Encyclopaedia Britannica [5, 7 ed.]

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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA SEVENTH EDITION.

r THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA OR

DICTIONARY OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE.

SEVENTH EDITION,

WITH PRELIMINARY DISSERTATIONS ON THE HISTORY OF THE SCIENCES, AND

OTHER EXTENSIVE IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS; INCLUDING THE LATE SUPPLEMENT,

A GENERAL INDEX, AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.

VOLUME V.

ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH; M.DCCC.XLII.

.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.

Boring.

> ORING, generally speaking, is the art of perforating a nearly to the melting temperature of the metal, that the „ J solid body. In the present article we propose to give muzzle of the gun droops. ' some account of the boring of CANNON, of CYLINDERS, of The first cannon made of cast-metal were cast hollow, MUSKETS, of PORTLAND STONE, of ROCKS, and of WOODEN with a cavity as nearly cylindrical as could be executed PIPES. by casting. The surface of this cavity was then smoothed 1. BORING OF CANNON is performed by placing the can- on a boring machine by steel cutters set in a copper head, non on an axis, which is turned by a very strong power, whilst and disposed so as to describe a cylinder terminated by a a steel cutter, in form of a drill, is pressed against the me- half spheroid. These cutters (in French alezoirs, and the tal, and excavates the cylindrical cavity which is required. operation alezer) are represented in the French EncycloBoring may be considered as a branch of the art of turn- pedic—planches, Fonte. This method of making guns ing, which, in general, is the formation of cones, cylinders, has long been laid aside on account of the holes and ineand other figures that have an axis, by making a straight qualities in the cavity thus formed, and the difficulty of line or curve revolve round the axis on which the material casting the cavity so as that its axis shall coincide with the is fixed, or by making the material revolve whilst the ge- axis of the piece. Cannon are now always cast solid, and nerating line remains at rest. In turning bodies of no great the cylindrical cavity is formed by boring in this solid mass. degree of hardness, and where it is required to take off The power employed for boring cannon ought to be in only a small portion of the surface at once, a small power proportion to the hardness of the metal of which they are is sufficient to put the turning machine in motion ; and the composed, and to the size of the pieces. For the boring longer the edge of the cutter which is applied to the metal of guns of brass, as it is called, that is, a metal composed is, and the harder the metal, the greater force is required of ten parts of copper, one of tin, and two of brass, or of to turn the machine. these metals in other proportions, a metal softer and more Cannon, at first, were frequently made of bars of malle- easily bored than cast-iron, horses are frequently employable iron, placed longitudinally, and these bars covered ed as a moving power; but the strong moving powers of with iron hoops, the whole welded or brazed together. water or steam must be had recourse to for boring large Ordnance of this construction was not sufficiently strong guns of cast-iron, which is the material used for making to resist the explosion of the powder, and did not admit the largest guns now in use, and is also the hardest subof the cylindrical cavity being formed with much accu- stance used in their manufacture. Indeed some kinds of racy. Its use was, therefore, gradually laid aside, and cast-iron are too hard to admit the action of the borer; guns of cast-metal were employed. And before the cast- and for the making of guns it is necessary to melt pig-iron ing of cannon became general, guns of cast-metal were of different qualities together, in order to have a metal that leserved for the most important situations; thus the ships shall possess no more than the required degree of hardness. of the admiral and vice-admiral alone had cast-metal canThe quality of pig-iron is known by the appearance non, the other ships of war being armed with wrought-iron of its surface, but more decisively by the appearance guns only. which its fracture presents. To obtain this fracture, a Copper, without mixture, has been employed to cast man takes one end of a pig in each hand, and lifting it as guns, as appears from two large cannon made in the time high above his head as he can, throws it with force, so of Henry VIII. and bearing his name, in the armoury of that the middle of the pig shall fall across another pig the lower of London. But the only two materials now placed on the ground. In this way the pig thrown down used for cannon are bronze, which is a mixture of copper is broken. Soft or grey pig-iron, which is the most valuand tin, and cast-iron. In modern times the use of cast- able, breaks with difficulty, and the surface of its fracture iron cannon has become more general, as that metal has is of a grey colour, composed of pretty large crystalline the advantage of not being softened by the heat of the grains. Hard or white pig-iron breaks easily; the surface inflammation of the powder; whereas brass guns, when of the fracture is white, and not sensibly granulated, the fired many times in rapid succession, become heated so grains that compose it being small. The pig-iron here VOL.

v.

Boring.

BORING. Boring, spoken of is that smelted by the coak of pit-coal. Pig- it is fixed on the axis of the mill by means of the square Boring_ iron smelted with charcoal of wood has a fracture of a piece at the cascabel. In a boring-mill constructed by Smeaton, one gun is different appearance, sometimes lamellar, like the fracture of metallic bismuth. Formerly guns used to be cast from placed on the horizontal axis of the water-wheel itself, the blast furnace; that is to say, immediately from the and, consequently, revolves with the same velocity. On ironstone. This was attended with uncertainty in respect this same axis is a toothed wheel with seventy-eight teeth, to the nature of the metal; for the nature of the metal which works two wheels, one placed on each side of it, given by the blast-furnace varies frequently and suddenly, and each having twenty-nine teeth. On the axis of each from causes either unknown, or not under the command of these a gun is placed ; their power is Jffths of the power of the iron-master. For this reason guns are no longer of the centre wheel. (See Smeaton s Reports, vol. i.) On cast from the blast-furnace, but pig-iron already formed is the axis where the power is least, smaller sized guns are taken, of such qualities and in such proportions as to form bored; on the axis of the greatest power the large guns a metal neither too soft nor too brittle and hard for guns. are bored. A crane, movable on a vertical axis, with a The different kinds of pig-iron thus selected are melted sweep that extends over all the carriages, with a tackle together in a furnace, called in iron manufactories an air- hanging from its beam, and wrought by a windlass, serves furnace, and by some writers a reverberatory furnace, by to place the gun on the carriage where it is to be bored, the flame of pit-coal; the flame being impelled by a strong or to refnovC it from one carriage to another if required; current of air produced by the rarefaction of the air in a^ and afterwards, when the gun is bored and turned, the chimney of thirty or forty feet in height. The column of crane serves to remove the gun from the boring-mill. The gun, when placed on the machine, has the square the atmosphere of which the air in the chimney makes a part being lighter than the unrarefied columns of the at- at the cascabel fixed in a square iron box (G, Plate mosphere next it, its equilibrium with these columns is CXI. fig. 5) on the axis. This box has a screw passdestroyed. The neighbouring columns, theiefore, rush ing through each of its sides, and by the operation of through the grate of the furnace, which is the only aper- these screws the square of the gun is adjusted, centred, fixed; the chace of the gun is also fixed in a collar ture by which they can attain the bottom of the rarefied and N, in which it is to revolve. (The collar in the figure is column; and they carry the flame of the coal against the pig-iron, which is thereby brought into fusion. From the represented too near the muzzle ring.) The axis on which each gun is fixed maybe set in gear, iron thus fused only one large gun is cast at a time, the or put in connection with the revolving axis of the mafurnace not being capable of melting more metal than is chine, so as to move round with it; or taken out of gear so requisite for that purpose. The gun is cast with two appendages, which are to come as to remain at rest, although the other parts of the macontinue in movement. There are various methods off before it is finished and ready for use. The one is a chine of doing this. One is given by Smeaton in the work above square piece beyond the cascabel, for fixing the gun so as cited. After the gun is fixed on the axis, and before beto revolve with the axis of the boring-mill; and the other ginning the operation of boring, the head, which has been is the head. described above, is cut off near the muzzle ring. For this The head in cast-iron cannon is a mass of cast-iron two the gun is set in gear so as to revolve on its axis or three feet long, and somewhat bell-shaped. It is a pio- purpose longation of the mass of metal beyond the muzzle ring, and, with the moving power; and a bar of steel, in shape size like the coulter of a plough, is applied at right in the position in which the gun is cast, the head is the and angles to the axis of the gun. The narrow side of this top of the whole mass, the square beyond the cascabel be- bar is sharpened to a cutting edge, so that it has the form ing the lowest part. After the metal has cooled, the upper of one tooth of a very large saw; and this cutting edge surface of the head is cavernous, as is the case with the surface that is uppermost during the casting and cooling is opposed to the direction of the revolving motion of the and held strongly on to the gun by a screw pressing of any large body of cast-iron. The sides of the cavities gun, on the bar ; the cutter takes off an angular portion at right in the head are frequently formed of cast-iron crystallized angles to axis, till the cylindrical part connecting the in a fern-leaf form. The intention of the head is to pre- head withthe the gun is so much diminished, that the head vent these cavities, which are formed most abundantly at is made to fall off by the blow of a hammer applied on it. the upper surface of the cooling cast-iron, from forming In brass guns, cast with a core, the head was sawed off by in the gun itself. But, notwithstanding the precaution of hand with a blade of steel, whose edge was toothed as a casting the gun with a large head, and ot mixing proper saw, while the sides were toothed as files. See the French kinds of cast-iron in the air-furnace, it frequently happens Encyclopedic—planches, Fonte. that small cavities occur in the guns. . A great degree of heat is generated by the violent fricVertical The gun with its head being cast and allowed to cool, it is tion of the steel-cutter on the cast-iron during the operaboring. conveyed to the boring-mill, where the head is to be taken of cutting off the heads of guns. The quantity of off, the cylindrical cavity or bore is to be formed, and the tion this heat has been estimated by Rumford in one of his outside of the gun is to'be turned. Formerly the boring on Heat. of guns was done in an upright position; the gun being Essays After the head is taken off, the workmen proceed to placed above the boring-bar, was fixed in a frame sliding bore the gun. This is done by exposing the revolving vertically in grooves. This frame was suspended on each gun to the action of a steel-cutter, fixed on the end of a side by a block and tackle, and the end of each of the two ropes was wound round a windlass. By turning these bar, which bar is placed on a carriage, and impelled conwindlasses the gun might be raised or lowered, and by tinually towards the gun. The operation of boring is done the same axis on which the head was cut off, if the this means might be allowed either to press with its whole on weight on the boring-bit, or with any part of its whole power be sufficient; if not, the gun is removed, by means the crane, to an axis, where it is made to revolve by a weight. A figure of this apparatus may be seen in the of French Encyclopedic—planches, Fonte. Another veiti- stronger power. The boring-bar is fixed on a carriage sliding in iron cal apparatus for boring cannon is represented in llinman, grooves, which are truest when made triangular. The Bergwerks Lexicon, Stockholm, 1789, tab. iv.. carriage, which, in the apparatus represented at fig. 5, Horizontal The practice which has long been followed in this counboring. ^y is to place the gun horizontally in the boring-mill; and consists merely of the bar on which the rack is, is pressed

BORING. Boring, forward by a pinion P, whose gudgeons are on a fixed frame the bore, are first bored all through, nearly to the intendBB ; and this pinion works into a rack R. The axis of the ed calibre of the chamber, and then that part of the bore pinion has mortised holes in it, through which one end of that requires it is enlarged. a lever L is passed; and the other end of this lever is loadThe cutters in gun-boring become magnetic, in conseed with a weight W, which causes the pinion to propel quence of being continually rubbed in the same direction, the carriage and boring-bar towards the gun. In many so that the boring dust is seen adhering and hanging from boring-machines there are two pinions on the same axis, their edges when they are withdrawn from the gun. acting on two racks; in others, the carriage is propelled It is required that the bore shall be a Cylindrical cavity by two upright levers, on the end of one of which acts a whose axis coincides with the axis of the gun: for this weight, hanging from a rope, that passes over a pulley; purpose, care must be taken to place the axis of the borthe lower end of the upper lever acts on the upper end ing-bar, and that of the gun, both in one horizontal line, of the lower, whilst the lower extremity of the lower lever and it is requisite that these two lines continue in this presses forward the carriage. This method, which is free position during the whole operation of boring. The from any inequalities that may arise from the teeth of the centring of the boring-bar for this purpose requires to be rack, is figured by Smeaton in his Reports, vol. i. p. 396. done by an experienced workman, and an accurately-conAnother method of propelling the carriage of the boring- structed boring-machine is necessary for the continuance bar, is by a screw acting on the end of the carriage. See of the right position. Meyer in the Transactions of the Academy of Stockholm, Whilst on the axis of the mill, the gun has a smooth 1782, tab. ix. outer surface given it by turning tools, which are applied The boring-bar is a very strong piece of wrought iron, of in the way usual in turning metals; a wooden gauge, or less diameter than the intended calibre of the piece, in cut-out profile, of the gun, with its intended mouldings, order that the boring dust or shavings detached by the being applied to know when the turning has been concutter may be got out. The boring-bar is increased in tinued to a proper depth. When this is done the gun is diameter near the end, for some inches, see fig. 6, B; in taken out of the boring-mill; the square at the cascabel this part there is a superficial groove for receiving the is cut off by the chisel; and the trunions, and other parts sides of the steel-cutter or bit, which is to be firmly fixed which are not susceptible of being turned, are dressed by in the bar. The bit T, fig. 6, is made from a rectangular the chisel. The cyphers and arms which had been cast piece of a steel bar, in which the two upper angles are cut on the gun are finished by the chisel. off obliquely, so as to form two cutting edges like an obA cannon is said to constitute the ultima ratio regum, tuse-angled drill; the side of the rectangle, opposite to the last argument that governments have recourse to ; and the point of the drill, is then hollowed out in the form of a even this severe kind of argument has sometimes been empigeon hole; and this hollow fits into and embraces the solid bellished. Amongst ornamented cannon, the brass threepart of the boring-bar, whilst the sides of the pigeon hole pounder in the Tower, brought from Malta, is a masterfit into the grooves of the bar. The point of this obtuse- piece ; it is covered with carving in a good taste by a angled bit is pressed against the revolving metal of the sculptor of Rome. gun, by the force which propels the boring-bar; and the The touch-hole is drilled by stock and bit, or by drill edges coming in contact with the revolving metal, a coni- and bow; the drill being propelled by a lever placed on a cal cavity is produced; so that, by taking off successively carriage, movable on wheels. A figure of this apparatus a multitude of similar shells or shavings, the cylindrical is given in the Encyclopedic—planches, Fonte. Another bore, with a conical termination, is formed. The diameter apparatus for this purpose is figured in Rinman, Bergwerks of the pointed bit first used must be less than the intend- Lexicon, table xiv. fig. 9, 10. See also Monge, Deed calibre of the piece, as the boring is to be repeated scription^ de lArt de Fabriquer les Canons, in 4to, Paris, again at least once, in order to make the internal cylin- 1794. This work was published by order of the revoludrical surface as smooth as possible, by taking off any in- tionary government, and distributed to the iron-masters equalities that have been left" by the first cutter. In and founders in different parts of France, for their instrucfinishing the bore, a cross bit may be employed. It is a tion. It contains, amongst others, figures and descriptions rectangular piece of steel, ground to a cutting edge at of two kinds of vertical boring machines, of three kinds each end, and put^ through a hole in the boring-bar, in of horizontal boring machines, of a machine for turning which it is fixed. The edges of this cutter, in revolving, the trunions, of two different machines for boring the describe a cylindrical surface. After the cylindrical sur- touch-hole, of a machine for putting copper boshes in face of the bore is made sufficiently true, and of the re- brass guns, and of various instruments for examining and quired calibre, a bit without a point, and rounded off to proving guns. the desired curve, is used to form the bottom of the Before the gun is sent off, it is examined and proved in chamber. various ways. And first, to ascertain whether the bore is Some recommend that the boring-bit for cast-iron free from holes, an instrument is employed, consisting of should have its cutting edges brought to an acute angle, several elastic steel prongs disposed in a circle, and with by being filed hollow; but in this case the two edges can- their sharp points turned outwards. This being fixed on a not be brought into one point; for the obtuse-angled edge pole, is introduced into the bore of the gun, and drawn to formed by the thickness of the metal of the bit joins the and fro; the points of the prongs press against the sides two cutting edges crossways, and forces itself forwards by of the bore, and the presence of a hole is known b}^ one being neai the centre, requiring, however, a considerable of the prongs getting into the hole, and preventing the inpressure. These hollow-edged bits are not so well adapt- strument from being drawn out directly, unless by the use ed to continuance of grinding as the plain ones, but they of a ring that is pushed over the prongs to unbend them. make amends by their much less frequently wanting sharpThere is another instrument, composed of a board twice ening. It does not appear, however, that these hollow- as long as the bore of the piece. Along the middle of the edged bits have been found advantageous in gun-boring. board is a groove proceeding in a straight line.' In this I he howitzer appears to have had its origin in Gera button is movable, and on the button, as a centre, many. This piece of ordnance, the mortar, and the car- groove are fixed two radii or arms ; the two ends of these arms ronade, in all of which the diameter of the chamber for within the gun describe a line on the inside of the bore when the powder is smaller than the diameter of the rest of the button is pushed inwards, whilst the extremities of the

3 Boring.

BORING. in 1802 by Mr Billingsley, engineer of the Bowling Boring, Boring, arms on the outside describe two similar lines on the part ed of the board that is situate without the bore. In this way iron-works, near Bradfor d. (See Repertory of Arts, second the outline of a longitudinal section of the bore is describ- series, vol. ii. p. 322.) According to his method the cy1 ed, and its sinuosities or deviation from the axis are ren- linder is placed with its axis perpendicular to the horizon. cl£ne dered sensible. This instrument is seldom used; it re- The object of this is, first, that the boring-dust may fall quires to be made by a workman skilled in the construc- out, and not remain on one side of the cylinder, wearing the cutters; so that in this way the cylinder may be bored tion of mathematical instruments, or in watchmaking. A lighted wax-candle is introduced into the gun for the through without changing the cutters, by which means a purpose of seeing any defects there may be in the bore, more regular bore is obtained. Secondly, That the cylinor the light of the sun is reflected into the bore by a mir- der may not deviate from its cylindrical form by its own ror. The strength of the gun is proved by firing it with weight, a deviation which is found to take place in large a large charge of powder; and by forcing water into the and slender cylinders when laid on their side ; the vertibore by a powerful forcing pump, the touch-hole being cal diameter being then less than the horizontal diameter. stopped, and also the mouth of the piece, so that watei A similar loss of shape may happen to cylinders that are improperly wedged and strapped down for the purpose of forced in by the mouth cannot return that way. being bored. In this method the cylinder is fixed with Cylinders. 2. BORING OF CYLINDERS for steam-engines, and for blowing machines, and the boring of the working barrels screws by the flanges, where it is most capable of resistof large pumps, and other hollow cylinders in which pis- ance, and the screws are disposed so as to press the cylintons are to work, is performed by making the steel-cutters der equally all round. Thirdly, That the operation may describe a cylindrical surface on the inside of the cylin- be sooner completed, which is effected in consequence of der, whilst the cylinder remains fixed. I he fiist steam- less time being employed to fix the cylinder in this meengine cylinders in this country were of brass, or of a mix- thod. In the usual mode of propelling the cutters deture of copper and tin. This was the case with the cylin- scribed above, the attendance of a man is necessary to der of the steam-engine erected in the early part of the change the position of the bar on the axis of the pinion, eighteenth century for lifting water from the colliery of and to raise the weight. This attendance is dispensed Elphinston in Stirlingshire. But since that period the with in the machine under consideration, the mechanism construction of steam-engines, and the manufacture of for propelling the cutters being as follows: A leather strap cast-iron, have been greatly improved ; the uses of both passing over the boring-bar communicates the revolving have been much extended; and cast-iron has now for a motion of the boring-bar to a wheel, which communicates long time been the only material employed in making a slow motion by a train of wheels and pinions to an axis, cylinders for steam-engines, and other large cylinders in bearing two pinions which work into two racks; and these racks push the boring-head and cutters slowly forward on which pistons are to move. In the boring of cylinders the steel-cutters are fixed in the boring-bar, at the same time that the boring-head is a cutter-head, which revolves with the boring-bar at the revolving with the boring-bar. The velocity with which same time that it is impelled along the interior surface of it is required that the cutters shall advance varies as the the cylinder by a rack, with a pinion moved by a lever and diameter of the cylinder varies, the moving power reweight as already described. The axis or boring-bar em- maining the same. And by altering the train of wheelployed for cylinders is a hollow tube of cast-iron, and has a work, the cutters may be made to advance with any velogroove passing through it; the length of this groove being city required. Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4, Plate CXI., are different views Murray’ proportioned to the 'length of the cylinder to be bored. of the machine for boring cylinders, invented by Mr The cutter-head consists of two cast-iron rings, the first of which is accurately fitted on the boring-bar, which is Murray of Leeds. Fig. 1 is an elevation, and fig. 2 a turned truly cylindrical, so that this ring may slide along plan, of the machine. W, figs. 1 and 2, is the spur wheel, the boring-bar ; the second ring is fixed round the first by deriving its motion from water or steam, and communiwedges, its diameter being proportioned to the diameter of cating a revolving motion to the boring-bar. The toothed the cylinder to be bored; and on its circumference are wheel A, fig. 1, moves round with the boring-bar B on eight notches to receive the steel-cutters, which are fixed which it is fixed; it gives motion through the wheels D in by wedges. The firstring is fixed on the boring-bar so as and E, and to the screw S, whose threads act on the two to make the whole cutter-head move round with the bor- racks, which racks are fixed to the cutter-head H, and ing-bar, by means of two small iron bars, which go through revolve with it. The velocity with which the cutter-head notches in the first ring, and pass through the groove of is impelled along the cylinder depends upon the number the boring-bar. These small bars have each a round hole of threads of the screw in a given length, and on the proin the part which passes through the geometrical axis of portions of the wheels A, C, 1), and E, to each other. By the boring-bar; through these round holes there passes a varying the velocity of the screw, the cutter-head maybe bolt, which forms the end of the rack; a key is put made to move in either direction up or down the cylinder. through the end of the bolt, which prevents the rack from F is a pinion whose axis ends in a square, which may be being drawn back by the lever and weight; and by this wrought by a key, so as to bring the cutter-head out of means the rack, impelled by the lever and weight, pushes the cylinder, or push it home by the hand when that is forward the cutter-head, which is at the same time i evolv- required. The cylinder is fixed in its bed by screws ing with the boring-bar ; while the connection of the rack passing through two iron rings, as represented at fig. 4; and cutter-head being round, and in the axis of motion, and in this way the cylinder is equally pressed in the difparts of its circumference. Fig. 3 is a transverse the rack is thereby.free from the circular motion of the ferent cutter-head. This mode of constructing the boring-bar elevation of the collar in which the end of the bar at A, was invented in the works of Mr Wilkinson, at the time fig. 1, turns; X is the gudgeon in which the spindle X, when accurately-bored cylinders came to be required in fig. 1, turns. In fig. 3 are also seen the two apertures consequence of Mr Watt’s improvements in the steam- through which the two racks pass. By this machine also engine. In the machines about to be mentioned the cut- the flanges are turned truly plane, so that the lid of the ters are made to advance by a train of wheels deriving cylinder may fit on exactly. The patent granted in 1799 to Mr Murdoch, engineer, their motion from the power that turns the boring-bar. An apparatus of great merit was contrived and describ- Redruth, for new methods of constructing steam-engines

BORING. Boring. (See Repertory of Arts, vol. xiii.), contains some articles relative to boring. He employs an endless screw, which Murdoch’s js turned by the moving power, and works into a toothed ,a en ‘ wheel, whose axis carries the cutter-head; and this method, he says, produces a more smooth and steady motion than the usual mode of fixing the boring-bar immediately on the axis turned by the moving power. Another article in Mr Murdoch’s patent that relates to boring, is his method of forming the cylinder and steamcase. He casts them of one solid piece, and then bores a cylindrical interstice, by means of a boring-tool, made of a hollow cylinder of iron, with steel-cutters fixed to its edge, and acting like a trepan. The chambers of brass pumps, whose diameter does not exceed a few inches, are fixed within iron rings, by means of screws, in the manner described above when speaking of Mr Murray’s apparatus. The rings are made accurately cylindrical by turning, as is also the boring-bar. The boring-bar has four cross arms on its outer extremity, to one of which a handle is fixed, whereby a workman makes the boring-bar revolve. The cutter-head is made to advance along the boring-bar by a screw. Muskets.

a brass plate, divided in the same way as the plate of the Baring, machine for cutting the teeth of clock-wheels. Portlan(1 4. BORING OF PORTLAND STONE, SO as to form pipes. That kind of calcareous stone called by geologists oolite,stonewhich is quarried for building at Portland, Bath, in the neighbourhood of the city of Paris, and other places, admits of being cut by means of an iron blade, acting as a saw, with sand and water. The more compact limestones and marbles are also cut in this way, but not so easily. The other kinds of stone that can be squared for building, namely, sandstone and granite, scarcely yield to the saw, but are formed into the desired shape by the chisel and hammer. A modification of this mode of working Portland stone consists in forming it into pipes. The method of Sir George Wright, proposed in 1805, is as follows: A hole is drilled through the block of stone, in which a long iron bolt is inserted for the saw to work round as a centre ; this bolt forms the axis of the cylinder which is to be taken out, and projects considerably beyond the block at both ends. Another hole is drilled in the intended circumference ; and into this the blade of the saw is introduced. The frame of the saw is so disposed, that when it is 3. BORING THE BARRELS OF MUSKETS AND OTHER wrought to and fro, the blade is guided, by means of the SMALL ARMS. Rectangular pieces of iron are forged of a centre bolt, so as to describe the intended cylindrical cirproper length and breadth ; these are heated in the fire, cumference. In this way a solid cylindrical core of stone and the two long edges, which had been previously thinned is detached, and a cylindrical cavity or pipe left in the off, are welded together on a mandril. The barrel thus block. Or the saw may be made to describe a circle withformed is fixed by a screw on a carriage that moves in out drilling a hole in the centre, by drilling a hole in the iron grooves; this carriage is propelled towards the boring- circumference, and fixing on the surface of the stone two bar by a rope which passes over pullies, and has a weight metallic concentric rings, so that the hole shall be includhanging from its end. The boring-bar is turned by the ed in the interstice between the rings. The saw is then power of the same mill that turns the grinding-stones for introduced into the hole, and being worked, it cuts in the polishing the outside of the barrels. (See Encyclopedic— circular path formed by the interstice of the rings. See planches, Arquebusier ; and Rozier, Introduction aux Repertoi-y of Arts, second series, vol. viii. Observations sur la Physique, tom. i. p. 157.) Water is Mr Murdoch’s method, for which he obtained a patent in thrown on the barrels whilst boring from a trough placed 1810, is preferable in practice to the above-mentioned underneath. After the barrel is bored, the interior sur- method. He employs a cylindrical saw to form the pipe. face of the bore is polished by the action of the boring- A plug of wood is inserted in the centre of the intended bar. The barrel is tried during the operation, by an iron pipe ; this plug receives the lower end of a vertical spindle, gauge of an inch and a half in length, and of a diameter longer than the intended pipe ; and this spindle is square, equal to the intended diameter of the musket. When the with sockets sliding on it. On the upper part of the spindle barrel is bored, it is held to the light and looked through, is a pulley or toothed-wheel, by which the spindle is made and if it contains any flaw, the place of that flaw is mark- to revolve. Near the lower end of the spindle is a wheel, ed on the outside with chalk, and the barrel is put on the having a circumference like a hoop, three inches broad. mandril again, and the defective place heated and ham- The diameter of this wheel is somewhat less than that of mered ; the workman also examines with a gauge whether the pipe to be bored. It regulates the motion, and fits the barrel is crooked. When the bore has no flaws, the in the inside of a tube of metal attached to the spindle. barrel then undergoes the operation of the grinding-mill, The diameter of the tube is nearly equal to that of the into the effect of polishing its exterior surface. tended pipe ; but its length is greater by two feet. On the Rifled barrels are put on a bench twelve feet long. The lower edge of the tube is a rim of metal, so much thicker boring-bar is guided by a matrix or female-screw, whose than the tube that the groove cut in the stone by the rim spiral curve is similar to the spiral of the rifles intended may admit the tube to move freely in it. This rim has to be made ; the boring-bar being fixed to a male-screw, an edge like that of a stone-cutter’s saw, and in fact perwhich passes through the female-screw, and fits it exact- forms the office of a saw. The tube is caused to make a ly. The female-screw is fixed to the bench, and has four reciprocating circular motion round the spindle. There threads and as many furrows; and these threads, in general, is a cistern placed above the tube, for the purpose of conreturn to the point of the circumference from which they veying a mixture of sand and water into the cylindrical set out, or make a revolution in the length of two feet. groove formed in the stone, whilst the machine is working. The male-screw, which fits into the female-screw, has at Stone pipes, made in the above described way, have one end an iron bar attached to it, by which it is put in been tried for conveying water in London. They were motion ; at the other extremity is fixed the boring-bar, joined by means of Parker’s cement, which consists of clay which passes through the barrel to be rifled; and the bor- ironstone, burnt, and ground to a fine powder. This was ing-bar has a cutter fixed in it, which forms a spiral furrow the best material that could be got for forming the joints ; in the barrel when the screw is turned by the handle. but these joints cracked and allowed the water to escape, The number of spiral threads in rifle-barrels is from three in consequence of the motion of the carriages on the streets to twelve. Sometimes the threads and furrows of the rifle- under which the pipes were laid; and the adventurers barrel are required to be in straight lines ; in which case found that they “ had hewed out unto themselves broken a straight-lined matrix is used. In order that the threads cisterns, that could hold no water.” may be placed at an equal number of degrees of the cir5. BORING OF ROCKS, for the purpose of splittingthem by Rocks, cumference from each other, the bench is furnished with means of gunpowder. We have already treated this sub-

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auger. See a figure in Belidor, Architecture Hydrau- Boring Boring, ject under BLASTING, and shall only add here the mode of the lique, i. 1, 341. This apparatus is the same as the one BorJuIn ,W ’'Y'' ' boring for this purpose practised in the mines of Germany. employed in saw-mills. In the boring of pipes for the A boring bar of steel is applied to the stone by its water-works in London, the tree is made to advance by lower end, whilst its upper extremity is struck with a ham- ropes, which pass over a windlass wrought by men, whilst mer of two pounds in weight. The form ot the lower end or the auger is turned by a horse-mill. Wooden pipes are the boring-bar is various ; some were fashioned like a swal- frequently bored by an auger having at its outer end a low’s tail, ending in two points ; but this form is no longer wooden drift or handle, which is put in motion by the in use. Another kind has the end formed by the inter- workman. The trees are placed on tressels, and there are section of two wedge-shaped edges, with a point at each also tressels of a convenient height that support the auger , corner, and one in the middle. A third kind has the end there is also a lathe to turn one end of the tree conical, composed of four pyramidal points, with cavities between so as to fit into a conical cavity in the end of the adjointhem. A fourth kind, which is that most frequently used, ing tree, and thus form a water-tight joint. The end of has the end in form of a wedge. (See Itinman, Berg- the tree which receives the adjoining pipe within it has werks Lexicon. Stockholm, 1789, tab. ii.) Three sizes of a surface at right angles to the axis of the pipe. Into this boring bars are employed to make one hole, the first is surface is driven an iron hoop, the diameter of which is^ tire shortest and thickest, the second is longer and less in some inches greater than the diameter of the aperture ot diameter, the third is the longest and the least in diame- the pipe. This precaution prevents the tree from splitting ter. When a hole is to be made, a small opening is first when the conical end of the next tree is driven home. formed with a pick in the place where the boring-iron When the tree is crooked, a bore is driven in from each is to be applied, and all pieces of the rock are removed end, and the two bores meet, forming an angle. An that might impede the action of the powder, then the auger whose stalk is formed spirally for some way up^ is workman uses the first boring-iron, which he drives wit figured in Bailey’s Machines of the Society of Arts. The blows of the hammer till the boring-iron can reach no objects of this is that the chips may be delivered without farther ; he then employs the second and third boring-bars taking the auger out of the hole. in like manner ; and after each stroke of the Jiammer, the There is a patent granted in 1796 to Mr Flowed, coalboring-bar is turned round a portion of the circumference. master, of Oswestry, for boring wooden pipes by a hollow The stone, pulverized by the action of the boring-bar, as cylinder made of thin plates of iron, about an inch less it hinders the progress of the operation, must be remov- in diameter than the hole to be bored. lo one end of ed from time to time by means of an iron-rod, terminated this cylinder is fixed a flange about a quarter of an inch at right angles by a small round plate. From the different in breadth, and one part of this flange is divided, so that, diameter of the boring-bars, it follows that the end of the being of steel, a cutter is formed thereby. The object hole is of a smaller diameter than that of the beginning. of this method is to bore out a solid cylinder of wood, The depth to which the hole is bored is proportioned to the capable of being converted into a smaller pipe, or of being nature of the rock. It varies from 10 to 15 and 20 inches. applied to some other use in carpentry. (Repertory of When the rock is solid a great way round, a deep hole is Arts, vol. ix.) This kind of borer is like the trepan, not used, because the resistance at a considerable depth, which is a hollow cylinder of steel, saw-toothed on the in such a situation, is too great; so that the explosion does edge, and, when made to revolve rapidly on its axis in not split the rock round the powder chamber, but acts up- the hand of the surgeon, it saws or bores out circular wards against the ramming, where it meets with less re- pieces of the flat bones of the head. (B. B.) sistance. But if the rock be laid bare on one side, a deep BOKISSOGLEBSK, a circle of the Russian governhole is advantageous. Water is poured into the hole dui- ment of Tambow, extending over 2412 square miles, with ing the operation, to facilitate the action of the boring-iron. a population of 65,400 persons. The chief place, a city oi When the hole is perpendicularly downwards, it is kept lull the same name, on the river Khoper, contains about 500 of water ; when the hole is driven from below upwards, no houses and 3300 souls. Long. 42. 1. E. Lat. 51. 23. N. water can be used. The water must be taken out, and BORISTHENES, or BORYSTHENES, in Ancient Geothe hole dried, before the cartridge be introduced. I he graphy, the largest river of Sarmatia Europaea, and demost frequent case is, that one man performs the work, scribed by Mela, after Herodotus, as running through a holding the boring-iron in his left hand, and striking on cognominal people,; as the pleasantest of ail the rivers in it with the two-pound hammer in his right. Sometimes Scythia, calmer than any of them in its course, and very two men are set to do the work, one holding the bormg- agreeable to drink; as producing rich pastures, and large iron, whilst the second strikes it with a hammer of four or fish, of the best flavour, without bones; as flowing a great five pounds : this is done where it is required to make the distance, and rising from springs unknown; and as being hole thirty or thirty-six inches deep. When a still deeper navigable for a course of about forty days. It is now callhole is wanted, two men strike alternately with heavier ed the Dnieper or Nieper. hammers. . , , i BORKEN, a circle in the Prussian government of Wooden 6. BORING OF WOODEN PIPES IS done by means ot a long Munster, and province of the Rhine. It is on the fronpipes. auger, beginning with one of small diameter, and proceed- tiers of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and extends over ing to employ successively spoon-formed augers of larger 307 square miles, or 196,480 acres. It contains four small diameter. Notwithstanding the frequent employment ot cities, nine villages, and forty-four hamlets, with 5703 cast-iron pipes, some wooden pipes are still used lor con- houses and 36,170 inhabitants. It is an undulating but veying water in London: they are of elm, which is the kind heathy and moorish district, yielding chiefly buck-wheat of tree most frequent in the neighbouring country. A and flax. Some little iron, much wood, and some coarse pipe is bored out of one trunk of elm, and the bark is wool, are the chief productions. The capital, of the same left on. When a tree is to be bored, it is fixed on a car- name, situated on the river Aa,»contains 450 houses and riage, with a rack on the under part. 1 his rack fits into 2437 inhabitants. The whole district belonged formerly a pinion, the axis of which passes through gudgeons on a to the family of Solm Solm, now mediatised. fixed frame. On the.axis of the pinion is a ratchet wheel, BORKUM, an island of Hanover, on the coast of East moved by two catches, which derive their motion fro’‘n Friesland, situated between the mouths of the East and the wind or water power that turns the auger; and the West Ems, and included in the bailiwick of Grutsiel. It pinion is moved in a direction that brings the tree toy ards

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BOR Borlase. is about twelve miles in circumference, and so low in the ^middle that it is separated into two parts at high water. A considerable proportion of the inhabitants consists of seafaring people, and the remainder draw their support from the rearing of cattle, or in picking up the fragments of vessels wrecked on their coast. It has a governor, a minister of the Calvinistic faith, and a schoolmaster. BORLASE, DR EDMUND, an eminent physician and English writer in the seventeenth century, was the son of Sir John Borlase, master of the ordnance, and one of the lords justices of Ireland in 1643. He studied in Dublin College, and afterwards at the university of Leyden, where he took the degree of doctor of physic. He afterwards practised physic with success in the city of Chester, and was incorporated doctor of the faculty in the university of Oxford. Among the books which he wrote and published are the following: 1. Latham Spaw in Lancashire, with some remarkable cases and cures performed by it, London, 1670, Bvo; 2. The Reduction of Ireland to the crown of England, London, 1675, 8vo; 3. The History of the Irish rebellion, London, 1680, 8vo ; 4. Brief Reflections on the Earl of Castlehaven’s Memoirs, relative to the part which he took in the Irish War, London, 1682, folio. The precise time of his death is uncertain. BORLASE, William, a learned antiquary and naturalist, was descended of an ancient family in Cornwall, and born at Pendeen, in the parish of St Just, on the 2d February 1695-6. He was put early to school at Penzance, and in 1709 removed to Plymouth. In March 1713 he was entered of Exeter College, Oxford; and in June 1719 he took his degree as master of arts. In 1720 he was ordained as priest, and in 1722 instituted to the rectory of Ludgvan in Cornwall. In 1732 Lord Chancellor King presented him to the vicarage of St Just, his native parish ; and this, with the rectory already mentioned, were all the preferments he ever obtained. In the parish of Ludgvan are rich copper works, abounding with mineral and metallic fossils, which, being a man of an active and inquisitive turn of mind, he collected from time to time, and thus was led to study at large the natural history of his native county. He was also much struck with the numerous monuments of remote antiquity that are to be met with in Cornwall; and therefore, enlarging his plan, he determined to gain as accurate an acquaintance as possible with the learning of the Druids, and with the religion and customs of the ancient Britons before their conversion to Christianity. In 1750 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society; and in 1753 he published in folio, at Oxford, his “ Antiquities of Cornwall,” a second edition of which was published, in the same form, at London, 1769, with the title of “ Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of the County of Cornwall; consisting of several essays on the ancient inhabitants, Druid superstition, customs and remains of the most remote antiquity in Britain and the British isles, exemplified and proved by monuments now extant in Cornwall and the Scilly islands ; with a vocabulary of the Cornu-British language.” His next publication was “ Observations on the ancient and present state ot the islands of Scilly, and their importance to the trade of Great Britain.” Oxford, 1756, 4to. This was merely an extension of a paper which had been read to the Royal Society in 1753. In 1758 appeared his “ Natural History of Cornwall,” Oxford, folio. After these publications, he transmitted a variety of fossils and remains of antiquity which he had described in his works, to be deposited in the Ashmolean Museum ; for which, as well as other benefactions of a similar kind, he received the thanks of the university, in a letter from the vice-chancellor, dated the 18th November 1758; and in March 1766 the degree of doctor of laws was conferred on him. He died

BOR in 1772, at the age of seventy-seven, leaving two sons but Bormio of six, whom he had had by a lady he had married in 1724. II Besides his literary connections with many ingenious and B°rnlearned men, he had a particular correspondence with Mr Pope ; and there is still extant a large collection of letters written by that poet to Dr Borlase. He furnished Pope with many of the materials, consisting of curious fossils, which formed his grotto at Twickenham ; and Dr Borlase’s name in capitals, composed of crystals, might be seen in the grotto. It is with reference to this circumstance that Pope says in a letter to Borlase, “ I am much obliged to you for your valuable collection of Cornish diamonds; I have placed them where they may best represent yourself, in a shade, but shining.” Besides the works above mentioned, he sent many curious papers to the Philosophical Transactions, and had in contemplation several other works. BORMIO, a town of the Austrian kingdom of Lombardy, in the delegation of Como. It is situated at the foot of a lofty hill of the same name, is well built, and contains about 2000 inhabitants. 1Long. 9. 51. E. Lat. 46. 28. N. BORN, IGNATIUS, BARON VON, counsellor in the aulic chamber of the mint and mines at Vienna; of considerable eminence in the scientific world as a mineralogist and metallurgist, and a promoter of science ; was born of a family that had the rank of nobility, at Karlsburg, in Transylvania, in 1742; and died in 1791. He was educated in a college of the Jesuits at Vienna, and afterwards entered into that order, but continued a member only during sixteen months. He then went through a course of study in law at Prague, and afterwards travelled into Germany, Holland, and France. On his return to Prague he engaged in the study of mineralogy. The mines in the dominions of the house of Austria are very important, and give livelihood to a numerous population, more particularly in Hungary, Transylvania, and the Bannat, and in Styria and Carinthia. Idria produces mercury ; Bohemia, tin and cobalt; and the other metals are obtained in sufficient abundance, not only to supply the internal trade of the nation, but also for export, either in the form of raw metal, or manufactured into various instruments. A revenue accrues to the public treasury from the mines in various ways. Some, as those of Schemnitz, Cremnitz, and Idria, are wrought on account of government. A tenth part of the prdduce of all mines wrought by private adventurers goes to government as a royalty. Government has a right of pre-emption of all metals, and an exclusive right of buying all gold and silver, the produce of the country, at a stated price. The annual quantity of gold and silver got from the mines of Hungary and Transylvania, and coined into money at the mint, during the reign of Maria Theresa, amounted in value to about L.300,000 sterling. The mines in other parts of the dominions produced likewise a considerable quantity. Maria Theresa, seeing their importance, did much for the regulation of the mines ; and, with a view of diffusing the knowledge of mineralogy amongst the nobles, many of whom were proprietors of mines, she had lectures on that science delivered in the universities. The administration of the revenue arising to government from this source is conducted by a board composed of managers, overseers, assayers, and other officers, who are brought up in the knowledge of metallurgy and mineralogy, and reside at the mines. The operations of these functionaries are under the control of the aulic chamber of the mint and mines at Vienna, which keeps a set of books, in which all the transactions, relative to the mines, and their situation and state, are digested and registered. An administration thus constituted offers a field of some preferment. Von

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II. at Schemnitz; and then the calculators and Born. Born chose to devote himself to this line of life, and was Joseph doubters shrugged up their shoulders, saying, “ It is only received into the department of the mines and mint at the old Spanish process of amalgamation.” Prague in 1770. He obtained from the emperor an order that his method About this time he met with an accident which nearly should be employed in some of the mines belonging to proved fatal. In the course of a mineralogical journey government, and that he should receive a thud Par^ through Transylvania, he came to Felso-Banya, wheie the gang is rendered brittle and detached from the i ock, by the savings arising from the improvement during the first exposing it to the flames of wood heaped up in the mine ten years, and four per cent, of this third part of the savfor the next twenty years. t and set on fire. Having gone into the mine soon after the ings He was a satirist, without possessing the qualities ot combustion had ceased, and whilst the air was hot, am charged with arsenical vapour, and returning through a style that are necessary to attain a high rank in that class of writers. The Staats Peruche, a tale, published without shaft which was occupied by a current of this vapour, he his knowledge in 1772, and an attack on Father Hell, the was deprived of sensation for fifteen hours, and after re- Jesuit, king’s astronomer at Vienna, are two of his covery continued long to suffer from a cough and genei al satiricaland works. satirical description of the Monastic pain. Some time after this accident he was affected with Orders, written inThe form of an academic inaugural disserviolent colics, which a large dose of opium removed, but tation, entitled Monachologia, is generally ascribed to left him with a numbness of the lower extremities, and Von Born. In this piece the monks are described in the lame in the right leg. In the latter part of his life he was technical language of natural history. Von Born, however, deprived of the use of his legs. All these calamities, not deeply versed in the phraseology of Linnaeus ; which, however distressing, did not repress the activity of was and it is the opinion of some good judges of the subject, his mind, were considered as the consequences of the that the language at least was furnished by Herman, proarsenical fumes he had inhaled at Felso-Banya. fessor of medicine in the University of Strasburg, and One of the chief objects of his exertion was to intro- author of the very ingenious work on the mutual affinities duce amalgamation in Hungary, in place of smelting and of animated beings, entitled Tabula Affinitatum Animalium cupellation heretofore used in that country, for extracting Commentario illustrata. But although the technical Ionsilver from the ores. Pliny and Vitruvius speak of the cruagG may not be Von Born s? the sentiments are such as he use of mercury in collecting small disseminated particles was'known to profess ; for the topic was so great a favourite of gold. On the arrival of the Spaniards in America, the with him, that he found room for invectives against the Peruvian's extracted the silver from the ore by smeltingeven in his book On Amalgamation. The monks furnaces, exposed to the wind on the tops of hills. I he monks in the Austrian dominions were not then in a situation to quicksilver mines of Guancabellica in Peru were discover- obtain redress against this lampoon ; for it was published in ed in 1563, and three years thereafter the Spaniards be- 1783,‘when Joseph II. had suppressed many of the monasgan to employ amalgamation. Alonzo Barba, an Anda- teries in different parts of his dominions, and transferred lusian, further improved the process by dm addition of their property into his treasury, allowing but a scanty sum heat. Amalgamation had been practised m Europe tor for the subsistence of the members of these communities. collecting silver and gold when they existed in visib e Von Born was well acquainted with Latin, and the metallic particles, but not in the case of ores where the principal modern languages of Europe. He also possessed o-old and silver are invisible even with the aid ot a micro- information in many branches of science not immediately scope. Soon after its application to ores in America, an connected with metallurgy and mineralogy, which were attempt was made by a Spaniard to introduce this opera- his professed pursuits. He had a good taste in the giation for extracting silver from the ores in Bohemia, but phic arts, and his printed works are ornamented in a neat without success. Gellert, Walerius, and Cramer, had manner with vignettes illustrative of the subject. written against the use of amalgamation when applied to His inclination led him to engage in politics ; and, in ores. But Von Born seeing its advantages, particularly in particular, he took an active part in the political changes the saving of fire-wood, which had become scarce in many in Hungary. After the death of Joseph, the diet of the parts of Hungary, set about examining the accounts given states of Hungary passed a great many acts, rescinding by authors of the different processes used in Mexico and the innovations of that scheming ruler, which tended to Peru; repeated these processes experimentally, first in force upon them German governors and laws, and even the small way, leaving out the ingredients that a know- the German language. This diet conferred the rights of ledge of the chemical action of bodies showed to be un- denizen on several persons of distinction who had been necessary; and afterwards had the process earned on m favourable to the cause of tne Hungarians, and, amongst the great way for several months near Schemnitz, under others, on Von Born. At the time of his death he was the inspection of Ruprecht. At this time he published employed in writing an historical work in Latin, entitled his book On Amalgamation. It contains a history of a.mal- Fasti Leopoldini, probably relating to the prudent congamation, and extracts from different authors describing duct of Leopold II., the successor of Joseph, towards the the South American methods. This occupies nearly one Hungarians. half of the volume. He then gives the chemical theory He was of a middle size, slender make, and dark comof operation in its different steps, describes the method he plexion ; his eye was penetrating, and his countenance had adopted at Schemnitz, and gives figures of the ma- agreeable. His constitution was delicate even before his chinery employed. . . . accident. He was a pleasant companion, and fond of soVon Born met with much opposition in his attempts to ciety. He lived in splendour, and his house at Vienna introduce amalgamation. He says that some book-learn- was resorted to by scientific men of all nations. It is ed chemists, who never had handled a retort, and some likely that his profits from the process of amalgamation mine overseers, when he first set about his experiments, were not considerable, at least they were not sufficient to declared that it was impossible to obtain silver by that put his fortune to rights, as his affairs at his death were method. After he had succeeded in getting silver from in a state of insolvency. His family consisted of a wife the ore publicly at Vienna, his detractors came forward and two daughters, who survived him. (See Townson’s with doubts and long calculations, showing that the pro- Travels in Hungary; and Pezzil, Ostreich Biographien, cess was inferior to that already in use. At last his pro- 1792.) cess was tried successfully in the great way by orders o

BOH The following is a list of his published writings, and of the works of others which he edited. Lythophylacium Borneanum, 1775, 8vo. This is a catalogue of his collection of minerals, which collection he afterwards sold to Mr Greville ; and it forms a part of the magnificent Greville collection of minerals purchased from the heirs of that gentleman by parliament, and deposited in tbe British Museum. This catalogue is arranged according to the system of Cronstedt, with the nomenclature of Linnaeus.

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Index rerum naturalium Muscei Ccesarei Vindobonensis.

Pars. I. Testacea. Vindob. 1778, fol. maj. This splendid volume, which contains the description and figures of the shells in the museum at Vienna, was composed by order of the Empress Maria Theresa. The shells are arranged according to the method of Linnaeus. Von Born’s knowledge in this department of Natural History was not profound, so that he needed some assistance in composing the work. The shells only are described ; of the animals to which they belong little is said. Joseph II. coming to the throne, and being fully occupied with a multitude of innovations and vast schemes for the aggrandisement of the house of Austria, the project of continuing the work, so as to form a description of the whole museum, was laid aside. On the Amalgamation of Ores containing Gold and Silver, in the German language, published in 4to in 1786.

Of this work something has been already said above. There is a translation of the work into English, by Raspe, a Hanoverian, once professor at Hesse-Cassel, and who afterwards resided in Britain, where he was sometimes employed as a viewer of mines. Catalogue methodique et raisonne de la Collectiqn des Fossiles de Mademoiselle Eleonore de Raab, a Vienne, 8vo,

1790. This catalogue is drawn up so as to form a system of mineralogy, each species of mineral being carefully described, and arranged systematically. It was much esteemed, and cited by mineralogical writers in its time, but has been superseded, like other treatises, by more recent works, on account of the great additions that have been continually making to the science. He edited the Jesuit Poda’s description of the machines used in the mines of Schemnitz. Ferbers Letters from Italy were written to and edited by Von Born. Ferber and he were in habits of great intimacy ; and Ferber, in return, published the letters that Von Born addressed to him during his excursion in Transylvania, &c. in 1770, entitled Briefe uber mineralogische gegenstande auf seiner reise durch das Temeswarer Bannat, Siebenburgen, Ober und Nieder Hungarn. Frankf. 1774.

To this work is prefixed a well-engraved portrait of Von Born. There is an English version by Raspe, and a French one, with notes, by Monnet. He lent his assistance to the first three volumes of a work published in German, entitled Portraits of Learned

Men and Artists, natives of Bohemia and Moravia. There are some papers of his in the Abhandlungen der Bbhmischer gesellschaft den Wissenchaften.

The Transactions of a Private Society at Prague, in Bohemia, for the improvement of mathematics, natural history, and the civil history of the country, contains several papers written by him. He was the founder of this society. He published an annual periodical work in German, entitled the Philosophical Transactions of the Masons' Lodge of Concord at Vienna. This masons’ lodge, of which Von Born was the founder and patron, employed a part of its meetings in scientific pursuits. This, as well as other societies of a similar nature, was tolerated by Joseph II. for some time; but he afterwards imposed restraints that VOL. v. #

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caused their dissolution. Von Born was alsoa zealous member of the Society of Illuminati; and when the Elector I alatine of Bavaria suppressed the masonic societies in his dominions, Von Born being a member of the Academy of Sciences at Munich, was required to declare, within eight days, whether he would withdraw from the masonic societies. He returned an answer, in which he praised the principles of the free-masons, and resigned his place in the academy, by sending back his diploma. He wrote some articles in the German work published by Trebra, mine-director at Zellerfeld in the Hartz, entitled a System of Instruction in the Art of Working Mines, 4to ; also Observations in support of the Metallization of the Alkalis, in Crell s Annals, 1790, 1791. Ruprecht and Tondi thought at that time that they had reduced the alkalis and barytes to a metallic state, by the strong heat of a furnace urged by bellows; but it was afterwards found that the metallic substance thus obtained was phosphate of iron, proceeding from their crucibles and fluxes. Sir Humphry Davy was the first who obtained any of the alkaline class of bodies in a metallic state ; and this he accomplished by the intense heat excited by a galvanic battery, many years after the time here spoken of. Relatio de Aurilegio Dacice Transalpince, 1789, in the Nova Acta Academia Naturce Curiosorum, tom. viii. p. 97. This is an account of the method employed in Transylvania in collecting gold from the sand of the rivers. The auriferous sand generally contains iron, attractable by the magnet. It is washed on a sloping board seven feet long and three feet broad, covered with a woollen cloth, having a dish-shaped cavity at the upper end, and inclined to the horizontal plane at an angle of twenty or twenty-five degrees. Only a very scanty livelihood can be gained by this employment. It is carried on by the poorer classes of the country people, and in some districts by bands of the people called gipsies. The king’s collectors buy the gold from the gold-washers at a stated price, to the amount of more than 800 pounds weight annually, (B.B.) BORNEO, an island forming part of the great East Indian Archipelago. Next to New Holland, which maybe considered as a species of continent, it seems indisputably the largest in the known world. It reaches from about 7° north to 4° south latitude, and from 109° to 118° east longitude. Its length may be estimated at 750 miles, its greatest breadth at 600, and its average breadth at 350. It exhibits the usual insular structure, a mass of loftv mountains in the centre, sloping gradually down to level and alluvial tracts along the sea shore. It is watered by many fine rivers, of which those of Borneo Proper, Banjar Massin, and Passir, are navigable for more than fifty miles above their junction with the sea. All these rivers were understood by Dr Leyden to be derived from an immense lake in the interior, called the Sea of Manilla. It is more piobable that they all rise from the mountainous district of greatest elevation. The interior of Borneo is covered with immense forests, filled with wild animals, particularly ourang-outangs. A great part of the coast is marshy, so that it is in portions only that it displays the exuberance of tropical fertility. Of all the East Indian islands, Borneo ranks lowest as to civilization and improvement. Nothing, perhaps, has tended so powerfully to check its progress as the solid and unbroken form of its coasts, destitute of those large bays or inland seas which have always proved the nursery of commerce. The Portuguese discovered Borneo in 1526, though,from the superior wealth promised by the Spice Islands, it attracted comparatively little attention. Yet they, as w^ell as the Spaniards, the Dutch, and the English, formed establishments on different parts of the coast; but the small force defending them, and the fierce animosity of the naB

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Romeo. tives, made their tenure generally of very short duration. Chinese are also pretty numerous. The sultan resides at Borneo. The physical structure of Borneo, the vast forests, moun- Martapura, about three days’ journey up the river, to tains, and jungles of the interior, obstruct communication which place he is attached by the circumstance of its being between the different parts of its coast, as completely as if an uncommonly fine hunting station. T-he district of Banan extent of sea had intervened. It is thus split into a jar produces gold and diamonds, both of superior quality number of petty districts, entirely detached from each to those found in other parts of the island. Pepper is so other, and which cannot be satisfactorily described, unless abundant that, in a commercial view, it may be considerin detail. In this manner, therefore, we shall consider ed as the staple commodity. The iron is very excellent, the principal states, beginning with Borneo Proper, and and peculiarly fit for steel; though Dr Leyden asserts thence making the circuit of the island; after which we that the inhabitants do not themselves understand the art shall attempt some general views of its population and of manufacturing it. In 1700 the English East India Company formed a settlement at Banjar Massin. A rage then commerce. Borneo Proper occupies the northern coast, and is reck- prevailed for multiplying establishments, and the present oned a state of great antiquity. The soil is comparatively one was soon so far extended as to equal that of Calcutta. fertile, supplying rice sufficient for the consumption of the But the expectations of extensive trade, which prompted inhabitants, as well as most of the camphire for which the to such an enlargement, were in a great measure illusory; island is celebrated. The city, called also Borneo, is built a thousand tons of pepper being the most valuable article upon alluvial ground, about ten miles above the mouth of drawn from the settlement. Before the company could be aware of its unproductive nature, however, this settlethe river of the same name. It is compared to Venice ; fully ment was brought to a premature end. An attack was canals are conducted through every street, and all business is conducted in boats, usually rowed by women. The made by the natives on so great a scale, and with such houses are built upon posts, and ascended to by ladders. fury, that, though repulsed, it seemed to leave no choice the immediate evacuation of the factory, without even The river is navigable for large vessels considerably above but the stores. Jhe damage sustained on the octhe town; but there is a bar at its entrance, oyer which removing is estimated at 50,000 dollars. there is scarcely a depth of seventeen feet at high water. casion Succadana, or, as Dr Leyden calls it, Sacadina, was The sultan is treated with those marks of peculiar respect anciently the most powerful state on the western coast of which in this part of the world usually indicate an ancient dynasty; but the chief power rests in the council of the Borneo. The Dutch began to trade there in 1604, but nobles. This state has little communication with Euro- they soon afterwards attached themselves, in preference, peans ; and the English, who were accustomed to deal to to Sambas. In 1623 they abandoned their factory at Suca small extent in piece-goods, have in a great measure cadana. In 1786 they united with the sultan of Pontiana discontinued the traffic. The commerce of this city and in an expedition against this place, which they took and district is almost entirely engrossed by the Chinese, who entirely destroyed. It appears to have been since rebuilt, bring annually from Amou four or five junks, of about 500 but is entirely in the hands of the Malays, and scarcely visited by Europeans. Pontiana is a state of vei’y tons burden. As the neighbourhood abounds in excellent ever timber, they frequently build their junks here, and carry recent origin, but it now exceeds in wealth and power all them away loaded with the commodities of the country. others upon the western coast of Borneo. This distincOn the eastern coast of Borneo, Mangedava and Pappal tion it owes to the wisdom of the Arab prince by whom it founded. He renounced from the first the pernicious are populous, fertile, and well-watered districts. Malloo- was almost universal in these petty states, of embarkdoo possesses these advantages in a still superior degree, policy, ing in trade, and monopolizing its principal articles. He and grows also a large quantity of rattans. Tiroon pro- confined himself to his proper functions, of dispensing jusduces sago in abundance, and birds nests more copiously than any other part of the eastern Archipelago. None of tice, and securing protection to all, of whatever country religion, who resorted to his dominions. Under this these states, however, are much frequented by or known or salutary Pontiana soon rose to be the greatest emto Europeans. The chief state on the (Eastern coast is porium inpolicy those seas. It is situated on a large river, Passir, situated about fifty miles up a river of the same formerly called Laua, and the country behind produces name. This district is very low and flat; and, were i t not diamonds the most abundantly of any district in Borneo. cooled by the sea breezes, would be intensely hot. Being Dutch established a factory here in 1776, and mainmarshy and filled with woods, it is extremely unhealthy. The ever after a good understanding with the sultan.. The town is said not to contain above 300 wooden houses, tained In 1813, after the British force had taken possession of which are built along the river. The sultan has a palace that prince, dreading an attack from Sambas, and wooden fort along the northern bank. The people of Batavia, Passir have an extremely bad reputation as to their con- solicited the protection of a British garrison, which was duct in mercantile transactions. They use false weights immediately sent; and he afterwards assisted our troops and measures, manufacture counterfeit articles, and em- in the reduction of Sambas. Momparwa, situated a little brace, in short, every opportunity of cheating that offers. to the north of Pontiana, is the best market for opium upon coast. The city lies nineteen miles up the river, the The English East India Company made an attempt, in this 1772, to establish a factory here, but it did not succeed. entrance of which is obstructed by a bar and by several Banjar Massin is the principal state on the southern small islands. This is probably the same district called by Dr Leyden, who says that the king possesses coast of Borneo ; and, like the others, it owes its prosperity Mattan finest diamond in the world, for which a high price to a large river, on the banks of which it is situated. Ibis the offered by the Dutch, which he refused to accept. river is five or six fathoms deep; but, unfortunately, the was Sambas is situated about thirty miles up the river of the bar does not allow above twelve or thirteen feet of water, same name. most other towns in Borneo, it is built and requires the aid of the tide to produce even^ that of timber andLike bamboos, and raised by stakes above the depth. Ships, however, may anchor in the port of fom- swampy foundation. Sambas has always been a powerful bangou or Tombornio, near the mouth of the. river, where but for some time past has devoted itself so entirely they are well supplied with water and provisions. Banjai state, Massin, in 1780, was estimated to contain a population to piracy as to render its existence scarcely compatible of 8500 Mahommedans, chiefly Javanese, with a consider- with that of its civilized neighbours. Upon this principle able proportion of Bugis, Macassars, and Malays. The the British, in 1812, undertook an expedition against it;

BOR Borneo, but they were repulsed with great loss in the attack, and —•-Y'^ suffered still more from the malignant influence of the climate. In the following year, however, a new expedition was undertaken under Colonel Watson, who, on the 3d of July, carried the fort by storm, and obliged the rajah to retire into the interior of his dominions. On a general view of the state of culture and civilization in Borneo, Mr Hamilton estimates the population at 3,000,000, which we should suppose to be rather above than under the truth. The interior is entirely occupied by a native race, called variously, according to the parts of the island which they inhabit, Dayak, Idaan, and Tiroon. Those which subsist by fishing are commonly called Biajoos. The appellations of Horaforas and Maroots have also been applied to these races. The whole may be considered as one, almost savage, and nearly similar to that which occupies the interior of Sumatra. Some, indeed, cultivate the ground, some display considerable industry in fishing, and a few employ themselves in collecting gold; but their institutions in general indicate the very rudest state of human society. It has been strongly asserted that they devour the flesh of their enemies ; an assertion not noticed by Dr Leyden, and which has in many instances been made without foundation. All accounts agree, however, as to the existence of another truly savage custom, by which every man is debarred from the privilege of matrimony till he has, with his own hand, cut off the head of an enemy. Those, therefore, who are desirous of entering into that state form themselves into what Dr Leyden calls head-hunting expeditions. They make an inroad into the territories of a neighbouring tribe, and, if their strength appears sufficient, endeavour to effect their object by force; if otherwise, they conceal themselves behind thickets, till an unfortunate individual passes, whom they can make their prey. Some are also said to immolate human victims on the altars of their divinities. The inhabitants of the towns along the coast consist chiefly of that race so universally diffused throughout the Indian islands under the name of Malays. This name, to an European ear, has usually suggested every extreme of perfidy and atrocity. We have perused, however, a very different estimate of their character, formed by an intelligent gentleman, who spent several years in this part of India. He describes them as honest, frank, simple, and even gentle in their manners, decidedly superior, in a moral view, to the degenerate Hindoos. The sanguinary deeds which have exposed them to so much reproach he ascribes to a proud and almost chivalrous sense of honour, which makes them regard blows, or any similar personal insult, as an offence only to be expiated by blood. The coarse and unfeeling treatment which they often experience from Dutch and Chinese masters drives them to these dreadful extremities. Piracy, however, is a vice of which this race cannot be acquitted; and the western coast of Borneo, situated on the great naval route to China, may be viewed as the grand field for its exercise. To a poor and hardy race, who see half the wealth of Asia passing along their shores, the temptation is almost irresistible. Like the Arabs, they have formed for themselves a code of morality, in which plunder is expunged from the list of vices. Yet, though individually brave, they possess no skill or discipline which could render them formidable to the crew of an European vessel. The cowardice of the Lascars, by whom Indian trading vessels are usually navigated, is the only circumstance which has made our trade suffer so severely from their ravages. Next to the two classes above enumerated, the most numerous are the Chinese. These, by the gentleman above alluded to, are considered as the most valuable sub-

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jects whom an uncivilized state can receive into its bosom. Bornou. The difficulty of finding subsistence in their own country has led them to emigrate in vast numbers into Borneo. Nothing, perhaps, except the law which prohibits females from leaving the empire, could have prevented this almost unoccupied island from being entirely filled with a Chinese population. From this circumstance, however, the colonists are composed entirely of men in the vigour of life, and of the most enterprising and industrious character. Their chief settlement is at Sambas, on the western coast, where the numbers cannot be estimated at less than 30,000, composing a sort of independent state. Their almost sole occupation is that of extracting the gold which abounds upon this coast. It is found in alluvial soil, and is purified by the simple process of passing a stream of water over the ore. The processes employed for this purpose are daily improving, and it is conceived that the produce here and at other quarters will be sufficient to remove all future apprehensions of the East proving a drain upon the gold of Europe. The commerce of Borneo, though not equal to its extent and natural capacities, is by no means inconsiderable. Gold is its principal export. Mr Milburn estimates the annual quantity exported at 200 peculs, or 26,000 lbs. avoirdupois, which would coin into upwards of 900,000 guineas. Like some other commodities, it is divided, by a grotesque scale, into three kinds, called the head, the belly, and tbe feet; the first being the best, and the two others gradually diminishing in value. Camphire is exported to the extent of thirty peculs (3990 lbs.), all to China, where it is more esteemed than that of Sumatra. The singular Chinese luxuries of hiche de mer or sea slug, and edible bird-nests, are found in Borneo, as over all the Indian Archipelago. Pepper to a considerable amount, canes and rattans of various descriptions, sago, and a little tin, complete the list of exports. The chief import is opium to a very great extent, with piece-goods, hardware, coarse cutlery, arms, and toys. By far the greater proportion of the trade is in the hands of the Chinese. (Leyden’s Description of Borneo, in the Asiatic Journal; Hamilton’s Gazetteer; Milburn’s Oriental Commerce; MS. of a Gentleman long resident in India.) BORNOU,an extensive kingdom, situatedin the eastern part of interior Africa. With the exception of Houssa, now subject to the sultan of the Fellatahs, it is superior in power and influence to any other state in that quarter of the continent. Major Denham, to whom we are indebted for the only full and authentic description of this country, places it between the 12th and 18th degrees of east longitude, and the 10th and 15th of north latitude, which would fox™ an extent of nearly 400 miles in every dii’ection. His own map and description, however, obliges us to restrict these dimensions to little more than one half. Bornou is bounded on the west by Soudan or Houssa, on the east by the lake Tchad, on the north by the Great Desert, on the south by the kingdoms of Begherme, Loggun, and Mandara. The grandest natural feature of this countiy consists in the lake called the Tchad, one of the largest expanses of fresh water in the world, and well entitled to the appellation of an inland sea. Its limits have not been very px-ecisely ascertained, but cannot fall much short of 200 miles in length and 150 in breadth. A remarkable variation, however, takes place, according as the rivers by which it is fed are swelled by the tropical x’ains, or their channels reduced by the continuance of the dry season. At this period the waters on every side recede, and leave uncovered a tract of many miles in extent, to be again overflowed when the rains have swelled the lake. The inhabitants, howevei’, derive little advantage from the short and precarious interval during which they

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Bovnou. have access to this portion of their territory. There is are now unacquainted. D’Anville, however, proceeding Bornou. Y'"*' neither leisure nor opportunity to bring it under regu- upon his rigid principle of admitting no object for which lar culture; and the luxuriant fertility derived from the he could not find a positive authority, expunged these inundation is wasted in producing a rank vegetable growth names from his map, and has been generally followed by _ . , . . of grass from ten to twelve feet in height, with impenetrable modern geographers. When the African Association m 1788 commenced their thickets of trees and underwood. Man scarcely dares to penetrate into these gloomy regions, which are filled by operations, they early received some information, collected numerous and formidable wild animals, elephants, lions, by Mr Lucas at Tripoli, with other particulars related by hyenas, and enormous broods of the serpent species. These Ben Ali, a Moorish merchant resident in London. From creatures, when the inundation comes on, seek refuge in these sources were derived pretty copious notices, both the cultivated and inhabited tracts, where their arrival concerning Bornou and Cassina ; the former being described as what it then appears to have been, decidedly diffuses consternation and dismay. the ruling power in the interior of Eastern Africa, all the The rivers by which this great expanse of water is fed kingdoms of which it had reduced into a state of vassalage. are the Yeou and the Shary. The former, which enters it In arranging these accounts, however, a considerable error from the west, excited great interest on its first discovery, from being considered, or at least suspected, to be a con- was committed as to the position of thiscountiy. Mr Lutinuation of the Niger of Park. Further observation has cas had been informed that it was fifty journeys, or about completely disproved this supposition, and shown it to be six hundred and fifty miles, south from Fezzan ; but his added that it was only twenty-five journeys west a river of only secondary magnitude. Rising in a range informant the Nile. To meet this statement Major Rennell of hills to the south of Houssa, it flows first north, then from eastward through Bornou, till it falls into the Ichad ; but conceived it necessary to extend the route, not due south it never, unless when swollen by the rains, presents any as it really was, but south-east, so as to place it in the great body of water. The Shary is a more considerable heart of the desert, seven degrees north and eight degrees stream, although its origin and early course are known only east of its real position. Kuku, likewise believed, from statement of Edrisi, to be a separate kingdom, was by conjecture. After flowing from the south for about the forty miles, through the kingdom of Loggun, it enters at placed in tbe same quarter, still nearer to the Nile; and the desert tract to the west of Nubia was filled with the south-eastern extremity of Bornou into the great com- thus mon receptacle, where it forms a noble stream, half a countries which, in that quarter, have no existence. The expedition sent out by the British government in mile broad, and flows with considerable rapidity. The territory of Bornou, extending along the wdiole 1822, under Denham and Clapperton, completely adjustthe geography of this part of the continent. It was western and part of the southern and northern shores of ed discovered that Bornou, instead of being so far removed, the great lake, is generally level and fertile. The climate, especially from March to the end of June, is oppressively as our maps represented, from Houssa and Cassina, was hot, rising sometimes to 105 and 10/, and even during close on their eastern frontier, and formed a continuation that extensive, fruitful, and finely watered plain, which most of the night not falling much below 100. In May of from the mouth of the Senegal across Central the wet season commences, with violent storms of thun- extends Africa. relative political circumstances had also under and lightning. In the end of June the rivers and dergone, Its this interval, a very complete change. lakes begin to overflow, and for several months the rams Instead ofduring holding all the surrounding states in vassalage, are almost incessant, accompanied with damp, cloudy, and it had been itself completely subjected to the dominion of sultry weather. The inhabitants at this season are severethe Fellatahs, who, after subjugating all Houssa, had inly afflicted with fever and ague, which carry off great vaded Bornou, and committed the most dreadful ravages, numbers of them. In October the rains abate ; cool, fresh destroying its capital and other large cities, and bringing winds blow from the west and north-west; and for several the whole country into a state of entire bondage. There months the climate is both healthful and agreeable. still, however, among the people a strong spirit or No mention is found of Bornou among the geographers was valour and independence. A mere private individual, of antiquity, although it may be conjectured that the great in the northern province of Kanem, pretending to, and lake of Nigritia, placed by Ptolemy in the centre of Africa, perhaps himself trusting in, a celestial mission, hoisted was perhaps the Tchad. Edrisi, however, in the twelfth the green flag of the Prophet, and, under the title of the century, describes this country under the appellation of servant of God, undertook a series of struggles for the deKuku, which is still borne by its capital. He represents liverance of his country. The Fellatahs appear to have the king as absolute and powerful, with a numerous army been taken verv much by surprise, and, being defeated and many attendants ; the people as martial, though rude ; in successive encounters, were in ten months driven comand the merchants as carrying on an active trade and pos- pletely out of Bornou. They seem to have now given up sessing great wealth. Leo, who visited it about two centuries after, gives a description nearly similar. I he people all attempts at reconquering it, although a hostile spirit reigns between the two countries. are represented as Pagans, and extremely rude, though stillThe called, from his native province, El numerous, and the country well cultivated. The mer- Kanemy,conqueror, having the army wholly devoted to him, might chants from Barbary supplied the king in his expeditions probably have little difficulty assumed the sovereign with arms and horses, while he made an annual expedi- power. Morewith moderate, and perhaps more prudent, he tion to procure slaves to be given in payment. drew forth the nearest heir of the ancient sultans, and No further relations respecting Bornou were communi- invested him with all the appearance and pomp of sovecated to Europe during a very long period; yet it is re- reignty; reserving only for himself, under the title of markable that, in the maps of Sanson, Dehsle, and others of sclmik, all its reality. The court of the sultan was estathe sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, there is found a blished at New Bornou, which was made the capital, inlake of Bornou, and in some of them a large lake with the stead of the old city, which had been entirely destroyed name of Guard ia, which does not sound very dissimilar to during the Fellatah invasion ; while the scheik, in militaiy that of Tchad. It is difficult to conjecture the ground state, resides at the city of Kuku or Kouka. upon which these features were delineated; yet their coinThe Bornouese throne in former times had been eleccidence with those recently discovered seems to show that tive, £it least among the members of the same family; and they were founded upon some information with which we

