade becomes to be extended among men ; how mafea, and acquire that knowledge in navigation, with nufaftures, more ornamental than ufeful, come to be which, till then, they had been unacquainted. She eftablifhed *, and how men come to fubmit to labour, paffed many laws for the public good, erefted feveral in order to acquire what is not abfolutely nectffary for companies, and faw that thofe companies purfued the them. ends for which they were erefted ; in fhort, (he did This, in a free fociety, is chiefly owing to the inevery thing that could be expefted, during the whole troduftion of money, and a tafte for fuperfluities in courfe of her reign, to excite and encourage induftry thofe who poffefs it. at home, and to enable us to make a proper figure a- In ancient times money was not wanting ; but the broad. In a word, fhe furnifhed us with ftock and tafte for fuperfluities not being in proportion to it, credit, put us upon improving our commodities and the fpecie was locked up. This was the cafe in Eumanufaftures, brought the art of fhip-building amongft rope four hundred years ago. Anew tafte for fuperus, filled our ports with able feamen, fhowed a juft re- fluity has drawn, perhaps, more money into circulafpeft to Englifh merchants, reduced Ireland fo as to tion, from our own treafures, than from the mines of render it beneficial to Britain, and approved our fend- the jjew world. The poor opinion we entertain of ing colonies into America ; and thus the feeds of Bri- the riches of our forefathers, is founded upon the motifti wealth were fown in her time, though the harveft dern way of eftimating wealth, by the quantity of coin was reaped in the days of her fucceflbrs. See the ar- in circulation, from which we conclude, that the greatticles Coalery, Colony, Fisheries, Manufac- eft part of the fpecie now in our hands muft have come tures, Shipping, and Trade. from America. Hr Vol. VI. Part I. It

314 Principles.

COMM It is more, therefore, through the tafte of fuperfluity, than in confequence of the quantity of coin, that trade comes to be eftablilhed ; and it is only in confequence of trade that we fee induftry carry things in our days to fo high a pitch of refinement and delicacy. Let us illuftrate this, by comparing together the different operations of barter, {ale, and commerce. When reciprocal wants are fupplied by barter,, there is not the fmalleft occafion for money : this is the moft fimple of all combinations.. When wants are multiplied, bartering becomes more difficult : upon this money is introduced. This is the common price of all things r it is a proper equivalent in the hands of thofe who want, perfedlly calculated to fupply the occafions of thofe who, by induftry, can relieve them.. This operation of buying and felling is a little more complex than the former j but ftill we have here no idea of trade, becaufe we have not introduced the merchant, by whofe induftry it is carried on. Let this third perfbn be introduced, and the whole operation becomes clear. What before we called wants, is here represented by the confumer ; what we called indujlry, by the manufadlurer j. what we called money, by the merchant. The merchant here reprefents the money, by fubftituting credit in its place j and as the money was invented to facilitate barter, fo the merchant, with his credit, is a new refinement upon the ufe of money. This renders it ftill more effeffual in performing the operations of buying and felling. This operation is trade ; it relieves both parties of the whole trouble of tranfportation, and adjufting wants to Wants, or wants to money *, the merchant reprefents by turns both the confumer, the manufa&urer, and the money. To the confumer he appears as the whole body of manufafturers -y to the manufacturers as the whole body of eonfumers ; and to the one and the other clafs his credit fupplies the ufe of money. This is fufficient at prefent for an illuftration. We now return to the fimple operations of money in the hands of the two contraCling parties, the buyer and the feller, in order to {how how men come to fubmit to labour in order to acquire fuperfluities. So foon as money is introduced into a country, it becomes an univerfal objeft of want to all the inhabitants. The confequence is, that the free hands of the ftate who before ftopt working, becaufe all their wants were provided for, having this new objedt of ambition before their eyes, endeavour, by refinements upon their labour, to remove the fmaller inconveniences which refult from a fimplicity of manners. People, who formerly knew but one fort of clothing for all feafons, willingly part with a little money to procure for themfelves different forts of apparel properly adapted to fummer and winter, which the ingenuity of manufacturers, and their deure of getting money, may have fuggefted to their invention. Indeed thefe refinements feem more generallv owIngf to the induftrv and invention of the manufadlu rers (who by their ingenuity daily contrive rncan- of foftening or relieving inconveniencies which mankind feldarrv perceive to be fuch, till the way of removing

E It C Ethem is contrived), than to the tafte for luxury in the pr;nc;p]tJi rich, who, to indulge their eafe, engage the poor to be- —y—i come induftrious. Let any man make an experiment of this nature upon himfelf, by entering into the firft (hop. He will nowhere difcover fo quickly his wants as there. Every thing he fees appears either neceifary, or at leaft highly convenient \ and he begins to wonder how he could have been fo long without that which the ingenuity of the workman alone had invented, in order that from the novelty it might incite his defire ; for perhaps when it is bought, be will never once think of it more, nor ever apply it to the ufe for which at firft it appeared fo neceffary. Here then is a reafon why mankind labour thoughnot in want. They become defirous of pofiefling the very inftruments of luxury, which their avarice or ambition prompted them to invent for the ufe of others. What has been faid reprefents trade in its infancy or rather the materials with which that great fabric is built.. We have formed an idea of the wants of mankind multiplied even to luxury, and abundantly fupplied by the employment of all the free hands fet apart for that; purpofe. But if we fuppofe the workman himfelf difpnfing of his work, and purchafing with it food from the farmer, clothes from the clothier j and, in general, feeking for the fupply of every want from the bands bf the perfon direftly employed for the purpofe of relieving it; this will not convey an idea of trade according to our definition. Trade and commerce are an abbreviation of this long procefs j a fcheme invented and fet on foot by merchants, from a principle of gain, fupported and extended among men, from a principle of general utility to every individual, rich or poor j to every fociety, great or fmall. Inftead of a pin-maker exchanging his pins with 50 different perfons, for whofe labour he has occafion, he fells all to the merchant for money or for credit y and as occafion offers, he purchafes all his wants, either directly from thofe who fupply them, or from other merchants, who deal with manufadlurers in the fame way his mefchant dealt with him. Another advantage of trade is, that induftrious people in one part of the country may fupply cuftomers in another, though diftant. They may eftablifh themfelves in the moft commodious places for their refpective bufinefs, and help one another reciprocally, without making the diftant parts of the country fuffer for want of their labour. They are likewife expofed to no avocation from their work, by feeking for cuftomers. Trade produces many excellent advantages1, it marks out to the manufacturers when their branch is under or overftocked with hands. If it is underftocked, they will find more demand than they can anfwer ; if it is , overftocked, the fale will be flow. Intelligent men, in every profeffion, will eafily difcover when thefe appearances are accidental, and when they proceed from the real principles of trade. Pofts, and correfpondence by letters, are a confequence of trade 5 by the means of which merchants are regularly informed of every augmentation or diminution;

COMMERCE. 3*5 nutlon of induftry in every branch, in every part of inftruments belonging to bis profeffion, which muft be pr;ncipie$. the country. From this knowledge they regulate the taken upon an average as above, except when the prices they offer ; and as they are many, they ferve as nature of the work requires the prefence of the worka check upon one another, from the principles of com- man in the place of confumption ; for although fome trades, and almoft: every manufacture, may be carried petition. From the current prices, the manufafturers are as on in places at a diftance, and therefore may fall under well informed, as if they kept the correfpondence one general regulation as to prices 5 yet others there themfelves: the ftatefman feels perfe&ly where hands are, which, by their nature, require the prefence of are wanting, and young people deftined to induftry, the workman in the place of confumption 5 and in that obey, in a manner, the call of the public, and fall na- cafe the prices mutt be regulated by circumftances relative to every particular place. turally in to fupply the demand. III. The third and laft thing to be known, is the Two great affiftances to merchants, efpecially in the infancy of trade, are public markets for colle&ing the value of the materials, that is, the firft matter employwork of fmall dealers, and large undertakings in the ed by the workman j and if the objeCt of his induftry manufa&uring way by private hands. By thefe means be the manufacture of another, the fame procefs of inthe merchants come at the knowledge of the quantity quiry muft be gone through with regard to the firft as of work in the market, as on the other hand the manu- the fecond ; and thus the moft complex manufactures facturers learn, by the fate of the goods, the extent of may be at laft reduced to the greateft fimplicity. Thefe three articles being known, the price of mathe demand for them. Thefe two things being juftly nufacture is determined. It cannot be lower than the known, the price of goods is eafily fixed. Public fates ferve to correct; the fmall inconveni- amount of all the three, that is, than the real value 5 ences which proceed from the operations of trade. A whatever it is higher, is the manufacturer’s profit. fet of manufa&arers got all together into one town, This will ever be in proportion to demand, and thereand entirely taken up with their induftry, are thereby fore will fluctuate according to circumflances. Hence appears the neceflity of a great demand, in as well informed of the rate of the market as if every one of them carried thither his work ; and upon the order to promote flourifhing manufactures. By the extenfive dealings of merchants, and their arrival of the merchant, who readily takes it off thenhands, he has not the leaft advantage over them from conftant application to the ftudy of the balance of his knowledge of the rtate of demand. JLhis man work and demand, all the above circumftances are both buys and fells in what is called wholefcde; and known to them, and are made known to the induftrious, from him retailers purehafe, who diftribute the goods who regulate their living and expence according to to every confumer throughout the country. Thefe their certain profit. Employ a workman in a country where there is laft buy from wholefale merchants in every branch, that proportion of every kind of merchandife which is little trade or induftry, he proportions his price alfuitable to the demand of their borough, city, or pro- ways to the urgency of your want, or your capacity to pay, but feldom to his own labour. Employ anovince. Thus all inconveniences are prevented, at fome ad- ther in a country of trade, he will not impofe upon ditional coft to the confumer, who muft naturally re- you, unlefs perhaps you be a ftranger, which fuppofes imburfe the whole ex pence. The diftance of the ma- your being ignorant of the value -, but employ the nufafturer, the obfcurity of his dwelling, the caprice fame workman in a work not ufual in the country, in felling his work, ere quite removed j the retailer confequently not demanded, and therefore not regulahas all in his {hop, and the public buys at a current ted as to the value, be will proportion his price as in the firft fuppofition. price. We may therefore conclude, from what has been § 2. How the price of Goods is determined by Trade. faid, that in a country where trade has been eftablifhIn the price of goods, two things muft be confidered ed, manufactures muft flourifti, from the ready fate, the as really exifting, and quite different from one another-, regulated price of work, and the certain profit refultto wit, the real value of the commodity, and the profit ing from induftry. Let us next inquire into the confequences of fuch a fituation. upon alienation. I. The firft thing to be known of any manufa&ure, when it comes to be fold, is how much of it a perfon 5 3. How foreign Trade opens lo an indufrious People, and the confequences of it to the Merchants who fet it can perform in a day, a week, a month, according to on foot. the nature of the work, which may require more or lefs time to bring it to perfection. In making fuch The firft confequence of the fituation defcribed in eftimates, regard is to be had only to what, upon an average, a workman of the country in general may the preceding feClion is, that wants are ealily fupplied perform, without fupjjofing him the belt or the worft for the adequate value of the thing wanted. The next confequence is, the opening of foreign in his profeflion, or having any peculiar advantage or trade, under its two denominations of paflive and acdifadvantage as to tire place where he works. Hence the reafon why fome people profper by their tive. Strangers and people of diftant countries, findinduftry, and others not \ why fome manufactures ing the difficulty of having their wants fupplied at home, and the eafe of having them fupplied from this flourifti in one place and not in another. IT. The fecond thing to be known is, the value of country, immediately have recourfe to it. This is pafthe workman’s fubfiftence, and neceffary expence, both five trade. The aftive is when merchants, who have for fupplying his perfonal wants and providing the executed this plan at home with fuccefs, begin to tranfRr 2 port

3i6 ' COMM i’rinciples port the labour of their countrymen into other re—y—— gions, which either produce, or are capable of producing fuch articles of confumption, proper to be manufaftured, as are moft demanded at home y and confequently will meet with the readieit fale,. and fetch the largeft profits. Here then is the opening of foreign trade, under its two denominations of active and' pa dive. What then are the confequences of this new commerce to our merchants, who have left their homes in quell of gain abroad ? The firft is, that, arriving in any new country, they find themfelves in the fame fituation with regard to the inhabitants, as the workman in the country of no trade, with regard to thofe who employ him ; that is, they proportion the price of their goods to the eagernefs of acquiring, of the capacity of paying, in the inhaoi• tants, but never to their real value. The firit profits then, upon this trade, mult be very confiderable; and the demand from fuch a country will be high or /ow, great or fmall, according to the ipirit, not the real wants of the people $ for thefe in all countries mult firit be fupplied by the inhabitants themfelves, before they eeafe to labour. H the people of this not-trading country be abundantly furnilhed with commodities ufeful to the traders, they will eafily part with them, at firft, for the inftruments of luxury and eafe ; but the great profit of the traders will infenfibly increafe the demand for the produ6tion of their new correfpondents: this will have the effeft of producing a competition between themfelves, and thereby throwing the demand on their fide-. This is perpetually a difadvantage in traffic ; the moft unpolilhed nations in the world quickly perceive the effects of it, and are taught to profit by the difcovery, in fpite of the addrefs of thofe v?ho are the moft expert in commerce. The traders will therefore be very fond of falling upon every method and contrivance to infpire this people with a tafte of refinement and delicacy. Abundance of fine prefents, confining of every inftrument of luxury and fuperfluity, the belt adapted to tne genius of the people, will be given to the prince and leading men among them. Workmen will even be employed at home, to ftudy the tafte of the ftrangers, and to captivate their defires by every poflible means. The more eager they are of prefents, the more lavith the traders will be in bellowing and diverfilying them. It is an animal put up to fatten } the more he eats, the fooner he is fit for {laughter. When their tafte for fuperfluity is fully formed, when the relilh for their former fimplicity is fop hi ft ica ted, poifoned, and obliterated, then they are furely in the fetters of the traders, and the deeper they go, the lefs poffibility there is of being extricated. The prefents then will die away, having ferved their purpofe j and if arterwards they are found to be continued, it will probably be to fupport the competition againft other nations, who will incline to thare of the profits. If, on the contrary, this not-trading nation does not abound with commodities ufeful to the traders, thefe will make little account of trading with them, whatever their turn may be 5 but, if we fuppofe this country inhabited by a laborious people, who, having ta-

E R C E. ken a tafte for refinement from the traders, apply Principles, themfelves to agriculture, in order to produce articles ——v—~ of fubliftence, they will folieit the merchants to give them part of their manufadlures in exchange for thofe} and this trade will undoubtedly have the effe£l of multiplying numbers in the trading nation. But if food cannot be furnrlhed, nor any other branch of production found out. to fupport the correfpondcnce, the tafte for refinement will fuon die away, and trade will flop in this quarter. Had it not been for the furs in thofe countries adjacent to Hudfon’s bay, and in Canada, the Europeans never would have thought of fupplying inllruments of luxury to thofe nations} and it the inhabitants of thofe regions had not taken a talle for the inftruments of luxury furnifhed to them by the Europeans, they never would have become fo indefatigable nor fo dexterous hunters. At the fame time we. are not to fuppofe that ever thefe Americans would have come to Europe in quell of our manula&ures. It is, therefore, owing to our merchants, that thefe nations arc become in any degree fond of refinement } and this tafte,. in all probability, will not foon exceed the proportion of the productions of their country. From thefe beginnings of foreign trade it is eafy to trace its increafe. One llep towards this, is the eftablilhing correfpondences in foreign countries } and thefe are more or lefs neceflary in proportion as the country where they are eftablithed is more or lefs polilhed, or acquainted with trade. They fupply the want of polls, and point out to the merchants what proportion the produClions of the country bear to the demand of the inhabitants for manufactures. This communicates an idea of commerce to the not-trading nation, and they infenfibly begin to fix a determined value upon their own productions, which perhaps bore no determined value at all before. Let us trace a little the progrefs of this refinement in the favages, in order to fliow how it has the effeCt of throwing the demand upon the traders, and of creating a competition among them for the productions of the new country. Experience {hows, that, in a new difeovered country, merchants conllantly find fome article or other o its productions, which runs out to a great account in commerce } and we fee that the longer fuch a trade fublifts, and the more the inhabitants take a tafte for European manufactures, the more their own productions rife in their value, and the lefs profit is made by trading with them, even in cafes where the trade is carried on by companies } which is a very wife inftttution for one reafon, that it cuts off a competition between our merchants. This is the bell means of keeping prices low in favour of the nation } however, it may work a contrary effeCt with refpeCt to individuals who mull buy from thefe monopolies. When companies are not eflablilhed, and when trade is open, our merchants, by their eagernefs to profit by the new trade, betray the fecrets of it} they enter into competition for the purchafe of the foreign produce ; and this raifes prices, and favours the commerce of the moll ignorant favages.

317 C O M M E R C E. the other, I will come and dig in your ground, and principles. Principle? $ 4. Cenfequenccs of the IntroduBion of a pajfvc Fo- you and I will fettle our account as to the fmall quan- ' v ' reign Trade among a People who live in Simplicity and tity I defire of you. The bargain is made : the poor Idlenefs. fellow gets his loaf, and lives at leaft ; perhaps he We now fuppofe the arrival of traders, all in one marries, and the farmer gets a dram. But had it not interelf, with inftruments of luxury and refinement, at been for this dram, that is, this new want, which was a port in a country of great fimplicity of manners, a- purchafed by the induftry of this poor fellow, by what bundantly provided by nature with great advantages argument could he have induced the farmer to part for commerce, and peopled by a nation capable of with a loaf ? Here the fentiment of charity is excluded. This adopting a tafte for fuperfluities. alone is a principle of multiplication j but as true it is, The firlt thing the merchants do is, to expofe their goods, and point out the advantages of many things, on the other hand, that could the poor fellow have got either agreeable or ufeful to mankind in general, fuch bread by begging, he would not probably have gone a as wines, fpirits, inlfruoients of agriculture, arms and hunting. Here then it appears that the very dawning of ammunition for hunting, nets for filhing, manufadfures for clothing, and the like. The advantages of thefe trade, in the moft unpoliftied countries, implies a mulare prefently perceived, and fuch commodities are ea- tiplication. This is fufficient to point out the firft ftep-, and to conned! the fubjedt of our prefent inquiries gerly fought after. The natives, on their fide, produce what they moll with what has already been difcuffed in relation to effeem, generally fomething fuperfluous or ornamental. other circumftances. So fnon as all the furs are difpofed of, and a tafte for The traders, after examining all circumllances, defuperfluity is introduced, both the traders and the natermine the objeft of their demand, giving the leaft quantity pofiible in return for this fuperfluity, in order tives will be equally interefted in the advancement of to imprefs the inhabitants with a high notion of the induftry in this country. Many new objedts of profit value of their own commodities ; but as this parfimony for the firft will be difcovered, which the proper emmay do more hurt than good to their interelf, they are ployment of the inhabitants, in reaping the natural advery generous in making prefents, from the principles vantages of their foil and climate, will make effedtual. The traders will therefore endeavour to fet on foot mentioned above. When the exchange is completed, and the traders many branches of induftry among the favages, and the depart, regret is commonly mutual j the one and the allurements of brandy, arms, and clothing, will animate" other are forry that the fuperfluities of the country fall thefe in the purfuit of them. When once this revolution is brought about j when Ihort. A return is promifed by the traders, and aflurances are given by the natives of a better provifion a- thofe who formerly lived in fimplicity become induftrious ; matters put on a new face. nother time. That is to fay, we now find two trading nations What are the firfi: confequences of this revolution ? It is evident, that, in order to fupply an equivalent inftead of one ; with this difference, however, that as for this new want, more hands mull be fet to work hitherto we have fuppofed the merchants all in one than formerly. And it is evident alfo, that this aug- intereft, the compound demand, that is, the competimentation of induftry will not effentially increafe num- tion of the buyers, has been, and muft ftill continue on bers : Why? Becaufe the produce of the induftry is, the fide of the natives. This is a great prejudice to in this cafe, intended to be exported. But, if we can their intereft : but as it is not fuppofed fufficient to find out any additional confumption at home, even im- check their induftry, nor to reftrain their confumption plied by this new trade, it will have the effeft of aug- of the manufaftures, let us here examine a little more menting numbers. An example will make this plain. particularly the confequences of the principle of deLet us fuppofe the fuperfluity of this country to be mand in fuch a fituation j for although we allow, that the Ikins of wild beafts, not proper for food \ the ma- it can never change fides, yet it may admit of different nufa&ure fought for, brandy. The brandy is fold for modifications, and produce different effe&s, as we (hall furs. He who has furs, or he who can fpare time to prefently perceive. The merchants we fuppofe all in one intereft, conhunt for them, will drink brandy in proportion •, but there is no reafon to conclude from this Ample opera- fequently there can be no competition among them j tion, that one man more in the country muft neceffari- no check can be put upon their raifing their prices, as ly be fed, or that any augmentation of agriculture muft long as the prices they demand are complied with. So foon as they are raifed to the full extent of the abiliof confequence enfue from this new traffic. But let us throw in a circumftance which may imply ties of the natives,, or of their inclination to buy, the an additional confumption at home, and then examine merchants have the choice of three things, which are all perfe&ly in their option ; and the preference to be the confequences. A poor creature who has no equivalent to offer for given to the one or the other, depends entirely upon food, who is miferable, and ready to periffi for want themfelves, and upon the circumftances we are going of fubfiftence, goes a hunting, and kills a wolf 5 he to point out. Firft, they may fupport their high demand; that comes to a farmer with the fkin, and fays. You are well fed, but you have no brandy ; if you will give is, not lower their price, which will preferve a high me a loaf, I will give you this fldn, which the ftran- eftimation of the manufadlures in the opinion of the gers are fo fond of, and they will give you brandy. inhabitants, and render the profits upon their trade But, fays the farmer, I have no more bread than what the greateft poffible. This part they may poffibly is.fufRcient for my own family. As for that, replies take, if they perceive the natives doubling their diligence, , I

3i 3 COMM Principles, gence, in order to become able, in time, to purchafe —v——■ confiderable cargoes at a high value } from which fuppofition is inferred a ftrong difpofition in the people to become luxurious, fince nothing but want of ability prevents them from complying with the higheft demand : but dill another circumftance muft concur, to engage the merchants not to lower their price. The great proportion of the goods they feek for in return, muft be found in the hands of a few. This will be the cafe if flavery be eftabliftied 5 for then there muft be many poor and few rich j and they are commonly the rich confumers who proportion the price they offer, rather to their defires, than to the value of . the thing. The fecond thing which may be done is, to encourage a great demand ; that is, to lower their prices. This will fink the value of the manufa&ures in the 'opinion of the inhabitants, and render profits lefs in proportion, although indeed, upon the voyage, the profits may be greater. This part they will take, if they perceive the inhabitants do not incline to confume great quantities of the merchandife at a high value, either for want of abilities or inclination j and alfo, if the profits upon the trade depend upon a large confumption, as is the cafe in merchandife of a low value, and fuited chiefly to the occafions of the lower fort. Such motives of expediency will be fufficient to make them relinquifti a high demand, and prefer a great one •, and the more, when there is a likelihood that the confumption of lowr-priced goods in the beginning may beget a tafte for others of a higher value, and thus extend in general the tafte of fuperfluiiy. A third part to be taken is the lea ft politic, and perhaps the moft familiar. It is to profit by the competition between the buyers, and encourage the. rifing of demand as long as poftible : when this comes to a flop, to make a kind of autlion, by firft bringing down the prices to the level of the higheft bidders, and fo to defcend by degrees, in proportion as demand finks. Thus we may fay with propriety, that demand commonly becomes great, in proportion as prices fink. By this operation, the traders will profit as much as poffible, and fell off as much of their goods as the profits will permit. But this plan, in a new difeovered country, is not politic, as it both difeovers a covetoufnefs and a want of faith in the merchants, and alfo throws open the fecrets of their trade to thofe who ought to be kept ignorant of them. Let us next fuppofe, that the large profits of our merchants fhall be difeovered by others, who arrive at the fame ports in a leparate intereft, and who enter into no combination which might prevent the natural effedls of competition. Let the ftates of demand among the natives be fuppofed the fame as formerly, both as to height and greatnefs, in confequence of the operation of the different principles, which might have induced our merchants to follow one or other of the plans we have been deferibing : we muft, however, ftill fuppofe, that they have been careful to preferve confiderable profits upon every branch. If we fuppofe the inhabitants to have increafed in numbers, wealth, and tafte for fuperfluity, fince the

E R C E. laft voyage, demand will be found rather on the rifing p^ipi^ hand. Upon the arrival of the merchants in competi- ^ tion with the former, both will offer to fale ; but if both Hand at the fame prices, it is very natural to fuppofe, that the former dealers will obtain a preference j as cceteris paribus it is always an advantage to know and to be known. The laft comers, therefore, have no other way left to counterbalance this advantage, but to lower their prices. This is a new phenomenon : here the fall of prices is not voluntary as formerly, nor confented to from expediency j not owing to a failure of demand, but to the influence of a new principle of commerce, to wit, a double competition, which we fliall now examine. § 5. Of double Competition. When competition is much (Longer on one fide of the contrad! than on the other, it is called fmple. This is the fpecies of competition which is implied in the terms high demand, or when it is faid that demand raifes prices. Double competition is, when, in a certain degree, it takes place, on both (ides of the contradl at once, or vibrates alternately from one to the other. This is what reftrains prices to the adequate value of merchandife. The great difficulty is to diftinguiffi clearly between the principles of demand and thofe of competition : here then follow the principal differences between the two relatively to the effedts they produce ffverally in the mercantile contradt of buying and felling, which we here exprefs (hortly by the word contraft. Simple demand is what brings the quantity of commodity to market. Many demand, who do not buy $ many offer, who do not (ell. This demand is called great or final!; it is faid to increafe, to augment, to (well } and is expreffed by thefe and other fynonymous terms, which mark an augmentation or diminution of quantity. In this fpecies, two people never demand the fame thing, but a part of the fame thing, or things quite alike. Compound demand is the principle which raifes prices, and can never make them fink j becaufe in this cafe more than one demands the very fame thing. It is folely applicable to the buyers, in relation to the price they offer. This demand is called high or low, and is faid to rife, to fall, to mount, to fink, and is expreffed by thefe avid other fynonymous terms. Simple competition, when between buyers, is the fame as compound or high demand; but differs from it in fo‘ far, as this may equally take place among fellers, which compound demand cannot j and then it works a contrary effeft : it makes prices fink, and is fynonymous with low demand ; it is this competition which overturns the balance of work and demand. Double competition is what is underftood to take place in almoft every operation of trade j it is this which prevents the exceffive rife of prices *, it is this which prevents their exceffive fall. While double competition prevails, the balance is perfeiff, trade and induftry flouriffi. The capital diftin&ion, therefore, between the terms demand and competition is, that demand is conftantly relative to the buyers *, and when money is not the price, as