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Bomou. the nobles possessed this and other high privileges: but rapidly and dexterously. Their only defect is, that when Bornou. at present the scheik possesses a power nearly absolute, placed in the field against an enemy at all formidable, which he exercises with salutary vigour. Bands of rob- they can by no impulse be induced to fight. They look bers who desolated the country have been nearly extir- on as spectators till the contest issues in victory, when pated, and travelling and property rendered secure, at they engage eagerly in pursuit and plunder, in both of least in the interior. Justice within each city is admi- ’which they excel; whilst, in case of defeat, they take to nistered, as in other Mussulman countries, by the cadi, flight with the utmost rapidity. As, however, the cavalry with an appeal to the scheik. Murder is punished, on of the armies with which they contend are nearly on a level conviction, by delivering the offender to the relatives of in point of prowess with themselves, the match is tolerably the deceased, who dispatch him with clubs. A young equal. There are usually on each side about a hundred thief is buried in the ground up to the head, which being chiefs, raised to distinction by bodily strength and prowcovered with butter and honey, is exposed under the burn- ess, who engage in single combats, and display often the ing sun to the attack of innumerable flies and mosquitoes. most desperate valour. Barca Gana, the scheik’s general, Insolvent debtors are rather hardly dealt with. But the had obtained the reputation of possessing charms that scheik’s zeal was peculiarly directed against moral offences, rendered him invulnerable. The main dependence of that of which conscience and public opinion have been gene- prince is upon a body of 9000 spearmen from bis native rally considered as the most appropriate guardians. Such territory of Kanem, who rally round him with the most were the non-observance of the Mahommedan fasts, upon enthusiastic attachment. Though almost naked, and which severe and relentless penalties were levied. He equipped only with shield and spear, they display a discipwas also most strict in punishing those failings in the fe- line beyond that of almost any other African army. They male sex which are elsewhere considered as sufficiently march by tribes, and keep in front of their line a regular visited by disgrace and exclusion from society. Here not chain of piquets, with sentinels, who every half hour pass only the most ignominious punishments, hut often death the war-cry along it; precautions very rarely employed in itself, awaited them. On one occasion sixty of these un- barbarian armies. All the sovereigns of Central Africa fortunate offenders were brought before him, of whom likewise consider themselves fortunate if they can engage five were hanged, and four whipt so severely that two af- the services of even a small party of Arab caravan followterwards expired ; an outrageous virtue, which seems with ers, who, being brave and armed with muskets, an instrureason to have been branded as almost diabolical. The ment yet almost unknown in this region, are objects of most frivolous female offences, as talking too loud, and something like supernatural dread. walking in the street with the face unveiled, were consiThe territory of Bornou is fertile and well watered, dered as ground of public indictment at this severe bar. yielding large crops even under very imperfect cultivaEven the spending in courtship or otherwise a larger sum tion. The labour is chiefly performed by female slaves, than a man was supposed to be able to afford, gave ground who, at the commencement of the rainy season, scratch for dragging him before the national tribunal. Major rather than turn the ground, and scatter rather than sow Denham saw one thrown into prison for presenting to his the seed. They are also obliged to watch the growth, in bride two robes or turkadoes, when his station was consi- order to guard against numerous animal depredators ; a dered as not authorizing more than one ; although he very perilous occupation, in the course of which they are proved that the lady had refused her consent on any other liable to be carried off by the wild beasts, who are roamterms; which, however, drew upon her also a severe ani- ing about in every direction. The rice and wheat are madversion. inferior, and grown in small quantity. The grain which The sultan of Bornou is surrounded by a mounted forms the staple food of the people is a species of millet body-guard, who likewise compose his principal nobles called gussub, which they form, not into bread, an article and chiefs. Their attire and equipment is the most gro- here entirely unknown, but into a species of paste, that, tesque and unwieldy, perhaps, to which fashion in any by the addition of butter and honey, forms the highest country has given rise. It is indispensable to the chief boast of Bornou cookery. Cotton and indigo are also of rank that he should possess a huge belly, the singular valuable productions, affording the material for the cloths importance attached to which is probably founded on the finely dyed with blue stripes, which form the staple faidea of its being an indication of plenty and luxury; and bric of the country. All the domestic animals are reared, it is held so essential, that even when high feeding can- and very numerous herds of oxen are possessed, chiefly not produce the effect, stuffing is employed to give the by an Arab tribe called Shouaas. Major Denham reckons appearance of it. Again, even in this burning climate, 20,000 on the shores of the Tchad, and double that numthe body is enveloped in successive robes, amounting ber on the banks of the Shary. The empire, however, often to ten or twelve, the number being always consi- is remarkably destitute of the products of horticulture. dered as indicating the rank of the wearer. The head like- There is neither a fruit nor a vegetable, except some wise is inclosed in numerous successive turbans, which onions in the vicinity of the large towns, and a very few are supposed to be rendered more ornamental by leaving limes and figs reared with great difficulty in the garden only one side of the face uncovered. The sultan studies of the scheik. to he still more protuberant and more loaded with clothThe wild animals are very numerous, finding both ing than any of his courtiers. Yet in this attire he and food and cover in the extensive woody and marshy disthey advance together into the field; but of course they tricts. Lions prowl about in considerable numbers, apcan have no real efficiency in the duties of active warfare. proaching even the walls of the towns. The Bornouese The last sultan had fallen in consequence of the impossi- delight in taming and even making a pet of this noble anibility, caused by his ponderous equipment, of flying with mal. The scheik, as a special favour, sent Major Densufficient speed before a victorious enemy. ham a present of a young lion, which he very prudently The military force of Bornou consists almost entirely returned, lamenting the want of space for his accommoin cavalry, amounting to about 30,000, who are mounted dation. Elephants, in herds of fifty to four hundred, wanon small but active steeds, which, as well as their riders, der over the tract inundated by the Tchad, and are huntbeing cased in iron mail, present a very formidable ap- ed and killed both for the flesh and the ivory. Hyenas pearance. They also manage their horses with the ut- also, in huge and formidable bands, invade the cultivated most skill, and perform all the manoeuvres of the field most fields, and are with difficulty prevented from penetrating

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B O R N O U. and a complexion of light copper; and they exhibit a Bornou. strong though improved resemblance to the European gipsies. Their deportment, however, is not very favourably spoken of. They do not want courage, and can furnish the government when necessary with 15,UUU horse; but they are arrogant and deceitful, imposing upon the people by the manufacture of charms, and by pretensions to prophecy and fortune-telling. Haying thus gained admission into the houses, they not only sell these gifts at a high rate, but embrace opportunities of pilfering. Probably they were observed to disadvantage in the heart of the cities. One of their tribes, called Dugganahs, who The population of Bornou is calculated by Major Den- were visited in their native tents on the Shary, presented ham at 5,000,000; but, considering its limited extent, a most pleasing picture of patriarchal simplicity. I heir and the imperfect state of agriculture, this number must, countenances were noble and expressive, and the attachwe think, be considerably exaggerated. The leading ments of kindred and domestic affection were displayed in people, called Bornouese or Kanowry, present a complete peculiar force. Another tribe, called the La Salas, almost specimen of the negro form and features; having large independent of Bornou, inhabit a number of low islands in mouths, thick lips, broad noses, an unmeaning face, but the Tchad, covered with rich pasture, and separated from o-ood teeth and high foreheads. Ihe females heighten the continent by channels so shallow as to be fordable on their want of beauty by a most extensive and injudicious horseback. A knowledge of the tracts is however requisystem of puncturing and tattooing. 1 he people are peace- site ; and those troops who without it attempted to peneably disposed, friendly and courteous in their manners, trate through them have got entangled in mud, sunk into and distinguished by a sort of good-natured heaviness. deep pools, and signally defeated. _ , Though endowed with a slender degree of courage, they The towns in Bornou are of considerable size, surroundare resentful, and addicted to petty larcenies. The ed with walls thirty-five or forty feet in height, and twenlaw allows of polygamy, but the richest have seldom more ty feet in thickness, having at each of the four corners a than two or three wives, and the rest of the community triple gate, composed of strong planks of wood, with bars only one. The favourite amusement is wrestling, not of iron. The abodes of the principal inhabitants form an performed in person, but viewed as a spectacle while per- inclosed square, in which are separate houses for each of formed by slaves taken in war from the neighbouring na- the wives ; whilst the chief himself resides in two or more tions, particularly the Beghermes and Musgows. The elevated structures resembling turrets, connected together displays of strength made by these men are said to be by terraces. These are well built, of a reddish clay, highly often very extraordinary. A powerful wrestler sells at a polished, so as to resemble stucco; whilst the interior roof, high price, and the masters place extraordinary pride in though composed only of branches, is tastefully constructthe performance of their slaves, cheering them during the ed. The horns of the antelope and gazelle are employed combat, and, on its successful issue, often presenting them to fasten together the different parts, and have suspended with valuable robes. Even the ladies of Bornou engage from them the quiver, spear, and shield of the owner. 1 he occasionally in public contests, where they often throw eac i ordinary houses are small, being built partly of mud and other with violence to the ground. Another favourite thatched, partly only of straw or coarse grass mats. Major amusement consists in a rude game bearing some resem- Denham was accommodated in one of eight feet diametei, blance to chess, played with beans and holes in the sand. having a hole two and a half feet high, by which he crept The Mahommedan religion is universally professed in in and out; but this deficiency of aperture was rendered Bornou, and even with violence and bigotry. Throug almost necessary by the crowds of tormenting insects who recommendations brought with them, the English travel- would otherwise have made good their entrance. 1 hough lers secured good treatment; but, as unbelievers, they were New Bornou and Kouka were the residences, the one of the viewed with the deepest horror, and almost as a species sultan and the other of the scheik, neither is equal m m_ of monsters. Even from those who showed at first the magnitude to Angornou, estimated to contain most friendly disposition, the disclosure of their creed habitants, who, on market days, are swelled to 80,000 or drew forth deep groans, sometimes screams, and usually 100 000. On the Yeou are seen the ruins of Old Uornou arrested all progress to intimacy. A man who had serv- andGambarou, which appear to have been greater and ed them for two or three weeks, although he pleaded that better built cities than any now in the kingdom ; but they it was only under the most extreme necessity, was declar- had been so entirely destroyed by the Fellatahs in their ed unfit on that ground to be received as a witness in a late invasion, that the very site is in a great measure court of law. There are resident in Bornou a considerable covered with shrubs and vegetation. The vicinity is alnumber offighis (writers or doctors), who have visited most laid waste by the inroads of the Tuancks; and, inMecca, and are well skilled in Arabic. It is even an em- deed, all the kingdoms of Central Africa suffer the disadployment to write copies of the Koran, which are sent in- vantage of having their frontier exposed to the ravages of to Barbary, where they bear a considerable price. Its predatory tribes who occupy the rude and desert borders. verses are much used as charms or amulets, in the pre- 1 The English travellers have held out favourable hopes of paration of which the scheik was understood greatly to the commerce which might be opened with Bornou. They a excel, gaining almost as many victories by his pen as by observed the increased and increasing demand, his sword. The Bornouese, like other negroes, have songs numerous population, for goods which Britain either does relatino- to love or war, some of which are said to possess or could produce cheaper than any other country; and merit; but their intellectual character in general seems to these goods were found selling at an advance of 300 per rank extremely low. . cent, above their price at Tripoli. On the other hand, i The pastoral districts of this country are occupied by a must not be forgotten that the route from that city, tribe called Shouaas, who are accounted Arabs, and speak though the nearest of any from the coast, greatly exceeds that language, though they have scarcely any resemblance a thousand miles, through the most dreary and desolate to those in the north bearing that appellation. They have tracts, amid the domains of numerous predatory tubes. fine open countenances, with aquiline noses, large eyes,

Bomou. into the towns. The tall form of the giraffe is not unfrequently seen cropping the leaves of the dense forest. The waters abound with crocodiles and hippopotami, and the flesh of both is valued for food; that of the former, indeed, is described by naturalists as extremely delicate. The country is filled with swarms of bees, which often obstruct the passage of the traveller; and the honey, though only partially collected, forms one of the chief Bornouese delicacies. Antelopes, gazelles, ostriches, and various other (juadrupeds and feathered animals, are pui-

-BOR Borodino The merchant has to encounter, therefore, not only acII cumulated hardships, but all the perils of famine, battle, Borough. an(j pestilence. It would be vain, therefore, to expect that any one would conduct such a trade without very high profits. It is at present carried on by merchants, or rather chiefs, each with a large body of armed followers, alike prepared for commerce or war. The European who should engage in such a trade would be obliged to follow this example, and might expect to encounter their enmity and rivalry. It seems doubtful, therefore, how far such a trade could now be carried on by any other than its present channel. Amongst the commodities which find a market in Bornou are mentioned writing paper, beads, coral, silks and cottons of gaudy patterns, turbans, small carpets, brushes, caftans, and shirts readymade ; brass basons tinned, small mirrors, pistols, and other arms ornamented, but cheap. The commodities taken in return are almost exclusively slaves, obtained by purchase or capture; and we fear it will be more difficult than Major Denham supposes to divert the trade from this bad channel. Neither gold nor silver are seemingly to be procured in Bornou. Elephants’ teeth, ostrich feathers, raw hides, musk, indigo, and senna, are mentioned as commodities suited to the market of Europe. (E.) BORODINO, a village in Russia, near the river Moskwa, about ninety miles west of Moscow, remarkable for the terrible battle fought there on the 7th of September 1812, between the French and Russians, in which the latter were defeated. BOROMiEUS. See BORROMEUS. BOROUGH, BURROUGH, Borow, or Burgh, is a term frequently used for a town or corporation which is not a city. BOROUGH, in the original Saxon borge or borgh, is by some supposed to have primarily meant a tithing or company consisting of ten families, who were bound and combined together as sureties for one another. Afterwards, as Yerstegan informs us, borough came to signify a town that had something of a wall or inclosure about it; so that all places which amongst our ancestors had the denomination of borough, were one way or other fenced or fortified, being, as it were, ‘xvgyoi. But in latter times this appellation was also bestowed on several of the villa; insigniores, or country towns of more than ordinary note, though not walled. The ancient Saxons, according to Spelman, gave the name of burghs to what in other countries were called cities. But different canons being made for removing the episcopal sees from villages and small towns to the chief cities, the term city came to be attributed to episcopal towns, whilst that of borough included all the rest, even although they had the appearance of cities, as being governed by mayors, having bye-laws of their own making, sending representatives to parliament, and being fortified with a wall and castle, and the like. Royal BOROUGHS or Burghs, in Scotland, are corporations originally created for the advantage of trade, in virtue of charters granted by several of their kings, and having the privilege of sending commissioners to represent them in parliament, besides other peculiar privileges. The royal burghs are not only so many distinct corporations, but also constitute one entire body, governed by, and accountable to, a general court, anciently called the court of four boroughs, which was held yearly, to treat and determine concerning matters relating to the common interest. The four burghs which composed this court were, Edinburgh, Stirling, Roxburgh, and Berwick ; but the two last falling into the hands of the English, Linlithgow and Lanark were substituted in their room, with a saving to the former

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whenever they should return to their allegiance. But Boroughthis court not being sufficient to answer the necessities of English the royal burghs, they were all empowered under James !* III., in 1487, to send commissioners to a yearly convention of their own, which was then appointed to be held at Inverkeithing, but is now held at Edinburgh, under the denomination of the Convention of Royal Burghs, which was vested with great powers, and had for its object the benefit of trade, and the interest of the burghs generally. BoROUGH-English, a customary descent of lands or tenements, in some ancient boroughs and copyhold manors, by which the youngest son, and not the eldest, succeeded to the burgage tenement on the death of his father. BOROUGHBRIDGE, a borough and market-town in the parish of Aldborough and west-riding of Yorkshire, 208 miles from London, on the river Eyne, which is navigable to this place. The market is held on a Saturday. The number of inhabitants in 1801 amounted to 680, in 1811 to 745, and in 1821 to 860. BOROWITSCHI, a circle of the Russian government of Novogorod, extending over 18,796 square miles, containing one city and fifty-four parishes, with 91,720 inhabitants. The chief place is a city of the same name, on the river Msta, containing two churches, 860 houses, and 3500 inhabitants, amongst whom are many pilots employed in interior navigation. Long. 33. 5. E. Lat. 58. 16. N. BOROWSK, a circle in the Russian government of Kaluga, 614 square miles in extent, with 78,400 inhabitants. The chief place is the city of the same name on the river Protwa, a manufacturing place for linen goods, with a population of about 7000 persons. Long. 36. 5. E. Lat. 55. 14. N. BORRELISTS, in Ecclesiastical History, a Christian sect in Holland, so denominated from their founder Borrel, a person of much learning in the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin tongues. They rejected the use of the sacraments, public prayer, and other external acts of worship; affirming that all the Christian churches of the world have degenerated from the pure apostolical doctrines, because they have suffered the word of God, which is infallible, to be expounded, or rather corrupted, by doctors, who are not infallible. BORRICHIUS, OLAUS, one of the most learned men of his age, the son of a Lutheran minister, was born in 1626, at Borchen in Denmark. He was sent to study physic in the university of Copenhagen in 1644, and he began to practise during a terrible plague which made great havoc in that city. In 1660, although appointed professor of botany and chemistry, he visited Holland, England, and France ; was received as doctor at Angers; and visited Rome in 1665. In the course of his travels he attended the most celebrated schools, and was selected by Queen Christina as her master in chemistry. He returned to Copenhagen in 1666, and discharged the duties of his office with great assiduity, as his works abundantly testify. He was raised to the office of member of the supreme council of justice in 1686, and to that of counsellor of the royal chancery in 1689; and he died of the operation of lithotomy in 1690. The following is a list of his works: 1. Dokimasia Metallica, Copenhagen, 1660, 8vo; 2. Be Ortu et Progressu Chemice Dissertatio, ibid. 1668, 4to; 3. Hermetis, JEgyptiorum, et Chemicorum Sapientia, ibid. 1674, 4to; 4. Lingua Pharmacopceorum, ibid. 1670, 4to; 5. Cogitationes de variis Linguae Latinoe JEtatibus, ibid. 1675, 8vo ; 6. De Causis diversitatis Linguarum, ibid. 1675, 4to; 7. De Somno et Somniferis, Francfort, 1680, 1683, 4to; 8. De Usu Plantarum Indigenarum in Medicina, Copenhagen, 1688, 1690, 8vo; 9. Dissertationes V. dePoetis Greeds et Latinis, ibid. 1676; 10. Conspectus Chemicorum Scriptorum Illustriorum, ibid. 1696, 4to; 11. De An-

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much has been done. Pheasants were formerly bred in BomBorromean tiqua Vrbis Roma Facie, ibid. 1697, 8vo; 12. De Urbis this island, as they were deterred by the vicinity of the mens. Islands. Roma Primordiis, ibid. 1687, 4to; with some trines not water on all hands from attempting to escape. I here were worth particularizing. BORROMEAN ISLANDS. Not far from the south-east- some hydraulic exhibitions in Isola Bella,^ and large cisterns or reservoirs to preserve them in action. W hen any ern termination of the Alps there is a lake called Lagodi foreign prince visited these islands in the night, or resided Locarno, or Lago Maggiore, extending above fifty miles upon them, they were illuminated with various coloured in length by five or six in breadth. It contains several lights. Their decorations were not only completed at an islands, amongst which are the Isola Bella and Isola Madre, enormous expense, but to keep them in the same state situated in a large bay towards the west, and designed the since 1671, about which time they seem to have been Borromean Islands. Towards Switzerland the lake termi- finished, the charge has proved equally great. They are nates in a canal, which is of much utility for commercial frequently called the “ Enchanted Islands.’ Keysler, a purposes ; and near Cesti, which is ten leagues from the learned traveller, says, “ these two islands can be comcity of Milan, it discharges itself into the river licino, pared to nothing more properly than two pyramids of with a current rapid and dangerous to the navigation of sweetmeats, ornamented with green festoons and flowers. small vessels. The Borromean Islands he about fifteen And a later tourist, Coxe, who borrows largely from him, miles distant by water from Cesti, and the passage to in speaking of the Isola Bella, observes, “ if any thing them displays a succession of curious and interesting ob- justly gives this island the appellation of enchanted, it is iects, some of which are connected with their own history. the prospect from the terrace. Ihe gradual diminution of Amongst these may be mentioned a colossal bronze statue the mountains, from the regions of eternal snow to the of San Carlo Borromeo, above the small town and port of rich plain; the sinuosity of the lake; its varied banks; the Arona, which is sixty feet in height, and stands on a pe- bay of Marzozzo, bounded by vast hills; the neighbouiing destal of proportional dimensions. This gigantic image borough of Palanza, and more distant view of Laveno, the was cast at Milan, and brought hither in pieces. Ihe numerous villages, the Isola Madre, and another island Borromean Islands are of inconsiderable size, hut the aiti- sprinkled with fishermen’s huts, form a delightful assemficial decoration they have received has been the admira- blage.” tion of spectators since the middle of the seventeenth These islands, after passing from the family of Borrocentury, when both were barren and unprofitable rocks. meo, appear to have come into possession of the emperor About'this time Vitaliano, Count Borromeo, a nobleman of Germany. More recently, both of them, together with of illustrious descent, and master-general of the ordnance the western coast of the bailliage of Locarno, are said to to the king of Spain, resolving on their embellishment, have been ceded by the empress Maria Theresa to the directed that they should be covered with earth from the king of Sardinia, in consideration of the assistance she had neighbouring banks of the lake. His injunctions were derived from him. Ihe whole lake is envboned by lulls, fulfilled, and, at an immense expense, the islands were covered with vineyards, and interspersed with summerconverted into two gardens. Isola Madre appears m ten houses; beautiful rows of trees traverse its banks, and the successive terraces, rising one hundred and thirty feet scene is still further embellished by cascades failing fiom above the level of the water, each regularly decreasing in the mountains. ., size from the base to the summit, which is an oblong surBORROMEUS, ST CHARLES, cardinal, and archbishop face, seventy feet by forty in extent, payed and surround- of Milan, was the son of Gilbert Borromeo, count of Areed by a balustrade. The whole are environed by gigantic na, and of Mary of Medicis, and was born at the castle of marble statues of gods, goddesses, and horses, or other Arona, upon the Lago Maggiore, in the Milanese, on the fieures; and the walls are clothed with the finest fruit trees 2d October 1538. When he was about twelve years old, and evergreens, many of which belong to the southern cli- Julius Caesar Borromeus resigned to him an abbacy, which mates. There is, besides, a magnificent palace towards the was considered as an hereditary appurtenance of the famiwestern end of the island, close to the lake, which almost ly • and Charles accepted the benefice, but applied the rewashes its walls. It is built on arches, which are formed venue wholly in charity to the poor. Having acquired into grottoes, with a floor of Mosaic, representing various a sufficient knowledge of the languages at Milan, fie stuobiects, and decorated also with shell-work and marble. died the civil and canon law at Pavia; and derived great The palace itself contains a profusion of marbles and paint- advantage from the company and conversation of trancis ings ; and some flower-pieces, executed on marble, have Alciat, one of the most learned men of the age. In the been particularly admired, as also busts and statues. At year 1554 his father died, an event which recalled him to the angles of the garden, which has a southern exposure, his native place, Arona, where, although he had an elder there are two round towers with lofty chambers adorned brother, Count Frederick, he was requested by the family with red and white marble ; and in the vicinity are groves to take the management of their domestic affairs, wine of laurels, orange-trees, lofty cypresses, and other odonfe- he at length consented to do. . rous plants, rendering it a delightful retreat. But much After a time however he resumed his studies, and, m of the embellishment is lost by the immediate neighbour- the year 1559, being then just twenty-one, he took his hood of a miserable hamlet. . doctor’s degree. The promotion of his uncle Cardinal e Isola Madre, which is the larger of the islands, is be- Medicis to the pontificate, by the name of Pius IV. which tween one and two miles from Isola Bella; it consists of a happened the year following, seemed to have little efiect superstructure of seven terraces, apparently lovyer, but not upon him; but he was soon made prothonotary, intrusted less beautiful, than the other. _ However, it is of equal with both the public and privy seal of the ecclesiastical height in reality, the base being a perpendicular rock, state, and created cardinal deacon, and soon alter archrising considerably out of the water, and on that ac- bishop of Milan. In compliance with the wish of his uncle count not requiring so much covering. Here also there the pope, he lived in great splendour, haying a brilis a palace embellished with paintings and different orna- liant retinue and a large number of domestics; yet his ments; and in the gardens are groves of citrons, cedar, own temperance and humility were never brought into and orange-trees, besides a summer-house close to the lake. question. In order to render even his amusements useful, But all the decorations, as before, are necessarily on a li- he established an academy of select and learned permited scale, from the size of the island ; and it excites the sons, each of whom was to write on some chosen subject. wonder of the spectator, that in a space thus restricted so

BOR Borro- either.in verse or in prose, and to communicate to the meus. others in frequent conferences the fruits of his studies. -"T"-' The works produced by this society have been published in several volumes, under the title of Nodes Vaticance, printed at Venice in 1748, because these useful assemblies were held at the Vatican, in the evenings, after the business of the day had been concluded. About this time he also formed a design of founding a college at Pavia, and in prosecution of this design raised a large edifice upon the foundations of several houses which belonged to the Borromeo family in that city. He also obtained from the pope several benefices, which he attached to his establishment ; he provided it, out of his own private income, with every thing necessary for the young scholars; and he dedicated the college thus founded to Justina, virgin and martyr. Upon the death of his elder brother Frederick, his relations, friends, and even the pope himself, advised him to change his state, quit the church, and marry, that his family might not become extinct. Contrary to this advice and the expectations of the world, however, Charles addressed the pope in these terms: “ Do not complain of me, holy father, for I have taken a spouse whom I love, and on whom my wishes have long been fixed.” From this time he became more fervent in the exercises of piety, and more zealous for the advancement of ecclesiastical knowledge. A very intimate friendship subsisted between Borromeus and Don Barthelemy des Martyrs, archbishop of Prague, and author of a book entitled Stimulus Pastorum. This work falling into the hands of Borromeus, inspired him with an earnest desire to become a preacher, more especially as he was now convinced that predication was one of the principal duties of a prelate. Multiplicity of business, ill health, a feeble voice, and a difficult pronunciation, formed no inconsiderable obstacles to the success of his design, yet he at length surmounted them all; and although his beginnings were weak, perseverance enabled him ultimately to attain the object of his ambition. Meanwhile a change in the state of his relations with the holy see was at hand. Pius IV. died on the 7th of January 1566, and twentyeight days thereafter Cardinal Alexandrine mounted the papal throne under the title of Pius V., the skill and diligence of Borromeus having very materially contributed to stifle the cabals of the conclave. As soon as this event took place, and tranquillity had been re-established at Rome, which was generally disturbed by such elections, Borromeus gave himself wholly up to the reformation of his diocese of Milan, where the most flagitious irregularities were openly practised, and where, from the ignorance of the secular clergy, the insubordination of the regulars, the superstitious practices introduced into public worship, the scandalous negligence exhibited in the administration of the sacraments, and the gross abuse of all the functions of the holy ministry, matters had fallen into a most deplorable state. The archbishop began by making pastoral visits in his metropolis, where the canons were by no means distinguished for the purity of their manners. By a variety of wise and necessary regulations, he soon restored proper decency and dignity to divine service. In conformity to the decrees of the council of Trent, he cleared the cathedral of the gorgeous tombs, rich ornaments, banners, arms, and in general of all the trophies with which the vanity of man had disfigured the house of God ; and in order to give a sanction to his reform by a decisive example, he spared not the monuments of his nearest relations. Nor did his zeal stop here. He divided the nave of the church throughout its whole length into two compartments, so that the sexes, being separatVOL. v.

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ed, might perform their devotions without any attention to Borroeach other, and with feelings and impressions suitable to meus. the place. From the cathedral he proceeded next to the collegiate churches, and even to the fraternities of penitents, particularly that of St John the Baptist. The duty of this society was to attend criminals to the place of punishment, and to assist, comfort, and prepare them for death; but the spirit of the institution had been forgotten, and the wretches condemned to death were dragged to execution like beasts, without spiritual assistance or consolation. The archbishop revived the original fervour of the order, and persuaded many of the nobility and principal persons of the city to become members of a society appropriated to so eminent a branch of Christian charity. The reformation of the monasteries followed that of the churches; and the vigilance of the archbishop soon extended itself from the city to the country round it, which abounded with irregularities requiring correction. The great abuses which had overrun the church at this time arose principally from the ignorance of the clergy. In order, therefore, to attack the evil at its root, Charles established seminaries, colleges, and communities, for the education of young persons intended for holy orders. He met with many difficulties and much opposition in his endeavours to bring about a reformation of manners ; but by an inflexible constancy, tempered with great sweetness of manners, he prevailed against every obstacle, and succeeded in rendering the most important services to the cause of morals as well as religion. But the governor of the province, and many of the senators, were apprehensive that the cardinal’s ordinances and proceedings would encroach upon the civil jurisdiction, and become inconsistent with the rights of his Catholic Majesty, to whom the duchy of Milan then belonged. And this proved a fruitful source of remonstrances, representations, and complaints, addressed to the courts of Rome and Madrid; these, however, in as far as concerned the king of Spain, Philip II. were referred entirely to the decision of the pope. But Borromeus had more formidable difficulties to struggle with, in the inveterate opposition of several religious orders, particularly that of the Brothers of Humility. Three provosts of the society entered into a conspiracy to cut him off; and one of their confederates, Jerome Donat, surnamed Farina, took upon him to carry the design into execution. For this purpose he mixed with the crowd which repaired to the archiepiscopal chapel, where the cardinal spent an hour every evening in prayer with his domestics and other pious persons ; and having watched his opportunity, he fired at his eminence a harquebuss, loaded with a ball suited to the calibre of the piece, and with a considerable charge of leaden shot besides. It is said that the ball struck him on the spine, but dropped at his feet without doing any other damage than ruffling his rochet, and that one of the shot penetrated his clothes to the skin, and there stopped, without imprinting any wound; which was considered a miracle, especially as another shot tore away part of a wall, and went quite through a table. Without having recourse to such a solution, his escape is certainly wonderful, considering that the assassin had taken his station at the distance of only five or six paces from his intended victim. At the moment when the shot was fired the choir were chanting the fine old melody, Non turbetur cor vestrum neque formidet; and it is said, that after the discharge of the piece the cardinal archbishop continued the service without any apparent emotion. The assassin and three of his accomplices were seized, tried, condemned, and executed, notwithstanding every effort of the cardinal to screen them from the punishment which they so well merited. c

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BorseBorrows- In the year 1576 the city and diocese of Milan were visit- Borrowstounness is distant eighteen miles west of Edin- holder tounness. e(J by the plague, which swept away great numbers. On this burgh, and three north of Linlithgow. H BORSEHOLDER, among the Anglo-Saxons, one of Bos. occasion the behaviour of Borromeus was truly Christian and heroic. He not only continued on the spot, but went the lowest magistrates, whose authority extended^ only v about giving directions for accommodating the sick and over one free burgh, tithing, or decennary, consisting of burying the dead, with a zeal and attention that were at ten families. Every freeman who wished to enjoy the once ardent and deliberate, minute and comprehensive ; protection of the laws, and not to be treated as a vagaand his example stimulated others to join in the good bond, was under the necessity of being admitted a memwork. He avoided no danger, and he spared no expense; ber of the tithing where he and his family resided; and nor did he content himself with establishing proper regu- in order to obtain this admission, it was necessary for lations in the city, but went out into all the neighbouring him to maintain a good reputation, because all the memparishes where the contagion raged, distributing money bers of each tithing being pledges and securities for one and the whole tithing sureties to the king for tlie to the poor, ordering proper accommodations lor the sick, another, good behaviour of all its members, they were very cautious and punishing those, especially the clergy, who were readmitting any into their society who were of bad or miss in discharging the duties of their calling. But not- in withstanding the fatigue and perplexity which he suffered doubtful characters. Each tithing formed a little state or within itself, and chose one of its most rein thus executing his pastoral charge, he abated nothing commonwealth of the usual austerity of his life, nor omitted any of his spectable members for its head, who was sometimes called stated devotions ; whatever approached to luxury or mag- the alderman of such tithing or free burgh, on account of nificence he considered as incompatible with the proprie- his age and experience, but most commonly borseholder, ty of his character ; bread and water constituted his hum- from the Saxon words bor*h, a security, and alder, a head or chief. This magistrate had authority to call together ble and daily fare. But continual labours and austerities at last shortened the members of his tithing, to preside in their meetings, to put their sentences in execution. The members of the life of this remarkable man. Having gone to Vercal and to put an end, if possible, to divisions which threatened each tithing, with their tithing-man or borseholder at their themost fetal consequences, he there received a message head, constituted a court of justice in which all the little from the duke of Savoy, requesting his presence at Turin, controversies arising withm the tithing were determined, whither he immediately repaired. From Turin he retir- If any dispute of great difficulty or importance happened, ed to a place called the Sepulchre, on the mountain Va- or if either of the parties was not willing to submit to a rais, where being seized with an intermittent fever, he sentence given m the tithing-court, the cause was referred returned to Milan, and died there on the 4th of November or appealed to the next superior court, which was that of hundred. 1584, the day after his return. Borromeus was canonized theBOR SET, or BORSETT, celebrated for its baths, a place on the 1st of November 1610, in the pontificate of Leo XL Besides the Nodes Vaticance, to which he appears about half a league from Aix-la-Chapelle in Germany. The abbey is a very magnificent structure. It was forto have to nave contrinmeu, contributed, uie the umy only literary nteidij relics ^ of this intre ^ Pid and zealous reformer are some homilies, discourses, merly a monastery, but now serves as a nunnery, the 4>ind sermons, with a collection of letters. Several lives of bess of which is usually a princess of the empire, and lady him have been published. That by Godeau, however, is of Borset. The waters are warm, and of the same nature too succinct; that by Touron, a Dominican, is too diffuse; as those of Aix-la-Chapelle ; and they aie only used for and that by Ribadeneira, a Spanish Jesuit, is filled with diseases m which those last mentioned are recommended, incredible and ridiculous fables. But through all the and also in dropsical and cedematous cases. The waters mist of absurdity and superstition in which the character are distinguished into the upper and lower springs. The and actions of Borromeus have been involved, it is easy to former were found by Dr Simmonsc to raise the thermomediscern, that if the Church of Rome had had many such ter to 186°, the latter to only 127 BORSOD, a circle in the Austrian kingdom of Hungary, men, religion might have been spared some grievous wounds, and the nations of Europe many afflicting and the frontiers of which are washed by the rivers Samlior and Torna. It extends over 1332 square miles, or 852,480 sanguinary convulsions. BORROWSTOUNNESS (generally abbreviated to acres, comprehends 12 towns, 167 villages, and 19,650 Bo’ness), a sea-port town of Scotland, in the county of Lin- houses, and contains a population of 156,050 souls. Neare shore of theW of ly halt' the land is covered with woods; thewine, remainder if.th"» ow’,is STd on tile.i southern • u..-. o...™ own frmv is moderately mnrWfltelv erood but corn, fertile, and produces good hemp, Forth, where that arm of the sea is between three and four flax, and some tobacco. The manufactures are chiefly of miles broad. This is one of the most ancient sea-poit kind. towns of Scotland, and many of the houses appear to be a domestic BORYSTHENES. See BORISTHENES. of very ancient date. The town is irregularly built; the BOS, JOHN BAPTIST DU, a celebrated author and memstreets are narrow and incommodious ; and, from the number of the French academy, was born at Beauvais in 1670, ber of public works, whence smoke is profusely emitted, finished his studies at the Sorbonne. In 1695 he was the houses are for the most part coated with soot. There and one of the committee for foreign affairs under M. is an excellent harbour here, where a patent slip is erect- named Torez; he was afterwards charged with some imed for the use of shipping. The trade of this port was at portant and transactions in England, Germany, Holland, and one time considerable; but of late years it has much declined, in consequence of the navigable canal between the Italy. On his return to Paris he met with rapid preferrivers'Forth and Clyde having gradually transferred the ment, having been made an abbe, and chosen perpetual trade to . Grangemouth, at the junction of secretary of the French academy. was theare, aut1.mrCrio . .8 . w. which stands several excellent works, the prmcqialHe of which this canal with the Forth. At present it possesses three vessels employed in the whale-fishery. Ihe parish con- tical Reflections upon Poetry and Painting, 3 vols. 12mo; tains extensive coal-works. "Ihere are also two distilleries, 2. The History of the four Gordians, confirmed and illusby medals ; and 3. A critical History of the estaa pottery, a soap-work, and a vitriol and sal-ammoniac trated work. Besides the established church, there is a dissenting blishment of the French Monarchy among the Gauls, 2 meeting-house. There are two weekly markets, and an vols. 4to, and 4 vols. 12mo. He died at Paris on the 23d annual fair. The population in 1831 amounted to 2809. of March 1742.

BOS Bos. See MAMMALIA, Index. il Bos, in Antiquity, was the name of an ancient Greek loscawen. sJlver coin or didrachmus, equivalent to two drachms: it W v w/ ~ "' was sometimes also struck of gold. This coin was so called from having on it the impression of an ox. It obtained chiefly among the Athenians and Delians. Hence arose the phrase Bos in lingua, applied to those who had taken bribes to hold their tongue. BOSA, a city on the western coast of the island of Sardinia, in a fine valley on the northern bank of the Termo. It is the see of a bishop, and is somewhat subject to malaria, but contains about 4000 inhabitants. Long. 8. 25. 31. E. Lat. 40. 16. 40. N. BOSCAGE, the same with a grove or thicket. BOSCAGE, among painters, denotes a landscape repreB is

senting much wood and trees.

BOSCAN, ALMOGAVER, JUAN, a Spanish poet of the sixteenth century, born at Barcelona about the year 1500. He was the intimate friend of Garcilasso de Vega, and with him contributed essentially to the improvement of Spanish poetry. He was the first who introduced endecasyllabic verse, and transported into the Castilian tongue the sonnets and other poetical forms consecrated by the usage of the best Italian authors. His poetry is divided into three books, the first of which contains only redondillas, while the two others are filled with the pieces which he composed after he adopted his new method, namely, canciones, sonnets, tercetts, compositions in the ottava rima, and some writings in blank verse. Boscan was tutor to tbe celebrated Ferdinand de Toledo, duke of Alba, and appears to have died before the year 1543. His works were printed in conjunction with those of his friend Garcilasso, at Medina in 1544, 4to, at Leon in 1549 in 16to, and afterwards at Venice in 1553, 12mo. BOSCAWEN, EDWARD, a brave British admiral, was the second son of Hugh Lord Viscount Falmouth. Having early entered into the navy, he was, in 1740, captain of the Shoreham ; and behaved with great intrepidity as a volunteer under Admiral Vernon, at the taking of PortoBello. At the siege of Carthagena, in March 1741, he had the command of a party of seamen who resolutely attacked and took a battery of fifteen twenty-four pounders, though exposed to the fire of another fort of five guns. Lord Aubrey Beauclerk having been killed at the attack of Boca-Chica, Captain Boscawen succeeded him in the command of the Prince Frederick of seventy guns. In May 1742 he returned to England, and married Frances, daughter of William Glanville, Esq.; and the same year he was elected representative for Truro in Cornwall. In 1744 he was made captain of the Dreadnought of sixty guns ; and soon after he captured the Medea, a French man of war commanded by M. Hoquart, the first ship taken in that war. In May 1747 he signalized himself under the admirals Anson and Warren, in an engagement with the French fleet off Cape Finisterre, and was wounded in the shoulder with a musket ball. Here M. Hoquart, who then commanded the Diamond of fifty-six guns, again became his prisoner ; and all the French ships of war, ten in number, were taken. On the 15th of July he was made rearadmiral of the blue, and commander-in-chief of the sea and land forces employed on an expedition to the East Indies; and on the 4th of November he sailed from St Helen’s, with six ships of the line, five frigates, and 2000 soldiers. On the 29th of July 1748 he arrived at St David's, and soon after laid siege to Pondicherry ; but the men growing sickly, and the monsoons being expected, the siege was raised, and Mr Boscawen showed himself as much the general as the admiral in his retreat. Soon afterwards he received news of the peace, and Madras was delivered up to him by the French. In April

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1750 he arrived at St Plelen’s in the Exeter, and found Boscoi that in his absence he had been appointed rear-admiral li of the white. He was the next year made one of the Boscovich. lords commissioners of the admiralty, and chosen an elder brother of the Trinity-house. In February 1755 he was appointed vice-admiral of the blue. On the 19th of April, sailing in order to intercept a French squadron bound to North America, he fell in with the Alcide and Leys of sixty-four guns each, which were both taken. On this occasion M. Hoquart became his prisoner for the third time, and he returned to Spithead with his prizes and 1500 prisoners. In 1756 he was appointed vice-admiral of the white, and in 1758 admiral of the blue and commander-in-chief of the expedition to Cape Breton, when, in conjunction with General Amherst, and a body of troops from New England, the important fortress of Louisbourg and the whole island of Cape Breton were taken; services for which he afterwards received the thanks of the House of Commons. In 1759, being appointed to command in the Mediterranean, he arrived at Gibraltar, where hearing that the Toulon fleet, under M. de la Clue, had passed the Straits in order to join that at Brest, he got under sail, and on the 18th of August saw, pursued, and engaged the enemy. His ship, the Namur of ninety guns, losing her main-mast, he shifted his flag to the Newark ; and, after a sharp engagement, took three large ships and burnt two, in Lagos Bay, after which he returned to Spithead with his prizes and 2000 prisoners. On the 8th December 1760 he was appointed general of the marines with a salary of L.3000 per annum, and was also sworn a member of the privy council. He died in 1761. BOSCOI, or Bosci, in Ecclesiastical History, denotes a class or tribe of monks in Palestine, who fed on grass like the beasts of the field. The word is Greek, (Soaxoi, graziers, formed from ftoMu,pasco. The Boscoi are ranked amongst the number of Adamites, not so much on account of their habit as their food. They took no care about provision ; but when eating time came, they went into the fields, each with his knife in his hand, and gathered and ate what they could find. BOSCOVICH, KOGER JOSEPH, was born on the 18th of May 1711, at Ragusa, a sea-port on the coast of the Adriatic, and capital of a small republic of the same name, then under the protection of the Turks and the Venetians. It does not appear that our author gave any tokens of superior genius till he was sent to learn grammar and philosophy in the schools of the Jesuits, who were at that time the principal teachers in Ragusa, and indeed throughout all Italy. Amongst these shrewd observers his docility and obedience were sufficient to mark him out as a person likely to attain future eminence, and consequently to procure him particular attention. In his fifteenth year, after he had gone through the ordinary course of education, and when it was necessary to decide as to his future pursuits, application was made for his admission into the order; and, for the reasons just mentioned, this was readily complied with, and the subject of the present notice sent to Rome in the year 1725. On his arrival in the Eternal City he entered on his noviciate for admission into the order; but here his studies changed their character and direction, although they were still pursued with diligence. Christian morality, with the rules and constitutions of the order, claimed his attention for two years; after which he was instructed in rhetoric, and became well versed in general literature, particularly Latin poetry, which at that time was very much cultivated. From the noviciate he was sent to the Roman college to study mathematics and physics; and it was in these sciences that his genius and abilities shone forth so conspicuously, and procured him the admiration of his supe-

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which, but for his judicious interference, might Boscovich. Boscovioh. riors. In the course of three years he was able to give putes have had disagreeable consequences. w—y-w' private lessons in the mathematics; and he was then exHe was employed to correct the maps of the papal doempted from the operation of a law, by which the novices minions, and to measure a degree of the meridian passing were bound to teach Latin and the belles-lettres for five through them. In this operation he was assisted by an years before they commenced the study of theology, inis English jesuit named Christopher Maire. An account of exemption was in consequence of his great predilection for their expedition was printed at Rome and Pans, and is the mathematics, of which he was soon afterwards made interspersed with some curious anecdotes concerning the public professor. For this professorship he was eminent- opinions which the peasants of the Apennines, formed of ly qualified, as, besides a thorough knowledge of all the them, and the operations which they had to perform ; but modern productions in the science, he had acquired a it is chiefly valuable on account of the detail which is given classical severity of demonstration by studying the works of their observations. . . of the ancient geometricians; yet he conjoined withal an In the year 1757 he was sent to Vienna by the repubobliging accommodation of his own habits to the defi- lic of Lucca, to settle some differences which had arisen ciencies of his pupils, and for their benefit composed ele- concerning the draining of a lake, m which the grand mentary treatises on arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and duke of Tuscany, the emperor Francis I., and that repubtrigonometry. But notwithstanding the arduous duties lic, were concerned; and it was after he had succeeded of his situation, he found time to instruct and enlighten in the object of his mission to that city that he published more than boys; for about this period he formed some there his Theoria Philosophic^ Nuturalis in 1/58. of those refined and original notions which were destined Another occasion for his mediating powers soon preto grow up into the system that afterwards became so ce- sented itself, and move nearly interested him, as it conlebrated. The animating spirit of discovery and inven- cerned his native city of Ragusa. The British governtion led him to consider every portion of physical^science ; ment having suspected that some ships of war had been and indeed so versatile and vigorous was his mind, that fitted out in that port for the service of France, and we should be at a loss to specify any one portion which, that its neutrality had thus been infringed, this suspicion within a few years, it did not comprehend, elucidate, and alarmed the senate of Ragusa, and required speedy readvance. In confirmation of this it will be sufficient to moval, more especially as the consequences might have present our readers with an enumeration of the principal been extremely prejudicial to their commerce. Boscosubjects to which he turned his attention, and concerning vich, who had often been successful m similar missions which he published dissertations while he continued m for other powers, appeared to them the fittest person to the professorship. These were, the transit of Mercury be intrusted with this. Accordingly, having been nomiover the sun, the spots in the sun, the aurora borealis, nated by his countrymen, he repaired to London, where the construction of spherical trigonometry, the figure of he effected the object of his mission with honour to the earth, a new telescope to determine celestial objects, himself and satisfaction to his native state. He visited the ancient arguments for the rotundity of the eart , the Royal Society, which received him with distinguisxied oscillating circles; on infinites and infinitely small quan- marks of respect; and he soon afterwards complimented tities, the motion of bodies in unresisting spaces, the it with an excellent Latin poem on the solar and lunar aberration of the fixed stars, the inequalities in terres- eclipses. This was in the year 1760 Boscovich was trial gravity; on astronomy, on the limits of certainty invited by the Royal Society to be of the party of their in astronomical observations; on the solid of greatest at- members about to proceed to America in order to obtraction, the cycloid, the logistic curve lines, the vires serve the transit of Venus over the sun s disc. But vivce, the comets, light, the tides, the rainbow, the calcula- the nature of his embassy, and the necessity of returntion of fractions, the centre of gravity, the moon s atmo- ing home, prevented his accepting the invitation. Soon sphere, the law of continuity, lenses and dioptrical tele- after his return from this embassy, he was appointed scopes, the objective micrometer, and the divisibility of by the senate of Milan to the mathematical chair in the matter. Some of these are short, but all of them contain university of Pavia, with the superintendence of the obcurious and valuable matter. It is only by perusing servatory of the royal college of Brera. He continued m them that we are able to discover the gradual progress of this situation for six years, when the empress queen aphis mind, and to understand the manner in which he ar- pointed him professor of astronomy and optics in the rived at that theory of natural philosophy which is now Palatine schools of Milan, and also requested that he known by his name. ,. , . would continue his attention to the observatory. Ihis About this time a taste for philosophical poetry was he expected to prove the most agreeable part ot his file. very prevalent amongst the learned, and some of Bosco- Admired by the learned, beloved by his friends, and havvich’s acquaintances had laboured in it with success. O ing an adequate income, with a sound and vigorous conthese we may mention Father Noceti, who wrote on the stftution, he promised to himself happy because usefu rainbow and die aurora borealis, and Benedict Stay, whose days, in the tranquil cultivation of the sciences.^ But poems on the philosophy of Descartes, and on the moie a cloud long impending now burst over his head, m t ic modern philosophy, are considered as excellent examples edict for the abolition of his order, which took place of Latin^composition. Boscovich published the works of in the year 1773. No exemption from the edict could both with annotations and supplements, m which a splen- be procured; all who held offices were dismissed; and did fund of information and learning is displayed. Boscovich sought refuge in the city of Paris. Thither By such undertakings his fame was widely diftused, and indeed he was invited by Turgot, through whose means he became an object of general admiration. The leained he was made one of the directors of optics for the societies of many countries in Europe conferred on him sea service, and received a pension; but it would seem unsolicited honours, and several foreign princes invited that his situation proved disagreeable to him; nor is him to their courts. His opinions on various subjects of this to be wondered at, considering the peculiar circumcivil architecture, topography, and hydrodynamics, were stances which had induced him to take up his residence solicited by Pope Benedict XIV., John V. of Pprtuga , in the French capital. Fie remained there, however, tor and others; These applications necessarily required his ten years, on the expiry of which he set out for Bassano, presence in different states of Europe, where he never in the republic of Venice, and there published, in five vofailed to enhance his reputation, and often terminated dis-

BOS Roscovich. lumes quarto, a collection of the works which he had completed in Paris. The following is a pretty accurate enumeration of their contents: A new instrument for determining the refracting and diverging forces of diaphanous bodies ; a demonstration of the falsehood of the Newtonian analogy between light and sound; the algebraic formulae regarding the foci of lenses, and their applications for calculating the sphericity of those which are to be used in achromatic telescopes; the corrections to be made in ocular lenses, and the error of the sphericity of certain glasses; the causes which hinder the exact union of the solar rays by means of the great burning glasses, and the determination of the loss arising from it; the method of determining the different velocities of light passing through different media by means of two dioptric telescopes, one common, the other of a new kind, containing water between the objective glass and the place of the image ; a new kind of objective micrometers ; the defects and inutility of a dioptric telescope proposed and made at Paris, which gives two images of the same object, the one direct, the other inverse, with two contrary motions of movable objects; masses floating in the atmosphere, as hail of an extraordinary size, seen on the sun with the telescope, and resembling spots; the astronomical refractions, with various methods for determining them; different methods for determining the orbits of comets and of the new planet, with copious applications of these doctrines to other astronomical subjects, and still more generally to geometry and to the science of calculation; the errors, rectifications, and use of quadrants, sextants, astronomical sectoi’s, the meridian line, telescopes called transit instruments, the meridian, and the parallactic machine ; the trigonometrical differential formulae, which are of so much use in asti’onomy; the use of the micrometifical rhombus, extended to any oblique position whatsoever; the error arising from reflections in using the astronomical ring for a sun-dial, and the correction to be made; the appearing and the disappearing of Saturn’s ring; methods of determining the rotation of the sun by means of the spots; the greatest exactness possible in determining the length of a pendulum oscillating every second of mean time by the comparison of terrestrial and celestial gx*avity; a compend of astronomy for the use of the marine, containing the elements of the heavenly motions, and of the astronomical instruments, to be explained to a prince in the course of one month; a method for determining the altitudes of the poles with the greatest exactness, by means of a gnomon alone, where other instruments are not to be had ; the determination of the illuminated edge of the moon to be observed on the meridian; a method of using the retrograde return of Venus to the same longitude, for determining the less certain elements of her oi'bit; a method for correcting the elements of a comet, of which the longitude of the node is given, and the inclination of the orbit has been nearly found; another method for the same purpose, and for finding the elliptical orbit, when the parabolic one does not agree with observation ; a method for correcting the elements of a planet by three observations ; the projection of an orbit inclined in the plane of the ecliptic; the projection of an orbit inclined in any other plane; the calculation of the aberration of the stars, arising from the successive propagation of light; and some beautiful theorems belonging to triangles, which are of great use in astronomy, reduced to the most simple demonstrations. After the publication of these works, our author quitted Bassano, and went to Rome to visit the companions of his youth. From Rome he proceeded to Milan, where he revised some of his own woi’ks, and prepared for publication the two last volumes of Stay’s poems. His death

BOS 21 took place on the 13th of February 1787, in the seventy-Boshuanac. sixth year of his age. Besides the different works above mentioned, Boscovich wrote several others on various subjects, as on the project of turning the navigation to Rome from Fiumicino to Maccarese ; on two torrents in the territory of Perugia ; on the bulwarks of the river Ponaro ; on the river Sidone in the territory of Placentia; on the bulwarks of the Po ; on the harbours of Ancona, of Rimini, of Magna Vacca, and Savona ; besides some others, almost all of which were printed. For an account of the system developed in the Theoria Philosophic Naturalis, see the article Physics. BOSHUANAS, called by some Bichuanas, or Betjuanas, a numerous people, or rather race, who occupy an extensive territory in Southern Africa. Their country is bounded on the south by the Cape Colony, on the east by the Caffre territoxy, on the north by the Makooas, and other tribes bordering on the Portuguese settlement of Mozambique. The western limit is partly unknown, partly composed of extensive deserts. Down to the commencement of the present century, this people were entbely unknown to Europeans. Mr Barrow, indeed, in his second journey into the country of the Caffres, obtained some notices respecting them. In 1801, while the settlement laboured under a severe scarcity of cattle, two gentlemen belonging to it, Messrs Truffer and Sommei’ville, set out on an expedition, with the view of procuring a supply. Having passed, first the Great Karroo or Arid Desert, then the Snowy Mountains, and the territory of the rude Bosjesmans, they arrived at an extensive pastoral plain watered by the ample stream of the Orange river, and inhabited by the Koras or Koranas, who appeared considerably superior to any of the other Hottentot tribes. Here they met with a Boshuana, and received from him such accounts as induced them to accompany him to his own countiy. They soon passed the frontier, and entered on a fertile and finely-watered territory, where, after a few days’ journey, they were surprised to find, in the heart of this nxde and unknown region of Africa, what might almost be termed a city. The houses and streets of Lattakoo were built and arranged in a manner decidedly superior to any hitherto seen in the southern districts of this great continent. The king, a venerable old man, received them with kindness, and they became to all the natives objects of fx-iendly curiosity. These people appeared to our ti’avellers not only to have made considerable progress in the arts and in civilization, but to live together in a patriarchal simplicity and harmony, which almost realized the fabled pictures of the golden age. Lord Caledon, then governor of the Cape, on receiving this interesting intelligence, determined to follow out the career of discovery thus opened. He dispatched Dr Cowan and Lieutenant Denovan, with a party of twenty, to endeavour to penetrate through the territory of the newly-discovered people, and if possible to reach the coast at Mozambique and Sofala, by which they would throw important light on a very considei’able extent of the geography of Africa. The travellers experienced at Lattakoo the same fi-iendly reception as their precursors ; they then arrived at the residence of a chief called Makkx-akka, who afforded them a still more cordial welcome. A letter was received from them, dated from the residence of this chief, in about 24. south latitude, in which they described the country as increasing in beauty and fertility, and as watered by a noble river flowing to the westward. Makki*akka sent forward his own brother to recommend them to the Wanketzens, the tribe immediately to the northward. Here they met at first with a reception altogether favourable; but this ti'eachei'ous people, seeing them thrown

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were smelted in large furnaces of clay; and they hadBoshuana, Boshuanas. off their guard, determined upon an attack, for the pur- well constructed vessels of earthenware for holding their pose of seizing all their property. The expedition impru- grain and stores. The men are dressed chiefly m skins, dently separated into three parties, one of which went to often prepared with considerable ingenuity; whilst those bathe, while another remained in charge of the waggons, of wild animals are thrown over their shoulders for orand a third of the cattle. The natives having attacked nament. The ladies of rank wear ample mantles, prosuccessively these three bodies, succeeded too fully in their fusely embellished with beads, rings, and various species atrocious design, and entirely cut off the Enghs . of ornaments. Makaitshoah, the beautiful wife of the The government at the Cape did not for some time ob- king of Lattakoo, appeared to Dr Lichtenstein, having tain any intelligence respecting this party, and the hrs her robe trimmed with rich furs, a large bundle of cats rumour of the disaster arrived by way of Mozambique. tails hanging from the left shoulder, and one arm loaded No official mission has since been dispatched ; yet several with no less than seventy-two copper rings ; the display ot travellers, animated by liberal curiosity, or the benevolent which appeared to be an object of peculiar pride. _ desire of communicating to the natives the truths oi the In regard to their political situation, they have kings gospel, have penetrated even deeper into the interior of who rule with a species of patriarchal authority, and chiefthis region than those now mentioned. Dr Lichtenstein, ly by means of influence and persuasion. When any after an extensive survey of the country of the ^aftl e®’ affair of great importance is to be decided, a peetso, or ventured, not without some apprehension, to Lattakoo, but general assemblv of the chiefs and warriors, is summoned. met with a perfectly friendly reception. Leing solicited, These assemblages are carried on in a peculiar, and even however, to give aid with fire-arms m awar against Mak- extravagant style. The chiefs on their way indulge m krakka, the traveller, unwilling to involve himself m these strange gestures and gambols. Before entering on deliinterior African contests, wisely took the first opjoi tu- beration" they commonly join in a song, whilst the princinity of returning, after gaining, however, a good deal of pal orator often strikes up a dance. Every speech is preinformation. In 1813, the Reverend Mr Campbell, at the faced by three tremendous howls or yells, sometimes imirequest of the Missionary Society, and with a view to tating the cries of animals, while several of the attendants promote its objects, ventured on an expedition into t ns dance in unison. As the debate proceeds the female cititerritory. Although the dispositions of the people were zens form an exterior circle, and by loud cheers oi derisive not altogether such as he could have wished, he had laughter express their sense of the observations made by no personal cause of complaint. Lattakoo was found (a the speakers. . . change not uncommon in Africa, and consequent upon a The distinctions of wealth, and even of rank, are pretty schism among its inhabitants) to have been transposed strongly marked in this society; yet they have httle inabout sixty miles from its former situation. It appeared fluence on the general train ot social intercourse. IV aalso diminished in size, not containing above 1500 houses teebe, or Mattivi, the chief whom the travellers call king, and 8000 inhabitants. Although unable to effect any con- was seen seated on the ground smoking and exchanging versions, he obtained, with some difficulty, permission foi pipes with the most ordinary citizens. He does not 1»missionaries to settle here, and a promise of good treat- terfere in private quarrels, even when they proceed to ment In 1820 he returned and found the establishment bloodshed; this is considered to be an affajr between in a tolerably flourishing state. The missionaries had individuals. He waits till his arbitration is called for, and neat houses and gardens built for their use, with a chapel then proceeds, often in a very summary manner, executcapable of containing 400 persons, though it was very in- with his own hand the sentence pronounced. thinly attended. Mr Campbell penetrated northwards to A considerable degree of internal union and harmony Mashow, Meribohway, and Kurrechane, townslarger than prevails among these tribes. Their manners, making no Lattakoo, and governed by separate chiefs. Mr Burche pretensions to any high refinement, are neither coarse nor afterwards, in the course of an extensive tour thiough boisterous; their general deportment is frank and COr^’ Southern Africa, penetrated beyond Lattakoo, and west- and a kind and friendly spirit towards one another see ward to Bakarrikarri, on the confines of the Great Desert. to prevail. But the intercourse of different states with We have thus, from a succession of intelligent travellers, each other forms a complete scene ^^^^JXir very satisfactory information respecting this country, and Commandos, or forays, to carry off the cattle of their the tribes by which it is inhabited. . . neighbours, and kill all who oppose them, form their most The Boshuanas are proved, both by their form and favourite employment. They seem to consider themselves language, to belong to the same race with the Cafiies ; born for this purpose; and the number of cattle whic but their persons are less vigorous, and in the male sex they have carried off, and of men whom they have slam, less strikingly handsome ; yet many of their females pos- s through life their highest boast. Dr Lmhtens^in even sess a great share of beauty. Although they are not o states, that on returning from a successful expedition they the whole so fine and manly a race, yet they have made celebrate a horrid feast^ in which each produces a portion n greater progress in the useful and even ornamental aits. of the flesh of his slaughtered enemy, which he roasts and AericuUure°fs carried on with considerable dd.gence; devours. Towards strangers their behaviour has been though, as is too common in barbarous tribes, its labours generally friendly and hospitable. Mr Campbell s party are devolved entirely on the female sex, who have t e were indeed astonished, on arriving at one ot the towns, additional task of building the houses and fashioning the to see the warriors rushing forth to meet them, brandis ifurniture and dress. The men, on the other hand, take ing their battle-axes, painted red, and dressed m the skins the entire charge of the cattle, which constitutes their of wild beasts; but this soon proved to be only a form o chief wealth. Cultivation is confined to the spaces sur- barbarous welcome. After the first ceremony was over rounding their towns, which are built on heights for the however, they began actively to beg, and even to pilfer purposed defence; and the cattle are driven out ev^y tobacco, a European luxury of which they soon be™ morning to feed, often at a considerable distance, and excessively fond. The missionaries have been always brought back at night within the circuit of the mclosures. well treated, but have never made much progress in their The habitations are neat and commodious, being enc main obiect. Engrossed by their tumultuary occupations cled with substantial walls of earth or stone; and some and Lr, this people seem tohaeeapeeohar parts are moulded into pillars, or other ornamental shapes apathy towards all spiritual and abstract ideas. T y and carefully painted. At Kurrechane iron and copper

BOS BOS 23 Bosjes- seem also, from Mr Burchell’s observation, to be familiar Europe. It is bounded on the north by Austria, from Bosphorus mans with all the forms of superstition prevalent among an ig- which it is divided by the rivers Unna and Save ; on the II east by Semendra and Aladschaissar; on the south-east 4>ossuBo-nia norant People. In advancing northwards into the interior, the country by Beldschterin and Dukagin; on the south by Iscanseems to improve, becoming more populous, while the peo- dria and Austria; and on the west by Austria. It exple are more industrious, and better skilled in the arts. tends over 13,000 square miles. The whole province is Mashow, beautifully situated on a hill, was estimated to mountainous, many of the summits reaching to the height contain 10,000 or 12,000 inhabitants; and it was sur- of 6000-feet. From the nature of the soil, it is more aprounded by twenty-nine villages, within a circuit of twenty propriate for the breeding of cattle than the operations of miles of cultivated territory. Kurrechane, still larger and the plough. The chief kind of cattle reared are sheep in more handsomely built, was supposed to contain 16,000 large flocks, some good horses and cows, with here and or 17,000 people. there a few buffaloes and goats. There are a few mines This country was exposed in 1823 to a most disastrous of copper; and formerly some of gold and silver were invasion, from a predatory and ferocious race called the worked, especially a very celebrated one at Jlatnizza; but Mantatees, or “ wanderers.” They were in fact a col- they are now neglected. There are some quarries of good lected multitude of different Caffre tribes, flying before marble ; and at Tuzla a very copious and strong spring the attack of the Zoolas, who had formed a dominion on of salt water, which is converted into culinary salt. The the coast of Natal. The invaders were estimated at manufactures are of the domestic kind, and upon a small 40,000 warriors, almost naked, armed with clubs, spears, scale, for making leather, cloth, and iron wares. The and battle-axes, and having their legs adorned with nu- number of inhabitants, as in all Turkey, is doubtful. The merous brass rings. They succeeded in sacking Kurre- country is thinly peopled; some accounts stating the inhachane; and, after being repulsed from another town, ad- bitants at 850,000, others at no more than 600,000, but vanced upon Lattakoo, where they spread the most dead- all agreeing that the majority are Christians chiefly of the ly consternation ; the inhabitants not being possessed of Catholic church. courage sufficient to enable them to face such a formiBOSPHORUS, or Bosporus, in Geography, a long and dable attack. They received, however, the aid of a party narrow channel running in between two lands, or sepaof Griqua Hottentots, who had learned from Europeans rating two continents, and by which two seas, or a gulf the use of fire-arms ; and after an obstinate conflict turned and a sea, communicate with each other. In this sense to flight this immense multitude, and obliged them to re- Bosphorus means a channel or strait, and is synonymous treat within the Caffre territory. (e.) with what the Italians call faro, the Latins fretum, and BOSJESMANS, or Bushmen, a race of Hottentots the French pas or manche. The word is Greek, fioifTogof, who inhabit the sides and valleys of the Sneuwberg, or being formed of /3ous, an ox, and -rosos, passage, probably Snowy Mountains, which form the northern boundary of from an idea that an ox or bullock might swim across. the colony of the Cape of Good Hope. They are rude The name of Bosphorus is chiefly confined to two and savage in the extreme, and, perhaps beyond any other straits, namely, the Bosphorus of Thrace, commonly callrace in existence, deformed and miserable. Their persons ed the Strait of Constantinople, or Channel of the Black present a caricature of that hideous form which charac- Sea; and the Cimmerian or Scythian Bosphorus, now terizes the Hottentot; the hollow back, the large belly, known by the name of the Strait of Jenikale. The origin and protruding posteriors, causing them to exhibit nearly of the name is not disputed; but various mythological the shape of the latter S. Destitute of cultivation, and legends, some of them absurd enough, were invented to being allowed to occupy only the most dreary and barren account for its first application. tracts, they find the utmost difficulty in procuring a scanty BOSQUETS, in Gardening, groves so called, from bossupply of the most wretched aliments. Wild animals pur- chetto, an Italian word which signifies a little wood. They sued across rugged rocks, roots dug from the earth, and the are compartments in gardens formed by branches of trees larvae of ants and insects, form their only regular resources, disposed either regularly in rows, or wildly and irregulario this indeed they add frequent predatory excursions in ly, according to the fancy of the owner. A bosquet is order to carry off the cattle from the store-farms in the either a plat of ground inclosed with palisades of hornplains below; but this involves them in a severe and un- beam, the middle filled with tall trees, the tops of which equal contest, since their arrows, though tipt with deadly form an umbrageous covering ; or it consists only of high poison, and shot with surprising dexterity, are not a match trees, as horse-chestnut, elm, and the like. for the fire-arms of the colonists. They are hunted down BOSSINEY, a small borough in Cornwall, in the parish like wild beasts, and, wherever they appear, are shot with- of Tintagel and hundred of Lesneweth. It is sometimes out the smallest scruple. Mr Barrow met with a young called the town of Trevenna. The ruins of a castle near man who had made a journey along part of their territory, it, according to the local tradition, are said to be those of and who being asked if he had seen any of them, replied the palace in which King Arthur was born, and where with an air of disappointment, that he had shot only four, the ancient dukes of Cornwall resided. The inhabitants from their mode of life, they derive the power of enduring amounted in 1801 to 649, in 1811 to 793, and in 1821 fasting for an extraordinary length of time ; though, when to 877. they have succeeded in carrying off a sheep or other aniBOSSO, in Latin Bossus, Matthew, distinguished by mal, they devour the flesh without intermission, till it is his virtue and his learning, was born at Verona in 1428. entirely consumed. Yet they display nothing of that He devoted himself to the ecclesiastical state in 1451, in sluggish and gloomy deportment which characterizes the the congregation of regular canons of St John de Lateran, servile Hottentot. 4 hey bound with wonderful agility and afterwards taught divinity at Padua. His orations, from rock to rock, either in flight or in chase of their prey; his sermons, and his letters, have often been printed. He and on certain festive occasions, they give way even to an was also the author of a sort of an apology for Phalaris, extravagant gaiety; dancing whole days and nights with- and other works ; and died at Padua in 1502, aged sevenout intermission, especially by moonlight. Even the pic- ty-five. tures of animals which they delineate on the rocks are not BOSSU, Rene Le, born at Paris on the 16th March altogether destitute of spirit or resemblance. 1631, studied at Nauterre, and then entered amono- the BOSNIA, the farthest north-east province of Turkey in regular canons of Sainte-Genevieve in 1649. After5hav-

BOS BOS 24 same time how vain and perishable was the glory which Bossuet. Bossuet. ing professed the humanities in different religious houses J f0r twelve years, he withdrew into retirement, and died he had acquired. Forty years after, Bossuet repeated the same truths over the bier of the princely warrior. During on the 14th March 1680. His first publication was 1 a- the whole of that long period he had enjoyed his fnendrallele des Principes de la Physique d'Anstote et de cede ship and esteem. . , de Rene Descartes, which appeared in 1674. He attemptIn 1652 Bossuet took the degree of doctor, and received ed, says Voltaire, to reconcile Aristotle and Descartes ; tie also the order of priesthood. In thus devoting himself was not aware that it had become necessary to abandon to the cause of religion, he exclaimed, “ Under thy ausboth. His next work, entitled Trade du Poeme Ejnque, pices, O sacred Truth, I will joyfully approach those alwas published in 1675, and often reprinted afterwards. tars, which are to witness the oath I am about to take ; The leading doctrine of this treatise is, that the subject an oath which our ancestors have often heard; that most should be chosen before the characters, and that the ac- pleasing and most sacred oath, by which I am to bind tion should be arranged without reference to the per- myself, even to death, to the holy cause of truth. After sonages who are to figure in the scene; a doctrine which passing some time in the retreat at St Lazarus, under the led Voltaire to observe that every epic poet who followec discipline of St Vincent de Paul, whose riendship he had the rule of Bossu would be sure of never being read, but obtained, he went to Metz, in the cathedral church of that happily it is wholly impossible to follow it. .Never- which city he had previously obtained the preferment o theless, Boileau, in his Third Reflexion on Longinus, j>to- a canonicate, and where he was successively raised to the nounces the work of Le Bossu “ 1'un des ems 'm-es rank of archdeacon and dean. He now applied himself de po6tique qui, du consentement de tous les habiles ge s, wholly to the duties of his ministry, edifying those who aient ete faits en notre langue. In abatement of t surrounded him by the pumy of his life, and astonishing commendation, however, it may be stated, on the autho- them by the splendour of his talents. His first appearance rity of Le Courayer, that Le Bossu had stepped forwaid as an author was in 1655, when he published his Refutaas the champion of Boileau against Saint-Sorlm, by whom tion of the Catechism of Paul Ferry, a 1 rotestant minister he had been attacked; that Boileau expressed himself ex- highly esteemed for his learning and talents. This work ceedingly grateful for this service; and that a sense of advanced his reputation greatly with his own party, and, obligation, as much, perhaps, as a sense of justice, may it is said, gained him even the respect of the Protestants. have dictated the commendation bestowed on the work The affairs of the cathedral rendering his presence necessary in Paris, he often preached there ; and his sermons m BOSSUET, James Benigne, one of the most illus- were so universally applauded, that he was appointed to trious prelates which the church of trance, so fruitful in preach in the chapel of the Louvre before Louis XIV. sreat men, has ever produced, was born at Dijon on the during the Lent of 1663. His Majesty signified the 21th September 1627. He was descended from an ancient pleasure he derived from his sermons in a letter which his and noble family in Burgundy. On the establishment o private secretary wrote by his desire to Bossuet s fathei. the parliament of Metz, his father was appointed one of In 1669 he was nominated to the bishopric of Conits counsellors. Being destined by his parents for the dom, but being appointed preceptor to the Dauphin the church, the young Bossuet took the clerical tonsure be- following year, he resigned his see, because he considerfore he had completed his eighth year. At first he was ed his new charge as inconsistent with the duty he owed placed under the care of his uncle, the first president of to his diocese. For the instruction of the Dauphin he the parliament of Metz; and he used to rebte thaVwhde composed his work on universal history, which he divided a mere boy, under his uncle s roof, he read the Old le into three parts. The first part is purely chronological; tament with a relish and delight far exceeding any p < - but it has been well observed that it scarcely contains a sX he afterwards felt on the perusal of any other wo£ sentence in which there is not some noun or verb that His uncle afterwards placed him at the college of the Je- conveys an image or suggests a sentiment of the nobles suits at Dijon, where he applied himself to his studies kind. The third part, which is historical, contains the with such labour and success that they desired to attach most profound reflections on the rise and fall of empires. him to themselves; but in 1642 his uncle sent him “ But in the second part of it,” as one of his biographers Paris to the college of Navarre. Here, under tbe direc- observes, “ the genius of Bossuet takes its highest flight. tion of the celebrated Nicholas Cornet the principal, Bos- Fie never appears on the stretch of exertion; he is never suet made rapid progress in Greek and philosophy, le- lost in the mazes of argumentation; but, in a continued Heving his studJfrom time to time by reading the best strain of sublime eloquence, he displays the truths and works of antiquity; but the Scriptures and religious books proofs of the Christian religion with a grandeur of thought, always occupied 1 large share of his time. At the age of a magnificence of language, and a force of evidence, whic i sixteen he supported his first thesis in a manner which nothing can withstand. A nobler work in support of gave indications of his future greatness, and which caused Christianity has never issued from the press. I his woik him to be already regarded as a prodigy. An extempore was first published in 1681. Ten years before, he had sermon which he shortly afterwards delivered, at the Ho- published his Exposition of the Doctrine of the Catholic tel of Rambouillet, in presence of an assembly partly com- Church in Matters of Controversy, which was speedily posed of the most celebrated men of the time, excited translated into all the living languages of Europe. Rope Innocent XL formally approved of it by two successive Se Her was admitted into the corporation of the college at the briefs on the 22d November 1678 and the 12th July 1679, a^e of twenty, on which occasion he chose for the subject and the Gallican clergy in their assembly of 1682 gave it of his thesis a comparison between the glory of t ns woi also the seal of their approbation. It has therefore, we and that which awaits the just in the next. Duiing the believe, been regarded as a correct exposition of the delivery of this discourse, the great Conde, who had just tenets of the Roman Catholic Church. dazzled France by the splendour of his victories, suddenly The publication of the Exposition gave rise to the faentered the hall, surrounded by a number of his companions mous conference between Bossuet and M. Claude, one o in arms. The orator, without interrupting his harangue, the ablest divines of the reformed church m France. As immediately addressed himself to the young conqueror, a specimen of the argumentative powers of both chamand, in the name of France, paid him a just and appropriate pions, we shall select a few sentences from that part of tribute of admiration and praise; but he told him at the

BOS Bossuet. the conference which relates to the right of private judgment in matters of faith. On the one hand, Bossuet contended for an unconditional submission to the authority of the church; while, on the other, M. Claude only admitted a conditional submission to the decrees of the national assembly of his own, or those of any other church, or, in other words, that a conscientious submission could only be required if the party thought their determinations were conformable to the word of God. “ Surely,” said Bossuet, “ this right of individual examination, which you recognise in each individual, must be accompanied with the highest individual presumption.” “ That by no means follows,” replied M. Claude; “ when the synagogue declared that Jesus Christ was not the Messiah promised by the prophets, and condemned him to death, would not an individual who believed him to be the true Christ have judged better than the synagogue ? Could you accuse such an individual of presumptuously believing that he understood the Scriptures better than all the synagogue ?” It is impossible to conceive a more able reply than this. It produced, as it ought, a powerful impression on the audience, and even staggered the great champion of the Catholic church. After a short pause, during which he says he offered up a mental prayer for light and direction from above, he thus addressed M. Claude: “ You say that my assertion, that the individual who sets up his private opinion in opposition to that of the whole church must be guilty of intolerable presumption, fixes the charge of equal presumption on those who believed in Jesus Christ in opposition to the sentence of the synagogue which had pronounced him guilty of blasphemy". Most certainly my assertion proves nothing of the kind. When an individual now sets up his own private opinion in opposition to that of the whole church, he sets it up against the highest authority on earth, as the earth contains no authority to which an appeal from that authority can be made. But when the synagogue condemned Jesus Christ, there was on earth a much higher authority than the synagogue ; to that authority the individual who reprobated the proceedings of the synagogue might appeal. Truth herself then visibly existed among men—the Messiah, the eternal Son of God,—He to whom a voice from above had rendered testimony, by proclaiming before the whole people that he was the well-beloved Son of God,—He who restored the dead to life, gave sight to the blind, and did so many miracles, that the Jews themselves-confessed no man had done the like before him,—He, the Jesus himself, then existed among men, and was the visible external authority to whom there was a lawful appeal from the synagogue. His authority was infallible. I hear you say that it was a contested authority. I know that it was contested; but, as a Christian, you are bound to say that no individual could reasonably or conscientiously contest it. It was not, therefore, presumption—it was duty to disobey the synagogue and believe in Christ. Bring back to me Jesus Christ in person ; bring him teaching, preaching, and working miracles—I no longer want the church : but don’t take the church from me, unless you give me Jesus Christ in person. You say you have his word. Yes, certainly, we have his holy, adorable word; but what is to be done with those who understand it in a wrong sense ? Jesus Christ is not present in person to set them right: they must therefore obey the church. Before Jesus Christ appeared among the Jews, they were bound to obey the synagogue. When the synagogue failed, Jesus Christ came among men to teach them all truth, and they were bound to obey his voice. When he returned to his Father, he left us his church, and we are bound to obey her voice. There is not—no, there is not on earth any visible higher authority to which you can VOL. v.

BOS

25

appeal from her.” This is, no doubt, very ingeniously Bossuet. argued; but, considered as a piece of mere reasoning, it proceeds upon an assumption which cannot be admitted without separate proof, and it evades the case so forcibly put, by introducing the subject of time, which, in truth, formed no element in the question at issue. Further, it is evident that, mutatis mutandis, the same reasoning might have been employed by the Rabbin of the synagogue, who, on grounds precisely identical, might have argued in favour of the divine authority of the church established by Moses. Having finished the education of the Dauphin in 1681, the king nominated Bossuet to the bishopric of Meaux, and he entered with zeal upon the duties of his new episcopate. He took a very active part in the general assembly of the church of France held the following year, and drew up the celebrated declaration of 1682 against the attempted encroachments of the see of Rome. Bossuet now directed all the energies of his powerful mind to the most important of all his controversial works, the History of the Variations of the Protestant Churches, which was first published in 1688. Gibbon in his younger years was converted to the Roman Catholic faith by perusing this work, retiring for a while, like Chillingworth, to use the expression of Dr Johnson in his Life of Dryden, into the bosom of an infallible church. It has been remarked as a singular coincidence, that although no writers were ever more opposed in sentiment than Bossuet and the author of the Decline and Fall of the Homan Empire, yet the latter (c. 54) adopts and aggravates the charges made by Bossuet, in his History of the Variations, of the alleged Socinian tendency of the principles of the Reformation. During the last years of Iw life Bossuet was much occupied in the hopeless scheme of effecting a union between the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches. The negociation was first carried on with Molanus, who limited his views to a junction between the Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches, a plan which many persons considered by no means impracticable. But Leibnitz, who succeeded Molanus on the part of the Protestants, being desirous of including the whole Protestant churches in the arrangement, the negociation failed, as might have been expected, after a correspondence of ten years. It was the fate of Bossuet to be involved in religious conti'oversy during the greater part of his life. He entered the arena at the age of twenty-eight, and during the fifty years which followed, his pen was in constant requisition. He composed with ease, but, like Burke, he laboured hard to improve his writings, and did not cease to alter them till they issued from the press; yet the style of both is as free as if it had been quite spontaneous. Some of Bossuet’s principal writings against the Protestants have been mentioned. He was also engaged in controversies with persons of his own communion. That with the amiable Fenelon is the most conspicuous. The mystical speculations of Madame Guyon of Port Roval having found an abettor in the person of the author of 'felemachus, in a work on the maxims of the saints, Bossuet drew up his Relationdu Quietisme, in which the archbishop was attacked with great severity. Fenelon published a reply, in which meekness, simplicity, and grandeur of mind were admirably blended. The writings in this controversy are amongst the finest in French literature; but Quietism being a perishable topic, these writings are now seldom read. In this contest the eagle of Meaux carried off the palm of victory. Among the writings of Bossuet, his sermons and funeral orations are particularly to be distinguished. Of the latter, the finest is that on the death of Henrietta-Anne, the daughter of our Charles I. and wife of the duke of Orleans. As his funeral orations place him in the first class of orators, so his sermons unquestionably rank him n

BOS BOS 26 of the city to Roxburgh, is 8000 feet in length and BosweU, Bossupt in the first line of preachers. It has been observed that part Bourdaloue and Massillon alone can dispute his pre-emi- is formed of solid earth supported on each side by stone Boston. nence. In the opinion of Voltaire, the eloquence of Bos- walls. It serves the double purpose of a bridge and a suet stands unrivalled. This great prelate died on the dam, by means of which, and a cross dam, two large basins one of which fills at flood-tide, the other is 12th of April 1704, in the 77th year of his age. Massillon are formed, at ebb-tide; and thus a perpetual water power is and other French writers have eulogised the talents and emptied virtues of Bossuet in terms of the highest admiration ; and created for driving machinery. The wharfs of Boston spacious, and afford ample accommodation to shipping he is thus noticed by the Reverend Mr Eustace, in his are storehouses for merchandise. The streets are mostly Classical Tour: “ Bossuet was indeed a great man, and and narrow and irregular, but well paved. The number or one of those extraordinary minds which, at distant inter- dwelling-houses is about 10,000, besides the store-houses vals, seem as if deputed from a superior region to enlighten and shops, which are numerous. The greater part ot the and to astonish mankind. With all the originality of ge- buildings are of brick, but some are of granite and siemte. nius, he was free from its eccentricity and intemperance. Many of the dwelling-houses are large and well built. 1 he Sublime, without obscurity—bold, yet accurate-splen- principal public edifices are the state-house, which stands did, and yet simple at the same time,—he awes, elevates, on the highest part of the city; the county court-house; and delights his readei's, overpowers all resistance, and Faneuil hall; the Massachusetts general hospital; the Taleads them willing captives to join and to share his triumph. neuil hall market; about forty churches ; ten public school The defects of his style arise from the imperfection of his houses ; two theatres; a house of industry; a house ot cordialect. And perhaps he could not have given a stronger rection ; and a county jail. The city is divided into twelve proof of the energies of his mind than in compelling the wards. The municipal government is vested in a mayor, French language itself to become the vehicle of sublimity. eight aldermen, and a common council of forty-eight memHis works, therefore, are superior to all other controver- bers, who are annually chosen by the citizens. I here sial writings in his own or any other language. His a great number of well-conducted schools, and a va" works were collected and published soon after his decease are riety of charitable institutions, in Boston. Hayard Uniin twelve volumes quarto. The Benedictines of St Maur versity, which is the principal literary institution in the published another edition; but a more complete ^ditmn, vicinity, is situated at Cambridge, three miles distant from in forty-three volumes octavo, was published in 1815-^0. the city. The Boston Athemeum has two large buildings, Cardinal de Bausset wrote a history of the life of Bossuet, one containing a library of about 24,000 volumes, and the which was published in four volumes octavo. (a.) a picture gallery, with a hall for public lectures, and BOSSUPT, a town of the Netherlands, in the province other other rooms for scientific purposes. Among the literary of Brabant. Long. 4. 30. E. Eat. 50. 52. N. scientific societies of Boston are the American acaBOST, a very strong town of Persia, and capital of tne and demy of arts and sciences, the historical society, the Masprovince of Zablestan. Long. 64. 15. E. Eat. 31. 50. N. sachusetts medical society, and a mechanics institution. BOSTANGIS, in Turkey, persons employed in the There are six newspapers published daily, three twice a garden of the seraglio, out of whose number are selected week, several weekly, and a number of other periodicals, those who row in the grand signior’s brigantines, when he amongst which are the North American Revieio and the has a mind to divert himself with fishing, or to take the Christian Examiner. The pursuits of the inhabitants are an extei air upon the canal. „ , , i a great measure mercantile. They cayry J‘ BOSTON, a market-town and borough of the hundrea in sive foreign trade. The shipping owned in 1828 amountof Skirbeck, in the county of Lincoln, 140 miles from ed to 161,583 tons. The annual imports amount to about London, on the river Whitham, which divides it into two 13,000,000, and the exports to about 9,000,000 dollars. parts. The river is navigable, and is joined by a canal Many varieties of manufactures are carried on here. which connects it with the city of Lincoln. It is in a Boston was founded in the year 1630, and received its marshy situation and has a dense atmosphere,0but the land name from a borough so called in England, from which a ect of a t surrounding it is highly fertile. The chief ^J J ‘ portion of the inhabitants had emigrated. It was the birthtention is the church with its lofty tower, 290 feet m t0 18 a ua e place of Benjamin Franklin, and here the war of American height, which having a lanthorn at the P> ya* b independence began. Since the year 1783 the population object to ships approaching that flat coast. There is muc has gone on doubling in about twenty-three yea^ ■“} trade carried on in corn with the metropolis and other parts 1810 the number of inhabitants amounted to 33,250, and of the kingdom. The markets are held on Wednesdays in 1829 to about 60,000. Boston is situated 210 miles and Saturdays. The inhabitants amounted m ISO! to north-east of New York. Long. 71. 4. W. Lat. 42. 22. N. 5926, in 1811 to 8113, and in 1821 to 10,373. BOSWELL, James, Esq. of Auchinleck, in the county Boston, the capital of Massachusetts, is the largest of Ayr, whose life of Dr Samuel Johnson entitles him to city of New England, and the second in commercial im- a place among those who have contributed to the grea portance in the United States. It is situated at the stock of intellectual wealth, was the eldest son of Alexbottom of Massachusetts Bay, at the mouth of Charles ander Boswell, styled Lord Auchinleck, one of the judges River. It stands principally on a small peninsula ot e‘^‘ of the supreme courts of session and justiciary in Scotvated ground, two miles and three quarters in length y land. He was born in the year 1740, and, having reone in breadth, and is connected with the continent by ceived the rudiments of his education, partly in his faan isthmus and by seven bridges. South Boston stands ther’s house, and partly at Mr MundelTs school in Edinwithout the peninsula; and including it, the city covers a burgh, successively prosecuted his studies at the universurface of nearly three square miles. The harbour is capa- sities of that city and of Glasgow. He was destined by cious, and has a depth of water sufficient to admit the hug- his father for the Scottish bar; a pursuit with which his est ships of war. The anchorage is excellent, the ship- own inclinations did not much accord, and instead o ping being protected from storms by numerous islands, which he would gladly have substituted one of greater on several of which are fortifications. With one excep- activity and enterprise. His father s wishes, however, tion, all the bridges are of wood. That which connects and his own sense of filial duty, prevailed ; and, as the Boston with Cambridge, a minor town, is 3483 teet in study of civil law at one of the foreign universities was length, and is supported by 180 piers. The western avenue, then included in the most liberal plan of education for a as it is called, leading across the bay from the western

27 BOSWELL. in whose Boswell, Boswell, Scottish advocate, it was determined that Mr Boswell David Montgomery, Esq.; an accomplished lady, 1 t, James, should repair for that purpose to Utrecht, with a permis- society he enjoyed every domestic happiness. In the year 1773 Mr Boswell was admitted into the sion, before his return, to make the tour of Europe. Already, however, those traits of character might be Literary Club, which then met at the Turk’s Head in observed which gave a peculiar direction to his after- Gerard Street, Soho, and of which Dr Johnson had been life. He was very early ambitious of being admitted into an original member. Here he had the pleasure of associthe society and friendship of men distinguished by talent ating with Burke, Goldsmith, Reynolds, Garrick, and other and public estimation, more especially those of eminence eminent persons. Dr Johnson had long projected a tour to the Hebrides ; in the literary world; and his natural urbanity, as well as gaiety of disposition, rendered it no difficult matter to gra- and Mr Boswell at last prevailed upon him, in the course tify his propensity. While at the university of Glasgow, of this year, 1773, to put the plan in execution, and behe had formed a particular intimacy with Mr Temple, the came the companion of his journey from Edinburgh. friend of Gray, afterwards vicar of St Gluvias in Corn- During this excursion, they saw whatever was most rewall ; and he was known to many of the conspicuous cha- markable in the Western Highlands and Isles ; and here racters at that time in Scotland, among others, to Lord Mr Boswell was again at large in his natural element. Kames, Lord Hailes, Dr Robertson, and Dr Beattie. But Conscious of the advantages which he enjoyed, and aware the most remarkable acquisition which he made of this of their value, he improved every opportunity of knowkind was his acquaintance with Dr Johnson, which com- ledge and remark, and has preserved a faithful record of menced in 1763, and was destined to prove at once the all. His feelings were like those which Dante ascribes to principal era in his own life, and the means of adding not the pilgrim, who, having paid his vows, “ Long gazes on the holy fane, and thinks a little to the fame of the philosopher. How he shall paint it when he reaches home.” Mr Boswell had visited London for the first time in 1760, when he accidentally became acquainted with Der- Both travellers gave to the world an account of this tour. rick, afterwards King Derrick, as the master of ceremo- Mr Boswell’s Journal was published in 1785. In the nies at Bath was then fantastically titled, and by him was course of this work he has given a simple and very inteinitiated into the ai'cana of London life. In 1763 he pro- resting narrative of some minute circumstances attending ceeded to Utrecht. Having passed a year at that univer- the escape of Prince Charles Edward after the battle of sity, he travelled into Germany and Switzerland, was en- Culloden, collected from the information of persons on tertained by Voltaire at his castle of Ferney, and convers- the spot, and privy to his concealment; particularly from ed with Rousseau in the solitudes of Neufchatel. He the celebrated Flora Macdonald, whom they visited at continued his route to Italy; but, led by his natural en- Kingsburgh, in Sky, and from Malcolm Macleod, who had thusiasm, forsook the common lines of travel, and passed been the faithful and intelligent companion of the Wanover to Corsica, which, after a contest of more than thirty derer’s flight. Lord Auchinleck died in 1782; and, a few years after years, was still struggling for independence with the republic of Genoa. He thus describes his feelings while (1786), Mr Boswell, giving up his law pursuits at Edinhe approached the island: “ As long as I can remember burgh, removed with his family to London, towards which, anything, I had heard of the malcontents of Corsica: it as a great emporium of literature and theatre of varied was a curious thought that I was just going to see them.” life, his inclinations had always tended. He had recentRousseau had given him a letter of introduction to the ly before been called to the English bar. He did not, romantic Paoli; and his tide was suddenly at the full. In however, prosecute the profession, but gave himself up to the small court of this simple but dignified chieftain he his natural bent for society and letters. After Dr Johnfound everything to gratify his taste for the virtuous and son’s death, in 1784, he was occupied for several years in sublime in natural character. He became a favourite, collecting and arranging, with indefatigable diligence, the too, in his turn ; was caressed by the islanders, admitted materials for a narrative, which he had long projected, of at all times to the society of their leader, and not only that eminent man’s life.2 witnessed the movements of their political machinery, but Besides the works which have been already mentioned, appeared to be himself an actor in the scene. Of his visit he was the author of two Letters addressed to the People to this island he published a narrative on his return to of Scotland ; being his only productions of a political chaScotland, entitled An Account of Corsica, with Memoirs racter. In the first of these, which was published in 1784, of General Pasquale de Paoli, printed at Glasgow in 1768. he appeared as an advocate for the new administration, This book was translated into the Dutch, German, French, then recently formed. The second Letter, written in and Italian languages. He likewise printed, in the follow- 1785, was a strenuous appeal against a measure brought ing year, a collection of British Essays in favour of the forward under the sanction of the same ministry, for effectBrave Corsicans ; and made such attempts as he could to ing a reform in the Court of Session in Scotland, by reinterest the British government in favour of that people, ducing the number of the Judges. before they were finally crushed by the pressure of the Mr Boswell died on the 19th June 1795. In his private French arms. His acquaintance and friendship with Ge- character, he was loved by his friends, as well as a favourite neral Paoli were afterwards renewed in London, when in the circles of social life; and, if his attachments were that chief, having escaped with difficulty from his native often suddenly formed, they were not less durable on this isle, found an asylum in the British dominions. account. Whatever he has written is favourable to virFrom Corsica Mr Boswell repaired to Paris; and, re- tue ; and, during a course of living which naturally dissiturning to Scotland in 1766, he was admitted to the bar. pates the mind, his moral principles remained entire, and Soon after, he published a pamphlet, under the title of his religious faith unshaken. “ Few men,” says his friend Essence of the Douglas Cause ; written while that great Sir William Forbes, in a letter published in his Life of suit was depending in the Court of Session, with a view to Dr Beattie, “ possessed a stronger sense of piety, or more excite the public interest in favour of Mr Douglas. In fervent devotion—perhaps not always sufficient to regu1769 he was married to Miss Montgomery, daughter of late his imagination, or direct his conduct, yet still genuine, 1 He had a family by her of two sons and three daughters. Mrs Boswell died in 1790. * Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D, 2 vols. 4to. London, 1791.

BOSWELL. 28 Boswell, and founded both in his understanding and his heart.” Journal of his residence with General Paoli is by far the Boswell, James. His talents would probably have been rated higher if they most interesting part. It is a sketch remarkable for life i had not been obscured by certain eccentricities of charac- and natural colouring; and is one of those productions ter ; yet his writings bear sufficient testimony to his na- which, though enhanced by their occasion, do not depend tural abilities, and to the delicacy as well as aptness of his on this circumstance alone for the attraction which they intellectual touch. He has described himself as being of possess. In his Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, he a temperament inclined to melancholy ; but in society he pushed to a still greater extent, and even beyond its just was remarkable for the gaiety of his disposition, and his limits, his favourite style of writing. Carried away by his life was full of activity and stir. To be distinguished was natural enthusiasm, and delighting “ to pour out all himhis ruling passion, and he indulged it freely. He sought self, like old Montaigne,” he indulged in a more ample those whom the world, on whatever account, held in and unqualified disclosure, both of his own sentiments and honour ; and he was desirous of being known as one with of the opinions of others, than is consistent with a saluwhom they assorted, and who possessed their friendship. tary prudence, or necessary for the purposes of instrucHe was fond of his pedigree and family connections, and tion. Of this he himself became sensible on cooler rehe aspired after literary fame. While some of these pro- flection, and not only acknowledged it with candour, but, in pensities have been common to the great and good in his subsequent and more laboured compositions, profited every age, others, it must be confessed, are moie fre- by the general opinion, and imposed a greater restraint quently harboured than avowed. Mr Boswell adopted upon his pen. For the task of writing Johnson’s life he was in many the latter and more unusual course.1 He fairly owned his passion, and, it not thus secured from attack, had all respects peculiarly qualified. He had lived in habits of those advantages, at least, which are gained by meeting intimacy with the sage for a period of twenty years, had an enemy in the field. But, in reality, he has dealt so early conceived the plan of such a work, and received openly, and with such candour, on every occasion which from Johnson himself, to whom his intention was known, touches himself as well as others, that he wins not only many particulars of his early life and personal history. As our forgiveness,but our affection, and maintains, by ingenu- the writer was thus furnished for his undertaking, so there ousness and complete truth of character, a kind of superi- has seldom been a more fertile or interesting subject for ority over any person who should feel desirous of assail- the biographer. Johnson was not a mere scholar, deep ing him. Nor was evidence of a substantial sort wanting versed in books, and shallow in himself,” nor was he one to show the independence of his mind. For, however- of those unprofitable misers who hoard without expending. attached to individuals of extensive influence, and how- He was a general and a minute observer, and, while he ever ambitious of exalted patronage, he was neither an possessed in a degree seldom equalled “ the stienuous instrument of party nor a server ot the time. W hat he use of profitable thought,” his talent for communicating was more remarkable even than the large cagave in attention he received back in kindness ; and, while knowledge of his mind, or the accumulation of his learning. he associated with the learned and the philosophical, he pacity According to Baker’s character of King James, in that contributed his share to the general stock of enjoyment. passage Mr Boswell happily prefixed to his JourOf Dr Johnson’s sincere attachment to him there are nal, “ hewhich was of an admirable pregnancy of wit, and that many and unequivocal proofs in their correspondence. much improved by continual study from his But it is not on account of his private character, or of pregnancy childhood, by which he had gotten such a promptness in a certain domestic celebrity which he enjoyed during his expressing his mind, that his extemporal speeches were life, that he is to be distinguished in a work of this kind. little inferior to his premeditated writings. Many, no We commemorate him as an author, and particularly as a doubt, had read as much, and perhaps more than he, but writer of biography. Here he is almost an inventor; he ever any concocted his reading into judgment as he has at least carried this species of composition to a de- scarce Johnson’s conversation, accordingly, is the matter cree of accuracy and detail formerly unattempted. Other did.” and substance of the book; and, as the philosopher did writers, as the Abbe de Sade in L?s Memoirs of Petrarch, not, in the midst studies, forget to cultivate his and Mason in his Life of Gray, had conducted the comse friends, nor gave upofthehisadvantages and comfort of society, of their narratives partly by means of original letters. there was in his discourse a range and diversity of subject But Mr Boswell has, more than any preceding biographer, not often found in combination with classical knowledge made use of all the varied means by which such a history and habits of profound thinking. Nor does this work exadmits of being dramatized. He paints the whole man, hibit a series merely of witty and sententious sayings. it presents the incidents of his life in their actual order ot succession, and preserves him as it were entire ; fulfilling is interspersed alike with miscellaneous^ narrative and criin the history of the moral, what Bacon has assigned to phi- ticism ; and, which constitutes its principal feature, it losophy as her genuine work in that of the natural, world, contains a mass of opinions on subjects of a more comnature, where the powers of reasoning and. illustrafaithfully to return its accents and reflect its image, not to mon are applied to familiar topics, and the .01 dinary ocadd any thing of her own, but to iterate only and repeat. tion currences of life. Valuable as a deposit of literary anecThe plan of keeping a Miscellaneous Journal had been dote, it is still more so as a collection of ethical discourses, recommended to him by Dr Johnson on their fiist acto which its popular form gives a singular currency and quaintance ; and he appears very early to have followed effect; so that there are few books extant where the reliit, as far as writing down what was remarkable in the con- gious and social duties, as well as the love of science, in versation of those whom he admired. From his frequent its largest acceptation, are impressed more agreeably, or allusions to the discourses of Selden, commonly called his with greater force, upon the mind. Table Talk, as preserved by Lilward, it is probable that Amon" the many circumstances which have conspired he had the example of that work in his view ; and by to heighten our interest in this narrative, is the exhibilong use he acquired a great facility in this process. Of tion which it affords of illustrious characters in different his first publication, containing an account of Goisica, t ic „ 1 I might be something not so good.”

Tpttpr nublished in 1785, “ are the indigenous plants of my mind: they distinguish it. dear i. ofVm, for then X ahouM be no longer as I anr and perhaps there

BOSWELL. 29 sence and authority; for the writer’s first object is not Boswell, Boswell, walks of life. The period was distinguished by an unusual James, measure of genius and talent; and we are not only intro- to instruct, but to please; and, above all, they want that James duced to the closet of the philosopher, but carried with great requisite, truth, for which, in the time of need, all ^ him also into assemblages of the brilliant and the wise, others are abandoned and forgotten. A manual ofinstruc- t _ 1 with whom he associated. The tone of this society, tion for human conduct, which, instead of being couched moreover, is highly pleasing, and in harmony with our in general maxims, or calculated for situations of unusual best principles and feelings; in which respect it is impos- occurrence, should descend to particular cases, and to the sible to avoid contrasting it with those more boasted Pari- ordinary emergencies of private life, would certainly be sian societies during the same period, which were suppos- one of the most valuable presents which philosophy could ed to be the centre of French literature and wit, as they offer to the bulk of mankind. Biography makes the nearare displayed to us by some of the chief actors in that est approach towards the compilation of such a code ; and, scene.1 Mr Boswell’s work has not yet, indeed, acquired as a commentary on moral duties, it is, when faithfully exeall its interest; the period is still too recent; but, to esti- cuted, invaluable. But it is so in proportion only to the mate its value in after-times, we have only to consider closeness of the resemblance and the exactness of the detail. what we ourselves should have gained if such a volume Minuteness, therefore, is the characteristic and soul of biohad been preserved to us from the rolls of ancient life. graphical writing, if its proper uses are considered. In the great attainments of a biographer, which are the That such a plan of delineation may be carried to extruth and minuteness of his relation, Mr Boswell has been cess, indeed, is undeniable. He who is accustomed to set eminently successful. If, in this species of writing, an down whatever he sees and hears, may become indiscrimiauthor is exempted from the formality, as well as compre- nate in his choice, and forget the value of his store in the hensive research, necessary in the higher classes of histo- pleasure of collecting it. To ascertain the just medium in rical composition, it is well known that he has his pecu- this respect, is one of the many things for which rules are liar difficulties to encounter; difficulties, too, which are ineffectual. A sound judgment alone can determine the the greatest where, by his intimate knowledge of the sub- limits. As to the license of publication, the biographer is ject, he is best qualified for the task of writing. Nor under one common restraint with authors of every class. does the partiality to which he is himself exposed consti- He violates the due boundary if he introduces into his tute his only danger; since he is no less apt to be led work what is injurious to virtue, or if he discloses, for the away by the expectation of gratifying his readers. We purposes of general information merely, any thing which are fond of seeing the picture of character completed ac- may probably affect the interests or wound the minds of cording to our fancy, and, whatever be the feeling which the living. When that period has arrived which secures has commenced, we are impatient of any interruption to its against dangers of the latter description, even individual train. In the case of those whom we respect and love, characters become, to a certain extent, the property of the disappointment is doubly ungrateful; we dislike being mankind at large, and may be employed as a vehicle for told of their fraiLies, because we are unwilling to believe instruction, if exhibited with fidelity. On this score Mr that they were .ail. But such is not the colour nor the Boswell, notwithstanding his natural promptness and want tissue of human characters; and the artist who would re- of reserve, has, in his latest and principal work at least, present them truly, must do perpetual violence to his in- given little ground for animadversion. His habitual quickclination. The fidelity of Mr Boswell’s portrait may be ness of feeling and liveliness of fancy appear to have been ascribed, in a great measure, to the form and method of corrected, where others were concerned, by his love of his composition. Had he given us only the results of his justice, and a general benevolence of mind. observation, the effort at impartiality could scarcely have Wfith regard to his style of writing, a progressive imbeen preserved; but he has presented us with the whole provement in it may be discovered through his different materials as he found them, and allows us to work them productions. It is in general well suited to his matter, is up for ourselves. animated and easy where he is himself the narrator, and In the other distinguishing quality of a biographical bears evident marks of being true to the original, where, work, namely, the minuteness of its information, he is so as commonly happens, he is a reporter merely. On the little deficient, that his observance of this requisite has whole, whatever blemishes maybe found in it as a literary been converted into an accusation against him. And it is composition, his Life of Johnson is a very valuable work, certain, as already observed, that, in his early productions fraught with information at once useful and pleasing. particularly, he left some room for such a charge ; and There are few books which present learning in a more atthat, while his veracity and candour were unimpeached, tractive form ; and few where the seeds of knowledge are his prudence was not on all occasions equally conspicuous. scattered more profusely. Yet it must be remembered that the great use of biography See the Gentleman s Magazine; Chalmers’s edition of is to bring instruction home; to give us examples, not of the Biographical Dictionary, 1812; and the writings of individual actions and conduct merely, but of that conduct Mr Boswell, passim. (0. as displayed in the common paths of life. The history of BOSWORTH-Market, a market-town in the hundred nations is too often a species of heroical romance. Its of Sparkenhoe, in the county of Leicester, 107 miles from lessons are, at all events, of a different nature from those London. Near it is the celebrated field of the battle benowin question; and its moral is far too remote to answer tween Richard III. and Henry VII., then Duke of Richthe necessities of individuals. General precepts, again, mond, by which the crown of England was transferred to when delivered without the aid of story, commonly fail to the latter. The market is held on a Wednesday. The inproduce their effect, either because they fail to excite at- habitants amounted in 1801 to 791, in 1811 to 954, and tention, or because the power of applying them to parti- in 1821 to 1117. cular cases remains as difficult as before. Nor do works of BOTAL or Botalli, Leonard, physician to the duke fiction, however excellent, and even where the scene is of Alen^on, and to Henry HI., was born at Asti in Piedlaid as it were at home, and the characters are those of a mont. He published several books in physic and surgery; private station, leave any very permanent impressions on and the best edition of his works is that of Leyden, in the mind. I hey do not carry with them a sufficient pre- 1660, octavo, published by Van Hoorne. 1

Particularly in the Correspondence of the Baron de Grimm, and the Memoirs of Marmontel.

30

BOTANY. asked by those who conceive that mere classification is the General General LiNNiEUS divides all natural objects into three g^3;11 ultimate object of botany; but, from what has already been Ob*m. Observa- classes, which he calls kingdoms; and the sciences w ic said, we trust it will be seen that classification is only the tions. treat of these are zoology, botany, and mineralogy, botany, necessary consequence of a wish to impart our ideas to with which we are to be occupied in this place, enables us others. It is a universal language, without which the obto distinguish, arrange, and name all plants or vegetab es. servations of one can be of no use to another, but by w Inch Some years ago, Baron Humboldt made a calculation as the instructed can unfold to each other, at the remotest to the probable number of the different species of plants parts of the earth, what species or genera of plants have existing on the face of our globe. Of late, however, owing been discovered to possess remarkable properties. Ihe to the many novelties that have reached us from Brazil and standing objection to botany,” says the eloquent author ot the East Indies, it has been supposed that his estimate is the Natural History of Selbourne, “ has always been, that much under the truth. At least sixty or seventy thousand, it is a pursuit that amuses the fancy and exercises the medescribed or undescribed, are scattered through different mory, without improving the mind, or advancing any real collections, and every day brings to light additional species, knowledge; and where the science is carried no farther so that at present the probable number of vegetable produc- than a mere systematic classification, the charge is but too tions may not be too highly estimated at nearly a hundred true. But the botanist who is desirous of wiping ott this thousand. To obtain a knowledge of every one of these in- aspersion should be by no means content with a mere dividually, and without relation to any other, would be a list of names; he should study plants philosophically,— Herculean task, for which the utmost extension of human should investigate the laws of vegetation,—should exalife might not be sufficient, and which, though Procured, mine the powers and virtues of efficacious herbs,—should could not be imparted to others. The study would thus be promote their cultivation, and graft the gardener, the planselfish, and the labours of a lifetime useless. \ aluable me- ter, and the husbandman, on the phytologist: not that dical properties might be observed in some one vegetable , system is by any means to be thrown aside,—without sysbut posterity would, in all probability, find similar proper- tem, the field of nature would be a pathless wdderness, ties in another plant, much sooner than re-discover that but system should be subservient to, not the main object ^ formerly known. Thus many plants whose medical qualities of, our pursuit.” Nor ought an objection to be urged were highly esteemed by our ancestors, are now entirely un- against the pursuit of those parts of botany from which known to is as possessing such. To remedy these evils hitherto no immediate use has been derived. From the means must be resorted to for the classifying or arranging highest organized plant to the lowest, all form a chain, in of veeetables. If we divide them into trees, shrubs, herba- which a link lost or broken disconnects the whole, and to ceous, biennial, and annual, we shall have five divisions; so which the recent addition of new links, in the shape of new that supposing an equal number to each, we shall have only species, has tended much to the increase of our knowledge. to look into one of those sections for what we are m quest of. What anatomist has not derived delight from the examinaAp-ain each of these may be subdivided according to the tion of the eye of a fly; and what botanist has not obtained height to Whi°ch the plant grows, the colour of its flower, or information from the meanest weed! But it is even imits capability of bearing an esculent fruit. But this is one of portant to attend to the lowest class of vegetables. The the rudest systems, and, though used m the earliest state lichens furnish many valuable dyes; the algae afford fo£d ° of the science, was soon found to be subject Jo g«:at va- medicine; and we are all so alarmed at the poisonous effects riation, and to want the necessary precision. Other more of many fungi, that scarcely above two or three species philosophical divisions were afterwards adopted, to which, are eaten in this country, whereas, if attention were paid and the steps requisite for the knowledge of them, we in- to their botanical character, several far supenor m fl^our tend to devote this article. . , . j to the common mushrooms might be made use of u ith per The necessity of a classification being once admitte , e resemblances between individuals, not before °b» ^d, feCThe definition of botany here adopted, though easily could not long escape the attention. Thus the affinities understood and perfectly correct, is sometimes of little inter se of the different species of pine, of the ash, of the value to the practical man. Between mineralogy and t lime, of the strawberry, or of the rose, must soon have been two other sciences of zoology and botany we believe there admitted ; and in framing a system, care would be taken to can be little confusion ; but between zoo ogy and botan), place these by the side of the allied species, whether in in the subjects belonging to both of which the livingprmappearance or in qualities. This is what is termed arran- ciple seems equally to exist, not only are there great points snL plants according to their species. It would likewise ofresemblance, but instances occur in which it is nearly be foon observed that small groups of these species had impossible for the eye to determine whether what we see more affinity between themselves thanwith other groups, belongs to the one or to the other kingdom. aeeneral idea would thus be attached to each of these, which The distinction made by Linnaeus between plants and wouW now form a genus ;-and when these genera were animals consisted principally in the power of motion m placed one after the other according to some property o the latter. Many animals have, however, now been disresemblance real or fancied, we should have the arrange- covered, which seem to be unable to remove themselves ment of plants by their genera. Whether, then, we profrom the spot on which they first made their appearance ; a ceed by making grand primary cuts or divisions and, on the other hand, there are many plants, as the duckthe known vegetables, and then proceed to subdivide these weed (Lemna), ball-conferva (Conferva cegagropila), and until we arrive at genera and species; or commence by others, which, if they have roots, do not send thern into the the grouping of species and genera, and mount upwards, we earth but float about as if in search of food ; and our dis shall attain the means of more readily distinguishing and tkiguished countryman Mr Brown, whose philosophical naming plants, and consequently of imparting to others observations all must respect, has within these few years the result of our observations on their properties and us . demonstrated that the component particles or molecules The ad bono in botany is a question that has often been

BOTANY. 31 nected, that it is difficult to discuss one without encroachGlossology, eneral of all matter whatever, whether organized or not, when >serva- suspended in a fluid, and viewed with a suitable micro- ing on the others. As, how-ever, these are discussed in ions. scope, are found to be in motion without any visible agency, other parts of this work, we shall here confine ourselves, Celir Perhaps the true differences are to be looked for in sen- as much as the nature of the subject will admit, to the sation and an intestinal canal in the animal kingdom, into three latter ;—Glossology, Phytography, and Taxonomy ; which the food is collected; whilst plants are endowed only under which last will be found a short historical sketch of with irritability, and receive the food through many canals the science. or mouths. But this, although it were universally acknowledged, is of little service, as confusion is only likely to arise I.—GLOSSOLOGY. in the case of the smallest and least organized, and where the Glossology, or, as Linnaeus called it, Terminology, gives correct knowledge of the anatomical structure is attended with almost insuperable difficulties. In many zoophytes, us, as has already been stated, the knowledge of the terms or lower tribes of marine animals, the external horny or cal- employed, or furnishes definitions of the names applied to careous covering so resembles a plant in its mode of ramifi- the different parts or organs. The structure of these concation, as to cause doubts which are not easily removed; and stitutes organography or anatomy. An account of the there consequently exist many natural objects to this day organs themselves belongs also, strictly speaking, to the that are claimed by both the zoologist and botanist. This same branch of the subject; but as a mere explanation similaritv, combined with the motion to be observed in of terms might prove useless and uninteresting, without all molecules, has, we think, given rise to the singular de- understanding to what these terms are to be applied, we lusion under which many celebrated men abroad have for shall here exclude the elementary organs, or those which some years past laboured, when they assert that the minute compose the others, and blend the two together; and aquatic algae were animalcules in the first stages of their thus, by explaining the organs and their successive devebeing, but which afterwards took root and became plants. lopments, endeavour to lay a foundation, without which a A rudimentary plant may have often been mistaken for an knowledge of the natural system of classification cannot be infusory animal, and may have even been described as acquired. Under Vegetable Anatomy, these organs are such; and although there be no absolute practical charac- treated of as subservient to physiology. Here we shall conter ofr almost any use to enable us to distinguish the two, sider them as connected with classification. And as in this yet w e consider their identity as a mere matter of specu- article we do not intend to insert a catalogue or descriplation, that has never been proved, and which is not borne tion of plants, so we shall pass over many terms that are out by any analogy derived from what are more organized, not essential to a general view of the subject. The organs of plants not elementary have been divided and on which observations would be less subject to error. Subservient to the actual classification and determina- by De Candolle into the fundamental and reproductive. tion of plants, and consequently forming branches of the The former are such as are essential to the nutrition of the science of botany, are, Organography, or the anatomy plant, while the latter are mere modifications of these. of plants, or the knowledge of the structure of their parts We shall therefore first proceed to the or organs; 2rf, Physiology, or the knowledge of the functions of these parts ; 3rf, Pathology, or the derangements FUNDAMENTAL ORGANS. to which these functions are exposed ; 4L CXII. The usual state of Exogenous plants is to have the leaves absence of the former, rather than of the latter ; the more so folded that the two parts of the lamina on each side so because we feel convinced, that, with the aid of spiral the midrib are applied to each other by their upper sur- vessels, and not without them, can true seeds be produced. face ; but this is much modified by other circumstances. As ducts are always to be observed in roots, even in the Thus, when two penninerved leaves are strictly opposite, most fibrous, so there is a presumption that true roots and another pair at right angles to these, they are only- exist in all the ductulosae. As, however, no spiral vessels half folded, in such a way as to inclose the inner pair ; and occur above the root, there can be no collum or line of such a vernation is termed opposite (fig. 45). When less separation between stem and root, and therefore the decidedly opposite, one of the sides of each leaf is exte- whole plant may be viewed as one uniform body, every rior and the other interior (fig. 46), and then the verna- section presenting the same structure. On account of tion is half-equitant (semiamplexa) ; and when the leaves the appearance of stems, the ductulosie may be said to are alternate or spiral, they are each of them folded by have an axis. themselves, and placed side by side, when it is called 1. The Equisetacece xnnst first be noticed. These haveEquiseconduplicate 47.) Palminerved leaves being consider- little or no resemblance to the other ductulosse, and almost tacese. ed as composed of several penninerved ones united by as little to the vascular plants. Their nearest affinity is their margins for some part of their length, each of the perhaps with the genus Casuarina (one of the Exogenae). divisions has a tendency to be folded, exhibiting a plicate Their vernation is straight. They have no true leaves, but vernation (fig. 48). The leaflets of palmate leaves present a furrowed fistular stem, in which, under the cuticle or of course the same disposition. Some penninerved leaves, external membranous coating, so much silex is deposited although folded together, have the margins rolled outwards, as to render some of the species of great use in polishing as in the rosemary, and the vernation is revolute (fig. 49) ; furniture and other household utensils. The stem is moreor they may be rolled in, as in the water-lily, and it is invo- over articulated, separating at the joints, each articulation lute (fig. 50). These latter peculiarities are very rare being surrounded by a prolongation of the joint below it among the Exogenae, but common among the Endogenae. in the shape of a membranous toothed sheath; the numWhen the young leaves are so narrow that they are not fold- ber of the teeth, if not combined, corresponding with the ed, but cover each other without any apparent order, they number of the furrows on the stem. The stem is either are said to be imbricated. Such plants as have a petiole that simple, or has branches articulated like the stem, placed embraces the stem for some length (which chiefly happens in whorls at their articulations, each whorl consisting of among the Endogenae) present a slightly different disposi- as many branches as there are teeth to the sheath. tion. Here most of the leaves are reduced to a dilated pe2. The Filicesox ferns seem to approach very closely toFilices. tiole, and are simply curved and imbricated the one over some of the Endogense, particularly to the palms, in genethe other, as in the coats of what are erroneously called bul- ral habit, and also slightly to the Cycadece, which form bous roots (fig. 8) ; but there are other plants with a sheath- part of the Exogense; but if our ideas be correct, the ing petiole, that show an inclination to a longitudinally- affinities that have been traced between them have been folded leaf (as in the Iris) as much as if they had a midrib, much exaggerated. and the vernation is equitant (fig. 51) ; so called because, In our estimation, an entire fern corresponds only to as they are alternate, each of them rides upon or em- a leaf among the vascular plants ; and that part which has braces by its two margins the two margins of the leaf been called a stem or rhizoma under ground, or a stipes or that follows it. Another disposition, but almost peculiar to caudex when erect and above ground, as in the tree ferns, the Endogenae, is the convolute (fig. 52), as in the scita- is, we think, analogous to a mere petiole. Each leafy exmineae, where the limb is rolled round one of its margins pansion has been termed & frond, without sufficient attenon an axis. Ihe vernation is termed replicate when the tion having been paid to its origin. But a frond whose leaf is so folded that the upper part is applied to the low- stipes pushes out radicular fibres from its base, is, we er, as in the aconite ; and circinal when, instead of being think, similar to a simple leaf; while those species whose folued, it is rolled in such a way that the apex serves as frond is attached to a rhizoma or caudex resembles a an axis; which last curious structure may be observed in pinnate leaf. Thus the ferns do not resemble vascular the genus Drosera, and in the Cycadece. plants, but only a portion of one. The vernation of all, with the exception of Ophioglossum and its allies, is circinnate Cellular Plants. like the Cycadece; but instead of being rolled inwards, it is rolled outwards, unlike any vascular plant that we , The observations hitherto made relate almost exclu- remember. As, however, the views here announced sively to Vascular plants, the terms relating to the exter- have not hitherto been adopted by any botanist, we nal forms of which alone can be applied also to the Cellu- may, in reference to the terms more generally in use, lar vegetables ; so that, before proceeding to the reproduc- mention, that every leafy portion which rises aboveground tive organs, we may devote a few lines to such as come is termed a. frond, and its stalk or support a stipes. The under the latter denomination. And here we must draw a part under ground or on the surface is termed line between such as are furnished with ducts in addition creeping to mere cellular tissue, and those in which we find an entire a rhizoma, and when erect and like the trunk of a tree, a caudex. Ihe stipes is flattish or concave on the side homogeneousness of structure; and, for the sake of distinc- con-esponding with the upper surface of the frond, and tion, we shall call the former ductulosce, and the latter educconvex on the other. It is glabrous, or rough, or prickly, tulosce. or scaly (paleaceus), or downy (pubescens), as in vascular plants. The frond is said to be simple, or lobed, or pinDuctulosce. All belonging to this section, on account of the presence natifid, or pinnafipartite, as in a true leaf. It is even called o ducts, and in some instances apparently of stems, more pinnate when there is no membranous connection between the divisions, although there be no articulation at the base °ni aytttorreofareminence has classed with vascular of each. In substance also it may vary from rigid and e no s ira . Pto distinguish l vessels present, al- coriaceous to thin and membranous. &1 i-7^is “? often difficult betweenand spiral 3. Marsiliacece. These are either creeping or floating JMarsi: lacese.

botany. 38 the apex, and sometimes alternate or in a spiral: they Gfasology. Glossology. plants; the former have petioles to what are called their at are sessile, and embrace the stem at their base ; and they leaves, with a circinnate vernation like the ferns. I he have the appearance of oval or elongated scales, rarely supposed leaves are of a coriaceous texture, and either obtuse, generally pointed or acuminated, and the point is consist of three or more wedge-shaped divisions, and are not unfrequently prolonged into a long hair, or twisted like conduplicate when young; or they are entirely abortive, a cifrhus or tendril. Only one instance is yet known where leaving nothing but the petiole, as in Pilulana. ihose, the hair-like point is branched. They are usually entire, again, which float have the leaves closely imbricated and but in Diphyscium and Buxhaumia they are lacmiated. sessile, and resemble the Hepatica, and appear to be in- Some leaves are deprived of all appearance of a nerve, volute, or folded together in vernation. and are entirely formed of a homogeneous cellular tissue ; Lvcopo4. Lycopodiacece are seemingly intermediate between others present in the middle a nerve variable in length; diaceae. the ferns and mosses with which they were formerly con- others again two nerves ; and these nerves are formed of founded. They have either creeping stems or a cormus, cells, which by their union imitate the nerves of vascular with erect branches, which are either round or angled, and leaves. The margin is either entire, crenated, toothed, or provided with leaves. The leaves vary from setaceous serrated; and the serratures are sometimes so fine as to to ovate, are acute, undivided (with only one exception^, cause it to be called ciliated; but these appearances are smooth, and of a thick texture, resembling often in a not occasioned, as in vascular plants, by (as it were) an slight degree those of the pine tribe. In several, how- incision into the leaf, but arise from a mere contraction of ever, they are plain and foliaceous; sometimes they aie the marginal cellules, more or less evident in. the same closely imbricated round the stem, or they appear disspecies, and even specimen, in different states of its growth. tichous, with generally two other rows of smaller o^es> The leaves, as we have said, embrace the stem, but somethat are appressed, and may be taken for stipules. T ley times in so very oblique a manner as to form two opposite have either a middle nerve or none at all. In one genus, vertical rows, and thus appear distichous, as in Schistosthe leaves are reduced to mere scattered teeth, and in pennata. But this must not be confounded with the another they are all radical, long, subulate, channelled tega in that section of Dicranum called Fissidens, in above, and convex below. Their vernation is straight. structure which the leaf is slightly folded, and the upper portion They are usually found on mossy ground, sometimes on on each side of the nerve soldered closely together, while trees, rarely in or under water. the nerve itself is prolonged at the back into an appendEductulosce. age equal to the half of the leaf. Some botanists seem These are entirely composed of cellular tissue, so that inclined to suppose that these leaves, resembling those of here we find as much uniformity in their internal struc- an Iris, may be formed by the partial soldering of two ture as diversity in the other classes of vegetables ; but, closely approximated and obliquely placed leaves; blit by a strange compensation, their external forms are even we are borne out in our view by an examination of the young leaves, either at the very base of the stems, or at more varied than in the higher organised plants. the The entire mass of these vegetables appears to be com- the perichaetium, in which they are as in other mosses, 1 posed of one substance, which takes different shapes, des- nerve not being yet provided with its appendage. 6. The Hepaticce resemble much the mosses, and most Hepatic*, tined to fill different functions, without actually constituting distinct organs. Persoon, in speaking of the mush- of all the genus Jungermannia. But here there is no trace room, has named the whole portion that does not serve of nerves; and at the base of the leaves are.often to be for the reproduction of the species a peridium ; Acharius found leafy appendages or accessory leaves, falsely called has called it a thallus in the lichens ; and Lamaroux, frons stipules, sometimes united by the side to the leaf, and. or frond in the algae. De Candolle, again, is disposed to sometimes distinct from it. There are some species of apply the term thallus generically to all the nutritive or- this genus without these appendages, having the leaves gans combined in the true cellular plants, at least to those vertical, scarcely at all embracing the stem, but having of the algae, fungi, lichens, and hepaticae ; and it would be their margins prolonged down its side, so that the stem well if botanists, who have made these tribes their study, resembles a petiole furnished with distichous segmepts. had agreed to drop entirely the terms leaves, stem, or When these segments are united by the edges on each roots, which have no real affinity with those of vascular side, we have a foliaceous limb, and such species are plants, and can be only applied metaphorically. But as calledyroftffose, the midrib corresponding to what is termthey are generally retained in some of these orders, we ed the stem in the others. Sometimes this midrib is obscure, as in Jung.epiphyUa ; in Jung, pinguis it cannot be will continue also to employ them. Musci. 5. The Musci or mosses have most affinity with the traced, so that we may pass to the genera Anthoceras, ductulosae, and approach very closely indeed to some of Marchantia, and Riccia, in which we see only a nerveless the lycopodiaceae. What are called their roots consist of foliaceous disc, representing both stem and leaves; pushslender fibres of a brownish colour, more or less branched ing out from below, the roots ; and from above, the organs and jointed, which spring either from the base of the stem, of fructification. From the supposed existence of a stem as in Phascum, or along it, as in several species of Bryum, and leaves, both musci and hepaticae are said to have an in which great part of the stem is sometimes covered with axis. 7. The Algce are principally found in water, and con-Alga?these radicular fibres. The stem is cylindrical, but is said to be compressed, plane, or tetragonal, according to the sist of expansions, sometimes filiform, sometimes foliadisposition of the leaves. It is often very short and sim- ceous, or a mixture of these. Their perfect homogeneousple, especially when the plant is annual, but is sometimes ness has been acknowledged by all who have studied branched, either by pushing out roots near the base, or by them, and thus the appellations of frond or thallus has emitting lateral or terminal branches, each of which de- been given to the whole mass of the plant. They present notes usually a year’s growth, and they are thus called by different degrees of consistence; some being coriaceous Hedwig innovations. The leaves arise from the stems, and of an olive colour, others cartilaginous and of a rose being sometimes collected together at the base, sometimes colour; some membranaceous, and others gelatinous. The 1

Arnott, Now. Disp. dcs Mousses, p. 27-

B O T i ossology. large species, in particular, so subject to be tossed about by the violent motion of the waves of the sea, are furnished with a small flat base called a callous disc, by which they are fixed to the rocks; and others are provided for the same purpose with short, blunt, and often thick, rootlike processes. The foliaceous part of the algae is often traversed with veins similar in appearance to the nerves in true leaves; but these are merely composed of elongated cellular tissue ; while other species are entirely destitute of them. The cells of this tribe are variously approximated in the same plant; and hence we have frequently a sort of bark, distinct as it were from the central portion: sometimes they are arranged so that one cell constitutes the whole thickness of the frond, which thus becomes very thin and membranous; in other cases they are placed end to end, forming threads, as in the Conferva. These threads are moreover usually furnished with dissepiments or partitions at nearly equal distances, bearing a pretty constant proportion to the diameter of the thread. The genus Hydrodictyon presents a remarkable structure : the frond is composed of numerous pentagons, each of the five sides of which are confervoid threads, that in maturity separate from each other, and give rise to plants similar to that of which they formed a part. Chara is supposed to have an axis, the other algae none; but some species of the fuci and confervae tribes present as much an axis as the other. I [ hens. 8. Among the Lichens the variety of form is still greater. Some present plane foliaceous expansions, as in the hepaticae; others are of a substance quite gelatinous, as in some Alga. Some have cylindrical stems, more or less branched, of which several are provided with small, plane, leaf-like processes ; in other species all these different forms are reduced to so small dimensions that the whole thallus, or nutritive organs of the plant, consists of a mere crust, composed either of foliaceous scales, of small stems compactly placed together, or of a granular or pulverulent matter. The surface presents also much variation : sometimes it is quite smooth; sometimes provided with hairs or ciliae of different kinds; and sometimes it pushes out fibres, which serve to fix the plant. In many species the thallus, without the intervention of any fibres or roots, is so cemented to the rock or tree on which it grows, that it cannot be detached. In the flat species the two surfaces are very dissimilar, both in colour and structure. But lichens even appear to consist of two distinct layers of tissue. Of these the interior, which Eschweiller has termed the living or medullary portion of the thallus, is imperfectly cellular or filamentous; while the other, the cortical or exterior, seems to be merely formed of the dead cellules of the former, and to serve as a protection to it. * 9. The Fungi present cells, sometimes round and sometimes elongated, in the form' of hollow threads, which are either placed closely together or irregularly separated. Their consistence is variable, being soft or hard, fibrous or gelatinous, fleshy or coriaceous. They never grow in water. Their colours are variable, often vivid, but never truly green. There is scarcely anything that can be termed a frond or thallus ; but instead of it there is often a peridium or sporangium, that covers the fructiferous organs ; indeed, the whole plant may be viewed generally as a mass of reproductive matter. In the agarics and other allied genera there is a stipes, metaphorically called a stem, which arises from a membranous integument, termed a volva or wrapper, that in the young state envelopes thje whole. The upper horizontal part of these plants is called a cap or pikus, which is provided on its under side with thin radiating expansions, termed gills or lamella, or with ne tubes. Some have a delicate fringe or veil {velum), that connects the margin of the pileus at a certain age

ANY. with the stem : in a few this veil has the appearance of a Glossology, ring round the stipes, and is then called an annulus. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. We now come to the reproductive organs, or those organs essential to the reproduction of the plant; and under this denomination we comprehend all those parts that are situated beyond the leaves. Linmeus first made the observation, that the parts of a flower were metamorphosed leaves ; and this will appear very evident from considering the facility with which any one part changes into another. Thus, leaves gradually pass into bracteas, and the latter have often so much the appearance of true leaves as to be only distinguished from them by their position. Between bracteae and bracteolae there is scarcely a limit; and either of these, when immediately under the flower, is often liable to be confounded with the calyx, or supplies the place of a calyx. Again, between a calyx and corolla there is the closest resemblance; so much so, that when one only was present, it has been a matter of dispute by what name it ouglit then to be described ;—Jussieu and his followers calling it uniformly by that of calyx, but Linnaeus pronouncing it a calyx only if green, and a corolla if coloured ; whilst more modern botanists, to avoid a discussion attended with little good, have adopted instead of it the ambiguous term perianth. But horticulture shows this affinity in a still more striking degree ; many of the primrose tribe in cultivation having the calyx changed into a corolla placed under the true corolla, and in every respect similar to it. In a double flower, all are aware, the stamina change into petals ; and in the water-lily {Nymphaa) it is no easy matter to draw the respective lines of demarcation between stamens, corolla, and calyx. It is more difficult to admit at first the connection between the fruit and the others, instances of the metamorphosis being more rare. Thus, in halt double flowers, the fruit, or parts of the fruit, or carpella as they are called, remain often unchanged, as in the peony; but in many truly double flowers, as among the pinks and carnations, every portion of the fruit is actually transformed into petals. On the other hand, in Magnolia fuscata, the stamens actually change into carpels; and we have specimens before us, exhibiting the same change in the Salix Croweana. In some species of Ononis, and the other genera of leguminous plants, in which there is usually one perfect carpel, we have seen it transformed into a leafy process, demonstrating that the carpel is nothing but a folded leaf. The parts belonging to the flower, though thus primarily alike, yet differ much afterwards, particularly in their physiology. The more foliaceous parts, as the bracteae, calyx, and corolla, serve for the nutriment or protection of the others, which are more immediately called the sexual organs. In several parts of the flower we may distinguish the portions of the leaves of which they are composed, so as to detect more or less clearly the petiole and the lamina. Thus, in a calyx the sepals are usually formed by dilated petioles, although in the roses the lamina also makes its appearance. Of the corollas, the petals represent in general a dilated petiole ; but sometimes an unguis or claw may be noticed, as well as a limb, conformable to the petiole and lamina of a leaf. Among stamina, the filament is the petiole, while the anther is produced by each side of the lamina being rolled inwards, and forming two loculi or bags. The carpels are formed by the folding of the lamina of a leaf, the ovules arising from the extremities of the lateral nerves. Here the petiole is often wanting, though in several genera of Leguminosa, in the caper plants, and others, it is very distinct. From what we have now said, it may be laid down as an

BOTANY. 40 duncles are usually cylindrical or slightly compressed; m Glossology Glossology, axiom, that a flower is an assemblage of several whorls of Xylophyllum it is said to be flat or fohaceous, but this foliaceous origin, arranged above or within each other, so appearance originates rather from the expansion of the PI. CXII. closely that the internodia, or distance between each senes, or rachis than of the peduncle itself. In the case of is not distinguishable. But this will be better understood axis an umbel, the axis tends to dilate at the apex, and this when we come to the definition of the particular paits. dilatation seems to depend on two causes: it is either in proportion to the number of flowers that ought to be on Inflorescence. the summit, or it becomes the larger the more sessile the Inflorescence is the ramification of that part of a plant flowers are on the horizontal expansion. I hat kind of intended for its reproduction; or, in other words, it is the umbel found in thistles and other compound flowers is mode in which the flowers of a plant are distributed. I he a remarkable illustration of this : the expansion on which organs peculiar to it are peduncles, pedicels, bracteai, and the flowers are situated here bears the name of receptabracteolee or the accessory envelopes to the flowers. cle ; some few botanists calling it also, in particular cases As leaves are lateral, so must also be the parts ot the phoranth or clinanth. T hese receptacles are sometimes flower, hence we might naturally expect the-floral stem quite flat, sometimes conical or cylindrical, and someor branch to be prolonged beyond it; and this indeed times concave; and in the fig the margins of the recepoften happens in monstrosities, as in some roses and pear tacle are so approximated as to represent a bag, on the trees; but otherwise the flower absorbs all the nutument interior surface of which all the flowers are seated. By from the branch destined to that purpose. Thus we may many botanists the axis of inflorescence is termed the state as a general law, that a flower is terminal on the peduncle, and the peduncles pedicels. But it is imposlittle branch that supports it; and this branch is termed a sible here to lay down any certain rules by which these peduncle or pedicel. The pedicel with the flower being be understood, the same author at different times thus precisely similar to a branch and its leaves, the may flower-bud which gives rise to such must be analogous to using the same terms with a different meaning. The inflorescence of plants is very various, and depends leaf-buds ; and the great difference between them is, that on the power of developing the flower-buds in the latter elongate indefinitely in the form of branches, entirely the axils of the bracteas. I wo points are, however, comwhile the former do not elongate beyond the flower. Flower-buds always, therefore, like leaf-buds, are termi- mon to all the forms: all must be axillary, or a modificanal, or arise from the axils of leaves, which leaves are tion of that, and have the flowers terminal on the peduncalled bractece or floral leaves; and those leaves which ap- cles or pedicels. They may be reduced to two classes; pear on the pedicel, between the bracteae and calyx, are simple, when it is formed by the development of one bud called bracteolce. These are often confounded, but are never- and one branch; or compound, when it is formed by the theless essentially distinct; the former belonging more to development of several buds or branches. Simple inflorescence.—When a flower-bud gives rise to the stem, the latter to the flower-bud. Bracteas and bracteolae are often beautifully coloured, the more so, only one flower, terminal on its peduncle, and the axis of usually, the nearer they are to the flower. When a single the plant does not elongate beyond the bud, the flower is one is rolled together, highly developed and coloured, and commonly called terminal and solitary. When, however, is placed at the base of the form of inflorescence called a the axis continues to elongate, and the bractea retains the spadix (fig. 53, &), it is named a spatha (fig. 53, a) ; and the form and size of a leaf, the flower is called axillary and upper ones, arising among the flowers themselves, are term- solitary. But if the buds, instead of giving rise to one ed spathellce. W’hen several are verticillate, or densely terminal flower, have the axis elongated, bearing several imbricated around the base of the form of inflorescence flowers, and each flower on a peduncle, a raceme is piocalled an umbel or capitulum, they are termed an involu- duced; and when each flower is sessile, or placed in the crum ; and those at the base of each partial umbel are axil of the bracteae, without a peduncle, a sjnke is formed. called involucella. In the grasses there are usually two at The difference between these two is very slight, or, more the base of the spikelets, which receive the name of glumes; properly speaking, a spike is a mere conventional term, to while the small ones surrounding each floret in the spikelet, imply those cases where the peduncle is scarcely percepcalled glumellce or palece, may be viewed as involucella. tible ; and, by the aid of horticulture, the one is frequently Small imbricated bracteas are often called scales, as in the made to pass into the other. When the bracteas are thistle and artichoke. On dissecting the capitulum of nearly equal in size and closely imbricated, and the spike flowers of many of the Compositce, small colourless brac- articulated with the stem, it is termed an amentum or cattese may be perceived at the base of the florets;—these kin : but this articulation is often not to be detected ; have received the name of palece, but they appear to be a thus, in some willows, the male catkins fall off, while the mere continuation or modification of the scales of the female are permanent. The real spikes of the grasses are commonly termed spikelets or locustee ; and when we involucrum. With regard to the axis of inflorescence and its brac- there speak of the flowers being in spikes or panicles, we teae, sometimes the axis itself, but more usually the actually mean that the spikelets are arranged in spikes or branch which springs from it, is termed a peduncle. panicles. The spadix (fig. 53, 6) is a sort of spike, in which These peduncles often bear bracteae, from the axils of the flowers are closely packed together upon a succulent which arise secondary peduncles. The same may again axis, which is enveloped in a coloured convoluted bractea happen, and the ultimate support to the flower is then or spatha : the spadix is usually simple, but in some termed a pedicel. A pedicel may be clothed with brac- palms it is branched. A raceme differs, as we have said, teolee; but these have no flower-buds in their axils, and from a spike by having the pedicels that issue from the therefore each can only, strictly speaking, bear but one bracteas more elongated. When a raceme has its pedunflower. In the honeysuckles there appear to be two cles spreading, elongated, and bearing bracteae, and pediflowers and two fruits to each stalk, but this is caused by cels again arising from these bracteae, a panicle is formed. the combination or union of the two pedicels that termi- Usually in these two the lower peduncles are only slightnate the axis. When two or more pedicels spring near ly longer than the others; but when they are very long, to each other from the axis of inflorescence, the axis is and the upper'ones very short, it is commonly termed a termed a rachis. Those axes that spring out of the earth, corymb. But this appellation was given before the suband bear no true leaves, are denominated scapes. Pe- ject of inflorescence was properly studied, and with De

ilij \i

BOTANY. 41 Glossology. Candolle we feel inclined to adopt here the terms corym- shall notice is a thyrsus; and this may be conceived to be Glossology boSe raceme or -v-C' I'TT-c vTr'' raceme the issue axis from of a composed of cymes, arising from the axils of the leaves of is so' verycorymbose short thatpanicle. all the When peduncles a branch as it is successively developed. Thus the sage, Tl- CXII. one point at its apex, we have a simple umbel; and when the thyme, and the labiate plants, exhibit a thyrsus. The the same happens to a panicle and to its branches, a com- stem or branch is prolonged indefinitely, of which the lowpound umbel is formed. In these frequently the bracteas er flowers first make their appearance; but the infloresfall off early, or are abortive. A capitulum may be either cence that proceeds from the axil of each leaf is a true a spike, raceme, or umbel, in which all the flowers are cyme, in which the terminal flowers are first expanded. placed together in a globular head. Capitula also differ If we be correct in what we have stated, the centrifugal from each other by the form of the axis, many kinds of mode of expansion is a reduced form of the centripetal, which may be seen among the Compositce. Now, as all combined with the mode of development of branches. these different kinds of inflorescence spring from a solitary It ought, therefore, to be scarcely distinguished from the flower-bud, and as a flower-bud is quite analogous to a other; and cases do occur only referable by analogy. leaf-bud, and as in a leaf-bud the outer or lower part is Koepei and De Candolle, who admit the existence of terfirst developed;—so in a spike, a raceme, a panicle, an um- minal flower-buds, observe that the terminal mode has bel, or a capitulum, the lower flowers are first expanded, two opposite bracteae, while the axillary has but one ; and and this mode of flowering or order of expansion is called they apply this test with great ingenuity to the case of a centripetal. solitary peduncle and flowers, in order that it may be reCompound infloresce?ice, or when the inflorescence is the ferred to one or the other of the two classes. result of the expansion of several buds or branches.—The most perfect instance of this is a true corymbus. Here the Torus. axis of the plant assumes the appearance of an axis of inThe torus, or the proper receptacle of the flowers, is an floi escence, developing flower-buds which follow the cen- expansion of the pedicel, from which spring the petals and tripetal order of expansion; but as it is a continuation of stamina, and seems to be formed by an abortion or parthe axis of the branch, and as we have already observed tial development of one or both of these parts. Although, that those leaf-buds nearest to the summit are first developed, so, in a compound inflorescence, the flower-buds therefore, not properly by itself an organ, it is of great importance in the structure of flowers-; for not only do the towards the extremity of the axis are first evolved, and stamens and petals arise from it in the state in which they the lower ones the last. In a corymbus, then, each parti- usually appear to us, but even when these are transformcular branch follows the centripetal law, while the whole ed into nectariferous glands, or into those doubtful bodies mass of inflorescence proceeds in an inverted order. Alsometimes confounded with stamens and sometimes with though we have only referred to the corymb generally as petals. These appearances may therefore be met with a mode of inflorescence, individually it resembles a raceme, of which the lower flowers have long, and the upper ones either outside of the petals, or inside of the stamina, or these. Usually, however, the torus is inconspishort pedicels. The Achillea millefolium will well illus- between cuous, and is reduced to a narrow circular space between tiate the corymb; each of what is commonly called the the calyx and the pistil. When this zone is under the flowers of such a plant being a capitulum. Now, let us ovary the petals and stamens are said to be hypogysuppose that the capitulum of such an inflorescence is by nous, and the plants are termed thalamijlorce. But fresome means reduced to a solitary floret,—and approxima- quently the external part of the torus extends itself along tions to this are to be observed in many Compositce,—we the bottom or the interior of the calyx, and the stamina shall then have a cyme, in which the solitary central flower and are said to be perigynous, and the plants are is first developed, and, lastly, the lower ones. This kind calledpetals calyciflorce. When the inner portion of the torus of expansion is called the centrifugal. Viewing, with De expands along the pistil a greater or less degree, the Candolle and Roeper, the terminal bud by which a branch stamens and petals then inseem to arise from the pistil, is prolonged, as similar in all respects to a true leaf-bud, are denominated epigynous. But there is still anoand supposing in the same way the existence of a termi- and nal flower-bud, this kind of inflorescence has received the ther case, when the torus extends both along the calyx name of terminal or dfinite, because the flower bein0- sup- and the pistil at the same time; and a necessary consequenqe of this is, that the tube of the calyx adheres to posed to occupy the extremity of the branch, no more the pistil. The petals and stamens thus spring from a can be formed beyond it; while the centripetal inflores- zone round the apex of the fruit, and between it and the cence has been termed indefinite or axillary, because the calyx, and seem to be seated on the fruit itself; an apaxis being never terminated by a flower-bud, it may be which has induced botanists to apply to it also elongated until there be no more juices left for the further pearance the term epigynous. But if these two kinds of epigynous evelopment of the flower-buds. The term cyme is usually applied to those cases in which the primary branches insertion were to be considered as but one, so ought in issue from the same point, while the smaller branches are the same way what is called perigynous to be viewed as unequal, starting from different points, but elevating the a modification of the hypogynous; for in the perigynous flowers so that they may be nearly all in one horizontal the torus, though connected with the calyx, was distinct plane, as in the elder or dogwood. But this is not always rom the fruit, and as much under it as in the true hypotne case : the central portion may be elongated ; and then, gynous ; and, strictly speaking, both the perigynous and w ien the peduncles and pedicels are relatively opposite to second kind of hypogynous may be regarded as combinaeach other, as in Erythema, we have what are called di- tions of the other two. Most modern botanists have, chotomous cymes. A fasciculus, on the other hand, is a however, considerably altered the signification of some of terms, especially when speaking of the insertion of contracted cyme, in which the lateral branches are very these short, and the flowers are clustered together, as in many the stamens. According to them, when the stamens conthe pink tribe. A glomerulus is when the cyme is so tract no adhesion with either the calyx or the pistil, they are hypogynous ; when they do arise from the calyx, but and 4 e ramifi are free from the pistil, they are said to be perigynous, it nwCKed ’ n cation is so little apparent, that Thic rT eei? ,usu.a y con^ounded with a true capitulum. and such does not differ from the view we have taken in .nm!P^Sltl0n 18 of rare occurrence, but is to be observed above; but when the stamens contract an union with rhe laSt forra of infl r o escence we both the surface of the calyx and the pistil, they are