COMM E R C E. 319 chandife is refufed to one at a certain price ; a fecond principles, Principles, as in barter, then it is relative to that fide upon which either offers more, or does not offer at all; but fo foon —y—1 1 —y— the greateft competition is found. We therefore fay, with regard to prices, demand is as another feller finds his account in accepting the price high or low. With regard to the quantity of merchiandife, the firft had refufed, then the firft enters into compedemand is great or /mail. With regard to competition, tition, providing his profits will admit his lowering the firft price ; and thus competition takes place among the it is always called great or /mail, Jlrong or weak. 1 Competition is, with equal propriety, applicable to fellers, until the profits upon their trade prevent prices! from falling lower. both parties in the contract. A competition among In all markets this competition is varying, though buyers is a proper expreffion j a competition among fellers, who have the merchandife, is fully as ealily under- infenfibly, on many occafions j but in others the viftood, though it be not quite fo ftriking, for reafons brations are very perceptible. Sometimes it is found ftrongeft on the fide of the buyers 5 and in proportion which an example will make plain. You come to a fair, where you find a great variety as this grows, the competition between the fellers diof every kind of merchandife, in the poffeffion of dif- minifties. When the competition between the former ferent merchants. Thefe, by offering their goods to has raifed prices to a certain ftandard, it comes to a fale, conllitute a tacit competition ; every one of them flop ) then the competition changes fides, and takes withes to fell in preference to another, and at the fame place among the fellers, eager to profit by the higheft price. This makes prices fall 5 and according as they time with the beft advantage to himfelf. The buyer begins by cheapening at every fhop. fall, the competition among the buyers diminifhes. The firft price afked marks the covetoufnefs of the They ftill wait for the loweft period. At laft it comes, feller j the firft price offered, the avarice of the buyer. and then perhaps fome new circumftance, by giving From this operation competition begins to work its the balance a kick, difappoints their hopes. If thereeffects on both fides, and fo becomes double. The fore it ever happens, that there is but one intereft upprinciples which influence this operation are now to be on one fide of the contrafl, as in the example in the former feftion, where we fuppofed the fellers united, deduced. It is impoflible to fuppofe the fame degree of eager- you perceive, that the rife of the price, occafioned by nefs either to buy or fell, among feveral merchants; the competition of the buyers, and even its coming to becaufe the degree of eagernefs is exaftly in propor- a flop, could not poffibly have the effuft of producing tion to their views of profit j and as thefe muft neceffari- any competition on the other fide j and therefore, if ly be influenced and regulated by different circumftan- prices come afterwards to fink, the fall muft have proces, that buyer, who has the beft profpe£t of felling ceeded from the prudential confiderations of adapting again with profit, obliges him, whofe profpeft is not fo the price to the faculties of thofe who, from the height good, to content himfelf with lefs j and that feller, who of it, had withdrawn their demand. has bought to the beft advantage, obliges him, who has From thefe principles of competition, the foreftalling paid dearer for the merchandife, to moderate his defire of markets is made a crime, beeaufe it diminiffies the of gain. competition which ought to take place between difIt is from thefe principles that competition among ferent people, who have the fame merchandife to ofbuyers and fellers muft originate. This is what con- fer to fale. The foreftaller buys all up, with an intenfines the fluctuation of prices within limits which are tion to fell with more profit, as he has by that means compatible with the reafonable profits of both buyers taken other competitors out of his way, and appears and fellers \ for we muft conftantly fuppofe the whole with a fingle intereft on one fide of the contraft, in the operation of buying and felling to be performed by face of many competitors on the other. This perfon merchants 5 the buyer cannot be fuppofed to give fo is puniflied by the ftate, becaufe he has prevented the high a price as that which he expeCts to receive when price of the merchandife from becoming juftly proporhe diftributes to the confumers, nor can the feller be tioned to the real value ; he has robbed the public and fuppofed to accept of a lower than that which he paid enriched himfelf 5 and in the puniffiment he makes reto the manufacturer. This competition is properly flitution. Here occur two queftions to be refolved, for called double, becaufe of the difficulty to determine the fake of illuftration. upon which fide it ftands j the fame merchant may Can competition among buyers poffibly take place, have it in his favour upon certain articles, and againft when the provifion made is more than fufficient to him upon others j it is continually in vibration, and the fupply the quantity demanded ? On the other hand, arrival of every poft may lefs or more pull down the can competition take place among the fellers, when heavy fcale. the quantity demanded exceeds the total provifion made In every tranfaCIion between merchants, the profit for it ? refulting from the fale muft be exactly diftinguiffied We think it may in both cafes j becaufe in the one from the value of the merchandife. The firft may and the other, there is a competition implied on (me vary, the laft never can. It is this profit alone which fide of the eontraft, and the very nature of this comcan be influenced by competition j and it is for that petition prefuppofes a poffibility of its coming on the reafen we find fuch uniformity everywhere in the prices other, provided feparate interefts be found upon both of goods of the fame quality. fides. But to be more particular : The competition between fellers does not appear I. Experience (hows, that however juftly the profo ftriking as that between buyers 5 becaufe he who portion between the demand and the fupnly may be offers to fale, appears only paflive in the firft opera determined in faiff, it is ftill next to imp< ffiole to diftion ; whereas the buyers prefi nt themfelves one af- cover it exafHv, and therefore the buyers can only reter another j they make a demand when the mer- gulate the prices they offer, by what they may reafon4

,20 c O M M E n C E. Principles ably expeft to fell for gain. The feller?, on the other can be then no competition among the buyers, be- principles. 1*—' ' hand, can only regulate the prices they expect, by what caufe the market cannot laft, and they find themfelve,s the merchandi’fe has coft them when brought to mar- entirely matters, to give what price they pleafe, beket. We have already (hotvn, how, under fuch cir- ing fure the fellers ihuft accept of it, or lofe their mercumftances, the feveral interefts of individuals affedt chandife. In the firft example, humanity commonly flops the aftivity of the principle of competition ; in each other, and make the balance vibrate. 2. The proportion between the fupply and the de- the other, it is flopped by a certain degree of fair dealmand is feldom other than relative among merchants, ing, which forbids the accepting of a merchandife for who are fuppofed to buy and fell, not from neceflity, nothing. In proportion therefore as the rifing of prices can but from a view to profit. What we mean by relative is, that their demand is great or /mail according to flop demand, or the finking of prices can increafe it, prices j there may be a great demand for grain at 35s. in the fame proportion will competition prevent either per quarter, and no demand at all for it at 40s. j that the rife or the fall from being carried beyond a certain length ; and if fuch a cafe can be put, where the rifing is, among merchants. It is eifential to attend to the fmalleft circumftance of prices cannot flop demand, nor the lowering of in matters of this kind. The circumftance we mean, prices augment it, in fueh cafes double competition has is the difference we find in the effe£l of competition, no effedl ; becaufe thefe circumftances unite the moft \Vhen it takes place purely among merchants on both feparate interefts of buyers and fellers in the merfides of the contratt, and when it happens, that either cantile con trad! j and when upon one fide there is the confumers mingle themfelves with the merchant- no feparate intereft, there can then be no competibuyers, or the manufacturers, that is, the furnilhers, tion. From what has been faid, we may form a judgment mingle themfelves with the merchant fellers. This combination we lhall illuftrate by the folution of ano- of the various degree of competition. A book not ther queftion, and then conclude with a few refleftions worth a fbilling, a fifh of a few pounds weight, are often fold for confiderable fums. The buyers here are Upon the whole. Can there be no cafe formed where the competition not merchants. When an ambaffador leaves a court in upon one fide may fubfift, without a poflibility of its a hurry, things are fold for lefs than the half of their taking place on the other, although there fhould be fe- value ; he is no merchant, and his fituation is known. When, at a public market, there are found confirmers, parate interefts upon both ? The cafe is hardly fuppofable among merchants, who who make their provifion, or manufadurers, who difbuy and fell with a view to profit; but it is abfolutely pofe of their goods for prefent fubfiftence j the merfuppofable, and that is all, when the difeft confumers chants, who are refpedively upon the oppofite fide of are the buyers •, when the circumftances of one of the the contrad to thefe, profit of their competition 5 and parties is perfedly known ; and when the competition thofe who are- refpedively upon the fame fide with is fo ftrong upon one fide, as to prevent a poflibility of them, {land by with patience until they have finifhed its becoming double, before the whole provifion is fold their bufinefs. Then matters come to be carried on oflf, or the demand fatisfied. Let us have recourfe to between merchant and merchant, and then profits may rife and fall in the proportion of quantity to demand ; examples. Grain arriving in a fmall quantity, at a port where that is to fay, if the provifion is lefs than the demand, the inhabitants are ftarving, producing fo great a com- the competition among the demanders, or the rife of petition among the confumers who are the buyers, the price, will be in the compound proportion of the that their neceflity becomes evident ; all the grain is falling fliort of the commodity, and of the profped of generally bought up before prices can rife fo high as felling again with profit. It is this combination which to come to a flop; becaufe nothing but want of mo- regulates the competition, and keeps it within bounds. ney, that is, an impoflibility of complying with the It can affed but the profits upon the tranfadion *, the prices demanded by the merchants can reftrain them : intrinfic value of the commodity ftands immoveable ; but if you fuppofe, even here, that prices come natu- nothing is ever fold below the real value ; nothing is rally to a flop; or that, after fome time, they fall ever bought for more than it may probably bring. lower, from prudential confiderations •, then there is We mean in general. Whereas, fo foon as confumers a polfibility of a competition taking place among the and 'needy manufadurers mingle in the operation, all fellers, from the principles above deduced* If, on the proportion is loft. The competition between them' is contrary, the flop is not natural, but occafioned by the too ftrong for the merchants ; the balance vibrates by interpofition of the magiftrate, from humanity, or the jerks. In fuch markets merchants feldom appear •, the like, there will be no competition, becaufe then the principal objeds there, are the fruits and prndudions principles of commerce are fufpended ; the fellers are of the earth, and articles of the firft neceflity for life, reftrained on one fide, and they reftrain the buyers on not manufadures ftridly fo called. A poor fellow the other. Or rather indeed, it is the magiftrate, or often fells to purchafe bread to eat ; not to pay what compaflion, who in a manner fixes the price, and per- he did eat while he was employed in the work he difpofes of. The confumer often meafures the value of forms the office of both buyer and feller. _ A better example ftill may be found, in a competi- what he is about to purchafe, by the weight of his tion among fellers, where it may be fo ftrong as to purfe, and his defire to confume. render a commodity in a manner of no value at all, as § 6. Of what is called Expence, Proft, and Lofs. in the cafe of an uncommon and unexpefted draught The term expence, when fimply expreffed, without of fifh, in a place of fmall confumption, when no prereparations have been made for faking them. There any particular relation, is always underftood to belative

COMM E R C E. of objedts. In one part, we fee a decent and comelysPrinciple*, Priticiples. lative to money. This kind is diftinguiftied under the beginning of induflry ; wealth flowing gently in to re- —""v ' three heads of private, public, and national. j. Private expence is what a private perfon, or pri- compenfe ingenuity ; numbers both augmenting, and every one becoming daily more ufeful to another; agrivate fociety, lays out, either to provide articles of confumption, or fomething more permanent, which may culture proportionally extending itfelf; no violent rehe conducive to their eafe, convenience, or advantage. volution ; no exorbitant profits ; no infolence an.png Thus we fay, a large domcjlic expence, relative to one the rich ; no exceflive mifery among the poor ; multiwho fpends a great income. We fay, a merchant has tudes employed in producing; great economy upon been at great expence for magazines, for living, for confumption ; and all the inftruments of luxury, daily clerks, &c. but never that he has been at any in buy- produced by the hands of the diligent, going out of ing goods. In the fame way a manufa&urer may ex- the country for the fervice of ftrangers ; not remaining pend for building, machines, horfes, and carriages, but at home for the gratification of fenfuality. At lafl Qry» J E. Long. 5. 24. N. Lat. 48. 20. *— COMMERSONIA. See Botany Index. COMMINATION, an office in the liturgy of the church of England, appointed to be read on Afti Wednefday, or the firft day of Lent. It is fubftituted in the room of that godly difeipline in the primitive church, by which (as the introduction to the office expreffes it), “ fuch perfons, as flood convicted of notorious fins, were put to open penance, and punilhed in this world, that their fouls might be faved in the day of the Lord j and that others, admonilhed by their example, might be the more afraid to offend.” This difeipline, in after ages, degenerated, in the church of Rome, into a formal confeffion of fins upon Afh Wednefday, and the empty ceremony of fprinkling allies upon the heads of the people. Our reformers wifely rejefted this ceremony, as mere ftiadow and (how •, and fubftituted this office in its room, which is A denunciation of God's anger and judgment againjl finners, that the people being apprifed of God’s wrath and indignation againft fin, may not, through want of difcipline in the church, be encouraged to follow and purfue them ; but rather be moved to fupply that difcipline to themfelves, and fo as to avoid being judged and condemned at the tribunal of God. COMMINATORY, an appellation given to whatever threatens punilhment, or fome penalty. Thus, in France, when an exile is enjoined not to return under pain of death, it is deemed a comminatory penalty j finee if he do return, it is not ftri&ly executed : but a fecond injunction is laid on him, which is more 2

COM than comminatory, and, from the day of the date there- Commi'n*. of, imports death without remedy. tory GOMMINGES, a province of France, 45 miles in I length, and 15 in breadth ; bounded on the north by CommiCGafcony, on the fouth by Catalonia, on the eaft by . * J' , < Coufferans, and on the weft by Bigorre. Its principal trade confifts in cattle, mules, and corn. St Bertrand is the capital town. COMMINUTION, denotes the breaking, or rather grinding, a body to very fmall particles. COMMIRE, John, a celebrated Latin poet, bom at Amboife in 1625, entered into the fociety of the .Jefuits, and taught polite literature and divinity. He died at Paris in 1702. We have a volume of his Latin Poems, and a colleftion of his pofthumous works. His odes and fables are more particularly admired. COMMISSARY, in the ecclefiafiical law, an officer of the biftrop, who exercifes fpiritual jurifdiClion in places of a diocefe fo far from the epifcopal fee, that the chancellor cannot call the people to the biftiop’s principal confiftory court, without giving them too much inconveniency. COMMISSART-Court, in Scotland, a court originally conftituted by the bifhops for executing in their name an ufurped jurifdi£lion ; and was anciently called the hijhop's court, curia Chrijliav.itatis, or conjifiarial courts This court was modelled by Queen Mary at the Reformation, and continues to this day. Commissary, in a military fenfe, is of different forts. COMMISSAR T-General of the Muflers, an officer appointed to mufter the army, as often as the general thinks proper, in order to know the ftrength of each regimen!

COM

rommiffary, * Cornmiffion ~ v '

mackfl

Comment,

[

325 ] COM whofe debt on the balance of accounts, does not CommiG. regiment and company, to receive and infpe& the lion. mufter-rolls, and to keep an exa& date of the ftrength amount to 10I. And at the third meeting at fartheft, ^ » which muft be on the 42ft day after the advertifef the army. 0 COMMISSAR T of Horfes, an officer in the artillery ment in the gazette, the bankrupt, upon notice alfo appointed to have the infpeftion of the artillery-horfes, perfonally ferved upon him, or left at his ufual place to fee them muftered, and to fend fuch orders as he of abode, muft furrender himfelf perfonally to the receives from the commanding officer of the artillery commiffioners, and muft henceforth in all refpefts by fome of the condu&ors of horfes, of which he has conform to the directions of the ftatutes of bankruptcy 5 or, in default thereof, {hall be guilty of felony a certain number for his affirtants. COMMISSARY of Provijions, an officer who has the without benefit of clergy, and {hall fuffer death, and his goods and eftate fliall be divided among his crecharge of furnilhing the army with provifions. COMMISSARY of Stores, an officer in the artillery ditors. In cafe the bankrupt abfconds, or is likely to run who has the charge of all the ftores, for which he is away between the time of the commiffion iffued and accountable to the office of ordnance. COMMISSION, in common law, the warrant or the laft day of furrender, he may, by warrant from any letters patent, which all perfons exercifing jurifdi6iion judge or juftice of the peace, be apprehended and comhave to empower them to hear or determine any caufe mitted to the county gaol, in order to be forthcoming to the commiffioners, who are alfo empowered imor fuit ; as the commiffion of the judges, &c.. COMMISSION of Bankruptcjj, is the commiffion that mediately to grant a warrant for feizing his goods iffues from the lord chancellor on a perfon’s becom- and papers. When the bankrupt appears, the commiffioners are ing a bankrupt within any of the ftatutes, dire&ed to certain commiffioners appointed to examine into it, to examine him touching all matters relating to his and to fecure the bankrupt’s lands and effe&s for the trade and effeCts. They may alfo fummon before them,, fatisfa&ion of his creditors. See the article Bank- and examine, the bankrupt’s wife, and any other perfon whatfoever, as to all matters relating to the bankrupt. The proceedings on a commiffion of bankruptcy rupt’s affairs : And in cafe any of them {hall refufe to may be divided, 1. Into thofe which affeft the bank- anfwer, or {hall not anfwer fully, to any lawful queftion, or {hall refufe to fubfcribe fuch their examination, the rupt hirafelf. 2. Into thofe which affe6t his property. 1. As to thofe of the former kind, there muft, in commiffioners may commit them to prifon without bail, the firft place, be a petition to the lord chancellor by till they make and fign a full anfwer j the commiffionone creditor to the amount of look or by two to ers fpecifying in their warrant of commitment the quefthe amount of 150I. or by three or more to the tion fo refufed to be anfvvered. And any gaoler, peramount of 200I. ; upon which he grants a commiffion mitting fuch perfon to efcape or go out of prifon, fliall to fuch difcreet perfons as to him ffiall feem good, who forfeit 500I. to the creditors. The bankrupt, upon this examination, is bound, upare then llyled eommiffioners of bankrupt. The peon pain of death, to make a full difcovery of all his titioners, to prevent malicious applications, muft be bound in a fecurity of 200I. to make the party eftate and effeCls, as well in expeftancy as pofftffion, amends, in cafe they do not prove him a bankrupt. and how he has difpofed of the fame $ together with And if, on the ether hand, they receive any money or all books and writings relating thereto : and is to deeffects from the bankrupt, as a recompenfe for fuing liver up all in his power to the commiffioners (exout the commiffion, fo as to receive more than their cept the neceffary apparel of himfelf, his wife, and rateable dividends of the bankrupt’s eftate, they forfeit his children); or in cafe he conceals or embezzles not only what they Ihall have fo received, but their any effeiffs to the amount of 20I. or withholds any whole debt-. When the coromiffion is awarded and if- book or writings, with intent to defraud his crefued, the commiffioners are to meet at their own ex- ditors, he fhall be guilty of felony without benefit of pence, and to take an oath for the due execution of clergy. After the time allowed the bankrupt for fuch difeotheir commiffion, and to be allowed a fum not exceeding 20s. per diem each, at every fitting. And no com- very is expired, any other perfon voluntarily difcovermiffion of bankruptcy ftiall abate or be void on any ing any part of his eftate before unknown to the affignees, {hall be entitled to five per cent, out of the demife on the crown. When the commiffioners have received their com- effects fo difcovered, and fuch farther reward as the afmiffion, they are firft to receive proof of the per- fignees and commiffioners {hall think proper. And fon’s being a trader, and having committed fome a£t of any truftee wilfully concealing the eftate of any bankbankruptcy ; and then to declare him bankrupt, if pro- rupt, after the expiration of 42 days, {hall forfeit rool. ved fo ; and to give notice thereof in the gazette, and and double the value of the eftate concealed, to the at the fame time to appoint three meetings. At one creditors;,. Hitherto every thing is in favour of the creditors ; of thefe meetings an eleftion muft be made of affignees, or perfons to whom the bankrupt’s eftate {hall and the law feems to be pretty rigid and fevere againft be affigned, and in whom it {hall be veiled for the be- the bankrupt ; but, in cafe he proves honeft, it makes nefit of the creditors $ which affignees are chofen by him full amends for all this rigour and feverity. For, the major part, in value, of the creditors who {hall if the bankrupt hath made an ingenuous difeovery, then have proved their debts; but may be originally hath conformed to the directions of the law, and hath appointed by the commiffioners, and afterwards ap- acted in all points to the fatisfarfion of his creditors ; proved or rejefted by the creditors ; but no creditors and if they, or four parts in five of them in number ffiall be admitted to vote in the choice of affignees, and value (but none of them creditors for -lefs than,

COM [ 326 1 COM Commif- 2ol. will fign a certificate to that purport; the com- veiled in him fince, before his debts are fatisfied or Ccmm;f mon- miffioners are then to authenticate fuch certificate agreed for. Therefore, it is ufually faid that once a {lon ' v under their hands and feals, and to tranfmit it to the bankrupt and always a bankrupt y by which is meant, >i—'-y^* lord chancellor: and he, or two judges whom he ftiall that a plain diredt a£l of bankruptcy once committed, appoint, on oath made by the bankrupt that luch certi- cannot be purged, or explained away, by any fubfeficate was obtained without fraud, may allow the fame ; quent conduct, as a dubious equivocal aft may be $ but or difallow it, upon caufe (hown by any of the creditors that, if a commilfion is afterward awarded, the comof the bankrupt. miflion and the property of the aflignees lhall have a If no caufe be fhown to the contrary, the certi- relation, or reference, back to the firft and original aft: ficate is allowed of courfe; and then the bankrupt is of bankruptcy. Infomuch that all tranfaftions of the entitled to a decent and reafonable allowance out of bankrupt are from that time abfolutely null and void, his effedls for his future fupport and maintenance, and either with regard to the alienation of his property, or to put him in a way of honelt induftry. This allow- the receipt of his debts from fuch as are privy to his ance is alfo in proportion to his former good beha- bankruptcy 5 for they are no longer his property, or viour, in the early difcovery of the decline of his his debts, but thofe of the future aflignees. And if an affairs, and thereby giving his creditors a large di- execution be fued out, but not ferved and executed vidend. For if his effe&s will not pay one half of his on the bankrupt’s effefts till after the aft of bankdebts, or 10s. in the pound, he is left to the dif- ruptcy, it is void, as againft the aflignees. But the cretion of the commiffioners and affignees, to have a king is not bound by this fiftitious relation, nor is competent fum allowed him, not exceeding 3 per cent. ; within the ftatutes of bankrupts; for if, after the aft but if they pay 10s. in the pound, he is to be allowed of bankruptcy committed, and before the aflignment 5 per cent ; if 12s. 6d. then per cent.; and if 15s. of his effefts, an extent iffues for the debt of the in the pound, then the bankrupts fliall be allowed 10 crown, the goods are bound thereby. In France this per cent; provided that fuch allowance do not in the doftrine of relation is carried to a very great length ; firft cafe exceed 200I. in the fecond 250I. and in the for there, every aft of a merchant, for ten days precethird 300I. dent to the aft of bankruptcy, is prefumed to be frauBefides this allowance, he has alfo an indemnity dulent, and is therefore void. But with us the law granted him, of being free and difcharged for ever Hands upon a more reafonable footing j for as thefe from all debts owing by him at the time he became a afts of bankruptcy may fometimes be fecret to all but bankrupt; even though judgment ftiall have been ob- a few, and it would be prejudicial to trade to carry tained againft him, and he lies in prifon upon execution this notion to its utmoft length, it is provided by flat. for fuch debts j and, for that among other purpofes, 19 Geo. II. c. 32. that no money paid by a bankrupt all proceedings on commiffion of bankrupt, are, on pe- to a bona fide, or real creditor, in a courfe of trade, tition, to be entered on record, as a perpetual bar even after an aft of bankruptcy done, fliall be liable againft aftions to be commenced upon this account: to be refunded. Nor by flat. 1 Jac. I. c. 15. {hall any though, in general, the produttion of the certificate debtor of a bankrupt that pays him his debt without properly allowed fhall be fufficient evidence of all pre- knowing of his bankruptcy, be liable to account for it vious proceedings. Thus the bankrupt becomes a again. The intention of this relative power being clear man again ; and by the affiftance of his allow- only to reach fraudulent tranfaftions, and not to diftrefs ance and his own induftry, may become an ufeful mem- the fair trader. ber of the commonwealth ; which is the rather to be The aflignees may purfue any legal method of reexpefted, as he cannot be entitled to thefe benefits, covering this property fo veiled in them by their own but by the teftimony of his creditors themfelves of his authority j but cannot commence a fuit in equity, nor honeft and ingenuous difpofition $ and unlefs his failures compound any debts owing to the bankrupt, nor refer have been owing to misfortunes, rather than to mifcon- any matters to arbitration, without the confent of the duft and extravagance. creditors, or the major part of them in value, at a 2. As to the proceedings which affedl the bankrupt’s meeting to be held in purfuance of notice in the gaproperty. zette. By virtue of the ftatutes before mentioned, all the When they have got in all the effefts they can reaperfonal eftate and effetts of the bankrupt are confi- fonably hope for, and reduced them to ready money, dered as veiled, by the a£f of bankruptcy, in the fu- the aflignees mull, within 12 months after the comture aflignees of bis commiflioners, whether they be miflion iffued, give 21 days notice to the creditors, of goods in a&ual poffeffion, or debts, contrafls, and other a meeting for a dividend or diftribution j at which chofes in a&ion ; and the commilfioners by their war- time they muft produce their accounts, and verify rant may caufe any houfe or tenement of the bankrupt them upon oath, if required. And then the commifto be broken open, in order to enter upon and feize the fioners {hall direft a dividend to be made, at fo much fame. And when the afiignees are chofen or approved in the pound, to all creditors who have before proved, by the creditors, the commiflioners are to aflign every or ftiall then prove their debts. This dividend muft thing over to them j and the property of every part of be made equally, and in a rateable proportion, to all the eftate is hereby as fully veiled in them as it was the creditors, according to the quantity of their debts ; in the bankrupt himfelf, and they have the fame re- no regard being paid to the quality of them. Mortmedies to recover it. gages, indeed, for which the creditor has a real fecuThe property veiled in the aflignees is the whole rity in his own hands, are entirely fafe 5 for the comthat the bankrupt had in himfelf, at the time he com- miflion of bankrupt reaches only the equity of remitted the firft a£l of bankruptcy, or that has been demption. So are all perfonal debts, where the creditor