BOTANY. 42 their margins from the base upwards, monopetalous, an in-Glossology, Glossology, termed epigynotis, while the true epigynous insertion, or correct term, which ought to be exchanged fov gamopelu- W-J ' ^ where the stamina are united to the style, but free from PI. CXII. the caiyX) receives the name of gynandrous. W e think it lous • and then it may be partite, divided, toothed, or entire, in the same way as in the calyx. But petals may also unite right to state here, that it is in the altered sense that epi- in their upper parts, though distinct below. I he vine, and gynous is now usually adopted in systematic works. When the keel (carina) of a peablossom, or other papilionaceous the torus is conspicuous, and of a fleshy nature, it is often flowers, exhibit this structure. When the lower part known by the name of disc. To those bodies between of a petal, as the petiole of leaves, is narrow, and consists the calyx and pistil, unlike either the stamens or petals, ot of the union of all the vessels that expand and ramify in the nature of which Linnmus was uncertain, he gave the the upper portion, the contracted part is the claw or ungeneral name of nectary. guis; the dilated, the limb or lamina. If the ungues be loner! straight, and closely approached to each other, even Floral Envelopes. though distinct, a kind of tube is formed; but, propel y These immediately surround the sexual organs, and are speaking, it is only a tube when the claws are united. 1 he formed of one or more whorls of variously modified leaves. orifice of the tube is termed the throat or faux ; and this When there are two whorls, the plants are termed dichlamy- may be naked (nuda), or furnished with little scales or apdece, and the outer is called a calyx, the interior a corolla. pendages, called sometimes a crown. The shape of the corolla is frequently of importance in distinguishing natura Calyx. groups of plants. When all the petals are equal, it is said • The calyx is usually of a green colour, and foliaceous; to be regular : when a monopetalous regular corolla has no each segment is termed a sepal; those like leaves are tube, but swells out gradually from the base to the sumsometimes articulated at their base, when they are either mit, it is bell-shaped or campanulate (fig. 54) ; and urceolate quite distinct from each other, or cohere m the form of a if it is swollen at the base, and contracted at the top : lid fas in Eschscholzia) during the flowering of the plant. when there is a tube, and when it is narrow below, but But they are often continuous with the peduncle, and conse- dilates upwards, so that the limb is campanulate, the coquently persistent. In such cases they are either distinct, rolla is infundibuliform, or funnel-shaped (fig. 5o): it is or are united together by their margins. When the rotate (fig. 56) or wheel-shaped if the tube be very short, sepals are distinct, the calyx is said to be hi-, tn-, 01 poly- and the limb spreading and nearly plain; hypocratenform, sepalous, according as there are two, three, or many leaves ; (fig. 57) when the tube is long, narrow, and cylindrical, and when soldered, it is gamosepalous, or, by the strict the limb spreading like a star ; and tubular, when it is followers of the Linnsean nomenclature, monophyUous; and almost entirely composed of a narrow elongated tube, when only slightly united at the base, it is partite (bi-, tn-, slightly dilated upwards ; but this may be viewed as a very quadripartitus, &c.); when united to the middle, it is termed divided (bi-, trifidus, &c.); and when soldered till slender state of the infundibuliform. When the petals unequal in size, or cohere unequally, the corolla is irrenear the apex, it is called toothed (bi-, tndentatus, &c.). it are gular ; and if such petals unite, we shall have an irregular no teeth be perceptible, it is then entire; and in that case monopetalous corolla, which is said to be labiate or bilabiate the number of parts must be determined analogically, or by (fig. 58) when the tube is more or less elongated, the other means. The cohering portion is termed the tube. Some sepals in the same calyx may cohere together in a throat open and dilated, the limb divided transversely into greater degree than the others, and this gives rise to a two parts or lips (labia'), the one superior, the other m ebilabiate calyx. In a few genera with articulated sepals, rior, which lips are subject to various modifications, one the divisions cohere together, but separate from the tube of the most curious being wdiere the upper lip is so slightin the form of a lid or operculum. Sometimes the calyx ly developed as to appear to be absent, as in Teucnum. is reduced to a mere ring round the base of the corolla. A personate (fig. 59, 60) or mask-like corolla is when the In the Valerians this ring is afterwards developed into a tube is more or less elongated, the throat very dilated, but pappus, formed of numerous long and fine radiating seg- closed up by the approximation of the limb, which has two ments. In many Composite the margin of the calyx also unequal lips, as in the snapdragon; but it is often very constitutes a pappus, appearing either in the form of a difficult to distinguish between personate and labiate ring, or bristles, or scales, or rough hairs (pilosus), or flowers. When the upper part of the tube of the corolla is feathery hairs (plumosus). The calyx may be free from, split down on one side, and becomes flat, it is what is called or unattached to, the fruit; or the tube may be close y ligulate (fig. 61), as in the hawkweeds, or exterior flowers of the daisy. A regular polypetalous corolla is said to be incorporated with it, or adherent (calyx adluerensj. rosaceous (Plate CXIII. fig. 62) when composed of three, Corolla. four, or five, rarely more petals (fig. 62, «)> °1 which t ie is very short, and the lamina diverging from each The corolla is for the most part more or less coloured; claw other, the rose. When there are five petals, t ic and it exists in the greater part of the Exogenous plants. unguesasof in which are elongated, forming a false tube, and Sometimes it is very small, and reduced to the appearance of mere scales, and even in some genera is quite abortive; concealed within the calyx, the corolla is carophyllate, in the pinks ; and when there are only four petals, wit i and when this happens, we must proceed with the greatest as caution, and depend much on analogy, so as not to con- long straight claws (fig. 63, a), and patent lamina, Rimfound those groups of plants in which it ought to be pre- ing as it were a cross, the corolla is cruciform (fig. 63), as the wallflower ; but it is not essential to this last, that sent with those furnished with a perianth, in which a true in corolla is always supposed to be absent. The divisions of the petals be perfectly alike and equal to each othei. Of irregular polypetalous corollas, the only one that has the corolla are called petals. They are almost always ar- received any particular designation is the papilionaceous ticulated at the base, and consequently fall off; and when this happens at a very early stage, they are said to be cadu- (fig. 64). Here there are five petals; the upper one is cous. When the petals have no articulation, as in Campa- usually larger than the others, and covers them befoie nula, they either remain for a long time, or are persistent; the flowers expand, and is called the vexillum or standard or are marcescent, when they wither away without falling (fig. 64, a), from its resemblance to a flag ; the two lateral off. When the petals are quite distinct from each other, ones, like the wings of a butterfly, are the alee or wings the corolla \%polypetalous; or, when more or less united by (fig. 64, b); and the two lower ones, usually more or less

P

BOTANY. 43 Glossology, united together by their lower margins, representing the Sexual Organs. Glossology. keel of a ship, have been called the keel or carina (fig. 64, Pl.CXIII.c)# Such a corolla belongs only to the Leguminosce. In Many of the ancient philosophers were well aware that PhcxiH. the case of an irregular corolla, whether monopetalous or there was a difference of sexes in plants as well as in anipolypetalous, one of the petals is sometimes provided mals ; and Theophrastus even states, that the fruit of the with a tubular projection, when it is said to be spurred female palm will not germinate, unless the pollen of the male be shaken over the spatha of the female when both {corolla calcarata, fig. 60). of them are in flower; but it was not till the time of Grew Perianth. that any thing certain was understood on the subject. Pie The perianth, called also perigonium, as we have already was the first who regarded the stamens as the male, and the stated, is that ambiguous form of envelope which partakes pistilla as the female organs. Linnaeus afterwards improved somewhat of the appearance of a calyx, somewhat of a on Grew s ideas, and has adduced so many proofs from corolla. The Exogenous plants which possess this are theory, and, what is of greater importance, from expericalled monochlamydece ; and it exists in all the Endogente. ments of a tedious and delicate nature, that none now can One must not confound with these the plants in which experience the smallest doubt. An account of his arguthe calyx and corolla is either deciduous or abortive. The ments and experiments, and others of a late date, with the parts of a perianth are strictly termed tepals. A corolla mode in which fecundation is supposed to be accomplishbeing never incorporated with the fruit, as many perianths ed, forms one of the most interesting parts of vegetable are, there is a presumption that the latter are more of the physiology. nature of a calyx ; and an anatomical examination of their external surface confirms this supposition. The internal Stamens or Male Organs. and often coloured surface, however, is dilferent, and is Each male organ is a stamen ; but the whole taken colprobably either the torus, or a petaloid expansion of the lectively forms the androcccum, a term that bears the same torus. Not only are the petals often absent, but even in relation to stamens as a corolla does to petals. These are some cases there is scarcely a rudiment of a perigonium, situated between the petals and pistilla. Although a as in the genus Euphorbia. calyx and corolla be usually present in flowers, yet we have seen that they are not essentially necessary; but no Estivation. plant can produce seed without the assistance of stamens As any law by which sepals and petals are disposed and. pistils, or their modifications. When stamens and must obviously be very intimately connected with their pistils occur in the same flower, it is termed perfect or estivation, or primitive arrangement in the flower-bud, so hermaphrodite ; but, as sometimes happens by abortion or the estivation, or prccfloration as it is sometimes called, other causes, the stamens appear in one blossom and the though long neglected, has of late years been made to pistilla in another. Again, according as these are on one bear an important part in the classification of plants. The or on different individuals, the flowers are called monoecious principal modifications are the ra/War estivation (fig. 65), or dioecious ; and, generally speaking, the flowers are imwhen the parts of an envelope are either plane or slightly perfect or diclinous (f ores diclines). convex, and merely touch one another by their margins, I he number of stamens is variable, five or ten being without the one covering any part of the contiguous one. the usual number among the Exogenae, and three or six When the parts are each closely folded together, and unite among the Endogenae; but, on the one hand, these are one to another by their margins into a monopetalous co- subject to abortions, and on the other to multiplication. rolla, as in campanula, it is sometimes said to be plicate W hen the last takes place, it is by the addition of one or (fig. 66) ; but this is only a modification of the valvular. more rows similar to the first; so that although apparently When they are slightly concave, and a margin of one indeterminate, they are actually a certain multiple of the slightly covering the margin of another, while its other primitive number. margin is usually in its turn covered, the estivation is imstamen consists of a filament (fig. 68, d) and an an- Filament. bricated (fig. 67, a) ; but ot this there are several variations. therA(fig. 68, b). I he former is the body, which arises from When an imbricated estivation is spirally twisted, which the torus, and is sometimes cylindrical, or awl-shaped, seldom happens, except when the parts are more or less or prismatical, and is even at times expanded, as if into a respectively soldered together, it receives the name of ^'s^- scale or petal. It is either articulated or contiguous with ed (fig. 67, b) or contorted {(cstivatio torsiva, or contortd). In the torus. Part of it is often united with the petal, partisome plants the petals are folded irregularly, or crumpled, cularly when the petals themselves cohere; and the stawhen their estivation is said to be corrugated (cestivatio cor- men is then called epipetalous. Its length is generally prorugativd), as in the poppy; but this last ought rather to portioned to the style, but it is sometimes wholly wanting, be considered as merely arising from an extraordinary de- piesenting a sessile anther. In the same flower the filavelopment of the petals. Thus the petals of the Cistus, ments are generally equal in length, and such are called independent of being corrugated, are also twisted. When isostemones, but in many they are unequal. In Geranium there are more than one series of parts of the same en- and Oxalis, where there are ten stamens, five are larger velope, as in the water-lily, where there are several rows than the other five, and alternate with them. When there of petals, these alternate with those of the adjoining rows ; each row or series may have its own mode of estivation, are six stamens, of which four are larger than the other while, as a whole, it is termed alternative (cestivatio alter- two, as in the cabbage, mustard, and the other Cruciferoe, nativa); in the spider-wort ( Tradescantia) the outer row they are called tetradynamous ; and where there are four, ot the perigonium has a valvular, and the inner a corru- of which two are longer than the other two, they are digated and imbricated estivation. Again, when the same dymous, but here there is usually the rudiment of a fifth envelope may have two kinds, it will be readily allowed stamen, dissimilar from all the others. The direction of that the calyx may have one and the corolla another. Thus, the filaments is usually straight, but they are in some plants in the mallow tribe, the calyx is valvular and the corolla bent inwards, in others outwards. In Parietaria (the msted; m the flax and gum-cistus, both parts are twist- pellitory of the wall) they are reflexed; for here the filament is bent backwards in such a way that the upper half 3 t ViStCd in Pp0site direCt!on lies along the lower, and between it and the perigonium. Mlat of the cdyx ' “ ° “ W hen the filament is too slender and weak to support the

botany. 44 polle?i, the use of which is to give life to the ovule or Glossology. Glossology, weight of the anther, and hangs down, it is pendent; when ed it bends towards the lower part of the flower, it is decum- yQUj'jg seed. The grams of pollen seem to arise from the Pl. CXIII. bent or declinate ; and when to the upper part, ascendent. extremities of the veins which are found in the leaf that PhEXIII The filaments are usually/ree, or isolated from each other; constitutes the anther, and are probably formed from the vessels. When the grains of pollen burst, they again but they are sometimes united more or less upwards from spiral discharge a multitude of very minute particles, called moltheir base into a column or androphore. When there is lecules or granules. the grains of pollen easily deone androphore or bundle of filaments, the stamens aie tach from each other,When they are said to be pulverulent, and monadelphous ; when two androphores, diadelphous ; and then they may be either perfectly smooth without any viswhen several androphores, polyadelphous. Anther. The anther is a kind of bag borne by the filament, and cous coating, or they may be viscous. Sometimes the viscorresponds to the lamina of a leaf. It is either sessile, w len cosity is not at once perceptible, but may be traced by of papillae or small eminences on the surface, which there happens to be no filament, or it is placed at the top means are in fact organs, giving rise to the viscous surof the filament in three ways: it may be attached by the face. The secretory nature of these grains of pollen seems constant middle of its hack to the slender apex of the filament, and in each family plants ; and even the shape of these grains is then oscillating or versatile (fig- ^3) ; or it is attached by is sometimes of of consequence in distinguishing natural its base to the top of the filament, with which it then seems tribes. In the Asclepiadece and Orchidece the grains are continuous, and is then erect (fig. 69) ; or it adheres to the filament by its back, and is then adnate or adherent, in not pulverulent. Instead of separating readily, all the polwhich case the filament is often prolonged into an appen- len contained in one cell or bag coheres into what is- then dage. When adherent to the inside of the filament, it is termed & pollen-mass; or when each of those are divided said to be introrse, and to the outside extrorse. Each bag into two or four portions, each is sometimes called a masor cell' of the anther is called a lobe; and the solid sub- side. When in the Orchidece these pollen masses are formed stance that connects them, and which in fact coiiesponds of grains united together by means of an elastic tissue, to the midrib of the leaf, is the connectivum (fig. 69, a). they are said to be sectile (as in Orchis); but in Epipactis Usually the connectivum is very small and inconspicuous, and others they are granulose ox farinaceous; and in Cbbut in some plants it is prolonged into an appendage, that rallorrhiza and Malaxis, &c., they are of a solid compact may be confounded with an elongation of the filament; in substance. others it is prolonged below, as in some heaths, into an Pistils or Female Organs. awn or crest; in a few it is so broad that the bags of the The whole female organs in a flower, taken collectively, anther are at a considerable distance from each other (fig. 70). Usually each anther has two lobes ; but in a few have been named gynceceum. This may consist of one or plants there is only one, and this may happen either from more pistilla, or distinct portions. Thus, in the primrose some natural conformation of the plant (and only when there is truly one, in Ranunculus many pistilla. The the anther is erect), but more generally from the acciden- female parts being, like the stamens, petals, and sepals, tal abortion of one of the lobes (and then particularly when formed of modified leaves, each pistillum may arise either the lobes are distant), or by the filament happening to be from one such leaf or from the combination of several. These split, each half bearing a lobe, and representing a distinct component parts are called carpels, and are placed in the stamen. The reverse also happens, so that each anther may centre of the flower. They may be arranged, ls£, round a appear to consist of four lobes ; but this arises either from real axis or column, which is the abortive prolongation of each lobe being divided into two cells, by the back of the the pedicel, and are united to it by their inner angle : this lobe being folded inwards; or it has really four, six, or is evident in Malva and Lavatera, and in Euphorbia. 2d, more lobes (as in some willows), caused by the adhesion They may be verticillate round the central column, but of two, three, or more stamens into one. The lobes or cells hanging from its summit, and consequently only attached of the anthers open in different ways, by what is termed to it by the apex of the inner angle, as in Geraniacece. Sd, the line of dehiscence. This usually indicates the margins They may be verticillate round the summit of the axis, but of the lamina of the leaf out of which the anther is form- erect, and only adhering by their inner angle at its base ; ed, and therefore the most frequent position of this line and then the axis may be extremely short, as in Sedum is longitudinally along the middle of each lobe (fig. 71), or Aconitum, or it may be slightly prolonged, as in some in which case the anthers are bilocular or birimose. When rutacese. Qtth, The carpels may be placed in a spike round this line does not open during its whole length, but only the central column, as in the magnolias and tulip-tree, and above or below, exhibiting two pores, as in the heaths, the some ranunculusses. bth, But if the column be very short anther is styled biporose (fig. 68) ; or when there is only and round, the carpels, instead of forming a spike, will form one lobe, it is called one-pored (poro simplici). Very rare- a head round the column, as in the strawberry, where the ly, as in the lavender, the anther dehisces transversely; column is fleshy. &th, If the exterior portion of the axis but the most singular case is when it opens by valves, as be prolonged along the inner surface of the calyx, while the in the barberry and the laurels (fig. 72), that are free central part is not, we shall have a hollow cup, in the intebelow, and hinged as it were by their upper edge. The rior of which the carpels are seated, as in the genus Rosa anther has various shapes ; the principal are globular when or rose ; and here the expansion of the axis is united to the the two lobes form one globe, didymous when each of the tube of the calyx by means of the torus. All plants in two lobes are globose; the terms linear, sagittate, cordate, their primitive state seem to have several carpels in each reniform, &c., are also to be applied to it in the same way flower, but they may be reduced to a solitary one by as to leaves of plants. When the filaments are united, the abortion. anthers may be so likewise, as in salix monandra; or Each carpel (fig. 74?) may be viewed as a folded leaf, of Carpel, they may be free. But although the filaments may be free, which the petiole seldom appears; but when it does it is the anthers maybe united to each other by the margins, as called a thecaphore, or support to the fruit. The ovules in the Compositce, and such are then called syngenesious. or young seeds arise from the extremities of the veins, In Stapelia, where the loculi or cells of the anther are at and therefore are usually attached near to the margins of a distance from each other, each coheres with the loculus the leaf, or, as it is folded, to both sides of the inner angle of the neighbouring anther. of the carpel; and the parts to which they are fixed are callPollen. An anther contains and frequently emits a matter call- ed the placenta. The ovules, like the pollen of an anther

BOTANY. 4o shapes, but the most singular is when it is petaloid, as in Glossologv. ilossology. cannot probably be formed without the assistance of spiral vessels, and therefore are not to be looked for in the ferns, the iris. It may be straight, or declinate, or ascending. ^l.CXIII. which are destitute of these elementary organs. The porWhen no union takes place among the carpels, the ova- P1.CXIII. tion above the thecaphore, containing the ovules, is the rium is termed apocarpous, as in Ranunculus; and when 0variumovarium (fig. 74, a). But the summits of the placenta are there is an adherence, so that a compound ovarium is formprolonged into two thread-like bodies, sometimes long, and ed, it is called syncarpous((\%. 75). In the former case there sometimes very short. These are usually combined into may be one or more pistilla, according to the number of carone, which is then named the style (fig. 74, b); and its pella; in the latter only one. The ovary being formed of glandular apex, fitted for the absorption of the vivifying the lamina of the leaf, the edges of which may be sometimes part of the pollen, is the stigma (fig. 74, c). rolled inwards, it is evident that we may have each carpel The carpels show a still greater tendency to unite with of two cells, as in Astragalus; but the division is very seleach other than even the exterior parts of the flower, dom perfect. When the ovaria are united into a compound though often this union seems to take place in a very or syncarpous ovarium, the sides of the component leaves slight degree. In Stapelia they appear to cohere only by or ovaria (which sides are then termed dissepiments) may the stigmas; in Asclepias by the stigmas and styles; in be evanescent, in which case we have a unilocular ovasome by the ovaries alone, in others by the ovaries and rium with a central placenta (fig. 79); and when the styles; but the most complete is by the ovaries, styles, leaves forming the ovaria are scarcely folded, but nearly and stigmas. When the styles are united there is usually plane, the placentiferous margins touching respectively said to be but one, although the pistil ought more properly the margins of the next ovaria, an unilocular syncarpous to be then called gamostyle; and in the same way, when ovarium is produced (fig. 80), having the placenta pariethe ovaries are united, there is still said to be one ovary, tal, or exhibiting longitudinal lines on the interior surface. called by Linnaeus a germen, consisting of a number of In a compound ovarium, when the margin of the folded cells (loculi), although each of the cells is in fact an ovary, carpel is rolled inwards a little way, so that each ovarium itigma. The number of stigmas is determined by that of the car- is almost bilocular, it is evident that the placentas must pels and styles, or their divisions; so that in a compound be situated nearly in the centre of each division of the ovarium, when we speak of one stigma, we actually mean fruit, in which case the two placentae in each cell may several united into one mass (fig. 75, c), as in the prim- either unite closely together, as in Kalmia or Rhododendrum rose. It is sessile when there is no apparent style, ter- (fig. 81); or may diverge from each other (fig. 82), as in minal when placed on the top of the style or ovarium, and the gourds.1 An apocarpous ovarium may be known from lateral when attached to the sides of these organs. In a syncarpous one, when there is no abortion, by the number substance it may be fleshy, glandular, or membranaceous, and position of the placentae. Although in every plant and even petaloid when it resembles a petal, as in the a carpel is present, yet in Cycadece and Coniferce, where iris. Its form needs no illustration further than, when there is neither style nor stigma, the apocarpous ovarium several are only partially combined, they are said to be is plane or spread open like a scale, leaving the naked bifid, trifid, or multfid, as if there were actually a simple ovule, on its inner surface, exposed without any covering one variously divided. Its surface is either smooth or jm- to the pollen; and even, though very rarely, the carpel bescent; in some plants it is pencilliform (fig. 76), or of may be so modified that the ovary is abortive, and nothing hairs forming a small tuft; in others, as in Anemone, Cle- is visible but the naked ovule. matis, and many grasses, it is plumose (fig. 77), or furnishihe ovary xsfree or superior when it contracts no adheed with hairs arranged in a line on both sides, like the vanes rence with the calyx ; or inferior, and then it is syncarpous, of a feather; and is aspergilliform (fig. 78) when the and the tube of the calyx adheres with it. But the inhairs are placed in many whirls around the stigma, like a dividual ovaria may be placed inside the tube of the calyx bottle-brush. In a few orders, as Goodenovece, Sccevolece, without being united with a syncarpous ovarium, as in the and Brunoniacece, the stigma is enveloped in a peculiar roses, when they are said to he parietal. Between an inferior membranous appendage, called an indusium. ovary and ovaries parietal it is sometimes difficult to draw tyk\ The style is in common language said to be simple a distinction; for when there is only one series of the lat(simplex), or single (unicum), either when it is the style ter, they may project so far towards the axis of the fruit to one carpel (fig. 74, b), or is formed by the union of as nearly to meet each other, and thus resemble a syncarseveral into one body (fig. 75, b), and is divided when pous ovary. But the difficulty is diminished by considerthe component parts are more or less adherent. But a ing that, in a true inferior ovarium, each carpel must so style in its simplest state, being actually formed by the touch the calyx as to represent a syncarpous ovarium prolongation of the two placentae of a carpel, is even then seated within the tube. Each carpel must therefore a compound body. What are said to be two styles in the unite laterally with its contiguous one, and at the same grasses (fig. 78) is thus in reality but one divided style. time all must be united at the axis of the ovarium, so The two stigmas in Compositce indicate the same structure, that there must result from the union one compound pisas well as those of many Euphorbiacece, where the divi- til. A compound pistil ought thus to indicate an inferior sions of the style and stigmas are double those of the car- ovary. On the contrary, a separation of pistilla will always pels. The style may be included within the flower (m- be accompanied with parietal ovaries (as in the rose and clusus), or protruded beyond it (exsertus). It is usually apple); and to these rules there is, we believe, no deviaterminal in a compound ovarium; and lateral, or basilar tion. An apparent one is in that section of the genus Rosa (from the base), in a simple one. In some plants with a called systyla?, as in the Ayrshire rose, and another in deeply lobed ovarium, the individual ovaries are attached Cratagus monogyna, in both of which the styles unite into to each other almost only by their bases; and hence the one ; but even here a slight dissection of the ovarium will united style, springing from the point of union, forms as show that the individual carpels are not strictly united at it were a continuation of the axis. The style is of various their inner margins, and consequently that the ovaria are and inpnn1SS 1CU0US •ri >e t le f1.1, 68 °f the carpel or leaf connecting the exterior with the centre of the compound ovarium are extremely thin induppH t o 1'suppose> that whilehere the the innexed are remarkably ; hence Seringe De Candolle have of been midribmargins of the constituent leaf is,well by defined some inexplicable means,and placed in the centre theerroneously ovarium."

ANY. 46 B O T Glossology, parietal, and the compound ovary apocarpous, or of more the testa. The junction of the three forms the chalaza. The Glossology, chalaza is sometimes at the base of the testa, but is moi e pr*^lQTT than one pistillum. n. CXIII. The partially adherent calyx of many saxifrages has frequently at the apex of that external covering, so that the * of the nucleus and tegmen, though in some plants led some botanists to say of them that the ovarium is half apices inferior {semi-super uni); but from their being two pistilla, pointing to the apex of the testa, are more usually directed its base. Close to the apex of the nucleus, and conseit is apocarpous. In UnibeUiferce there is but one pistil, to although two styles ; and the ovary is syncarpous and infe- quently at the opposite extremity from the chalaza, a small aperture ox foramen (fig. eaed. e) is to be observed in rior. To avoid confusion, it might be better to adopt the both the primine and secundine sacs. This foramen (callterms of syncarpous and apocarpous ovaria, and adherent ed by Mirbel exostome in the primine, and endostome in the or free calyx ; and a combination of these will indicate the secundine) must always be found near the base of the structure of the fruit. Each simple ovarium is more or less compressed; but ovulum when the apex of the nucleus points towards that and at the summit of the ovulum when the apex of the usual shape of a syncarpous one is ovoid. It is, how- base,nucleus points to that part; and consequently the ever, sometimes elongated. In most plants it is entire, the of this foramen will at once indicate the internal but in the borage tribe and labiate plants it is deeply situation structure of the ovulum.1 And this is of the greatest imlobed (PL CXIV. fig. 118). Ovulum. The ovulum, as we have already explained, is the body portance, as the future embryo is now well ascertained borne by the placenta, and is destined to become a seed to be so placed in the nucleus that the radicle points diafter impregnation. The position of the ovula is of great rectly to these orifices, as do the cotyledons to the chalaSa; importance in determining natural affinities. When it is and a means is thus given of discovering even in the ovufixed by its base to the bottom of one of the cells of the lum the future internal arrangement of the seed. In what ovarium, of which it takes the direction, it is said to be we have said, we have presumed the testa, tegmen, and erect, or if it hangs from the summit of the cell it is invert- nucleus, to be straight; but in some plants all or some of ed; but if the ovulum is attached to the middle portion these are more or less bent or curved, in which case we of the placenta, it may have an upright direction, and is may have the apex of the nucleus directed towards its called ascendant, or point downwards, and is then suspended base, as in the Crucifer a; and Chenopodiacece, and even the (appensum); or if it appears attached by its middle, so grasses ; or towards the side of the testa, as in the Legumithat one half points upwards and the other half towards the nosce? The testa is usually entire, except at the foramen, but base of the cell, it is called peritropal. By most botanists, however, the erect and ascendant ovula are confounded un- in two known genera,Banksia andDryandra, it opens londer one name, and the inverted and suspended are known gitudinally, leaving the tegmen exposed. The surfaces of by the term pendulous. Either of these may at times re- the testas of the two collateral ovules in these plants then semble the other by an accidental inversion, when the unite, putting on the appearance of the dissepiment of a ovule is said to be resupinate. The ovulum is either ses- capsule; and the two cohering ovula seem to be as one sile, or on a stalk called a funiculus or podosperm (fig. 83, a), bilocular ovulum. By this means the internal membrane and in either case the point by which the connection is or tegmen becomes the external envelope of the seed. When the apex of the nucleus is contiguous to the base formed is usually termed the base of the ovulum, and its other extremity the apex. The ovulum consists of a nu- of the ovulum, a connection takes place between the base cleus and two external coats; the outer of which (fig. 83, of the ovulum and the base of the nucleus, by a bundle of 81, and 85, each at the letter b) is called the testa or primine vessels (fig. 85, f) called a raphe. This raphe is almost sac; and the inner, the internal membrane, or secundine sac, or always on the side of the ovule next the placenta, and the tegmen (fig. eaed. c.) The base of the nucleus (fig. esed. d) even the apparent exceptions to this rule tend to confirm is always incorporated with the base of the internal mem- it. Thus in the tribe to which Euonymus belongs, the brane, and their common base is attached at some points to ovules are erect, yet in some species of that genus they 1 Brown and Mirbel term the chalaza the base, and the foramen the apex of the ovule, without regard to the point of attachment of 2the ovule to the placenta, which must be attended to in studying their works. Mirbel, as we have already stated, considers the base of the ovulum and seed as at the chalaza, and he divides seeds into orthotropous, anatropous, and campulitropous. The first are attached to the ovary by their base, having a perfectly regular form, and the axis is rectilinear. The campulitropous are also fixed to the ovary by their base, but their form is irregular, and their axis is curved, so that the two extremities meet. The anatropous, like the orthotropous, have a rectilinear axis, but they are resupinate on their funiculus, to which they adhere longitudinally, and by means of which they are attached to the ovarium at a point near their apex. These variations are explained by Mirbel, by what he denominates the statics of developments, or the force of expansion, or of inertness, or of contraction of the different parts of the ovulum; and he has endeavoured to show how these causes, acting either together or independently, alter or preserve the regularity of the primitive shape. Every ovulum, according to him, has at first a regular form, and the chalaza close to the hilum or funiculus ; so that if the force of development be equal at all points, the regularity of shape must be preserved, but if it be greater on one side than on the other, an irregularity must ensue. In this way an equilibrium offerees must have taken place in an orthotropous seed, but not in the anatropous or campulitropous ones. When an ovulum tends to become anatropous, the chalaza or the inner extremity of the funiculus is pushed forward in a slightly oblique direction, and inverts the ovulum, so that its base is placed where its summit formerly was, and vice versa; a kind of resupination which is stated by Mirbel to take place in a very short time,—but notwithstanding he appears to have followed the successive changes. By this inversion the vessels of the funiculus become elongated in proportion to the length of the axis of the ovulum; and such prolongation, united laterally to the primine sac, and extending from the exostome to the chalaza, is what is termed the raphe. Three characters distinguish the ovule destined to become in maturity a compulitropous seed : the indissoluble union of the hilum and the chalaza ; the great force of development of one of the sides of the ovule; and the inertness or even contraction of the opposite side, which remains stationary, or even diminishes, while the other elongates. Had this last side been free in its development, it would have elongated in a straight line; but it is constrained by the inertness or contraction of the opposite one, and can therefore only increase by turning round the other as a centre. From this arises that annular form which most of the compulitropous seeds posses’s ; and hence also, in all curved seeds, the chalaza ought to be constantly opposite to the hilum, and the foramen at the opposite extremity. Although all seeds may be reduced to these three types, yet by their development being stopped before the ovulum attains to the perfection of the type, and from similar results arising sometimes from different causes, many anomalies may be expected. Several have been pointed out by Mirbel himself. Thus, in the pea, the young ovule exhibits the anatropous form ; but afterwards the raphe remains stationary, while the opposite side expands, and the seed appears compulitropous, but with a raphe.

BOTANY. 47 lossology. appear suspended, and then have the raphe turned away Glossology. Fruit. from the placenta; but if we consider a moment, we shall 1. CXIII. seej such may arise not only from their naturally Fecundation having taken place, the floral envelopes^ CXIIL hanging down, but by an erect ovule being as it were usually fade away, the stamens disappear, and the pistilpushed over by some peculiar formation of the plant, and lum begins to increase in size and become the fruit. thus become resupinate. But a naturally erect ovule be- Although the style and stigma, having fulfilled their funccome resupinate, must have the part that was formerly tions, are now nearly obliterated, the fruit ought always to next the placenta now turned away from it; and in the show some traces of them on its surface, whenever they same way a naturally pendulous ovule must also, when were seen on the ovarium. In Cycadece and Conferee, resupinate, have its raphe turned away from the placenta; where the ovulum is exposed to the immediate action of and thus we may conclude, when such is the position of the pollen, there is neither style nor stigma upon the the raphe, that the ovule is resupinate, and that the op- scale or open ovary, so neither is there on the fruit, indiposite apparent direction is the true one, whether erect or cating the existence of naked seeds; but the grains of pendulous. This may readily be seen in the genus Pencea. corn and wheat and other grasses, having the remains of a It was till lately generally supposed that the aura polli- style, are true fruits; the supposed naked seeds of the naris, mollecules of pollen, or by whatever other name borage tribe and labiatae are for the same reason parts of the vivifying influence might be called, after being ab- a fruit. As the pistillum advances towards maturity, sorbed by the stigma and transmitted through the style, many alterations take place, in consequence of abortion, entered the ovulum at its base, either directly or by means non-development, obliteration, or even union of parts. of the funiculus. The discoveries of Brown and others Thus a compound pistil having a compound or syncarpous have however now proved satisfactorily that the entrance ovary, may have a fruit of but one cell, as the hazel-nut; takes place by the foramens; and Brongniart has ascer- or a solitary pistil may, by the involution and divarication tained, that in many, if not in all plants, at the moment of its placentas, change into a fruit with several cells; or of impregnation, a slender tube or filament is protruded the placenta itself may expand horizontally, dividing one through the orifices from the apex of the nucleus, for the true cell into several spurious ones. In all cases, however, more ready absorption of the pollen granules, but which, the contrasting the structure of the pistil with that of the after having served the intended purpose, withers away, fruit will materially aid us in our investigations. leaving only a small projection or papilla, which nearly The base of the fruit (fig. 86, a) is the part where it is closes up the foramens. Until, therefore, it was decided joined to the peduncle. The apex (fig. 86, b) is where that the pollen had not access to the nucleus by the funi- the remains of the style are found. culus, but by the foramen, the idea of a naked ovule was 1 he portion of the pistil called the ovarium is in the inadmissible, and many ingenious but erroneous hypothe- ripe fruit termed the pericarp ; it is sometimes extremely ses were made to explain the fruit of the pine, &c. in thin, as in the grasses, the borage tribe, the Composites, which an exposed ovulum exists. &c. but is often extremely thick, mid even fleshy. As the But the nucleus is itself a compound body, and consists leaf of a plant has an upper and under surface, and an of two parts. The one is a parenchymatous or loose intermediate parenchyma in which the nerves are placed, cellular substance, called by Malpighi the chorion (fig. 85, so the pericarp consists likewise of three portions: the

X.—Janipiia. Kunth.

Flowers monoecious. Perianth campanulate, 5-partite. Estivation convolute. Males. Stamens ten, distinct, inserted on the fleshy discoid torus, five of them alternate with the others, and shorter. Fem. Style short. Stigmas three, of several lobes; the lobes, as if united into one mass, marked with sinuose furrows. Ovarium seated on the fleshy torus, three-celled, the cells each with one ovule. Capsule ovate, somewhat acute at the apex, tricoccous, the cocci two-valved.—Trees or milky shrubs; leaves alternate, palmate; flowers racemoso-panicled, axillary or terminal; root of some of the sjiecies tubercular and esculent. 1. J. Manihot; leaves palmate, 5-7-partite, glabrous, glaucous beneath, the segments lanceolate and very entire ; flowers racemose. J. Manihot. Humb. and Kunth, Nov. Gen. vol. ii. p. 108; Plook. in Bot. Mag. t. 3071.—Manihot utilissima. Pohl, PI. Bras. Icon. vol. i. t. 24.—latropha Manihot. Linn. Sp. PI. p. 1428.—Physic-nut, bitter cassada, manioc, or tapioca, of English writers. Bab. Brazil. If.. Flowers in July and August in our collections. “ Two kinds are especially cultivated in the colonies, the Sweet Cassada oi Browne s Jamaica (p. 350), and Lunan’s Hort. Jam. (vol. i. p. 163), Manihot Aipi, Fold ; whose root is of a white colour, and free from deleterious qualities ; and the Bitter Cassada, whose root is yellowish, and abounds in a poisonous juice. We shall confine our observations to the latter kind, which is the one here figured and described. They seem not to differ in botanical character. “ When it is considered that the Manioc belongs to a tribe of plants, the Euphorbiacece, which is essentially distinguished by its acrid and poisonous qualities, and that the root of the plant itself abounds in a juice of this peculiar character, it cannot fail to excite astonishment in the minds of those who are not already aware of the fact, that it nevertheless yields an abundant flour, rendered innocent indeed by the art of man, and thus most extensively employed in lieu of bread throughout a very large portion of South America; and that even to our country it is largely imported, and served up at table, under the name of Tapioca. “ Such is the poisonous nature of the expressed juice of the Manioc, that it has been known to occasion death in a few minutes. By means of it the Indians destroyed many of their Spanish persecutors. M. Fernier, a physician at Surinam, administered a moderate dose to dogs and cats, who died in a space of twenty-five minutes, passed in great torments. Their stomachs, on being opened, exhibited no symptoms of inflammation, nor affection of the viscera, nor was the blood coagulated, whence it appeared, that the poison acted on the nervous system ; an idea that was confirmed by thirty-six drops being afterwards administered to a criminal. These had scarcely reached

BOTANY. 68 Phyto- the stomach, when the man writhed and screamed with ous, the segments erect. Estivation imbricated. Pe- Phyto.. graphy. the agonies under which he suffered, and fell into convul- tals five, inserted on the calyx, sessile, longer than the v graphy. sions, in which he expired in six minutes. Three hours calyx, equal, patent above. Stamens ten, inserted with afterwards the body was opened, but no alteration was the petals, included, one (between two of the petals) twice found, except that the stomach was shrunk to less than as long and stout as the others. Filaments connate at half its natural size ; so that it would appear that the fa- their base. Anthers two-celled, ovato-elliptical, bifid at tal principle resides in a volatile substance, which may be the base, attached by the back, longitudinally dehiscing dissipated by heat; as, indeed, is satisfactorily proved by on the inside. Ovarium free, sessile, one-celled, terminating in the style; minute in the male flowers. Ovule the mode of preparing the root for food. “ By various processes, by bruising between stones, by one, ascending, situated at the bottom of the cell. Style a coarse rasp, or by a mill, the root of the Manioc is bro- subulate, protruded. Stigma capitellate. Discoid torus ken into small pieces, then put into a sack, and subjected wanting. Fruit reniform, cartilagineo-coriaceous, oneto a heavy pressure, by which all the juice is expressed. seeded, indehiscent, seated on the enlarged pyriform What remains is Cassada or Cassava, which, if properly fleshy extremity of the pedicel. Seed reniform. Integudried, is capable of being preserved for a great length of ment simple, coriaceous, adhering. Embryo of the same shape as the seed, without albumen. Cotyledons halftime. “ In French Guiana, according to Aublet, cassada flour lunate, fleshy, plano-convex. Radicle hooked, rising upis made by toasting the grated root over the fire, in which wards from the base of the cotyledons.—Trees bearing state, if kept from humidity, it will continue good for gum ; leaves alternate, simple, entire and very entire, the primary veins transverse and somewhat parallel; stipules twenty years. “ Cassava-cake, or cassava-root, is the meal, or the grat- none; panicles terminal, corymbose, branched, diffuse, ed, expressed, and dried root of the Manioc, pounded in bracteated; flowers fascicled; pericarp cellular within, a mortar, passed through a coarse sieve, and baked on flat abounding in a caustic oil. 1. A. occidentale. circular iron plates fixed in a stove. The particles of A. occidentale. Linn. Sp. PI. p. 548 ; Jacq. Amer. i. meal are united by the heat, and when thoroughly baked in this manner, form cakes, which are sold at the markets, t. 181. f. 35.—Acajuba occidentalis. Gaert. Fruct. i. p. i. p. 22. and universally esteemed as a wholesome kind of bread. 192. t. 40.—Cassuvium pomiferum. Lam. The Spaniards, when they first discovered the W’est In- III. t. 322. Hob. West Indies, Mexico, South America, East Indies, found this in general use among the native Indians, who called it Cazabbi, and by whom it was preferred to dia islands. This yields the well-known cashew-hut. It every other kind of bread, on account of its easy diges- belongs to the Terebinthacece. Plate CXXIII. Anacardium occidentale. Fig. 1, Branch tion, the facility with which it was cultivated, and its prodigious increase. Again, in Guiana, Cipipa is another with flowers and fruit, somewhat reduced. Fig. 2, Flowers preparation from this plant, and is the name given to a not expanded. Fig. 3, Flower spread open. Fig. 4, Stavery fine and white fecula, which, according to Aublet, is men and pistil in the calyx, one stamen {fertile) longer than derived from the expressed juice of the roots, which is the others. Fig. 5, Stamen. Fig-. 6, Nut. Fig. 7, Nut cut decanted off, and suffered to rest some time, when it de- open longitudinally. Fig. 8, Seed. Fig. 9, Cotyledons posits an amylaceous substance, which requires repeated opened, showing the radicle (a) and plumule. washing. I know not whether this is exactly analogous to our Tapioca. The juice, says Sloane, evaporated over Gen. XII.—Carica. Linn. the fire, gives the Tapioca meal. But Lunan tells us, that, .Mowers dioecious. Ca/ya: (minute) five-toothed. Males. from the roots of the Sweet Cassada, Tapioca is made in Jamaica, in every respect similar to that imported, which Corolla infundibuliform. Stamens ten, the alternate ones is done by grating them, washing them, and infusing them shorter. Fem. Corolla deeply five-parted. Stigmas five. in water, and evaporating the liquor so as to obtain a Fruit like a pepo, many-seeded. Seeds covered with a sediment like starch, which must be well dried in the wrinkled membrane. 1. C. Papaya ; leaves palmate, seven-parted, segments sun. “ The root of the Manioc is also the basis of several oblong acute sinuate, the intermediate one trifid; fruit obkinds of fermented liquors; and an excellent condiment long, furrowed. C. Papaya. Linn. Sp. PI. p. 1466; Lindl. in Bot. Reg. for seasoning meats, called Cabiou, or Capiou, is prepared from the juice, and said to sharpen the appetite. The t. 459; Hook in Bot. Mag. t. 2898 and 2899.—Papaya leaves beaten and boiled are eaten after the manner of vulgaris, Lam. III. t. 821.—Papaya Carica. Gaertn. Fruct. Spinach, and the fresh root is employed in healing ulcers. vol. ii. p. 191, t. 122, f. 2. “ From what has been above stated, it will appear that Hob. South America. 5* the expression of the juice from the root deprives the This, the Papaw tree, yields a milky juice ; and, as latter of its deleterious properties; and that the applica- Browne mentions, if water be impregnated with it, it will tion of heat to these juices renders the residue also whole- make all sorts of meat washed in it very tender; but eight some and nourishing. And whilst cassava-bread is, as or ten minutes steeping will render it so soft that it will Sloane says, in the most general demand of any provision drop in pieces from the spit before it is well roasted, or all over the West Indies, and is employed to victual ships, turn to rags in the boiling. If old hogs and poultry be the use of Tapioca is still more extended, and throughout fed upon the leaves and fruit, however tough the meat Europe is largely employed for the same purpose as sago they afford might otherwise be, it is thus rendered perand arrow-root.” (Hook, in Hot. Magd) fectly tender. Even the vapour of the tree serves this Plate CXXII. Janipha manihot. Fig. 1, Branch of a purpose ; hence many people in the West Indies suspend plant, natural size, with female flowers. Fig. 2, Panicle, the joints of meat, fowls, &c. in the upper part of the tree, with mostly male flowers. Fig. 3, Pistil. Fig. 4, Stamens, in order to prepare them sooner for the table. and discoid fleshy torus. Fig. 5, Anther. Fig. 6, Seed. Plate CXXIV. Carica Papaya. Fig. 1, Tree, much reduced. Fig. 2, Portion of a panicle or raceme of male Gen. XI.—Anacardium. Jacq. Linn. flowers. Fig. 3, Male floiver, cut open. Fig. 4, Calyx. Flowers polygamous. Calyx 5-partite, regular, decidu- Fig. 5, Portion of the tube of the corolla bearing young sta-

B O T ANY. 69 Hab. East Indies. 5. PhytoPhyto- mens, the rest being cut away. Fig. 6 and 7, Anthers. Fig. 8, This belongs to the natural order of Cycadece, which, with graphy. .rraphy- Female flowers. Conferee, is remarkable for having no pericarp farther than the spadix or its scales. Gen XIII.—Andromeda. Linn. Plate CXXVI. Cycas circinalis, male. Fig. 1, Plant, reCalyx five-parted. Corolla gamopetalous, somewhat duced to one-twelfth of the natural size. Fig. 2, Male campanulate. Stamens tea. two-horned. Style one. amentum, natural size. Fig. 3, Upper side of a scale. Fig. 4, Capsule five-celled, loculicidal, with a central five-lobed Under side of the same. Fig. 5, 6, 7, Anther. Fig. 8, Pollen, magnified. Fig. 9, Small pinna from a leaf. placentiferous column. 1. A. hypnoides ; stem procumbent; leaves imbricated As to the manner in which botanical works may be got erect subulate; peduncles solitary; one-flowered, terminal; corolla campanulate five-cleft, the segments obtuse and up, whether as Monographs of Orders or Genera, as Floras of particular countries or districts of a country, as a Hortus, converging; style ovato-acuminate. A. hypnoides. Linn. Suec. p. 355; Flor. Lapp. t. 1. f. as a Genera Plantarum, a Species Plantarum, or as a Systema Vegetabilium, or as Botanical Plates; though each 3; Hook, in Bot. Mag. t. 2936. Hab. Extreme north of Europe, Asia, and north-west be subjected to a few rules, yet much is left to the taste of the author. We shall therefore pass them over, and coast of America. £• We have already (p. 60) given Linnaeus’s interesting proceed to an account of the origin of the name Andromeda. Herbarium. Plate CXXIV. Andromeda hypnoides. Fig. 1*, Plant, Descriptions and figures, however exact they may be natural size. Fig. 2*, Flower. Fig. 3*, Back view, and Fig. Front view of a stamen. Fig. 5*, Leaf. Fig. 6*, esteemed by their authors, have so often been found imperfect by others, that some means must be resorted to, Pistil. Fig. 1*, Section of the ovarium. that every one may examine for himself the plant treated of. This in a measure may be attained by having access Gen. XIV.—Artocarpus. Linn. to gardens; but in all our gardens together, perhaps not Flowers monoecious, in an amentum. Males. Perianth more than one fourth of the vegetable productions of the simple, of one, two, or three segments. Filament solitary, globe are cultivated, and of these many have not been as long as the perianth. Fem. Perianth of one piece, the made to bear blossoms or fruit, and are therefore useless ; mouth contracted. Fruit a sorosis. nor can they be certainly seen in all states at the very time 1. A incisa ; leaves cuneato-ovate, lobed in a pinnatifid when we particularly desire them. In a garden, also, the manner, glabrous, or nearly so, above, scabrous beneath. cultivator is seldom an experienced botanist, and we may A. incisa. Linn. Fil. Supp. p. 411 ; Lam. III. t. 744; therefore expect many errors in nomenclature. The name, Hook, in Bot. Mag. t. 2869, 2870, and 2871.—A com- therefore, so far from assisting us to trace what an author munis. Forster, Gen. p. 102, t. 51. had in view, may tend to puzzle us still more. In a garden, Hab. Ladrone islands, but now cultivated throughout likewise, plants are made as showy as possible, to please the tropics. 5. the eye, and often depart very much from the type of the Of this there are two varieties; one producing nuts, species as taken from its original locality. The necessity, which is called the Bread-nut (that here figured) ; the then, was soon perceived of preserving specimens of every other in which the nuts are abortive, and called the thing that is described, so that these may be communicatBreadfruit. This last is well known to all who have ed to other botanists, examined by them, and criticised; read the interesting voyages of Dampier and Anson. and as it was impracticable to retain for any length of time This genus belongs to the Artocarpece, a section of Urticece. specimens in the fresh state, means were devised to exPlate CXXV. Artocarpus incisa. Fig. 1, Branch, re- tract the juices; and this being accomplished, no alteration duced to one third of the natural size, with male and fe- could afterwards take place. Such is the origin of an male flowers. Fig. 2, Section of an amentum of male flowers, herbarium, which is a collection more or less considerable natural size. Fig. 3, Male flowers. Fig. 4, Single male of different plants, dried as carefully as possible, at a time flower. Fig. 5, Cluster of female flowers. Fig. 6, Smgle when they were in leaf, in flower, and in fruit; while a sefemale floicer. Fig. 7, Ovarium. Fig. 8, Ovarium laid parate collection of fruits alone, either dried, or, if they open to show the ovule. Fig. 9, A variety of the ovarium are fleshy, preserved in spirits or salt water, is called a with two cells. Fig. 10, Transverse section of the ovarium. granary. The mode of drying plants is very simple. Paper of an absorbent nature (such as common gray or brown packing paper, or old newspapers) must be Gen. XIV.—Cycas. Linn. procured, about seventeen or eighteen inches long, and Flowers dioecious. Males in a very thick amentum: twelve broad, and a few strong deal boards of the same scales somewhat imbricated, inserted on the common axis, size. The specimens may be gathered in a large tin box, somewhat triangular, tapering from the apex to the base, or in a basket so covered as to exclude the rays of the terminated at the apex with a recurved point, on the under sun ; and when one cannot soon after proceed to dry them, side sprinkled without order with bivalve anthers. Fem. a little water may be occasionally sprinkled over them to Arranged in ensiform spadices, which are between foliace- keep them fresh. In order to dry them, take one of the ous and carnose, and bear the flowers on both margins: boards and lay a few sheets of paper upon it. The quanflowers erect, half immersed. Fruit erect, a naked dru- tity of paper will of course depend on its thickness, and paceous seed.—Trees with an erect, round stipes; leaves on the nature of the specimens ; for when they are full of pinnatisect, and forming a crown round the stem. moisture, more paper is requisite than for more tender or C. circinalis; segments of the leaves linear-lanceolate, less juicy plants; and when they have thick or knobby plane; petioles aculeate; female spadices few-flowered, stems, or large hard fruits, a still greater quantity must acuminate, inciso-serrated ; fruit ovato-globose, glabrous. intervene between each layer of plants. Having taken, C circinalis, Linn. Sp. PL p. 1658; Hook, in Bot. Mag. then, some sheets of paper, spread upon them the plants, f. 2866 and 2867; Richard Mem. sur'les Conif. p. 187, t. so as not to allow the one to overlap the other; and with 24,25,26. ^ ^ this precaution several may be laid on the same sheet. It

botany. JO 1 are to be pressed, and a little attention must then be paid Taxono. Tn r Phyto- is quite useless to spread out or separate the leaves or lest the specimens also adhere to the absorbent paper. ^' t graphy. flowers with the hand. If the specimen be at all in a fresh When a packet so prepared is sent from abroad, it ought state, its natural appearance is best preserved by allowing to contain at least 100 different kinds, or more than 1000 it to take the position which chance may direct. Above specimens. It may then be placed in a deal box, which is to this layer of plants place some sheets of paper, then ano- be well closed, so as to prevent injury from water; and if ther layer of plants, and so on till a packet be formed of the box be previously well rubbed or sprinkled within a foot, or a foot and a half high. When a considerable with oil of turpentine, or any other essential oil, the spenumber of woody plants is in the packet, a few thin cimens will arrive safe from the depredations of insects. boards may be interspersed, to prevent the more deli- Small fleshy plants and pulpy fruits may be put in a jar cate plants sustaining injury; this will a so flatten the of spirits, and forwarded in that state. In the case of • coarse ones more easily. On the top of the packet ar fruits, a piece of wire, with a nwnbcv, should be attached, ther board is to be placed, and on it a large weight or so as ’to correspond to the dried specimen of that species. dry stone when such can be procured, so as to press the When plants are either dried by ourselves or received in plants, and make them give out their juices to the paper. that state from others, our next care is to form the herbaThe weight need scarcely be less than 50 lbs.; and if rium. For this the specimens are to be either glued down the plants have thick or woody stems, even 80 lbs. or on single sheets of stiff white paper, all of an uniform size, 100 lbs. may be applied. In travelling, it is impossible to or, as the glue attracts insects and prevents afterwards a carry about large stones or weights, in which case the perfect analysis of the specimen, others prefer attaching plants may be pressed by means of two or three leather them by means of cross bands. Either of these modes will belts passing round the packet, and pulled extreme y enable us to keep our herbarium in order; but, without tight. When plants have been subjected to pressure for assistance, so much time is spent in the fixing them down, twenty-four or forty-eight hours, the weight may be taken that most botanists now keep the plants loose within sheets off, and the paper will be found to have absorbed a con- of paper of a softer texture. This enables us quickly to siderable portion of moisture from the plants. _ It must therefore be now removed, and the specimens laid on dry dispose of our specimens in the collection; and when paper, and subjected to the same process as before. This turned over carefully, very little damage is afterwards must be repeated until the plants are dry. It may be less sustained. No more than one species ought to occupy troublesome were the sheets, upon which the plants im- a sheet; but owing to receiving the same plant from mediately rest, laid down in a dry situation for a few different authors and different countries, we must often hours with the plants on them. The moistuie will quickly devote several sheets to one species. Each specimen evaporate, and the sheet, without disturbing the plants, ought to have a label indicating the locality, the name of may be laid upon a layer of dry paper. The wet paper, the donor, when gathered, or any peculiarities about it; when thoroughly dried, can be used as often as one chooses. and every sheet ought to have attached to it the name of When the specimens are dry, which may be easily ascer- the plant. All the species of a genus may either be setained by their stiffness, or not curling up when in a dry parated from those of another, by being placed within a situation, they may be packed up (of small ones, fifty or sheet of strong paper marked on the outside with the sixty specimens on a sheet), in very little space ; only one name of the genus, or by a thin piece of pasteboard, acsheet of paper is then requisite between each layer of cording to the taste of the possessor. As to the order in which genera are to be arranged, the plants. Specimens must be gathered, when possible, in dry weather. They ought to be both in flower and in fruit, alphabetical is the worst, and the Linnaean system next. the latter being obviously as useful as the former to the The best is according to some one of the variations of the scientific botanist; and not less than from twelve or fifteen natural method, it is of little importance which, provided specimens of each kind ought to be taken, one specimen one adheres to it so much that he can by association go proving frequently of little use. Small herbaceous plants, to the order without having constant recourse to a catanot more than sixteen or seventeen inches high, may be logue. When it is necessary to analyse a dried plant, we may pulled up by the root, and dried entire ; and some that are even longer, as grasses and ferns, may be doubled two or expose the flower or fruit to the steam of boiling water, three times. Of larger plants, such as shrubs and trees, or those that are of a less delicate nature we may detach, specimens are to be taken at least sixteen or seventeen and allow to remain in warm water until the parts we are inches long; and if the leaves on a plantvary much in to examine be so softened that we may easily dissect shape, a corresponding number of specimens may be dried them under the microscope. Much practice, address, and of each kind. Those plants which are of a very fleshy or even knowledge of the structure of plants, is however nesucculent nature, as tulips, &c. ought to be plunged (all cessary, so that no appearance exhibited on dissection may but the flower) for a few seconds into boiling water. This fail to make some impression on us. Every thing must deprives them of life ; and when the extraneous moisture be observed and theorised on as we proceed. And we is allowed to dry off, or wiped away with a towel, they may may here remark, that the best instrument for this purbe dried as other plants. Lichens and fungi may be dried pose, at a moderate price, is Ellis s single and aquatic miin the common way, although those of the latter triber sel- croscope, which is furnished by Jones (Holborn, London), dom makegood specimens. Mosses grow frequently in with five lenses, two of which are reflectors, for three tufts, and are to be a little separated by the hand before guineas. they be pressed. The larger or coarse sea-weeds ought to be plunged in boiling water, and treated as succulent III.- -TAXONOMY. plants. The smaller ones, when one is hurried, may first be As we have already stated, taxonomy is that branch of partially dried in the open air, in a shady situation, and afterwards subjected to a very gentle pressure, till quite botany which has for its object the combination of all our dry, when they may be packed up with the other plants; observations on plants, so as to form a system or classifiand, when our time permits, they will be restored to their cation. When science was in its infancy, and when few plants Historr original form by washing them in cold fresh water. They are then to be neatly spread out on pieces of writing paper, were observed, they were described or treated without any to which most of the species will adhere ; after this they particular arrangement; or if some method was adopted,

xonory. I N-y-'w'

f -snen

C salpin.

I’.rison.

1 ir.

BOTANY. 71 it was merely empirical, and of little use to others. Theo- or those with many apparently naked seeds, as Ranuncu- Taxonom yphrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny, who respectively treated lus, Malva, Potentilla, and Alisma, a most unnatural assemf vegetables, may therefore now be justly rejected as blage: 16. Pomiferae, the fruit of which resembled an 0 systematists; and we may pass on to a much more modern apple, and among these the gourds and passion-flowers: date, when the characters began to be derived from the 17. Bacciferae, or every herb with a berry, whether a poorganization of plants ; for it was only then that botany be- tato or asparagus : 18. Multisiliquae, such as Aquilegia and came a science. But as the organs of plants were various Sedum, that had a fruit of apparently several pods : 19. Diin number, so also were the systems, some botanists giving tripetalae, containing principally Tillandsia, but seemingly a preference to one, others to another; some laying chief not understood by Ray himself: 21. Tetrapetalm, with dependence on the roots, some on the stems, others on either a long or a short pod, not however confined to the the leaves, and others on the inflorescence. Conrad Gess- Cruciferae of Jussieu, but comprehending Veronica, Euphorner, born at Zurich in 1516, was the first who demonstrat- bia, Plantago, &c.: 22. Papilionaceae or Leguminosse, ined that the characters drawn from the flowers and fruit c\u&\ngFumaria: 23. Pentapetalae, as Dianthus, Cistus, Hywere most to be depended on, as these were the most pericum: 24. Pentapetaloideae, or those with a monopetalous permanent and unchangeable parts of a plant; he also corolla, so divided as almost to resemble five petals, among pointed out that certain groups possessed particular cha- which are enumerated Erythrcea, Apocynum, Oxalis, &c.; racters in common. His work was published in 1541. It but indeed the 19th, the 23d, and the present classes, are does not appear that he gave any preference to one organ much confused by the author: 25. Bulbosm, and their wore than to another as the basis of a system. Caesalpi- allies, including a great part of the monocotyledones, as nus, born in 1519, at Arezzo in Tuscany, was a follower of Liliaceae, Asphodeleae, Orchideae, orlrideae: 26. GraminifoGessner, and may be said to have been the first who ac- liae, comprehending the Grasses, Cyperaceae, and Junceae : tually invented a system. He set out by distinguishing ve- 27. Anomalae, or those herbs, i\s iVymphcea, Piper, and Polygetables into trees and herbs; with the former arranging gala, that w^ere not reducible to any of these. II. Trees. shrubs, and with the latter suffruticose plants. He next 28. Arundinaceae, including the palms: 29. Juliferae, called divided each of these, the first into two classes, the last also Apetalae, containing those in which the fruit is sepainto thirteen, according to the fruit and situation of the rated from the staminiferous flower; under which Ray embryo (which he termed corculum) in the seed. This ranked the Amentaceae and Coniferae, the Elm, the Mulsystem, therefore, being a primary approximation to a na- berry, &c.: 30. Aggregatae, or trees with the flower and tural method, will render him ever memorable. fruit collected together into one mass, as the Fig: 31. UmIn 1680 Morison published the second volume of his bilicatae, with an inferior, fleshy, or pulpy fruit; a heteroHistoria Plantarum. In this work a new system is offei*- geneous set: 32.Non-umbilicatae, or those wdiere the flower ed, but some of the eighteen classes contained in the se- adhered to the bottom of the fruit; these are again dicond and third volumes possess no genuine distinctive vided into Pruniferae, Bacciferae, and Pomiferae : 33. Vascucharacters. His sections or secondary divisions are 108 in liferae, or trees with a dry fruit: 34. Siliquosae, or trees or number, and are taken from the figure and substance of shrubs bearing a legume, follicle, or any of such elongated the fruit, the number of seeds, sepals, and petals, the fruits: 35. Anomalae, or such as are not referable to any figure of the root, the direction of the stem, the colour of of the above. Most authors only enumerate thirty-three the flower, the place of grow th, and one from the medical classes, by omitting the 24th and 30th, but which nevervirtues of some of the plants that compose it. theless form a part of his arrangement. Ray gives, in addiRay proposed his method to the world in 1682. It was tion, more lengthened characters of several of these, but founded similarly to Morison’s, and divided originally into it is quite unnecessary here to notice them. Flis principal twenty-five classes. But this he afterwards carefully cor- division into herbs and trees is extremely faulty, and serected and improved at different times, so that the plan of parates plants otherwise very closely allied. His method, arrangement which at present bears the name of that author however, being a great approximation to a natural one, is entirely different from what first appeared. It now was deserves much praise, and we believe that it was the opimade to consist of thirty-five classes, the distinguishing nion of the late Sir J. E. Smith, who was wrell qualified to marks of some of which were derived from the habit or judge, that Ray as a botanist was eclipsed by few but external appearance; of others, from the greater or less Linnaeus. degree of perfection of the plants, from their place of To pass over several of an inferior note, we come now Tournegrowth, the number of seeds, fruits, petals, or sepals to to Tournefort. This distinguished individual was born atf°rteach flower, or from the nature of the fruit or inflorescence. Aix in Provence in 1656. He was professor of botany at They were as follow:—I. Herbs. 1. Submarinae or sea- the Jardih des Plantes of Paris, and w^as sent in 1700 by plants, including Zoophytes and Corals: 2. Fungi: 3. Musci, Louis XIV. to the Levant. He travelled through Greece, including Hepaticae and Lichens: 4. Capillares or ferns: 5. and surveyed the borders of the Black Sea and the islands Apetalae or apetalous plants, comprehending, among other of the Archipelago, and returned to Paris, where he publishanomalies, the genus Equisetum : 6. Planipetalae, or those ed an interesting account of his expedition. But before with semiflosculose compound flowers, corresponding to he set out, he had already exposed his new system of arthe Cichoraceae of Jussieu : 7. Discoideae, containing such ranging plants in his Institutiones Pei Herbarice, illustratof the Corymbiferae of Jussieu as have a pappus: 8. Capi- ed by many plates, and containing a description of 688 getatae, corresponding principally to the Cynarocephalae of nera and 10,146 species; and it is difficult to say whether Jussieu, but more extensive, and including all plants with he deserves most honour for his new classification, or for tubular flowers that are collected into a scaly involucrum: the attempt to characterize the genera and species. 9. Corymbiferae, similar to those of modern botanists, but The method of Tournefort is composed of twenty-two limited to the species without a pappus: 10. Gyrano-mo- classes, of which the characters are derived, ls£, from the nospermae, or such as were supposed to have one naked consistence and size of the stem, thus dividing vegetables seed; to this belongs Valeriana and Armeria, and, by into herbs or suftruticose plants and shrubs, or trees ; in some unhappy chance, Thaliclrum : 11. Umbelliferae : 12. which respect his system is subject to the same fault as that Stellatae, corresponding to one of the sections of Rubiaceae: of Ray, notwithstanding Rivinus, an intervening botanist, 13. Asperifoliae: 14. Verticillatae, or the Labiatae of Jussieu, had demonstrated the absurdity of such a division: 2d, andDidynamia angiospermia of Linnaeus: 15. Polyspermae, From the presence or absence of the corolla: 3c?, From

ANY. the names of plants ; its grand object is to exhibit, along Taxon) with the name, the relation which one plant bears to ano- my. ther, and to class them, as near as we can, in the order they would stand with regard to each other in the grand book of nature. To be correct, it ought to be founded on the immutable laws of nature herself, and not on the will HERBS OR UNDERSHRUBS. of man. But although these two are grounded so differently, they ought not to be viewed as in opposition to each § 1. Flowers Simple or Solitary. other. “ No person, surely, who has published a natural system, without knowing all the plants in the world, will 1. Flowers monopetalous, Campaniform. 2. Flowers monopetalous, Infundibuliform and Rotate. suppose that he has removed every present obstacle, much 3. Flowers monopetalous, Anomalous. less anticipated every future obscurity, so that no insu4. Flowers monopetalous, Labiate. perable difficulty can occur to the investigator of plants by 5. Flowers polypetalous, Cruciform. such a system; neither can any artificial system claim 6. Flowers polypetalous, Rosaceous. such perfection : but they may combine their powers, and 7. Flowers polypetalous, Rosaceous Umbellate. co-operate in instruction. The one may trace an outline, 8. Flowers polypetalous, Caryophyllaceous. which the other may correct and fill up. The first may 9. Flowers Liliaceous. propose, and the second elucidate; the former may edu10. Flowers polypetalous, Papilionaceous. cate and improve the memory and observation for the use 11. Flowers polypetalous, Anomalous. of the latter. When they oppose each other, their several defects and weaknesses appear; by mutual assistance they § 2. Flowers Compound. strengthen themselves.”1 “ About the end of the seventeenth century, and the 12. Flowers Flosculose. beginning of the eighteenth, the necessity of some bota13. Flowers Semiflosculose. nical system, of arrangement as well as nomenclature, by 14. Flowers Radiate. which the cultivators of this pleasing science might under§ 3. Herbs without Petals. stand each other, became every day more apparent. Nor was there any deficiency of zeal among the leaders and pro15. Flowers Apetalous or Staminiferous. fessors of this science. Systems, and branches of systems, 16. Flowers absent, Seed present. sprung up over the whole of this ample field, each aspiring 17. Flowers and Fruit invisible. to eminence and distinction above its neighbours. Many of these, like the tares that fell by the way side, soon witherTREES AND SHRUBS. ed for want of root; others, like the herba impia of the 18. Flowers Apetalous. old herbalists, strove to overtop and stifle their parents ; 19. Flowers Apetalous, Amentaceous. and all armed themselves plentifully with thorns of of20. Flowers Monopetalous. fence, as well as defence, by which they hoped finally to 21. Flowers Rosaceous. prevail over their numerous competitors. This state of 22. Flowers Papilionaceous. scientific warfare did not, in the meanwhile, much proIn the 3d class, the term anomalous means irregular, mote the actual knowledge of plants, though it prepared but not labiate ; in the 11th, irregular but not papiliona- the way for a final distribution of the numerous acquisiceous. A liliaceous flower, as the 9th class, he afterwards tions which were daily making by the more humble, explains to be a regular corolla of six or three petals, or though not less useful, tribe of collectors and discoverers. even a monopetalous one with six divisions, but always The success of the Linnaean artificial system is not altohaving a fruit of three cells. The 16th contains the ferns ; gether, perhaps, to be attributed to its simplicity and fathe 17th the other cryptogamia, which he says were cility, nor even to the peculiar attention it commanded commonly denied both flower and fruit. Such were the by its connection with the striking phenomenon, brought twenty-two classes established by Tournefort. Each of into view at the same time, of the sexes of plants. The them contains sections, of which there are in all 122; insufficiency, or at least the nearly equal merits, of the and though at first sight it may appear simple and easy many other similar schemes that had been proposed, beof reference, it still presents considerable difficulties, from gan to be most strongly felt just at the time when the many of the characters being merely negative, and others great progress and success of practical botany rendered by no means decisive. the necessity of a popular system most imperious. While the cause of system was pending, some of the greatest Artificial System. cultivators of science were obliged to have recourse to The systems we have already noticed, whether of alphabetical arrangement. This was the case with DilCsesalpinus, Morison, Ray, or Tournefort, were all of them lenius, the man who alone, at the time when Linnaeus more or less attempts at a natural classification; and such visited England, was found by him attentive to, or cathe sound principles of generic being the case, their great error was in selecting any one pable of understanding, particular part, and not an assemblage, as the ground of distinction.”2 Linnaeus was born in the province of Smaland, in Sweden, Linnse division. This, indeed, is the grand difference between a natural and artificial method. The latter has merely in view on the 23d May, 1707. His father wished him to study the knowledge of the names of plants ; and its only use divinity, but he himself preferred the open air and the being, therefore, to afford an easy means of discovering the gathering of plants. His parent then thought of making name in books, by as slight an inspection of the plant as pos- him a shoemaker, and in this might have succeeded, had sible, every one may have an arrangement of his own, and not Rothmann, the provincial physician at Wexicoe, inthere can be no fixed rule, for the system is purely artifi- terfered, and persuaded him to permit his son to study cial. The natural method is not solely for the finding out medicine; and had such not happened, Linnaeus’ genius

72 B O T r Taxono* the flowers being simple or solitar} , or compound or united my. into a common involucrum : kth, From the corolla being of one (or gamopetalous) or of several petals : and, 5th, from its regularity or irregularity. His classes are :—■

1

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Sixth Edition, Supp. vol. ii. p. 414.

2

Ibid, u 3J6.

B O T i5 axono- might have been for ever suppressed. After experiencing my. many hardships, and living in great poverty, the young naturalist got into favour with Celsius, the professor of divinity at Upsal; and by his exertions, and those of Rudbeck, succeeded in obtaining permission to make a journey through Lapland at the expense of the academy. On his return he published the Flora Lapjmnica. In a few years his fame increased; and, having travelled into Holland and England, he was appointed professor of botany at Upsal after Rudbeck’s death, and from time to time honours were showered upon him. His great merit consists in having constituted the genera on better principles, given proper generic and specific names, introduced a better glossology, described species more accurately and according to certain rules, and invented a new system, founded upon the sexes of plants, unquestionably the best and most simple of all the artificial systems attempted either before or since. ystem of The basis of the Linnaean distribution of plants rests alinnseus. most entirely on the male organs or stamens; and where no sexes could be distinguished, the proposer of it termed the plants Cryptogamous, and the class including such, the twenty-fourth of his arrangement, Cryptogamia. Among the first twenty-three classes, or phanerogamous vegetables, some have the flowers hermaphrodite or containing both sexes; others again have them separate, or are diclinous. To the former belong twenty classes, to the latter three. Again, hermaphrodite or bisexual flowers may have the stamens either free from the pistillum or united to it, and hence another division ; but as only one class belongs to the last, there are nineteen to the first. These nineteen are further divisible, according as the stamens are free from each other or united together. The former may be equal or unequal in length; and those again which are equal may be either definite or indefinite in number. Upon these considerations Linnaeus founded his classification, which we will presently exhibit, not indeed precisely as it was left by Linnaeus, but as it is now to be found in most of our modern works. While we admit slight changes upon it, the plan or method is unaltered; and it would be as preposterous to say that what is now adopted is not the system of Linnaeus, as it would be to assert that the various sketches of the natural system, whether as given by Bi-owne, by De Candolle, by Richard, by Agardh, by Rudolphi, by Hooker, Don, or Lindley, are not variations of the method of Jussieu. All the natural classifications now in use are assuredly founded on that of Jussieu, and differ from each other in a very slight manner, either in the greater subdivisions of the orders, or in the mode of following each other, upon which no two botanists can possibly be agreed; and, in the same way, the artificial system, whether or not we adopt the changes recommended by Smith, or by Withering, or by Sprengel and others, being decidedly grounded on his principles, is that of Linnaeus. It is as follows :— Cl. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

§ 1. Stamens definite and equal. Monandria, or with one stamen. Diandria, or with two stamens. Triandria, or with three stamens. Tetrandria, or with four stamens. Pentandria, or with five stamens. Hexandria, or with six stamens. Heptandria, or with seven stamens. Octandria, or with eight stamens. Enneandria, or with nine stamens. Decandria, or with ten stamens.

§ 2. Stamens indefinite. 11. Dodecandria; stamens from eleven to nineteen. vol. v.

N Y. 73 12. Icosandria; stamens twenty and upwards, perigy- Taxononous, or inserted on the calyx. my. 13. Polyandria; stamens twenty and upwards, hypogynous, or inserted on th e receptacle. § 3. Stamens unequal. 14. Didynamia; stamens four, two longer than the others. 15. Tetradynamia; stamens six, four longer than the others. § 4. Filaments united. 16. Monadelphia; one bundle of stamens, or androphore. 17. Diadelphia; two bundles of stamens. 18. Polyadelphia; several bundles of stamens. § 5. Anthers united. 19. Syngenesia; stamens five, united by their anthers, flowers collected into a common involucre. § 6. Stamens united to the pistil. 20. Gynandria. § 7. Flowers unisexual. 21. Moncecia; stamens and pistils on the same individual. 22. Dicecia ; stamens and pistils on different individuals. 23. Polygamia; hermaphrodite and unisexual flowers, either on the same or different individuals. § 8. Flowers invisible. 24. Cryptogamia; neither stamens nor pistils. Although we have prefixed sections to the above, that the method may be understood more readily, yet we must remark that such a plan is liable to errors. Thus some of the fifth class have the anthers united, as in the nineteenth; and the tenth has frequently an inequality in the length of the stamens; but these are not the faults of the system, some of which will be traced out in the sequel. In the first thirteen classes, the characters of the orders or subdivisions of the classes are derived from the number of the styles or female organs, the names Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, &c. indicating respectively one, two, three, &c. styles. In the fourteenth class, or Didynamia, Linnseus took his ordinal characters from the structure of the fruit. When this is formed of four akenia situated at the bottom of the calyx, so as to resemble naked seeds, he called the order Gymnospermia; and when the fruit was a capsule containing several seeds, he termed the group Angiospermia. Tetradynamia presents also two orders, the one with a silicule, the other with a siliqua; and hence they were called Siliculosae and Siliquosae. A third order has been added, by Sprengel, for such as have an indehiscent fruit, and De Candolle has proposed to subdivide the class according to the relative position of the cotyledons and radicle. The sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth classes being according to the union of the filaments, the number of stamens is made to serve as a character for the orders. In Syngenesia, where the anthers are united, and there are almost constantly five stamens, other means were resorted to. Some florets were observed to be bisexual, others with stamens or pistils only. In reference, therefore, to the twenty-third class, Linnaeus gave to each of the orders the name Polygamia', with another epithet to mark their respective peculiarities. The first he terms Polygamia aequalis, all the florets being equally fertile and bisexual; the second Polygamia superflua, where the florets of the disc are bisexual, but those of the circumference or K

BOTANY. Taxono- ray female, both producing perfect seed: the third Poly- and districts were marshalled in due array, so as to be ac- Taxono. ^ my. gamia frustranea, having the florets of the disc bisexual and cessible and useful. A common language was established fertile, but those of the ray sterile, from either the total ab- throughout the world of science ; a common stock of knowsence of a pistil, or the imperfection of the stigmata. In ledge and experience began to accumulate, which has the second order the florets of the ray were only super- ever since been increasing, and can now never be lost. fluous, here they are totally useless. The fourth, or Po- Of these partial Floras to which we allude, those of Laplygamia necessaria, has the florets of the disc bisexual, land and Sweden, the productions of Linnaeus himself, but sterile on account of the imperfection of the stigmas : were the models of most of the rest, and have never, on those of the ray, however, containing only pistilla, are the whole, been excelled. “ Hence arose the Linnaean school of botany, which, sc Linnsean | fertilized by the pollen of the former. 1 hey are thus neo1 cessary for the continuation of the species, and hence the though founded in Sweden, extended itself through Hol- fi° * name. The fifth, Polygamia segregata, has all the florets land, Germany, and more or less perfectly in other parts of bisexual, but each of them contained an involucre pecu- Europe, though not without impediments of which we are liar to itself; the whole, as in the other orders, being col- hereafter to speak. In Britain it was firmly established, lected within a common involucre. To these Linnaeus by the influence of some of the most able pupils of Linadded a sixth, Polygamia monogamia, wherein the flowers naeus, and strengthened at length by the acquisition of were not collected in a common involucrum; but this has his literary remains. But these are adventitious supports. The strength of philosophical, like political, authority, is now been transferred to Pentandria monogynia. In Gynandria the orders are taken from the number of in public opinion, and the cement of its power is public the stamens. Moncecia and Dicecia, including plants that good. “ As we proceed to trace the practical influence of the are monandrous, diandrous, monodelphous, or gynandrous, Linnaean system, or rather of the facility which it affordhave the names of the orders, as Monandria, Decandria, Gynandria, taken from some of the preceding classes. The ed in botanical studies, it will be useful at the same time twenty-third class, or Polygamia, containing plants with to observe the effects of adventitious circumstances, which bisexual and unisexual flowers mixed either on the same render botany almost a different sort of study in diffei'ent or distinct individuals, has in consequence been divided parts of the habitable globe. “ In those northern ungenial climates, where the intellectthe Botany of into three orders: Moncecia, in which the flowers are biJsT rth ° sexual and unisexual on the same individual; Dicecia, of man indeed has flourished in its highest perfection, but when one bears the bisexual and another the unisexual where the productions of nature are comparatively sparblossoms of both kinds; and Tricecia, where one has the bi- ingly bestowed, her laws have been most investigated sexual, another the male, and a third the female flowers. and best understood. The appetite of her pupils was Cryptogamia was originally divided by Linnaeus into whetted by their danger of starvation, and the scantiness four orders, Ferns, Mosses, Algae, and Fungi; but so little of her supplies trained them in habits of economy, and of was then known about the structure and limits of these, the most acute observation. The more obvious natural that it is now generally agreed to adopt nearly the same productions of such climates are soon understood and exhausted. But this very cause led Linnaeus to so minute divisions as are employed in the natural method. a scrutiny of Swedish insects, as had never been underService “ Linnaeus1 had no sooner published and explained his taken before in any country; in consequence of which a rendered method of arranging plants, according to that which is ge- new world, as it were, opened to his contemplation; and by Lin- nerally termed the Sexual System, than it excited consi- the great Reaumur declared that Sweden was richer in n-jeus. derable attention. His elegant and instructive Flora Lap- this department than all the rest of the globe. Such inponica could not be perused by the philosopher or the deed was its appearance, because it had been more carephysician, without leading its readers occasionally aside, fully examined. When the ardour and acuteness of the from the immediate objects of their inquiry, into the paths pupils of the Linnsean school first sought matter of emof botanical speculation, and awakening in many a curio- ployment for their talents, some few had the means of visity, hitherto dormant, on such subjects. But the scope siting distant and scarcely-explored countries. But this of that limited Flora is by no means sufficient to show could not be the lot of many. The greater part were either the necessity or the advantages of any mode of ar- confined to their native soil; and it is remarkable that rangement. Linnaeus may be said to have grasped the those who are longest so confined have displayed in the sebotanical sceptre, when, in the year 1753, he published quel the greatest abilities, and have rendered the greatest the first edition of his Species Plantarum ; and the com- services to science, independently of the accidents which mencement of his reign must be dated from that period. made the labours of others imperfect or abortive. Such The application of his system to universal practice, in this men as Ehrhart and Swartz were not to be satisfied with compendious distribution of all the known vegetables of the general productions of the fields or gardens to which the globe; his didactic precision ; his concise, clear, and they had access. They had no resource but in the recertain style of discrimination ; his vast erudition display- condite mysteries of cryptogamic botany in the first ined in synonyms ; and, perhaps as much as any thing else, stance. To these they directed their microscopic eyes the fortunate invention of trivial or specific names, by and more discriminating minds with the happiest success. which his nomenclature became as evidently commodious, When they had derived from hence an ample harvest, Ehrhart. and indeed necessarily popular, as any part of his per- Ehrhart, limited in circumstances and opportunities, hinformance ; all these causes co-operated to establish his dered moreover perhaps, in some degree, by a singularity authority. An immediate impulse was given to practical and independence of character, not always favourable to botany. The vegetable productions of various countries worldly prosperity, opened to himself a new path. The 1 This historical sketch, almost to the commencement of the exposition of the Jussieuan or natural method, is extracted from the article Botany in the Supplement to the fourth, fifth, and sixth editions of this Encyclopaedia, which was written expressly for that work, in 181G, by the late Sir James Edward Smith. During these last fifteen years the grave has claimed for its own not only Sir James himself, but-most of the distinguished individuals whom he here notices as being then alive. . As it was, however, desirable to retain this sketch entire, the author of the present article has refrained from making those alterations which the lapse of time might othenvise have rendered necessary.

BOTANY. oxono- native trees of the north, and especially the hardy shrubs my. and arborescent plants of the gardens, had not, as he ju—'' diciously discovered, received that correct attention, even from his master Linnaeus, which was requisite to make them clearly understood. Difficulties attending the study of these plants, the various seasons in which they require to be repeatedly scrutinized, and the obscurity or minuteness of the parts on which their differences depend, were by no means calculated to deter this laborious and accuvate inquirer. He submitted the supposed varieties of the shrubbery, the kitchen garden, and even of the parterre, to the same rigorous examination, and, for the most part, with the happiest success. His discoveries have not received the notice they deserve, for his communications were deformed with asperity and pedantry; and he did not always keep in mind"the concise and sober principles of definition, which his preceptor had both taught and practised, and to which he owed so large a share of his well-merited fame. Ehrhart died prematurely, but his name ought to be cherished among those whose talents have advanced science, and who loved nature, for her own sake, with the most perfect disinterestedness. “ The fate of Swartz has been far more propitious to him'artz. self and to the literary world. Having thrown more light upon the cryptogamic productions of Sweden and Lapland than they had previously received, and which has only been exceeded by the more recent discoveries of the unrivalled Wahlenberg, he undertook a botanical investigation of the West Indies. Carrying with him, to this promising field of inquiry, so great a store of zeal and practical experience, his harvest was such as might well have been anticipated. Whole tribes of vegetables, which the half-learned or half-experienced botanist, or the superficial gatherer of simples or flowers, had totally overlooked, now first became known to mankind. Tropical climates were now found to be as rich as the chill forests and dells of the north, in the various beautiful tribes of mosses; and the blue mountains of Jamaica rivalled its most fertile groves and savannahs in the beauty, variety, and singular!ty of their vegetable stores. lumberg. “ Nor must we pass over unnoticed the discoveries of another illustrious disciple of Linnaeus, the celebrated Thunberg, who has now1 for many years filled the professional chair of his master, with credit to himself, and advantage to every branch of natural science. The rare opportunity of examining the plants of Japan, and of studying at leisure the numerous and beautiful productions of the Cape of Good Hope, as well as of some parts of India, have thrown in the way of Professor Thunberg a greater number of genera, if not species of plants, than has fallen to the lot of most learned botanists; except only those who have gone round the world, or beheld the novel scenes of New Holland. These treasures he has eontemplated and illustrated with great advantage, so far as he has confined himself to practical botany. We lament that he ever stepped aside to attempt any reformation of an artificial system. It is painful to complain of the well-meant though mistaken endeavours of so amiable and candid a veteran in our favourite science; but what we conceive to be the interests of that science must form our apology. We cannot but be convinced, and the experience of others is on our side, that discarding those principles of the Linnaean system which are derived from the situation of the several organs of impregnation, and making number paramount, has the most pernicious and inconvenient effect in most respects, without being advan-

75

tageous in any. This measure neither renders the sys- Taxonotem more easy nor more natural, but for the most part "^7the reverse of both. We have elsewhere observed (/??£roduction to Botany, 3d ed. p. 358), that the amentaceous plants are of all others most uncertain in the number of their stamens, of which Linnaeus could not but be aware. ‘ Even the species of the same genus, as well as individuals of each species, differ among themselves, How unwise and unscientific then is it, to take as a primary mark of discrimination, what nature has evidently made of less consequence here than in any other case!’ When such plants are, in the first place, set apart and distinguished by their monoecious or dioecious structure, which is liable to so little objection or difficulty, their uncertainty with respect to the secondary character is of little moment; their genera being few, and the orders of each class widely constructed as to number of stamens, Linnaeus, doubtless, would have been glad to have preserved, if possible, the uniformity and simplicity of his plan; but if he found it impracticable, who shall correct him ? Such an attempt is too like the entomological scheme of the otherwise ingenious and able Fabricius. The great preceptor having arranged the larger tribes of animals by the organs with which they take their various food, and which are therefore accommodated to their several wants, and indicative of even their mental as well as constitutional characters, Fabricius his pupil would necessarily extend this system to insects. But nothing can be more misapplied. Feeding is not the business of perfeet insects. Many of them never eat at all, the business of their existence through the whole of their perfect state being the propagation of their species. Hence the organs of their mouth lead to no natural distinctions, and the characters deduced therefrom prove, moreover, so difficult, that it is notorious they could not generally be applied to practice by Fabricius himself, he having, in the common course of his studies, been chiefly regulated by the external appearance of the insects he described. This external appearance, depending on the form and texture of their wings, and the shape of their own peculiar organs, the antennae, affords in fact the easiest, as well as the most natural, clue to their arrangement and discrimination. “ As we presume to criticise the systematic errors of great practical observers, it cannot but occur to our recollection how very few persons have excelled in both these departments. Hay, Linnaeus, and perhaps Tournefort, may be allowed this distinction. We can scarcely add a fourth name to this brief catalogue. The most excellent practical botanists of the Linnaean school have been such as hardly bestowed a thought on the framing of systems, Such was the distinguished Solander, who rivalled his preceptor in acuteness of discrimination, and even in precision and elegance of definition. Such is another eminent man, more extensively conversant with plants, more accurate in distinguishing, and more ready in recollecting them, than almost any other person with whom we have associated. Yet we have heard this great botanist declare, that however he might confide in his own judgment with regard to a species, or a genus of plants, he pretended to form no opinion of classes and orders. Men of so much experience know too much, to be satisfied with their acquirements, or to draw extensive conclusions from what they think insufficient premises. Others, with a quarter of their knowledge, find no difficulty in building systems, and proceed with great alacrity, till they find themselves encumbered with their own rubbish ; happy

1 Thunberg died at Upsal, on the 8th August 1828, in the 85th year of his age, having filled the botanical chair during half a century. °

botany. air with an unrivalled perfume; whilst others dazzle the Taxono. if their doubts and uncertainties will afford them a tole- beholder with the most vivid scarlet or crimson hues, as rable screen or shelter ! But we here anticipate remarks they welcome the morning sun. . > which will come with more propriety hereafter. We re4The lovely floras of the Alps and the Tropics contend, Alpine and turn from the consideration of the labours of particulai , botanists, to that of the diversities of nature and circum- perhaps most powerfully, for the admiration of a botanist of taste, who is a genuine lover of nature, without whicn stance. ,, . „ . in some degree of perfection, even botany can but “ While it is remarked that, in the cold regions of the feeling, feebly& charm. Of one of these the writer can speak from north, the skill of the deep and learned botanist is chiefly experience, of the other only by report; but he has had exercised on the minute and intricate cryptogamic tribes, frequent opportunities of remarking, that the greatest enwe are not to infer that nature is not everywhere rich in thusiasts in the science have been Alpine botanists. Ihe beauty and variety. Mosses and lichens affoid inex- expressions of Haller and Scopoli on this subject go to the haustible amusement and admiration to the curious in- heart. The air, the climate, the charms of animal existquirer, nor are more gorgeous productions entirely want- ence in its highest perfection, are associated with our deing. Even Lapland boasts her Pedicularis Sceptrum, light the beauty and profusion of nature. In hot clinever seen alive out of her limits; and Siberia otters her mates,inthe insupportable languor, the difficulty of bodily own beautiful crimson Cypripedium, to console for a mo- exertion, the usual ill health, and the effects of unwholement the miserable banished victims of imperial caprice. some instead of salutary fatigue, are described as sufficient Kotzebue, though ignorant of botany, did not pass this to counterbalance even the pleasure which arises from lovely plant unnoticed, even in the height of his distiess. the boundless variety, and infinite beauty, of the creation The authoress of the pleasing little novel caWed Elizabeth, around. The flowery trees of a tropical forest raise themhas represented in a just light the botanic scenery of that selves far above tbe human grasp. They must be felled otherwise inhospitable country; yet it must be allowed before we can gather their blossoms. The insidious and that its rarities are not numerous, except perhaps in those mortal reptile twines among their boughs, and the venommicroscopic tribes already mentioned. insect stings beneath their shade. We who enjoy the New Hoi “ Let us in imagination traverse the globe, to a country ous productions of these climates in peace and safety in our land. where the very reverse is the case. From the represen- gardens, may well acknowledge our obligations to the latations or accounts that have been given of New Holland, it seems no very beautiful or picturesque country, such as bour and zeal of those who, by arduous journeys and painis likely to form or to inspire a poet. Indeed the dregs ful researches, supply us with the riches of every country succession. We do not indeed enjoy them in perfecof the community which we have poured out upon its in tion, but we can study and investigate at leisure their vashores, must probably subside, and purge themselves, before anything like a poet, or a disinterested lover of natuie, rious beauties and distinctions. We can compare them can arise from so foul a source. I here seems, however, with our books, and profit by the acuteness of former obto be no transition of seasons, in the climate itself, to ex- servers. We can perpetuate, by the help of the pencil or cite hope, or to expand the heart and fancy; like a Sibe- the pen, whatever is novel or curious. We can preserve rian or Alpine spring, bursting at once from the icy fet- the plants and flowers themselves for subsequent examiters of a sublime though awful winter. Yet in New Hol- nation, and return to them again and again in our closet, land all is new and wonderful to the botanist.1 The most when winter has fixed his seal on all the instruction and common plants there are unlike every thing known be- pleasure afforded by the vegetable creation abroad. Yet fore, and those which at first sight look like old acquaint- let not the sedentary botanist exult in his riches, or rejoice ances, are found, on a near approach, to be strangers, too heedlessly in the abundance of his resources. A speaking a different language from what he has been used plant gathered in its native soil, and ascertained by meto, and not to be trusted without a minute inquiry at thodical examination, is more impressed on the memory, as well as more dear to the imagination, than many that every step. “ The botany of the Cape of Good Hope, so well illustrated are acquired with ease, and named by tradition or report. Cape of Good by Thunberg, and with the treasures of which he scattered The labours of its acquisition and determination enhance Hope. a charm around the couch of the dying Linnaius, most re- its value, and the accompaniments of delightful scenery, sembles that of New Holland. At least these countries or pleasing society, are recollected, when difficulties and . , agree in the hard, rigid, dwarfish character of their plants. toils are forgotten. “ The western continent is, with respect to botany, al-America, But the Cape has the advantage in general beauty of flowers, as well as in a transition of seasons. After the most a world in itself, dhere exists, indeed, a general dry time of the year, when every thing but the jlloe and affinity between tbe plants of North America and those Mesembryanthemum tribes are burnt up, and during which of Europe, and many species of the arctic regions are the innumerable bulbs are scattered, by the winds and driving same in both; but there are few common to the more temsands, over the face of the country, the succeeding show- perate climates of each. A considerable number, commuers raise up a new and most beautiful progeny from those nicated by Kalm to Linnaeus, whichr the latter consideied bulbs. The families of Ixia, Gladiolus, Iris, Antholyza, as identified with certain well-know n plants of oui quarter Oxalis, and many others, then appear in all their splen- of the world, prove, on more accurate examination, to be dour. Some of them, the least gaudy, scent the evening corresponding but distinct species. Instances occui in * “ These rare productions,” speaking of palms and arborescent ferns, “ of the vegetable kingdom, are, m all other countries, stnctl, tropical • and these ‘ weeds of glorious feature’ have no business beyond the latitude of 234° from the equator, and yet here they® in 341° But this is New Holland, where it is summer with us when it is winter in Europe, and vice versa; where the barometer rises before bad weather, and falls before good; where the north is the hot wind, and the south the cold; where the humblest house is fitted up with cedar (Cedrela Toona, according to Mr Brown); where the fields are fenced with mahogany (Eucalyptus robusta), m& mvrtle trees (Myrtacex) are burnt for firewood ; where the swans are black and the eagles white; where the kangaroo,hoanS animal between the squirrel and the deer, has five claws on its fore-paws, and three talons on its hind-legs, like a bird, and yet P °”'tS. where the mole (Onnthorhynchus paradoxus) lays eggs, and has a duck’s bill; where there is a bird (Mrtiphaga) w\h a broom m i s mouth instead of a tongue; where there is a fish, one half belonging to the genus Raja, and the other to that of Squalus; where the pears are made of wood (Xykmiehim pyriforme), with the stalk at the broader end; and where the cherry (Exocarpus cnpressiformu) grows with the stone on the outside.” (Field’s New South Wales, p. 401.)

mm i/ BOTANY. axono- the genera of Carpinus, Corylus, Quercus, as well as in for the purpose of studying the plants of those countries, Taxonom ymy. the Orchis tribe, and others. These points of resemblance of which his work, in four quarto volumes, gives so ample are found mostly among the vegetable productions of the a history and representation. “ All the writers just named have been practical botaeastern regions of North America. Mexico, and what little we know of the intermediate space, abound with dif- nists. They have generally excelled in specific discrimiferent and peculiar productions. So, in South America, nation, nor have they neglected the study of generic disPeru, Guiana, Brazil, &c. have all their appropriate plants, tinctions. Any thing further they have scarcely attempted. of which we know as yet enough to excite our curiosity, It is remarkable that they have all followed, not only the rather than to satisfy it. Whatever has hitherto been Linnaean principles of definition and nomenclature, but given to the world respecting American botany, has had the Linnaean artificial system of classification. This same one considerable advantage. Each Flora has been founded system was chosen by the veteran Jaequin, in his wellon the knowledge and experience of some one or more known work on West Indian plants, entitled Stirpium persons, long resident, and in a manner naturalized, in Americanarum Historia, as well as by Browne in his Histhe countries illustrated. Those regions commonly com- tory of Jamaica ; not to mention Swartz, in his Flora Inprehended under the name of North America, have afford- dice Occidentalis, who only wanders a little out of the way, ed materials for the Flora Boreali-Americana of Michaux, to adopt some of Thunberg’s alterations. We cannot but and the more complete and correct Flora Americce Sep- observe, that in the very department of botany in which tentrionalis of Pursh. Michaux, Wangenheim, and Mar- he has most signalized himself, and with which he is most shall, have particularly illustrated the trees of those coun- philosophically conversant, the Qrchickcc, he totally rejects tries. But all these works have been enriched by the the ideas of Thunberg. “ If we now turn our eyes to the oriental world, we shall East communications and assistance of men who had much more extensive and repeated opportunities of observation than find that the seeds of Linnaean botany, sown by Koenig, Indies, their authors, except Mr Marshall, could have. Such are have sprung up and produced successive harvests among the venerable John Bartram, the Reverend Dr Muhlen- the pious missionaries at Tranquebar, who still continue berg, Messrs Clayton, Walter, Lyon, &c. The Mexican to interweave a sprig of science, from time to time, among flora has received, for a long course of years, the attention their amaranthine wreaths which are not of this world. of the able and learned Mutis, who long corresponded India too has long possessed a practical botanist of indewith Linnaeus, and whose countrymen have prepared the fatigable exertion and ardour, who has thrown more light sumptuous Flora Peruviana; each of the authors of upon its vegetable riches, with the important subject of which has repeatedly traversed, at various seasons, the their qualities and Uses, than any one since the days of rich and interesting regions, whose botanical treasures Rheede and Rumphius. It is scarcely necessary to name make so splendid and novel an appearance in those vo- Dr Roxburgh, whose recent loss we deeply lament, and lumes. Of those treasures we have still more to learn whose acquisitions and learned remarks are given to the Company, in from the unrivalled Humboldt.1 The French botanist world by the munificence of the East India 2 Aublet, after having gained considerable experience in the a style which no prince has ever rivalled. That enthusiMauritius, resided for many years in Cayenne and Guiana, astic admirer of nature, Colonel Hardwicke, and the learn1 Humboldt’s splendid work, Nova Genera et Species Plantarum Americce JEquinoct.ia.1is, in seven volumes, containing several hundred plates, and descriptions of some thousands of new species, was completed in 1825. Since 1816 many other works on the plants of South America have been published, particularly illu live of the Flora of Brazil. Of these, PohPs, Martins’, and St Hilaire’s, are2 the most eminent. From the period in which the East India Company saw its sovereignty established in India with some security, it undertook, both for its own interest and that of humanity, as much as it possibly could, the promotion of the study and culture of the vegetables of that vast country. It, in consequence, directed its attention to the establishment of the Botanic Garden of Calcutta ; and it was in March 1768, and under the direction of Colonel II. Kydd, that this garden commenced. A correspondence with all the Europeans settled in various parts of India speedily enriched it with some very precious plants, and there were in it about three hundred species when Dr Itoxburgh took the superintendence, in .the autumn of 1793. This botanist obtained new and more active correspondents, and visited personally the coast of Coromandel, and some other provinces of British East India. Fie succeeded in collecting together 3500 species into the garden, and of this number 1500 were previously unknown, but described by him. Such at least we learn from the catalogue of the garden, printed in 1814, at Serampore, by the care of Dr Carey, the friend of Roxburgh. This catalogue appeared in a very condensed shape; it makes known the botanical name, the Indian appellation, the locality, the time of introduction, and the period of inflorescence and fructification, of each plant; it is terminated by an appendix containing a list of other Indian plants, known to the author, but not then under cultivation. Roxburgh sent from time to time to the Company a great number of drawings and descriptions, and from these a selection was made and published under the direction of Sir Joseph Banks. This splendid work, the Plants of .Coromandel, gives the history and coloured figure of 300 of the most beautiful or most useful of the Indian vegetables. But the very magnificence of this work placed limits to it, and therefore Dr Roxburgh projected a Flora of the East under a more simple form ; unfortunately, however, his health forced him to leave India and return home in 1814. His Indian Flora was nevertheless not lost to science; Dr Carey published two volumes of it at Serampore, and added to those described by Roxburgh, such as were more lately discovered, both by himself and by Dr Wallich, Jack, and other botanists of British India. This only contains the first five classes of Linnaeus. After the death of Roxburgh, the management of the garden of Calcutta was intrusted to Dr Wallich, whose talents and activity, under the auspices of the Company, have raised the establishment to a high degree of prosperity. More than three hundred persons are employed in the garden, so that the naturalisation of useful objects, and preservation for study of the rare productions of the different parts of India, are equally attended to. Many assistants traverse the country at the expense of the Company, and.with unwearied zeal continue to enrich the garden and the herbarium. Dr Wallich himself travelled in 1820 throughout Nepaul, which, situated at the foot of the great mountains of Himalaya, presents a vegetation of a very different nature from that of Bengal. Since then, notwithstanding the severe disorders brought on by fatigue and the climate, he has visited Penang, Singapore, the kingdom of Ava, and several other parts of India; in addition, he sent collectors into various districts to which he could not go in person; so that, by these different means, a very considerable number of vegetables has been amassed. Descriptions of several of these have been given in the Prodromus Florce Nepalensis of Don, and in other publications of a more general nature published in Europe. Wallich himself, as has been said, inserted many of his discoveries into the Flora Indica, and has besides commenced two other works for the purpose of making them better known. The one is the Tentamen Florae Nepalensis illu strata;, which presents a detailed description and a lithographic figure of the principal plants of that country. Two numbers have appeared, each of twenty-five plates ; which, in addition to their botanical interest, deserve to be noticed, as being the first attempts at lithographic botanical plates in India, and executed by

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South Seas.

BOTANY. ed botanist Dr Francis Buchanan, have also contributed except the Nova Genera Plantarum, we have as yet so Taxono. T greatly to increase our knowledge of Indian botany. I he short and compendious an account of the acquisitions ^ latter has enjoyed the advantage of investigating, for the made in their voyage. To the technical history of these, the younger Forster has commendably added first time, the remote and singular country of Nepaul, so however, prolific in beautiful and uncommon plants, that few parts whatever he could supply of practical utility, and has thus of the world can exceed it; and yet meeting, in several given us all the information within the compass of his points, not only the floras of the lower regions and islands “ Long since the voyages of these celebrated naturalists, of India, but those of Japan, China, and even Siberia. same remote countries have been visited, in our own The only systematic work on East Indian plants, is the the days, by two learned botanists more especially; these are Flora Indica of Burmann, which is classed according to the Linmean artificial method. We cannot but wish that M. Labillardiere, and Mr Brown, librarian of the Linnaean Societv. The former has published an account of the it were more worthy of the system or the subject; yet, as plants of New Holland, in two volumes folio, with fine ena first attempt, it deserves our thanks. In speaking of gravings ; the latter has favoured the botanical world with Indian botany, shall we withhold our homage from that great and sublime genius Sir William Jones, who honour- one volume of a most acute and learned Prodromus of his ed this study with his cultivation, and, like every thing discoveries. As his voyage was made at the public exelse that he touched, refined, elevated, and elucidated it ? pense, we may trust that the government will consider itNo man was ever more truly sensible of the charms of this self as bound to enable him to publish the whole of his acinnocent and elegant pursuit; and whenever he adverted quisitions, in such a manner as to be generally useful. His to it, all the luminous illustrations of learning, and even own accuracy of observation, illustrated by the drawings of the inimitable Bauer, cannot fail to produce such a the magical graces of poetry, flowed from his pen. “ But we must extend our view beyond the utmost work as, we will venture to pronounce, has never been bounds of India, and, of the then discovered world, to trace equalled. M. Labillardiere has disposed his book accordthe steps of those adventurous circumnavigators who sought ing to the system of Linnaeus ; a rare example in France, out, not only new plants, but new countries, for botanical where any thing not French usually comes but ill recomexamination. The names of Banks and Solander have, mended. Mr Brown, on the other hand, has written his for nearly half a century, been in every body’s mouth. Prodromus, at least, on the principles of classification Their taste, their knowledge, their liberality, have diffused established by the celebrated Jussieu, the great chama charm and a popularity over all their pursuits ; and those pion of a natural system of his own. On this subject who never heard of botany before, have learned to con- we postpone our remarks for the present. Before we sider it with respect and admiration, as the object to can enter on the subject of natural classification, it is newhich a man of rank, riches, and talents, devoted his life cessary to consider the state and progress of botany, for and his fortune ; who, while he added, every season, some- some years past, in the schools, and among the writers, of thing of novelty and beauty to our gardens, gave the Europe. “ Sweden has continued to maintain her long established Botanists bread-fruit to the West Indies, and was ever on the watch to prompt or to further any scheme of public advantage.1 rank in the several departments of natural science, nor has of Swede: With the recollection of such men must also be associated Denmark been behind-hand with her neighbour and anthe names of the learned Forsters, father and son, of cient rival. The son and successor of the great Linnaeus Sparrmann, and of Menzies, who have all accomplished endeavoured to follow his father’s steps, and was ambitithe same perilous course, and enriched their beloved ous of not being left very far in the rear; a commendable science. The cryptogamic acquisitions of the latter in aim, which his short life, to say nothing of his talents or New Zealand prove him to have attended to that branch experience, disabled him from accomplishing. He comof botany with extraordinary success, and at the same pleted and gave to the world, the unfinished materials time evince the riches of that remote country. Indeed, which his father had left, for a supplement to his Species it appears that any country proves rich, under the inspec- Plantarum and Mantissce ; and having enriched the book tion of a sufficiently careful investigator. The labours of with many communications of Thunberg and others, as these botanists have all been conducted according to the well as a number of original remarks, he felt a strong deprinciples and classification of Linnaeus. Forster, under sire, not altogether unpardonable, of being thought the Sparrmann’s auspices, has judiciously pointed out, and at- principal author of the work. All uncertainty on this tempted to remedy, defects which their peculiar oppor- subject, wherever other helps fail, is removed by the oritunities enabled them to discover, but with no invidious ginal manuscript of the Supplernentum Plantarum in our aim. They laboured, not to overthrow or undermine a possession. Ehrhart superintended the printing of this system, which they found on the whole to answer the work, and made some alterations in the manuscript, traces purpose of readily communicating their discoveries, but to of which are perceptible in the affected Greek names correct and strengthen it for the advantage of those who given to some species of Carex, Mespihis, &c., as well as might come after them. It is much to be lamented that, in their sesquipedalian specific characters. But he had native draughtsmen. The other work by Dr Wallich, much more splendid than the preceding, is destined to present the history and coloured figures of the rarer plants of Asia. This, the Plantoe Asiatics rariores, will form three volumes. Besides Roxburgh and Wallich, there are others who have been patronized by the Company. Koenig, Heyne, Carey, Patrick Bussel, Bottler, Klein, Wight, Jack, Finlayson, &c. have traversed different parts of India with the view of studying its vegetation. For about half a century, all the collections of dried plants have been transmitted to England, and preserved in the Company’s museum ; and the immensity of these materials has made the Directors perceive that they would be useless without the co-operation of many naturalists. By a decision remarkable for its liberality, the Court of Directors has, therefore, lately given instructions to Dr Wallich, at present in London, to distribute these precious collections among the principal botanists of the present day ; and the East India Company has thus acquired the most honourable claims on the gratitude of the men of science of every country. But if the thanks of naturalists be due to the Company in the first place, they are scarcely less so to Dr Wallich, who superintends the operation. F'ar from profiting by his situation to reserve for himself the publication of so much riches, he merely wishes to distribute them among others in the manner which he conceives most useful for the progress of natural history. His time in 1England, which he has a right to devote to his private affairs, and his valuable notes, are wholly at the service of others. Sir Joseph died on the 19th of March 1820. See Article Banks, Sir Joseph.

BOTANY. axono- introduced his own new genera of Mosses; which the the communication of his discoveries and observations. my. younger Linnaeus thought so alarming an innovation, that He prompted the Empress Catharine to offer an unlimited he ordered the sheet containing these matters to be can- sum for the museum, library, and manuscripts of Linnseus ; celled. We are possessed of a copy, which shows the but, fortunately for their present possessor, the offer was genera in question to be almost all well founded, and what made too late. A Flora Rossica, on the most magnificent are now, under Hedwig’s sanction, generally received, scale, was undertaken by Pallas ; his imperial mistress prothough by other names. The descriptions of Ehrhart are posing to defray the cost of the whole undertaking, not precise and correct, though his terminology is exception- merely for sale, but for gratuitous presentation, on the able, being full of innovations and crabbed expressions. most princely scale, to all who had any taste or ability to Two years, almost immediately preceding the death of make use of the book. This well-intended munificence the younger Linnaeus, were spent by the latter in visiting was the cause of the ruin of the project. The first half England, France, and Holland, and were employed to very volume was bestowed as the empress intended. But the great advantage, in augmenting his collections of natural second part, instead of following the destination of the productions, as well as his scientific skill. During this first, got into the hands of interested people, who defeattour he attached himself strongly, through the medium of ed the liberal designs of their sovereign, misapplied her his old friend Solander, to Sir Joseph Banks; and, while money, and by the disgust and disappointment which enin France, he almost planted, or at least greatly advanced, sued, prevented the continuance of the work. Those who a Linnaean school in that kingdom. He had scarcely re- wished to complete their sets, or to obtain the book at all, sumed his professorial office at home when he was unex- were obliged to become clandestine purchasers, buying pectedly taken off, by an acute disease, in his forty-second as a favour, what they ought to have received as a gift; year. Of the talents and performances of his successor and were, moreover, like the writer of this, often obliged Thunberg, who still1 with honour fills the chair of the Rud- to receive imperfect copies. In like manner the intenbecks and the Linnaei, we have already spoken. Dr tions of the great Howard, respecting his book on prisons, Swartz is the Bergian professor of botany at Stockholm. were rendered ineffectual by the disgraceful avarice of The Transactions of the Upsal Academy, founded by the certain London booksellers, who immediately bought up, younger Rudbeck, are continued occasionally; and those and sold at a greatly advanced price, the whole edition, of the Stockholm Academy, whose foundations were laid which its benevolent author had destined to be accessible by Linnaeus, are published regularly. Both are from time to every body at an unusually cheap rate. These exto time enriched with botanical communications worthy of amples, amongst others, show that it is the most difficult the pupils of so illustrious a school. A veteran in botani- thing in the world to employ patronage, as well as gratuical science, Professor Retzius, still presides at the univer- tous charity of any kind, to real advantage, except under sity of Lund. The worthy and accurate Afzelius, well the guidance of the most rigorous discretion. ‘ All that known in England, who accomplished a hazardous botani- men of power can do for men of genius,’ says Gray, if we cal expedition to Sierra Leone, is the coadjutor of Pro- recollect aright, ‘ is to leave them at liberty, or they befessor Thunberg; and the difficult subject of Lichens, un- come like birds in a cage,’ whose song is no longer that der the hands of Dr Acharius, has become so vast and so of nature and enjoyment. The great and the affluent may diversified as to be almost a science of itself. foster and encourage science and literature, by their counc;3en“ Denmark has always possessed some acute and learned tenance, their attention, and a free, not overwhelming, botanists, and has, more than most other countries, been liberality; but when princes become publishers of books, supplied with dried specimens of plants, as an article of or directors of academies, they generally do more harm commerce, from her West or East Indian establishments. than good. They descend from their station, and lose Oeder, the original author of the Flora Danica, and sight perhaps of their higher and more peculiar duties, Muller its continuator, have distinguished themselves; which consist in promoting the general prosperity, peace, but their fame is inferior to that of the late Professor and liberty of their subjects, under the benign influence of Vahl, who studied under the celebrated Linnaeus, and which* every art, science, or pursuit, that can be beneficial is the author of several excellent descriptive works. He to mankind, is sure to flourish without much gratuitous undertook no less than a new Species, or, as he entitled assistance. it, Enumeratio Plantarum; an admirable performance, cut “ Several of the immediate scholars of the illustrious 0fGershort by his death at the end of the second volume, which Swedish naturalist were planted in different parts of Ger-many," finishes the class and order Triandria Monogynia. It is many. Murray, to whom he intrusted the publication of almost superfluous to mention, that Afzelius and Retzius, that compendious volume entitled Systerna Vegetabilium, as well as Vahl, in all they have given to the world, have and who printed two successive editions of the work, was followed the system of their great master. The Flora seated as Professor at Gottingen. Giseke was established Danica, chiefly a collection of plates, with few synonyms at Hamburg, and, after the death of Linnaeus, gave to and no descriptions, has come forth, from time to time, the world such an edition as he was able to compile, from for above fifty years past, in rfasciculi, without any order, his own notes and those of Fabricius, of the lectures of and is still incomplete. It w as undertaken by royal com- their late preceptor, on the natural orders of plants. His mand, and, in a great measure, at the sovereign’s expense, ideas on this subject Linnaeus himself always considered though regularly sold, except some copies presented to as too imperfect to be published, except in the form of a certain distinguished men, as Linnaeus, sketch or index, at the end of his Genera Plantarum. oji.tussia, “ After the example of Denmark, Sweden, &c. Russia The venerable patriarch, Professor Jacquin, still survives has been desirous of promoting, throughout its vast de- at Vienna, where he and his worthy son have enriched pendencies, an attention to natural knowledge. Nor was botany with a number of splendid and useful works. They any country ever more fortunate in the possession of an have given to the public several labours of the excellent active and intelligent naturalist. The celebrated Pallas practical botanist Wulfen, and others, which might, but successfully devoted a long life to these pursuits, and to for their encouragement, have been lost. The highly va^^fthelaUerSont/«^iSWeden ^

t0 b0aSt

°f Agardh

and Fries the former of

’

whom has published many erudite works on the

botany. 80 and his purity could not bear the idea of such adultery in Taxono. Taxono. luable publication of Host on grasses is conducted on the nature. Numerous methods of arrangement appeared in my. plan of Jacquin’s works. His Synopsis of Austrian plan s Germany, from the pens of Heister, Ludwig, Haller, and v —A ' is an excellent Flora, disposed according to the sexual others, and even Schreber adopted a system like some of system ; as is the more ample Tentamen Florez Germanwa these in his Flora above mentioned. It would be to no of the celebrated Dr Roth, one of the best practical Eu- purpose now to criticise these attempts. They cannot ropean botanists, and more deeply versed than most others rank as natural systems, nor have they the convenience of in cryptogamic lore. The best Linnsean Flora, as far as artificial ones. Part of their principles are derived from it goes, that the world has yet seen, we speak it without Linneeus, others from Rivinus. Their authors were not exany exception, is the Flora Germamm of Professor Schra- tensively conversant with plants, nor trained in any sound der of Gottingen, the first volume of which, comprising principles of generic discrimination or combination. They the first three classes of the sexual system was published set off with alacrity, but were soon entangled in their own in 1806. The correct distinctions, well-digested syno- difficulties, and were left by Linnaeus to answer themselves nyms, and complete descriptions, of this work, are altoge- or each other. We here mention these learned systematics; ther unrivalled. If the whole should be equally well ex- for learned they were thought by themselves and their ecuted, for which the longest life would be scarcely suf- pupils, merely because they will scarcely require animadficient, it must ever be the standard book of European bo- version when we come to canvass the great question of tany. Its descriptions of grasses are worthy to accompany natural and artificial classification, they having had no the exquisite engravings of the same tribe from the ban distinct ideas of a difference between the two. Hedwig of Leers, published at Herborn in 1 /75, which excel every used frequently to lament that his preceptor Ludwig had botanical representation which we have yet examined. never perfected his system of arrangement; but from They will bear, and indeed they require, the application what he has given to the world, we see no great room to of a magnifying-glass, like the plants themselves. I he suppose that he had any thing very excellent in reserve. purchaser of this little volume must however beware of the Unexecuted projects are magnified in the mists of uncersecond edition, the plates of which are good for little or tainty. We have ventured elsewhere, in a biographical nothing. The name of Schrader has long been distin- account of Hedwig, to remark, that even that ingenious guished in cryptogamic botany. In this pursuit, the in- man ‘ did not imbibe, under Ludwig, anything of the true dustrious and accurate botanists of Germany, shut out philosophical principles of arrangement, the talents for from extensive opportunities of studying exotic plants, which are granted to very few, and are scarcely ever of have had full scope for their zeal and abilities. In this German growth. We mean no invidious reflections on field the Leipsic school has distinguished itself. Here the any nation or people. Each has its appropriate merits, oreat Schreber first began his career with some of the and all are useful together in science, like different chamost perfect cryptogamic works, especially on the minute racters on the theatre of human life.’ trenus Phascum. Here the same author published his exGermany may well dispense with any laurels obtained cellent Flora Lipsiensis, his laborious practical work on by the very secondary merit of speculative schemes of Grasses, and finally his improved edition of the Gerwra classification, when she can claim the honour of having Plantarum of his friend Linnaeus. But, above all, Leipsic produced such a practical observer as Gaertner. This inis famous for being the residence of Hedwig, whose dis- defatigable botanist devoted himself to the investigation coveries relative to the fructification and generic characfruits and seeds of plants. Being eminently skilled ters of Mosses form an era in botanic science. Under the of the the use of the pencil, he has, like Hedwig, faithfully hands of such an observer, that elegant tribe displays it- in recorded what he no less acutely detected. The path he self with a degree of beauty, variety, and singularity, struck out for himself, of delineating and describing in which vies with the most admired herbs and flowers, and confirms the Linnaean doctrine of impregnation, which the detail, with magnified dissections, every part of the seed more obvious organs of the latter had originally taught. and seed-vessel of each genus within his reach, had never Nor must we, in speaking of cryptogamic plants, neglect been explored before in so regular and methodical a manhere to record the names of Weiss, Weber, Mohr, Schmi- ner. Botanists of the Linnsean school are justly censu-*’ del, Esper, and especially Hoffmann; the plates of the rable for having paid too little attention to the structure latter, illustrating the Lichen tribe, are models of beauty of these important parts, in their generic characters. Inand correctness. His Flora Germanica is a most conve- deed it may be said, that if they were able to establish nient and compendious manual, after the Linnaean system. good genera without them, and, after the example of their Fungi have been studied in Germany with peculiar care leader, merely preferred the more obvious and distinct and minuteness. The leading systematic author in this organs, when sufficient for their purpose, their conduct obscure tribe, Persoon, was indeed born of Dutch parents, was justifiable. If generic principles be natural and cerat the Cape of Good Hope; but he studied and published tain, it matters not on what parts of the fructification they at Gottingen. Two writers of the name of Albertini and are founded; nor is the inflorescence, or even the herb Schweiniz have published the most minute and accurate or root, rejected by sound philosophers, but because they exemplification of this natural order, in an octavo volume, are found to lead only to unnatural and uncertain characat Leipsic, in the year 1805, comprising the Fungi of the ters. It is therefore extremely to the honour of Linnaeus, district of Niski in Upper Lausatia. If their figures are Gaertner, and Jussieu, that their conceptions of genera less exquisitely finished than Persoon’s, or less elaborately are almost entirely the same. They meet in almost every detailed than Schrader’s, their descriptions make ample point, however different the paths by which they pursue their inquiries. Their labours illustrate and confirm each amends. “ The German school of botany has for a long period other. Even Tournefort, who conceived so well, on the been almost completely Linnaean. This however was not whole, the distinctions of genera, which he could but ill always the case; for, in the earlier part of his career, the define, receives new strength from their knowledge, which learned Swede was attacked more repeatedly and severe- does not overturn his imperfect performances, but impiove ly from this quarter of the world than from any other ; them. The accurate student of natural genera cannot his ridiculous critic Siegesbeck of Petersburg excepted, fail to perceive, that where Gaertner differs from Linnaeus, who would not admit the doctrine of the sexes of plants, which is but in a very few material instances, such as his because the pollen of one flower may fly upon another, numerous subdivision of the genus Fumaria, and his dis-

‘ 81 B O T A N Y. tion of the essential generic characters, throughout these TaxonoXaxono- tribution of the compound flowers, it arises from his too my. intent and exclusive consideration of one part of the fruc- volumes, is a useful addition, and has now become neces- my* tification, instead of an enlarged and comprehensive view sary in evei-y similar undertaking. “ Little can be said of Holland in this review of the bo-of Holof the whole. In other words, he neglects the Linnaean maxim, that ‘ the genus should give the character, not tanical state of Europe for a few years past. The Ley-land, the character the genus.’ Such at least appears to us den garden has always been kept up, especially during the case in Fumaria.1 In the syngenesious family, being the life of the late Professor David Van lloyen, with due so very natural in itself, the discrimination of natural ge- care and attention: we know little of its fate in the subnera becomes in consequence so difficult, that Gaertner sequent convulsed state of the country. Botany has long and Linnaeus may well be excused if they do not entirely been on the decline at Amsterdam, though we are inagree; and they perhaps may both be satisfied with the debted to that garden for having first x-eceived, and honour of having collected materials, and disposed them afterwards communicated to other countries, such acquiin different points of view, for the use of some future sys- sitions of Thunberg in Japan as escaped the perils of imtematist, who may decide between them. However exact portation. “ The botany of Switzerland may, most commodiously,of SwitzerGaertner may have been in discriminating the parts of seeds, we believe him to have been mistaken in distinguish- be considered in the next place. Here, in his native land, ing the vitellus as a separate organ, distinct in functions country, the great Haller, after a long residence at Gotfrom the cotyledons. His readers will also do well, while tingen, was finally established. Its rich and charming they profit by his generally excellent principles, not to ad- Flora has been illustrated by his classical pen, with pemit any of his rules as absolute. They may serve as a clue culiar success. Every body is conversant with the second to the intricacies of nature, but they must not overrule hex- edition of his work, published in 1768, in three volumes laws. Still less is our great carpologist to be implicitly fol- folio, and entitled Historia Stirpium Indigenarum Hellowed in physiological doctrines or reasonings; witness his vetice, with its inimitable engravings, of the Orchis tribe feeble and incorrect attack on Hedwig’s opinions, or rather more particulax-ly. But few persons who have not lademonstrations, respecting the impregnation of Mosses. boured with some attention at the botany of Switzerland, His criticisms of Linnaeus are not always marked with are aware of the superior value, in point of accuracy, of that candour which becomes a disinterested lover of truth the original edition of the same work, published in 1742, and nature ; nor can we applaud in general his changes of under the title of Enumeratio Methodica Stirpium Helvenomenclature or of terminology, especially when he un- tice Indigenarum. This edition is indispensable to those philosophically calls the germen of Linnaeus the ovarium, who wish fully to understand the subject, or to appreciate a word2 long ago rejected, as erroneous when applied to Haller’s tx-anscendent knowledge and abilities. These plants. These however are slight blemishes in a impu- woi’ks ai'e classed after a system of his own, intended to tation which will last as long as scientific botany is culti- be more consonant with nature than the Linnsean sexual vated at all. Botanists can now no longer neglect, except method. We can scai-cely say that it is S0j on the whole; at their own peril, the parts which Gaertner has called into nor is it, on the other hand, constructed according to any notice, and to the scrutiny of which, directed by his faith- uniformity of plan. The number of the stamens, compared ful guidance, the physiologist and the systematist must with that of the segments of the corolla, or its petals, regulate the characters of several classes, and these are aroften in future recur. f Prussia, “ We shall close this part of our subject with the men- tificial. Othex-s are assumed as natural, and are for the tion of the Berlin school, where Gleditsch, who, in 1740, most part x-eally so; but their chax-acters ai'e frequently repelled the attacks of Siegesbeck on Linnaeus, was pro- taken from Linnaeus, even from his artificial system, as the fessor, and published a botanical system, founded on the Cruciatce and the Apetalce. Lord Bute has well said, that situation, or insertion, of the stamens; the subordinate Haller was a Linnaean in disguise. His classification, howdivisions being taken from the number of the same parts ; evex-, was merely intended to answer his own pui-pose with so that it is, in the latter respect, a sort of inversion of i-espect to the Swiss plants; for he was not a general bothe Linnaean method. In the former, or the outline of tanist, nor had he a sufficiently comprehensive view of the its plan, the system of Gleditsch is in some measure an subject to form a genex-al system, or even to be aware of anticipation of that of Jussieu. Berlin has of late been the difficulties of such an undertaking. He ought not much distinguished for the study of natural history, and therefore to be obnoxious to criticism in that view. His possesses a society of its own, devoted to that pursuit. method has served for the use of his scholars, as the LinIts greatest ornament was the late Professor Willdenow, naean one serves English botanists, by way of a dictionary. who, if he fell under the lash of the more accurate Afze- Some such is necessary; and those who should begin to lius, is entitled to the gratitude of his fellow-labourers, decide on the merits of a system, before they know plants, not for theoretical speculations, but for the useful and would most assuredly be in danger of appearing more arduous undertaking of a Species Plantarum, on the Lin- learned to themselves than to others. We cannot exculnaean plan, being indeed an edition of the same work of pate Haller from some degree of pi-ejudice in rejecting Linnaeus, em-iched with recent discoveries. This book, x-eal improvements of Linnaeus, which are independent of left unfinished at the end of the first order of the Cryp- classification; such as his trivial or specific names, by togamia, by the death of the editor, wants only a general which evex-y species is spoken of at once, in one word, index to render it sufficiently complete. The Musci, mostly so contrived as to assist the memory, by an indiLichenes, and Fungi, are systematically treated in the se- cation of the character, appearance, history, or use, of the parate works of writers devoted to those particular, and plant. What did the great Swiss botanist substitute innow very extensive, subjects, fx-om whom Willdenow could stead of this contrivance ? A series of numbers, buronly have been a compiler. With the Filices, which he thensome to the memoi-y, destitute of information, accomlived to publish, he was practically conversant. His inser- modated to his own book only, and necessarily liable to * Most modern botanists view the Linnsean genus Fumaria as a natural order, and have therefore properly adopted Gartner's divisions as distinct genera. * Notwithstanding the above opinion to the contrary, ovarium is now generally adopted instead oigermen. VOL. V. L

82

botany.

it in favour of what his maturer experience taught him Taxono. Taxono. total change on the introduction of every newly-discovered to prefer, the sexual system of Linnaeus.2 my. my. species! At the same time that he rejected the lumiSpain ana and roriugai Portugal claim our attention ; the former ^ tor f Spain nous nomenclature of his old friend and fellow-student, being the channel through which the gardens of Europe °0r ^ ^ i. rxH TT-ifr* mon'tr y\c*xxt nd~ who had laboured in the most ingenuous terms to depre- _have,° for some years past, been enriched with many cate his jealousy, he paid a tacit homage to its meiit, by Mexican and Peruvian plants, and likewise as the theatre contending that the honour of this invention was due to of the publication of some important books relati\e to the Rivinus. In this he was not less incorrect than uncandid, botany of those countries. In speaking of American bothe short names of Rivinus being designed as specific tany, we have mentioned the Flora Peruviana, the authors characters, for which purpose Haller knew, as well as of which, Ruiz and Pavon* rank deservedly high for their Linnaeus, that they w'ere unfit. Useful specific characters industry and knowledge. The late Cavanilles, resident at he himself constructed on the plan of Linnaeus, with some Madrid, has also communicated to the learned world much little variation, not always perhaps for the better as to information, from the same source. Spain seems anxious strictness of principle, but often strikingly expressive. to redeem her reputation, which suffered so much from Here, as in every thing connected with practical botany, the neglect, or rather persecution, of the truly excellent he shines. The most rigid Linnaean, whose soul is not but unfortunate Dombey, who, like many other benefacentirely shrivelled up with dry aphorisms and prejudice, tors of mankind, was allowed to make all his exertions in must love Haller for his taste and enthusiasm, and the vain, and finally perished unknown, in the diabolical hands Flora of Switzerland as much for his sake as its own. b.o of English slave-dealers at Montserrat.3 Portugal is most wonder that his pupils multiplied, and formed a band or distinguished at home by the labours of a learned benedicenthusiasts, tenacious of even the imperfections of their tine, Dr Felix Avellar Brotero, author of a Flora Lusitamaster. The line of demarcation is now no longer dis- nica, after the Linnaean method, reduced entinctly drawn between them and the equally zealous scho- tirely disposed to principles of number; and abroad by the valulars of the northern sage. The amiable and lamented able work of Father Loureiro, entitled Flora CochinchiDavall strove to profit by the labours of both. The Al- nensis, in which plants ot Cochin-China, and of the pine botanists of France and Italy have served to ama - neighbourhood ofthe Canton, are classed and defined in the gamate the Swedish and the Helvetian schools. Ihe Linnaean manner, with valuable descriptions and remarks. Flora of Dauphine by Villars is nearly Linnaean in sysIt is undoubtedly a disgrace to the possessors ot such a tem ; and the principles of the veteran Bellardi of Turin are entirely so, though, in some of his publications, he has country as Brazil, that they have not derived from thence been obliged to conform to the method of his preceptor, more benefit to the world or to themselves from its natuthe venerable Allioni, who, in spite of all remonstrance, ral productions. But they are satisfied with what the had the ambition of forming a system of his own. His bowels of the earth afford, and they neglect its more acFlora Pedemontana is disposed according to this system ; cessible, though perhaps not less valuable treasures. The an unnatural and inconvenient jumble of the ideas of Ri- jealousy and innumerable restrictions, ot their go\ernment vinus, Tournefort, and others. This work is also faulty render what they possess as useless to all the world as to in the neglect of specific definitions, so that its plates and themselves. A genius of the first rank in natural science, occasional descriptions are alone what render it useful, as w^ell as in every thing which his capacious mind emnor would it, perhaps, be consulted1 at all, but for the un- braced, has arisen in Portugal, and has been domesticated in the schools of Paris andlhondon, the amiable and learncommon abundance of rare species. “ We may glance over the botany of Italy, to whose ed Correa de Serra. What little impulse has been given to of Italy, boundaries we have thus been insensibly led, as the tra- literature in Portugal, and particularly the foundation of a veller takes a bird’s-eye view of its outstretched plains Royal Academy of Sciences, is owing to him ; and though from the lofty summits of the Alps. We may pass from his name has chiefly appeared in the ranks ot botanical Turin to Naples without meeting with any school of dis- science in an incidental manner, no one possesses more tinction. The northern states are not without their pro- enlarged and accurate views, or more profound knowledge, fessors and patrons of botany; nor are their nobles desti- of the subject. “ In the extensive, though incomplete, review which we English tute of taste, in various branches of natural knowledge. and The names of a Castiglione of Milan, a Durazzo and Dine- have undertaken of the recent history of botanical science, h iefl gro of Genoa, and a Savi of Pisa, deserve to be men- the individual merits of particular writers have S . y scSstioned with honour, for their knowledge and their zeal. hitherto been detailed and compared. The most difficult The unfortunate Cyrillo, and his friend Pacifico, of Naples, part of our task perhaps still remains, namely, to contrast were practical botanists. There is also a rising school, of and appreciate the influence and the merits of two great great promise, at Palermo. But since the time of Sco- and rival nations, in the general school of scientific botany ; poli, ItaljT has contributed little to our stock of informa- to consider the causes that have led to the particular line tion ; nor are the latter publications of this eminent man, which each has taken; and to compare the success, as well while he resided at Pavia, commensurate in importance as to calculate the probable future consequences, of their or njerit with those earlier ones, the Flora and the Ento- respective aims. England and France have, from the vwlogia Carniolica, which have immortalized his name. time of Ray and Tournefort, been competitors in botaniScopoli, who at first adopted a system of his own, had cal fame, because each was ambitious ot supporting the the sense and liberality, in his second edition, to resign credit of the great man she had produced. This contest, 1 Geneva is celebrated at the present day as the residence of Professor De Candolle. This distinguished botanist, in addition to many other works of scarcely inferior merit, published, in 1818 vol. 1st, and in 1821 vol. 2d, of a Rcguum arranged according to the natural system. No more has yet appeared; but in 1824 he commenced a Prodromus, or abridgement of what the other was intended to be ; and of this four vmlumes are completed. It is expected to be concluded in a few years. 2 Raddi, Tenore, Viviani, and the Sicilian botanist Gussone, had scarcely, at the time when Sir J. E. Smith wrote this, gained sufficient fame to be noticed by him. . • j- • i oi 3 Had Sir James Smith lived, he would have found occasion to alter the above paragraph. At present there is not one mdiviauai deserving the name of botanist in Spain. The last of them, Lagasca, has had all his collections, including what he had amassed tor years with a view to publish a Flora of Spain, entirely destroyed, and been obliged himself to take refuge in England.

S3 B O T ANY. axono- however, as far as it regarded theoretical speculations, has ago, one of the first African geraniums that ever bloomed Taxonom ymy. entirely subsided on the part of Ray’s champions. In prac- in Norwich. If, however, the progress of natural science was slow in this angle of the kingdom, the wealthy manutical science, likewise, the admirers of Ray and of Tournefort have shaken hands, like those of every other school. facturers, become their own merchants, found it necessary On the subject of system, the question is greatly changed; to acquire a knowledge of various foreign languages, in for though a phoenix has arisen from the ashes of Tourne- order to carry on their wide-extended commerce. In fort, its ‘ star-like eyes,’ darting far beyond all former learning French, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, and German, competition, have been met, if not dazzled, by a new light, they unavoidably acquired many new ideas. Their sons rising in full glory from the north ; a polar star, which has were sent to the continent, and it were hard, indeed, if many of them did not bring home much that was worth been hailed by all the nations of the earth. learning. The society of the place, aided by some cond. “ The Linnaean system of classification, with all its conglan ' comitant advantages of nomenclature, luminous technical comitant circumstances, and the adventitious acquisition definition, and richness of information, was planted, like a of two or three men of singular talents and accomplishfresh and vigorous scion, in the favourable soil of England, ments, became improved. A happy mixture of literature already fertilized with accumulations of practical know- and taste for many years distinguished this city above its ledge, about the middle of the last century. If we may rivals in opulence and commercial prosperity. Such Norpursue the metaphor, the ground was entirely cleared for wich has been in our memory; and if its splendour be its reception; for all previous systems had been of con- gone by, a taste for mental cultivation, originating in many fined and local use, the alphabetical index having become of the before-mentioned causes, still remains, and is fosthe resource of even the most learned, and the pupils of tered by the novel pursuits of chemistry and natural hisRay being held to his method of classification rather by tory, on which some arts of great importance in the manutheir gratitude for his practical instruction, than any other factory of the place depend for improvement. We trust consideration. Accordingly we have, in our own early the reader will pardon this digression from the subject progress, before they were all, as at present, swept oft the more immediately before us, to which we shall now return. “ Some of the more learned students of English plants, stage, found them rather contending for his nomenclature, imperfect as it was, because they were habituated to it, among the lovers of botany in Norwich, had long been than for his system, of which it was evident they had conversant with the works of Ray, and even the Historia made little use. Hence the first attempt in England to Muscorum of Dillenius. They were prepared therefore reduce our plants to Linnaean order, made by Hill, was to admire, and to profit by, the philosophical writings of chiefly a transposition of Ray’s Synopsis into the Linnaean Linnaeus. Hence originated the Elements of Botany, pubclasses; the original nomenclature being retained, while lished in 1775 by Mr Hugh Rose, who was aided in the the specific names of the Species Plantarum were re- undertaking by his equally learned friend, the reverend Henry Bryant, of whose acuteness and botanical skill no jected. orwich. “ Hill’s imperfect performance was superseded by the better proof is wanting, than his having found and determore classical Flora Anglica of Hudson, composed under mined, nine years before, the minute Tillcea muscosa, for the auspices and advice of the learned and ingenious Stil- the first time in this island. Numerous pupils were eager lingfleet, in which the botany of England assumed a most to improve themselves by the assistance of such masters; scientific aspect, and with which all the knowledge of Ray and, amongst others, the writer of these pages imbibed, was incorporated. At the same time, the principles ot from their ardour and friendly assistance, the first ruditheoretical botany, and the philosophical writings of the ments of a pursuit that has proved the happiness and the learned Swede, were studied with no ordinary powers of principal object of his life. “ London became, of course, the focus of this science, as London, discrimination and judgment, in a small circle of expeCamrienced observers at Norwich. A love of flowers, and a well as of every other. Of the English universities, Cam- and great degree of skill in their cultivation, had been long bridge most fulfilled its duty, in rendering its public esta- Ux ou ’ ago imported into that ancient commercial city, with its blishments useful to the ends for which they were founded worsted manufacture, from Flanders; and out of this and paid. The names of Martyn, both father and son, taste something like the study of systematic botany had have long maintained a distinguished rank in botany ; and sprung. These pursuits were mostly confined to the the latter, for many years, has inculcated the true princihumblest of the community, particularly among the then ples of Linnaean science, from the professor’s chair. A bovery numerous bodies of journeymen weavers, dyers, and tanic garden was established by a private individual, Dr other artisans of a similar description. Towards the Walker, about the period of which we are speaking. A middle of the eighteenth century, several of the opu- Linnaean Flora Cantabrigiensis, by Mr Relhan, has renewlent merchants seem to have acquired, by their intimate ed the celebrity of that field in which Ray had formerly connection with Holland, not only the above-mentioned laboured ; and there has always existed a little community taste for horticulture, but likewise an ambition to be dis- of Cambridge botanists, though fluctuating and varying, tinguished by their museums of natural curiosities. The according to circumstances. At Oxford, botany, so vigoformer sometimes extended itself, from the flowery par- rously established by Sherard and Dillenius, slept for forty terre and the well-arranged rows of tulips, hyacinths, car- years under the auspices of the elder Professor Sibthorp, nations, and auriculas, into no less formal labyrinths, or at least as to the utility of its public foundations. Yet perhaps a double pattern of angular or spiral walks, be- even there the science had many individual cultivators, tween clipped hedges, exactly alike on each side of a and if others were forgotten, the name of a Banks ought broad gravel walk. Such was the most sublime effort of to render this school for ever celebrated. The younger the art within the compass of our recollection. “ Grove ’ Professor Sibthorp well atoned for the supineness of his could by no means be said to “ nod at grove, ’ for the per- father and predecessor. He published a Flora Oxoniensis, pendicular and well-trimmed structure was incapable of and extended his inquiries into the classical scenes of nodding; but that “ each alley should have a brother Greece, finally sacrificing his life to his labours, and sealwas an indispensable part of the design. Greenhouses of ing his love of this engaging study by a posthumous founexotic plants, except oranges and myrtles, were at this dation, which provides for the publication of a sumptuous time scarcely known; and the writer well recollects hav- Flora Gracca, and the subsequent establishment of a proing seen, with wonder and admiration, above forty years fessorship of rural economy. Edinburgh, under the aus-

BOTANY. 84 Taxono- pices of Professor Hope, became distinguished for the cul- at the more abstruse determination of the intricate family Taxon> my. tivation of botany as a branch of medical education. The of marine productions, whether sea-weeds, corallines, or physiology of plants was there taught more assiduously shells. His own acquisitions, and those of his friend and than in almost any other university of Europe; and the patron, in the fairy land of the South Sea Islands, the Linnaean principles were ably enforced and illustrated, hazardous shores of New Holland, or the nearly fatal not with slavish devotion, but with enlightened discrimi- groves and swamps of Java, were at the same time renation. Nor must the dissenting academy at Warrington corded by his pen, as they were gradually perpetuating by be forgotten, where the distinguished circumnavigator the slow labours of the engraver. To this band of zealous Forster, of whom we have already spoken, was settled. naturalists the younger Linnaeus was for a while associated, Here many young naturalists were trained. The neigh' as well as the excellent and zealous Broussonet, who, though bouring family of the Blackburnes, possessed even to this not unversed in botany, devoted himself most particularly more uncommon pursuit of scientific ichthyology. day of one of the oldest and richest botanic gardens in to “the The Banksian school, altogether intent upon practical England, have steadily fostered this and other branches of natural knowledge. The same taste has spread to Manches- botany, had adopted the Linnaean system as the most comter, Liverpool, and the country around. Westmoreland, modious, while it pursued and cultivated the Linnaean prinNorthumberland, and Durham, have their sequestered ciples as the only ones which, by their transcendent excelpractical botanists in every rank of life. Scenes celebrated lence, could support the science of botany on a stable founby the correspondents of Ray are still the favourite haunts dation. In these Dr Solander was, of course, well trainof these lovers of nature and science, who every day add ed ; and, having added so wide a range of experience to his something to our information, and to the celebrity of other theoretical education, few botanists could vie with him, who had, as it were, caught his preceptor’s mantle, and imparts of the same neighbourhood. London “ We must now concentrate our attention to the London bibed, by a sort of inspiration, a peculiar talent for concise school. school, which for about forty years past has maintained a and clear definition. Abstract principles of classification, rank superior to most other seats of botanical science ; or even such outlines of natural arrangement as Linnseus the more so perhaps from its being founded in total disin- had promulgated, seem never to have attracted Solander. terestedness, both with respect to authority and emolu- In following the chain of his ideas, discernible in the matement. Truth alone, not system, has been the leading ob- rials he has left behind him, one cannot but remark his sinject of this school; unbiassed and gratuitous patronage its gular inattention to every thing like botanical affinity, to support; and a genuine love of nature and of knowledge which the artificial sexual system was, with him, entirely its bond of union, among persons not less distinguished paramount. The genera which, for extemporaneous use, from each other by character and opinion, than by their he named with the termination oides, comparing each with different pursuits and various ranks of life. The illustri- some well-known genus, till a proper appellation could be ous Banks, from the time when, after his return from his selected, are seldom thus compared because of any natucelebrated and adventurous voyage, he devoted himself to ral affinity, or even any external resemblance, but bethe practical cultivation of natural science for the advan- cause they agree with such in their place in the artificial tage of others, as he had long pursued it for his own plea- system, or nearly perhaps in technical characters. A sure and instruction, has been the head of this school. great botanist, therefore, it is evident, may exist, without Here he fixed the amiable and learned Solander, for the that vaunted erudition in a peculiar line, which some remainder of his too short life. The house of this liberal would have us consider as the only road to knowledge and Mecsenas has ever since been, not only open, but in a to fame. We allow that this sort of erudition is now, manner at the entire command of the cultivators and ad- since the attention it has received from Linnaeus, Jussieu, mirers of this and other branches of philosophy; inas- and others, become as indispensable to a good theoretical much as his library and museum have been devoted to or philosophical botanist, as is the study of carpology, in their free use; and his own assistance, encouragement, consequence of the labours of Gmrtner; we only contend and information are as much at their service as if his for- that it is possible to know plants extremely well without tune and fame had all along depended on their favour. either. “ The learned Dryander, less skilled than his predecesWith such an establishment as this, aided by the perpetual resources of the numerous public and private gardens sor the coadjutor of Sir Joseph Banks, in a practical acaround, botany might well flourish. The liberal spirit of quaintance with plants, exceeded him in theoretical lore the leaders of this pursuit gave a tone to the whole. The and ingenious speculation, and far excelled every other owners of nurseries, though depending on pecuniary emo- man in bibliographic information, as well as in the most lument for their support, rivalled each other in disinterest- precise and fastidious exactness relative to every subject ed communication. The improvement of the science was within the wide extent of his various knowledge. He the leading object of all. One of this latter description furthered, upon principle, and with unwearied assiduity, took his rank among the literary teachers of botany. Lee’s every object of the noble establishment to which he was Introduction was much approved by Linnaeus, whose sys- devoted; but, like Solander, he now sleeps with his fatem and principles it ably exemplifies, and who became thers, and his place is supplied by a genius of British the friend and correspondent of its author. Travelling growth, who unites talents with experience, and theoretiin the most eminent degree, with practical knowbotanists were dispatched under the patronage of the cal skill, affluent to enrich our gardens from the Alps, the Cape of ledge.1 “ Although it is almost superfluous to name the most Good Hope, and the various parts of America. Every new acquisition was scrutinized, and received its allotted name eminent disciples of the London school of botany, it might and distinction from the hand of the correct and classi- seem negligent to pass them over without some particular cal Solander, who one day was admiring with Collinson, mention. The ardent and ingenious Curtis has left a permaFothergill, or Pitcairn, the treasures of their respective nent monument behind him, in the Flora Londinensis, to gardens, and another labouring w ith the distinguished Ellis, say nothing of the popular Botanical Magazine, continued 1

Since the death of Sir Joseph, his library and herbarium have been deposited in the British Museum, where Mr Brown, to whom Sir James here alludes, has still the unqualified charge of them.