COM [ 327 J COM COMMISSIONER, a perfon authorized by com- Commifditor has a chattel in his hands, or a pledge or pawn, for the payment, or has taken the debtor’s lands or miflion, letters patent, or other lawful warrant, to fioner n. goods in execution. And, upon the equity of the examine any matters, or execute any lawful commif- CoramixHat. 8 An. c. 14. (which direfts, that upon all execu- fion. tion. COMAlls SI ONE R in the General Ajfembly of the tions of goods being on any premifes demifed to a tenant, one year’s rent and no more, (hall, if due, be church of Scotland. See Assembly (General). Commissioners of the Cujloms. See Customs. paid to the landlord) it hath alfo been held, that under Commissioners of Excife. See Excise. a commiflion of bankrupt, which is in the nature of a Commissioners of the Navy. See Navy. ftatute execution, the landlord (hall be allowed his arLords Commissioners of the Treafury. See Trearears of rent to the fame amount, in preference to other creditors, even though he hath neglefted to dif- sury and Exchequer. COMMISSURE, a term ufed by fome authors train while the goods remained on the premifes j which he is otherwife entitled to do for his entire for the fmall metufes or interftices of bodies j or the rent, be the quantum what it may. But etherwife little clefts between the particles : efpecially when judgments and recognizes (both which are debts thofe particles are broadifli and flat, and lie contiguof record, and therefore at other times have a pri- ous to one another, like thin plates and lamellae. The ority), and alfo bonds and obligations by deed or fpe- word literally fignifies a joining or connedling of one cial inftrument (which are called deeds by fpeciality, thing to another. Commissure, in ArchiteBure, &c. denotes the joint and are ufually the next in order), thefe are all put on a level with debts by mere fimple contraft, and all of two ftones, or the application of the furface of the paid paripaffu. Nay, fo far is this matter carried, one to that of the other. See Masonry. Among anatomifts, commiffure is fometimes alfo ufed that, by the exprefs provifion of the ftatutes, debts not due at the time of the dividend made, as bonds for a future of the cranium or fkull. See Suture. COMMITMENT, in criminal law, is the fending or notes of hand, payable at a future day, lhall be paid equally with the reft, allowing a difcount or to prifon a perfon who hath been guilty of any crime. drawback in proportion.' And infurances, and obli- This takes place where the offence is not bailable, or gations upon bottomry or refpondentia, bona jide, the party cannot find BAIL; muft; be by proper warmade by the bankrupt, though forfeited after the rant, containing the caufe of the commitment 5 and commiflion is awarded, fhall be looked upon in the continues till put an end to by the courfe of law fame light as debts contra&ed before any a£l of bank- (fee Trial) j imprifonment being intended only for fafe cuftody, and not for punilhment (fee Arrestruptcy. Within 18 months after the commiflion iffued, a ment and Bail). In this dubious interval between fecond and final dividend (hall be made, unlefs all the the commitment and trial, a prifoner ought to be ufed effe£ts were exhaufted by the firft. And if any furplus with the utmofl: humanity $ and neither be loaded remains, after paying every creditor his full debt, it with needlefs fetters, nor fubjefled to other hardlhips fhall be reftored to the bankrupt. This is a cafe than fuch as are abfolutely requifite for the purpofe of which fometimes happens to men in trade, who invo- confinement only : though what are fo requifite muft: luntarily, or at leaft unwarily, commit a£ts of bank- too often be left to the direction of the gaolers, who ruptcy, by abfconding and the like, while their effedts are frequently a mercilefs race of men, and by being are more than fufficient to pay their creditors. And converfant in fcenes of mifery, Heeled againft any tenif any fufpicious or malevolent creditor will take the der fenfation. COMMITTEE, 'one or more perfons to whom the advantage of fuch a£ts, and fue out a commiflion, the bankrupt has no remedy, but muft quietly fubmit to confideration or ordering of a matter is referred, either the effe£ts of his own imprudence : except that upon by fome court, or by the confent of parties to whom it fatisfadtion made to all the creditors, the commiflion belongs. COMMITTEE of Parliament, a certain number of may be fuperfeded. This cafe may alfo happen when a knave is defirous of defrauding his creditors, and is members appointed by the houfe for the examination compelled, by a commiflion, to do them that juftice of a bill, making a report of an inquiry, procefs of the which otherwife he wanted to evade. And there- houfe, &c. See Parliament. Sometimes the whole houfe is refolved into a comfore, though the ufual rule is, that all intereft on debts carrying intereft fhall ceafe from the time of iffuing mittee 5 on which occafion each perfon has a right to the commiflion, yet in cafe of a furplus left after pay- fpeak and reply as much and as often as he pleafes : an ment of every debt, fuch intereft; fhall again revive, expedient they ufually have recourfe to in extraordinary and be chargeable on the bankrupt or his reprefenta- cafes, and where any thing is to be thoroughly canvaffed. When the houfe is not in a committee, each tives. CommiJJion of L.UNACT, ifiues out of the court of gives his opinion regularly, and is only allowed to fpeak chancery, whether a perfon reprefented to be a luna- once, unlefs to explain himfelf. The Handing committees, appointed by every new tic, be fo or not. See Lunacy. Commission of Teinds, a court at Edinburgh, parliament, are thofe of privileges and eledtions, of which came in place of a committee of the Scottifh religion, of grievances, of courts of juftice, and of trade j parliament, for erefting new parifhes, and valuing though only the former adl. COMMIXTION, in Scots Law, is a method of acteinds for the fupport of the clergy. It is veiled in the lords of feflion. See Law Index. quiring property, by mixing or blending together different fubftances belonging to different proprietors. COMMISSION-qfficers. See OFFICERS. See Law Index. Commission, in Commerce. See Factorage. COMMODATE,

COM [ 328 ] COM CommoCOMMODATE, CoMMODATUM, in the civil ju- all alike j is owned or allowed by all; and not confined Common diite rifprudence, the loan or free conceflion of any thing to this more than that. In this fenfe, common ftands—y—. ^ ^111 moveable or immoveable, for a certain time, on con- oppofed to proper, peculiar, &c. Thus, the earth is dition of reftoring again the fame individual after a faid to be our common mother $ in the firft or golden certain term. The commodate is a kind of loan j age all things were in common, as well as the fun and there is this difference, however, between a loan and elements : the name animal is common to man and a commodate, that the latter is gratis, and does not bead •, that of fubftance to body and fpirit. Common, Communia, (i. e. quod ad omnej pert met), transfer the property : the thing muft be returned in effence, and without impairment; fo that things which in law, fignifies that foil, the ufe whereof is common to ccnfume by ufe or time cannot be objects of a com- a particular town or lordffiip 5 or it is a profit that a modate, but of a loan ; in regard they may be return- man hath in the land of another perfon, ufually in ed in kind, though not in identity. See Law In- common with others ; or a right which a perfon hath to put his cattle to pafture into ground that is not his dex. COMMODIANUS, Gazeus, a Chriftian author own. And there is not only common of pafture, but in the 4th century, who wrote a work in Latin verfe, alfo common of pifeary, common of eftovers,'common entitled Inftruftions j the moral of which is excellent, of turbary, &c. And in all cafes of common, the law but the verfe extremely heavy. M. Davies publifhed much refpe&s the cuftom of the place 5 for there a fine edition of it in 1711, at the end of Minucius the rule is, confuetudo loci ejl obfervanda. See CoMMONTY. . Felix. Common Council. See Council. COMMODITY, in a general fenfe, denotes all COMMON Law, that body of law received as rules forts of wares and merchandifes whatfoever that a perin parliament to alter the fame. See Law, Part II. fon deals or trades in. Staple COMMODITIES, fuch wares and merchandifes N° 36. COMMON-Place Book, is a regifter of what things as are commonly and readily fold in a market, or exported abroad ; being for the moft part the proper pro- occur, worthy to be noted, in the courfe of a man’s thinking or ftudy, fo difpofed as that among a numduce or manufa6ture of the country. COMMODORE, a general officer in the Britifh ber of fubjedts any one may be eafily found. The admarine, invefted with the command of a detachment vantages of making a common-place book are many : of ffiips of war, deftined on any particular enterprife, it not only makes a man read with accuracy and atduring which time he bears the rank of brigadier- tention, but induces him infenfibly to think for hirageneral in the army, and is diftinguifhed from the in- felf, provided he confiders it not fo much as a regifter ferior ffiips of his fquadron by a broad red pendant of fentiments that ftrike him in the courfe of reading, tapering towards the outer end, and fometimes fork- but as a regifter of his own thoughts upon various fubed. The word is corrupted from the Spaniffi comen- jedls. Many valuable thoughts occur even to men of no extraordinary genius. Thefe, without the affiftdador. Commodore is alfo a name given to fome fele& ffiip ance of a common-place book, are generally loft in a fleet of merchantmen, who leads the van in time both to himfelf and others. There are various meof war, and carries a light in his top to conduct the reft thods of arranging common-place books j that of Mr and keep them together. He is always the oldeft cap- Locke is as good as any that have hitherto been contrived. tain in the fleet which he commands. The firft page of the book you intend to take down COMMODUS, L. Aurelius Antoninus, fon of M. Antoninus, fucceeded his father in the Roman their common-place in, is to ferve as a kind of index empire. He was naturally cruel and fond of indul- to the whole, and to contain references to everj place ging his licentious propenfities. He wiffied to be call- or matter therein : in the commodious contrivance of ed Hercules •, and, like that hero, he adorned his which index, fo as it may admit of a fufficient cqpia or ffioulders with a lion’s fkin, and armed his hand with variety of materials, without any confufion, all the fea knotted club. He publicly fought with the gladi- cret of the method confifts. In order to this, the firft page, as already mentioned, ators, and boafled of his dexterity in killing the wild beafts in the amphitheatre. He required divine ho- or for more room, the tv^o firft pages that front each nours from the fenate, and they were granted. He other, are to be divided by parallel lines into 25 equal v/as wont to put fuch an immenfe quantity of gold parts $ whereof every fifth line is to be diftinguiffied duft in his hair, that when he appeared bareheaded in by its colour or other circumftance. Thefe lines are to the funfhine his head glittered as if furrounded with be cut perpendicularly by others, drawn from top to fun-beams. Martia, one of his concubines, whofe bottom : and in the fevcral fpaces thereof the feveral death he had prepared, poifoned him: but as the poi- letters of the alphabet, both capital and minufcle, are fon did not quickly operate, he was strangled by a to be duly written. The form of the lines and divifions, both horizontal wreftler. He died in the 31ft year of his age, and the 13th of his reign. It has been obferved, that he and perpendicular, with the manner of writing the letnever trufted himfelf to a barber $ but always burnt ters therein, will.be conceived from the following fpefcis beard, in imitation of the tyrant Dionyfius. .A. D. cimenwherein, what is to be done in the book for all the letters of the alphabet, is here ftiown in the firft J92. COMMON* Communis, fomething that belongs to four, A, B, C, and D.

COM

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329

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COM Common, Common*

Common.

The index to the common-place book thus formed, matters are ready for the taking down any thing therein. In order to this, confider to what head the thing you would enter is moft naturally referred ; and under which one would be led to look for fuch a thing $ in this head, or word, regard is had to the initial letter, and the firft vowel that follows it; which are the charafteriltic letters whereon all the ufe of the index depends. Suppofe (e. gr.) I would enter down a paflage that refers to the head beauty. B, I confider, is the initial letter, and e the firft vowel : then looking upon the index for the partition B, and therein the line e (which is the place for all words whofe firft letter is b, and the firft vowel e; as beauty, beneficence^ bread, breeding, blemifihesfi and finding no numbers already down to direfl me to any page of the book where words of this charafteriftic have been entered, I turn forward to the firft blank page I find (which, in a frefti book, as this is fuppofed to be, will be page 2d), and here write what I have occafion for on the head beauty; beginning the head in the margin, and indenting all the other fubfervient lines, that the head may Hand out, and (how itfelf j this done, I enter the page where it is written, viz. 2. in the index in the fpace Be; from which time the clafs be becomes wholly in polTeffion of the 2d and 3d pages, which are configned to letters of this charaifteriftic.^ Had I found any page or number already entered in the fpace B e, l muft have turned to the page, and have written my matter in what room was left therein : fo, if after entering the paffage on beauty, I Ihould have occafion for benevolence, or the like, finding the number 2 already poffeffed of the fpace of this cbarafteriftic, I begin the paffage on benevolence in the remainder of the page; which not containing the whole, I carry it on to page 3d, which is alfo for be; and add the number 3 in the index. Common Pleas is one of the king’s courts now held conftantly in Weftminfter-hall, but in former times was moveable. All civil caufos, as well real as perfonal, are, or were formerly, tried in this court, according to the ftrift law of the land. In perfonal and mixed adlions it has a concurrent jurifdi&ion with the king’s bench, but has no cognizance of pleas of the crown. The aftions belonging to the court of common-pleas come thither by original, as arrefts and outlawries; or by privilege, or attachment for or againft privileged perfons ; or out of inferior courts, not of record, by pone, Vol. VI. Part I.

recordari, accedas ad curiam, writ of falfe judgment, &c. The chief judge of this court is called lord chief jufiice of the common pleas, who is affilted by three other judges. The other officers of the court are the cufios brevium, who is the chief clerk ; three prothonotaries, and their fecondaries ; the clerk of the warrants, clerk, of the effoins, 14 filazers, 4 exigentors, a clerk of the juries, the chirographer, the clerk of the king’s filver, clerk of the treafury, clerk of the feal, clerk of the outlawries, clerk of the inrolment of fines and recoveries, and clerk of the errors. COMMON Prayer is the liturgy in the church of England: (See Liturgy.) Clergymen are to ufe the public form of prayers prefcribed by the Book of Common Prayer : and refufing to do fo, or ufing any other public prayers, are puniffiable by ftat. 1 Eliz. c. ii. Common, in Grammar, denotes the gender of nouns which are equally applicable to both fexes ; thus parens, “ a parent,” is of the common gender. Common, in Geometry, is applied to an angle, line, or the like, which belongs equally to two figures. COMMON Divifor, a quantity or number which exa£lly divides two or more other quantities or numbers, without leaving any remainder. COMMONALTY, the lower of the two divifions of the civil ftate. See ClVlL State. The commonalty, like the nobility, are divided into feveral degrees : and as the lords, though different in rank, yet all of them are peers in refpedt of their nobility : fo the commoners, though fome are greatly fuperior to others, yet all are in law commonalty, in refpeit of their want of nobility. 1. The firft name of dignity next beneath a peer was anciently that of vidatnes, vice-domini, or valvafors; who are mentioned by our ancient lawyers as viri magmc dignitatis ; and Sir Edward Coke fpeaks highly of them. Yet they are now quite out of ufe ; and our legal antiquarians are not agreed upon even their original or ancient office. 2. Now, therefore, the firft perfonal dignity after the nobility is a knight of the order of St George or of the Garter, firft inftituted by Edw. III. A. D. 1344. 3. Next (but not till after certain official dignities, as privy-counfellors, the chancellors of the exchequer and duchy of Lancafter, the chief juftice of the king’s bench, the matter of the rolls, and the other Engliffi judges), follows a knight banneret; who indeed, by ftatutes 5 Richard II. flat. 2. c. 4. and 14 Richard II. c. 11. is ranked next after barons; and his precedence before the younger fons of vifcounts was confirmed to him by order of King James I. in the tenth year rtof his Tt 'jgn"

COM [ 330 ] COM Common- reign. But in order to entitle him to this rank, he degree, or mydery, m all aftions and other legal pro- Conimon. alty. mud have been created by the king in perfon, in the ceedings. alty COMMONER, or Gentleman-Commoner, in il field, under the royal banners, in time of open war ; the univerfities, a dudent entered in a certain rank. Commons. elfe he ranks after, COMMONS, or House of Commons, a denomi-^ 4. Baronets ; who are the next in order : which is a dignity of inheritance, created by letters patent, nation given to the lower houfe of parliament. See and ufually defcendible to the iflue-male. See Baro- Parliament. The commons confid of all fuch men of any proMETS. perty in the kingdom as have not feats in the houfe 5. Next follow knights of the Bath. See Bath. 6. The laft of thefe inferior nobility are knights ba- of lords, every one of whom has a voice in parchelors ; the mod. ancient, though the lowed, order of liament, either perfonally or by his reprefentatives. In a free date, every man who is fuppofed a free knighthood amongd us. See Bachelor. 7. The above, with thofe enumerated under the ar- agent, ought to be in fome meafure his own goverticle Nobility, Sir Edward Coke fays, are all the nor : and therefore a branch at lead of the legiflanames of dignity in this kingdom *, efquires and gentle- tive power ffiould refide in the whole body of the men being only names of worfhip. But before thtfe people. And this power, when the territories of the lad the heralds rank all colonels, fergeants at law, and date are fmall and its citizens eafily known, ffiould be exercifed by the people in their aggregate or collecdo&ors in the three learned profefiions. 8. Efquires and gentlemen are confounded together tive capacity, as was wifely ordained in the petty reby Sir Edward Coke : who obferves, that every ef- publics of Greece, and the fird rudiments of the Roquire is a gentleman, and a gentleman is defined to man date. But this will be highly inconvenient when be one qui arma gerit, “ who bears coat-armour j” the the public territory is extended to any confiderable grant of which adds gentility to a man’s family : in degree, and the number of citizens is increafed. Thus like manner as civil nobility among the Romans was when, after the Social war, all the burghers of Italy founded in the jus imaginum, or having the image of were admitted free citizens of Rome, and each had a one ancedor at lead who had borne fome curule of- vote in the public alfemblies, it became impoffible to fice. It is indeed a matter fomewhat unfettled what didinguiffi the fpurious from the real voter, and from conditutes the didinftion, or who is a real efquire j that time all eleftions and popular deliberations grew for it is not an edate, however large, that confers this tumultuous and diforderly ; ivhich paved the way for rank upon its owner. Camden, who was himfelf a Marius and Sylla, Pompey and Caefar, to trample on herald, didinguiflies them the mod accurately 5 and he the liberties of their country, and at lad to diffolve reckons up four forts of them : id, The elded fons of the commonwealth. In fo large a date as curs, thereknights, and their elded fons in perpetual fucceffion. fore, it is very wifely contrived, that the people diould 2dly, The elded fons of younger fons of peers, and do that by their reprefentatives which it is impractheir elded fons, in like perpetual fuccedion : both ticable to perform in perfon : reprefentatives chofen which fpecies of efquires Sir Henry Spelman entitles by a number of minute and feparate didrifts, wherearmigeri natalitii. 3dly, Efquires created by the king’s in all the voters are or may be eafily didinguiffied. letters patent, or rather invediture 5 and their elded The counties are therefore reprefented by knights, fons. qthly, Efquires by virtue of their office : as elefted by the proprietors of lands ; and cities and bojudices of the peace and others who bear any office roughs are reprefented by citizens and burgeffes choof trud under the crown. To thefe may be added the fen by the mercantile or fuppofed trading intered of efquires of the knights of the Bath, each of whom con- the nation j much in the fame manner as the burghers ditutes three at his indallation j and all foreign, nay, in the diet of Sweden are chofen by the corporate Iridi peers ; for not only thefe, but the elded fons of towns, Stockholm fending four, as London does with peers of Great Britain, though frequently titular lords, us, other cities two, and fome only one. The numare only efquires in the law, and mud be fo named in ber of Englidi reprefentatives is 513, of Scots 45, of Iriffi 100in all 6585 and every member, though all legal proceedings. 9. As for gentlemen, fays Sir Thomas Smith, they chofen by one particular didrift, wffien elefted and rebe made good cheap in this kingdom ; for whofoever turned, ferves for the whole realm j for the end of his dudieth the laws of the realm, who dudieth in the coming thither is not particular, but general ; not univerfities, who profeffeth liberal fciences, and (to be barely to advantage his eondituents, but the commonffiort) who can live idly and without manual labour, wealth to advife his majedy, as appears from the writ and will bear the part, charge, and countenance of a of fummons, “ de communi ccnfilio fuper negotiis quigentleman, he diall be called mader, and ffiall be taken bufdam arduis et urgentibus, regem, datum, et defenfionem regni Anglise et ecclefiae Anglican® concerfor a gentleman. 10. A yeoman is he that hath free land of 40s. by nentibus.” And therefore he is not bound, like a dethe year-, who is thereby qualified to ferve on juries, puty in the United Provinces, to confult with, or vote for knights of the (hire, and do any other aft take the advice of, his condituents upon any particuwhere the law requires one that is probus et legaiis lar point, unlefs he himfelf thinks it proper or prudent fo to do. homo. The peculiar laws and cudoms of the houfe of com11. The red of the commonalty are tradefmen, artificers, and labourers; who (as well as all others) mons relate principally to the raifing of taxes, and the mud, in purfuance of the datute 1 Henry V. c. 5. eleftions of members to ferve in parliament. See be dyled by the name and addition of their edate, Taxes and Elections. D offers

COM [ 33i ] CO M In the primitive Chriftian churfch, every biftiop was CommuCommons Dottors COMMONS. See COLLEGE of Civilians. obliged, after his ordination, to fend circular letters oion. 1! ProBor of the COMMONS. See PROCTOR. v CommuCOMMONTY, in Scots Law, fometimes fignifies to foreign churches, to fignify that he was in commu" Illon nion with them. The three grand communions into ' lands belonging to two or more common proprietors } fometimes a heath or muir, though it fliould be- which the Chriftian church is at prefent divided, is long in properly to one, if there has been a promifeu- that of the church of Rome, the Greek church, and ous poffeffion upon it by pafturage ; and the aft 1695 the Proteftant church : but originally all Chriftians mentions commonties belonging in property to the •were in communion with each other, having one common faith and difcipline. king and to royal boroughs. See Law Index. Communion is alfo ufed for the aft of communiCOMMONWEALTH. See Republic. COMMOTE, an ancient term in Wales, denoting cating the facrament of the eucharift, or the Lord’s half a cantred, or hundred : containing 50 villages. See fupper. The fourth council of Lateran decrees, that every Hundred. Wales was anciently divided into three provinces ; each of thefe fubdivided into cantreds, and believer ftiall receive the communion, at leaft at Eafter ; every cantred into two commotes or hundreds. Sil- which feems to import a tacit defire, that they Ihould vefter Girald, however, tells us in his Itinerary, that a do it oftener ; as, in effeft, they did it much oftener in the primitive days. Gratian, and the mailer of the commote is but a quarter of a hundred. COMMUNIS, in Botanij, the name of a clafs in fentences, prefcribe it as a rule for the laity, to comLinnaeus’s Meihodus Cahjcina, confifting of two plants municate three times a-year, at Eafter, Whitfuntide, which, like teazel and dandelion, have a calyx or and Chriftmas. But in the 13th century, the praftice flower-cup common to many flowers or florets. Thefe was adopted, never to approach the eucharift, exare the aggregate or compound flowers of other fy- cept at Eafter ; and the council thought fit to enjoin it then by a law, left their coldnefs and remiffnefs flems. COMMUNIBUS LOCIS, a Latin term, in frequent Ihould go farther Hill. And the council of Trent reufe among philofophical, &c. writers *, implying fome newed the fame injunftion, and recommended frequent medium or mean relation, between feveral places. Dr communion without enforcing it by an exprefs decree. In the ninth century the communion was ftill reKeil fuppofes the ocean to be one quarter of a mile deep, communibus locis, q. d. at a medium, or taking ceived by the laity in both kinds ; or, rather the fpecies of bread was dipped in the wine, as is owned by one place with another. COMMUNIBUS /dnnis, has the fame import with re- the Romanifts themfelves. (Afta SS Benedift. Sasc. gard to years that communibus locis has with regard to III). M. de Marca obferves, that they received it at places. Mr Derham obferves that the depth of rain, firft in their hands, Hift. de Bearn, and believes the communibus annis, or one year with another, were it to communion under one kind alone to have had its rife in ftagnate on the earth, would amount in Townley in the Weft under Pope Urban II. in 1096, at the time Lancalhire, to 424 inches ; at Upminfter in Effex, to of the conqueft of the Holy Land. And it was more 19^; at Zurich, 32^; at Pifa, 43^: and at Paris to folemnly enjoined by the council of Conftance in 1414. The twenty-eighth canon of the council of Clermont 19 inches. COMMUNICATING, in Theology, the att of re- enjoins the communion to be received under both ceiving the facrament of the eucharift. Thofe of the kinds, diftinftly ; adding, however, two exceptions; reformed, and of the Greek church, communicate under the one of necelfity, the other of caution, ni[i per necefboth kinds ; thofe of the Romifli, under only one. The fitatem et cautelam; the firft in favour of the lick, the oriental communicants receive the fpecies of wine by a fecond of the abftemious, or thofe who had an averlion fpoon, and anciently they fucked it through a pipe, as for wine. It was formerly a kind of canonical punifhment, for has been obferved by Beat. Rheanus on Tertullian. COMMUNICATION, in a general fenfe, the a that there had been eight houfe of commons. Mr Dundas having made feveral motions tending years of war and only four of peace j and that, during the whole time of war, the revenue had not been able to criminate Sir Thomas Rumbold, formerly goverto fupport the civil and military eftabliftiments j though nor of Bengal, a bill was brought in and palled into in time of peace, it was able to do nearly one-ha.f a law, for reftraining him and Peter Perring, Efq* more. Bengal, however, was the mofl lucrative of all from going out of the kingdom for the fpace ot one the Eaft India fettlements ; but fuch had been the ex- year, for difcovering their eftates, &c. An addrefs igences of the Mahratta war, that the governor-general was alio prefented to the king, requefting him to rehad been obliged to contraft a very large debt, info- cal Sir Elijah Impey from India, in order to anfwer much, that it was doubtful whether the inveftments for for high crimes and mifdemeanours. A number of England ihould be wholly or partially fufpended. Mr other refolutions were now paffed by the houfe, in Haftings, he faid, had in many inftances proved him- confequence of motions by Mr Dundas, and which felf a very meritorious fervant : but he wilhed that were founded on the reports of the fecret committee. every one of their fervants would confider himfelf as Among thefe it was refolved, “ That the orders of bound in the firft place to prove a faithful fteward to the court of diredlors of the Eaft India Company, which have conveyed to their fervants abroad a prohithe company •, not to fancy that he was an Alexander bitory condemnation of all fchemes of conquelt and or Aurengzebe, and prefer frantic military exploits to enlargement of dominion, by prefcribing certain rules the improvement of the trade and commerce of his country.—General Smith obferved, that by the evi- and boundaries for the operation of their military dence produced to the committee, it appeared that force, were founded no lefs in wifdom and policy than, there had been a variety of great abufes in India. Sir in juftice and moderation. That every tranfgreffion Elijah Impey, his majefty’s chief juftice in that coun- of thefe orders, without evident neceffity, by any of the feveral governments in India, has been highly try, had fo far derogated from the charader of a judge, reprehenfible, and tended in a great degree to weaken as to accept of a place from the company; by which means he was brought under their controul, and con- the force and influence, and to diminilh the influence fequently allowed himfelf to be deprived of that inde- of the company in thofe parts. That every inttrfependence which he ought to poft'efs as a judge. Ju- rence of the company as a party in the domeftic or national quarrels of the country powers, and all new ftice had been fo partially adminiftered, that feveral engagements with them in offenlive alliance, have worthy and refpeaable perfons had been imprifoned, been wifely and providentially forbidden by the comfome had been ruined, and others died in jail. From pany in their commands to their adminiftrations in Inall which confiderations he moved, that the affairs ^of dia. That every unneceffary deviation from thefe the company ought to be taken into confideration by rules ftiould be feverely reproved and puniftied. 1 hat a committee pf the whole houfe. Some hints were the maintenance of an inviolable character for moderathrown out by Mr Dundas, that the territorial poffeflions in the Eaft ought to be taken from the com- tion, good faith, and fcrupulous regard to treaty, to have been the fimple grounds on which the pany entirely, and put" under the direftion of the ought Biitifh government fhould have endeavoured to eflacrown ; but this was oppofed by Mr Fox, as furnilhblith an extenfive influence, fuperior to that of other ino- minifters with fuch ample means of corruption and Europeans ; and that the danger and difcredit arifing undue influence, as might overthrow the conftitution entirely. For this reafon, he thought it would be from the forfeiture of this pre-eminence, could not be more prudent to leave the appointment of its own fer- compenfated by the temporary fuccefs of any plan of and injuftice. That Ihould any relaxation take vants to the company ; but at the fame time to keep violence a watchful eye over them, in order to be able to pu- place, without fufficient caufe, in thofe principles of government on the part of the dire&ors themfelves, nilh and remove thofe who (hould be found delin- good it would bring upon them, in a heavier degree, the requent. The houfe having refolved itfelf into a committee, fentment of the legiflative power of their country. That the conduft of the company, and their fervants a motion was made by General Smith, “ That Warren Haftings, Efq. governor-general of Bengal, and Sir in India, in various inftances fpecified, was contrary