85 BOTANY. by his friend Dr Sims. The Flora Scotica of Lightfoot first other, at the expense of their own right of private judg- Taxonom yoffered, in a pleasing and familiar garb, the botanical riches ment. Their transactions are open to the pupils of every school, and the observations of every critic, that have any of that part of the island to its southern inhabitants. The lynx-eyed Dickson, so long and faithfully attached to his prospect of being useful to the world. The writer of each constant patron, has steadily traced, through all its wind- communication must, of course, be answerable for the parings, the obscure path of cryptogamic botany with pecu- ticulars of his own performance, but the society is responliar success. No more striking instance can be pointed sible for each being, on the whole, worthy to be commuout, to prove how totally the most consummate practical nicated to the public. The possession of the very mateskill, even in the most difficult part of botany, is indepen- rials with which Linnaeus worked, his own specimens and dent of theoretical learning. Even those who profit by notes, enables us very often to correct mistakes, even of the certain aids supplied by the discoveries of Hedwig, that great man, many of which would be unaccountable can with difficulty keep pace with this veteran in their without the means of thus tracing each to its source. At pursuits, who, with conscious independence, neglects all the same time, the acquisition of materials to which he never had access, tends to improve and augment the histhose aids. “ Just at the time when the school, whose history we are tory of what he had left imperfect. His language, his detluseum nd library endeavouring to trace, had most firmly established its cre- finitions and characters, were, for some time, held so saf Lin* dit and its utility, a great additional weight was given to cred, that they were implicitly copied, even though mani1EUS ' England, in the scale of natural science, by the acquisi- festly inapplicable, in some points, to the objects to which tion of the entire museum, library, and manuscripts of the they were referred. Synonyms were transcribed from his great Linnaeus and his son, which came amongst us, by works by Rose, Hudson, Curtis, and even Gaertner (we private purchase, in 1784, after the death of the latter. assert it on the positive proof of errors of the press, copied Hence our nomenclature has been corrected, and our in the transcribing), without reference to the original knowledge greatly augmented. These collections have books, to see whether such synonyms, or their accomnecessarily been consulted by most persons about to pub- panying plates, agreed with the plant under consideralish on the subject of natural history, and a reference to tion. The example of Dr Solander first led the writer of them, in doubtful cases, secures a general conformity of this to avoid such a negligent and unfaithful mode of sentiment and nomenclature among the botanists of Eu- proceeding ; yet he has ever considered as sacred the very rope, Asia, and America. We are seldom obliged to waste words of Linnaeus, where they require no correction, time in conjecturing what Linnaeus, or the botanists with They are become a kind of public property, the current whom he corresponded, meant, for we have before us their coin of the botanical realm, which ought not, with impuoriginal specimens, named by their own hands. An en- nity, to be falsified or adulterated, lo them we hope to tire London winter was devoted to the almost daily labour be pardoned if we apply the words of the poet, of comparing the Banksian herbarium throughout, with The solid bullion of one sterling line, that of Linnaeus, and to a copious interchange of speciDrawn to French wire, would through whole pages shine, mens between their respective possessors, who, with the aid of Mr Dryander alone, accomplished this interesting Of this it is needless to quote examples. Me must be and instructive comparison. Hence the Hortus Kewensis every day more and more sensible of the value of the of the lamented Aiton, which was at that period preparing Linnaean style, in proportion as the number of those who for publication, became much more correct in its names, can attain it is evidently so very small. By the light of than it, or any other similar performance, could have been, our master alone can the science, which he so greatly adwithout this advantage. It could scarcely be expected vanced and refined, be preserved from barbarism, while that Sweden would, unmoved, let the botanical sceptre long and tedious, loose and feeble, ill-contrasted and barthus pass from her; but it is much to the honour of the barously-worded definitions, press upon it from various nation, that all her naturalists have ever preserved the quarters. New terms are invented to express old ideas ; most friendly intercourse with us, particularly with the names and characters are changed for the worse, to conperson who deprived them of this treasure. They have ceal'the want of new discoveries ; and students are often not merely pardoned, but publicly sanctioned, the scien- deterred from adopting real improvements, because they tific zeal which prompted him to this acquisition, by as- know not which guide to prefer. “ From the combined effects of the various causes which Practical sociating him with all their learned establishments, without. any solicitation ...x on his part. ^ „.1 we have endeavoured to trace, the study of botany in Eng- study of Linnnean “ The institution of the Linnaean Society at London in land has, for a long period, been almost entirely practical, - Society. 1788, especially under that name, must be considered as To determine the particular species intended, in every a triumph for Sweden in her turn. By this establishment case, by Linnaeus; to distinguish and to describe new ones ; the intercourse of science is facilitated ; essays, which to improve scientific characters, and to correct synonyms ; might otherwise have never seen the light, are given to these have been the objects of our writers; and hence many the world; and a general taste for the pleasing study of publications of great utility, especially a number of critinature is promoted. Learned and worthy people are thus cal and descriptive essays, in the Transactions of the Linmade acquainted with each other, from the remotest cor- naean Society, not unworthy of the school which gave ners of the kingdom, and their information enriches the them birth, have enriched the general stock of knowledge. common stock. The state has given its sanction to this These are the sound fruits of skill and investigation, the rising establishment. Its publications and its members solid advantages of real information, applied to practical are spread over the Continent, and other similar institu- use. They are independent of theoretical speculation, tions have borrowed its name, imitated its plan, and paid and will stand unshaken, amidst any possible changes of respect to its authority. Yet it is not in the name alone system. On such principles the Flora Britannica has of Linnaeus, that the members of this society place their been attempted, and continued as far as the present unconfidence ; still less do they bow to that name, or to any settled state of some of the latter orders, of the last class, 1 It may not, perhaps, be generally known, that Sir James Smith himself was the purchaser. Since his death it has become the property of the Linnaean Society of London, along with all his private collections and library.

86

BOTANY.

of all improvement. Vaillant, the able and worthy Taxono. will allow.1 Such impediments, which depend on the diffi- way culties of systematic discrimination, among the Lichens pupil of Tournefort, has never been forgiven for speaking, my. especially, it is hoped will soon be removed. Meanwhile on some occasions, too freely of his master’s defects. his own merit has been kept in the back ground. the English Botany of the same writer, illustrated by Mr Hence The doctrine of the sexes of plants was discountenanced Sowerby’s expressive and scientific figures, has finished its as long as possible, because it was proved by Vaillant, after course, and formed so nearly complete a body of local been rejected by Tournefort. Nevertheless, when botany, as, we believe, no other country has produced. In having good seed of science is once sown, it can hardly be this the liberal contributions of numerous skilful observeis, the totally suffocated by the impediments of prejudice and igfrom the Alpine heights of Scotland to the shores and norant partiality. Practical zeal sprung up by the side of circumambient ocean of the south, are preserved and le- speculative jealousy, and the tares withered, while the corded ; evincing a degree of general inquiry and acute- profitable plants flourished. Some botanists followed the ness, which hardly any nation can rival. Ihe memory of steps of Tournefort to the Levant, exploring afresh those several benefactors to the science, otherwise in danger of which he has for ever rendered classic ground. passing away, is embalmed in this national work, which countries Others visited America, which they traversed in different serves at once as their botanical testament, and the monu- directions. The Plumier performed three ment of their fame. Some of our botanists of the piesent separate voyages toindefatigable the western world; and though his disday have thrown great light on several of the most obscure coveries have, in a great measure, suffered shipwreck from departments of the science; witness Mr Sowerby’s work tardy and imperfect patronage, a great part of his colon English Fungi; the labours of the learned Bishop of lections did by the accidents ofasnature, yet something of Carlisle on Carices, and, in conjunction with Mr Woodward, on Fuel; of Mr Dawson I urner on the lattei tribe, value remains. His Filices are enough to insure his perand on the Musci of Ireland; but especially Mr Hooker’s petual remembrance, and his Nova Genera are the basis inimitable display of the British JungermannicE? Nor shall of our knowledge of generic differences in West Indian the contributions of a Winch or an Abbot, a \\ ithering, plants. Most of all has been distinguished, among the Knapp, Stackhouse, or Velley, nor the more splendid la- French botanists who succeeded the times of Tournefort bours of the indefatigable Lambert, be forgotten. Each, and Vaillant, the family of the Jussieus. One of these Jussieus, in one way or other, has enlarged the bounds of science, investigated the prolific regions of Peru, and discovered or rendered it easier of access. We cannot, in the com- some things which no succeeding traveller has gathered. pass of our present undertaking, pay the tribute due to Other branches of this family, besides being eminent in every individual, our aim being a general picture of the medical science and practice, have pursued the study of whole. From what we have said, the zeal with which this botany with no ordinary success, on the most philosophilovely science has been cultivated in England, will suffi- cal principles. Of these the most eminent are the celeciently appear. Nor have public lectures or botanic gar- brated Bernard de Jussieu, the contemporary of the earlier dens been neglected, in order to render the knowledge of days of Linnasus; and his nephew Antoine Laurent de botany as accessible as possible, and to diffuse a taste for Jussieu, the pride and the ruler of systematic botany at its pursuit. The popularity of the study has, at least, kept present in France. The views and the performances of pace with the means of instruction. The garden and these great men lead us to a new branch of our subject, green-house, the woods, fields, and even the concealed which indeed we have had in our contemplation from the treasures of the waters, are now the resource of the young beginning of this essay,—the exposition of the principles of and the elegant, who, in the enjoyment of a new sense as a natural scheme of botanical classification, as hinted, and it were, in the retirement of the country, imbibe health, as imperfectly sketched, by Linnaeus, and brought to the well as knowledge and taste, at the purest of all sources. perfection of a regular system by the Jussieus. “ Previous to our entering on this detail, and the remarks Linnaean “ France alone now remains to be considered, in order to France. h o1 in finish the historical picture which we have undertaken of to which it will give rise, we must conclude all that be- ^n °nce longs to the former part of our undertaking, by giving “ • the state of botanical science in Europe. To do justice to this part of our subject, we must turn our attention to some account of those botanists who have formed and times long since gone by, or we shall scarcely render in- maintained a Linnaean school in France. We must shelter ourselves under the broad banner of truth when we telligible the state of affairs at present. “ The great Tournefort, by the force of his character, his observe that these have, till very lately, been almost the Tournegeneral and particular information, the charms of his pen, only French botanists that have supplied us with any fort. and the celebrity which his name gave to his country, practical information; and their labours have been useful through the popularity of his botanical system, was so in proportion as they have commendably shaken off the firmly established, in the ideas of the French, as the Grand prejudices of their predecessors. Of this last proposition Monarque of botany, that they would have as soon allow- Duhamel is a witness, though we may perhaps excite some ed the greatness of Louis XIV. to be questioned, as that surprise in classing him among Linnaean botanists. His of this distinguished philosopher. So beneficial was this preface to his Trade des Arbres sufficiently shows how partiality, in some respects, that it gave an unprecedented fearful he was of being taken for such, and yet how he impulse and popularity to the science ; so disadvantageous was held by vulgar prejudice alone, to the nomenclature, w7as it in others, that it placed a formidable barrier in the or rather the generical opinions of Tournefort. He tells 1 The English Flora was published on the same plan, a short time before the death of the author. This contains none of the Cryptogamia except the Ferns, but a continuation is every day expected from Dr Hooker. 2 Dr Hooker, now Professor at Glasgow, is better known throughout the world as the first museologist of the present age. His Musci Exotici and Muscologia Britannica are excellent. In a knowledge of Ferns he is also unrivalled, upon which branch, along with Dr Greville, he has published the splendid leones Filicum. But it is not Cryptogamia alone his pencil and pen have illustrated; he has published the Exotic Flora, at present continues the Botanical Magazine, and is engaged with a Botanical Miscellany, Flora BorealiAmericana, &c. all of which are accompanied with plates.—Among those who have contributed in this country to illustrate botany by plates, we ought not to omit to mention Mr Lindley, and also Dr Greville, whose delineations of Cryptogamic subjects, particularly of Fungi, must always render his Scottish Cryptogamic Flora a standard work. There are other botanists, likewise, who equally deserve notice, although they be not gifted with the use of the pencil: Mr David Don has contributed much to the page of botany, but who has not heard of Mr Robert Brown, “ Botanicorum facile princcps

BOTANY. 87 {£ The intimacy which subsisted between this enthusiastic Taxonoaxono- us, while he adopts these, that his judgment went with my. Linnaeus, whom he follows in all new discoveries. The naturalist and the distinguished botanist 1’Heritier, con- my. ^ plan of his book, confined to hardy trees and shrubs, jus- firmed, if it did not originally implant, in the mind of the tifies his use of an alphabetical arrangement, in preference latter, that strong bias which he ever showed for the Linto any system, unless he had thought sufficiently well of naean principles of botany. According to these his numeTournefort’s to prefer that. But he has prefixed to his rous splendid works are composed. He moreover imbibwork, as a practical method of discovering scientifically ed, if we mistake not, from the same source, a peculiar what it contained, no other than a sexual classification. preference for uncoloured engravings of plants, instead of His practical botany was so limited, being entirely sub- the coloured ones which had long been in use. It cannot servient to his great objects of forest planting and vegeta- be denied that the merit of these last is very various, ble physiology, that he had no attention to spare for the and sometimes very small. They do, nevertheless, preconsideration of methodical systems. Accordingly, he sent to the mind a more ready idea of each species, than tells us, that some such is necessary for the use of bota- a simple engraving can do, nor is the latter less liable to nists, especially of those who explore the productions of incorrectness. When plates are taken from the delineaforeign countries; but whether the method of Ray, Tour- tions of such exquisite artists as I’Heritier employed, they nefort, Boerhaave, Van-Royen, Linnaeus, or Bernard de have a good chance of excellence; but the engravings of Jussieu be adopted, is of no importance. Six years be- Cavanilles, done after miserable drawings, though they fore Duhamel’s work came out, Dalibard had published, deceive the eye by their neat finishing, are really less exin 1749, his Florce Parisiensis Prodromus, according to act than many a rude outline. Coloured plates, if executed with the uniformity and scientific exactness of Mr the Linnaean system. “ It has always appeared to the writer of this, from the Sowerby’s, or the characteristic effect of Jacquin’s, speak conversation and writings of French botanists, that the to the eye more readily than most engravings. The art judgment of the learned Le Monnier, and the countenance of printing in colours, practised formerly in England with of his patron the Duke d’Ayen, afterwards Marechal de small success, was revived at Paris by Bulliard, and is Noailles, first established the reputation of Linnaeus in carried to the highest perfection in the recent publications France; not so much possibly for the sake of his system, of Redoute and Ventenat, which leave hardly any thing as his discoveries, his commodious nomenclature, and his to be wished for, with respect to beauty or exactness. clear principles of discrimination. When Le Monnier Many of the works of 1’Heritier have remained imperfect, botanized in Chili, in the company of the astronomers in consequence of the political convulsions of his country with whom he was associated, he soon found, like Dr Gar- and his own premature death. The learned and worthy den in South Carolina, that the classification of Tourne- Desfontaines, who travelled in Barbary, has been more fort was no key to the treasury of a new world. He how- fortunate in the completion of his labours. His elegant ever made his remarks and collections, and studied them Flora Atlantica, in 2 vols. 4to, with finely engraved unsubsequently under the auspices of a more comprehensive coloured plates, is classed and modelled on the plan of guide. The Marechal de Noailles, a great cultivator of the Linnaean school. Such also is the plan of the works exotic trees and shrubs, corresponded with the Swedish of that distinguished botanist Labillardiere, who, besides naturalist, and endeavoured to recommend him to the no- his account of New Holland plants, has published five tice of the lovers of plants in France. Meantime Gerard elegant decades of new species from Syria. That scienand Gouan in the south, both introduced themselves to tific horticulturist M. Thouin, likewise a most excellent the illustrious Swede, and promulgated his principles and botanist, though he has scarcely written on the subject, discoveries, though only the latter adopted his classifica- is a correct pupil of the Swedish school. His general spition. Villars we have already noticed as the author of a rit of liberal communication, and his personal attachment Linnaean Histoire, des Plantes de Dauphine. He died lately, to the younger Linnaeus, led him to enrich the herbarium professor of botany at Strasburg, where he succeeded of the latter with the choicest specimens of Commerson’s the very able and philosophical Hermann, one of the great .collection, destined otherwise to have remained in truest Linnaeans, who had imbibed all the technical style almost entire oblivion. A singular fate has attended the of the Swedish school, as well as its accuracy of discrimi- discoveries of most of the French voyagers, such as Comnation. We may now safely announce Hermann as the merson, Sonnerat, and Dombey, that, from one cause or real author, in conjunction perhaps with Baron Born, of other, they have scarcely seen the light. So also it has that ingenious but bitter satire the monachologia, in which happened to those of Tournefort, Sarrazin, Plumier, and the several species of monks are affectedly discriminated, others, whose acquisitions have long slept in the Parisian and their manners detailed, like the animals in the Lin- museums. Flappily there seems to have arisen of late a nsean Systema Natures. This ludicrous performance has commendable desire to render them useful by publication, long since appeared in a not very exact English trans- and thus many fine plants, known merely by the slight lation, and was rendered into French by the late M. ancl unscientific appellations of Tournefort, and therefore Broussonet. As we are led again to name this amiable never adopted by Linnams, have recently been clearly deman, too soon lost to his country, after experiencing every fined, or elegantly delineated. The journeys of Olivier vicissitude of revolutionary peril and alarm, we cannot and Michaux towards the east have enriched the Paris help distinguishing him as one most zealous in the culti- gardens, and been the means of restoring several lost vation and diffusion of Linnaean learning, a taste for which Tournefortian plants. We believe however that the Enghe chiefly imbibed in England. He had no indulgence lish nurseries have proved the most fertile source of augfor those prejudices which cramped the talents of his mentation to the French collections, as appears by the countrymen, and prevented their deriving knowledge from pages of all the recent descriptive writers in France. “ We dare not presume to arrange the indefatigable and any quarter where it was to be had. He recommended the younger Linnaeus to their personal acquaintance and very original botanist Lamarck among the Linnaean bofavour; which service he also rendered, a few years after, tanists of his country, but we beg leave to mention him to the person who now commemorates his worth, and who here, as one who has thought for himself, and whose works will ever remember, with affection and regret, his many are the better for that reason. His severe and often virtues, his agreeable converse, and his various and ex- petulant criticisms of the Swedish teacher, made him appear more hostile than he really was, to the principles of tensive acquirements.

88

BOTANY.

might have perceived the affinity of Banksia to Taxoms that great man. Being engaged in the botanical depart- surely herather than to Ludwigia or Oldenlandia; and niy. ment of the Encyclopedic Methodique, he was obliged to Protea, Linnseus himself ought to have discovered the conform to an alphabetical arrangement; but he surely indeed’ relationship of the latter to Hedyotis, it he did not detect might have chosen the scientific generic names for that their identity, instead of inserting it between two such purpose, instead of barbarous or vernacular ones, which, strict allies of each other as Ludwigia and Ammanma. To to foreigners, would have made all the difference, between pursue these remarks would be endless. It is hardly nea commodious and an unintelligible disposition ot his work. cessary to indicate the natural classes or orders of the In the detail of his performance, he has great merit, both Linnsean system, such as the Tetradynamia, Didynamia, with respect to clearing up obscure species, or describing Diadelphia, Syngenesia; the Triandria Digynia, Gynnew ones; and he had the advantage of accession many andria Diandria, $c. Except the first-mentioned class, occasions, to Commerson’s collection. Lamarck s i'tore which, if Cleome be removed, is strictly natural and entire, Francoise is arranged after a new analytical method ot the others are liable to much criticism. We are almost his own. This book however is valuable, independent oi disposed to allow, what we know not that any one has yet its system, as an assemblage of practical knowledge and observed, that the system in question is the more faulty observation. We have only to regret a wanton and incontheory, for these classes being so natural as they are. venient change of names, which too often occurs, and in Each of the Didynamia presents itself as a natural which is not always for the better; witness Chciranthus order, order though the character of that class, derived from the hortensis, instead of the long established incanus of Lin- proportion of the stamens, serves to exclude several geneia nams; Melampyrum violaceum, which is not correct, tor of each order, and to send them far back into the second nemorosum, which is strictly so, and which preseives an class. If all ideas of natural affinity be discarded from analogy with the rest of the species. minds, there is no harm whatever in this; but if the “ We shall now undertake the consideration of the prin- our ciples that have been suggested, and the attempts that Didynamia claims any credit, as a class founded in nature, the above anomaly is a defect. So, still more, under the have been made, respecting a same point of view, is the Diadelphia, or at least its prinNATURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. cipal order Decandria, liable to exception. This order “ The sexual system of Linnaeus lays no claim to the consists entirely of the very natural family of Papilionacece. Sexual system. merit of being a natural arrangement. Its sole aim is to They are characterized as having the ten stamens in two assist us in determining any described plant by analytical sets. Now it happens that there are many papilionaceous examination. The principles on which it is founded are genera, indeed a great number of such have been dissince Linnseus wrote, whose ten stamens are all the number, situation, proportion, or connection, of the covered stamens and pistils, or organs of impregnation. These perfectly distinct. These therefore are necessarily reprinciples are taken absolutely, with the sole exception ferred to the class Decandria, and they come not altoamiss there, because they meet in that class some of their not being permitted to divide the genera, that is, gether to place some species of a genus in one part of the sys- concomitant genera, which though, like them, leguminous, tem, and others in another, though such may differ in the are less exactly, or scarcely at all, papilionaceous. But the number, situation, proportion, or connection of their sta- greatest complaint lies against some genera of the Diamens or pistils; those characters being possibly artificial, delphia Decandria, for having the stamens all really comwhile the genera are supposed, or intended, according to bined into one set, so as in truth to answer to the technia fundamental law independent of all systems, to be na- cal character of the preceding class Monadelphia. I here tural assemblages of species. We need not here explain is mostly indeed some indication of a disunion upward, the mode in which Linnaeus has provided against any in- where they, more or less perfectly, form two sets; and convenience in practice, resulting from such anomalies of some of them are so nearly diadelphous, that their complete union at the bottom may easily be overlooked; others, nature herself. “ But though this popular system of Linnaeus does not however, have only a fissure along the upper side of their profess to be a natural method of classification it is in common tube, without any traces of a separate stamen or many points incidentally so, several of its classes or orders stamens. The papilionaceous character of the corolla whose characters are founded in situation, proportion, or therefore, in such cases, is made to overrule that of the connection, being more or less perfectly natural assem- particular mode of union among the stamens, and is in blages ; nor can it be denied that, on the whole, it usual- itself so clear, as seldom to be attended with any diffily brings together as many groups of natural genera, as culty ; but the incorrectness of principle in the system, in occur in most systems that have been promulgated. This the point before us, as being neither professedly natural, fact would be more evident, if the various editors of the nor exactly artificial, cannot be concealed. Part of the system, those who have added new genera to the original objections, to which the sexual system was originally ones of Linnaeus, or, in general, those who have any way liable, have been obviated. We mean what concerns the applied his method to practice, had properly understood last class but one, Polygamia. Dr Forster observed, in it. They would then have perceived that its author had his voyage round the world, that this class was subject to always natural affinities in view ; his aim, however incom- great exception, on account of the trees of tropica c ipletely fulfilled, according to our advanced knowledge, mates, so many of which are constantly or occasiona y having constantly been, to place genera together in na- . polygamous; that is, each individual frequently bears tural affinity or progression, as far as their relationship some imperfect flowers, male or female, along with its could be discerned. At the same time he uses an analy- perfect or united ones. Such a circumstance reduces any tical method, at the head of each class in his Systema genus to the class Polygamia ; and on this principle Mr Vegetabilium, in which the genera are disposed according Hudson, thinking perhaps that he made a great improveto their technical characters. Murray, in compiling the ment, removed our Ilex Aquifolium, or Holly, thither, fourteenth edition of that work, has been inadvertent re- though Ilex is well placed by Linnseus in the fourth class. specting this essential part of its plan. Indeed it is pro- The author of the present essay has ventured to propose bable that he was not competent to judge of the affinities a scheme, which is adopted in his Flora Britannica, for of the new genera, introduced from the Supplementum, or getting clear of this difficulty. He considers as polyfrom the communication of Jacquin, Thunberg, &c. Yet gamous such genera only as, besides having that charac

BOTANY. Uaxono- ter in their organs of impregnation, have a difference of cases readily imbibe the ideas of their author, as to the mj. structure in the other parts of their two kinds of flowers. respective affinities of the genera. In some few instances, Thus Atriplex has, in its perfect flowers, a regular spread- as the Dumosce, where he avows his own doubts, and the ing calyx, in five equal segments ; in the attendant female Holeracece, where he is unusually paradoxical, it is more ones a compressed one, of two leaves, subsequently much difficult to trace the chain of his ideas. Such, however, enlarged. was all the assistance he thought himself competent to “ The genera thus circumstanced are so very few, as far afford. His distinguished pupils, Fabricius and Giseke, as we have discovered, that possibly the class might, but fortunately took notes of his lectures on natural orders ; for the uniformity of the system, be abolished. We can- and by the care of the latter, to whom Fabricius communot indeed tell what future discoveries may be made ; and nicated what he had likewise preserved, their joint acits character, on the above foundation, is sufficiently clear quisitions have been given to the public, in an octavo voand permanent; for flowers of an essentially different con- lume, at Hamburg, in 1792. Nor was this done without figuration can hardly vary into each other. The orders of the permission of their venerable teacher, who told Giseke the last class of the Linnaean system, Cryptogamia, are by word of mouth, when they took leave of each other, natural, and preserved, all nearly the same, by every sys- that 1 as he loved him, he4 had laboured with pleasure in tematic projector. The original appendix to this system, his service;’ adding, that Giseke was at liberty to pubthe PalmcB, would be a great blemish therein, as an arti- lish, whenever he pleased, any thing that he had retained ficial arrangement; for such an arrangement ought to be from his owm instructions.’ so formed as to admit every thing, on some principle or “ Linnaeus, according to a conversation with Giseke, reother. But this stumbling-block is now removed. The corded in the preface of the volume edited by the latter, palm tribe were placed thus by themselves, merely till declined to the last any attempt to define in words the their fructification should be sufficiently known. Now they characters of his orders. His reason for this appears in are found to agree well with some of the established classes his Classes Plantarum, where he justly remarks, that no and orders, where they meet with several of their natural certain principles, or key, for any such definition can be i allies. proposed, till all the orders, and consequently all the atural “ Whatever advantages might accrue to the practical plants, in the world are known. He has, however, so far assifica- study of botany, from the convenience and facility of his expressed his opinion, in the work last quoted, as to point r110^ artificial system, Linnaeus was from the beerinning: intent out the situation of the seed itself, with respect to other on the discovery of a more philosophical arrangement of parts, and the situation and direction of its vegetating plants, or, in other words, the classification of nature. point, or corculum, as most likely to lead to a scheme of This appears from the 77th aphorism of the very first edi- natural classification. Hence the system of Caesalpinus tion of his Fundamenta Botanica, published in 1736, where stood very high in his estimation. He also, in the conhe mentions his design of attempting to trace out frag- versation above mentioned, divides his own orders into ments of a natural method. In the corresponding section three sections, or classes, Monocotyledones, comprising the of his Philosophia Botanica, he, fifteen years afterwards, first ten orders, with the 15th; Dicotyledones (with two performed his promise; and the same Fragmenta, as he or more cotyledons), the 11th to the 54th order inclusive, modestly called them, were subjoined to the sixth edition except the 15th; and Acotyledones, order 55th to 58th, with of his Genera Plantarum, the last that ever came from his a hint that the last, or Fungi, ought perhaps to be altoown hands. The interleaved copies of these works, with gether excluded. This distribution of plants, by the numhis manuscript notes, evince how assiduously and constant- ber or the absence of the cotyledons, or lobes of the seed, ly he laboured at this subject, as long as he lived. He is the great hinge of all the professedly natural modes of was accustomed to deliver a particular course of lectures arrangement that have been attempted.” upon it, from time to time, to a small and select number “ Linnaeus did not consider it as absolute, for he told of pupils, who were for this purpose domesticated under Giseke that he knowingly admitted into his eleventh order his roof. What this great botanist has himself given to some* plants that are monocotyledonous, with others that the world, on the subject under consideration, is indeed are dicotyledonous. The reason of this w as the only senothing more than a skeleton of a system, consisting of cret he kept from his pupil; nor could the latter ever dive mere names or titles of natural orders, amounting in his into it, though he afterwards endeavoured to learn it from Philosophia to sixty-seven, besides an appendix of doubt- the younger Linnaeus, who knew nothing, neither did he, ful genera ; and that number is, in the Genera Plantarum, as Giseke says, much care about the matter.”1 reduced to fifty-eight. “ Under the title of each order, the genera which comThe want of any avowed principle of distinction prepose it are ranged according to the author’s ideas of their cludes almost all criticism of these orders of Linnaeus as relationship to each other, as appears by some of his a natural system. They cannot be applied to practice, manuscript corrections; and some of the orders are sub- and might in the present day be passed over in silence. divided into sections, or parcels of genera more akin to As, howrever, a very few, and amongst others the late Sir each other than to the rest. He ingeniously avowed, at J. E. Smith, considered them as even of more importance all times, his inability to define his orders by characters. than those of Jussieu, an opinion in which we cannot He conceived that they were more or less connected with coincide, we shall trace very shortly their names, but. each other by several points of affinity, so as to form a omit entirely the notes that usually accompany them, as map rather than a series. The experienced botanist, who unphilosophical, and tending but little to benefit the peruses the above-mentioned Fragmenta, will in most reader. 1 u Nymphcea appears to be the great secret, which the worthy professor told his pupil, that he, or some other person, might chance to find out in ten, twenty, or fifty years, and would then perceive that Linnaeus himself had been aware of it. Accordingly Gaertner and Jussieu have made the same discovery, or rather, fallen into the same mistake, describing Nymph as a as monocotyledonous, and Cyamus, Sm. Exot. Bot. v. i. 59 (their Nelumbo or Nelumbium), as in some measure dicotyledonous. The excellent De Candolle, in the Bulletin des Sciences, No. Ivii.,,published in 1802, has first rightly considered both as dicotyledonous, and akin to the Papaveracece of Jussieu, the Linnaean Rhceadece.

8!)

BOTANY. 47 Stellats, with a quadrifid corolla, four stamens, and two Taxono. I.—Monocotyledones. “ naked seeds.” 48. Aggregats, resembling the compound 1. Palma:. 2. Piperita:, the flowers of which are crowded flowers, but with the anthers free. 49. Composits, or the Exposition into a close spike, including3. CalamaricB, or grass- compound flowers. 50. Amentaces, with the fruit in a catof the Lin- like plants, not true grasses, as Carex, Typha, Sic. 4. kin. 51. Conifers, bearing a strobilus or cone. 52. Coansean natu- Gramina, or the true grasses. 5. Tripetaloidea, in which dunats, which have several berries or fruits united into ral orders. there were three petals (Linn.), as Juncus and Alisma. one, as Annona. 53. Scabrids, having rough leaves, and 6. Ensatce, where the leaves are ensiform, and the coiolla flowers of no attraction, as Urtica, Ficus, &c. 54. Miscella(Linn.) monopetalous. 7. Orchidea, with fleshy roots, and nes, or those not referable to the preceding. the flowers either furnished with a spur or ol a singular III.—Acotyledones. construction ; the filaments and style are united, and the ovarium inferior. 8. Scitaminea, with herbaceous stems, 55 Filices. 56. Musci. 57. Algs. 58. Fungi. very broad leaves, a triangular ovarium beneath a liliaIt will readily appear that many of these are very articeous corolla. 9. SpathacecB are those lilies which have the flowers issuing from a large spatha. 10. Coronaria, or ficial, and some of the conjunctions quite improper; but, lilies without a spatha, but with a corolla of six petals. LI. upon the whole, they exhibit a great resemblance in their external appearance", which Linnaeus himself could not deSarmentacea, with weak stems and liliaceous flowers. fine in words. II.—Dicotyledones. We shall now advert to the French school of Botany ; 1 rench “ here the learned and truly estimable Bernard de Jus12. Holeracece, “ plants tender or brittle in the mouth, and sieu, the contemporary of Linnaeus in the earlier part °f Jussieu and easy of digestion” the flowers of no beauty. 13. Suc- his career, claims our notice. This great practical culents, with very thick fleshy leaves. 14. Gruinales, botanist, toofirst diffident of his own knowledge, extensive as having a pentapetalous corolla, several pistils, and a long pointed capsule, as Geranium. 15. Inundats, which grow it was, to be over-anxious to stand forth as a teacher, did any scheme of natural arrangement till the in or under water, with flowers of no beauty. 16. Calyci- not promulgate 1759, when the royal botanic garden at Trianon was flors: here there is only a calyx, on which the stamina year are inserted ; but the genera put into this were afterwards submitted to his direction. His system was published by referred elsewhere by Linnaeus. 17. Galycanthems, where his nephew in 1789, at the head of his own work, of which the calyx is seated on the germen or ovarium, and the it makes the basis. It appears in the form of a simple flowers are beautiful. 18. Bicornes, having the anthers list of genera, under the name of each order, without any provided with two long straight points or horns, as Erica, definition, just like the Fragmenta of Linnscus, at the end and several others having no real affinity. 19. Hesperides, of his Genera Plantarum. “ In 1763 a very active and zealous systematic, M. Adan- Adanson. with evergreen leaves, fragrant flowers, and numerous son, made himself known to the world, by the publication stamens. 20. Rotacece, having a rotate corolla. 21. Precis, with handsome early spring flowers, as the primrose. 22. of his Families des Plantes. In this learned and ingeniCaryophylles, or those with a caryophyllaceous corolla. ous, though whimsical and pedantic work, the great task 24. Trihilats, having a style with three stigmas, and of defining natural orders by technical characters is first winged or inflated capsules, as Melia, J^Ialpiyliia, and attempted. His affected orthography and arbitraly noAcw: 25. Corydales, flowers with a spur, or of a singular menclature render it scarcely possible, without disgust, to form, as in Epimedium and Pinguicula. 25. Putamines, trace his ideas; which, however, when developed, prove bearing fruit in a hard shell, as Capparis, and others not less original than they at first appear. His work is writallied to each other. 26. Multisiliqus, with a fruit of ten avowedly to supersede the labours of Linmeus, against many siliquse, as Trollius. 27. Rhceades, with a caducous whom, after courting his correspondence, he took some calyx, and a capsule or siliqua. 28. Lurids, corresponding personal displeasure ; and yet many of his lea.ding chato the Solanaceae of Jussieu. 29. Campanaces, with bell- racters are borrowed from the sexual system. Hie discrishaped flowers, but otherwise an unnatural assemblage. minative marks of his fifty-eight families are taken from 30. Contorts, with a twisted corolla, as Nerium and Vinca. the following sources : leaves, sex of the flowers, situation 31. Vepreculs, having a monophyllous calyx, coloured like of the flowers with respect to the germen, form and situaa corolla. 32. Papilionaces, with papilionaceous flowers. tion of the corolla, stamens, germens, and seeds. Every 33. Lomentaces, with a legume or lomentum, but not a papi- family is divided into several sections, under each of which lionaceous flower. 34. Cucurbitaces, as Cucumis and Pas- the genera are, in like manner, synoptically arranged, and si for a. 35. Senticoss, comprehending many of the Rosa- discriminated by their leaves, inflorescence, calyx, corolla, cea;. 36. Pomaces, as Amygdalus and Pyrus. 37. Colum- stamens, pistil, fruit, and seeds. In the detail of his sysnifers, in which the stamens, as in Malva, unite and form tem, Adanson labours to overset the principle, so much a long tube. 38. Tricoccs, with a trilocular capsule, as insisted on by Linnaeus and his school, and to which the Euphorbia. 39. Siliquoss, corresponding to Tetradyna- great names of Conrad Gesner, and Caesalpinus, are chiefmia in the artificial system. 40. Personals, the same as ly indebted for their botanical fame, that the genera of Didynamia angiospermia. 41. Asperifolis, having “ four plants are to be characterized by the parts of fructificanaked seeds” (Linn.), a monopetalous corolla, five stamens, tion alone. The experienced botanist knows that this is one style, and rough leaves. 42. Verticillats, those with often but a dispute of words ; Linnaeus having, in arranglabiate or ringent flowers, including some of Diandria, and ing the unbelliferous plants, resorted to the inflorescence, all Didynamia gymnospermia. \S.Bumoss, shrubby plants, under the denomination of a receptacle ; see his 45th nawith a stem furnished with a soft pith : flowers small, the tural order. But it appears to us that the characters depetals of four or five segments, as Sambucus, Rhamnus, &c. duced from thence are in themselves faulty, being often 44. Sepiaris, shrubs, usually with a tubular corolla, and very uncertain, and not seldom unnatural; and that the plants few stamens, as Ligustrum. 45. Umbellats, bearing an um- in question may be better discriminated by their flowers bel of flowers, a pentapetalous corolla, five stamens, two and seeds. Adanson however prefers the inflorescence, styles, and “ two naked seeds.” 46. Hederaces, with a quin- even in the Verticillats of I. in me us; for no reason, that quefid corolla, five or ten stamens, a baccate fruit, and we can discover, but because Linnaeus has so much better flowers in a corymb; Iledera an0^ a- Privile Se(l aristocracy, are strong indications. • Physical Geography, &c.—Brazil extends, in its entirely destitute of even these meagre and inaccurate greatest length, from the sources of the Rio Branco, near sources of information. the fifth degree of north latitude, to. the sources of the The natural conformation points out two great divisions Surface of icm, near the thirty-first degree of south latitude. In of the territory of Brazil ; the valley of the Amazons to the the land, is utmost breadth it extends from Cape St Augustine, in north, and the hill country to the south. The physical the thirty-fifth degree of west longitude, computing from structure of each of these districts is necessarily depen-

3’hysical Geograph v. ^

Hirers.

dent upon the other, and their respective characters can north. The more westerly feeders seem to drain off the _ only be properly comprehended by mutual reference. It accumulated waters of high-lying morasses, similar to those Geogn, will better enable us, however, to comprehend both, if we which swell the stream of the Madeira. Of the Xingu and at first view them apart: and in attempting a sketch of Tapajoz above the cataracts almost nothing is known ; but i' each, we shall commence with that of which less is yet every circumstance connected with them seems to indiknown than of the other, but which is in all probability cate a terrain, similar to that which gives birth to the Madoomed one day to make a prominent figure in history; deira and the western tributaries of the Tocantins. We now turn to the north side of the great basin of the we mean the valley of the Amazons. The immense course of the river Amazons, from Taba- Amazons. The Rio Negro joins the main stieam at a tinga, where it enters the confines of Brazil, to the ocean, distance of 197 leagues from the ocean, and at an elevadeducting its windings, extends, when we pursue the tion of 522 feet above its level. The principal mouth of the course of the main channel, to 401£ leagues, of twenty to Yapura is at the distance of 326 leagues from the ocean, a degree, or, when we deflect to the estuary of Para, sepa- and the elevation of 571 feet. The course of these two rivers nearly parallel, both flowing from west-north-west to rated from the former by the island iNIarajo, or St John s, is The Yapura enters the Brazilian territory to 5061. The breadth of the stream at Tabatinga is given east-south-east. by Condamine as between 800 or 900 toises; at Obydos, immediately beneath the Falls of Cupati. The river flows 106 leagues from the sea, and where the tide ceases to from these falls to the Amazons, an extent of 100 leagues be perceived, Martius assigns to it the breadth of 869 fa- in a direct line, and its fall is estimated at 200 feet. The thoms. The greatest breadth of the river is about six Rio Negro extends from the frontier fort of S. Carlos, leagues. Tabatinga is elevated above the level of the near the junction of the Cassiquiari, which carries a porocean 634 Parisian feet. The direction of the river is al- tion of the waters of the Orinoco to the Amazons, to most parallel with the equator, from which its mean dis- Barra do Rio Negro, a distance of at least 200 leagues. tance may be between one and two degrees. Its princi- The elevation of the last-mentioned situation.above the pal confluents during this portion of its course are, from level of the sea is, as we have already mentioned, 522 the south, the Tocantins flowing into the estuary of Para, feet; while that of S. Carlos is 762. The alternate widenand narrowing of the river, as well as its very unequal the Xingu, the Topajoz, and the Madeira; from the north, ing depth and varying rapidity, lead naturally to the concluthe Rio Negro and the Yapura. The Tocantins joins the estuary of Para at the distance sion that it has been formed in the course of ages by the of thirty-three leagues from the ocean, and at an elevation progressive widening of their connecting streams, giving a system of inland lakes the appearance of one conof 189 Parisian feet above its level. The Xingu falls into to the Amazons 45 leagues from its northern or main junc- tinuous river. The Rio Negro joins the Amazons at an tion with the ocean, and 347 feet above its level, at which angle so obtuse as to admit of our viewing them in a geplace it is about a league in breadth. Ihe Tapajoz joins neral way as one continuous line, 397 leagues in length, the Amazons ninety-two leagues above the main entrance cutting the equator obliquely towards its western extreinto the ocean, at an elevation oi 404 feet above the mity. “Parallel to this, at a mean distance of four degrees longitude, extend the various serras composing the level of the sea. No observation is recorded of the ex- of land of Upper Guiana. The flat land which act elevation of the point where the Madeira mingles its mountain waters with those of the Amazons, but Spix estimates everywhere forms the banks of the lower Amazons and it at 509 feet. Its distance from the ocean in a direct its confluents extends to the base of these hills, which line is nearly 180 leagues. Its breadth varies, according rise at once with considerable abruptness. This territory to the season, from 930 to 1000 fathoms; its depth in the is intersected by a number of streams of minor consemiddle of the stream from twenty-three to twenty-seven quence, falling partly into the Rio Negro and partly into the Amazons. The most important of these, the Rio fathoms, and at the shore from five to ten. The courses of these four rivers are nearly parallel, Brancas, flows from north to south, and joins the former. In describing the superficies of the valley of the Amaflowing in the direction of south-south-east. During the zons, we have found it most expedient to stretch out the greater part of their course they have little perceptible, fall. A kind of natural terrace, however, extending in the direc- streams as the veins upon which the reader was to fancy tion of south-west and north-east, intersects the course of the superficies of the leaf extended. In turning to the and mountainous district of Brazil it will be neall at an oblique angle. This sinking of the land forms southern to call the mountain ranges to our assistance. in each a system of cataracts, dividing their course into cessary If the reader, then, will cast his eye upon a good map Mom an upper and lower valley; and the same phenomenon is of Brazil, he will find, in latitude 19° to 21° south, the visible in all the parallel minor streams which flow between them. On the Tocantins these cataracts occur a mountains of Itacolumi, 5710 English feet above the level little to the northward of the fourth degree of south lati- of the sea, and of Itambi, 6900. These, and their contude ; on the Xingu, to the southward of this line ; on the necting range, may be considered as the nucleus of the Tapajoz they occur rather to the southward of the fifth mountain formation of Brazil. Towards the north, an degree ; and on the Madeira also to the southward of the parallel to the coast, extends the Serra do Mar, under the eighth. The course of the Madeira from its source to the varying names of the Serra dos Esmeraldos, Serra o cataracts is 172 leagues, thence to the plain 325. Ihe bed Fries, &c. Towards the south-west a similar, or rather of its waters above the cataracts is estimated at 150 feet the same chain (the Mantiqueira), stretches, throwing higher than that below. 4 he character of the giound le- out spurs on either side, till it gradually subsides into the niains much the same, being low, and intersected by innu- high plain on the eastern side of the Paranna, near its merable canals and lakes; its principal eastern branch only, mouth. By means of the Serra dos Vertentes the Itacowhich inclines towards a serra, retains any characteristics lumi connects with the system known under the names ot of a clear mountain stream. The extent of the Tocantins, Montes Pyrenees, Serra do Sijada, and Serra do Anamfrom the lowest cataract to its embouchure, is about sixty buhy, extending in the direction of west-south-west to the leagues in a direct line. 4 he high land even approaches banks of the Paraguay, a little above where it receives somewhat nearer to the Amazons along the eastern bank the waters of the Paranna. That part of the latter chain of this tributary. The main branch of the Tocantins, that termed Montes Pyrenees extends towards the north t to the east, descends from the high mountain lands of the the sources of the Tocantins. An important arm o t is

BRAZIL. 199 aysical latter, the Itiapamba, but of which little is yet known, runs trable woods and luxuriant vegetation throw so many dif- Physical ! eogra- out to the north-east, and loses itself in the northern sea- ficulties in the wray of the geologist, that a long time must Geograi ?h?' , board provinces of Brazil. To the west extends the Serra yet elapse ere we can hope for satisfactory intelligence. phy. Geral. To the south and the west, in the provinces of S. As far as the observations of Spix and Martius extend, its Paulo and Matto Grosso, these mountains attain an eleva- geognostical relations are sufficiently simple. All along tion considerably above the level of a high and extensive in- the banks of the main stream, and of its tributaries, as land plain. To the north-east, in Minas Geraes and Goyaz, long as they continue in the plain, only two mountain they rise from an infinitely lower level above the sea. rocks are discovered,—the variegated and the green sandNevertheless, while those mountains which have for their stone. Sometimes the sandstone appears in the form of base the high inland plains of Piratininga and Matto a composite breccia, containing iron; sometimes of a fineGrosso seldom attain a higher elevation than 1900 Pari- grained crumbling red; sometimes of a hard white stone ; sian feet above the sea, the average height of the Montes but the former is the more prevalent. Beds of marl, clays Pyrenees is 3900. From the Serra dos Vertentes, in lati- of different colours, and porcelain clay, occur frequently. tude twenty degrees south, flow the streams which com- On the Tapajoz gypsum occurs in one place. To the south bine to form the Rio Francisco; at first in the direction of this sandstone formation is bounded by the granitic ridges north, afterwards curving towards the east, till it reach of the Itiapamba, Montes Pyrenees, and Serra Geral. On the ocean in latitude eleven degrees south. On the south- the northern ridge of the first-mentioned chain a transition ern declivity of the same Serra arise the highest sources limestone is interposed between the granite and the sandof the Paranna. They flow at first in the direction of due stone. To the north the sandstone is bounded by the west, receiving numerous tributaries to the north from gneiss and granite of the Parime range; to the westward, the Montes Pyrenees, &c., to the south from the Serra on the rivers Negro and Yapura, a quartz rock of slaty do Mantiqueira. Having reached the base r of the Serra structure is the basis on which it rests. The western and do Sijada, in longitude fifty-three degrees w est, and lati- south-western limits of the sandstone of the Amazons are tude twenty degrees south, the Paranna assumes a south- imperfectly known. easterly direction, and, still receiving numerous tributaries The metallic and mineral products which occur in the from the two mountain ridges which bound its valley, geological formations above described are various. Iron joins the Paraguay in latitude twenty-seven south, and is found in vast quantities in the high plains of S. Paulo longitude fifty-eight west. From the south-eastern declivi- and in Minas Geraes. Entire hills are composed of brown ty of the Mantiqueira descends the Uruguay to the estuary ironstone and magnetic ironstone. In the latter province of La Plata. From the eastern side of the same ridge, and a secondary ironstone fills whole valleys, and spreads like its northern continuation the Serra do Mar, a number of a mantle over many of the hills. In Goyaz and Matto minor streams flow into the ocean. To the northward of Grosso whole districts are covered with formations rich the Serra dos Vertentes, the western streams of the Serra in iron ore. Gold is next, in the extent of country do Mar and the eastern of the Serra do Sijada flow into through which it occurs, to iron. It is found in grains the Rio Francisco. From the southern declivity of the intermingled with the latter metal almost wherever it Serra Geral, and from the western side of the Serra do is worked. The chief scene of the exertions of goldAnambaty, flow the confluents of the Paraguay. Prom miners has hitherto been in the district of Minas Geraes, the northern side of the Serra Geral, and from the central among the central mountains, and at the sources of the and eastern branches of the Montes Pyrenees, descend Paraguay. It is certain, however, that the gold country the four great tributaries of the Amazons, which join extends to S. Paulo on the south, and to the mountains that inland ocean from the south, and the streams that among which the Tocantins arises on the north. The soil intersect the coast of Brazil between Para and the mouth where the gold is found is ferruginous and deep in many of the Rio Francisco. places, resting on rocks of gneiss and granite. The gold Gjlogy The great constituent of all the mountain ranges of mine. Brazil is granite; the maritime ridge seems exclusively rests on a stratum of cascalho or gravel, incumbent on the !7- composed of it. The soil on the shore consists of clay, solid rock. It occurs sometimes in grains, sometimes in crystals, and occasionally in large masses. Lead and zinc covered in many places with a rich mould, resting on a have been found on the banks of the Rio Abaite, a tribubed of granite, mixed with amphibole, felspar, quartz, and tary of the Rio Francisco; chrome and manganese in Parcnea. In the high inland plains of Piratininga we find raopeba; platina in other rivers; quicksilver, arsenic, on the surface a red vegetable earth impregnated with bismuth, and antimony, in the neighbourhood of Villa oxide of iron; beneath this a layer of fine argil, intersect- Rica; and copper in Minas Novas. The diamond occurs ed with veins of sand; and, thirdly, an alluvial stratum in greatest abundance in a district of the Serra do Frio, containing a great quantity of iron, resting on mouldering sixteen leagues from north to south, and eight from granite, quartz, and mica. A mass of solid granite sup- east to west, known by the designation of the diamond ports the whole. Between Rio Janeiro and Villa Rica district. The little that is known of the territory of tie soil consists of a strong clay, and the rocks are com- Matto Grosso, and the sources of the Tocantins, induces posed of granite. The mountains in Minas Geraes are a strong belief that this gem is likewise to be found there. composed of ferruginous quartz, granite, or argillaceous It is found in a stratum, of variable thickness, of rounded sc istus. Beds of limestone have been found near Soro- quartz-ore pebbles, cemented by an earthy matter. They ea a, near Sahara in Minas Geraes, and in the gold are found along the banks of rivers, and in cavities and 4 inines near S. Rita. The immense central plateau of Mat- water-courses on the loftiest mountains. They occur in o Grosso has never been sufficiently explored; but from immense beds. Haiiy disregards the distinctions supposie nature of its mineral products there is every reason ed to exist, in the hardness and form of the crystal, beTh e tiapamba, thegranitic formation prevails therecoast, also. tween the diamonds of Brazil and those of the East Indies. great chain on the northern Lapidaries and jewellers continue to believe that the oriranG'la8 S c ue^y granite. The northern coast from Ma- ental diamonds have a finer water. Topazes occur in nia . ° .*° bounded bjr a reef of coral, in many nearly the same localities as the diamond. They are *1. e inhabitants ^^rriblingin an artificial mole. It is The employed building their houses. valley by of found among a conglomerate of friable earthy talc, quartz, and crystals of specular iron ore; and they are of many mazons has been so little explored, and its impene- colours, yellow, white, blue, aqua-marine, &c. The chryso-

BRAZIL. 200 Physical beryl ruby, amethyst, and green tourmaline, have been found it vary during the day as foilowsmorning 23° 35', Geogra- found in the Serranos Esmeraldos. Martius states that mid-day 24° to 2o , evening ~3 3P fiivipr They are scattered about in a fine greasy earth which covers the limestone to the depth of eiSnches.’ Bones, supposed to have formed part of a mammoth have been found in Minas Geraes; and similar

S. Paulo, situated in lat. 23. 33. S., is 1200 feet above the level of the ocean; and having a westerly decimation of he surface of the ground, is consequently shielded from the sea breezes. The average temperature is — to .3 of the centigrade thermometer. The rainy season commences in November, and lasts till April. I he greatest quantity of rain falls in January. Hoar frost is sometimes seenin the cold months. The prevalent winds are affected by the place of the sun : when he is in the northern s.gns, south-south-west and south-east winds prevail; when he is in the southern they are more \ariable. Mila Rica is situated in lat. 20. 27. S. about 3 /60 English feet above the level of the sea It is overshadowed by he huge mountain Itacolumi, the smimut of which 0/10

Ihe vame sCLs of hilU where subterranean noises are at sense, but the thunder-storms are frequent and vio ent times teard may be supposed to indicate something of ^““dhectSfhap^ns Meteoro logy.

A Country so extensive as Brazil, and so diversified in The cold weather in the months of June and July has fe;

sr - ^ SAS’sfSS “I ItrSi

February. In September the hygrometer stands on an average at d9“, in October at 76”, in November at 80". Owing to the proximity of the mountains, and the cooler atmosphere at^ their submits, the mists generally settle around their brows with considerable density towards evening. At Cachoeira, in the neighbourhood of Bahia, about the thirteenth degree of south latitude, and only six Parisian feet above the level of the sea, the thermometer of Reaumur gave, in February 1819, between six and seven in tbe^iiorning, 17° to 19°, mid-day 25°, sunset 21° 23'. In Bahia itself the temperature at sunset is said to vary in the rainy season (September to March) from 17° to 18° Reaumu/ in the dry^months from 16° to 17°. The cloudless mid-dav sun causes an extraordinary heat in the town; the sea breezes render the mornings and evenings cool; but the nights are warmer. At Oeyras, the capital of Piauhy, in about seven degrees of south latitude, and 779 feet above the level of the sea, the thermometer of Reaumur varies in Ihe wal monthsmid-day from 29° to 30°. Martius

most J^'eJ forth si oots aai the neighbourho^ of Rio Janeiro ^nd to ^ of branches immediatel), and this whether the p the btl inverted. On the banks of the Amazons the lorues ^ destroy each other by their proximity, and a e ce gether by rich eand multiform lianas. In t J ^ of Maranhao, * in t®' mg from the shores of pools, weave themse into a kind of vegetable bridge nlong which die pa^ senger treads, unaware that he has left t h until the jaws of a cayman Protr,ude.thro^hR a before him. The vegetable productions ot I strong analogy with those ot Guiana. 1he £ aroidet, are the compositce, leg unieuphorbia, ^ 0f the and ferns of the most varied forms, i he veS ‘ • doeS valleys differs from that of the campos, A o hy ^ from that which occurs in the sertaos. S pe. the mangles are the most numerous and prominent P

BRAZIL. 201 and the simia apella and the simia cedipus (the smallest Statistics, hys! cies. The most marked peculiarity of this class of plants eog: is, that the seeds begin to shoot before they drop from known species of ape) are indigenous to the country. The phy the parent plant, and that the drooping branches strike simia jacchus has never been seen elsewhere. There are roots into the soil. They are never found inland except several varieties of bats, of which the vespertilia sorcinus where the surface is scarcely elevated above the level of and the vampire bat are the most dangerous. Two spethe sea. They flourish from Rio Grande do Sul to Maran- cies of sloth, the JBradypus tridactylus and didactylus, are hao, converting the land into a morass wherever they are not uncommon. The Brazilian birds are celebrated for allowed to flourish unmolested. Immediately behind them the beauty of their plumage. “ Red, blue, and green parnumerous families of palms raise their graceful heads. rots,” says Malte-Brun, “ frequent the tops of trees. The The underwood in the neighbourhood of Rio Janeiro con- galinaceous jacus, the hoccos, and different kinds of pigeons, sists principally of crotons. Every large river of Brazil haunt the wmods. The oriols resort to the orange groves; has its own appropriate form of vegetable life, giving a pe- and their sentinels, stationed at a distance, announce with culiar character to its banks. The vegetation of the Ama- a screaming noise the approach of man. Chattering mazons may be divided into three classes: 1. that which we nakins mislead the hunter; and the metallic tones of the find on the islands; 2. the vegetation upon the banks over- uraponga resound through the forest like the strokes of a flowed at regular intervals by the stream; 3. that which hammer on an anvil. The toucan (Anser Americanas) is stands high and dry. The difference between them con- prized for its feathers, which are of a lemon and bright sists in the character of the bark and the species of the red colour, with transversal stripes reaching to the extreplants. Brushwood and herbage are nowhere to be seen : mities of the wings. The different species of humming every thing tends to the gigantic in size. The most various birds are more numerous in Brazil than in any other counforms group awkwardly together, crossed and intertwined try of America. One sort is called by the people the with leaves. The preponderance of trees with feathery Gnanthe engera or winged flower.” The gayest butterflies foliage, and with glossy, fleshy leaves, lends alternately a flutter through the air, the blue shining Menelaus, the Adotender and a luxuriant character to the scene, which is nis, the Nestor, and the Laertes. More than ten species in every other respect painful from its monotony. Re- of wild bees have been observed in the woods; and the presentatives of the most estranged natural families grow greater number produce honey. The cactus coccinellifer, side by side. It is only on the islands, where the willow and the insect peculiar to it, are found in the province of and some other plants are found in numbers, that we are S. Paulo. Ants are numerous and destructive, particularreminded of the monotony of our northern vegetation. ly in the southern provinces. Snakes, of which the sacuru Cocoa trees and the vanilla, capsicum frutescens and dif- is the most venomous, are frequent in moist places. Liferent kinds of pepper, the cinnamon tree and Brazilian zards and caymans abound. The quantity of turtle in the cassia, abound. The flora of all the tributaries of the Amazons and its principal tributaries is almost incredible. Amazons is similar to what we have described, until the The waters swarm with fish, of which the only one entitraveller ascends above the falls, and finds himself in an- tled to notice in a sketch like this is the paranha, the other region. The sources of the Madeira alone offer a tyrant of the fresh waters, which divides with the cayman partial exception, retaining a vegetation indicative of ex- the terror and hatred of the inhabitants. tensive plains, lakes, and morasses. The vegetation of the III. Statistics.—In the first division of this sketch we Statistics, southern campos (corresponding to the North American have pointed out how Brazil was gradually discovered and prairies) is widely different. On the plains of the southern peopled. In the second we have attempted to describe provinces we find scattered about strong tufts of greyish- the character of the land, and its natural products. It only green and hairy grasses, springing from the red clay. Min- remains to show the present number, condition, and chagled with these are numerous herbaceous flowers, of the racter of its inhabitants, and how far they have availed most varied colours and elegant forms. At intervals small themselves of the natural wealth which has been placed groves of trees, seldom exceeding twenty feet in height, so at their disposal. In the prosecution of this object we shall distant that the individual form of each is easily recognised, endeavour to exhibit a view, 1. Of the amount and distriwith spreading fantastic branches and pale green leaves, bution of the population of Brazil, according to the latest break the monotony of the scene. Solitary myrtles, nume- authorities; 2. Of its social constitution, political, judicial, rous varieties of pleasing fruits, and now and then a cac- ecclesiastical, and military ; 3. Of the character of its cititus, add to the variety. A similar vegetation, but with a zens in regard to their capacities of taste and intellect, richer variety of plants, occurs in the diamond district. and to their moral power; 4. Of the state of national inOn the western declivity of the Serra do Mar, and along dustry and wealth in agriculture, manufactures, and trade the upper banks of the Rio San Francisco, extends a foreign and domestic. wooded country, but of a character entirely different from 1. The latest authentic accounts of the population ofPopulathat which is found in the valleys below. The name Ca- any province of Brazil which have been received onlytion. tingas is applied to the forests in both of the above- reach to the year 1823; and the notices of the population mentioned districts, although their characters are entirely at different periods are too scanty, and too indifferently dissimilar. The term merely expresses that they cast authenticated, to admit of our deducing from them a ratio their leaves during the dry season, and push them forth of increase by means of which we might estimate the prewhen the rains return. Malvce, euphorbiacece, mimosce, sent probable number of inhabitants. Besides, the circumand such like, are the prevailing types on the Rio Fran- stances of the different provinces vary too much to warcisco; cactuses, palms, and ferns, abound on the Serra rant an extension of the estimated ratio to those respectdo Mar. In this latter district the Ipecacuan flourishes best. ing which the data are defective or imperfect. For these It is, however, in the glowing steppes of Pernambuco that reasons we are under the necessity of stating, with more we find the cactus predominant. In the valley of the Pa- particularity than we should otherwise have done, the data raguay the most striking feature is presented by the water which we are really possessed of. plants, which in one river are sufficiently strong to impede From the province of S. Paulo we possess authenticat-S. Paulo, the navigation of a stream both deep and broad. ed lists of the population in the years 1808, 1813, 1814, The jaguar, the tapir, the pecari, the agouti, and many and 1815. For the last of these years we have the numother animals, are common to Brazil with the rest of the bers of white, black, and copper-coloured inhabitants; of Soutn American continent. The simice are numerous, males and females ; of the births, deaths, and marriages vol. v. 2c

202 Statistics.

,

™

BRAZIL. , U ^ in 1815 215,021. In 1815 this sum total was made up Statist:,

asaasOK&i.’S'rtsSs

This population of 215,021 souls was scattered over a territory nearly of a square form, extending from twenty to twenty-seven degrees of south latitude, andfiom o y six to fifty-five of west longitude. This extent gives an average of less than one inhabitant to each square mile. But 59,139 souls, or nearly one third of the whole, inhabit one city and three market-towns; a fact which affects the average density of the population. The number of births in 1815 was 10,106, of marriages 3120, and of deaths 4636. The deaths were to the whole population in a ratio of one to 46-38 ; the births were in a ratio of one to 21-28; and the deaths were to the births in a ratio of one to 2-18. According to this proportion the population ought to double itself in little more than twentyone years. But the real increase from 1808 to 1815 is, as nearly as may be, seven per cent.; and, according to this proportion, the population ought to double itself in less than sixteen years. Making allowance for the influx ot emigrants from Europe, and the increase of manufactures, this" latter ratio is probably nearer the truth. We have therefore for S. Paulo, at the close of 1831, a population of 430,042; but owing to the establishment of manufactures, and the influx of settlers, it is probably even more numerous. . . Minas The province of Minas Geraes is nearly 400 miles in Geraes. length from north to south, and 280 in medium breadth. It lies due north of S. Paulo, more inland, equally elevated, and with a more uneven surface. Its population in 1808 was as follows:—

Bahia.

^ r

souls, who were thus distributed over a surface of 84,000 square miles Comarca da Bahia ko non Comarea da Jacobina 56,000 Comarca dos Ilheos ^5,569 ; Capitania de Sergippe del Rey 98,836 592,908 The great superiority of numbers in the Comarca da Bahia is mainly owing to the number of negroes employed in the four hundred engenhos (sugar factories) within the reconcavo, or valley surrounding the great inland sea, upon which the city stands. By referring to the table criven above of the population of S. Paulo, the reader will see that there is a marked excess of male above female negro slaves ; a proportion which also obtains in other provinces of Brazil. This fact, and the hard labour to which the class in question is condemned, forbid us to assume an equally speedy increase of their numbers with that of the other inhabitants. It is only in Sergippe d el Rey that we have any data for guessing at the real increase. In 1808 it contained 72,236 In 1823 98,836

An increase in fifteen years of 26,600; or a little more than one third of the original population. Assuming the same ratio of increase to have held throughout the province since 1823, it would give us, for 1831, 790,544 souls. We possess a return for Pernambuco in the year 1823,Pemn of 234,000 inhabitants. Subjoined to this return are lists aof buco. the population of the northern sea-board provinces, (^ -‘ goas, Paraiba, Rio Grando do Norte, and Seal a- These districts are extremely similar in their physical characterMales. Females. Males. Females. istics. The total of their inhabitants in 1823 was 654,800; 100,084 54,157 52,527 Whites 7,880 145,393 while the number resident in Seara was 140,000. Ac7 857 Half Blacks. (14,400 05,250 23,280 24,051 80,849 40,180 180,972 cording to the parish registers, the same province, in 1813, Negroes contained 131,140; giving an increase of 8860, or some141,849 142,428 94,700 54,000 433,049 thing more than one fifteenth, during ten years. Other Total. locc tmct-wnrtbv accounts make the population double . , , r_ n . An estimate of the population of the same province in in twenty-five years. The two provinces of Para and Rio Negro include the Para a. 1820 makes it amount to 456,675 freemen and 165,210 whole basin of the Amazons. In 1820, a priest, resident at 10 slaves; in all, 621,885. This statement is not however sufficiently authenticated. It is worthy of remark, that Para, who had bestowed great pains on the subject, stated in 1808 Minas contained, with only the double of the po- the result of his investigations to Drs Spix and Martius as pulation of S. Paulo, three and a half times as many black 83,510 for both captaincies. Of these he attributed 68,190 slaves, and nine times as many free negroes. The dispro- to Para, and 15,320 to Rio Negro. A return, in like manportion betwixt the numbers of male and female slaves is ner including both provinces, was presented to the same yet more glaring than in the last-mentioned province. gentlemen in 1823, representing their united population a? The population of Minas is also less stationary. The Co- 173,125. It appears that the wild Indians are reckoned marca of Villa Rica, which was held to contain only 72,209 here, and that they had been omitted in the return of inhabitants in 1813, is said to have had 78,618 as early as 1820. In 1814 the population of Rio Negro was stated, m 1776. It may be remarked, however, that of late years a very distinct and articulate report, to amount to 15,230 agricultural and manufacturing industry have borne more souls, being only 85 short of the sum attributed to it m healthy proportions to gold finding. Could we trust in the 1820. This is in some degree accounted for by the fact accuracy of the return of 1820, the population of Minas that Martius, in the latter year, found the population m must have doubled since 1808, and must now amount to more than one district much decreased below what it had been six years before. Of the total population of Rio Negro about 860,000 souls. The population of Bahia amounted in 1823 to 592,908 11,435 were Indians. Upon such data no calculations of

BRAZIL. 203 tained 15,235 inhabitants, of whom 11,435 were Indians, Statistics. S .sties, the probable increase are admissible. The following taV ble enumerates the latest returns of every province from 3,071 free whites and negroes, and 729 slaves without diswhich any have been made, stating at the same time the tinction of colour. The law of Brazil admits the distinction between freeman and slave ; but once free, every indiauthority upon which they are here given. vidual without regard to colour, is equal in the eye of the law. Date of Province. Authority. Population. 2. As nothing has a greater share in impressing upon a Political Return. nation its peculiar character than the form of its govern- constitument, it will be necessary to make ourselves masters offmm Rio Grande do Sul, the social institutions of Brazil, before we can attempt to (Environs of Rio Grande) 1806 Mawe 100,000 judge of its citizens either in their moral or economical 1801 Henderson. Uruguay 14,010 relations. Brazil is a constitutional monarchy, without a privileged aristocracy. In such a state the monarch can 1815 Martius S. Paulo 215,021 only act in consonance with the laws. It will therefore 1813 S. Catharina 33,049 be advisable, in the first place, to give some idea of the Rio Janeiro (town 1817 alone) 110,000 representative legislature, which is thus endowed with the power of regulating his actions. Espirito Santo The legislative power is vested in the general assembly, Porto Seguro consisting of two chambers, that of deputies and that of Bahia ) 1823 Official returns 592,908 senators. The deputies and senators are nominated by inSergippe d’el Rey/ direct election ; the body of qualified citizens choosing the Minas 1820 De Barbacena 621,885 Goyaz 1821 Official returns 37,250 electors in parochial assemblies, and the latter nominating the provincial representatives. The existing provinces, Matto Grosso enumerated above under the head of population, may be Pernambuco 1822 De Barbacena 234,000 subdivided, and each portion erected into a province whenAlagoas 91,800 ever the increased number of inhabitants justifies such a Paraiba 120,000 step. The qualification for an elector is an annual income Rio Grande do Norte 64,000 of 200 milrees ; that of a deputy an income of 400. Minors, Seara 140,000 military officers, priests, monks, servants, and paupers, are Piauhy 1819 Official returns 71,370 incapable of voting; naturalized foreigners, and persons Maranhao 1821 Adr. Balbi 182,000 not professing the religion of the state, are incapable of Gram Para 1820 Martius 68,190 Rio Negro 15,320 being elected. The deputies are elected for four years, in each of which there must be a session of four months, opening on the 3d of May. The senators are elected for The total of these sums amounts to 2,809,803. It must, life. Every province has a number of senators, equal to however, be taken into account that some of the returns half its number of deputies; but they are nominated in are of an old date ; that for three provinces there are none triple lists, from which the emperor selects one third at at all; and that in the cases of Rio Janeiro and Rio Grande his pleasure. A senator must be forty years of age, and do Sul only the inhabitants of the capital and suburbs are possess a clear annual income of 800 milrees. The salary enumerated. We are therefore entitled to assume that of a senator is one half more than that of a deputy. Each in 1820, the medium year, the population of Brazil would house nominates its own officers. When the two houses sit probably have been underrated if estimated at 3,000,000. in general assembly, the president of the senate presides, The time in which the population of Brazil doubles itself and the senators and deputies sit promiscuously. They appears to vary in different provinces from fifteen to thirty assemble in this way to take the oath of the emperor; to years. The circumstances of the last ten years are such elect a regent; to nominate a tutor to the emperor when as to entitle us to believe that the inhabitants of that em- minor; on the death of an emperor, to institute an inquiry pire are now little short of 5,000,000. into the administration which has just concluded, and to This population is composed of the descendants of the reform abuses ; and to select a new dynasty, in case the old aborigines, of negroes, and of persons of European descent. has become extinct. They sit apart, and proceed by way of Here, as everywhere else, the copper-coloured race gives bill, when they make laws, interpret, or suspend them; they way before the other two. It is calculated that, on an avethe public charges, and assess the direct conrage, 50,000 negroes are annually imported into Brazil. determine tributions ; fix the ordinary and extraordinary forces by Ihe great disproportion, however, between the numbers of sea and land, on the report of the government; authorize njales and females, noticed above, and the natural tendency the contraction of loans by government; regulate the adof human beings to multiply slowly in a state of slavery, ministration of national domains, and decree their alienaseemto prevent any thing like a corresponding increase of tion ; create and suppress public employments; control numbers. By means of the numerous immigrations from weights and measures, and the standard of exchange. The * I Europe, the white race has hitherto been able to keep its chamber of deputies has the initiative in taxes, in recruitground. Of all the crosses between the different races, the ing, and in the choice of a new dynasty. The senate has the mulatto seems to take most kindly with the soil and cli- exclusive privilege of taking cognizance of offences commate of Brazil. In S. Paulo in 1815 the total of white mitted by members of the royal family, counsellors of persons was 115,103; of negroes, 44,591; of Indians, state, senators, and deputies, during the time of session; enforcing the responsibility of secretaries and counselt ndian a1 ' was a rarity ; of°f110,000 Rio Janeiro in 1817 a native inhabitants it was esti- ot lors state; of convoking the assembly, in case the emmated that two thirds were negroes. In Minas in 1808 peroroffail to do so within two months after the period fixed nui . nber of Europeans was 106,684; of persons of law ; and also of calling it together on the death of mixed blood, 145,393 ; of negroes, 180,972. The united by the emperor. The assembly, in addition to its legislative ram ?R9o o 83,o^10^souls. Para Negro amounted in powers, is likewise entitled to act as the emperor’s great Of uud these,Rio 50,000 were, according council of state. 0 a ruae estimate, Indians. In 1814 Rio Negro alone conIn accordance with the counsels given and the laws

brazil. 204 expenditure by the sum of 900,000. The local revenues Statist ^ Statistics. enacted by this body, the emperor exercises the supreme were also equally deficient. The annual deficit of Minas ^ executive functions of the state. This he does throug Geraes amounted to 60,000 milrees; that of Goyaz to the instrumentality of his ministers, who are responsib e nearly 20,000 ; that of Matto Grosso to 10,544; that of for treason, corruption, abuse of power, acts contrary o S Catharina to 34,870; and so of the rest. The charges the liberty, security, or property of subjects, and waste ot thrown upon the treasury by these deficiencies amounted public property. From this responsibility they canno to 280,000 milrees yearly. Recourse has been had to escape upon the plea of orders from the emperor. I he forced’loans and contributions, to donations, sequestraexecutive functions are, the convocation of the gene- tions, and, finally, to a foreign loan; but the difficulties ral assembly; the nomination of bishops, governors ot still remain unsubdued. towns and provinces, commanders by sea and land, anu There are in Brazil justices of the peace, elected atjU(jic;. ambassadors; the formation of alliances and the initiative the same time and in the same manner as the deputies.system of foreign negociations; the declaration of peace and war ; Without previously attempting a reconcihation with his the granting letters of naturalization, &c. ihe mini- adversary before one of these, no person is entitled to sters are, secretaries of state, of transmarine affairs and bring a cause into court. Trial by jury is the constitutional marine, and of foreign affairs ; a head of the treasury, form in all courts of the first instance, both in civil and m with a grand and second treasurer, a director ot the criminal cases. There are courts of appeal in the princibank, and a fiscal; a head of the board of trade ; a presi- pal cities. In Rio there is in addition a supreme tribunal dent of the consistorial board; a commander in chier, of justice, in which judges, selected from the other courts, and a head of police, with his lieutenant. To these is preside according to their seniority. The duties of this adjoined a council of state, composed of ten members no- tribunal are to permit or refuse the revision of causes prominated by the emperor, and having the imperial prince, posed to be submitted to the courts of appeal; to inquire if of age, for president. With these counsellors and as- into abuses committed by its own officers or those of other sistants the sovereign manages the national affairs. Mat- courts, of persons connected with the diplomatic body, ters of local economy and municipal police are regulated and of the presidents of the provinces; and to investigate in the provinces by presidents nominated by the sove- and decide on disputes respecting the jurisdiction of the reign, and removable at pleasure, checked by elective cham- provincial courts. In the courts of the first instance, which bers of districts; in the cities and towns, by councils ot are twenty-four in number, one in each comaica of the management elected by the inhabitants. empire, a judge entitled Ouvidov presides. Appeals lie The financial arrangements of Brazil fall under two from Financial these to the courts of the second instance, at Para, system. heads, the general and national, administered by the head Maranhao, Pernambuco, Goyaz, and Bahia, whose deciof the treasury and his subordinates, under the control sions are reviewable by the Relagao of Bahia; Rio Jaof the chambers ; and the local, exercised by the provincial neiro, Minas Geraes, Matto Grosso, and S. Paulo, are icauthorities, under the corresponding check of “ the counviewable by that of Rio. All judges are responsible for cils general of the provinces” and the municipal councils. abuses of power, and for corruption, but can only be disThe general assembly controls the management of those revenues which, formerly appertaining to the crown, are placed in consequence of a sentence. In an imperfectly now termed national; it determines the annual expendi- settled country, and where some traces of the feudal chature, and assesses those taxes which are necessary in addi- racter of its first organization may yet be found in the tion to the income from the domains and regalia. The cus- language of the laws and the intermingling boundaries of toms payable on goods passing from one province to another districts, disputes regarding jurisdiction are of too frequent have been remitted. All exports of Brazilian produce pay a occurrence. The body of the law has been transplanted duty of two per cent. Imports from Portugal and England from Portugal, occasionally modified by new relations or pay a duty of fifteen per cent. Foreign wines pay thrice later enactments, but, in the main, a scarcely coalescing the duty laid upon those of home growth; and foreign mixture of the Roman and canon law, with enactments ■ brandies twice and a half. All other merchandise pays a the native growth of the mother country. The Catholic Apostolic Roman religion is the religion ofTbert duty of twenty-four per cent. Slaves pay an additional are tolerated, and p' -o'- All other religions c? . . and allowed instru 9 duty, the half of which is deposited in the bank to form a the empire. ex fund to aid in settling colonies of Europeans. The direct a domestic celebration of their rites, but without any # ^on taxes are, dizimo, a tenth levied upon all products of agri- ternal form of temple. The church of Rome being in its culture, pasturage, and the fisheries ; subsidio national, an leading characteristics the same throughout the woikl, a import upon fresh meat, hides, brandies, and cotton cloth particular description may be here dispensed with. There prepared within the land ; a capitation tax for the bank of is one archbishopric in Brazil, that of Bahia. Its suffraBrazil from every merchant and tradesman; a tax upon gans are the bishoprics of Rio Janeiro and Pernambuco. official incomes, &c. These are collected into the trea- Maranhao, on account of the difficult navigation between sury, partly by the agency of salaried officials, but more that town and Bahia, had its bishopric subjected to the frequently by means of the Bank. This institution farms archiepiscopal jurisdiction of Lisbon. It is now independmost of the regalia; and, in the matter of customs and im- ent. The diocese of Para was so from the first. Ihe disposts, it is in the habit of making advances upon the pledge trict originally subjected to the bishop of Rio Janeiio of the yet unliquidated duties. The financial arrange- has subsequently been subdivided, in order to erect the ments of the provinces are those of the state in miniature. additional dioceses of S. Paulo and Mariana, and the preThe repeal of all duties payed upon the transit of mer- lacies of Goyaz and Matto Grosso. The whole of Brazil chandise from one province to another; the immense sums is subdivided into parishes, to each of which one or moie surreptitiously carried off by the greedy court of Joam VI. officiating priests are attached. Government has expendwhen he fled from Rio; and, above all, the commotions of ed little money on the clergy, but this omission has been the last ten years, co-operating with the inefficiency of the abundantly supplied by legacies and donations from inlate head of the government, threw the finances of Brazil dividuals. There are several cloisters ot Franciscans and into a state of derangement from which they have not yet Dominicans, and an immense number of Hermits. Among the ministers of the empire, we have mention-Liter recovered. In September 1823 the state debt amounted to 30,500,000 cruzadoes. The estimated ordinary reve- ed a head of the literary department. One of the most^^ nue for the half year, 1,767,000 milrees, was less than the important taxes imposed by government is the subsidio

BRAZIL. 205 3. It is obvious, from the insufficient establishments Statistics, literario, an impost for the maintenance of teachers, upon every ox killed in the shambles ; upon rum, and in some for general education, that the intellectual developmentcliaracter provinces upon the salted provisions brought from the in- of individuals must be achieved in a great measure by0 he Bra f.f ' terior. In every villa (market-town) there is a “ Latin unaided exertion. In the more thinly inhabited dis-Zllians " school,” an institution for teaching the elements of lan- tricts devotion to such pursuits must not be expected guage and an acquaintance with the classics. In S. Paulo, in men exclusively occupied in procuring subsistence and Bahia, and Maranhao, we find gymnasia, with somewhat securing self-defence. Even where the population is higher pretensions. In every episcopal seat there is a more dense, a lazy feeling of animal comfort represses theological seminary, in which candidates for orders are the exertions of the majority. It is among the more asobliged to pass a certain number of years in the study of piring class, who aim at the learned professions or state philosophy and divinity. In 1827 two schools of law were employment, and who are consequently obliged to culinstituted, one at S. Paulo and one at Pernambuco. The tivate their minds, that we must look for that attachcourse lasts five years. The first two are devoted to pre- ment to intellectual pursuits which is rarely acquired lections on the law of nature and of nations, and an ana- except from habit. In the theological seminaries estalysis of the constitution ; during the third and fourth, the blished at the seat of each bishop, little more is inculcatlaws of Brazil, maritime and mercantile law, are the sub- ed than a knowledge of the classics, an outworn scholasject of study; during the fifth, political economy and fi- tic system of logic, and a knowledge of the routine duties nance. For such as wish it, there is a course of canon law of a priest. This is a system of tuition only calculated to during the second year. Rio de Janeiro possesses a lyceum deaden the mental faculties. The school of medicine in and an aula de cirurgia. In the former of these are taught Rio Janeiro, from the attention bestowed upon practical Latin, Greek, French and English, rhetoric, geography, surgery and anatomy, has done more to awaken the mind ; mathematics, philosophy, and theology. In the latter, the but this is only one bright spot in a realm of darkness. The students are bound to attend, during the first year, ana- number of situations under government requiring a certain tomy, chemistry, and pharmacy; during the second, the knowledge of practical mathematics and natural history, same, with the addition of physiology; during the third, pa- rendered necessary by the system of working the mines so thology, therapeutics, and the practice of medicine ; during long pursued, has been more efficient in diffusing throughthe fourth, surgery and midwifery; during the fifth, clinical out the empire a knowledge of and a taste for these kinsurgery. The students have admission to the military dred pursuits. The number of foreign engineers and nahospital, and such as choose may attend the lectures on turalists encouraged to settle in Brazil has rendered the botany and natural history, the botanical garden, and natives in some measure acquainted with all that has been the museum. There is also in the capital a military and of late achieved in Europe in the mathematical and exa commercial academy. In addition to the public insti- perimental sciences. Late events have forced upon the tutions for the promotion of education here enumerated, inhabitants a number of political questions, which, coming schools of mutual instruction have of late years been home to every man’s business and bosom, have excited founded in most towns and cities by private individuals. the whole community. As yet, however, the intellect of 6. The constitution of Brazil recognises the necessity of a Brazil seems to be rather in the process of awakening to permanent naval and military force, but wdthout determin- a consciousness of its existence, than capable of effecting its amount. It can only be assembled by legitimate ing any thing. Printing presses are everywhere sought command, and is under the executive power. Officers after. In 1823, Rio alone had thirteen political journals, of the army and navy cannot be deprived of their com- the other towns and provinces in proportion. Several atmissions but by the sentence of a competent tribunal. In tempts had been made to establish periodical publications 1826 the regular army was estimated by General Miller devoted to geographical and natural science. Newr libraat from 15,000 and 16,000 men. Of these, 3500, con- ries were founded, and the old ones extended and better sisting partly of foreigners, were stationed in the capital; arranged. But nothing new has yet been produced in and the rest were dispersed throughout the provinces. Brazil beyond the contribution of additional facts in miThus, in S. Paulo there might be a regiment of dragoons and neralogy, botany, and astronomy. The power of systemaone of infantry, in detachments on the coast, at the capital tic and independent thinking has not 3ret shown itself. of the province, and at the custom-houses on the frontier. In the matter of taste, the Brazilians have only added In Bahia the troops of the line generally amounted to up- one poet to the literature of the Portuguese language. wards of 3000 men, infantry, artillery, and cavalry. In Gonzaga was at one time ouvidor in the Comarca of S. 1823 the Brazilian navy consisted of one line of battle ship Joao d’el Rey in Minas Geraes; but having taken part, in carrying seventy-eight guns ; three frigates carrying forty- an attempt to revolutionize the province about the comfour, thirty-eight, and thirty-two ; two corvettes carrying mencement of the French Revolution, he was banished to thirty-two and twenty-two; two schooners carrying twen- Angola, where he afterwards died. His poems are all lyrical. ty and sixteen ; a fire-ship and a gun-boat. Besides the A collection of them has been published under the title regular troops, every Brazilian capable of bearing arms is “ Marilia de Dirceaand many more are preserved by enrolled either in the milicias or the ordenanzas. The popular tradition. They are characterized by delicacy former are commanded by chiefs of their own appointment of fancy and diction, and tenderness of feeling. Every(coronets), having under them a major from the regular where in Brazil a strong native taste for music evinces itarmy, appointed by government; they are subject to mili- self. The native tribes, in contradistinction to the netary law, and liable to serve, in case of need, beyond the groes, who evince feeling only for melody, are deeply senlimits of the province ; they receive no pay. The orde- sible of the charms of harmony. Among all classes, hownanzas are commanded by capitdes m6res ; they are only ever, the guitar and song form the principal evening’s liable to serve in case of invasion ; and they discharge in a amusement. Spix and Martius found this to hold good great measure the duties of a local police. General Miller among the courtiers of Rio de Janeiro, among the sturdy speaks slightingly of the regular troops of Brazil; and here Paulistas, on the Sertaos of Minas, and in the mercantile we believe him to be in the right. Its milicias and orde- Bahia. The simplicity of the national instrument is unfananzas he regards with the supercilious contempt natural vourable to the culture of a high order of music. In Rio, to a military man; and here we believe him to be in the however, much was done under the patronage of Dom Pedro wrong. for the cultivation of the science, and not without effect.

brazil. 206 lasses, 7H8 pipas; sugar, 712 quintals; ox-hides, 35,900. Statisti Statistics. An academy of the fine arts has likewise been established The wheat, it will be observed, bears but a very small pro- ^yy in that capital for many years; but its ill success seems portion to those products which are most successfully culto betray a want of feeling for the beauties of paint- tivated within the tropics. What is commonly called in ing and sculpture. The drama, which calls into requisi- England colonial produce, begins here to be the staple, tion all these arts, is at a very low ebb 1 he actors a e and continues so along the whole coast of Brazil, until chiefly vagabond mestizoes; and the decorations of t we reach the equator. The province of S. Paulo is most stage^are on a par with the performers. In art and htera- densely inhabited, and consequently best cultivated along ture, as in science, those Brazilians who are enlightened the coast. This is the reason why, with the finest and enough to find pleasure in such pursuits, rely entirely most extensive pastoral country in Brazil, the value of its upon the productions of other countries, principally those cattle in 1814 did not amount to one fifth of the whole of France and England. The sensibility to imaginative agricultural produce of the province. Coffee either does pleasure exists, but the power of producing the objects not succeed, or is not a favourite object of cultivation ; for which excite it is wanting. the quantity produced by this province is less than that We have prefixed these brief sketches of the progress of which is grown in S. Catharina. Sugar has begun to the Brazilians in knowledge and art to that of their mora improve, and continues to do so as ive move northward. condition, because the state of the latter is mainly depend- The produce of the sugar plantations ot S. Paulo in 1814 ent upon them. Only where wealth and a complicated state was 122,993 arrobas of sugar, and 233 pipas of rum, inof society have developed the intellectual powers and re- dependently of an immense quantity of sugar syrup prefined the sentiments, can any thing approaching to ele- pared for home consumption. The quantity of mandiocca vated and consistent goodness be found. Within the limits raised in the same year was 111,460 alqueires; ot maize, of Brazil, and even without having recourse to her savage 723,989 ditto; of rice, 120,860; while of wheaten flour population, may be discovered specimens of every stage ot there was only 5050 arrobas. The colonial produce, in moral development. In the populous cities on the coast, addition to sugar, was, cotton, 54,222 arrobas; tobacco, and in the seats of local government in the interior, there 9596 ditto; coffee, 4867 ditto; castor-oil, 179 Canada. are men entitled to rank with the educated classes oi any The most important agricultural products in the province country in Europe. More enlightened minds, with greater of Rio Janeiro'are sugar, coffee, and cotton. The first power of self-denial and endurance, have been displayed mentioned is cultivated most extensively between the nowhere than in the course of the Brazilian revolutions. mountains, and in the warm and moist district. In the The mass of the people, however, is entirely destitute neighbourhood of the capital itself we find the greatest of education, unrefined, and the creature of impulse. quantity of sugar plantations. In 1817, 60,000 arrobas The continuance of the slave-trade tends yet more suresugar were exported from Rio, but whether it was all ly to harden their minds. The larger towns present the of produced within the province, does not appear. Ihe same spectacles of brutal excess in animal enjoyment coffee of Rio Janeiro is esteemed the best in Brazil. among a certain class that we find in Europe.^ Muiders This is owing to the instructions and example of Lesesne, are more frequent. The most elevated class ot the popu- an intelligent gentleman of St Domingo, who, driven from lation, in respect to the general diffusion of the sense of by the revolution in that island, commenced a planmoral obligation, is to be found in S. Paulo and in Minas home Geraes. The source of the superiority of the former tation in the neighbourhood of Rio, and, through the sudemand occasioned by the excellence of his benies, has been adverted to in our historical sketch. In the perior latter, it may fairly be attributed to the prevalence of stimulated his neighbours to follow his example. Hio that sect which still persists in expecting the return of produced 299,000 arrobas of sugar in 1817, and 4/0,846 king Sebastian. Whenever a sect adopts as one of its first in 1820; an immense increase in quantity, independently principles a high standard of self-control, we may be sure of the improvement in quality. We have no exact acthat the effect will be to ennoble the majority of its dis- counts of the quantity of cotton annually collected in this ciples. The scattered population towards the interior province. It is said to yield a less lasting cloth than the frontier presents not unfrequently specimens of the most cotton raised in the more elevated and drier districts o daring defiance of every dictate of religion,'reason, or hu- the country. Some attempts made to introduce the tea plant in the neighbourhood of Rio have failed, apparent y man feeling. . # The branch of national industry includes, agriculture, from want of perseverance. The trees look healthy and manufactures, and fisheries, or production ; commerce, fo- luxuriant; and a slight tinge of earthiness, which is perceptible in the flavour of the decoction of the leaf, is attrireign and domestic, or distribution. 4. In Rio Grande, the most southerly province of the em- buted by naturalists solely to the want ot a sufficiently Agricul ture. pire, the soil is principally in pasture, and the chief occu- long acclimatization. A quantity of tobacco is raise in pation of the inhabitants the feeding of cattle. 1 he ani- the islands of the bay of Rio; and, together with what mals are of a large size, and the herds are numerous. I hey is brought from Espirito Santo, it may amount, one jear are allowed to wander at large under the superintendence with another, to 30,000 quintals. Of the agriculture ot of a few half wild Creoles and Negroes. There are no the province just named, and its neighbour Porto Seguro, dairy establishments. Butter and cheese are only made the preceding sentence contains all the information we on particular occasions, and even milk for coffee is not have been able to collect. The chiet agricultural product o always to be had. The quantity of wheat grown in the Bahia is sugar, and the most luxuriant growth ot its province is considerable, but farming is carried on in a canes is in the Reconcavo in the immediate neighbourhoo slovenly manner. The grain is dirty, and apt to ferment. of the city. The surface of the ground in its original state The island of S. Catharina, immediately to the north, is covered with marshy hollows, which, when drained o has been cleared of its timber for the purpose of ship- their superfluous waters, are found filled with a light albuilding, and is almost entirely under cultivation. The luvial earth, most favourable to the growth of the sugar agricultural produce of the island in 1812 is stated in an cane. This gift the skill of the Bahian planters has turne official paper to have been :—Mandiocca meal, 388,861 al- to the best advantage. Tobacco was wont to come next queires; maize, 16,968 ditto; garlic, 16,506 ditto; onions, to sugar in the Reconcavo; at present it is most exten10,472 ; wheat, 3365 ditto ; rice, 18,723 quintals ; coffee, sively cultivated in the neighbourhood of Cachoeira, 12,592 ditto; cotton, 2270 ditto; flax, 1798 ditto; mo- though even there a falling off has been observed. There

BRAZIL. 207 Sta ;ics. is proportionally little Coffee raised in Bahia, and that operations, the smelting of metals, the polishing of preci- Statistics, little in the Comarca dos Ilheos, the rudest and most ous stones, the manufacture of salt, ship-building, tanning wretched district of the province. The fruit is much and dressing hides, and the making of oil. In regard to inferior to that of Rio, probably on account of the slo- the first mentioned, it may be observed that one most venly manner in which it is gathered and dried. Rice important mineral, coal, has hitherto only been discovered returns from two to three hundred times the seed. In at two places in Brazil, Bahia and Rio Grande. At both, the year 1817 the sugar raised in Bahia vras estimated however, the smallness of the quantity and the situation at 1,200,000 arrobas, the tobacco at 660,000, the coffee of the veins has rendered working it with advantage imat 10,000, the rice at 18,000. Maize thrives here, but possible. On this account it has been necessary to emits cultivation is much neglected. An enterprising Swiss in ploy charcoal in obtaining the metals from the ores; and 1817 set the example of forming artificial meadows in the hence everywhere in the neighbourhood of mines charring neighbourhood of the city; and they are said by eye-wit- is a business which employs a good many hands. The nesses to have equalled the best in England. The high wasteful manner in which the operation has hitherto been price of fodder secured him an ample reward. The chief carried on is already beginning to be felt even in the imdifficulty he encountered arose from the poisonous snakes mense forests of Brazil. Of late, however, scientific forestwhich swarm in all marshy places. All kinds of European ers have been encouraged by government to emigrate from fruits and vegetables succeed in the Reconcavo, but are Europe. The diamond washings, with the exception of -a few, Diamond more exposed to the depredations of ants, snails, and birds, than native plants. The chief products of Pernam- of which but little is known, are confined to the diamond mines, buco are vanilla, cocoa, rice, sugar, and cotton. The qua- district in Minas Geraes, and are still conducted on the illlity of the last-mentioned article grown in this province judged system of a government monopoly. The cascalwas at one time esteemed as the best in the world. Of hao, mentioned above, is dug up and removed to a conlate years it has much deteriorated, from neglect in the venient place for washing. As much is raised during gathering and cleaning. Notwithstanding, the quantity the rainy months as is expected to give employment exported in 1829 amounted to no less than 80,000 bags. to the slaves for the other six. It is deposited in heaps In the interior of this province grazing is carried on to of from five to fifteen tons. A shed is erected in the such an extent as has procured for it the title of the Swit- form of a parallelogram twenty-five or thirty yards long zerland of Brazil. The staple commodities of Seara are and about fifteen wide, composed of upright posts supcotton and sugar. The other provinces along the coast, porting a thatched roof. A stream of water is conincluding Maranhao, exhibit nothing different in their agri- veyed down the middle of the area of this shed, cocultural products from those last described; on the shore vered with strong planks, on which the cascalhao is laid the sugar-cane, farther inland cotton, and in the interior two or three feet thick. On one side of the canal is a cattle. The produce of Gram Para presents nothing mate- flooring of planks from four to five yards long, imbedded rially differing; that of Rio Negro, consisting chiefly of in clay, extending the whole length of the shed, and havnatural produce, scarcely comes under the head of agri- ing a slope from the canal of three or four inches to a culture. The provinces respecting the agriculture of yard. This flooring is divided into twenty compartments which we have now to speak are the three great inland or troughs, each of about three feet in width, by means of districts, Minas Geraes, Goyaz, and Matto Grosso. Of planks set on edge. The upper end of each trough comthe last, too little is known to entitle us to say any thing. municates with the canal. Three overseers take their seats The agriculture of Goyaz is trifling, and almost identical at equal distances on high chairs placed on the heaps of in character with that of the interior of S. Paulo. The cascalhao, on the side of the canal opposite to the troughs. southern portion of Minas consists chiefly of pasture lands. As soon as they are seated a negro enters into each comSome attempts have been made to introduce oats, barley, partment, provided with a short handled rake, with which and wheat; but these cerealia were found to run uniformly he draws to him fifty or eighty lbs. of cascalhao. He to straw, and their ears to ripen unequally. In the northern then lets in water upon this, and keeps stirring it with his comarcas cotton has been cultivated with great success. In rake until the earthy particles are washed off; upon which, point of quality that of Minas Novas is esteemed second to throwing out the largest stones, he carefully examines the none but that of Pernambuco. There seems, however, to be rest for diamonds. As soon as he finds one he rises and a great waste of surface in the mode of culture generally holds it out between his finger and thumb; an overseer adopted. The land is first cleared for the plantation by burn- receives it from him, and deposits it in a bowl half full of ing, which is effected during the dry months. In January a water, suspended from the centre of the structure. At the number of holes are made in the earth about two or three close of the day’s labour the diamonds obtained are taken feet apart, and five or six seeds are dropped into each and from this deposit and delivered to the principal overseer, covered lightly with earth. The harvest occurs in the Sep- who weighs and registers them. On an average the mines tember of the second year. In the course of two years fresh yield 20,000 carats annually. The establishment is burground is chosen and the same process repeated. The dened with a load of debt incurred to foreigners for adcotton-grower allows as long an interval as he can afford vances of money at the time that government first took it to elapse before he returns to a spot which has already in hand. It is calculated that the diamonds cost governbeen cultivated. This superficial view of the agriculture ment 33s. 9d. per carat. The washings give employment of Brazil argues a country of the most exuberant fertility, and support to a population of about 6000. The trade in m which are not reared many products of the earth that gems which have not been deemed of sufficient importance inight succeed; while the limited number produced, with to be claimed as regalia, centres in Minas Novas. The the exception of coffee in Rio, and sugar in Bahia, are cul- dealers in precious stones have their residence for the most tivated in a rude and slovenly manner. Cacao, ginger, part in Chapada. The greater part are sent in a state of naK various kinds of pepper, tobacco, and indigo, all of which ture to Bahia and Rio Janeiro ; some, however, are polishexperience has shown to be suited to the soil and climate, ed, rudely enough, in the neighbourhood. are neglected. Oxen, horses, and mules, are rather the The gold country extends over Minas Geraes, Goyaz, Gold Matto Grosso, and part of S. Paulo. In all these districts the mines, Man > nature than the reward of assiduous attention, turts * t kxcept a few rude manufactures for family use, this winning of this metal is pursued in a manner exactly similar. branch of national industry is in Brazil confined to mining It is found either in the beds of rivers, or in veins, at times

brazil. 208 management of it to a German overseer. The daily pro- Static Statistics, twenty feet under the surface, at times close under the roots duce was in 1818 two arrobas. It was worked up on the ^ M of the grass. Like diamonds, it is found intermingled with spot into hatchets, knives, bill-hooks, horse-shoes, and cascalhao. This mass, with the auriferous particles, is re- nails. 3. At Caspar Soares, in the same province, a founmoved from its site to a convenient place for washing. dery on a large scale was erected in 1812 at the king s exWhere water of a sufficiently high level can be obtained, t e pense. ‘ It consisted of one smelting and two refining furground is cut into slips twenty or thirty feet wide, two o naces. The first mentioned had never been used, and the three broad, and one deep. Near the bottom is a trench two other two were lying idle when visited by Spix and Maror three feet deep. On these steps the cascalhao is deposit- tius. The ore is excellent, and a canal might be dug at ed, and on each stand six or eight negroes, keeping it in comparatively little expense, to the navigable portion of motion with shovels as the water flows gently upon it from the Rio Doce. There were several furnaces in the proabove, until the whole is reduced to liquid mud and wasl- vince belonging to private individuals, and a considerable ed down. In the trench the particles of gold, fiom their quantity of iron was brought from Rio, but still the supply weight, quickly precipitate. Other negroes are busy clear- was deficient. ing away the stones and removing the surface mud. AfThe most important salt country in Brazil commences Salt r; ter five days’ washing the precipitate is carried to some at the Rio de Salitre, a tributary of the Rio de S. Franconvenient stream. Here each negro is provided with a cisco, about six leagues from Joazeiro. At this place an bowl of a funnel shape, about two feet wide at the mouth, artificial hollow extends along the river for the space of and five or six inches deep. Standing in the stream, he 60,000 square feet, and a fine, soft, ochre-coloui ed eaith takes about six lbs. of the sediment into his bowl, admits forms the bottom of the trough. The annual floods melt regulated portions of water, and keeps moving the sedi- the saline particles contained in this mould ; and when the ment until the gold deposit itself at the sides and bottom river falls, a salt pool is left. The heat of the sun then evaof the vessel. He then rinces the bowl in a larger vessel porates the water, and the surface is left covered with hollow of clean water, and begins again. This operation occupies quadrangular pyramids of the salt. Ihe soil is of a similar about five minutes. When the particles of gold in t ic conformation along the bed of the S. Francisco for an extent sediment are very minute, troughs similar to those em- of nearly two degrees of longitude, and everywhere nearly ployed in diamond-washing, but longer and narrower, are thirty leagues in breadth. Hollows, such as we have deconstructed. On their bottoms are stretched hides, tan- scribed, natural or artificial, are scattered over the whole ned with the hair on, or pieces of rough baize. Ihe wa- extent. These are the salt-mines of the country. The ter containing the sediment is conveyed down these, and greater number belong to the wealthy landholders on the the gold precipitating in the course is entangled in the Rio de S. Francisco ; but many, especially on the western rough surface. Every half hour the hides aie canied to side, are yet unappropriated, and may be worked by any a neighbouring tank, stretched over it, dipped, and oeaten one. At certain seasons this district is visited by imrepeatedly. The gold is found at the bottom of these reservoirs mingled with esmeril, from which it is separated mense multitudes, some coming from very great distances. earth is dug up to the depth of an inch, and depositby the aid of mercury. The whole business is carried on The ed in wooden troughs; then water is poured upon it, which in a most cumbrous, inartificial, and wasteful manner. The gold thus procured is brought to the nearest mint, where absorbs the salt. The earth is allowed to subside, upon which water impregnated with salt is drawn off into another the crown’s fifths are deducted, and the rest refined and the trough, and left to crystallize in the heat of the sun. The melted. The deliverer may either have his gold in the form of an ingot with the public stamp, or he may have a salt is packed in four-cornered bags of cow-hide, each conreceipt for it, which entitles him to receive the amount taining from thirty to forty lbs. A plate of salt is valued from any mint in Brazil. This business gives employ- at from twenty to forty rees; a sack at from 3G0 to 400. ment to the great bulk of the population in Minas Geraes, The annual produce of the salines exceeds 35,000 sacks. in Matto Grosso, and in Goyaz. The amount of metal Salines nearly as productive are found at the sources of the obtained we have no means of ascertaining with any de- Paraguay, in Matto Grosso; and considerable quantities gree of exactness. Minas alone, it has been calculated, of salt are manufactured on the shores of the northern yields, in the form of royal fifths, no less than 150 arrobas. provinces. Between the salt district and the hills saltThe annual produce of Matto Grosso has been estimated petre occurs in great quantities. Fifteen leagues above at twenty arrobas. When the fifths were first imposed (in the Rio de Salitre, large caves are found in the limestone1753) in Goyaz, they yielded annually a sum of L.67,155; rock, filled with black earth, which sometimes contains but since that period the quantity of gold obtained has three fourths of its weight in saltpetre. 4 his is washed out, and the water heated to a certain degree, in order that been gradually diminishing. Iron foun- The iron of Brazil has hitherto been almost entirely ne- it may deposit the culinary salt; the saltpetre is then left deries. glected, although no country is richer in this invaluable to crystallize. A similar process is followed at Formigas, , | metal. In 1817-20 there were, as far as we have been near the source of the S. Francisco. Ship-building is diligently pursued at more than one sta- u opable to learn, only the following iron-works in the empire : 1, That of Ypanema, in the province of S. Paulo. The tion along the coast. The port of S. Francisco is the most n immense deposit of magnetic iron ore in this neigh- southerly point at which the construction of vessels is carbourhood was long worked in an unsatisfactory manner. ried on to any extent. Vessels of large size, and a number In 1810 a company of Swedish miners and founders of small craft for coasters, are built here. The demand for settled there, and erected two small refining furnaces. ship-carpenters is always brisk. To the north of Bahia, on acIn 1807 they produced yearly 4000 arrobas of iron, which count of the reef, the ships built are generally of a small tonnflcrp. Laranjeiras, T.nrnnipirns. Itapicuru, Tfnnipnrn. and Villa do Conde, build VCSveswas manufactured on the spot into horses’ shoes, nails, nage. locks, and other articles. A larger establishment, with sels capable of holding from 4000 to 8000 arrobas of lading. two smelting and several refining furnaces, and bellows Pernambuco fits out a great number of small craft, ihe moved by water, had been built at that time, but was royal docks at Bahia are small, and few ships of war are waiting for workmen from Germany. Nothing more built there ; but such as are have the character of surpasshas been learned of its fate. 2. To the north-west of ing even the East Indian vessels in durability. Merchan Antonio Pereira, near the centre of Minas, Eschwege ships are for the most part built at Tapagipe, about a erected a small iron foundery in 1816, and intrusted the league and a half to the north-east of the city. We have

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BRAZIL. 200 The intercourse between place and place in Brazil is efStatistics, sties, no trust-worthy account of the probable amount of capital fected in three different manners ; along the coast by small invested in ship-building. The whale-fishing is here in its appropriate place. The coasting craft, drawing about ten feet of water; on the e y- stations of this fishery are S. Catharina, Itaparica, and rivers by boats manned on ^n average with twelve rowers Bahia. It is only pursued in small boats near the shore. and a steersman, besides the supercargo; towards the emThe pans in which the blubber is boiled are small, and bouchures of the rivers larger vessels are in use ; on the dry heated by common stoves. The receivers are extreme- land, along roads, or rather tracks, by means of troops of ly apt to collect dust and dirt of all kinds. Throughout mules, for, except in Rio and the immediate vicinity, there Brazil, not above 100 fish, great and small, are taken in are no wheel-carriages in Brazil. From Minas Novas to Rio the course of a year. Each yields, on an average, from Janeiro there are twelve troops, each of forty mules, with fourteen to eighteen pipas (150 gallons English each) their negro attendants and guiding arriero, continually on of train oil; and the value of this oil, together with the road, engaged in carrying cotton, and bringing back the whalebone, may amount to L.150. On the islands European produce in exchange. From S. Joao d’el Rey of the Solimoes (Upper Amazons) a considerable quan- there are four such troops annually; and from other places tity of oil is yearly collected from the eggs of the turtle, the number is in proportion to the frequency of their inwhich are dug up, broken in the boats, and left till the light tercourse. Merchants who do not choose to wait the apoil separates and swims on the top. It is boiled and se- pointed period, and travellers of all kinds who carry bagparated from the impurities, when it assumes the colour gage along with them, must form a troop more or less and consistence of lard. This product is deposited in numerous, according to their wants. The difficulty thus earthen pots containing fifty or sixty pounds each. Of thrown in the way of the transport of many articles of these more than 8000 are yearly prepared on the Ama- commerce may easily be conceived. Even river carriage, zons. The Madeira yields 1000. The drying and salting on account of the numerous falls on most of the streams, of fish is carried on to a considerable extent along the sea- is scarcely more convenient. coast, on the Amazons, and upon a large lake near the Brazil being as yet a young country, dependent for most salines on the Rio de Francisco. A coarse kind of woollen necessaries of manufacturing produce, and for all the cloth for home consumption is manufactured at S. Paulo. luxuries of civilized life, upon other countries, the tendenHats are made at S. Joao d’el Rey. There is an establish- cy of its internal trade is in a great measure determined ment for the manufacture of arms in the towm of S. Paulo ; by its foreign commerce. The ports, which, from favoura powder-mill in the neighbourhood of Rio, and one of less able situation, convenience, and the quantity of capital importance in Minas. A coarse cotton cloth is woven in accumulated in their neighbourhood, monopolize in a great Goyaz, Maranhao, and Sergippe d’el Rey, used to clothe measure the external trade of Brazil, are Rio Janeiro, the slaves, or form bags for packing cotton. In S. Paulo, Bahia, Recife the capital of Pernambuco, Maranhao, and Goyaz, and Para, tanning is carried on to a small extent. Para. oerce. Nothing serves better to convey a just notion of the Rio Janeiro, in addition to its own produce, draws its state of trade in a nation than a knowledge of the state articles of consumpt and export from the southern proof its circulating medium, and the means of communi- vinces of Rio Grande, S. Catharina, and S. Paulo, from Mication between one place and another. The sums of nas Geraes, and from Porto Seguro. The raw produce of gold, annually paid into the Brazilian treasury under the the former, wheat, hides (an annual average of 300,000), designation of fifths, might afford ample materials for a unrefined tallow, horns, horse-hair, and charque or jerked metallic currency. The great quantities of bullion, how- beef, are imported coastwise, giving employment to a hunever, annually shipped for Europe, for the East Indian dred sail of coasters, which make the voyage thrice in the and China trade, have counteracted the tendency of this year, and carry in return rum, sugar, tobacco, cotton, and arrangement. The amount of metallic currency even European goods of all descriptions, particularly English. in Rio it has been found impossible to ascertain with The produce of S. Catharina, exclusively agricultural, any degree of accuracy, the drains occurring at such irre- has been enumerated above. Two thirds of the whole gular intervals. Interest has been known to rise at once are exported, chiefly to Rio Janeiro. This trade gave from twelve per cent., the average rate, to twenty or employment in 1812 to 152 vessels, three-masters, brigs, even twenty-two per cent. In Minas, the proprietors of smacks, &c. In 1813 the value of the goods exported the mines are in the habit of allowing their gold to re- from the province of S. Paulo was L.166,735. Of these, main at the mint, and take a receipt in exchange, which to the value of upwards of L.134,000 found their way by circulates freely through the whole of Brazil. The me- land-carriage to Rio Janeiro. The returns from that city tallic currency in Minas Novas in 1818 did not amount to in wine, beer, iron and hardware, glass and stoneware, 80,000. At the salines on the Rio Francisco salt is used tea, &c. were valued at L.161,670. The'cotton trade as a medium of exchange. In the interior the primitive from Minas Novas to Rio Janeiro gives constant employmode of barter is still of frequent occurrence. Previous to ment to twelve troops of mules, each mule carrying-eight 1808 a bank issuing notes was established in Rio by a com- arrobas, valued at L.l. 15s. the arroba. Great numbers pany of the wealthiest merchants and capitalists. As the of precious stones are exported from Minas Novas to Rio. institution grew in wealth, it ventured to establish an insu- The greater part of the gold melted in Minas Geraes finds rance company, and to farm several of the regalia. Officers its way to Rio: the exact sum cannot be ascertained, but of state in the different provinces now began to deposit a merchants trading to the East Indies have been known part of their salaries in the bank, and rich landed proprie*- to export bullion to the value of L.800,000 in one year. tors their monied capital. In 1808 the bank was erected S. Joao d’el Rey (still within Minas Geraes) supplies Rio y royal charter into the bank of Brazil. Since that time with mules, cattle, poultry, gold, lard, cheese, hats, and it has taken the active share in financial arrangements, some cotton cloth, and receives in return woollen and to which we have already alluded. The sums of money cotton cloths from England and Portugal, hardware, wine, ^ ®tracte(l by the king when he quitted the country in porter, &c. From Porto Seguro, Rio draws tobacco and 1, and several underhand transactions, are believed to fish, but to what amount we have no means of ascertainave materially shattered the funds of the bank ; its notes ing. The following table shows the amount and value nevertheless retain their credit, and circulate in every of the most important articles exported from Rio Janeiro province of Brazil. in 1817. vol. v. 2D

210 Statistics.

brazil. The returns are essentially the same as at Rio. The Statistic; Value. Quantity. proportion of European, North American, and African Articles. articles is greater; that of East Indian less. On an ave680,000 arrob. L.340,000 Sugar.... ra°-e, 12,000 negro slaves are annually imported into Bahia. 171,900 298,999 arrob. Coffee.... Vecife has been styled by some the most important 640,000 520,000 arrob. Cotton... trading place in Brazif after Rio and Bahia; unfortunate153,500 112,000 Hides.... ly our mformation respecting its trade is too meagre to 45,000 30,000 quint. Tobacco. enable us to judge. Of its home trade, we merely know that it is furnished with salt from the salines of Rio de Besides these weightier articles, Rio de Janeiro exports Salitre, and that from its port is exported the cotton of considerable quantities of horns, horse-hair, and hides, Paraiba, Rio Grande de Norte, and Seara, in addition to train-oil, ipecacuanha, and dye-woods. 1 he value of these that of Pernambuco. The average number of ships emminor articles may amount, one year with another, to ployed in the trade to North America and Europe is 150. L.400,000. The returns from Portugal and her colonies The exports consist of cotton, sugar, molasses, rum, hides are made in wine, oil, vinegar, dried fish, hams, olives, of goats and oxen, tobacco, cocoa-nuts, ipecacuanha, dyebrandy, leather, drugs, cloths, books, musical instruments, woods, and Brazil-wood. The amount of cotton annually paper, gun-powder, earthenware, ropes, canvass, tar, pitcn, exported is 80,000 bags. The sugar of Pernambuco is steel, and shoes. Those from London Liverpool, and the nearly equal in quality to that of Bahia. British colonies, consist of cotton and fine woollen cloths, Respecting the intercourse between this city and the Mann., porcelain and earthenware, iron, lead, copper, tin, anchors, interior, or the less important towns on the coast, we have cables, gun-powder, porter, cheese, salt-butter, and spi- no means of judging. It appears that a brisk intercourse rituous liquors. East India goods are imported direct or is kept up by means of small-craft (Sumacas e Lanchas from Gibraltar. France sends articles of elegance and de Cabotagem) with the harbours Yianna, Guimaraes, Turyluxury, furniture, silks, books, liqueurs, paintings, mirrors, assu, and Tutaia, within the province. Cotton is the hats, oil, &c. Holland sends beer, glass, linen, and hol- staple of Maranhao; and Cachias, m the interior, is the lands; North America grain, soap, spermaceti candles, centre of the cotton cultivation. The medium annual value biscuit, tar, leather, deals, potash, and coarse furniture. of the exports from Maranhao between 1815 and 1820 The northern nations of Europe send their staple wares. amounted to L.77 0,151; of imports to L.710,29o. In 1821 From Africa are imported gold dust, ivory, pepper, ebony, the value of the total exports amounted only to L.321,1Hand slaves, the latter at an yearly average of upwards ot The most important articles were cotton to the value of 20,000. We have been unable to obtain exact lists ot these L.239,654, and rice to the value of L.54,191. The returns; but their variety, and the value of the exports, whole was exported to Lisbon, Porte, \ianna, Figueiindicate sufficiently the state of the foreign trade ot Rio. ras, Liverpool, Havre de Grace, Rouen, and the LnitBahia, as a depot of home productions for the foreign ed States of North America. Liverpool’s share of the trade, is perhaps of yet greater importance than Rio Ja- cotton alone is valued at L.150,165. The imports for the neiro. Three great roads lead to the interior; that over same year are valued at L.333,153. The principal article Conquista and Rio Pardo to Minas Geraes, that across is flour, 54,793 arrobas from North America, 17,048 from the Rio de Contas to Matto Grosso and Goyaz, and that Liverpool, and 9318 from different ports in Brazil. In through Joazeiro to the interior of Pernambuco and Piau“ the course of the year 200 foreign vessels entered the hy. By the first come the cattle from Rio Grande do Sul; port, and 192 cleared out; 161 Brazilian vessels entered, raw produce and live stock from S. Paulo to the value of and 157 cleared out. These numbers are exclusive of the L.6090; live stock, saltpetre, a small sum of gold, and cot- small coasting vessels sailing from harbours within the ton equal in quantity to that carried to Rio de Janeiro, from province. Minas Geraes. By the second come gold and precious Para boasts of a greater variety of articles of export stones from Goyaz and Matto Grosso, but to what amount than any other city of Brazil, and with justice, for it we are unable to say. The latter province sends in ad- reckons no less than forty. These are, in addition to dition deals, hides raw and tanned, brandy, mandiocca, what is called colonial produce, balsam of capaiva, sarsalard, and live stock, to the value ot L.9000 per annum. parilla, Indian rubber, a variety of spices, and timber of From Pernambuco and Piauhy the imports consist of cot- different kinds. Of late horses have been added to the list, ton and cattle. The animal food consumed in Bahia, or which are exported to the English colonies. The above exported, is collected from the interior of Brazil, in a cii- articles, however, are the collective wealth of the Spanish cuit extending from Rio Grande do Sul to Piauhy. Cot- provinces on the Upper Amazons, of the Rio Negro, and ton is imported from a narrower range, including Minas, of the provinces of Goyaz and Matto Grosso. Para being Pernambuco, and Piauhy. The returns are made in ne- the only harbour possessed by the country which is watered groes, wine, and foreign merchandise. The products of by the Amazons and its tributaries, it receives its superthe coast are brought in boats to Bahia from a distance of fluities, and sends the conveniences of Europe in return. thirty leagues on either side. The foreign trade is in In 1819 the value of the goods exported to Portugal "as some measure worthy the centre of such an immense dis- L.l 13,179, of those imported in return L.74,776. In the trict. In 1817, 2000 trading vessels visited Bahia, de- same year goods were exported to England to the value of ducting coasters. The following table shows the princi- L.73,871, and imported thence to the amount of L.76,660. pal exports in 1817, and their value. Brazilian Weights: 1 arroba — 32£ lbs. English; 1 quintal — 129L lbs.English.—Measures, Dry: 1 alqueire = Value. Quantity. Articles. y bush. English; 1 maio — 17^- bush.English. Liquid: 1,200,000 arr. L.600,000 1 Canada — 2 galls. English ; 1 pipa = 120 galls. EngSugar 392,920 lish. Longitudinal: 5 varas — 6 yds. English ; 27 co\a160,460 arr. Cotton . 90,000 das zr 20 yds. English. 240,000 arr. Tobacco, first quality., Southey’s History of Brazil, 3 vols. 4to; Travels of Sptx 59,500 340,000 arr. second 28.000 and Martins in Brazil, 3 vols. 4to; Mawe’s Travels in 80,000 arr. third 8,000 Brazil, 1 vol. 8vo; Henderson’s History of Brazil, 1 vol. 30,000 Hides 13,750 4to ; Memoirs of General Miller, 2 vols. 8vo ; Malte-Brun, 10,000 arr. Coffee

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BRAZING, the soldering or joining two pieces of iron together by means of thin plates of brass, melted between tfiU- the pieces that are to be joined. If the woi;k be very fine, f t. as when two leaves of a broken saw are to be brazed together, it is covered with pulverized borax, melted with water, that it may incorporate with the brass powder, which is added to it; then the piece is exposed to the fire without touching the coals, and heated till the brass is seen to run. Brazing is also the joining of two pieces of iron together by beating them hot, the one upon the other. BRAZLAW, a town, the capital of the circle of the same name, in the Russian government of Podolia. It stands on the river Bug, in a very fertile district, and contains about 1200 inhabitants. Long. 28. 51. E. Lat. 48. 52. N. BREACH, in a general sense, denotes a break or rupture in some part of a fence or inclosure, whether owing to time or violence. Inundations or overflowings of lands are frequently owing to breaches in dikes or sea banks. Dagenham breach is famous ; it was made in 1707, by a failure of the Thames wall in a very high tide. The force with which it burst in upon the neighbouring level tore up a large channel or passage for water a hundred yards wide, and in some places twenty feet deep, by which a multitude of subterraneous trees that had been buried many ages before were laid bare. Breach, in Fortification, is a gap or opening made in any part of the works of a fortress by the cannon or mines of the besiegers, with a view to an assault upon the place. To render the attack more difficult, the besieged sow the breach with crow-feet, stop it up with chevaux de frise, or retrench it by cutting traverses within. A practicable breach is that where men may mount and effect a I , lodgment, and it ought to be fifteen or twenty fathoms wide. The besiegers sometimes make their way to it by covering themselves with gabions, earth-bags, and the like; but in our army the practice has always been for storming parties to advance to the breach without any cover or protection, and to trust for success to their own daring and perseverance. BREAD, a mass of dough kneaded and baked in an oven. See Baking. Bread, Assize of. See Baking. Bread-Fruit. Among the more valuable products of the warmer climates and the fertile islands of the Southern Pacific Ocean, is to be ranked the bread-fruit, or Artocarpus incisa of botanists. Nature has favoured the tropical regions, and those countries in their vicinity, with inexhaustible quantities of the choicest vegetables, while, the inhabitants of the north are restricted to shrivelled berries and meagre roots; and if they have obtained a supply, always precarious, of some of the finer fruits, it is the result of patience, skill, and industry. of Ever since Europeans frequented the eastern world in c ^er °" commercial enterprise, it is probable that they were acquainted with the bread-fruit. How, indeed, could its properties be unknown to Quiros, who visited Otaheite so long ago as the year 1606 ? Yet the English navigator Dampier seems to have been the first European whose notice was particularly directed towards it, during his circumnavigation in the year 1688 ; and he expresses himself in these words: “ The bread-fruit, as we call it, grows on a large tree, as big and high as our largest apple trees. It hath a spreading head, full of branches and dark leaves. The fruit grows on the boughs like apples ; it is as big as a penny-loaf when the wheat is at five shillings the bushel. It is of a round shape, and hath a thick tough rind. When the fruit is ripe it is yellow and soft, and the taste is sweet and pleasant. The natives of Guam use it for Bi Hi?

B R E 211 bread. They gather it, when full grown, while it is green Breatland hard ; then they bake it in an oven, which scorcheth iruitthe rind, and makes it black ; but they scrape off the outside black crust, and there remains a tender thin crust; and the inside is soft, tender, and white, like the crumbs of a penny loaf. There is neither seed nor stone in the inside, but all of a firm substance like bread. It must be eaten new, for if it be kept above twenty-four hours it becomes dry and eats harsh and choky; but it is very pleasant before it is too stale. This fruit lasts in season eight months in the year, during which time the natives eat no other sort of food of bread kind. I did never see of this fruit any where but here (Guam). The natives told us that there is plenty of this fruit growing on the rest of the Ladrone Islands, and I did never hear of it anywhere else.” The bread-fruit, however, is found in still greater profusion, and in equal perfection, on many of the groups of islands scattered throughout the Southern Pacific Ocean ; nor is it confined to them exclusively, but their soil and climate seem to correspond more intimately with the conditions of its vegetation. There are two leading species of this plant, which are Different characterized by the presence or absence of seeds; the species, latter being the preferable kind, and that which is cultivated more carefully for its produce. The natives of the South Sea Islands maintain, however, that eight different species, or rather varieties, may be distinguished, and for which they have the respective names of Patteah, Eroroo, Awanna, Mi-re, Oree, Powerro, Appeere, Rowdeah. The leaf of the first, fourth, and eighth, differs from that of the rest; the fourth being more sinuated, and the eighth having a large broad leaf, not at all sinuated. In the first, also, the fruit is rather larger, and of a more oblong form, while in the last it is round, and not above half the size of the others. European observers, however, do not seem in general disposed to recognise these as essential distinctions, although they admit other varieties. As Dampier observes, the bread-fruit is a large tree, growing to the height of forty feet or more. It is thick in the stem, and has a luxuriant foliage. The trunk is upright, the wood soft, smooth, and yellowish ; and wherever the tree is wounded, a glutinous fluid exudes. The branches form an ample head, almost globular ; the leaves are eighteen inches long and eleven broad, resembling those of the oak or the fig tree, from their deep sinuosities. The younger leaves, like all the more tender plants of the tree, are glutinous to the touch. The male flowers are among the upper leaves, and the female flowers at the ends of the twigs. But it is the fruit which constitutes the value of the plant, and this is a very large berry, according to botanists, with a reticulated surface, resembling a cocoa-nut or melon in size and form, nine inches in length. It is filled with a white farinaceous fibrous pulp, which becomes juicy and yellow when the fruit is ripe; and the edible portion lies between the skin, which is green, and a core in the centre, which is about an inch in diameter. During a considerable portion of the year the bread-Used as fruit affords the chief sustenance of the Society Islanders. f°0dat exa It is prepared after different fashions, and its taste de-S^ * pends in a great measure on the mode of preparation. It is insipid, slightly sweet, somewhat resembling wheaten bread mixed with Jerusalem artichokes, and it has been compared to a cake made of flour, egg, sugar, milk, and butter. In general it is cut in several pieces, and roasted or baked in a hole made in the ground, which is paved round with large smooth stones ; and then it resembles a boiled potato, not being so farinaceous as a good one, but more so than one of ordinary quality. The stones are previously heated by a fire kindled in the excavation,

BREA D-F R U I T. 212 throughout the Great Pacific Ocean. It grows on Bread.. Bread- and the bread-fruit, being wrapped in a banana leaf, iS laid found Amboyna, the Banda Islands, Timor, and the Ladrones; but fruit, fruit. upon them, and covered with leaves and hot stones. In is more especially the object of care and cultivation in the Otaheite, and in the West Indian Islands, several dishes it Marquesas, and the Friendly and Society Islands, where are made of it, either by thus baking it in an oven entire, it vegetates in uncommon luxuriance and profusion. when it is considered to equal or surpass any kind of brea , The great utility of the bread-fruit as an article of sub-Attemp . by adding water or the milk of the cocoa nut, by h°il- sistence for mankind has, at different times, led to specu-t(j trans ing it, or forming it into a paste. I his last is accomplish- lations on the possibility of naturalizing it in places where; ed by taking the fruit before it attains complete maturity, it is not of spontaneous growth. M. de Poive, the philoand laying it in heaps, closely covered up with leaves, sophic governor of the Mauritius, succeeded in introduwhen it undergoes fermentation, and becomes disagreeably cing it there, and in the Isle of Bourbon, whither it was . sweet. The core being then drawn out, the fruit or pulp is conveyed by M. de Sonnerat, from Lu9on, in the Philip, thrown into a paved excavation, and the whole covered pine Islands. Being found in the greatest luxuriance under up with leaves, whereon heavy stones are laid: it thus the same latitudes as the British West India Islands, and undergoes a second fermentation, and becomes sour, after a climate not dissimilar, government deemed the transwhich it will suffer no change for a long time. A leaven in mission of it thither, both as practicable without much may thus be formed of it, which is baked as occasion re- difficulty, and as promising a future store of subsistence quires. In the island of Nukahiwa, an agreeable bevethe inhabitants. An expedition was therefore fitted rage can be obtained from it; and in the West Indies it for with particular care, under the command of Captain, can be baked like biscuit, and will keep nearly as long. out then Lieutenant Bligh, who sailed in the Bounty storeThe fruit is in the greatest perfection about a week before ship for the South Seas in December 1787. This vessel beginning to ripen, which is easily recognised by the skin changing to a brownish cast, and by small granulations was prepared so as to receive a great many bread-fruit and formed of the juice. In the West Indies it is soft and other plants, which would have proved a valuable acquisiyellow when ripe, and is in taste and smell like a very ripe tion to the colonists of the West Indies, and some of which melon.. Hogs, dogs, and poultry then feed on it readily. were expected to succeed under the culture of the curious Besides this, the bread-fruit tree proper, there is one in Great Britain. The Bounty arrived in safety at Otathat has been long known in India and the eastern islands, heite, the principal place of her destination, and took on of which the fruit contains from forty to a hundred fari- board 1015 bread-fruit plants, besides a great variety of naceous seeds, in appearance resembling chestnuts. These different species of other plants, and after remaining twentywhen roasted or boiled are more grateful to many per- three weeks, which were busily occupied, set sail on the sons than the bread-fruit, and the negroes are very fond 4th of April 1789. But it is unnecessary to say more of »of them. The external characters of the tree are scarce- the expedition, except that it was rendered totally abortive ly to be distinguished from those of the other, and the by a mutiny which ensued three weeks subsequently to its chief distinction lies in the fruit, which attains nearly the departure. The captain and eighteen adherents were barsize of that we have described, and is covered with prickles barously turned adrift in an open boat, wherein they suffered like a hedgehog. It grows from the seed with rapid ve- incredible hardships, and, after a navigation of 3600 miles, getation, and attains larger dimensions than the proper reached the island of Timor, having lost only one of their number, who was murdered by the savages of an interbread-fruit tree. mediate island. Notwithstanding the unfortunate result of The natives of those islands producing this useful vegeIts other uses. table collect it with very little trouble ; they have only to this voyage, the object was still kept in view, and a new climb the tree and gather the fruit. Nor is nutriment the expedition planned with still greater precaution than the sole purpose to which it is converted ; for they have a me- former; and it has been said that his late majesty, King thod of fabricating cloth from the bark, the leaves are sub- George III. took a lively interest in conferring so import-! stituted for towels, and the wood is employed in the con- ant a benefit on a distant portion of his people. Captain struction of their boats and houses. A kind of cement Bligh having arrived in England, was appointed to the and birdlime is also prepared by boiling the juice exuding command of the Providence and Assistance, two vessels specially fitted out as before; and part of their complefrom the bark in cocoa-nut oil. ment consisted of two gardeners, to take the management It appears that there are other vegetables of this class, Its cultiproducing fruit of inferior quality, but on that account re- of the plants collected. The vessels sailed in August vation. ceiving less attention. The bread-fruit proper is of easy 1791, reached Van Diemen’s Land in February 1792, cultivation in its native soil. In some of the islands it and anchored at Otaheite in February following. Here seems an indigenous product, and springs from the root of they remained above three months, and obtained even old trees without any care ; in others, it requires simply to a greater store of plants than formerly; for there were be put into the earth. The trees flourish with the great- now 1281 pots and tubs, whereas the first number of the est luxuriance on rising grounds; and it has been remark- bread-fruit trees, in 1789, did not exceed 887. Captain ed, that where the hills of the Sandwich Islands rise al- Bligh, in returning, made a dangerous voyage through most perpendicularly in a great variety of peaks, their Endeavour Straits, the exploring of which was part of steep declivities, and the deep valleys intervening, are his former instructions, and anchored at Coupang in the covered with trees, among which the bread-fruit is parti- island of Timor, where he substituted many other plants ciflarly abundant. It has also been observed, that although for those that had died. He then sailed for the West we are accustomed to consider Otaheite as of the great- Indies, and touching at St Helena, landed some breadthose of different species. est fertility in this plant, the trees of the Sandwich Islands fruit plants, and took on board r produce double the quantity of fruit. Though nearly of The object of his voyage w as at length completed by the same height, the branches begin to shoot out much reaching the island of St Vincent’s in January D93, lower from the trunk, and with greater luxuriance. In where he committed 544 plants, of which 333 were breadOtaheite, they are propagated by suckers from the root, fruit, to the care of Dr Anderson, superintendent of the which are best transplanted in wet weather, when the botanical garden, and substituted for them 467 of different earth forms balls around them; then they are not liable species, designed for his majesty’s garden at Kew’. In to suffer from removal. This valuable plant is widely dif- the next place, Captain Bligh landed 623 plants, of which fused in the southern and eastern isles, and it is generally 347 were bread-fruit, at Port Royal in the island of Ja*

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BREA D-F R U I T. 213 where they were ultimately to remain, the baskets would Breadmaica, and replaced them with a further collection for the king, with which he arrived in England on the 2d of Au- speedily rot, and not repress the growth of the plant, fruit, gust 1793. Five years and eight months had thus been which would then extend its roots. European cultivators occupied in accomplishing the desirable purpose of these would do well to attend to the beneficial use of baskets; two expeditions. But it belonged especially to Britain, for it too often happens that a tender plant is wounded in by whom a familiar intercourse with the southern island- removing it from a pot, or that the earth surrounding it is ers was first opened up, to effect an object of so much so deranged and displaced, that no subsequent care can preserve it from destruction. Encouraged by the successimportance. Nevertheless, some have been fouod inclined to chal- ful issue of these previous experiments, Mr Robley prelenge the wisdom of so difficult and expensive an experi- pared a point of land of loose sandy soil, bounded by a ment ; both because the expectations of those who look- salt lagoon and the sea, for receiving a large plantation. ed for an inexhaustible source of subsistence were not When the tide filled, brackish water was to be found speedily realized, and because the places best adapt- everywhere at the depth of two feet and a half from the ed for its culture already possess another vegetable, the surface; but it had been observed in some of the South plantain, which is much more grateful to the negroes, for Sea Islands, that bread-fruit trees grew in full vigour whom the bread-fruit was principally designed. It has though brackish water bathed their roots, and the point been argued that the bread-fruit tree requires consider- was otherwise defended from the encroachments of the able care in cultivation, that its progress to maturity is slowq sea by an artificial bank. The land being ploughed and though in Britain it would appear extremely rapid. Three harrowed twice, was divided into beds stretching across years are required to reap the fruit; the plantain demands from the sea to the lagoon; the beds were twenty-seven no care, while it produces its crop in fifteen months ; thus feet in breadth, and the plants put into the earth in the giving it a decided preference in the opinion of the colo- middle of each, and exactly at the distance of twentynist, who is always impatient for a return. Further, it has seven feet asunder; thus leaving a large space for their been said, that wherever any vegetable, already relished vegetation. Mr Robley’s expectations were not disapby the inhabitants of a district, is completely established, pointed. In August 1801 he had 153 plants in a flourishthey will always reject what they think less agreeable. ing condition; and, prosecuting the object still further, These arguments have certainly had considerable weight; he had, in the course of the subsequent year, 371 on the probably, however, from not duly appreciating the diffi- point of land, of which no less than 319 plants were in a culties attendant on such an experiment as the naturali- flourishing, and some of them in a productive state. He zation of plants. But were we to take a retrospect of all transmitted specimens of the fruit to England preserved the obstacles which have opposed the cultivation of many in vinegar, as it will not keep above two days after being species of grain and fruits, at present not uncommon in taken from the tree ; as also of the dried leaves and bios- * Britain, it would be very evident that success has result- som. Other correspondents, nearly about the same time, ed only from the most patient and laborious attention. sent specimens of cakes made from the bread-fruit conPositive conclusions on this subject are perhaps as yet verted into flour, which were extremely well flavoured; and premature. it seemed that a dry nutritious food, resembling tapioca In the year 1777 a premium was offered by the Society in appearance and quality, might be prepared from it. for the Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures, to any The vegetation of this plant is very rapid. Ten of those individuals who should bring the bread-fruit plant from committed to the care of Dr Anderson in 1793 were the South Sea Islands in a state of vegetation to the West about two feet in height and half an inch in diameter ; and Indies, and the gold medal was awarded, in 1793, to Cap- he observed, that, in the year 1798, most of the trees in the tain Bligh accordingly. That society, with the laudable botanical garden at St Vincents were above thirty feet in design of promoting its culture, continued to offer further height, and the stem two feet above the ground was from premiums for the greatest number of plants raised in the three feet to three and a half in circumference. From British settlements; and in consequence a silver medal the remarks he was enabled to make in this interval on was awarded to Dr Anderson, superintendent of the bo- the varieties of the tree in the botanical garden, it appeartanical garden at St Vincents in 1798; and, in 1802, the ed that the fruit came out in succession during the greatgold medal to the Honourable Joseph Robley, governor of er part of the year, but less of it between November and the island of Tobago. From the course adopted by these March than at any other time. The number produced two cultivators, the history of the bread-fruit has receiv- by a single tree was very great, being often in clusters of ed much elucidation, and we shall comprise it in a few five and six, and bending the lower branches to the ground. observations. According to the different varieties, the fruit was of variRes; Mr Robley received three plants from Dr Anderson in ous shapes and sizes, weighing from four to ten pounds, Oft 50 June 1793, which he planted in very deep rich soil, and a tte| its. paid them every attention in hopes of procuring shoots. some smooth, others rough and tuberculated. When taken from the tree before maturity, the juice appeared of the They flourished exceedingly, produced fruit in 1795, and consistence and colour of milk, and in taste somewhat simicontinued to do so until autumn 1801, after which we lar. It issued for above ten minutes in an uninterrupted have no notices respecting them. Being disappointed of stream, and thickened into a glutinous and adhesive subobtaining suckers, Mr Robley applied to Dr Anderson, stance. Three months were required to bring the fruit who advised him to lay bare some of the uppermost roots, to perfection, which, as above remarked, is about a wee*k and to wound them very deeply; and having followed before it begins to ripen. Besides the Otaheitan breadthese directions in October 1800, they almost immediate- fruit, Captain Bligh left some of the East India bread-fruit 7 began to put forth shoots in abundance. In December, in the botanical garden. But this proved of infinitely in20 fine plants were thus obtained, which Mr Robley ferior quality, and a very indifferent substitute for it. It p aced in baskets containing about a gallon of good rich was ill-shaped, of a soft pulpy substance, and, like the oose soil, and deposited in the shade in the vicinity other, wanting seeds, and propagating itself by suckers o water. With this element also they were refreshed springing from the root. w en the weather required it. Baskets were preferred to A species of fruit bearing considerable analogy to those pots for the plants, from being lighter and more easily re- above described, is found on the Nicobar Islands, but we moved; likewise, because when deposited in the place are unacquainted with the degree of attention it has re-

B R E B R E 214 parture from Egypt, when they had not leisure to bake Bread Bread, ceived, either for the purpose of illustrating its natura leavened bread. Lastly, shew-bread was that offered to bair fruit, history, or for economical uses. It is not less beneticia , God every Sabbath-day, being placed on the golden table however, to the natives. The tree producing this truit in the holy of holies. . Bread , veeetates promiscuously with isothers in the woods, but BREADALBANE, or Braidalbin, a district of Scotfruit of; the . trunk straight, thirty or thirtya humid soi] Its land, in the western part of Perthshire, about thirty-three r Islands. five feet in height, and from ten inches to two feet in miles in length by thirty-one in breadth. It is mountaincircumference. The roots spring from it above the sur- ous, and for the most part unproductive. The hills, howface, and do not penetrate deep into the earth, ihe ever, afford pasture for large flocks of sheep, and some of leaves are disposed like the large calyx of a flower; they the valleys are cultivated, though not extensively, whilst are three feet long and four inches broad, of a dark green others are nothing but mosses of peat and heath. At one hue and tenacious substance. A long time elapses before extremity lies Loch Lyon, from which the river Lyon the tree produces fruit, not less than about the period o issues, and, flowing in a sinuous course, discharges itself human life. It then forms at the bottom of the leaves, into the Tay. In the centre of the district lies Loch Tay, from which it proceeds as it is enlarged, and, when near- which is about sixteen miles in length, and is surrounded ly ripe, its colour changes from green to yellowish.. Ibis by natural scenery of great beauty and splendour. The is the proper period for gathering it, when its weight is country abounds in limestone ; and several metals, such as between thirty and forty pounds. The exterior surface is lead and copper, are also found. There is not a town in cut off, and the fruit is boiled in earthen pots covered the district, and the only villages worthy of mention are with leaves, during several hours, on a slow five; when, Kenmore, Killin, and Clifton. It is now traversed by sebecoming soft and friable, the preparation is sufficient, and veral good roads. In addition to the avocations of agrithe fruit is then exposed to the air, and is next formed culture and the breeding of cattle, a part of the inhabiinto a mass not unlike maize either in taste or colour. It tants during summer occupy themselves in collecting a may be preserved for a long time, but exposure, to the of lichen from among the rocks, which is used by atmosphere occasions acidity. The plant producing this species dyers. The Earl of Breadalbane is the chief proprietor, fruit, however, is not of the same genus as those above whose seat is Taymouth, near Kenmore. described, although its fruit is converted to similar uses, BREAK, in a general sense, signifies to divide a thing but is rather a kind of palm, which it might be useful to into several parts with violence. In the art of wrar, to naturalize in the eastern possessions of Britain, (n. n.) . break ground is to open the trenches before a place. Among Bread, Sacramental, in the Protestant churches, is common leavened bread, in conformity to the ancient prac- sportsmen, to break a horse in trotting, is to make him light upon the hand in trotting, in order to make him fit for a tice. In the Roman Catholic mass, azymous or unleavened To break a horse for hunting, is to supple him, to bread is used, particularly in the Gallican church, where gallop. make him take the habit of running. a sort is provided for this purpose, called pain d chanter., BREAKERS, a name given by sailors to those billows made of the purest wheaten flour pressed between two that break violently over rocks lying under the surface of iron plates graven like wafer-moulds, and rubbed with white wax to prevent the paste from sticking. The the sea. They are distinguished both by their appearGreeks observe divers ceremonies in making the eucharist ance and sound, as they cover that part ot the sea with a bread. The Abyssinians have an apartment in their perpetual foam, and produce a hoarse and terrible i oaring, churches allotted' for this service, being a kind of sacristy. very different from the sound which the waves usually Sirmond, in his disquisition on azymous bread, shows, produce in a deeper bottom. When a ship is unhappily among breakers, it is hardly possible to save her. from the council of Toledo, that anciently there were as driven BREAKWATER is any obstruction of wood, stone, or many ceremonies used in the Latin church in the preparation of the unleavened bread as are still retained in the other material, as a boom or raft of wood, sunken vessels, &c., placed before the entrance of a port or harbour, or eastern churches. Ecclesiastical writers enumerate other species of bread any projection from the land into the sea, as a pier, mole, allotted for purposes of religion; as, first, Kalendarius, or jetty, so placed as to break the force of the waves, and that anciently offered to the priest at the kalends ; secondly, prevent their action on ships and vessels lying at anchor Prebendarius, the same with capitularis, that distributed within them. Thus the piers of the ancient Piraeus and daily to each prebendary or canon; thirdly, Benedictus, of Rhodes; the moles of Naples, Genoa, and Castellamare; that usually given to catechumens before baptism, instead the piers of Ramsgate, Margate, Folkstone, Howth, and of the eucharist bread, which they were incapable of par- the wooden dike de Richelieu, thrown across the port ot taking of. The panis benedictus was called also panagium Rochelle, may all be denominated Breakwaters. In l rench and eulogium, being a sort of bread blessed and consecrat- it is sometimes called Battre d Eau ; a name which aped by the priest, by which the catechumens were prepared pears to have been applied to the mole at Tangier, a work for the reception of the body of Christ. Ihe same was commenced in 1763 under the direction of Lord Tiviot, used afterwards, not only by catechumens, but by believ- Sir J. Lawson, and Sir Hugh Cholmley, and finished, or ers themselves, as a token of their mutual communion and rather discontinued, in 1776, after having cost this nation friendship. Its origin is dated from the seventh century, the sum of L.243,897. 5s. 4|d. The term Breakwater, at the council at Nantes. In the Gallican church we still however, has of late years been considered1 as more pecufind panis benedictus, pain benit, used for that offered for liarly appropriate to large insulated dikes of stone, whether benediction, and afterwards distributed to pious persons of regular masonry or sunk promiscuously in rough masses, who attend divine service in chapels. Fourthly, Consecrat- so placed as to form an artificial island across the mout ed bread is a piece of wax, paste, or even earth, over of an open roadstead, and thereby, from obstructing an which several ceremonies have been performed with bene- breaking the waves of the sea, to convert a dangerous andictions and other rites, to be sent in an Agnus Dei or chorage into a safe and commodious harbour for the recep. relic-box, and presented for veneration. Fifthly, with re- tion of ships of war or merchantmen. _ Of this description of dike for creating an artificial hargard to unleavened bread, panis azymus, the Jews eat no other during their passover ; and exact search was made in bour on a grand scale, fit for the reception of ships of nar every house to see that no leavened bread had been left. of the largest class, there are two remarkable examples m The usage was introduced in memory of their hasty de- the breakwater of Cherbourg and that of Plymouth.