COM

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3 47 ] COM more abundant reafon for cemure. It was difcover- Cotnpan; Company, lo pohcy and good faith; the company’s feryants in ed, that corruption, fraud, and injufiice had pervaded ^ their prefidency of Bombay, had been guilty of notorievery department. It had become an object with the ous inftances of difobedience to the orders of their em- fervants of the company to opprefs the natives by every, ployers, particularly in forming an alliance with Ka- poffible method. I hey monopolifed, every article ot gobah, or Ragonaut Row : that they had undertaken, trade, and feemed to have*no other principle of comwithout any adequate military force, or certainty of a merce but lawlefs violence: the court of directors fufficient revenue, and without proper communication fent out inftruftions ; but tor the moft part without with the fuperior government upon which they were any effea. Though the delegated adminiftration of to depend for fanftion and fupport, to reinftate the India ought to have preferved the flriaeit obedience to ufurper above mentioned, and thereby to involve them- that of Britain 5 yet, being at fo great a diftance from felves in a war with the ruling minifters of the Mahrat- the feat of Cupreine authority, and being poffefled of ta ftate, while Ragobah himfelf was not in the mean endlefs means of abufe, it had become corrupt in an time able to give the company any fecure poffeflion of extreme degree. Inftead of being fubfervient to gothe grants he had made to them for the purchafe of vernment at home, the adroiniftration of India affectheir afliftance. That it was the opinion of the houfe, independence. 1 he maxims of Mr Mailings were that all the difafters in which the Britilh empire in the ted arbitrary ^ and he feemed to have no inclination to Eaft was involved had proceeded from the unjuftifiable manner in which the Mahrattas had been treated, obey. He treated with fovereign contempt the auand the conduft of the Madras presidency in other re- thority of the court of directors; and the confufion fpefts fpecified. That it is the opinion of this houfe, produced by the difputes between them were fofterthat it muft be reckoned among the additional mif- ed by the body of India proprietors, who were difchiefs arifing chieflv from the improvident war with pofed to a£f as a check upon the diredlors, I he of new regulations in the government of Inthe Mahrattas, that the military force of the Carnatic neceffity T dia w as univeifally admitted j and a bill for this had been weakened by reinforcements fent to the Malabar coaft : that the Bengal government had been un- purpofe was accordingly brought in by Mr Dunder a neceffitv of fupporting, on their confines, the ar- das. His propofitions were, that the governor and my of a power confederated againft them (a) : that council of Bengal ftiould have a controuling power they had been under the neceffity. of filing for the me- and jurifdi&ion over the inferior prefidencies of diation of the fame power : and fubmitted to a retu- India ; and he was of opinion that the governor-genefa]. and purchafed at lad an uncertain, becaufe appa- ral ftiould be invefted with a power to ad even againft rently an unauthorized, treaty, on moft extravagant and the will and opinion of the council, whenever he di(honourable conditions, with Chimnagee the rajah ftiould imagine that, by fo doing, he could contribute of Berar’s fon : and finally, that being burdened with to the public good j though, in thefe cafes, he alone the expences of a variety of dilfant expeditions, while ftiould be refponfible for the event. With regard to their albes were in diftrefs, and their tributaries under the inferior governors, though he did not think it proto ad contrary to oppreffion, there was alfo an alarming deficiency in the per that they fhould be authorized T refources of revenue and commerce, by the accumula- the advice of the council, he w as of opinion, that they tion of their debt, and the redu&ion of their infeft- ought to have a right of negativing every propofition, ment. That it was the opinion of the houfe, that an until application was made to the governor-general and attempt made by the governor-general, in the begin- council of Bengal. With regard to the zemindar.ies ning of January 1781, to forrn an engagement of alli- and other tenures of land, he obfervtd, that when Kinance, ofFenfive and defenfive, with the Dutch Eafl India doftan had been conquered by the Moguls, a tribute Company, in the manner dated, by the proceedings of was impofed upon the zemindars j and while tney their council, was unwarranted, impolitic, extravagant, continued to pay this tribute, they accounted themfelves to be the real proprietors and mafters of the and unjud.” Thefe fevere cenfures extended even to the directors lands they pnffelTed. The people called ryots, to whom themfelves, whofe condufl on fome occafions was de- thefe zemindaries were lent out, confidered themfelves clared to be indefenfible, as well as that of their fer- Jikewife as fecure in their poffefiions while they pervants and aorents. It was alfo refolved, "1 hat War- formed the articles of their refpedive contrads. Of ren Hadings, Efq. governor-general of Bengal, , and late, however, thefe rights had been infringed ; and William Hornlbv, Efq. prefident of the council of the Mogul came to confider himfelf as the abfolute Bombay, having, in fundry indances, a&ed in a man- matter of all the foil of Indoftan", which maxim he ner •■enugnant to the honour and policy of tnis nation, was inclined to deftroy, and errd upon it another, that and thereby brought great calamities on India, and might fecure the landholders in their property. He enormous expences on the Incna company, it was the propofed to fecure the nabob of Arcot and rajah of duty of the dire&ors to purfue all legal and effe&ual Tanjore in their territories, by making an ad of means for the removal of the faid governor general parliament in favour of the latter ; but was of opiand nrefident from their offices, and to recal them to nion, that the debts of thefe princes ought not to be too nicely inquired into, as the greateft part of them Britain.” The commons having thus ferioufly entered into a originated in corruption. He was clearly of opinion, confideration of Eaft India affairs, foon found ftill however, that Governor Haftings ought to be recallXx 2 ed 5 (a) The power here alluded to was Movedajee Boofia, rajah of Berar.

See Indostan.

COM f 348 1 COM Company, ed •, and that fteps ought to be taken to prevent the Bengal by private loan ; and ufed it as an argument Company. "v ' court of proprietors from prefuming to a£t in contra- that the company had ceafed to exift, and that their v—di it inftion to parliament. Lord Cornwallis appeared Commerce was nothing more than an inftruraent for to be the moft proper fucceflbr to Mr Haltings. His procuring immenfe fortunes to individuals, totally deperfonal honour, and that of his anceftors, were pled- ftitute of confcience or principle. ges for his good behaviour j and being independent in All this was excufed by Governor Johnftone. He his fortune, he could have no view of repairing his regarded the fum of 8oo,oool. as merely trifling, eftate out of the fpoils of India ; and from his profef- when the number of civil and military fervants on the fjon, he could add to the charafter of governor that of Bengal government was confidered. The famine at commander in chief; he would not, however, infill on Madias was owing to the modes of war which preIns name being filled up in the bill, as that would reft vailed in the Eaft ; as the enemy there marked their more properly with government. courfe by deflation. He concluded with cenfuring Mr Haftings was defended by Governor Johnftone, the manner in which Mr Haflings had beenfpoken of; who endeavoured to ridicule the arguments and pro- and infilled that his high reputation ought to have pofals of Mr Dundas. He obferved, to the honour guarded him from fuch infults. Mr Burke replied by of the former, that he had been able to conclude a an intimation of his defign to impeach Mr Haftings on peace with the Mahrattas ; and while he enlarged on his return ; whom he called the greateft delinquent his talents for negociation, he admired the refources that had ever violated in India the rights of humanity with which he had fupplied the expences of the war. and juftice. It ought to be confidered that Mr Haftings was in a It was obferved by Lord John Cavendifti, that the fituation the moft difficult, and that no man could have territorial acquifitions of the company were a fruitful full ained it with more fortitude and ability. His ene- fource of grievance; and it would have been more for mies had dealt in infinuation and inveclive ; but when their advantage to have confined themftlves to their the hour of trial came, they would find that their charges original character of merchants. However, as the terw mid be refuted with equal eafe. He was defended alfo ritorial acquifitions had been obtained, it was proper to by Mr Dempfter, who advifed the houfe feriouflv to take means for their prefervation ; as otherwife they think before they palled a vote for the removal of Mr would not revert to the natives, but fall into the hands Ha Rings. His exertions had been extraordinary ; and of our natural enemies the French. it would then be as ridiculous to fuperfede him, as it In the houfe of peers the caufe of the company was would have been to recal General Elliot, when the ably defended by Earl Fitzwilliam. He maintained, Spaniffi batteries were playing againft Gibraltar. He that their fituation was defperate, and bankruptcy inewas not, however, an advocate for all the meafures of vitable, unlefs relief was inftantly afforded. A report Mr Haftings ; his errors might be numerous ; but no of their being in an infolvent ftate had gone abroad, cenfure of him ftiould be eftabliffied before they were and nothing was better calculated to preferve and fuppointed out and explained. port their credit than a large dividend fandtioned by Mr Dundas having now obtained leave to bring adl of parliament. The expenditure on their fettlein his bill, another was moved for by Sir Henry Flet- ments had far exceeded their revenue ; of confequence cher, “ That leave be given to bring in a bill to dif- their fervants had drawn bills, which they were unable charge and indemnify the united company of mer- to anfwer without a temporary fupply. Thus the exchants trading to the Eaft Indie*, from all damages, iftence of the company might be faid to depend on the interefts, and Ioffes, in refpeft to their not making re- bill ; and lie hoped no objections could be raifed ftrong gular payment of certain fums due to the public, and enough to deftroy it. to allow farther time to fuch payment ; to enable the On the 18th of November 1783, Mr Fox propofed company alfo to burrow a certain fum of money, and his celebrated Eaft India bill, which for fome time to make a dividend for the proprietors of four per cent, attradled the attention of the nation at large in a very at midfummer 1783.” He endeavoured to fhow, confiderable degree. By this it was intended to take that the public had derived very confiderable advan- from the India proprietors and directors the entire adtages from the company ; that their dividend had miniftration of their territorial and commercial affairs. been 81. 4*. annually during the time of peace, and It took from them alfo their houfe in Leadenhall7I. I 5s. per cent, during war ; they were by no means ftreet, together with all books, papers, and documents ; in a ftate of infolvency, as fome members had en- veiling the entire management, the appointment of all deavoured to prove, their prefent application pro- officers and fervants, the rights of peace and war, and ceeding only from a temporary embarraffment. A the difpofal of the whole revenue, in the hands of cernew difpute took place eoncerning Mr Haftings, who tain commiffioners. Thefe were, in the firft inftance, was warmly attacked by Mr Burke, and defended by to be appointed by the whole legiflature, but afterGovernor Johnftone. The former enlarged on the wards by the crown ; and were to hold their offices by bloodffied, ravages, and rapacity, which bad taken the fame tenure as the judges in England, viz. during place in India. The eftablifhed fyftem of the fervants their good behaviour ; and could be removed only by of the company, he faid, was rapine and robbery. The an addrefs from one of the houfes of parliament. They Mahratta war was occafioned by their refufal to be were required to come to a decifion upon every querobbed ; the famine at Madras was occafioned by the ftion within a limited time, or to affign a fpecific reamifconduft of the Engliffi government in India ; and fon for their delay. They were never to vote by balhe fet forth in ftrong colours the manner in which the lot ; and, almoft in every cafe, were to enter the reaIndian princes and princeffes had been plundered. He fon of their vote in their journals. They were alfo tm inftanced, that Mr Haftings had raifed. 8oo,oool. in. fubmit, once every fix months, an exaCt flate of their 1 accounts

C O M C O M [ 349 1 but give a very fevere blow to the national credit. Compai.y. Company, accounts to the court of proprietors ; and at the beT““~ ginning of every feflion, a ftate of their accounts and On the other hand, the requifite affiltance was a mateftablifhments to both houfes of parliament. Their ter of very extenfive confideration. It would be abnumber was limited to feven ; but they were to be af- folutely neceffary to permit the acceptance of the bills fifted by a board of nine perfons, each of them poflef- to the above mentioned amount ; and to do this without fed of 2000I. company’s flock j who, as well as the regulating their affairs, and reforming the abufes of commiffioners, were to be appointed in the firft in- their government, would only be to throw away the ftance by parliament, and ever afterwards by the court public money. of proprietors. They were alfo to be removeable at The conduft of the company’s fervants, and of the the pleafure of any five commiflioners, and were dif- company itfelf, was now arraigned by Mr Fox in the qualified from fitting in the houfe of commons. The moll fevere terms j and their mifcondu&s were pointed whole fyltem of government thus propofed, was to con- ©ut under their following heads : tinue for the fpace of three or five years. 1. With regard to Mr Haftings.—The chairman This was accompanied with another bill, the pro- of the committee had moved in the houfe of comfefled defign of which was to preclude all arbitrary and mons, that it was the duty of the company to recal defpotic proceedings from the adminiftration of the that gentleman ; to which motion the houfe had acompany’s territorial poffeflions. By this the powers greed. In obedience to this refolution, the diredlors of the governor-general and fupreme council were af- had agreed that Mr Haftings ffiould be recalled j but certained more exaflly than had hitherto been done : fuppofing this to be a matter rather beyond their juit deprived the governor-general of all power of a£t- rifdiflion, they had fubmitted their determination to a ing independent of his council $ profcribed the dele- court of proprietors, who refcinded the refolution of gation of a>’,y trull 5 and declared every Britilh pow'er the diredlors ; and after this the whole affair came to in the Eafl incompetent to the acquifition or exchange be laid before the houfe of commons. In the mean of any territory in behalf of the company, to the ac- time every thing was anarchy and confufion in the ceding to any treaty of partition, the hiring out of Ealt, owing to this unfettled condufl with regard to the company’s troops, the appointing to office any the governor j as the whole continent had been made perfon removed for mifdemeanour, or to the hiring acquainted with the refolution of the houfe for recalout any property to a civil fervant of the company. ling him, while that of the proprietors for continuing By this alfo monopolies were entirely aboliffiedj and him in his office was kept a fecret. The proprietors illegal prefents recoverable by any perfon for his foie had alfo been guilty of another contradiclion in this benefit. The principal part of the bill, however, re- refpedl, as they had voted their thanks to Mr Haftlated to the zemindars, or native landholders, who ings for his conduct in India. Hence Mr Fox was were now to be fecured by every poffible means in the led to comment on the nature of the company’s conpofieflion of their refpeflive inheritances, and defend- nexions with their fervants abroad, as well as on the ed in all cafes from opprefiion. Laftly, a mode was charafter of the company themfelves. Among the prefented for terminating the difputes between the former, he faid, there were a few, who, being pronabob of Arcot and the rajah of Tanjore ; difqualify- prietors themfelves, endeavoured to promote the trade ing every perfon in the fervice of the company from of the company, and increafe its revenues. The views fitting in the houfe of commons during his continuance of the reft were otherwife directed ; and from the difin their fervice, and for a certain fpecified time after ference in fpeculation between the two parties, the his demiffion. former were inclined to fupport that governor who During the courfe of the debates on this bill, Mr enabled them to make large dividends ; and who, for Fox fet forth the affairs of the company as in the moll that reafon, after having peculated for his own advandefperate fituation. They had alked leave, he faid, tage, was obliged to do the fame for the benefit of the the year before, to borrow 500,000!. upon bonds j proprietors. The latter, therefore, could not better had petitioned for 300,000!. in exchequer bills ; and gratify their wiffies, than by fupporting a governor who for the fufpenfion of a demand of 700,000!. due to had in his power fo many opportunities of providing for government for culloms. He took notice alfo, that, his friends. according to an a£l of parliament Hill in force, the 2. The next charge was againft the fervants of the dire£lors could not, by their own authority, accept company, whom he accufed of a regular and fyftemabills to the amount of more than 300,000!. ; under tic difobedience to the orders of the proprietors.— which circumftances it would no doubt furprife the The fupreme council of Bengal, he faid, had refolved, houte to be informed, that bills were now coming in oppofition to Mr Haftings, to fend two gentlemen, over for acceptance to the amount of 2,ooo,oool. It Mr Fowke and Mr Briftow, the one to relide with was evidently, therefore, and indifpenfablv neceffary, the nabob of Oude, the other at Benares. Mr Haftthat government ffiould interfere in the affairs of the ings, however, refufed to fend them j the dirtdtors company to fave them from certain bankruptcy. He tranfmitted the moft politive orders to carry the vote Hated their adlual debt at no lefs than 11,200,ooal. of the fupreme council into execution j but ftill Mr while their Hock in hand did not exceed 3,200,000!. Haftings difobeyed ; alleging in his defence, that he I here was therefore a deficiency of 8,ooo,cool. 5 a could not employ perfons in whom he had no confimoll alarming fum when compared with the compa- dence. Afterwards, however, Mr Haftings feemed to ny’s capital. Unltfs fpeedily affilled, therefore, they contradict bimfelf in a very curious manner. He mull inevitably be ruined j and the ruin of a company granted Mr Fowke a contraCl, with a commiffion of of merchants fo extenlive in their concerns, and of 5 per cent. $ which, he obferved, was a great fum, fuch importance in the eyes of all Europe, cowld not and might operate as a temptation to prolong the was. “ Bufc

COM [3 Company. “ But (added he) the entire confidence I have in the integrity and honour of Mr Fowke, amounts to a full end perfefl fecurity on that head.” To this Mr Fox added fome other inflances of a fimilar kind y but though he fupported thefc and the projedle'd bill with all the argument and eloquence for which he was fo remarkable, he found it impoffible to make his fcheme agreeable to the majority of the houfe. The ftrongeft opponent was Mr William Pitt, who infilled chiefly on the two following topics. 1. Its infringement, or rather annihilation of the company’s charter ; and, 2. The new and unconflitutional influence it tended to create. He owned, indeed, that India flood in need of a reform, but not fuch a one as broke through every principle of juftice and reafon. The charter of the company was a fair purchafe from the public, and an equal compaft for reciprocal advantages between the proprietors and the nation at large $ but if it was infringed in the manner propofed by the bill, what fecurity could other trading companies have that they fhould not be treated in the fame manner ? nay, what fecurity could there be for Magna Charta ilfelf ? The bill, he faid, amounted to a confiscation of property. It had been fuggefled, indeed, that it was not a bill of disfranchifement, becaufe it did not take from the proprietors their right to an exclufive trade ; but this was not the only franchife of the proprietors. A freehold might have a franchife annexed to it, the latter of which might be taken away, and yet the property of the former remain ; in which cafe it could not be denied that the freeholders would have great caufe to complain. The cafe was exadtly parallel with the India fitock. Perforis pofiefTed of this to a certain amount, were entitled to a vote upon every important quefiion of the company’s affairs ; and on this account the purchafe-money was more confiderable. But, by the bill in queffion, this privilege was to be taken away 3 which plainly amounted to a diffranchifement. The great obje&ion to this bill, however, feeined to be a fufpiclon that it was a fcheme of Mr Fox to gratify his own perfonal ambition as a miniller, he being at that time fecretary of (late. On this account he was deferted even by the patriotic members, who, upon former oecafions, had fo flrenuouffy fupported his caufe.—Mr Dundas accufed him of attempting to create a fourth eftate in the kingdom, the power and influence of which might overturn the crown and fubvert the cortftitution of Britain. A petition was prefented from the proprietors, and another from the direflors of the company, reprefenting the bill as lubverfive of their charter, and conf.fcating their property, without either charge of delinquency, trial, or convi&ion. They prayed, therefore, that the adds of delinquency prefumed againft them might be flated in writing, and a reafonable time allowed them to deliver in their anfwer; and that they might be beard by counfel againft the bill. About the fame time the dire&ors gave in a ftate of the company’s affairs, differing in the moft extraordinary manner from that given by Mr Fox. In this they reprefented the creditor fide of the account as amounting to 14,311.173!. and thev brought themfelves in debtors to fhe amount of 10,342,692b; fo that of confequence there was a balance in their favour of 3,968,481!. This was 4

O ] COM vehemently contcfted by the fecretary, who faid he could bring objeddions to the ftatement of the directors to the amount of more than I 2,COO,cool, fterling. He then entered into a particular dilcuflion of •the articles dated in the directors account, and made good his affeftion. Objections to this method of calculation, however, were made on the part of the company ; fo that nothing could certainly appear to the public but that the company were at that time much diftreffed,,and would fail entirely unlefs powerfully tupported by government. Mr Fox now proceeded to a particular refutation of the arguments brought againft the bili ; tn which indeed he difplayed an aftoniftiing force oi argument and acutenefs of reafoning. The objection drawn from the validity of the company’s charter, he let afide, by fhowing that the company had abided their power, and that it was therefore neceflary to take it from them. I bis he faid always had been the cafe, and muft be the cafe in a free nation ; and he brought the example of James II. who, on account of the abufe of his power, had been deprived of it by the nation at large. The cafe was the fame with the company. They had made a bad ufe of their power, and therefore the nation at large ought to deprive them of it. It had been ohjefled by the country gentlemen, that the bill augmented the influence of the crown too much ; and by Mr Dundas, that it reduced it to nothing. Both thefe objections, he faid, were overturned by the circumftance of making the commiflioners hold their 1 ffice only during good behaviour, d bus, when confcious that they were liable to punilhment if guilty, but fecure in cafe they faithfully difeharged their truft, they would be liable to no ftduClion, but would execute their functions with glory to themfelves, and for the common good of their country and of mankind. Fie then drew a comparifun betwixt his own bill and that of Mr Dundas’s already mentioned. The bill of the la!ter, he faid, had created a defpotic authority in one man over fome millions of his fellow-creatures ; not indeed in England, where the remedy againft oppreffion was always at hand ; but in the Eaft Indies, where violence, fraud, and mifehief, everywhere "prevailed. Thus the bill propofed by Mr Dundas afforded the moft extenfive latitude for malverfation, while his own guarded againft it with every poflible care ; as was inftanced in its confiding in no integrity ; trufting in no cbaraCler ; and annexing refponlibility not only to every action, but even to the inaBion of the powers it created. After having expatiated for a confiderable time, the fecretary was feconded by Mr Burke, whofe force of oratory was chiefly direfted, as indeed it ufually was when fpeaking of India affairs, on the monftrous abufe of the company’s power in that quarter. He affirmed that there was not in India a Angle prince, ftate, or potentate, with whom the company had come into contaB, whom they had not fold ; and there was not a Angle treaty they had ever made which they had not broken ; and that there was not a Angle prince or ftate that had ever put any confidence in the company who had not been ruined. With regard to the firft articF, Mr Burke inftanced the lale of the Great Mogul bimfelf; of the Rohillas ; the nabob of Bengal ; the polygars of the Mahratta empire ; Ragobab, the pretender

COM [ 3. Company, tender to that empire ; and the fubah of Decan.—1 he —-v—frcond article was proved by a review of the tranfactions from the beginning to the end of the Mahratta war. With regard to the third, viz. the ruin of fuch princes as put any confidence in the company or their fervants, he defired them to look into the hiftory and fituation of the nabob of Oude. In the year 1779, this country had been vifited by a famine ; a calamity which had been known to relax the feverity even of the moft rigorous government ; yet in this fituation the prefidcnt of Bengal had put an abfolute negative upon the reprefentation of the prince j adding, that perhaps expedients might be found for affording him a gradual relief j but their efifedls mull be diftant. This diilant relief, however, never arrived, and the country was ruined. Our limits will not allow a particular detail of the charges againft the company on the one hand, or the defences on the other. In general, it muft appear, that fuch fevere and heavy charges'could not be advanced without fome foundation, though perhaps they may have been confid^rably exaggerated by the orators who brought them. The picture drawn by Mr Burke on this occafion indeed was (hocking. “ The Arabs, Tartars, and Perfians, had conquered Indoftan with vaft effufion of blood \ while the conquefts of the Engli(h had been acquired by artifice and fraud, rather than by open force. The Afiatic conquerors, however, had foon abated of their ferocity 5 and the (hurt life of man had been fufficient to repair the waife they had occafioned. But with the Englifh the cafe had been entirely different. Their conquefts were ftill in the fame ftate they had been 20 years ago. They had no more foeiety with the people than if they ftill refided in England ; but, with the view of making fortunes, rolled in one after another, wave after wave ; fo that there was nothing before the eyes of the natives but an endlefs profpedl of new flights of birds of prey and paffage, with appetites continually renewing for a food that was continually wafting. Every rupee gained by an Englifhman in India w'as for ever loft to that country. With us there wTere no retributory fuperftitions, by which a foundation of charily compenfated, for ages, to the poor, for the injuftice and rapine of a day. With us no pride erefled ftately monuments, which repaired the mifchiefs pride had occafioned, and adorned a country out of its ownfpoils. England had erefted no churches, no hofpitals, no palaces, no fchools (the trifling foundation at Calcutta excepted) England had built no bridges, made no high-roads, cut no navigations, dug no refervoirs. Every other conqueror of every other defcription had left fome monument either of ftate or beneficence behind him ; but were we to be driven out of India this day, nothing would remain to tell that it had been pofTeffed, during the inglorious period of our dominion, by any thing better than the oran-outang or the tiger !” All this eloquence, however, was at prefent entirely ineffe£tual, and the bill was finally reje&ed : much confufion and altercation enfued, which terminated in a change of miniftry and diflolution of parliament. On the 26th of May 1784 a petition from the company was prefented to the houfe of commons, praying for filch relief as the nature of their affairs might feem to demand. This was followed on the 24th of June by

i ] COM a bill for allowing the company to divide four per cent. Company. for the half year concluding with midfummer 1784.' v This having palled, after fome debate, a new bill was propofed by Mr Pitt for relieving the company in the mean time, and regulating their affairs in time to come. A bill to this purpofe had been brought in during the laft feflion of the former parliament by the fame gentleman, which he wilhed to bring to a comparifon with that of Mr Fox, of which an account has already been given. In this bill he began with laying it down as a principle, that “ the civil and military government of India, or, in other words, the imperial dominion of our territories in the Eaft, ought to be placed under other controul than that of the merchants in Leadenhall ftreet ; and this controul could be no other than the executive branch of the conftitution. The commerce of the company, however, ought to be left as free from reftridions as poffible ; and, laftly, capricious effedfs from the government of India upon the conftitution of Britain were to be carefully avoided. A controul in the executive branch of the legiflature over the government of India had indeed been eftablifhed by the regulation bill of 1773; but the former interference of minifters had not been beneficial, becaufe it had not been adfive and vigilant. He now propofed, therefore, that a board (hould be inftituted exprefsly for the purpofe. This board was to be appointed by the king, and to confift of the fecretary of ftate for the home department, the chancellor of the exchequer, and a certain number of the privy council. To this board the difpatches of the company were to be fubmitted, and were not to be fent to India until they were counterfigned by them, io prevent queftions concerning the commercial and political concerns of the company, it was propofed, that the difpatehes upon the former fubjeft ihould be fubmitted to the board j and that, in cafe of any difference, an appeal (hould be made to the king in council. 1 hough he (Mr Pitt) had not thought proper to accept of the propofal of the company" to yield the appointment of foreign councils to the crown, he was r.everthelefs clearly of opinion, that the commander in chief ought to be appointed by the king. He propofed alfo that this commander ftiould have a vote in council next to the prefident •, that the king ftiould be empowered to beitow the reverfion of his office j that the king might recal the governor-general, the prefidents, and any members of their councils. He yielded the appointment of all officers, with the Angle exception he had dated, to the court of dire&ors, fubjeft, however, to the approbation of the king ; and that, in cafe of a. negative, the dire&ors ftiould proceed to a fecond choice, and fo on. He deprived the court of proprietors of the privilege of refcinding or altering the proceedings of the court of direflors : and with refpefl to the foreign government, he was of opinion, that their authority ftiould comprife in it a confiderable diferction, accompanied with the reftraint of refponfibility. He propofed, that there ftiould be a revifion of the eftabl’iftiment in India with a view to retrenchments ; that appointments (hould take place by gradation ; and that a new and fummary tribunal ftiould be erefted for the trial of offences committed in that country. With regard to the zemindaries, though

COM [ 352 ] COM Company, though he could not help paying a eorftpliment to Mr pany were forbidden to interfere in favour of any per- Comninv Fox, on his intention of reftoring them to their proper fon legally conviffed of any of the above crimes, or to ‘ ^ owners, he yet thought that a general and indifcrimi- employ him in their fervice for ever. The governors nate reftitution was as bad as an indifcriminate confif- of the different prefidencies were alfo permitted to imcation. He. therefore propofed that an inquiry fhould prifon any perfon fufpedfed of illicit correfpondence, be inftituted for the purpofe of reftoring fueh as and were ordered to fend them to England with all had been irregularly and unjuftly deprived, and that convenient fpeed. Every perfon ferving, or who fhould they fhould in time to come be fecured againft vio- hereafter ferve in India, was alfo required, on his return lence. to England, to give an exaft account, upon oath, to In the bill of 1784 few alterations were made *, and the court of exchequer, of his property, within two thefe uniformly tended to enlarge the powers of the months after his arrival $ one copy of which was to be board of controul. They were permitted, in cafes of kept in the court of exchequer, and the other at the emergency, to concert original meafures, as well as to India-houfe. The board of controul, the court of direvife, corre£t, and alter thofe of the direftors. In rectors, or any three of the proprietors whole flock matters relative to peace or war, where fecrecy was a fhould amount together to loool. were allowed to qjrincipal objeft, they were allowed to fend their orders move the court of exchequer to examine the validity direftly to India, without any communication with the of the account. In cafe of an apparently'well-founded e acknowledged admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-adObjedta of different fenfes cannot be compared tomiral that fuch and fuch fignals (hall be obferved > gether ; for fuch objedls are totally feparated from that thofe which bear no guns (hall pay fo much per each other, and have no circumftance in common to cent, of their cargo ; and in cafe they be attacked, that admit either refemblance or contraft. Objedls of hearwhat damages are fuftained {hall be reimburfed by the ing may be compared together, as alfo of tafte, of company in general. In the Mediterranean fuch com- fmell, and of touch ; but the chief fund of comparifon panies are called conferves. are objedts of fight; becaufe in writing or fpeaking, COMPARATIVE anatomy, is that branch of things can only be compared in idea, and the ideas of anatomy which confiders the fecondary objedls, or the fight are more diftindl and lively than thofe of any bodies of other animals j ferving for the more accurate other lenfe. diftindlions of feveral parts, and fupplying the defe& of When a nation emerging out of barbarity begins to human fubje&s. think of the fine arts, the beauties of language cannot It is otherwife called the anatomy of beafs, and fome- long lie concealed ; and when difcovered, they are times zootomy; and ftands in contradiftin&ion to hu- generally, by the force of novelty, carried beyond all man anatomy, or that branch of the art which confi- bounds of moderation. Thus, in the earlieft poems ders the human body the primary objeft of anatomy. of every nation, we find metaphors and fimiles foundSee Anatomy. ed on the flighteft and moft diftant refemblances, COMPARATIVE Degree, among grammarians, that which, lofing their grace with their novelty, wear between the pofitive and fuperlative degrees, expreffive gradually out of repute ; and now, by the improveof any particular quality above or below the level of ment of tafte, no metaphor nor fimile is admitted into another. any polite compofition but of the moft ftriking kind. COMPARISON, in a general fenfe, the confidera- To illuftrate this obfervation, a fpecimen fliall be given tion of the relation between two perfons or things, afterward of fuch metaphors as we have been defcribwhen oppofed to each other, by which we judge of ing: with refpedl to fimiles take the following fpecitheir agreement or difference. men : COMPARISON of Ideas, an a£l of the mind, whereby “ Behold, thou art fair, my love : thy hair is as it compares its ideas one with another, in refpeft of ex“ a flock of goats that appear from Mount Gilead : tent, degree, time, place, or any other-circumftances. “ thy teeth are like a flock of (beep from the waftiSee Idea. “ ing, every one bearing twins : thy lips are like Brutes feem not to have this faculty in any great “ a thread of fcarlet : thy neck like the tower of degree: they have, probably, feveral ideas diftinfl “ David built for an armoury, whereon hang a enough ; but cannot compare them farther than as to “ thoufand (hields of mighty men : thy two breafts fome fenfible circumftances annexed to the objefts “ like two young roes that are twins, which feed themfelves ; the power of comparing general ideas, “ among the lilies : thy eyes like the fifti-pools in which we obferve in men, we may probably conje&ure “ Hefbon, by the gate of Bath-rabbim : thy nofe they have not at all. “ like the tower of Lebanon, looking toward DaComparison, in Grammar, the inflexion of the com“ mafcus.” Song of Solomon. parative degree. See Grammar. Comparison, in Rhetoric, is a figure whereby two “ Thou art like fnow on the heath ; thy hair like things are confidered with regard to fome third, which “ the mift of Cromla, when it curls on the rocks is common to-them both. “ and fliines to the beam of the Weft: thy breafts “ are

“ are like two fmooth rocks Teen from Branno of “ the ftreams : thy arms like two white pillars in “ the hall of the mighty Fingal.” Fingal. It has no good effecl to compare things by way of fimile that are of the fame kind $ nor to contrail things of different kinds. The reafon is given in the article above cited on the margin, and fhall be here illuftrated by examples. The firft is a comparifon built upon a refemblance fo obvious as to make little or no impreffion. Speaking of the fallen angels fearching for mines of gold : A numerous brigade haften’d : as when bands Of pioneers with fpade and pickaxe arm’d, Forerun the royal camp to trench a field Or call a rampart. Milton. The next is of things contrafted that are of different kinds. ^ueen.

What, is my Richard both in fhape and mind Transform’d and weak ? Hath Bolingbroke depos’d Thine intellect ? Hath he been in thy heart ? The lion, dying, thrufleth forth his paw, And wounds the earth, if nothing elfe, with rage To be o’erpower’d : and wilt thou, pupil like, Take thy correflion mildly, kifs the rod, And fawn on rage with bafe humility > Richard II. A61 v. fc. l. This comparifon has fcarce any force : a man and a lion are of different fpecies, and therefore are proper fubjefts for a fimile ; but there is no fuch refemblance between them in general, as to produce any flrong effedl by contrafling particular attributes or circumflances. A third general obfervation is, That abflra£l terms can never be the fubje£l of comparifon, otherwife than by being perfonified. Shakefpeare compares adverfity to a toad, and flander to the bite of a crocodile j but in fuch comparifons thefe abflradl terms mufl be imagined fenfible beings. To have a juft notion of comparifons, they muft be diflinguiftied into two kinds ; one common and familiar, as where a man is compared to a lion in courage, or to a horfe in fpeed; the other more diflant and refined, where two things that have in themfelves no refemblance or opppofition, are compared with refpedl to their effe6ls. There is no refemblance between a flower-pot and a cheerful fong ; and yet they may be compared with refpeft to their effefts, the emotions they produce in the mind being extremely fimilar. There is as little refemblance between fraternal concord and precious ointment j and yet obferve how fuccefsfully they are compared with refpedl to the impreffions they make. “ Behold, how good and how pleafant it is for “ brethren to dwell together in unity. It is like “ the precious ointment upon the head, that ran “ down upon Aaron’s beard, and defcended to the “ fkirts of his garment.” P/a/m 133. For illuftrating this fort of comparifon, we fhall add -fonie more examples-: V &L. VI. Part I.

COM Delightful is thy presence, O Fingal ! it is like C( the fun on Cromla, when the hunter mourns bis abfence for a feafon, and fees him between the “ clouds. “ Did not Ofllan hear a voice ? or is it the found “ of days that are no more ? Often, like the evening “ fun, comes the memory of former times on my “ foul. “ His countenance is fettled from war $ and is “ calm as the evening-beam, that from the cloud of “ the well looks on Cona’s filent vale.” Fingal. We now proceed to illuftrate, by particular inflances, the different means by which comparifons, whether of the one fort or the other, can afford pleafure ; and, in the order above eftablifhed, we (Fall begin with fut h inflances as are agreeable, by fuggefting fume unufual rtfemblance or contrail. Sweet are the ufes of Adverfity, Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous, Wears yet a precious jewel in her head. As you like it, A61 ii. fc. I,. See, how the morning opes her golden gates, And takes her farewel of the glorious fun ; How well refembles it the prime of youth, Trimm’d like a yonker prancing to his love. Second Part Henry VI. A£l ii. fc. 1. 1

1

Thus they their doubtful confultations dark Ended, rejoicing in their matchlefs chief: As when from mountain tops, the dufky clouds Afcending, while the North-wind fleeps, o’eHpread Fleav’n’s cheerful face, the lowering element Scowls o’er the darken’d landfcape, fnow, and fhower ; If chance the radiant fun with farewel fweet Extends bis ev’ning-beam, the fields revive, The birds their notes renew, and bleating herds Atteft their joy, that hill and valley rings. Paradife Lojl, Book ii. None of the foregoing fimiles tend to illuftrate the principal fubje6l, and therefore the chief pleafure they afford muft arife from fuggefting refemblances that are not obvious j for undoubtedly a beautiful fubje£t introduced to form the fimile affords a feparate pleafure, which is felt in the fimiles mentioned, particularly in that cited from Milton. The next effe£l of a comparifon in the order mentioned, is to place an objeft in a flrong point of view j which effefl is remarkable in the following fimiles. As when two fcales are charg’d with doubtful loads, From fide to fide the trembling balance nods, (While forae laborious matron, juft and poor. With nice exaflnefs weighs her woolly ftore),~ Till pois’d aloft, the refting beam fufpends Each equal weight 5 nor this nor that defcends j So flood the war, till He£lor’s matchlefs might. With fates prevailing, turn’d the feale of fight. Fierce as a whirlwind up the wall he flies, And fires his holt with loud repeated cries. Iliad, Book xii. 521. — She never told her love j But let concealment, like a worm i’ th’ bud, Zz Fee#

Comparifon.

[ 362 ] COM COM But when he frown’d, it was againft the French, Compari. Feed on her damalk cheek : {he pin’d in thought j And not againft his friends. His noble hand fon. And with a green and yellow melancholy, Did win what he did fpend ; and fpent not that She fat like Patience on a monument, Which his triumphant father’s hand had won. Smiling at grief. Twelfth Night, Act. ii. fc. 6. His hands were guilty of no kindred’s blood, “ There is a joy in grief when peace dwells with But bloody with the enemies of his kin. “ the forrowful. But they are wafted with mournOh Richard, York is too far gone with grief, “ ing, O daughter of Tofcar, and their days are Or elfe he never would compare between. “ few. They fall away like the flower on which Richard II. Aft ii. fc. 3. “ the fun looks in his ftrength, after the mildew has “ paffed over it, and its head is heavy with the drops Milton has a peculiar talent in embelliftiing the prin“ of night.” Fingal. cipal fubjeft, by aflociating it with others that are agreeable j which is the third end of a comparifon. Out, out, brief candle ! Similes of this kind have, befide, a feparate effeft: Life’s but a walking (hadow, a poor player. they diverfify the narration by new images that are That ftruts and frets his hour upon the ftage. not ftriftly neceflary to the comparifon ; they are And then is heard no more. Macbeth, Aft v. fc. 5. Ihort epifodes, which, without drawing us from the principal fubjeft, afford great delight by their beauty O thou goodnefs, and variety. Thou divine nature l how thyfelf thou blazon’ll In thefe two princely boys ! they are as gentle He fcarce had ceas’d, when the fuperior fiend As zephyrs blowing below the violet, Was moving toward the fhore y his pond’rous fliield, Not wagging his fweet head ; and yet as rough Ethereal temper, mafly, large, and round, (Their royal blood inchaf’d) as the rudeft wind, Behind him call: the broad circumference That by the top doth take the mountain-pine. Hung on his {boulders like the moon, whofe orb And make him ftoop to the vale. Through optic glafs the Tufcan artift views Cymbeline, Aft iv. fc. 4. At evening from the top of Fef@le. Or in Valdarno, to defcry new lands, “ Why did not I pafs away in fecret, like the Rivers, or mountains, in her fpotty globe. “ flower of the rock that lifts its fair head unfeen, Milton, Book L “ and ftrows its withered leaves on the blaft ?” FingaL Thus far thefe beyond As words convey but a faint and obfcure notion of Compare of mortal prowefs, yet obferv’d great numbers, a poet, to give a lively notion of the Their dread commander. He, above the reft, objeft he defcribes with regard to number, does well In ftiape and ftature proudly eminent, to compare it to what is familiar and commonly known. Stood like a tow’r *, his form had not yet loft Thus Homer compares the Grecian army in point of All her original brightnefs, nor appear’d number to a fwarm of bees j in another paffage he Lefs than archangel ruin’d, and th’ excefs compares it to that profufion of leaves and flowers Of glory obfcur’d : as when the fun new-rifea ■which appear in the fpring, or of infefts in a fummer’s Looks through the horizontal mifty air evening : And Milton, Shorn of his beams; or, from behind the moon, In dim eclipfe, difaftrous twilight {beds As when the potent rod On half the nations, and with fear of change Of Amram’s fon in Egypt’s evil day Perplexes monarchs. Milton, Book h Wav’d round the coaft, up call’d a pitchy cloud Of locufts, warping on the eaftern wind, As when a vulture on Imaus bred, That o’er the realm of impious Pharaoh hung Whofe fnowy ridge the roving Tartar bounds, Like night, and darken’d all the land of Nile y Diflodging from a region fcarce of prey So numberlefs w'ere thofe bad angels feen, To gorge the flelh of lambs, or yeanling kids, Hov’ring on wing under the cope of hell, On hills where flocks are fed, flies toward the fprings’Twixt upper, nether, and furrounding fires. Of Ganges or Hyd^fpes, Indian ftreams, Paradife Lojf, Book i. But in his way lights on the barren plains Of Sericana, where Chinefes drive Such comparifons have, by feme writers, been conWith fails and wind their cany waggons light: demned for the lownefs of the images introduced, but So on this windy fea of land, the fiend furely without reafon ; for, with regard to numbers, Walk’d up and down alone, bent on his prey. they put the principal fubjeft in a ftrong light. Milton, Book iii. The foregoing comparifons operate by refemblance 5 others have the fame eflfeft by contrail. Next of comparifons that aggrandife or elevate, York. I am the laft of noble Edward’s fons. Thefe affeft us more than any other fort ; the reafon Of whom thy father, prince of Wales, was firft j of which will be evident from the following inftances : In war, was never lion rag’d more fierce y As when a flame the winding valley fills, In peace, was never gentle lamb more mild, And runs on crackling ftirubs between the hills, Than was that young and princely gentleman. Then o’er the ftubble up the mountain flies, His face thou haft, for even fo look’d he, Fires the high woods, and blazes to the ikies, AccompliihM with the number of thy hours, This-

COM COM [ 363 ] In general, when by any animating paflion, whether CompariThis way and that, the fpreading torrent roars $ pleafant or painful, an impulfe is given to the imagi- ion. So fweeps the hero through the wafted ftiores. nation ; we are in that condition difpofed to every Around him wide, immenfe deftruclion pours, fort of figurative expreffion, and in particular to comAnd earth is delug’d with the fanguine ftiow’rs. Iliad xx. 569. parifons. T his in a great meafure is evident from the comparifons already mentioned j and lhall be furMethinks, King Richard and myfelf ftiould meet ther illuftrated by other inftances. Love, for example, With no lefs terror than the elements in its infancy, roufing the imagination, prompts the -Of fire and water, when their thund’ring ftiock, heart to difplay itfelf in figurative language, and in At meeting, tears the cloudy cheeks of heaven. Richard II. A61 iii. fc. 5. fimiles I Troi/us. Tell me, Apollo, for thy Daphne’s love, What Creffida is, what Bandar, and what we ? “ As ruftieth a foamy ftream from the dark fhady u Her bed is India, there fhe lies a pearl: fteep of Cromla, when thunder is rolling above, and Between our Ilium and where fhe refides, “ dark brown night refts on the hill 5 fo fierce, fo vaft, Let it be call’d the wild and wand’ring flood j “ fo te-rrible, rufti forward the fons of Erin. The Ourfelf the merchant, and this failing Bandar “ chief, like a whale of ocean followed by all its bil“ lows, pours valour forth as a ftream, rolling its might Our doubtful hope, our convoy, and our bark. “'along the ftiore.” Fingal, Book i. Troilus and Creffida, A6t i. fc. I, “ As roll a thoufand waves to a rock, fo Swaran’s Again: “ hoft came on ; as meets a rock a thoufand waves, fo Come, gentle night} come, loving black-brow’d “ Inisfail met Swaran.” Ibid. night! Give me my Romeo: and when he lhall die, The laft article mentioned, is that of leffening or deprefling a hated or difagreeable obje6t $ which is efTake him and cut him out in little ftars, fettually done by refembllng it to any thing low or defAnd he will make the face of heav’n fo fine, picable. That all the world (hall be in love with night, Thus Milton, in his defcription of the rout of the And pay no worftrip to the garifh fun. rebel-angels, happily exprefles their terror and difmay Romeo and Juliet, A61 iii. fc. 4. in the following fimile : But it will be a better illuftration of the prefent head, to give examples where comparifons are impro-As a herd perly introduced. Similes are net the language of a Of goats or timorous flock together throng’d, man in his ordinary Hate of mind, difpatching his Drove them before him thunder-ftruck, purfu’d daily and ufual work : for that reafon the following With terrors and with furies to the bounds fpeech of a gardener to his fervant is extremely imAnd cryftal wall of heav’n, which op’ning wide, proper : Roll’d inward, and a fpacious gap difclos’d Into the wafteful deep •, the monftrous fight Go, bind thou up yon dangling apricots, -Struck them with horror backward, but far worfe Which, like unruly children make their fire *• Urg’d them behind ; headlong themfelves they threw Stoop with oppreffion of their prodigal weight: Down from the verge of heav’n. Mi/ton, Book vi. Give fome fupportances to the bending twigs. Go thou, and, like an executioner, By this time the different purpofes of comparifon, Cut off the heads of two fall growing (prays, and the various impreflions it makes on the mind, are That look too lofty in our commonwealth : fufficiently illuftrated by proper examples. This was All muff be even in our government. an eafy work. It is more difficult to lay down rules Richard II. A6t iii. fc. 7. about the propriety or impropriety of companions $ The fertility of Shakefpeare’s vein betrays him frein what circumftances they may be introduced, and in what circumftances they are out of place. It is evi- quently into this error. Rooted grief, deep anguifti, terror, remorfe, dedent, that a companion is not proper upon every occalion *, a man in his cool and fedate moments is not fpair, and all the fevere difp.riting paffions, are decladifpofed to poetical flights, nor to facrifice truth and red enemies, perhaps not to figurative language in gereality to the delufive operations of the imagination j neral, but undoubtedly to the pomp and folemnity of far lefs is he fo difpofed when opprefled with care, comparifon. Upon this account, the fimile pronounor interefted in fome important tranfa6Hon that occu- ced by young Rutland, under terror of death from an pies him totally. On the other hand it is obferved, inveterate enemy, and praying mercy, is unnatural; that a man when elevated or animated by any pafSo looks the pent-up lion o’er the wretch fion, is difpofed to elevate or animate all his fubjedts 5 That trembles under his devouring paws ; he avoids familiar names, exalts objedls by circumloAnd fo lie walks infulting o’er his prey, cution and metaphor, and gives even life and voluntary And fo he comes to rend his limbs afunder. adlion to inanimate beings. In this warmth of mind, Ah, gentle Clifford, kill me with thy fword, the higheft poetical flights are indulged, and the And not with fuch a cruel threat’ning look. boldeft fimiles and metaphors reliffied. But without Third Part Henry VI. A61 i. fc. j. foaring fo high, the mind is frequently in a tone to relifh chafte and moderate ornament j fuch as comA man fpent and difpirited after lofing a battle is panions that fet the principal objefl in a ftrong point not difpofed to heighten or illuftrate his difeourfe by of view, or that embellilh and diverlify the narration. fimiles, Zz2 Tork.

COM [ 364 ] COM York. With this we charg’d again : bsit out! alas, culiar charafter of a grand objeft to fix the attention, Compart, Ws bodg’d again ; as I have feen a fwan and fwell the mind ; in which (late, it is difagreeable fon. to contraft the mind to a minute objeft, however ele- """v—* With bootlefs labour fvvim againft the tide, gant. The refembling an objeft to one that is greater, And fpend her ftrength with over-matching waves. has, on the contrary, a good eft'eft, by raifing or fwellAh ! hark, the fatal followers do purfue, ing the mind j for one pafles with fatisfaftion from a And I am faint and cannot fly their fury. fmall to a great objeft \ but cannot be drawn down, The fands are number’d that make up my life j without reluftanct, from great to fmall. _ Hence the IJere muft I flay, and here mv life muft end. Third Part Henry VI. A6t i. fc. 6. following fimiles are faulty. Meanwhile the troops beneath Patroclus’ care, Similes thus unfeafonably introduced are finely ridiInvade the Trojans, and commence the war. euled in the Rehearfal. As wafps, provok’d by children in their play, “ Bayes. Now here (he muft make a fimile. Pour from their manfions by the broad highway, “ Smith. Where’s the neceflity of that, Mr Bayes? In fwarms the gdiltlefc traveller engage, '‘'■Bayes. Becaufe (he’s furprifed j that’s a general Whet all their flings, and call forth all their rage j i4 rule •, you muft ever make a fimile when you are furAll rife in arms, and with a general cry ** prifedj ’tis a new way of writing.” Affert their waxen domes and buzzing progeny : Thus from their tents the fervent legion fwarms. A comparifon is not always faultlefs, even where it So loud their clamours, and fo keen their arms. is properly introduced. A comparifon, like other huIliad, xvi. 312. man productions, may fall fhort of its end ; of which defeCt inftances are not'rare even among good writers : So burns the vengeful hornet (foul all o’er) and to complete the prefent fubjeCt, it will be necefRepuls’d in vain, and thirfty ftill of gore ; fary to make Come obfervations upon fuch faulty com(Bold fon of air and heat) on angry wings paiifons. Nothing can be more erroneous than to inUntam’d, untir’d he turns, attacks, and flings. ftitu^e a comparifon too faint : a diftant refemblance or Fir’d with like ardour, fierce Atrides flew, eontrait fatigues the mind with its obfcurity, inftead of And fent his foul with every lance he threw. amufing it •, and tends not to fulfil any one end of a Iliad, xvii. 642. uomparifon. The following fimiles feem to labour unAn error oppofite to the former, is the introducing der this defeft. a refembling image, fo elevated or great as to bear K. Rich. Give me the crown.—Here, coufin, no proportion to the principal fubjeft. Their refeize the crown. markable difparity, being the moft linking circumHere on this fide, my hand *, on that fide, thine. flanee, ftizes the mind, and never fails to deprefs the Now is this-golden crown like a deep well, principal fubjeft by contrail, inftead of raifing it by 1 hat owes two buckets, filling one another j refemblance : and if the difparity be exceeding great, The empWer ever dancing in the air, the fimile takes on an air of burlefque : nothing being The other down, unfeen, and full of water •, more ridiculous than to force an objeft out of its proThat bucket down, and full of tears, am I, per rank in nature, by equalling it with one greatly Drinking, my griefs, wbilft you mount up on high. fuperior or greatly inferior. This will be. evident from Richard II. ACt iv. fc. 3. the following comparifon. K. John Oh ! coufin, thou art come to fet mine Loud as a bull makes hill and valley ring, eye ) So roar’d the lock when it releas’d the fpring. The tackle of my heart is crack’d and burnt ; Odysfey,xx\. yx. And all the fhrouds wherewith my life fhould fail, Such a fimile upon the fimpleft of all aftions, that of Are turned to one thread, one little hair : opening a lock, is pure burlefque. My heart hath one poor tiring to ftay it by, A writer of delicacy will avoid drawing his compaWhich holds but till thy news be uttered. K. John, Aft iv. fc. IQ. rifons from any image that is naufeous, ugly, or remarkably difagreeable for however ftrong the refemblance may be, more will be loft than gained by fuch York. Mv uncles both are flain in refeuing me : comparifon. Therefore we cannot help condemning, And all my followers to the eager foe Turn back, and fly like (hips before the wind, though with fome reluftancy, the following fimile, or rather metaphor. Or lambs purfu’d by hunger ftarved wolves. Third Part Henry VI. Aft i. fc. 6. O thou fond many ! with what loud applaufe Didtl thou beat heaven with blefling Bolingbroke The latter of the two fimiles is good : the former, Before he was what thou would’ll have him be ? hecaufe of the faintnefs of the refemblance, produces And now being trimm’d up in thine own defires, no good effeft, and crowds the narration with an ufelefs Thou, beaftly feeder, are fo full of him. . . j r.• « That thou provok’d thyfelf to call him up. In an epic poem, or in any elevated lubjeft, a wriAnd fo, thou common dog, didtl thou difgorge ter ought to avoid raifing a fimile upon a low image, Thy glutton bofom of the royal Richard, which never fails to bring down the principal fubjeft. And now thou wouldft eat thy dead vomit up, In general, it is a rule, that a grand objeft ought neAnd. howl’d to find it. ver to be refembled to one that is diminutive, howSecond Part Henry IV. Aft 1. fc. (S* eyex: delicate the refemblance may be : for it is the peThe I

f COM COM [ 365 ] CompanThis fword a dagger had his page, Gompari- The ftrongeft obje£Hon that can lie againil a comion That was but little for his age ; fon. parifon is, that it confifts in words only, not in fenfe. And therefore waited on him fo, Compafs. Such falfe coin, or bailard-wit, does extremely well in As dwaris upon knight-errants do. burlefque ; but it is far below the dignity of the epic, Hudibras, canto X. or of any ferious compofition. “ Books, like men, their authors, have but one way The noble filler of Poplicola, of coming into the world ; but there are ten thouThe moon of Rome ; ehafte as the icicle fand to go out of it, and return no more.” That’s curdl’d by the froft from pureft fnow, Tale of a Tub. And hangs on Dian’s temple. Coriolanus, A£l v. fc. 3. “ The moft accompliftied way of ufing books at pre“ fenl is, to ferve them as fome do lords, learn their There is evidently no refemblance between an icicle “ titles, and then brag of their acquaintance.” and a woman, challe or unchafte : but chaftity is cold Ibid. in a metaphorical fenfe •, and an icicle is cold in a proper fenfe; and this verbal refemblance, in the hurry “ He does not confider, that fincerity in love is as and glow of compofing, has been thought a iufficient “ much out of faftiion as fweet fnuff j nobody takes it foundation for the fimile. Such phantom fimiles are “ now.” Care/efs Hujband. mere witticifms, which ought to have no quarter, exCOMPARTITION, in ArchiteRure, denotes the cept where purpofely introduced to provoke laughter. ufeful and graceful difpofition ol the whole groundLucian, in his differtation upon hiftory, talking of a certain author, makes the following companion, which plot of an edifice, into rooms of office, and of reception or entertainment. is verbal merely. COMPARTMENT, in general, is a defign com* “ This author’s defcriptions are fo cold, that they pofed of feveral different figures, ditpoied with fymme“ furpafs the Cafpian fnow, and all the ice of the try, to adorn a parterre, a ceiling, &c. “ north.” A compartment of tiles or bricks, is an arrangement of them, of different colours, and varniftied, for the de■ ■ But for their fpirits and fouls coration of a building. Compartments in gardening, This word rebellion had froze them up are an affembiage of beds, plots, borders, walks, &c. As fith are in a pond. Second Part Henry IV. Aft i. fc. 3* difpofed in the moft advantageous manner that the ground will admit of. Compartments in heraldry, are Pope has feveral fimiles of the fame (tamp. otherwife called partition1. COMPASS, or Manner's Steering COMPASS, is an And hence one mafter palfion in the breaft, inftrument ufed at fea by pilots to diredl and afcertain Like Aaron’s ferpent, fwallows up the reft. Epi/l. ii. 131. the courfe of their {hips. It confifts of a circular brafs box, which contains a paper card with the 32 points of And again talking of this fame ruling or mafter paf- the compafs, fixed on a magnetic needle that always lion $ turns to the north, excepting a fmall declination variable at different places. See VARIATION. Nature its mother, habit is its nurfe : The needle with the card turns on an upright pin Wit, fpirit, faculties, but make it worfe j fixed in the centre of the box. In the centre of the Reafon itfelf but gives it edge and pow’r 5 needle is fixed a brafs conical focket or cap, whereby As heaven’s bleft beam turns vinegar more four. ' Ibid. 145. the card hanging on the pin turns freely round the centre. Where the fubjeft is burlefque or ludicrous, fuch The top of the box is covered with a glafs that the fimiles are far from being improper. Horace fays card’s motion may not be difturbed by the wind. The pleafantly, whole is enclofed in another box of wood, where it is ^uanquam tu levior cortice. Lib. iii. od. 9. fufpended by brafs hoops or gimbals, to preferve the card horizontal. The compafs-box is to be fo placed And Sbakefpeare. in the (hip, that the middle feftion of the box, parallel to its fides, may be parallel to the middle feflion of In breaking oaths he’s ftronger than Hercules. the (hip along its keel. And this leads to obferve, that befides the foregoThe compafs being of the utmoft confequence to ing comparifons, which are all ferious, there is a fpe- navigation, it is reafonable to expe£t that the greateft cies, the end and purpofe of which is to excite gaiety attention ftiould be paid to its conftru&ion, and every or mirth. Take the following examples. attempt tc*improve it carefully examined, and if proper, adopted. But fo carelefs are the generality of Falftaff fpeaking to his page : commanders of this moft; ufeful inftrument, that altnoft: “ I do here walk before thee, like a fow that hath all the compaffes ufed on board merchant fhips have 4< overwhelmed all her litter but one.” their needles formed of two pieces of fteel wire, each Second Part Henry IV. A£l i. fc. 10. of which is bent in the middle, fo as to form an ob“ I think he is not a pick-puvfe, nor a horfe- tufe angle ; and their ends being applied together, 44 ftealer $ but for his verity in love, 1 do think him make an acute one ; fo that the whole reprefents the “ as concave as a covered goblet, or a worm-eaten form of a lozenge ; in the centre of which, and of 44 nut.” As you like it, Acl iii. fc. 10. the cards, is placed the brafs cap. Now, if we exa-

■COM [3 66 ] C O M Compafs. mine a nurr.ber of thefe cards, we fliall rarely, if ever, And as the weight ftiould be removed to the greatfind them all in the fame direction, but they will all eft diltance from the centre of motion, a circle of Ccmpafs. vary more or lefs, not only with regard to the true brafs, of the fame diameter of the card, may be addire&ion, but from one another. ded, which will ferve alfo to fupport the card, which J hefe irregularities are owing to the ftrufture of may then be made of thin paper, without any thing the needle j for the wires of which it is compofed are to ftiffen it. This ring being fixed below the card, only hardened at the ends j now, if thefe ends are not and the needle above it, the centre of gravity is placed equally hard, or if one end be hardened up higher low enough to admit ot the cap being put under the than the other, when they come to be put together, needle, whereby the hole in the needle becomes unnein fixing them to the card, that end which is hardeft ceffary. will deitroy much of the virtue of the other ; by which The above obfervations will be eafily underftood means the hardeft end will have the moft power in from viewing the feveral parts of the inftrument as redirecfting the card, and confequently make it vary to- prefented on Plate CL. where fig. 6. is the card with wards its own direflion : and, as the wires are difpo- the needle KL, and its cap M, fixed upon it, being ied in the form of a lozenge, thefe cards can have but one-third of the diameter of the real card. Fig. 8. is little force, fo that they will often, when drawn afide, a peHpeftive view of the backfide of the card, where Hand at the diftance of feveral degrees on either fide AB reprefents the turning down of the brafs edge, C the point from whence they are drawn : for all mag- the under part of the cap, £> and E two Aiding weights netical bodies receive an additional ftrength by being to balance the card, and F, G, two fcrews that fix placed in the dire&ion of the earth’s magnetifm, and the brafs edge, &c. to the needle. Fig. 7. is the peaft proportionably lefs vigoroufly when turned out of deftal that lupports the card, containing a fere wing it 5 wherefore, when thefe kind of needles are drawn needle, fixed in two fmall grooves to receive it, by afide from their true point, two of the parallel fides means of the collet C, in the manner c'f a port-crayon. of the lozenge will confpire, more direftly than be- D, the ftem, is filed into an oftagon, that it may be fore, with the earth’s magnetifm ; and the other two the more eafily unferewed. For its further illuftration will be lefs in that direftion j by' which means the and application to ufe, fee Navigation. two fides will very much impede its return 5 and The invention of the compafs is ulually afc'ribed to the two latter will have that impediment to over- Flavio da Melfi, or Flavio Gioia, a Neapolitan, about come, as well as the friftion, by their own force the year 1302 j and hence it is, that the territory of alone. Principato, which makes part of the kingdom of NaTo remove thefe inconveniences, fome needles are ples, where he was born, has a compafs for its arms. made of one piece of fteel of a fpring temper, and Others fay that Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, making broad tow’ards the ends, but tapering towards the a journey to China, brought back the invention with middle, where a hole is made to receive the cap. At him in 1260. What confirms this conjefture is,‘that the ends they terminate in an angle, greater or lefs at firft they ufed the compafs in the fame manner as according to the {kill or fancy of the workman. Thefe the Chinefe ftill do j i. e. they let it float on a little needles, though infinitely preferable to the other, are, piece of cork, inftead of fufpending it on a pivot. It however, far from being perfeft j for every needle is added, that their emperor Chiningus, a celebrated of this form hath fix poles inftead of two, one at each aftrologer, had a knowledge of it 1120 years before end, two where it becomes tapering, and two at the Chrift. The Chinefe only divide their compafs into 24 hole in the middle : this is owing to their fhape; for points. Fauchette relates fome verfes of Guoyot de Pro« the middle part being very {lender, it has not fub- vence, who lived in France about the year 1200, which ftance enough to conduft the magnetic ftream quite feem to make mention of the compafs under the name through from one end to the other : all thefe poles of tnarinette, or mariner's /tone ; which fhow it to have appear very diftinftly, Avhen examined with a glafs been ufed in France near 100 years before either the that is fprinkled over with magnetic fand. This cir- Melfite or Venetian. The French even lay claim to cumftance, however, does not hinder the needle from the invention, from the fleur de lys wherewith all napointing true ; but as it has lefs force to move the tions ftill diftinguifh the north point of the card. With card than when the magnetic ftream moves in large as much reafon Dr Wallis aferibes it to the Englifh, curves from one end to the other, it.is certainly an im- from its name compafs, by which name moft nations perfeftion. call it, and which he obferves is ufed in many parts of Thtfe inconveniences induced the ingenious Dr England to fignify a circle. Knight to contrive a new fea-compafs, which came inThough the mariner’s compafs has been long in ufe, to ufe on board all the {hips of war. The needle in the beft confiruftion of it was attended with many this inftrument is quite ftraight, and fquare at the inconveniences, till the improvements which it reends and confequently has only two poles, though ceived from the invention and experiments of Dr about the hole in the middle the curves are’ a little Knight, and the farther emendation of Mr Smeaconfided. Needles of this conftrufticn, after vibra- ton. ting a long time, will always point exaftly in the The compafs is fometimes obferved to be difturbfame direftion ; and if drawn ever fo little on one ed by the eleftricity of its glafs cover ; and this fide, will return to it again, without any fenfible dif- from fo flight an application of the finger as was ference. We may therefore conclude, that a regular barely neceffary to wipe off a little duft. The fame parallelepiped is the* beft form for a needle, as well as glafs, rubbed a little more with the finger, a bit of the fimpleft, the holes for the caps being as fmall as muflin, or paper, would attraft either end of the needle pofifible. fo as to hold it to the glafs for feveial minutes, far out 4 of

C O M C O M [ 3 67 1 2ompais. of the due direction, according to that part of the as the needle is both longer and broader $ hence its Compafs. v— —r““~ glafs which was moft excited. And when the needle, magnetifm muft be ftronger, and of courfe the line of after adhering to the glafs, has dropped loofe, and its magnetic direction correfpondent with the card. In made vibrations, thofe would not be bife£ted as ufual another particular, in order to prevent the motions of by that point where the needle fhould reft, but would the veffel from affefting the needle, which is the moft either be made all on one fide, or be very unequally defirable objeft, the patent compafs-box, inftead of divided, by means of fome remains of electrical virtue fwinging in gimbals at right angles to each other, is in that part of the glafs which had attracted the needle, fupported in its very centre upon a prop j and whatuntil at length, after 15 minutes or more, all the elec- ever motion the other parts of the box may have, this tricity being difcharged, the magnetical power took centre being in the vertex of the hollow cone, may be place. The remedy for this inconvenience is to moi- confidered as relatively at reft ; and therefore gives ften the furface of the glafs j a wet finger will do it im- little or no difturbance to the needle. Again, the pimediately and effectually. The mariner’s compafs with vot or centre upon which the needle turns, is fo cona chart is much lefs dangeroufly moved than the com- trived as to ftand always perpendicular over the centre mon compafs with a bare needle ; and the deeper, or of the compafs-box, or apex of the hollow cone, as farther diftant, the needle hangs below the glafs, the upon a fixed point j and is therefore ftill lefs affected by the motions of the veffel. Thus the centres of lefs difturbance it is likely to receive. Improved fea-compaffes have lately been conftruc- motion, gravity, and of magnetifm, are brought almoft ted by Mr M‘Culloch of London, for which he ob- all to the fame point ; the advantages of which will be readily perceived by any perfon acquainted with mePlate tained a patent. The particulars are as follows. chanical principles.” McCulloch's Account. Fig. 1. is a feftion of the fleering coropafs. a a a a a, CLI. The following is a defcription of Dr Knight’s aziThe common wooden box, with its lid. b b, The brafs compafs-box. c f, The glafs cover to ditto, dd. The muth compafs, with the improvements of Mr Smeaton. hollow conical bottom, e, The prop upon which the Plate CLI. fig. 6. is a perfpedlive view of the comI' compafs is fupported inftead of gimbals ; the fpherical pafs, when in order for obfervation; the point of top of which is finely polifhed, and the apex of the hol- view being the centre of the card, and the diftance low cone is fitted in a peculiar manner to receive it. of the eye two feet. AB is the wooden box. C and ff A quantity of lead run round the bottom and cone D are two milled nuts 5 by means whereof the axes of of the compafs-box, to balance and keep it fteadily the inner box and ring are taken from their edges on horizontal, gg, The card and the magnetical needle, which they move, and the friction increafed, when bent in fuch a manner that the point of the conical neeeffary. EF is the ring that fupports the inner box. pivot on which it moves and is fupported, may be GH is the inner box \ and I is one of its axes, by brought very near to the centre of gravity, as well as which it is fufpended on the ring EF. The magnet to the centre of motion, h h, Two guards, which by or needle appears palling through the centre together means of two pins i;, affixed to the compafs-box, pre- with a fmall brace of ivory, that confines the cap to its vent it from turning round and deceiving the fteerf- place. The card is a Angle varnilhed paper, reaching as far as the outer circle of figures, which is a circle of man. Fig. 2. a perfpeflive view of the fleering compafs, thin brafs $ the edge whereof is turned down at right with the lid off and the front laid open. ^ The angles to the plane of the card, to make it grow ftiff. guards. Z Fig. 3. a view of the azimuth compafs. b. The is the index bar, with its two ftiles and catgut threads; compafs-box. h. One of the guards. e, The prop, which being taken off from the top of the box, is as in fig. 1. and 2, with this difference, that in an azi- placed in two pieces, T and V, notched properly to muth compafs, inftead of being fcrewed to the bottom receive it. W is a place cut out in the wood, ferving of the wood-box, it Hands in a brafs focket, and may as a handle. The ufe of the azimuth compafs is for finding the be turned round at pleafure. 1. A brafs bar upon which the fight-vanes are fixed. 2. A dark glafs, which moves fun’s magnetical azimuth, or amplitude; and thence the up and down on 3, the fight-vane. 4. A magnifying variation of the compafs. If the obfervation be for an glafs, which is alfo moveable on the other vane. 5. amplitude at fun-rifing, or for an azimuth before noon, The nonius or vernier. 6. A Aide for moving the apply the centre of the index on the weft point of the vernier fo as to flop the card in taking the azimuth. card, within the box; fo that the four lines on the '7. A double convex-glafs, by w'hich the divifion on edge of the card, and thofe on the infide of the box, may meet. If the obfervation be for the fun’s amthe vernier may be read with accuracy. £• 4* Fig. 4. is a fedlion reprefenting another application plitude fetting, or an azimuth in the afternoon, turn of the magnetic needle and card, conftru&ed by Mr the centre of the index right againft the eaft point of M‘Culloch. a a a a, The common wood-box. b b. the card, and make the lines within the box concur The brafs compafs-box. c c, The brafs fupport for the with thofe on the card : the inftrument thus fitted circle and pendulum, d. The pendulum, e. The agate, for obfervation, turn the index be towards the fun, till jf/i The magnetic needle and card, g g, The brafs the ftiadovv of the thread a e fall dire£tly on the flit of circle, hh, The glafs cover and brafs ring, z, The the fight, and on the line that is along the middle of lead weight. N. B. All the centres of motion are in the index : then will the inner edge of the index cut the fame plane. the degree and minute of the fun’s magnetical azimuth “ In one particular this patent compafs is confidered from the north or fouth. But note, that if, when the as an improvement on the common compaffes, in as far compafs is thus placed, the azimuth is lefs than 540 frogi

COM COM [3 63 ] Compufs. fouth, and the indt x turned towards the fun, the magnetic power of the cafed needle may increafe, ——y^— jt will pais otF the divifions of the limb : the inftrument while that of the uncafed needle lofes of its polarity. This is not an opinion haftily adopted, but the refult therefore in this cafe muft be turned jull a quarter of the compafs, i. e. the centre of the index muft be of a fair and judicious trial, as the gentleman from placed on the north or fouth point of the card, accord- whom the above obfervations were in fubflance taken, ing as the fun is from you •, and then the edge will cut placed a cafed and uncafed needle in a room for three the degree of the magnetic azimuth, or the fun’s azi- months, having at firft exactly the fame direction, and about the fame degree of force. At the end of this muth, from the north as before. 'Fhe fun’s magnetical amplitude thus found, the va- period it was found that the cafed needle had not in riation of the needle is thus determined. Being out the leaf! changed its dire£Hon, while the uncafed had at fea the 15th of May, 1717, in 450 north latitude, varied two degrees, and its magnetic power was confithe tables gave me the lun’s latitude 190 north, and derably diminifhed. Thefe remarks have, the air of novelty, and may perhis eaft amplitude, 270 25' north ; by the azimuth corapafs, I find the fun’s magnetical amplitude at his rifing haps contribute to the improvement of the compafs. and fetting ; and find he rifes, e. gr. between the 62d But the defeats of this inftrument are not confined to and 63d degree, reckoning from the north towards the the needle. The heavieft brafs compaffes are not to eaft point of the compafs, i. e. between the 27th and be implicitly trutled in a hollow or high fea, as they 28th degree, reckoning from the eaft. The magneti- have the box hanging in two brafs rings, thus allowcal amplitude, therefore, being here equal to the true ing it to have only two motions, both vertical and at one, the needle has no variation •, but if the fun at his right angles with each other *, by which confinement rifing fliould have appeared between the 52d and 53d of the box, upon any fuccuflion, particularly fudden degree from the north towards the eaft, his magnetieal ones, the card is always too much agitated, and before amplitude would then have been between 37 and 38 it can recover itfelf, another jerk prevents it from degrees, i. e. about ten degrees greater than the true pointing to the pole. It is even not uncommon to fee amplitude : therefore the needle would vary about 10 the card unfhipped by the violence of the ftup’s pitchdegrees north-eafterly. If the magnetical eaft ampli- ingAll thefe defers are abundantly fupplied by giving tude found by the inftrument fhould be lefs than the true amplitude, their difference would ftiow the varia- the box a vertical motion at every degree and minute tion of the needle eafterly. If the true eaft amplitude of the circle, and combining thefe motions with a hobe fouthward, as alfo the magnetical amplitude, and rizontal one of the box as well as of the card. By this this laft be the greater $ the variation of the needle difpofition of the box, the effe&s of the jerks on the card are avoided, and it will always with fteadinefs will be north-weft 5 and vice veffa. What has been faid of north-taft amplitudes holds point to the pole. Mr Bernard Romans found by exalfo of fouth-weftj and what of fouth-eaft amplitudes perience, that the card not only is not in the fmalleft holds of north-weft. Laffly, if amplitudes be found degree affefted by the hollow fea, but that, in all the of different denominations, e.gr.M the true amplitude violent {hocks and. whirlings which it is poflible for the be Itk degrees north, and the magnetical amplitude be box to receive, the card lies as ftill as in a room unaffix degrees fouth j the variation, which in this cafe is fected by the leaft motion. A compafs was recently invented and made in Holnorth-weft, will be equal to the fum of the magnetical and true amplitudes $ anderftand the fame foi; weft am- land having aft thefe motions. It is about the fize of the brafs compafs commonly ufed. The bottom of plitudes. The variation may likewife be found from the azi- the brafs box, inftead of being fhaped like a bowl, muft: muth : but in that cafe the fun’s declination, latitude be a hollow cone refembliug the bottom of a common of the place, and his altitude, muft be given, that his glafs bottle ; the vertex of .it muft be raifed fo high as to leave only one inch between the card and the glafs j true azimuth may be found. This inftrument is alfo ufeful for fettling the drip’s the.box muft be of the ufual depth, and a quantity of wake, in order to find the leeway •, and alfo to find the lead muft be poured in the bottom of the box, round the bafe of the cone, which fecures it on the ftile bearings of headlands and other obje&s. Experience evinces, that the needle of a compafs, whereon it traverfes. This ftile is firmly fixed in the centre of a fquare like every other magnet, whether natural or artificial, continually lofes fomething of its magnetic powers, wooden box, like the common .compafs, but with a which frequently produces a difference of more than a thicker bottom. The ftile is made of brafs about fix point j and we mav venture to aflert, that the great inches long, round, and one-third of an inch thick, errors in fhips reckonings more commonly originate having its head blunt like that of a fewing thimble, from the incorreftnefs of the compafs than from any and of a fine polilh, and placed perpendicular. The inner vertex of the cone mult likewife be well poliftiother caufe. Steel cannot be too highly tempered for the needle ed. The vertical part of the cone ought to be fuffiof a fea-compafs, as the more it is hardened, the more ciently thick to allow a well-polilhed cavity for holdpermanent is the magnetifm it receives 5 but to pre- ing a fttort ftile, proceeding from the centre of the ferve the magnetifm, and of courfe the polarity of the card on which it traverfes. “ The compafs I faw, needle, it fhould he cafed with thin, well pollfhed, foft (fays Mr Romans), was fo conftru£ted ; but I fee no iron. It has been found by repeated experiments, that reafon why the ftyle might not proceed from the centre the cafed needle preferves its magnetifm in a more of the vertex of the cone, and fo be received by the perfect degree than a needle not cafed } and perhaps card the common way. The needle muft be a magnetic

COM COM 1 369 ] CAmpafs. netic bar, blunt at each end ■, the glafs and cover are magnetic dip in all fituations of the globe j and confeCompafs. «—v—— put on in the common way.” quently fuch needles will never deviate from their hoThe above gentleman informs us, that a fimilar com- rizontal pofition. pafs was fubmitted to his infpe&ion by the captain of Compass is alfo an inftrument of confiderable ufe in a Hoop of war, who declared, that during a hard gale furveying land, dialing, &c. of fome days continuance, he had no other compafs Its ftrudture, in the main, is the fame with that of that was of the fmalleft ufe. In the opinion of Mr the mariner’s compafs 5 confifting like that of a box and Homans the account was not exaggerated j in which needle : the principal difference confifts in this, that conclufion we are difpofed to join iffue with him. inftead of the needle’s being fitted into the card, and Yet Mr Nicholfon in his interefting journal is of an playing with it on a pivot, it here plays alone ; the card oppofite fentiment, who believes that the compafs is being drawn on the bottom of the box, and a circle divery little dilturbed by tilting the box on one fide, blit vided into 360 degrees on the limb. See fig. 5. This CL. Very much by fudden changes of place in a horizontal inftrument is of obvious ufe to travellers, to diredl them Plate fi g- $• direction ; that provifion made againft the latter in a in their road ; and to miners, to {how them what way fcientific manner is the chief requifite in a well con- to dig, with other confiderable ufes. ftrufied inftrument of this nature ; and that no other 1. To take the declination of a wall by the Compafs. provifion is neceffary than good workmanfhip agree- Apply that fide of the compafs whereon the north is ably to the common conftruftion, and properly adjuft- marked along the fide of the wall ; the number of dejng the weight refpe&ing the centres and axes of fu- grees over which the north end of the needle fixes fpenfion. He conceives it will improve the compafs will be the declination of the wall, and on that fide ; very much to make the needle flat and thin, and to e. gr. if the north point of the needle tends towards the fufpend it, not in the common way, with its flat fide north, that wall may be {hone on by the fun at noon •, but with its edge uppermoft ; for, as it is known that if it fix over fifty degrees, counting from the north tohard fteel retains its magnetifm longer than foft, it waids the eaft, the decimation is fo many degrees from follows that, except both fides of a needle be equally north towards eaft. hard, the magnetic virtue will incline towards the hardBut fince the needle itfelf declines from the north er fide in procefs of time. towards the weft, with us, 1300; it muft be noted, that The Chinefe compafs has fome advantages over the Eu- to retrieve the irregularity, 13 are always to be added ropean, from which it diflers in the length of the needle, to the degrees ftiown by the needle, when the declinaand the manner of its fufpenfion. The needle of the tion of the wall is towards the eaft j on the contrary, Chinefe feldom exceeds an inch in length, and is fcarce- when the declination is towards the weft, the declinaly a line in thicknefs. It is polled with great nicety, tion of the needle is to be fubtra&ed. an d is remarkably fenfible. This is effe emoyed in left, equal and unequal, equilateral and inequilateral, future. ployed in dcribin^ funerior and inferior. Furrows (fulci), are thofe impreflions or interftices Shell*. right valve (dextra), is diftinguifhed from the between the ribs or rays on the furface of the ‘ ' . valves. left, by placing the ihell on its bafe, having the cardinal ligament before, and the anus behind. In this — pofkion the right valve of the (hell correfponds to lamellated (lamellofi), when the bottom is the left of the obferver, and the left valve (finiltra) marked with fmall tranfverfe fcales. to the right of the obferver. * . equal (equales), when the right valve correlurface is marked with fmall cavities or dots. fponds with the left in form, fize, and other external chara&ers. 3. Explanation of Terms applied to Univalve Shells. fuperior (valvula fuperior). In an irregular ley* {hell, fuch as the oyfter, one of the valves is attach- The bafe (bafis), is the moft elevated part of the Univalvesj {hell, oppofite to the fpire. It is divided into ed to folid bodies j the other in this cafe is fuperior. This valve is fometimes called by Linnaeus, the lid notched (emarginata), when it is accompanied (operculum) : in fome fpecies it is flat and fmall, with a deep notch. end in others more convex than the inferior valve. .tubular (tubulofa feu cordata), when it is form— keel fhaped (valvulse carinatae), ed by awhen tube. one part of their convexity prefents a (harp edge. ■ ■■ - Ample or entire (fimplex aut Integra), without chambered (qoncameratae), when they exhinotch or tube. bit in their cavity teftaceous plates, detached and Summit (vertex) fignifies the top of fome patellae, and raifed. from its pofition is central, marginal, or fubmarfpinous (fpinofae), when the whole furface is ginal. The Jhell (tefta) is divided with regard to its pofition furnifhed with fpines. banded (fafciatae), exhibiting large coloured into fuperior and inferior. tranfverfe ftripes or bands. The anterior part (pars antica), is that which forms the — - lamellated (lamellofae), when the furface is fpire of the {hell ; and it is alfo the fuperior part. furniflied with plates more or lefs feparated. The form of {hells is —■ radiated (radiatae), exhibiting divergent or bordered (marginata), when the two fides of coloured rays. the opening are broader and thicker than the reft of finuated (lacunofae), when one of the valves the diameter. has a fenfible depreflion at the middle of its marchambered (polythalamia), when it is inter-gin, and a correfponding elevation of the oppofite nally divided by different partitions parallel to the valve. opening. — flriated (ftriatae) when the — furface is marked with ftriae. round a lengthened cone, nearly vertical to each tranfverfe, when the ftriae are parallel to the other. margin of the valves. — • longitudinal, when they run from the bafe to lid body by a ligament proceeding from its bafe. the circumference. ■ ■ interrupted (interrupta), when the fucceflive Mufcular itnprejjions (imprefliones), are marks on the additions to the {hell are marked with diftinft interior furface of the valves, where the mufcles of rings. the animal are attached. umbilicated (umbilicata), when the axis round — folitary (folitariae), when the inner furface of which the fphere turns, being empty, forms a cavieach valve has only one. ty at the bafe of the {hell, whofe diameter is at leaft —■ ■■ . ■ double (duplicatae), two on the inner furface a fixth part of that of the fhell. of each valve. ■ imperforated (imperforata feu exumbilicata), * • ^ triple or ternate (ternatae), three wheninits each inferior axis has neither hole nor umbilivalve. cus. Ligament (ligamentum), is a horny fubftance, of little • oval or elliptic (ovales), the longitudinal diaflexibility, which unites the two valves near their meter exceeding the tranfverfe, and the two extrebafe, and which in almoft all bivalve fhells is placed mities equal and a little contra£led. at the lower part of their anterior furface. It is di- . ■ ■ ■'■■■■ egg-fhaped (ovata), the longitudinal diameter vided into exceeding the tranfverfe, and the extremities termi— gaping (hians), when its upper extremity is nated by the fegment of a circle. divided into two. ■ beaked (roftrata), when the two extremities, • double (duplex), when under thefometimes external litubular, form a projection in form of a gament there appears a fecond, in a particular holbeak. low of the hinge, which does not appear externally. — • internal (internum), when it unites the withvalvesparallel fcales, fo arranged as to cover vered without' appearing externally. each other. profound (retraftum feu intradlum), when it —. turbinated (turbinata), when the belly of the is fo deep in the future as fcarcely to be feen when {hell is large in proportion to the fpires, which feem the valves are fhut. to proceed from its centre. Opening-;

CONCHOLOGY. Chap. HI, 398 Terms em- Opening or month (aperlura), is that part of the calineated (lineati), marked with coloured lines. Terms em. ployed in vity of the ihell which is vifible. It is radiated (fpinofo-radiati), having the circum- ployed iu deicrihing angular (angulata), when its circumference ference bordered with ftraight fpines, feparating and defcribmg _ has leveral angles. divergent. Shells. gaping (deliifcens), when one of the extremifeparated (disjundli), having an interval beties is wider than the other. tween each convolution. bimarginated (bimarginata), when the right furrowed (fulcati), having the furface marked lip forms a double margin. with furrows, which are always broader than ttrise. compreffed (coarftata), when it is diftinflly decuflated (decuffati), when the ftriae crofs each other at right angles. flattened. femicircular (femiorbiculata), when it forms Spire (fpira), fignifies all the convolutions taken tohalf a circle. gether. It is linear (linearis), when it is narrow, and the -- pointed (acuta), when the convolutions joinlength confiderably exceeds the breadth. ed together form an acute angle. longitudinal (longitudinalis), tvhen the length ■ flattened (depreffa), forming a flat furface. is greater than the breadth, and the greateft dimenconvex (convexa), when it is rounded, and the point of the bafe has little elevation. fion is parallel to the axis of the (hell. orbicular (orbicularis), forming an entire convex (convexo-acuta), rounded at the outer edge, but elevated into an acute angle. circle. ftriated (ftriata), when the cavity is marked — convex and elevated (convexo-exferta), roundwith ftriae, parallel to the direflion of the convolued at the outer edge, and elevated without forming tions. an acute angle. tranfverfe (tranfverfa), when the breadth is ., — convex and pointed (convexo-mucronata), obgreater than the length. tufe and almoft rounded at the outer edge, and terPi/iar (columella), is that part of the fhell fituated minated at the centre with a pointed elevation. crowned (coronata), when the outer edges of within the opening, near its axis, round which the fpires turn. It is brought into view by dividing the each convolution are accompanied with a row of ihell its whole length. It is fpines or tubercles. flattened (plana), when the furface is flat and capitate (capitata), the convolutions united, fmooth. forming a fwelling refembling a head. obtuie (obtufa), the convolutions united, formcaudated (caudata), when it is lengthened beyond the bafe of the (hell. ing an obtufe angle. folded (plicata), marked with tranfverfe and plano-concave (plano-concava), the convoludiftinfl folds. tions forming no elevation, but are flightly grooved, fpiral (fpiralis), proceeding from the bafe, and pyramidal (pyramidata), of a conical form. forming a fmall twifted elongation. Sutures (futuroe), fignify the place of junftion of the truncated (truncata), cut tranfverfely at the different convolutions, forming a fpiral line. They bafe. are Convolutions (anfra£lus), are the turnings of the fpire — grooved (canaliculatse), when they arc fo deep round the pillar, from the opening to the bafe of as to form a fmall canal. the Ihell. They are notched (crenulatae), when the points of con—— bifid (bifidi), when each is divided into two tact are marked with notches. equal parts by a furrow or fpiral line. double (duplicate), accompanied with two grooved (canaliculati), when the fuperior edge ftriee, which run parallel. is marked with a groove. effaced (obfoletee), when the place of jundlion is not perceptible. keel-fhaped (carinati), when the outer turn of the Ihell is marked with an angle more or lefs Siphon (fipho), is a ftnall canal fituated in the internal part of the (bell of the nautili, which penetrates acute. into the divifions of which it is compofed. It is crowned (coronati), when the upper furface is central (centralis), when it is fituated in the bordered at a little diftance from the futures, with a Angle row of tubercles or fpinous fcales. middle of the divifions. lateral (lateralis), fituated at one fide. dextral (dextri), turning from the left to the oblique (obliquus), cutting the axis of the diright. finiftral (finiftri), turning from the right to vifions obliquely. the left. Veins (varices), are elevations or ribs, running in the lettered (fcripti), marked with charafters. direction of the length of the (hell, formed by the fpinous (fpinofi), having fhort fpines on the junction of the different additions which the {hell has received. They cut the convolutions of the furface. fpire tranfverfely. They are entire (fimplices), without furrows or tubercontinued (continuatce), proceeding from the cles. bafe of the fpire to the convolution at the opening, banded (fafciati), when the furface is marked without interruptioi , with broad coloured ftripes. fpinous (fpinofae), furniflied with ftrong fpines. - lamellated (lamellati), the furface marked interrupted (decufl'atae), not correfponding with with longitudinal or tranfverfe excrefcences, and lathe different convolutions. minated like membranes. CHAP. 4

Hhap. IV. Claffification of Shells.

CONCHOLOGY.

CHAP. IV. CLASSIFICATION OF SHELLS. 20 ;laffiScaSHELLS are divided by Linnaeus into multivalve, on. bivalve, and univalve. In the following claflification the fame arrangement will be adopted ; and we lhail firft exhibit in one view the chara&ers of each genus, in the original language of Linnaeus, with a tranflation oppofite for the fake of the Englilb reader; fo that the genus of any fhell may be ealily determined. In

defcribing the fpecies, we fhall obferve the utmoft brevity, giving fuch characters only as are neeeflary to afford precife marks of diftinclion. In arranging the fpecies under each genus, the Britifli fpecies will be diftinguillied with an afterilk ; fo that, with the advantage of a general claffification, this will anfwer the purpofe of a Britilh eonchology.

GENERIC CHARACTERS. I. MULTIVALVE SHELLS. eneric i. Chiton. Animal doris. Teftae plures, fecunlaraiter dum longitudinem fibi appofitae dorfo incumbentes. multi2. Lepas. Animal triton. Telia ball affixa multivalvis : valvis insequalibus eredlis. 3. Ppiolas. Animal afcidia. Telia bivalvis divaricata, cum minoribus accelforiis difformibus: cardo recurvatus cartilagine connexus.

1. C. Animal inhabiting the fhell a doris. Shell conlilting of feveral fegments or valves difpofed down the back. 2. L. Animal a triton. Shell affixed at the bafe, and confilling of many unequal eredl valves. 3. P. Animal an afcidia. Shell bivalve, divaricate, differently ffiaped ; accelfory valves: hinges bent back, united by a cartilage : beneath the hinge, internally, is an incurved tooth.

II. BIVALVE SHELLS. bivalves.

4. Mya. Animal afcidia. Teha bivalvis hians, ut plurimum, altera extremitate : cardo dente (plerifque uno) folido, cralfo, patulo, vacuo ; nec inferto teha; appofitas. 5. Solen. Animal afcidia. Terta bivalvis oblonga, utroque latere hians. Cardo dens fubulatus reflexus, fiepe duplex, non infertus tehae appofitae; margo lateralis magis obfoletus. 6. Tellina. Animal tethys. Tefia bivalvis, anterius hinc ad alterura latus fiexa. Cardinis dentes ut plurimum tres : laterales plani alterius tefiae.

7. Cardium. Animal tethys. Tefia bivalvis fubsequilatera, aequivalvis plerumque convexa, longitudinaliter cofiata, firiata aut fulcata, margine dentata. Cardo^ dentibus mediis binis aiternatis : altero ut plurimum incurvo ; lateralibus remotis infertis. 8. Mactra. Animal tethys. Tefia bivalvis, insequilatera, aequivalvis. Cardo dente medio complicato cum adjecla foveola, lateralibus remotis infertis. , 9- Donax. Animal tethys. Telia bivalvis, margine faepe crenulato antico obtufiffimo. Cardo dentibus duobus ; marginalique folitario (rarius duplice, triplice, aut nullo) lubremoto fub ano. ^10. Venus. Animal tethys. Telia bivalvis ; labiis margine antico incumbentibus. Cardo dentibus tribus, omnibus approximatis lateralibus apice divergentibus.

4. M. Animal an afcidia. Shell bivalve, generally gaping at one end. Hinge with broad, thick, ftrong teeth (feldom more than one), and not inferted into the oppofite valve. 5. S. Animal an afcidia. Shell bivalve, oblong, open at both ends. Hinge with a fubulate, refledted tooth, often double, and not inferted in the oppofite valve ; the lateral margin more effaced. 6. T. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, generally Hoping on one fide, in the fore part of one valve a convex, of the other a concave fold, Hinge ufually with three teeth : the lateral ones in one Ihell beingfmooth. 7. C. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, nearly equilateral, aequivalve, generally convex, longitudinally ribbed, ftriated or grooved, with a toothed margin. Hinge with two teeth near the beak, and a larger remote lateral one on each fide, each locking into the oppofite. 8. M. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, of unequal fides, and aequivalve. Middle tooth of the hinge complicated, with a fmall hollow on each fide, lateral ones remote and inferted into each other. 9. 1). Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, generally with a notched margin : the frontal margin very ubtufe. Hinge with two teeth, and a fingle marginal one placed behind (rarely double, triple or none). 10. V. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve; the frontal margin fiattened with incumbent lips. Hinge with three teeth, all approximate ; the lateral ones divergent at the tip. II. SPONDYLUS.

399 Claflification of Shells. 1 —"i y-.

400 CONCH O L O G Yf Chap, IV 11. SPONI) YLUS. Animal tethys. Ted a incequiClafllfica11. S. Animal a tethys. Shell hard, folid, with tion of valvis rigida. Cardo dentibus duobus recurvis, cum unequal valves. Hinge with two recurved teeth, fepa- tion of*' Shells. foveola intermedia. rated by a fmall cavity. Shell?. 12. Chama. Animal tetliys. Telia bivalvis craf12. C. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, rather 7^“ fior, cardo callo gibbo, oblique inferto foiTulae obliquae. coarfe. Hinge with a callous protuberance, obliquely inferted in an oblique hollow. 13. Arca. Animal tethys ? Telia bivalvis cequi13. A. Animal a tethy-. ? Shell bivalve equivalve. valvis. Cardo dentibus numerofis, acutis alternis in- Hinge with numerous ffiarp teeth, alternately inferted fertis. between each other. 14. Ostrea. Animal tethys. Telia bivalvis, plu14. O. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, generally rimis inaequivalvis fubaurita. Cardo edentulus, foffu- with unequal valves, and flightly eared. Hinge withla cava, ovata, fulcifque (in plurimis) lateralibus tranf- out teeth., but furniffied with an ovate cavity, and i-n verfis. moft with lateral, tranfverfe furrows. 15. AnoMIA. Animal corpus ligula emarginata ci15. A. Animal an emarginate, ciliated, (Irap-ffiaped liata : ciliis valvse fuperiori affixis j brachiis duobus body, with bridles attached to the upper valve ; arms linearibus corpora longioribus conniventibus porredlis, two, linear, longer than the body, projecting and apvalvse alternis utrinque ciliatis : ciliis affixis valvae utri- proaching together, alternate on the valve, and cilique : tella inaequivalvis, valva altera planiufcula, altera ated on each fide, with bridles affixed to each valve. ball magis gibba : parum altera ball faepe perforata. Shell inequivalve, one of the valves flattilh, the other Cardo cicatricula linear! prominente Jntrorlum dente protuberant at the bafe : one of the valves often perlateral! ; valvae vero planioris in ipfo margine. Radii forated near the bafe. Hinge with a linear prominent duo offer pro ball animalis. -cicatrix, and a lateral tooth placed within ; but on the very margin of the flat valve there are two bony rays for the bafe of the animal. 16. Mytilus. Animal afcidia ? Telia bivalvis, 1*6. M. Animal an afcidia ? Shell bivalve, rough, rudis, fepius affixa byffo, ut plurimum, craffiori. Car- generally affixed by a byffus or beard of filky filaments. do in plurimis edentulus, dillinflus, paucis exceptis, Hinge moflly without teeth, and in mod cafes with a linea fubulata, excavata longitudinali. Tubulate, hollow, longitudinal line. 17. Pinna. Animal limax. Telia fub-bivalvis fra17. P. Animal a limax. Shell bivalve, brittle, gapgilis, erefta hians, emittens barbam byffinam. Cardo ing at one end, and having a byffus or beard. Hinge edentulus, coalitis in unam valvis. without teeth, the valves being united into one.

III. UNIVALVE SHELLS. Univalves.

18. ArgoNAUTA. Animal fepia aut clio. Teffa univalvis, fpiralis, involuta, membranacea, unilocularis. 19. Nautilus. Animal? Tefla univalvis, idhmis perforatis concamerata, polythalamia. 20. Conus. Animal limax. Tefla univalvis convoluta, turbinata \ apertura effufa, longitudinalis, linearis, edentula, bafi integra ; columella levis. 21. CYPRiEA. Animal limax. Tefla univalvis, involuta, fub-ovata, obtufa, laevis. Apertura utrinque effufa, linearis utrinque dentata longitudinalis. 22. Bulla. Animal limax. Tefla univalvis convoluta, inermis. Apertura fub-eoar£tata, oblonga, longitudinalis, bafi integerrima. Columella obliqua, laevis. 23. Voluta. Animal limax. Tefta unilocularis fpiralb. Apertura ecaudata, fub-effufa. Columella plicata : labio umbilicove (ut plurimum) nullo. 24. Buccinum. Animal limax. Tefta univalvis, fpiralis, gibbofa. Apertura ovata definens in canaliculum (retufam lacunam) dextrum, cauda retufa. Labium interius explanatum. 25. Strombus. Animal limax. Tefla univalvis, fpiralis, latere ampliata. Apertura labro faepius dila-tato, definens in canalem finiftrum. 26. MuREX. Animal limax. Tefta univalvis, fpi.rali;, exafperata futuris membranaceis. Apertura defi-

18. A. Animal a fepia or clio. Shell univalve, fpiral, involute, membranaceous, one cell. 19. N. Animal ? Shell univalve, divided into feveral chambers communicating with each other. 20. C. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, convolute, turbinate j aperture effufe, longitudinal, linear, without teeth ; entire at the bafe. Pillar fmooth. 21. C. Animal a flug. Shell univalve, involute, fubovate, fmooth, obtufe. Aperture effufe at each end, linear, extending the whole length of the {hell, and toothed on each fide. 22. B. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, convolute, without teeth. Aperture a little narrowed, oblong, longitudinal, quite entire at the bafe. Pillar oblique and fmooth. 23. V. Animal a limax. Shell one cell, fpiral. Aperture without a beak, and fomewhat effufe. Pillar twifted or plaited : generally without lips or perforation. 24. B. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, fpiral, gibbous. Aperture ovate, ending in a ftiort canal, leaning to the right, with a retufe beak. Internal or pillar lip expanded. 2y S. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, fpiral, enlarged at the fide. Aperture dilated with the lip expanding, and ending in a groove towards the left. 26. M. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, fpiral, rough, with membranaceous futures. Aperture oval, terminating

'hap. IV. ’'CONCH nens in canalem integrum rectum five fubafcendentem. 27. Trochus. ' Animal lirriax. Tefta univalvis fpiralis, fubcortica. Apertura fubtetragono-angulata feu rotundata, fuperius tranfverfe coarftata j columella obliquata. 28. Turbo. Animal Umax. Tefta univalvis, fpiralis, folida. Apertura coarftata, orbiculata, integra. 29. Helix. Animal Umax. Tefta univalvis, fpiralis, fubdiaphana, fragilis. Apertura coar&ata, intus lunata feu fubrotunda fegmento circuli dempto. 30. Nerita. Animal limax. Tefta univalvis, fpiralis, gibba, fubtus planiufcula. Apertura femiorbicularis, vel femilunaris j labio columellae tranfverfo, Iruncato, planiufculo. 31. Haliotis. Animal limax. Tefta aurifortnis, patens : fpira occultata laterali difco, longiludinaliter poris pertufa. 32. Patella.' Animal limax. Tefta univalvis fiibconica, abfque fpira. 33. Dentalium. Animal lerebella. Tefta tubulofa, refta, monothalamia, utraque extremitate pervia. 34. Serpula. Animal terebella. Tefta univalvis, tubulofa, adherens (faepe ifthmis integris paffim intercepta). 35. Teredo. Animal terebella. Valvis duabus caleariis hemifphericis, anterius excifi?, et duabus lanceolatis. Tefta teres, ftexiofa, lignum penetrans. 36. SaBELLa. Animal nereis. Ore ringente, tentaculis duobus craffioribus pone caput. Tefta tubulofa, contexta cx arenulis confertim mcmbranfe vaginal! in-

L MULTIVALVES. H Chiton.

Gen. I. CHITON. Gen. Char.—1 he animal inhabiting this ftiell is a doris. r Ihe ftiell confifts of feveral fegments or valves, arI ranged along the back. Species. Vidus. I. C. (hell with fix plates or valves ftriated. America. dqffinus. 2. C. fhell fix-valved, glabrous, oval, a little convex, fea-green. America. >mula- 3. C. fhell feven-valved, body tuberculated. America. hitus. * 4. C. fhell feven-valved, thick fet with fhort hairs, 4 inch long. Sandwich, Aberdeen. deatus. 5. C. fhell eight-valved, ftriated 5 body prickly. Alia. • cicula- * 6. C. fhell eight-valved, apparently fmooth, but when examined with a glafs, is found to be rough like fhagreen. Coaft of Barbary, Salcomb bay, Devonfhire, Sandwich. amofus. 7. C. eight valves, femiftriated j margin covered with minute feales. America. . -Status. 8. C. with eight valves, fmooth body with excavated dots. Europe, America. Vol. VI. Part II.

O L O G Y. terminating in an entire ftraight, or ftightly afcfending canal, 27. T. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, fpiral, fomewhat conic. Aperture fomewhat angular, or rounded : the upper fide tranfverfe and contracted ; pillar placed obliquely. 28. T. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, fpiral, folid. Aperture contracted, orbicular, entire. 29. H. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, fpiral, fubdiaphanous, brittle. Aperture contracted, femilunar or roundilh. 30. N. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, fpiral, gibbous, flattifti at bottom. Aperture femiorbicular or femilunar, pillar lip tranfverfely truncated and flattened. 31. H. Animal a limax. Shell ear-fhaped dilated, with a longitudinal row of oriflees along the fur face} the fpire lateral and nearly concealed. 32. P. Animal a limax. Shell fubconic, without fpire. 33. D. Animal a terebella. Shell tubular, ftraight, or flightly curved, with one cavity open at both ends. 34. S. Animal a terebeL'a. Shell tubular, generally adhering to other fubftances (often feparated internally by entire divifions.) 35. T. Animal a terebella. With two calcareous, hemifpherical valves, anteriorly cut off, and two lanceolate ones. Shell round, fiexuous, penetrating wood. 36. S. Animal a nereis. With a ringent mouth, and two thicker tentacula behind the head. Shell tubular, confifting of particles of fand united to a membrane by a glutinous cement.

9. C. eight valves, fubftriated 3 ft rim covered, body ruler. red. North feas. * ic. C. eight valves, fmooth, with tranfverfe lines a/Lus. at the margin of the valves 3 body -white, oval ; firft valve notched on the hinder edge. Northern feas 3 on cyfter fnells from Poole. 11. C. eight valves, fmooth, carir.ated, oval, com- drier cits. preffed. Northern feas, Salcomb bay. 12. C. feven carinated valves flrongly beaked •J'eptemvalbeaks frequently rufous, 4 inch long. Salcomb bay, vis. but rare. Montagu, Tejl. Brit. p. 3. 13. C. eight-valved, thick ridged 3 the out fide Se-z-Lico/cr. green, infide fnowy, edged with black. 14. C. eight-valved, cherry colour, fmooth, with cerafmus. fnowy marginal teeth. 15. C. eight-valved, thick, black brown. Straits magellani-of Magellan. . cus. 16. C. eight-valved, brown, fmooth 3 infide teeth offufeus. the margin fnowy. India. 17. C. eight-valved, fmooth, within fea-green, mar- maculatus. gin covered with gray white feales. 18. C. eight-valved, fmooth, varied with white and m armor a. black. Var. feven-valved. America. ' tus. ' 19. C. flat above, with numerous raifed dots in granulate*' rows 3 border broad, fpinous. America. 20. C. eight-valved, fmooth above, piceous and varied pic cut. with white and black. America 3 Red fea. 3 e 21. a

402 indus.

C0NCH0L0GY. Chap. 1\ fcf. C. eight-Vfflved, whitifli afh colour, with a * if- L. comprefied, 13-vaIved, fmooth, feated on afca/pellm, fcaly border ; middle valves finely pundtured. Ame- fcaly peduncle, which is large, and compofed of rica. rings. covered with ffiort hairs. North feas,. Plyminimus. 22. C. eight-valved, fmooth, black, very fmall. mouth. Norway feas. * 16. L. comprefied, five-valved, ftriated, peduncula-^r/ff,• cimex. 23. C. eight-valved, earinated, diaphanous, band- ted. American and Atlantic feas, coaft of Devoned 5 extreme valves finely pundlured j fmall. Nor- ffiire is fometimes found in a foffil ftate. way. * 17. L. compreffed, 5-valved, pedunculated j ad-anatifen afe/Jus. 24. C. eight-valved, deep black, convex above, heres to the bottom of ffiips, when it is well known with a yellowilh fpot on each valve. North feas. by the name of bernacle.—It was from this fpecies of gigas. 25. C. eight-valved, thick, convex, white; firft ffiell that the bernacle goofe was fuppofed to have had valve notched, laft toothed, middle ones emarginate , its origin. Gerard’s account of this transformation, as four inches long. Cape of Good Hope. it affords a remarkable inftance of the credulity of the iflandicus, 26. C. eight-valved, fubcylindrical,finely pundlured; times, is too curious to'be omitted. “ There are found very minute and narrow at each end. in the north parts of Scotland, and the iflands adjacent margina- * 27. C. eight-valved, carinated along the back-, the called Orchades, certain trees whereon do grow certus. valves projecting over each other in a point. Salcomb tain ffiells tending to ruffet, w-herein are contained little living creatures : which ffiells in time of maturitie bay, Sandwich. 1 lavis, * 28, C. eight-valved, fmooth, w ith an elevated band do open, and out of them grow thofe little living down the back 5 the length 4 inch. Loch Broom, things, w-hich falling into the water do become fowles, Rofs-lhire, Salcomb bay. ■which we call barnakles j in the north of England ■amiculatus 20, C. eight-valved, kidney-fhaped, fragile j. valves brant geefe ; and in Lancaffiire, tree geefe $ but the imbricated, Kurile ifiands. other that do fall upon the land periffi, and come to 2 nothing. 'I hus much from the writings of others, and 5 Lepas. Gen. 2. Lepas, Acorn-JhelL alfo from the mouths of people of thofe parts, which Gen. Char.— Animal a triton j fhell affixed at the bafe, may very well accord with truth.” and compofed of many unequal eredt: valves. “ But what our eyes have feene, and hands have touched, we ffiall declare. There is a fmall ifland in Species. Lancaffiire, called the Pile of Foulders, wherein are balanus. * T. L. conic, grooved, lid lharp-pointed. European found the broken pieces of old and bruifed ffiips, fome feas, Britain. whereof have been caft thither by ffiipwracke, and albalamides, * 2. L. conic, truncated, fmooth j lip obtufe. Ame- fo the trunks and bodies with the branches of old and rican and Indian feas $ abundant on the coafts of Bri- rotten trees, caft up there likewife : whereon is found tain. a certain fpume or froth that in time breedeth into cerintertexta. * 3. L. fomewhat depreffed; valves imbricated and tain ftiells, in ffiape like thofe of the mulkle, but obliquely flriated. Weymouth. (harper pointed, and of a whitiffi colour : wherein is cornubien- * 4. L. bafe dilated, aperture rather narrow j valves contained a thing in forme like a lace of filke, finely Jis . _ grooved near the lower edges. Cornwall. woven, as it were, together, of. a whitiffi colour, one tintinabu5. L. conic, obtufe, bell-lhaped, rugged and fixed. end whereof is faftened unto the infide of the ffiell, even lum. Indian and American feas. as the fiffi of oifters, and mufldes are; the other end diadema. * 6. L. roundifh, fix-lobed 5 valves grooved longitudi- is made faft unto the belly of a rude mafs or lumpe, nally. European and Indian feas, Scotland. which in time commeth to the ffiape and forme of a bahxnaris. 7. L. fubconic, with fix elevated, wrinkled, 4-part- bird : when it is perfeftly formed the ffiell gapeth open, ed lobes j lid membranaceous, and tw'o-toothed 5 found and the firft thing that appeareth is the forefaid lace adhering to the pedloral wrinkles of the balaena or firing j next come the legs of the bird hanging out, boops. and as it groweth greater it openeth the {hell by de* 8. L. fomewhat conic, with equidiftant ribs, diver- grees, till at length it is all come forth and hangeth cojiata. gent from the aperture 5 lid pointed. On rocks on the only by the bill: in ffiort fpace after it eometh to Pembrokeffiire coaft. full maturitie, and falleth into the fea, where it ga■conoides. * 9. L. conic, fmooth, valves pointed, aperture very thered! feathers, and groweth to a fowl bigger than a fmall 5 ffiell fmall, reddifh $ valves finely teffelated. mallard, and leffer than a goofe, having blacke legs, Weymouth. bill or beake, and feathers blacke and white, fpotted 10. L. plano-convex, with fix excavated ftriated in fuch manner as is our magpie, called in fome places tejludinaria. rays} lid compofed of four triangular pieces inferted a pie-annet, which the people of Lancaffiire call by on a membrane. no other name than a tree-goofe : which place afore11. L. helmet-form, with a lateral aperture j ffiell faid, and thofe parts adjoyning do fo much abound gakata. boat-ffiaped, fmooth. Adheres to the gorgonia verru- therewith, that one of the bed is bought for threecofa, and ventilabrum. pence. For the truth hereof, if any doubt, let them 12. L. ere&, conic ; valves palmated at the bafe } repaire unto me, and I ffiall fatisfie them by the teftipalmipes. fliell white. monie of good witneffes.” Herbal/, p. 1588. 13. L. fubcubic, fmooth $ lid acute, tranfverfely flrituiipa. 18. L. membranaceous, ventricofe, feated on a tube aurila. ated. Northern ocean. and eared, 8-valved. North feas. ydletta. 14. L. compre9ed,ere£l, irregularly flriated. Indian 19. L. hooked behind, 6-valved, wrinkled, not axipfutacuu ocean. inch long. Chili. 20. L^.

CONCH ;kap. IV. 20. L. reddiih, 6-ralved, unequal j lid pointed. ■nor. India. 21. L. hemirpherieal, ferrated, 6-valved j 4 outer irruca. valves and lid plaited. North feas. igujlata, 22. L. elongated, finooth, 6-valved 5 aperture narrow, lid minute. 23. L. granulated and ftriated, conic, tubular *, lid mfa. obtufe. India. 'ongata. * 24. L. cylindrical, fhowy, pellucid, 6-valved •, lid obtufe, grooved and tranfverfely ftriated. Three inches long. Iceland, Weymouth. Ba/arws Clavatus, Montagu, p. xo. itellaris. 25. L. 6-valved 5 outwardly violet mixed with white, and marked with fine longitudinal ftriae $ valves denticulate at the margin. Coromandel, very rare. inofa. 26. L. conic with 12 triangular valves, 6 more deprefled, whitilh and tranfverfely ftriated, and 6 purple and longitudinally ftriated j all armed with tubular recurved fpines. India. 'olacea. 27. L. 6-valved, thick, glabrous, white, with violet rays. India. )llicipes, 28. L. many-valved, compreffed, ereft, fmooth j feated on a Ihort, hard, fcaly peduncle. Mediterranean. ilindrica, 29. L. flightly curved, w'ith a large oblique orifice j lip horned. Africa. 'ifpata. 30. L. oval-truncated, conic, with 6 bluifti valves {haded with white, and 6 reddifti, elevated, fpinous, and perpendicularly ftriated j an inch high j is frequently perforated by the teredo. triofa. 31. L. folid, white, depreffed with carinous grooves, unequally fmooth internally. Kurile iflands. -cemia. 32. L. conico-convex, 4 valves ferrate-ftriated •, lid 2-valved. North feas. ifcicu- * 33. L. 5-valved, fmooth, dorfal valve dilated at the 'ris. bafe. St George’s Channel. 26 Gen. 3. Pholas. whs. Gen. Char.—The animal is an afcidia. Shell bivalve, divaricate, with feveral lefier differently aeceffory ones at the hinge. Hinges recurved, united by a cartilage. Beneath the hinge internally is an incurved tooth. Species. iByhui. * t. P. oblong, with reticulated, fubfpinous ftriae, on the upper part. Europe. Salcomb bay, Devonftiire. Five inches long ; is found in hard clay, marl, and wood } has a phofphorefcent property. iflata. 2. P. ovate \ ftriated with elevated ribs j 6 inches long. American feas. nata. 3. P. ovate, multifarioufiy ftriated. Europe, India. —This fpecies feems to be nearly equally deftru&ive with the teredo navalis. The pholas perforates the w ood acrofs the grain or fibre j the teredo infinuates itfelf along the fibres, or in the fame dire&ion. mdida. * 4. P. oblong, muricated on all fides, with decuffated ftnae, Europe, America, Salcomb bay. ifilla. 5. P. oblong, rounded } ftriae arched. America, India. This animal penetrates the bottom of {hips. 'ifpata. * 6. P. oval) part next the hinge more obtufe, waved, ftriated •, tooth of the hinge curved, large and ftrong. Two inches long. Europe. Weft of Eng, land. lentalis. 7. P. oblong, with a ftraight margin : one half quite

O L O G Y. 403 fmooth, the other reticulated with ftriae. Siam and Tranquebar. 8. P. narrow, white, finely ftriated. Bay of Czm-campechipeachy. ana. 9. P. ftiort, turgid, furrowed, with fine elevated rorah/ir. tranfverfe ftriae ; aperture heart-lhaped. 10. P. oblong, depreffed, with diftant longitudinal ftriae j five inches long. Chili. 11. P. oblong, white, with a longitudinal brown tcredula. granular future ; penetrates timber. Belgic fliores 12. P. bivalve, white, with tranfverfe arched ftviae -,hians. convex in the middle j aperture large, oval j perforates calcareous rocks. American iflands. II. BIVALVE SHELLS. Gen. 4. Mya.

*7 My a.

Gen. Char.—The animal is an afcidia. The {hell is bivalve, generally gaping at one end. The hinge has broad, thick, ftrong teeth, feldom more than one, and not inferted into the oppofite valve. Species. * \. M. ovate, truncated, gaping greatly behind; tooth projefting, obtufe j 2\ inches long. Europe. * 2. M. brittle, femitranfparent, Hoping downwardsdeclivis. near the open end. Hebrides.—A fifli much efteemed as food by the inhabitants. * 3. M. ovate, rounded behind 5 2-|- inches long. Yjo-arenaria. ropean feas, Portfmouth. * 4. M. ovate ; a Angle, longitudinal, notched tool\pi£lorum. in one hinge, and two in the other j near 2 inches long, and 3^ broad. Europe, Barbary, River Kennet, Berkfliire.—This {hell is employed by painters for holding water colours. * 5. M. ovate, a little contra&ed in the middle of the margarithinner margin 5 primary tooth of the hinge conic'} tifera. length 2-J inches, breadth 5 inches j inhabits moft parts of the ar£Hc circle, and is moft frequently found in mountainous rivers, and about catara&s.-—This {hell yields mother of-pearl and pearl. The river Conway in Wales, was formerly famous for producing pearls of great fize and value. They have alfo been found in the river Irt, in Cumberland. Sir John Hawkins obtained a patent for filhing them in that river. 6. M. oblong, dilated; the narrower bafe com-perna. preffed. Straits of Magellan, Barbary. 7. M. tongue-lhaped; hinge terminal, femiorbicular j vulfella. 4 inches long, and i-J broad. Indies. 8. M. ftriated, valves with two fubfpinous xi&gesy arEUca. hinge without teeth. North feas. 9. M. oval, equivalve, widely gaping, and ftriated yedentula. I inch long. Shores of the Cafpian fea. ic. M. equivalve, pellucid, finely ftriated. RiversrW/W. of Malabar. 11. M. ovate, oblong ; 3 inches broad, i£ long. ob/onga. 12. M. globular, fnowy, pellucid. Guinea. anatina. 13. M. equivalve, fnowy, ovate, oblong 5 ftriae de-nicobarica. cuffated. Nicobar iflands. 14. M. ovate, compreffed, clofed. New Zealand, aujlralis. 15. M. rounded, flattifh, tranfverfely ftriated. Ca-gaditana. diz. 16. M. rhombic, ^reen, protuberant parts wrinkled. Rivers of Coromandel. 3 E 2 17. M.

4°4 rugofa.

CONG HO LOGY. Chap.l 17. M. oval, wrinkled, outwardly greenilh, within 5. S. linear, oval, ftraight; hinge in the middle 7.-legume} pearly. Rivers of Coromandel. t f n P> r 1 r\r\o. !G J 3 _ r inches * 1 1broad.1 Europe- ^ toothed, one of them Ubifid nodofa. 18. M. oval, gr'eenilh ; protuberant parts knotty. an and^ Atlantic feas,.Anglefea, Hampfhire. norwegiea 19. M. oval, longitudinally and thickly ftriated j . kidney-fhaped, a Angle tooth in one valve, two cultelhA one end rounded, the other truncated. m the other. Europe and India, Cornwall. fpuria. 20. M. rhombic; protuberant part glabrous. Rivers 7* °V£d> ftraight, fmooth, with a tranfverfe, de- radiatu\ of Tranquebar. prelled rib on one fide. India. ghjcemeris . 21. M. gaping at both ends, thick, lamellous, ob^on&> °val} 5 inches long, 10 broad. Mediterranean feaf S’ °bliqUely ftriated- Atlantic and IndianJirigilal fea. 9. S. ovate, membranaceous, hairy, with a falcated anatinA 2 2. M. ovate, depreffed ; margin of the hinge with rib at the hinge. Indian ocean. fijrmatoa fubulate projeflion near the primary tooth j that of phora. 10. S. oval, oblong, truncated before. Pacific ocean, macha I the other valve dilated. Rivers of Guinea. — 1 his fpecies produces pearl. 23. M. oval, fmooth 5 an obtufe tooth in each hinge. nit id a. 11. S. roundilh, inflated, fubftriated. Indian and ANorway. mencan feas. 24. M. ovate, membranaceous, with a protrafted remembra12. S. oval 3 angles of the valves ferrated 3 fize of zminutuX nacea. fleiRed margin at the probofcis. cucumber feed. Coral rocks in Norway and Green25. M. coarfe, thick, oblong, ftriated, convex j hinge byjpfera. land 3 in hard limeftone at Plymouth. without a tooth. Greenland coaft. 13. S. ovate, oblong, with tumid boffes. Java. virens. *' 26. M. with an oval and large hiatus oppoftte to the dubia. 14. S. oval, ftraight, fmooth, with prominent xnsm- diphos, hinge ; length of a horfe bean. Weymouth. branes 3 2| inches long, 5 broad. Indian ocean. inmquival- * 27. M. fubtriangular, opaque, wdiite j under valve 15. S. linear, oval, ftraight. Tranquebar. minimui deep j upper valve not half the fize of the other. vis. 16. S. linear, oval, ftraight, with arched ftriae. Ni- maxim\ Cornwall, Devonlhire. Montagu, TeJ}. Brit. p. 38. cobar. A very rare fpecies. 28. M. fubpellucid,t faintly fuborbicu___ ftriated tranfverfely ^^ ; 17. S. tranfverfely wrinkled, contraffed in the md!- coarttaX laris. fides nearly equal, rounded ; hinge central, 4. of die, rounded at both ends j ^ of an inch long, 2i inch 3 found in hard limeftone at Plymouth. Montagu, broad. Nicobar iflands. TeJ}. Brit. p. 49. 18. S. equivalve, rofy, tooth of the hinge fubbifid. rofeus. J pratenuist * 29. M. oval, thin, brittle, flat 3 ftrias fine, concen- Red Sea. ' 1 tric. Falmouth harbour. 9. S. oval, quite fmooth 3 hinge callous, two-toothd’Jiorta. * 30. M. fubpellucid, thin, fragile, diftorted into Va- ed. Jamaica.^ Jentus. rious ftiapes. Falmouth. Montagu, TeJ}. Brit. p. 42. 20. S. equivalve, tranfverfely ftriated 3 hinge withrictus, bidentata. *31. M. fuboval, compreffed 3 hinge with tw'o broad, a fingle tooth. Nicobar illands. eredl, laminated teeth in one valve 3 none in the other. 21. S. tranfverfely ftriated, hinges 2-toothed, with a occidem Salccmb bay. hollow in the middle 3 4 inches broad, and 2 long. 2t * 22. S. partly fmooth, partly rough, with undulated, crifpus. Gen. 5. Solen, Ra%or-Jheath. SoIlh. crimped lines. River Tees in England. Gen. Char.—The animal inhabiting this ftiell is an af23. S. protuberances or beaks of the fhell 2-parted, cidia : ftiell bivalve, oblong, open at both ends 3 an inch long, 2 j broad ; rounded at the ends. ^ hinge with a fubulate refle&ed tooth, often double, *.24. S. pellucid, fragile, depreffed; fuboval, conctn-pi ' nna t and not inferted in the oppofite valve. trically wrinkled 3 a blunt tooth in each valve 3 f of an inch long, and | broad. Torcrofs. Montagu, TeJ}. Species. Brit. p. 566. I. S. linear, ftraight, roundilh 3 one end margined ; 2p magma. hinge with a Angle oppofite tooth in each valve. EuGen. 6. Tellina. Tellina ropean and Indian Teas, Caermarthenfhire, Wey- Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys : the fhell is bimouth. valve, generally floping on one fide 3 in the fore Jiliqua. * 2. S. linear, ftraight, one hinge 2-toothed. Europart of one valve there is a convex, and in that of pean and Indian feas. Length 1 inch, breadth 8 inches. the other, a concave fold 3 the hinge has ufually Common on the fhores of Britain, where it is employed three teeth, the lateral ones flat or nearly obfolete, in as food.— I his fpecies lurks in the fand, near low-water one valve. r mark, in a perpendicular diredlion, and when in w ant of rood, they raife one end above the furface, and preSpecies. trade the body a confiderable w'ay out of the fhell. At A. Ovate and thickijh. the approach of danger they dart deep into the fand, as far even as to the depth of two feet 3 and the place is 1. T. roundifli, compreffed, wrinkled on the fore-^ known by a fmall hollow on the furface. They are part. Indian ocean, very rare. fometimes taken by digging them out of the fand, or by 2. T. fubovate, rough, with lunated feales, difpofed ftriking a barbed dart into their bodies. in a quincunx. Indian ocean. felis. 'njisi 3. T. angular, with tranfverfe, recurved ftri* 3 2’uirgata. * 3* S* linear, in form of a feymeter 3 one hinge 2toothed 3 ^ of an inch long, 5 inches broad. Europe- inches long, and 2~ broad. Indian and Atlantic 0- ■ an feas 3 not uncommon on the Britifti fhores. ceans. pcllucidus * 4. S. fubarched, fuboval, pellucid 3 one hinge 24. T. fubovate, angular before, with tranfverfe, re-angular toothed 3^ length ^ inch, breadth above one inch. 1An- curved ftriae ; no lateral teeth 3 inch long, and 2 giefta, Cornwall. broad. Indian ocean. • 5* T*

CONCH O L O G Y. 405 [iSrap. IV. 32. T. flat, fore-part truncated, yellow ; l-J inch trilatera. 5. T. ftriae recurved, tranfverfe 5 lateral teeth obfo7 la ' long, and 2 broad. lete. Indian ocean. 33. T. oblong, brittle, yellowifti; rounded on ovie ablonga, * 6. T. ovate, white, gibbous, with tranfverfe, rej curved flriae j beaks yellowifh. European feas, Bri- fide. Europe. 34. T. white, tranfverfely ftriated, and h\fono\\QyJperglen, tain. I t rejfa. * 7. T. very thick, deprefled, oblong, with tranfverfe, hooked on each fide. Nicobar iflands. * 35. T. with rugged, concentric ftriae ; the fize of a rugoja. concentric ftriae. Europe, Britain. * 8. T. very thick, broad, depreffed 5 concentric ftriae filbert. Weymouth. ft' cornubinumerous, 1^ inch broad, and long. Europe, Bri- * 36. T. oval, oblong, deeply ftriated, parallel to margin. Cornwall. enjis. tain. 9. T. wrinkles tranfverfely undulated, hinged with * 37. T. oblong, ovate, compreffed, with fine, lxan{~fervenfis, [; ofa. [I verfe ftriae ; 1 inch long, and 2 broad. North feas, two lateral teeth. Indian and American feas. 10. T. rounded, thick, gibbous j ftria; longitudinal, Weymouth, Yorkfhire. I: 'ata. 38. fine. i hangu- 11. T. ovate, venlricofe, inequivalve, with decolla- ftriae; one valve convex, the other flat; 2^ inches broad and long. ted ftriae. Tranquebar. II 7. 39. T. oval, inequivalve, flat, pellucid, with fine/fya/w;#. I njracea, 12. T. thin, ovate, ventricofe, and tranfverfely ftriated wrinkles on the fore part, plaited j 3 lines long, decuffated ftriae ; i4- inch long, 3 broad. Guinea. 40. T. yellowifh, very thin, perpendicularly fti i- vitrea. and an inch and a half broad. Guinea. 13. T. angular, ventricofe; and finely ftriated tranf- ated. North and Baltic leas. t t>ofa' qr. T. oval, very thin, tranfverftly ftr’ated; \q laneeolatq, verfely. inch broad. India. t qmla14. T. equivalve, roundilh, white, with a few tranf- lines long, 4?. T. oval, pellucid, with a rib In each valve, apelina. verfe Urine round the edges. Nu 15. T. rich red colour, with a violet margin; 2J reaching from the hinge to the outer margin ; v^ry U rii. thin. Nicobar. inches broad, and i-J long. li nii. 43. T. oval, pellucid, fcarlet, tranfverxely ftriated,coccir-ca, 16. T. tranfverfely ftriated ; one fide bent and redvery thin. Sea round Iceland. dilh, with red rays ; inch long, and 2 inches broad. 44. T. ft rite fine, tranfverfe, lengthened forwards virginka, } Hla. 17. T. ovate, ventricofe, thin, tranfverfely ifriated, into a beak, very fmall and rounded. Rivers of Virvery minute. Rivers of Europe. ) culata. * 18. T. fubovate, thickiih, with decufiated ftriae, and ginia. 45. T. nearly triangular, margin dilated ; 2 inches irregular fpots ; figure of the fpots different in different (hells, but exactly fimilar in both valves of the fame broad, and ij- long. 46. T. rounded, flat, thin, with longitudinal peBlnala, ftrell. Denbigh in England. t alis. * 19. T. obliquely fubovate, tranfverfely grooved ; fize 47. T. flattiih, red, with white rays ; one end point- Qignjlata* ed, the other rounded. of a pea. River Avon near Salifbury. 48. T. oval, rounded at one end ; variegated, witiivariegala. B. Ovate, comprejjed. a whitifh ray at the crown. .t ida. 49. T. oval, a little pointed at one end ; 2-J inches madagofi 20. T. oval, fmooth, with prominent membranes ; long, and 34- broad. Madagafcar. , carienjir. fize of an egg. European ocean. Ir J acea. 50. T. purplifh at each end ; inch long, and fome-purpuref21. T. oval, with rough pubes, flattened fides, ferthing broader. cenf* rated ; inch long, and 3 broad. Indian ocean. / nata. * 22 T. ovate, compreffed, tranfverlely fubftriated, 51. T. pointed at one end, yellowKh within, xadaz- afpera. fmooth, with acute margins. European and Mediter- ted and rough with tranfverfe ftriae without ; ij; inch long, and 3 inches broad. ranean feas ; common on the (bores of Britain. '■ labilis. * 23. T. ovate, oblong, with pale purple eyes. Eu52. T. (lightly wedged, whitifh, and tranfverfely/rzfltfg&Zrftriated ; inch, broad, and x long. ris,-. ropean and Atlantic feas, Britain. i 'igata. 53. T. white, with unequal (ides, pointed at one end 24. T. ovate, fmooth, lateral teeth, margined. Eu1 j- inch long, and 2 broad. Norway feas. ropean and Indian feas. i 'lata. * 25. T. oblong ; ftrise faint, longitudinal. European 54. T. thick, beak, purplifh without. Jamaica. jamaicenjh and American feas, Britain. * 55. T. outwardly white and rough, with tranfverfe 1 rata. 26. T. oblong, the fore-part produced into an angular ftriae ; within bluilh ; 2 inches broad, 1 long. River beak. Indian ocean. Tees, England. 1 ’quival- 27. T. oblong, produced into a beak, upper valve * 56. T. purplifh, tawny, with white rays ; 1 inch vinacea. flat, lower convex ; length inch, breadth 1 inch. long, and i ^ broad. Britifh and Baltic feas. European and North feas. 57. T. rofy, with a white band. Shores of Hui-saonata. 1 "afciata. * 28. T. ovate, fmoothifti, triradiate, with red and cany. (lightly ftriated tranfverfely. European feas, Britain. 58. T. whitifh, with a paler band ; within yellow, albicans. 1 irnata. * 29. T. ovate, a little produced on the fore-part, flat59. T. reddiflx, with pale yellow fpots, and decuffa- rnfefcens. tifti ; 2 inches broad. European and Mediterranean ted ftriae ; \ inch long, i~ broad. feas, Britain. 60. T. unequal fided, depreffed, minutely ftriqted,plana. 1 aciria. * 30. T. ovate, flattifn, very obtufe on the fore-part. 61. T. unequal fided, round at both ends, rofy white,y7nk/