BREAKWATER. 215 Breakwater of Cherbourg. In M. de Cessart’s attempt of an enemy. It was added, that Cherbourg was BreakikDescription des Travaux Hydrauliques, will be found a an admirable place for watching Portsmouth; without ap- water, very minute and laborious detail of all the preparatory pearing to have once recollected what an excellent anchoroperations, the progress, and the expense of constructing age Spithead was for watching Cherbourg. of the breakwater of Cherbourg, up to the period of the ReDirections were accordingly given to M. de Caux, comvolution. But the history of this great undertaking is manding officer of engineers at Cherbourg, to commence, summarily stated in a report made to the National Assem- as a preparatory measure, with the construction of a fort bly in 1791, by M. de Curt, in the name of its Committee on the island of Pelee, and another on Du Hornet, acof Marine, concerning the marine establishment of Cher- cording to plans given in by Vauban in 1679. By these works the roadstead would be flanked on the right and bourg. orv. It had always been a source of considerable annoyance left. The interval, however, being found too great to afto the French (and more particularly since the demolition ford sufficient protection to all the ships that might require of the works and basin of Dunkirk, which cost them more to be anchored in the roadstead, M. de Caux presented a regret than the useless and expensive projects for that port plan to the minister at war for constructing an intermediever could be worth), that while the whole line of their ate fort in the sea, which should be casemated, and sufficoast bordering on the English channel presented only ciently large to contain all the buildings necessary for a sandy shores with shallow water, or an iron-bound coast garrison. The surrounding walls were proposed to be bristled with rocks, nature had lavished on their “ eternal sunk in caissons of 6000 feet square at the base, and fiftyrival” of the opposite coast, the incalculable advantages of two feet in height. The top of the platform was to be a succession of deep and commodious harbours, or of safe eighty feet above the bottom of the sea, and the area of its and extensive roadsteads, inviting their possessors to com- surface 1000 square toises. This plan, however, was not merce and navigation, and placing in their grasp “ the considered as calculated to afford sufficient shelter to a sceptre and the sovereignty of the seas.” M. Curt ob- fleet from the winds and weaves, and new projects were serves, that “ the misfortunes of La Hogue, which all the called for by the government. In 1777 M. de la Bretonniere, capitaine de vaisseau, one talents of Tourville could not prevent, taught Louis XIV. that, in completing the defence of his frontiers by land, of the commissioners who had been named to report on he had too much neglected his frontiers on the sea; that the comparative merits of the two roadsteads of Cherbourg this great prince, however, profiting by experience, soon and La Hogue, had addressed a memorial to the minister discovered that England owed the superiority of her ma- of marine, in which he expatiated at great length on the rine to the military establishments which she possessed numerous advantages held out by the former, and partiin the Channel.” With a view of securing to France simi- cularly with regard to the security of the anchorage. He lar advantages, the Marechal de Vauban was directed to proposed to construct, at the distance of a league in the visit the coasts of Normandy, for the purpose of adopting sea, a stone dike of 2000 toises in length, leaving three measures for placing in security against hostile attacks all open passages into the roadstead it wras intending to cover, such bays, harbours, and inlets, as were favourable for the one in the middle, and one at each extremity. This dike, disembarkation of troops; and to furnish plans of such like that which was sunk before Rochelle, was proposed works as he might judge to be necessary, not only for mi- to have as its nucleus a number of ships filled with malitary, but for naval purposes. Among other projects, he sonry, floated off and sunk in proper situations, and afterreported that the roadstead of Cherbourg possessed the wards to be cased with large sunken stones to the height means of attack, of defence, and of protection ; that it was of fifty feet above the bottom of the sea. The reason asvery capable of exerting an influence on maritime war, signed for sinking the stone vessels was the supposition, and in their commercial relations with the northern pow- that an under current might cause so much motion at the ers ; that it was the spot on which the head-quarters bottom of the sea as wTould derange the level, and work should be established on the coast of the Channel; and, in away the loose stones; so little appears at that time to short, that it was a central advanced post with regard to have been known of the increasing tranquillity of the waves England. He moreover reported, that it might be made of the sea in proportion to the increasing depth of water. a port for the safe retreat of a squadron crippled by On this plan the commissioners observed, 1. That in orstormy weather, or beaten by an enemy, or even for the der to construct a dike of 2000 toises in length, with slopreception of a victorious fleet with its prizes. By thus ing sides proportioned to its height, there would be reconverting the present exposed roadstead of Cherbourg quired so great a number of old ships as could hardly be into a safe and protected anchorage for a fleet of men of collected in all France in less than ten years; and if purwar, France, he said, would be able to watch the motions chased from foreigners, the expense would be enormous. of England, to oblige her at all times to keep a corre- 2. That the assemblingand employing the necessary number sponding fleet in the Channel, and to menace her shores of seamen w'ould be next to impossible, but, if possible, with invasion, of which she at all times stood so much in highly impolitic, when, just at the close of a maritime war, dread. commerce felt a pressing want of their services; whereas Opinions, however, being divided between the advan- it might be practicable, and would be advantageous, to tages of La Hogue and Cherbourg, Louis XVI., imme- employ the military for some time before disbanding them. diately after the conclusion of the American war, issued 3. That no comparison would hold good between the roadhis directions to M. de Castries, secretary of state for the stead of Cherbourg, with an opening to the sea of 3600 marine, to appoint a special commission to consider and toises, and a depth of forty to forty-two feet of water at the report which of these two roadsteads combined the most lowest ebb, and the closing up of the entrance of the port advantages, and was in all respects preferable for con- of Rochelle, which is only 740 toises in length, and the structing a port and naval arsenal capable of receiving and depth of water only five or six toises. 4. That the upper equipping from eighty to one hundred vessels of war of part of the projected dike, being exposed to the violent different descriptions. The commissioners had little he- action of the sea, the stability of that part could not be sitation in deciding upon Cherbourg, because, by means depended on; and besides, a dike covered at high spring° a breakwater, it would be capable not only of admitting tides with eighteen feet water would not fulfil the two ina fleet to ride securely at anchor when thus sheltered from dispensable conditions,—smooth water, and protection tie sea, but also of affording them protection against any against an enemy. These arguments were deemed con-

breakwater. 216 _ . „ , „oe, -u-ri. fnp-ether bv beams of wood pointing to the common cen- Breal < c g ^ being the iie ra dius. The The frame Break- elusive, and the plan of M. de la Bretonmere tre^each the section section 0off tthe radius. frame of of water water. doned. each cone was composed of eighty large upright beams, In 1781 M. de Cessart, inspector-general of bridges and twenty-four feet long and one foot square. On these embankments, received directions to prepare a plan that were erected eighty more, of fourteen feet in length, should cover a fleet of from 80 to 100 ships of war in the making in the whole 320 of these large uprights; the roadstead of Cherbourg from the attack of an enemy, and machine was then planked, hooped, and firmly fixed togeprotect them against the elements. M. de Cessart was ther with iron bolts. fully aware, that to raise a barrier in front of this roadstead, The cone at Havre being completed, the next operathe middle and in Uie IIllUUlC of U1 the LWC sea, capable of resisting□ the . inl- tion was to tow it off to the particular spot where it was petuosity of the waves, and repelling the enterprises of to be sunk. Being open at the bottom, it was found neJ was the LUC enemy, enemy? v* cio *no easy — .i ^ “t Nothing, saysr\j he, * that -I task. i 1 nri? ;in nn- cessary to attach to the lower circumference 284) large I had ever performed, or that I had ever read of m anexterior and part to the interior cone; 1 e t e ’ jprob^ing^lacedin rfieO gmndeur ofthis fifty of casks, attached by linea of towards equal lengths, from ^JlcleCU ill companson^with i ai_ r\nl'tr mnflP O besides the bottom the inner circle, to float the centre, iect.” " He suggested, as the preferable and only mode of and thus assist in keeping it upright and steady. It was answering the purpose of producing smooth water in the easy enough, by these means, to float off a vessel of this roadstead, that, instead of one continued dike or mole, kind. M. de Cessart observes, that the force of 7200 a number of large masses, separated from each other, ot a pounds produced by a capstan, was found sufficient to circular form, with an elevation greatly inclined, should draw it on the water to a distance equal to the length be substituted; in short, a series of truncated cones, of its own diameter, or about twenty-five toises, in two which, touching each other at their bases, might present minutes. to the sea at the surface alternate obstacles and openings, “ The success of the experiment made at Havre,” says and thus interrupt and break down the waves previous to M. Curt, “ had inspired such veneration for the conical their entering the harbour. He also considered that, as these openings at the'surface would not exeeed seventy- caissons, that those persons who had been most disposed two fee?, a sufficient barrier would be formed against the to object to the plan were now obliged to be silent. The passage of an enemy’s vessel; and that, if necessary, in result of the experiment at once decided the government commence operations at Cherbourg. M. de Cessart time of war it might be rendered still more secuie by to was appointed director of the works, with four engineers placing strong chains of iron across the intervals. It was proposed to construct these conical caissons of wood, the to assist him. A permanent council, consisting of comnumber of which, to cover a front of 2000 toises, would manders in chief, directors, engineers, &c. was ordered amount to ninety, which, at 360,000 livres for each cone, to reside for six summer months at Cherbourg, and the would cause a total expense of 32,400,000 for the whole. other six in Paris ; and a considerable body of troops were The number, however, was afterwards reduced to sixty- marched down to the neighbourhood, to furnish a compefour, and the time estimated for completing the work tent number of artificers and labourers, to be employed on thirteen years. Each cone was to be 150 feet in diame- this great national undertaking. In 1783 the buildings were commenced for lodging the ter at the base, and sixty feet in diameter at the top, and principal officers of the civil and military departments, from sixty to seventy feet in height, the depth of water at spring tides in the line in which they were intended to and their respective establishments; a naval yard was be sunk varying from about fifty-six to seventy feet. They marked out and inclosed; roads of communication were were proposed to be sunk without any bottoms in them, opened with the forts ; and at Becquet, about a league to the by which the upward resistance of the water, acting on a eastward of Cherbourg, a small harbour was dug out for the base whose surface was equal to 17,678 square feet, would reception of about eighty vessels, which were to be employbe avoided. The caissons, floated off by casks attached ed in transporting the stones from thence by sea. On the 6th June 1784 the first cone was floated off to their inner and outer circumference, being towed to the spot where they were destined to be sunk, were then to and sunk, and the second on the 7th July following, in be filled with stones to the tops, and left for a while to presence of 10,000 spectators, assembled on the shores settle; after which the upper part, commencing with the and quays of Cherbourg; but before the cavity of the line of low water, was to be built with masonry laid in latter could be filled with stones, a storm, in the month of August, which continued five days, entirely demolished pozzolana, and encased with stones of granite. This plan of a stone dike or breakwater being laid in the upper part of this cone. In the course of this summer detail before the minister of marine, it was deemed pro- the quantity of stones sunk within the cavities of the two per, on a subject so entirely novel, and of such great na- cones, outside their bases, and in the intermediate space, tional importance, to consult the ablest men in France be- amounted to 4600 cubic toises, or about 65,000 tons. In 1785 three more cones were completed and sunk at fore any steps should be taken for carrying it into execution. The details were accordingly submitted to the four irregular intervals; and, at the end of that year, the quancommissioners, M. de Borda, a naval officer and member tity sunk amounted to 17,767 cubic toises, or about of the Academy of Sciences; M. de Fleurieu, capitaine 250,000 tons. In 1786 five additional cones were comde vaisseau, and director of ports and naval arsenals, af- pleted and sunk, one of them in presence of the king; terwards minister of marine ; M. Peronnet, member of the and the quantity of stones thrown within them, and deAcademy of Sciences, chief engineer of bridges and em- posited on the dike connecting the cones, amounted, at bankments ; and M. de Chezy, inspector and director of the end of this year, to 42,862 cubic toises, or 600,000 the school of engineers. They recommended that, in the tons. In 1787 five more cones were sunk and filled with first instance, an experimental cone should be construct- stones, making, in the whole, fifteen; and the distance ed and floated off. Instead, however, of sixty feet in between the first and fifteenth cone was 1203 toises, and height, the cone made at Havre was only thirty-six feet; the quantity of stones deposited within these cones and the circumference of its base 472 feet, and having a slope the connecting dike, at the end of this year, amounted to of sixty degrees; the upper circumference was 339 feet. 71,585 cubic toises, or more than 1,000,000 tons. The Within the exterior cone, at the distance of five feet ten violent gales of wind that are frequent in November and inches from it, was an interior and concentric cone, bound December carried away all the upper parts of the five

BREAK I :ikcones which were sunk this year. In 1788 three more v -jr. were sunk, but the upper parts of the first two were carvJt 'w’ rje(j aWay as the others had been ; the height of the third was, therefore, reduced, so as to be, when sunk, on a level with low water; but this cone was upset and soon went to pieces. The enormous expense, and the delay that had been occasioned, in completing and sinking these eighteen cones, exhausted the patience of the government, so that in the following year, 1789, it caused the three cones, then on the building slips, to be sold for whatever they would fetch. The total quantity of stone that was sunk within the cones, and on the intermediate dike, from the year 1784 to the end of December 1790, being seven years, amounted to 373,359 cubic toises, or about 5,300,000 tons. These eighteen cones being sunk at irregular distances from each other, some being 25 toises, and others 300 toises from centre to centre, occupied aline of 1950 toises in length. The distance of the first cone from the island Pelee, on the east, was 510, and of the eighteenth, to Fort Querqueville, on the wrest, 1200 toises ; so that the whole entrance or opening of the roadstead of Cherbourg was originally 3660 toises, more than one-half of which was now imperfectly covered by the breakwater. The expense of this great undertaking was not, we suspect, accurately known, and could not, probably, be ascertained. M. de Cessart estimates the eighteen cones alone at 6,231,407 livres, or about L.260,000; and the total expense incurred between the 1st of April 1783 and the 1st January 1791, he states as under : Livres. The value of the materials of the cones ..2,462,369 9 6 The value of the workmanship 1,560,560 9 9 The conveyance and sinking of stones ..14,880,074 2 5 Incidental expenses for buildings, magazines, &c 2,359,489 5 0 Contingent expenses 395,926 13 4

f I

Making the general total 21,658,420 0 0 or L.900,000 sterling. In this estimate the extra pay to the troops and seamen employed would not appear to be included; for M. de Curt, in his report to the national assembly, states the total expense to have amounted to 32,000,000 livres, or L.1,300,000 sterling ; and that a farther sum would be required of 879,648 livres, to bring the top of the dike to an uniform height, namely, a little above the level of the surface at low water of ordinary tides. The number of people employed was prodigious. To enable M. de Cessart to complete and sink five cones a year, he found it necessary to employ 250 carpenters, 30 blacksmiths, 200 stone-hewers, and 200 masons ; in all 680 artificers. The number of quarrymen and others employed in transporting 174,720 cubic toises of stone for the 64 cones originally intended, or 13,650 yearly, was estimated at 400 workmen, 100 horses, 30 drivers, 24 chasses-marees, each carrying seven cubic toises, or about 98 tons, with 100 seamen ; making an aggregate for this service of 526 men, and for the whole operation from 1200 to 1500 artificers and labourers, to which were actually superadded about 3000 soldiers. A very considerable part of the expense might have been saved by dispensing altogether with the cones, all of which burst, as might have been expected, from the superincumbent weight of a deep column of wrater pressing the stones within against their sides. The ninth cone, which was sunk in 1786, went to pieces in 1800, after standing fourteen years ; another reached the duration of five years ; six remained on an average about four years ; and all the rest went in pieces within a year from the time of their being sunk, vol. v.

WATER. 217 The failure of the cones, and the breaking out of the BreakRevolution, put an entire stop, for some time, to all opera- water, tions at Cherbourg. The attention, however, of the national assembly was speedily called to what they considered to be an object of great national importance. In 1791 they directed their committee for the marine to make out a detailed report of the operations that had already been carried on. On this report being given in by M. de Curt, in the name of the committee, it was read and approved by the assembly, and funds to a certain extent decreed, to complete the undertaking on a new plan, proposed by M. de Cessart. The principal feature of this plan was that of casing over the surface of the dike as it then stood with large blocks of stone, and of carrying the height of the breakwater along the whole of its extent, so far above the high-water mark of spring tides as to render it capable of receiving batteries on the summit, at the middle, and at the two extremities. The slope of the side next to the roadstead was found on examination to sustain itself unaltered at an angle of forty-five degrees, but the slope on the side next to the sea, whose base was three for one of height, had given way to the depth of fourteen feet below the low-water mark; and the materials being composed of small stones, were washed away, and had formed themselves into a prolonged slope of one foot only in height for ten feet of base, which was therefore concluded to be the natural slope made by the sea when acting upon a shingly shore; a conclusion, however, too vague to be correct, as the slope occasioned by the action of the sea must depend on the nature of the materials against which it acts, and the force and direction of the acting power. A sandy beach, for instance, has invariably the most gradual slope, gravel the next, shingles the next, and large masses of rock or stone the most precipitous. At the present time the stones of the breakwater, by constant friction, have worn away the sharp angles, and it has been found that the base on the side next to the sea is on the average fully eleven for one of perpendicular height. It was proposed, therefore, to cover the side with a coating of stone twelve feet thick, to consist of blocks of twelve, fifteen, twenty, and thirty cubic feet, or from one to two tons each, which casing was to be carried to the height of twelve feet above the high-water mark of the highest spring-tides; the size of the stones to increase towards the summit, so as to be capable of resisting the percussion of the weaves, which is there the strongest. It was calculated that this covering of twelve feet thick on both sides would require for each toise in length seventy cubic toises of stone, and that the whole length of the dike would consequently require 136,500 cubic toises, which, by deducting for the vacant spaces between the stones, would be reduced to 113,750 cubic toises of stone, or about one million and a half of tons. It was further calculated, that the expense of quarrying, the transport to the quays, the loading, conveyance, and discharging machinery, together with the commissioners, clerks, &c. would cost for each cubic toise deposited on the dike the sum of fifty-five livres, which for 113,750 cubic toises would amount to 6,256,250 livres, and, adding for contingencies 600,000 livres, the total estimate amounted to 6,856,250 livres. The machinery employed for thus casing the breakwater may be seen in Plate CXXVIIL, in which fig. 4 represents a section of a lighter on which it is erected. AZX is an elevated deck or platform. Y, three rollers of six inches diameter. TK, two beams or sheers, moving on trunnions in grooves at T. S, hooks to hold the sheers at the proper angle of inclination. 2E

breakwater. dent • but it had no dock-yard, nor means of giving to a Break, L, the axle of the windlass or wheels B, round which ship a large refit or repair. He might have thought too, jater. the rope of the pulleys passes. The wheels are 12 feet in as we believe most of our naval officers do, that a fleet of ships riding at anchor behind the breakwater are easily dl hSCa chasse-maree laden with blocks of stone. attackable bv fire-ships, as the same wind which carries a E, the block and its hook laying hold of an non chain vessel in at one entrance will carry her out at the other, and the course would lie directly through the centre of r °F;dtheSstone hoisted to the platform AZ (fig. 4), when the ^ fleet ^ at anchor. Besides, it might ^ be possible, in eerthe brace is unhooked at S; the hoisting continu ^ windS; under the lee of the centre part of the break“nit U1o0ffrteSwUrch,Ssub;p0o“t t^e windlass; J water, to botnbard a fleet at anchor in the roadstead withm stone F is then lowered upon the ^ ^ He determined, therefore, to establish a large dockthe whence it is pushed forward by men to 1 , • d t Cherbourg, not merely for repairing, but also for off which it is rolled into the water upon the side of the ^ ]arge/t class ^ ships of war; t0 flike, , . 1 :nn. n rpriain number dffi a basin that should contain fifty or sixty sail of the It was calculated that, by employing a ce p " . t0 construct dry-docks and slips for building and reef these machines, 34,090 toises -^t be deposite^ m ^to cmist ^ & ^ ^ ofthefirst rank. In one year, reckoning only six woiking m , 1 completed at an expense, as Bona,„ises per month, or that 487 “‘^ole com- parte “ said to have asserted when on hoard the Nordike might be covered in one season, and t thumberland, and which has since been confirmed, of pleted in four years. Very littie progre^ i , ^ L.3 000,000 sterling. A wet-dock of the same magnitude he r been made at the commencement of . ^ , " f,b communicating with it was then begun, that period the centre of the dlke offiy a a battf The oniy description that we have been able to find m above the high-water mark, in which was p } J work, which took ten years in carrying and a small garrison of soldiers, the whole of whmh were ig contaIned in a short letter from M. swept away by a heavy sea, occasmned by t Pierre-Aime Lair, secretary to the Society of Agriculture gale of wind in the year 1809, W^nfthr 1)reakwater and Commerce of Caen, who was present at the ceremony which had been erected on this part of the breakwater, ana A,om ’ ; thereat basin, in presence 8 the men, women, and children which composed the gar- of °Pen'"f ^ Loug on the 27th August 1813. Hson, together with several workmen we^ out of a rock of graat the same time two sloops of war n , .. . •>. fiCv1:st or eneiss, the density and hardness of which driven on shore and dashed in pieces. ^ increased as the workmen descended from the surface, sin]. such as might have been expected.. The c g compares it to an immense trough dug out of a single large stones upon the small ones, already roun - . d abie 0f containing many millions of cubic stant attrition, could not be otherwise; the ^ter acting know, Lwever, that M. Lair is “ “which that that it is the notwhole one mass of sides rock,are butcased rock with and the extremity of the base, to wtnen *e t breakwatohad travel mixed; of the naturally been brought by the action of t e . constructed wall of red granite; and that a noble At present small spots only are ..s.ble above ttesur"“Iterial, and extending between such°spots exceed three^eet^n Sight'; the intermediate the two forts of Galet and Hornet, separates the basin and spaces are from "l^dime^ions rf'he new basin he states to be about , ‘

100 vards where the height rises to eighteen or is live feet above the high watei maik of the equmoc la

rebuddthe fort.

l ‘CeSe^e^tl^ofIb^ The largest of the stones in this mass to about thirty millions of cubic feet; and that

S^^t0nS’ “,1 ^ suffied, is capable of sliding «P and down with its ciently to bring either wheel B or ^ int ^ al shaft; corresponding wheel E or D upon the ^j^nt and as the diameters of BE and CD are achine can proportions, the velocity of the motion of the n

r

BREWING. 257 B Vmg. be varied at pleasure by using one or other : b and c are and at the same time, by closing the dampers from the Brewing, two levers, which are forked at the ends, and embrace flues into the chimney, the intensity of the draught collars at the ends of the tube X; and the levers being through the fire is checked, which is very necessary to united by a rod, the handle b gives the means of moving be done when the contents of the copper are drawn off. the tube X and its wheels BC up or down to obtain the Immediately over the fire-grate c, an arch of fire-bricks or stone s is placed beneath the bottom of the copper, to action of the different wheels. Figs. 3 and 4 represent a large close copper. AA is defend it from the intense heat. The chimney is supthe copper, a»d B the pan placed over it. The copper ported on iron columns RR. Behind the fire-grate c is a has a large tube E rising up from the dome of it, to con- cavity r, for the reception of the masses of scoriae which vey the steam; and from the top of this four inclined are always formed in so large a fire. They are pushed pipes R descend, the ends being immersed beneath the back off the grate into this receptacle with an iron hook surface of the water or wort contained in the pan. By as fast as they accumulate. The bottom of this recepthis means the steam which rises from the copper issues tacle is formed of sliding iron doors, which can be opened from the ends of the pipes R, and rises in bubbles through by drawing them out, and in this way the clinkers are disthe liquor in the pan, so as to heat it. In the centre of charged ; or the whole of the fire may be driven back off the copper is a perpendicular spindle a, which, at the the grate into this cavity, and will then fall through into lower end, has arms dd fixed projecting from it, and is the ash-pit and be removed into the copper, which is very turned round by a cog-wheel b at the upper end. From necessary to be done when the copper is to be cooled, so the arms dd chains are hung in loops, which drag round that men may descend into it to clean out the sediment upon the bottom of the copper when the axis is turned; which is left after boiling the wort. For a more particuand this motion stirs up the hops to keep them from burn- lar description of this method of setting boilers, see Phiing at the bottom : fff is a chain and roller to draw up the losophical Magazine, vol. xvii. Fig. 6 represents one of the sluice-cocks which are used spindle a when the rowser is not wanted; and ee are iron braces proceeding from the outside of the copper, to re- to make the communications of the pipes with the pumps tain the axis a firmly in the centre of the copper. D is or other parts of the brewery. BB represents the pipe in the •waste-pipe for carrying off the steam into the chim- which the cock is placed. The two parts of this pipe are ney when it is not required to heat the liquor in the pan. screwed to the sides of a box CC, in which a slider A The copper represented in the drawing is made in the rises and falls, and intercepts at pleasure the passage of same manner as usual; but the fire is applied beneath it the pipe. The slider is moved by the rod a, which passes in a manner very different from the common brewing-cop- through a stuffing-box in the top, the box which contains pers. The method was devised with a view to the burn- the slider, and has the rack b fastened to it. The rack is ing or consuming of the smoke, and was employed in the moved by a pinion fixed upon the axis of a handle e, and brewery of Messrs Meux and Company, London, about the rack and pinion is contained in a frame d, which is the year 1803. supported by two pillars. The frame contains a small The fire-place is divided into two by a wall extended roller behind the rack, which bears it up towards the pibeneath the bottom of the boiler, as shown by Z in the nion, and keeps its teeth up to the teeth of the pinion. plan, fig. 4, where the dotted circle A represents the bot- The slider A is made to fit accurately against the intertom of the copper, and the circle X its largest part. The nal surface of the box C, and it is made to bear against section in fig. 3 shows only one of these fire-places, of this surface by the pressure of a spring, so as to make a which C is the fire-grate. The raw coal is not thrown in perfectly close fitting. through the fire-door in the manner of common furnaces, Fig. 5 is a small cock to be placed in the side of the but is put into a narrow inclined box of cast-iron //, built great store-vats, for the purpose of drawing off a small in the brick-work, and shaped like a hopper. The coals quantity of beer, to taste and try its quality. A is a part contained in this hopper fill it up, and stop the entrance of the stave or thickness of the great store-vat; into this of the air so as to answer the purpose of a door; and the the tube B of the cock is fitted, and is held tight in its coals at the lowest part or mouth of the hopper are brought place by a nut aa screwed on withinside. At the other into a state of ignition before they are forced forwards end of the tube B a plug c is fitted, by grinding it into a into the furnace, which is done by introducing a rake or cone, and it is kept in by a screw. This plug has a hole poker at i, just beneath the lower end of the hopper b, up the centre of it, and from this a hole proceeds sideand forcing the coals forwards upon the grate bars C. ways and corresponds with a hole made through the side Immediately over the hopper h, a narrow passage is left of the tube when the cock is open; but when the plug c to admit a stream of fresh air along the top of the hopper is turned round, the hole will not coincide, and then the to pass over the surface of the fuel which is burning at cock will be shut. D is the handle or key of the cock, the lower end of the hopper h. By this means the smoke by which its plug is turned to open or shut it; this handle rising from that portion of fuel is carried forwards over is put up the bore of the tube (the cover E being first unthe burning coals upon the grate C, and is thereby con- screwed and removed), and the end of it is adapted to fit sumed. Beyond the grate bars c, a breast wall S is erect- the end of the plug of the cock. The handle has a tube ed, to direct the flame upwards against the bottom of the or passage bored up it to convey the beer away from the boiler A, and thence descending under the bottom, the cock when it is opened, and from this the passage f flame is received into the flues, which make each a half through the handle, leads to draw the beer into a glass turn round the lower part of the copper, as shown in the or tumbler. The hole in the side of the plug is so arplan at tt, and then enter the chimney or perpendicular ranged, that when the handle is turned into a perpendiflue W at the same point; the entrance being regulated cular direction with the passage f downwards, the cock by a damper to make the draught more or less intense. will be open. The intention of this contrivance is, that There is also a sliding door or damper E, which closes up there shall be no considerable projection beyond the surthe lower part of the chimney; and by means of these two face of the tun; because it sometimes happens that a dampers the fire under the copper can be regulated to great hoop of the tun breaks, and, falling down, its great the greatest precision; for by opening the damper F it weight would strike out any cock which had a projection ; admits the cold air to enter immediately into the chim- and if this happened in the night much beer might be lost ney W, and thus take off the rapidity of the draught; before it was discovered. The cock above described being

258 B R I Briancon almost wholly withinside, and having scarcely any pro11 jection beyond the outside surface of the tun, is secure Bribery. frorn thjs accident. Fig. 7 is a small contrivance of a vent peg, to be screwed into the head of a common cask when the beer is to be drawn off from it, and it is necessary to admit some aii to allow the beer to flow. A A represents a portion of the head of the cask into which the tube B is screwed. The

B

R

I

top of this tube is surrounded by a small cup, from which Bricia; proiect, the two small handles CC, by which the peg is | turned round to screw it into the cask. The cup round the upper part ot the tube is filled with water, and into f'1 this a small cup D is inverted; in consequence, the air can gain admission into the cask when the pressure within is so far diminished that the air will bubble up through the water, and enter beneath the small cup D.

BRIANCON, an arrondissement of the department of the insinuating nature and gigantic progress of this vice, once admitted. Plato, therefore, in his ideal repubthe Upper 'Alps, in France, 658 square miles in extent, when lic, orders who take presents for doing their duty to and containing five cantons, twenty-seven communes, and be punishedthose in the severest manner; and by the laws of 82,370 inhabitants. The chief place, a city of the same Athens, he who offered a bribe was prosecuted, as w-ell name, stands in an alpine situation on the liver Durance, as he w ho received it. In England this offence of taking and is strongly fortified, having been considered as the bribes is punished, in officers, with fine and imprikey of the gate between France and Italy. It contains sonment ; and in thoseinferior offer a bribe, though it be not only 2976 civil inhabitants. Long. 6. 39. E. Lat. 44. taken, the same. But who in judges, especially the superior 64. N. . „„ , BRIANSK, a circle in the Russian government ot Orel, ones, it has always been looked upon as so heinous an with a population of 68,540 persons. I he chief place is offence, that Chief Justice Thorpe was hanged for it in the the city of the same name, on the river Desna. It trades reign of Edward III. By a statute 11 Henry IV. it was in iron, corn, hemp, flax, and oak-bark, and contains about enacted that all judges and officers of the king convicted of bribery should forfeit triple the bribe, be punished at 6000 inhabitants. Long. 34. 14. E. Lat. 53. 21. N. BRIAREUS, in fabulous history, a giant, the son of the king’s will, and be discharged from his service for . iEther, Titan, or Ccelus, and Terra. This was his name ever. BRICIANI, those of the order of that name. This was in heaven ; but on the earth he was called /Egeon. He was of singular service to Jupiter, when Juno, Pallas, Nep- a military order, instituted by St Bridget, queen of Sweden, tune, and. the rest of the gods, endeavoured to bind him who gave them the rules and constitutions of the orders in chains and dethrone him; but he afterwards conspired of Malta and St Augustin. This order was approved of by with the rest of his gigantic brethren to dethrone the fa- Pope Urban V. BRICK, a kind of artificial stone made of baked clay. ther of the gods. In adverting to this legend, Virgil de1. The art of making bricks is so simple that it must History scribes him as having a hundred hands and fifty heads, and have been practised in the earliest ages of the world; probreathing out fire. 4 he fable says that Jupiter, to punish before mankind had discovered the method ot fahim, thrust him under ./Etna, and that, as often as he moves, bably shioning stones to suit the purposes ot building, I he book the mountain belches out fire. BRIBE, a reward given to pervert the judgment. The of Genesis informs us, that burnt bricks were employed in word is French, bribe, which originally denotes a bit, frag- the construction of Babel. Now, as this structure appeals ment, or relic of meat taken off the table; so that bribe to have been raised about four hundred years after the imports as much as panis mendicatus, and still keeps up period of the Flood, we may say, without much exaggerathe idea of the matter of which bribes anciently consisted. tion, that the method of making bricks existed from the Hence also the Spaniards use bribar and brivar for beg- very origin of society. Bricks seem to have been in comging ; and brivia, brivoneria, and brivonismo, for beggary. mon use in Egypt while the Israelites were in subjection In the writers of the middle ages, a bribe given to a judge to that nation ; for the task assigned them was the making is called quato litis, and the receiver cawpi particeps, or of brick; and we are informed in Exodus that the Israelcambi particeps; because the spoils of the field, or the ites built two Egyptian cities. No particulars are given in Scripture of the method of making bricks; but as straw profits of the cause, w^ere thus shared with the giver. BRIBERY, in Law, is a high offence, where a person was one of the ingredients, and as it very seldom rains in in a judicial station takes any fee, gift, reward, or brockage Egypt, it is probable that their bricks were not burnt, but for doing his office, except of the king. But, taken large- merely baked by the heat ot the sun. Ihe same mode o ly, it signifies the receiving or offering any undue rew ard making bricks seems still to be practised in the East; tor t”o or by any person concerned in the administration of the ruins of the tower near Bagdad are formed ot unpublic justice, whether judge, officer, or other, to act con- burnt bricks. We have seen specimens from that place; trary to his duty ; and sometimes it signifies the taking or they are large, but thin, and have a brown colour. It is not at ail likely that structures of unburnt brick shouid giving of a reward for public office. In the East it is the custom never to petition any supe- have been able to resist the weather since the time o rior for justice, not excepting their kings, without a pre- Nebuchadnezzar; and hence it is probable that the tower sent. This is calculated for the genius of despotic coun- in question was raised by the Arabs in comparatively mo_ ,^ tries, where the true principles of government are not dern times. The art of brick-making was carried to considerab understood, and it is imagined that there is no obligation ma ® due from the superior to the inferior, no relative duty perfection by the Greeks. Pliny informs us that they owing from the governor to the governed. The Roman use of bricks of three different sizes, distinguished by t e law, though it contained many severe injunctions against following names; didoron, or six inches long; tetradoron, or bribery, as well for selling a man’s vote in the senate or twelve inches long ; and pentadoron, or fifteen inches long other public assembly, as for the bartering of common (lib. xxxv. c. 14). That the Romans excelled in the art o justice, yet, by a strange indulgence in one instance, it ta- making bricks we have the amplest evidence, since brie as citly encouraged this practice, by allowing the magistrate structures raised at Rome 1700 years ago still remain carr *f^ to receive small presents, provided they did not on the entire as when first built. Brick-making has been whole exceed a hundred crowns a year; not considering to great perfection by the Dutch, who have long been in

BRIG K-M AKIN G. 259 •Ick. habit of forming their floors, and even in some cases of Potter’s clay is a compound of Brick. paving their streets with bricks. And it is remarkable how Silica 43-5 long their bricks will continue uninjured in such situations. Alumina 33*2 Though brick-making has long been carried on in England, Lime 3-5 and especially in the neighbourhood of London, upon a Oxide of iron LO very great scale, and though the process upon the whole Water 18-0 is conducted in this country with very considerable skill, yet it must be acknowledged that English bricks are by no means so durable as Dutch bricks. We are disposed Loss. to ascribe this inferiority not so much to the nature of the materials employed in the manufacture of English bricks, Total 100-0 as to the mode most frequently employed in London in When the clay proceeds from the decomposition of building houses, hew of the London houses, compara- hornblende, as is likewise often the case, it contains about tively speaking, are freeholds. Most of them are built three parts and a half of silica, one of alumina, one of upon ground let for a lease of a certain number of years, lime, and about one and a half of oxide of iron. Somewhich seldom exceeds ninety-nine years. After the ex- times the grains of sand which exist in clay consist of piration of this period, the house becomes the property of fragments of felspar. In such cases the clay may be fused the landlord who let the ground. Thus it becomes the by heat. interest of the builder to construct the house so that it No mixture of alumina and silica, in any proportions shall last only as long as the lease. Hence the goodness whatever, can be fused by the strongest heat which can of the bricks becomes only a secondary object. Their be raised in our furnaces. Hence such mixtures are best cheapness is the principal point. The object, therefore, adapted for making fire-bricks, crucibles, and glass-house of the brickmakers is not to furnish durable bricks, but to pots. Stourbridge clay is such a mixture, blackened by make them at as cheap a rate as possible. Accordingly, coaly matter. It answers these purposes better than any the saving of manual labour, and of fuel, has been car- other clay in England. It is a slate clay belonging to the ried by the makers of London bricks to very great lengths. coal formation, and contains interspersed coaly matter. We cannot but consider this mode of proceeding as very There is a similar bed of clay upon the banks of the Calobjectionable, and as entailing a much heavier expense der, about ten miles east from Glasgow-. Mr Buttray uses upon London than would have been incurred had twice it to make the crucibles in which he fuses steel, a process the original price been laid out upon the bricks when they requiring the most intense heat that can be raised in furwere first used, and had the houses been constructed to naces. Its quality seems fully equal to that of Stourbridge last a thousand instead of a hundred years. No doubt, clay. Neither can a mixture of lime and alumina be fused, certain advantages attend these ephemeral structures. in whatever proportions the ingredients be mixed. But a The inhabitants are enabled, once every century, to suit mixture of silica, lime, and alumina, is very fusible, and their houses to the prevailing taste of the day ; and thus, the fusion is most readily effected when we employ two there are no antiquated houses in London. But as the parts of silica to one of lime. The presence of oxide of increase of the price of all the materials of building has iron also renders clay fusible, but not unless its proportion more than kept pace with the increase of the wealth of be much greater than ever is likely to occur in any clay individuals, it is to be questioned whether the houses used for the manufacture of bricks. are always improved when they are pulled down and reFor making common bricks, the most durable mixture built. ought to be common clay and limestone or chalk. PerNat eand 2. The best material for making brick is what in the haps the best proportions would be three parts of clay, and one part of limestone or chalk in powder. When ctn ° to English language is called loam, a term usually applied a natural mixture of sand and clay. Such a mixture such a mixture is exposed to heat, it would experience an may be converted into brick without any addition what- incipient fusion, and would thereby be rendered much ever. Marl likewise answers the purpose of common harder and denser than common bricks. The consebricks very well, indeed better than most other mixtures. quence would be, that it would imbibe much less water, Marl is a natural mixture of limestone and clay in vari- and w ould therefore be much less liable to crack and fall able proportions. Now, the more lime it contains, the to pieces in winter, than common bricks. For when water better does it answer for a manure; and the less lime it has insinuated itself into the pores of a common brick, and contains, the more suitable it is to the brick-maker. is converted into ice, it undergoes an expansion which disIt would be in vain to attempt a particular detail of the locates the parts of the brick and reduces it to fragments. constituents of clay, because they vary'too much from each This is often conspicuously the case with tyles, which, other to admit of any correct generalization. We believe, from their exposed situation, are more liable to be soaked however, that clays very frequently consist of decomposed w ith water than common bricks. Hence also covering the felspar, in which case we may conceive them as composed surface of the brick with a coating of paint has a great of about three parts of silica in the state of a very fine tendency to preserve them from cracking and breaking. powder, and one part of alumina. This is the case with This practice is frequently followed in England. porcelain clay. Indeed, the porcelain clay of Cornwall It would be foreign to the object of this article to enter appears incontrovertibly to be nothing else than decayed into any long details respecting the chemical investigaelspar, or perhaps felspar which never had assumed any and the opinions entertained at diflerent periods reo er form than that of clay. The rock from which it tions is taken is an agglutinated mixture of quartz and this specting the nature of clay. At first it was supposed to be a peculiar species of earth, but Hellot demonstrated c “e quartz is separated by washing. Such a rock that it consisted at least of two constituents; for sulphuric owg it probably be converted into most beautiful brick, acid had the property of destroying its plastic nature, and mere y by cutting it out in the proper shape, and subjectmg it to the requisite heat; or rather, by kneading of rendering it scarcely more adhesive than sand. The e w iole into a paste with the requisite quantity of wa- portion that remained behind did not effervesce with acids. It was not therefore of a calcareous nature. Mr Pott went them3011 ^ and then drying and burning a step farther; he showed, in the continuation of his Lithogeogjiosia, that sulphuric acid formed, with the por-

260 Brick.

brick-making.

cess of kneading the clay, as conducted either in the Brick, tion of clay which it dissolved, a salt possessing the pro- neighbourhood of London or Edinburgh, we have always perties of alum. In the year 1769 Baume published his found a great sparing of labour. Hence we believe the Dissertation on Clays, which he had drawn up in conse- reason why so many of the English bricks appear full of quence of a premium offered by the Academy of sciences cracks, even when sold to the builder. Such bricks ought at Bourdeaux, for the best solution of the following ques- never to be purchased, as it is perfectly obvious that they tion What are the principles and constituents ot clay, cannot make a durable building. and the natural changes which it experiences, and what The kneading of the clay is performed in some places are the methods of rendering it fertile ? The academy by men’s feet, in others by the feet of horses, and in did not consider Baume’s solutions as satisfactory. t others byr machinery. The last method is undoubtedly published his Memoir, in consequence, as a kind ot deti- the best; and we conceive likewise that it might be renance. He had been employed along with Macquer in dered the cheapest. It would be easy to devise machimaking numerous experiments on clay, with a yievv to the nery for kneading the clay, upon principles similar to those improvement of the porcelain manufacture in trance. employed in mashing by the London porter brew ers.. And, Guided by these experiments, he drew as a conclusion if such a machine were driven by water, we conceive that that clay is a mixture of two different substances: 1. 01- it would not be nearly so expensive as either men or lica in a state of purity; 2. Silica combined with an under- horses. , . . . ,, , dose of sulphuric acid. It was the second of these conWhen the clay is sufficiently kneaded, it is moulded stituents that gave to clay its fattish and plastic nature. into the form of a brick, by being put into a very simple Maro-raaf had long before (in 1756) demonstrated that the wooden mould ; and the upper part of the brick is made ingredient of clay which Baume took for a salt, and which smooth and even by cutting off the superfluous part with he affirmed was soluble in water, was a peculiar species of a wooden knife. The process is very simple, and is conearth, different from every other, which constitutes the ducted by the workmen with great rapidity. A good basis of alum, which dissolves in sulphuric acid, but which brickmaker would mould about 5000 bricks in a day. He does not form alum un.ess a portion of potash be added to disengages the bricks from the mould by a gentle stroke the solution. Thus, by the labours of Hellot, Pott, Baume, the back of the mould ; and the wet bricks are at first and Margraaf, the nature of clay was completely developed. on arranged in rows upon long boards. When sufficiently It was ascertained to be a mixture of alumina and silica, dry to be handled, they are turned, and at last piled up in in variable proportions. It was shown, also, that it some- loose walls, which are thatched with straw to keep oft the times contained sulphuric acid, and not unfiequently ram. In this- position they ^ are allowed to . remain till they x potash. Hence the reason why, in some cases, it could have become as dry as they can become in the open air.. be converted into alum by digestion in sulphuric acid, In many cases the clay used for brick-making is destiwithout the necessity of adding any potash to the soluthe requisite quantity of sand. If such clay were tion. Modern chemists have added considerably to these tute ofinto bricks, it would shrink so much in their burnfacts. They have shown that chalk, felspar, mica, horn- made that the bricks would lose their shape, and would blende, oxide of iron, coal, bitumen, &c. are not unfre- ing, crack in every direction. To prevent this, it is quently mixed with it; and that these additions alter its probably to add a certain quantity of sand. This sand qualities considerably, and render it fit or unfit for the necessary should not be very fine. It answers best when the P31^1" different purposes to which clay is usually applied. cles are of such a size as to be readily distinguished by Prepara3. Clay intended to be made into bricks ought to be tion of the dug out of the earth and exposed to the air and weathei the naked eye. Even when as large as coriander seeds, clay, and for a considerable time before it is employed. I he longer it has been found to answer better than very fine sand. 3r1I formation this exposure is continued, so much the better will it be The brickmakers in the neighbourhood of London ‘ . |§ of the their sand from the bottom of the Thames near W oolwich, fitted for making bricks. This exposure answers a variety brick. it is raised by boats employed for that purpose, and of purposes. If the stones, by the decomposition of which where brought up the river for the use of the brick-makers. the clay has been formed, are not entirely decomposed, 4, No general directions can be given respecting the W this exposure serves to complete the process, by promot- quantity of sand to be mixed with the clay, because t a ing the disintegrating action of the air and rain. I he exdepends upon the nature of the clay and upon the uses posure serves likewise to pulverize the clay, which is. essential to, the making of good bricks. VVe have little for which the bricks are intended. The more sand is doubt that the same amelioration in the clay would be pro- added, the more accurately do the bricks retain their and the less apt are they to crack during the burnduced by simply drying it in the open air, and then grind- shape, 1 ing it to powder in a mill. By such a process the quality ing, but at the same time their strength is diminished. of the bricks would be prodigiously improved, hmr do we Chemical lutes are often composed of four parts of sand conceive that such an addition would greatly enhance the and one part of clay. Such mixtures do not contract expenses of the brickmaker, at least in those districts much in burning, and, therefore, are not apt to ciac an drop off, which is the reason why chemists employ them. where the mill could be driven by water. When the clay has been reduced to powder, the next But they have not the adhesiveness of brick attei being step is to make it into a stiff paste with water. Too much burned, and would not therefore answer the purposes ot water should not be employed, because it is injurious to the brick-maker. In stone-ware the mixture consists ot about four of clay and one of fine~ sand. It burns• ,o the strength of the bricks; and the utmost care should snouici be ne auuui iuui parts pan-s ui -taken to mix the whole of the clay as equally as possible a hard «pab e . « an. with the water. If some parts of the paste be moister steel. Such a proportion, then, in many cases would anthan others, it will occasion an inequality in the texture swer the purposes of the brick-maker. The London brick makers make another addition to of the bricks formed of it, will render them apt to crack, and will greatly injure both their strength and their beau- clay, which we believe is peculiar to them. They add to ty. Hence the great importance of working the clay for every three parts of the clay about one part of the as ies a considerable length of time before moulding it into from the fire-places of the city of London. . These aslies bricks. It is in this part of the process that we believe contain some earthy matter; but they consist in a giea British brickmakers in general are most defective. As measure of small coal unburnt and little altered, which far as we have had an opportunity of witnessing the pro- fallen through the interstices of the grate. The conse-

BRIG K-M A R I N G. 261 BJtk. quence is, that such a mixture, when sufficiently heated, are made by arching the bricks over so as to leave a space Brick, takes fire and burns of itself, though very slowly; so that between each about a brick in width. Over the whole is the London bricks are burned in a great measure by strewed a pretty thick covering of cinders. The flues are means of the fuel mixed with the clay of which they are filled likewise with cinders, or, if they cannot be had, with coal. The fire-place is usually at the west end, and is composed. It is essential to dry the bricks thoroughly in the open generally three feet high. The fire, when once kindled air before burning them; for when heat is applied to wet in the fire-place, propagates itself very slowly through the clay, the water which it contains being prevented from whole clamp, as bricks piled in this manner are called. escaping by the adhesiveness of the mixture, is convert- So very slow is the progress, that bricks in the neighboured into steam, and cracks, and breaks the mass of clay hood of London take about three months in the burning. to pieces. Indeed, after the bricks are rendered as dry The heat is very intense, and, as the fuel is mixed up with as they can become in the open air, they ought to be ex- the clay itself, every part of the brick is sure to be suffiposed at first to a gentle heat, which ought to be raised ciently burnt. We conceive that the mixture of about one fourth of to redness very slowly, and in proportion as the moisture of the brick is dissipated. Water adheres with such ob- chalk with the clay of which the London bricks are made, stinacy to clay, that it is never all driven off by the heat would greatly improve their quality. The consequence at which bricks are burnt. But the portion which re- would be an incipient fusion, which would render their mains is so intimately combined with the clay, as to con- surface much more compact and solid. The only difficulstitute one solid mass, which has no gveat tendency to ty would be to proportion the quantity of chalk so as to absorb an additional quantity of water. prevent complete fusion, which would run the bricks into Bricks are most commonly burnt in a kiln. This is a each other, and destroy them entirely. Bricks made of very simple structure, usually about thirteen feet long, materials which have undergone complete fusion would ten and a half wide, and twelve feet high. The walls are be greatly superior to common bricks. They .would perone foot two inches thick, and incline a little to each other fectly resist the action of the weather, and would, thereas they ascend. The bricks are placed on flat arches, fore, last much longer than common bricks. In Sweden having holes left in them like lattice-work. After the it is customary at some of the iron founderies to cast the bricks are arranged on the kiln, to the number of about scoriae into bricks, which they employ in constructing their 20,000, they are covered with old bricks or tiles. Some furnaces. Such furnaces the writer of this article has brush-wood is then kindled in the kiln, and a moderate seen; and he was assured by the gentleman who had the fire kept up till the bricks are rendered as dry as possible. charge of the works, that they answered fully better than The time required for this is two or three days; and the common bricks. It would be easy to make any quantity bricks are known to be dry when the smoke (which is at of such bricks in some of the large iron founderies of first black) becomes transparent. The mouth of the kiln Great Britain. We are persuaded that such bricks might I is then filled up with pieces of brick and clay, leaving only be brought into use for a variety of purposes with great room to introduce a faggot at a time. This structure at advantage, and might even constitute a lucrative article the mouth of the kiln is called a shinlog. The kiln is then of manufacture. Bricks made from the scoriae of iron and supplied with faggots of furze, heath, fern, or whatever copper founderies would vie in beauty with marble and vegetable substance can be procured at the cheapest rate, porphyry, and would possess a lustre of surface to which till the arches look white, and the fire appears at the top. few marbles could reach. The fire is then diminished, and at length allowed to go Few parts of Great Britain are so well adapted for the out, and the kiln is permitted to cool. This burning pro- making of bricks, according to the London plan, as the cess usually lasts about forty-eight hours. neighbourhood of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. There the enorThe method of burning bricks in the neighbourhood of mous heaps of small coal, which are of no use whatever, London is very different from this; and we do not know would furnish abundance of fuel at a much cheaper rate whether it be practised anywhere else. It obviously ori- than even the London ashes; while the magnesian limeginated from the difficulty of procuring a sufficient quan- stone that occurs in such plenty in the neighbourhood of tity of vegetable matter to burn the enormous number of Sunderland would enable the brickmaker to give the clay bricks consumed every year in London. If we consider the requisite degree of fusibility. the immense extension of houses which has taken place in As bricks form an article of taxation, and furnish a con; London within the last fifty years, and if we consider that siderable revenue to government, their size has been rethis vast city, containing nearly 1,500,000 inhabitants, is gulated by act of parliament. They must not be less than almost renewed every century, we may be able to form eight and a half inches long, two and a half thick, and four some notion of the prodigious quantity of bricks which it inches wide. But, for various purposes, they are nevermust consume. In the country round London there is a theless made of very different and very considerable sizes. particular kind of clay, well known by the name of LonFire-bricks are made in the same way as common bricks, Firedon clay. This clay is almost everywhere covered with but the materials are different. The best clay for their tricks, a bed of gravel, which varies in thickness according to the composition is Stourbridge clay; and, instead of sand, it elevation of the surface. Hence the whole of the country is usual to mix the clay with a quantity of old fire-bricks, round London is fit for making bricks. Nothing more is or crucibles, or glass pots, reduced previously to powder. necessary than to dig through the surface of gravel, and This mixture answers the same purposes as sand, while it get to the clay. does not communicate the tendency to fusion when it We have already mentioned, that about a fourth part comes in contact with various fluxes that are communiof the London bricks consists of small coal kneaded up cated by siliceous sand. along with the clay. When the bricks are sufficiently dry, There is a kind of bricks mentioned by Pliny as used Swimming they are piled up on each other in parallelopipedons to by the ancients, which were so light as to swim in water.bricks. t ie intended height. Between each two rows of brick “ Pitanae in Asia, et in ulterioris Hispaniae civitatibus t ieie is strewed a quantity of cinders, amounting to about Maxilua et Calento, fiunt lateres, qui ciccati non mert iree inches in thickness. At the distance of about nine guntur in aqua.” (Plinii Natur. Histor. lib. xxxv. c. 14.) . rom each other, perpendicular spaces are left, about Pliny does not mention the part of the world in which the a buck wide, which serve the purpose of flues. These earth employed in the manufactures of these bricks wTas

B R I 262 Brick found, though in all probability it could not be far iiom the cities where the bricks are said by Pliny to have been II Brick- made. He says that the material employed was a kind of pumice stone. But it was quite unknown to the moderns, till, in the year 1791, Fabroni found a substance at Castel del Piano, not far from Santa Fiora, situated between Tuscany and the Papal dominions, which formed bricks capable of swimming in water. This is a white earthy matter, which constitutes a bed in that place, and was known in Italy by the name of Latte di Luna. In more recent mineralogical books it is distinguished by the name of farina fossilis (bergmeht). Haiiy considers it as a variety of talc, and Brochant as a vaiiety of nieeischaum. According to the analysis of Fabbroni this substance is composed of Silica ^ Magnesia 15 Alumina 1'Lime 3 Iron 1 Water 1^

B

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and consists of a master, two wardens, twenty assistants, Brick, and seventy-eight on the livery. baying Brick-Laying, the art of framing edifices of bricks. ^ P Moxon has written a treatise expressly on the art of ^ brick-laying, in which he describes the materials, tools, Wy>. and methods of working, used by brick-layers. Great care is to be taken that bricks be laid joint on joint in the middle of the walls as seldom as may be ; and that good bond be made there as well as on the outsides. Some brick-layers, in working a brick and half wall, lay the header on one side of the wall perpendicular to the header on the other side, and so all along the whole course; whereas, if the header on one side of the wall were toothed as much as the stretcher on the other side, it would be a stronger toothing, and the joints of the headers of one side would be in the middle of the headers of the course they lie upon of the other side. If bricks be laid in winter, they ought to be kept as dry as possible ; if in summer, it will save cost to employ boys to wet them, for they will then unite better with the mortar than if dry, and make the work stronger. In large buildings, or where it is thought too much trouble to dip all the bricks separately, water may be thrown on each course after they are 100 But it has been recently analysed by Klaproth, who found laid. If bricks be laid in summer they must be covered; for if the mortar dries too hastily, it w ill not bind so firmits constituents, ly to the bricks as when left to dry more gradually. If Silica bricks be laid in winter they should also be well covered, Alumina 5 to protect them from rain, snow, and frost; which last is Oxide of iron 3 a mortal enemy to mortar, especially where it has been Water 12 wetted just before the frost assaults it. See Building. Loss 1 BRIDE, a newly-married woman. Among the Greeks it was customary for the bride to be conducted from her 100 We see from this analysis that this mineral is neither a father’s house to her husband’s in a chariot, the evening variety of talc nor of meerschaum. One would be dis- being chosen for that purpose to conceal her blushes. She posed to consider it as a hydrate of silica; for both the was placed in the middle, her husband sitting on one side, alumina and oxide of iron are present in so small propor- and one of her most intimate friends on the other; torches tions, that we can scarcely consider them as in chemical were carried before her, and she was entertained on the passage w ith a song suitable to the occasion. When they combination. Considering the composition of this earth, it is rather arrived at the end of the journey the axle-tree of the coach singular that it is capable of being agglutinated by a red they rode in was burnt, to signify that the bride was never heat. We rather suspect that the bricks of Fabbroni, to return to her father’s house. Amongst the Romans the which swim in water, have but very little strength. This, semblance of ravishing by force the bride from her mother, if it be the case, must greatly circumscribe their utility. was kept up in memory, it is said, of the rape of the SaThe colour of the London bricks is not red, as is the bines under Romulus. She was carried home in the nightcase with common bricks and tiles, but a light brownish time to the bridegroom’s house, accompanied by three yellow. This colour is more pleasing to the eye than boys, one of whom carried a torch, and the other two led common brick red, and on that account the London bricks the bride, while a spindle and distaff were carried with are preferred for building houses. The brick-makers as- her. She brought three pieces of money, called asses, in sign a curious enough reason for this colour. According her hand to the bridegroom, whose doors on this occasion and branches of trees. Being to them, their bricks are kept as much as possible from con- were adorned with flowers r tact with the air during their burning. The consequence there interrogated w ho she was, she answered Caia, in of this is, that the iron contained in them is not oxidized memory of Caia Cecilia, wife of Tarquin the elder, who to so great a degree as in common bricks. But this mode was an excellent lanijica or spinstress; and for a singular of reasoning is far from being exact. If air were excluded reason, before her entrance, she lined the door-posts with entirely, the bricks would not be burnt at all, because the wool, and smeared them with grease. Fire and water fire would be extinguished. But if enough of air be ad- being set on the threshold, she touched both; but, startmitted to burn the coal mixed with the clay, which must ing back from the door, refused to enter, till at length she be the case, that air must also act upon the iron, and re- passed the threshold, being careful to step over without duce it to the state of peroxide. Indeed, there can be no touching it. Here the keys were given her, a nuptial doubt that the iron in the London yellow bricks is in the supper was prepared, and minstrels attended ; she was state of peroxide as well as in the red bricks, for the per- seated on the figure of a priapus, and in this situation the oxide of iron gives various colours to bodies, according to attendant boys resigned her to the pronubce, who brought circumstances. We find bodies tinged with it red, yellow, her into the nuptial chamber and put her to bed. dhis and brown, according to the substances with which the office was performed by matrons who had only been once oxide is combined. We ascribe the yellow colour of the married, to denote that the marriage was to be in perLondon bricks to the ashes of the coals, which, by uniting petuity. with the peroxides of iron, form a kind of yellow ochre, (l.) BRIDEGROOM, a newly-married man, the spouse of BmcK-Layer, an artificer, whose business is to build the bride. In nothing have the usages of different nawith bricks, or make brick-work. The London brick-layers tions varied more than in regard to marriage, and the ceform a regular company, which was incorporated in 1568, remonies by which it is celebrated or solemnized. Amongst

B R I U ewell the Romans the bridegroom was decked to receive his bride; his hair was combed and cut in a particular form ; 1 he had a coronet or chaplet on his head, and was dressed in a white garment. BRIDEWELL, a work-house, or place of correction for vagrants, and other disorderly persons. Bridewell, near Fleet-street, is a foundation of a mixed and singular nature, partaking of the characters of hospital, prison, and work-house. It was founded in 1553 by Edward VL, who gave the place where King John had

B R I 263 formerly kept his court, and wdiich had been repaired by Bridewell Henry VIII., to the city of London, with seven hundred II merks of land, bedding, and other furniture. Several Bridge, youths are sent to the hospital as apprentices to manufacturers, who reside there, and they are clothed in blue doublets and breeches, with white hats. Having faithfully served their time of seven years, they become entitled to their freedom, along with a donation of ten pounds each to enable them to carry on their respective trades.

BRIDGE. The mathematical theory of the structure of bridges has been a favourite subject with mechanical philosophers. It gives scope to some of the most refined and elegant applications of science to practical utility; and, at the same time that its progressive improvement exhibits an example or the very slow steps by which speculation has sometimes followed execution, it enables us to look forward with perfect confidence to that more desirable state of human knowledge in which the calculations of the mathematician shall direct the operations of the artificer with security, instead of follow ing with servility the progress of his labours. Ot the origin of the art of building bridges something will be found in other parts of the work (see the article Arch). The subject has been much discussed during the last half century, by some of the most learned antiquaries and most elegant scholars; but additions still more important have been made to the scientific and practical principles on which that art depends; and the principal information that may here be expected will be comprehended under the two heads of physico-mathematical principles, subservient to the theory of this department of architecture, and an historical account of the wmrks which appear to be the most deserving of notice. The first head will contain three sections, relating respectively (1) t° the resistance of the materials employed, (2) to the equilibrium of arches, and (3) to the effects of friction; the second will comprehend (4) some details of earlier history and literature, (5) an account of the discussions which have taken place respecting the improvement of the port of London, and (6) a description of some of the most remarkable bridges which have been erected in modern times. Sect. I.— Of the Resistance of Materials. A. In all homogeneous solid bodies, the resistances to extension and compression must be initially equal, and proportional to the change of dimensions. Ihe equilibrium of the particles of anv body remaining at rest oepends on the equality of opposite forces, varying according to certain laws; and that these laws are continued without any abrupt change, when any minute alteration takes place in the distance, is demonstrated by their continuing little altered by any variation of dimensions, in consequence of an increase or diminution of temperature, and might indeed be at once inferred as highly probable, from the general principle of continuity observed in the laws of nature. We may therefore always assume a change of dimensions so small, that, as in all other diferential calculations, the elements of the curves, of which e ordinates express the forces, as functions of, or as depending on, the distances as abscisses, maybe considered a no ens differing fromonright lines side crossing o?i er,*- if® the>bly curves be drawn the same of theeach absciss, in a point corresponding to the point of rest, or to e Glance affording an equilibrium; so that the ele-

mentary finite differences of the respective pairs of ordinates, which must form, with the portions of the two curves, rectilinear triangles, always similar to each other, will always vary as the lengths of the elements of the curves, or as the elements of the absciss, beginning at the point of rest; and it is obvious that these differences will represent the actual magnitude of the resistances exhibited by the substance to extension or compression. (Plate CXXXII. fig. 1.) (See Explanation of Plates at the conclusion of the article.) It was on the same principle that Bernoulli long ago observed, that the minute oscillations of any system of bodies, whatever the laws of the forces governing them might be, must ultimately be isochronous, notwithstanding any imaginable variation of their comparative extent, the forces tending to bring them back to the quiescent position being always proportional to the displacements; and so far as the doctrine has been investigated by experiments, its general truth has been amply confirmed; the slight deviations from the exact proportion which have been discovered in some substances being far too unimportant to constitute an exception, and merely tending to show that these substances cannot have been perfectly homogeneous, in the sense here attributed to the word. When the compression or extension is considerable, there may indeed be a sensible deviation, especially in fibrous or stratified substances; but this irregularity by no means affects the admissibility of any of the conclusions which will be derived from this proposition. B. The strength of a block or beam must be reduced to one half before its cohesive and repulsive forces can both be called into action. We must suppose the transverse sections of the body to remain plane and perpendicular to the axis, wdiatever the point may be to which the force is applied; a supposition which will be correctly true if the pressure be made by the intervention of a firm plate attached to each end, and which is perfectly admissible in every other case. Now, if the terminal plates remain parallel, it is obvious that the compression or extension must be uniformly distributed throughout the substance, which must happen when the original force is applied in the middle of the block; the centre of pressure or resistance collected by the plate acting like a lever, being then coincident with the axis. But when the plates are inclined, the resistance depending on the compression or extension will be various in different parts, and will always be proportional to the distance from the neutral point wdiere the compression ends and the extension begins, if the depth of the substance is sufficient to extend to this point; consequently the forces may always be represented, like the pressure of a fluid, at different depths, by the ordinates of a triangle ; and their result may be considered as concentrated in the centre of gravity of the triangle, or of such of its portions as are contained within the depth of the sub-

BRIDGE. stance ; and when both extension and compression aie concerned, the smaller force may be considered as a negative pressure, to be subtracted from the greater, as is usual when any other compound forces are supposed to act on a lever of any kind. Now when the neutral point is situated in one of the surfaces of the block, the sum o all the forces is represented by the area ot the tnang e, as it is by that of the parallelogram when the plates remain parallel; and these areas being m either case equivalent to the same external force, it is obvious that t perpendicular of the triangle must be equal to twice tie height of the parallelogram, indicating that the compression or extension of the surface in the one case is twice as great as the equable compression or extension in the other; and since there is always a certain degree ot compression or extension, which must be precisely suth• * to crus wniLn is cient crushi or. tear ‘ that that \ nnrt part 1 ‘ nr of me thethsuDsianct: substance which whoie substance .mmedmtely exposed to and s ^ .t

sistance; or 2

__ 0 : (| « + z) — 3

a

(aa • \^2Z

a , 2 \ ;. . El% 3 s/

and adding to this the distance of the centre ofaction from the axis, which must be % a— a + z) — } z, aa for the distance of the force from the axis; we ]iave I2z aa whence, calling this distance ?/, 2 — E. T//e 'power of a given force to crush a block is increased by its removal from the axis, supposing its direction unaltered, in the same proportion as the depth of the block is increased by the addition of six times the distance of the point of application of the force, measured in the transverse section. Since the compression or extension of the axis is invariable, whatever the distance of the force may be, that of the nearest surfacetriangles, must be as as much greater, the pioperties of similar the half depth,byincreased ^ (he distance of the neutral point, is greater than that

filnwlthat « only forin theD.), ratioand of ato+J 6y to a, since follows that the strength strength's only^half as great „ ,0 that Vly is, (Prop. a as a to 6y;z ofin the ity of distance is t0 a asitself, mel Ca

„hna lo beino at the distance of one third of its and the strength is reduced in the same proportion as the heigiit^fronf theXase, Ihe* external force must be applied, partial compression or extensmu b * operation of a !„efrder to produce ^ch a com^ressmn. extension, at given any when'its distance is greater than this, both the repulsive point, produced by a given force, is proportional to t uJnd the line of direction of the force from the given point ana cohesive contrive forces of ^ the substance must be called . . into, tance of axis, whatever that direction may be. action, and the strength must be still further impaired of the Since the distance 2 of the neutral point from the axis (Plate CXXXIL fig. 2.) _ . , .. , is inversely as y, the distance of the force, and the radius C. The compression or extension of the axis oj a block 01 beam is always proportional to the force, reduced to the di- of curvature, or the distance of the intersection of the planes of the terminal plates from the neutral point, must rection of the axis, at whatever distance it may be applied. We may suppose one of the inflexible plates attached be to the distance 2 as the whole length ot the axis is to to the extremities of the block to be continued to the the alteration of that length produced by the compression given distance, and to act as a lever held in equilibrium by or extension, it follows that the radius of curvature must inversely as the distance y, and inversely also as the three forces, that is, by the cohesive and repulsive resist- be ances of the block, and the external force; and it is ob- compression, and the curvature itself must be conjointly vious that, as in all other levers, the external force will as the force and as the distance of its application, it the always be equal to the difference of the other two forces direction of the force be changed, and the perpendicu ar depending on the compression and extension, or to the falling from the given point of the axis on the line ot the mean compression or extension of the whole, which must force be now called y, the distance of the force from the also be the immediate compression or extension of the axis measured in the transverse section will be increased middle, since the figure representing the forces is recti- by the obliquity exactly in the same ratio as its efficacy linear. And the effect will be the same, whatever may is diminished, and the curvature of the neutral hne wil be the intermediate substances by which the force is im- remain unaltered; although the place of that line wil be pressed on the block, whether continued in a stiaight line a little varied, until at last it coincides with the axis, when or otherwise. W^hen the force is oblique, the portion per- the force becomes completely transverse: and the radius pendicular to the axis will be resisted by the lateral ad- of curvature of the axis will always be to that of the neuhesion of the different strata of the block, the compression tral line as the acquired to the original length of the axis. , 7. . , .. or extension being only determined by the poi tion pai allel (Plate CXXXII. fig. 4.) G. The radius of curvature of the neutral line is to W to the axis; and when it is transverse, the length of the axis will remain unaltered. But the line of direction of distance of the neutral point as the original length of the axis the original force must always be continued till it meets to the alteration of that length, or as a certain given quanthe transverse section at any point of the length, in order tity to the external force ; and this quantity has been erm the modulus of elasticity. to determine the nature of the strain at that point. as is obvioUS fr m D. The distance of the neutral point from the axis of a Or r : 2 = M :/, and ^ = y = ° block or beam is to the depth, as the depth to twelve times the distance of the force, measured in the transverse section. the preceding demonstration ; y being the distance of daCalling the depth a, and the distance of the neutral line of the force from the given point, whatever its direcpoint from the axis 2, the resistances may be expressed tion may be. . , f by the squares of ^ + 2 and ^ a — 2, which are the H. The flexibility, referred to the direction of the force, sides of the similar triangles denoting the compression is expressed by unity, increased by twelve times the squa and extension (Prop. B.) ; consequently, the difference of of the distance, divided by that of the depth. these squares, 2 az, will represent the external foice Making the alteration of the axis unity, the con-espona(Prop. C.) But the distance of the centres ^of gravity of ing change at the distance y will be to 1 as 2 + y t0 ’ the two triangles must always be 7 # ; and, by the pro, perty of the "lever, lever, making the centre of action of. of the 0r as 1 + - to 1, and will consequently be equa greater resistance the fulcrum, as the external force is to (Prop. D.) the smaller resistance, so is this distance to the distance 1 + of the force from the centre of action ot the greater re-

Elige.

BRIDGE, 265 When the direction of the force becomes oblique, the c, the whole extent of the arc, these two deviations must Bridge, actual compression of the axis is diminished, but its effect destroy each other, since the positions of the middle and referred to that direction remains unaltered. of the ends remain unaltered ; consequently sin. c—pbc ■ - - v sin. c I. The total compression of a narrow block, pressed in the — qrc — qr sin. c, w hence -T) = TC —^and the exact q rsin. c—be direction of one of its diagonals, is twice as great as if the same force ivere applied in the direction of the axis. proportion of p to fm hl a; whence all the We have therefore generally J'w&x — mt = m be- points of the curve may be determined by means of a taing the height of uniform matter, pressing on the arch at ble of logarithms. But such a calculation is by no means the horizontal distance x from the vertex, t the tangent of so immediately applicable to practice as has generally the inclination of the curve of equilibrium, y its vertical been supposed; for the curve of equilibrium will always ordinate, and m a quantity proportional to the lateral pres- be so distant from the intrados at the abutments, as to derange the whole distribution of the forces concerned. sure or horizontal thrust. R. For an arch of equable absolute thickness throughout N. The radius of curvature of the curve of equilibrium is 2 2 inversely as the load on each part, and directly as the cube its length, the equation is z = \/(y — »i ) and of the secant of the angle of inclination to the horizon. y + \/( yy — mm) x — m hl The general expression for the radius of curvature is r m _ (dz)3 . p The weight of any portion of the half arch being repre~ ; and here, since m&y — Hlxj iv&x, dx being consented by its length z, we have z = m ^; but dz = dy 2 stant, md y — w (da.’)2; but dz being = da: yYl + £2), . day dz = (1 + (=), and »• = “ (1 + C)1; and m being con- ^ + G|)!> = ^ V/(I + 'fi)' and d» = stant, r is inversely as 2the load w, and directly as the cube 4+3 of the secant */(i + t ). The same result may also be zdz 2 obtained from a geometrical consideration of the magni- = ; r, of which the fluent is */ (z -}- m2), rev' (zz + mm) ^ v ' tude of the versed sine of the elementary arc, and the y initially effect of the obliquity of the pressure ; the one varying as quiring no further correction than 2 to suppose the square of the secant, the other as the secant simply. equal to m ; and we have z = \/{y — m2). Again, since O. Consequently, if the curve be circular, the load must dz = d# \/(l + we find in the same manner da: = e ever ywhere as the cube of the secant. \ mm/ mdz P. If the curve of equilibrium be parabolic, the load must ,, ; :, and a: = m hl (z + y'[wim + zzl)—miihm e uniform throughout the span. \/{nim + zz)

bridge. 268 is circular, the axes of the ellipse being equal, Bridg, Bridge. _ ^ hl g + This curve will therefore in some cases curve n=l. . u ^ m If the extrados and intrados are concentric, the calcube identical with that of the preceding proposition. It is lation requires us to take the difference between the recommonly called the catenaria, since it represents the sults determining the weight for each curve; but it will form in which a perfectly flexible chain of equable thick- commonly be equally accurate, in such a case, to consider ness will hang by its gravity. the depth of the load as uniform, at least when the joints S. If the load on each2 point of an arch he expressed by are in the direction of the radii. the equation io — a^- bx , the equation for the curve of equiX. The abutment must be higher without than within, by a distance which is to its breadth as the horizontal distance librium will he my — \ ax- + jg hx^. of the centre of gravity of the half arch from the middle of the abutment is to the height of the middle of the hey-stone above w Since the whole load Jic&x is here ax + \ e have the same point. This proposition follows immediately from the proporof the horizontal thrust to the weight, determined by = ax+ % bx? (Prop. M.), and my = \ax? + ^ bx?. tion the property of the lever; the one acting at the distance lY* • This expression will, in general, be found sufficiently of the height of the arch from the fulcrum, and the other accurate for calculating the form of the curve of equili- at the distance of the centre of gravity from the abutment, brium in practical cases; and it may easily be made to so as to balance each other; and the oblique direction of comprehend the increase of the load from the obliquity ot the face of the abutment being perpendicular to the thrust the arch-stones. The ordinate y at the abutment being compounded of these two forces. The same rule also given, the value of m may be deduced from it; and since serves for determining the proper position of the abutment at the vertex my is simply \ ax?, the radius of curvature of a beam or rafter of any kind, in order that it may stand securely, without the assistance of friction. But for a xx _ m bridge, if we calculate the situation of the curve of equir will here be 2y — — —• a librium, we obtain the direction of the thrust at its extreT. If we divide the span of an arch into four equal parts, mity more conveniently, without immediately determining and add to the weight of one of the middle parts one sixth of the place of the centre of gravity. its difference from the weight of one of the extreme parts, ice Y. In order that an arch may stand without friction or shall have a reduced weight, which will be to the lateral cohesion, a curve of equilibrium, perpendicular to all the thrust as the height of the arch to half the span, without sen- surfaces of the joints, must be capable of being drawn within sible cttot. the substance of the blocks. The weight of the half arch being expressed by ax + ^ If the pressure on each joint be not exactly perpendibx? when x is equal to the whole span, if we substitute x cular to the surfaces, it cannot be resisted without fricand the parts must slide on each other; this, howfor ^ x, it will become ^ ax -jj bx? for one of the middle tion, ever, is an event that can never be likely to occur in practice. But if the curve, representing the general pressure 7 parts, leaving ^ ax bx? for the extreme part, which on any joint, be directed to a point in its plane beyond the limits of the substance, the joint will open at its regives iL bo? for the difference of the parts, and one sixth of moter end, unless it be secured by the cohesion ot the cements, and the structure will either wholly fall, or continue to stand in a new form. (Plate CXXXII. fig- 5*) bx?: this added to the former quantity makes it £ a# + -p From this condition, together with the determination of 1 y the direction of the joints already mentioned (Prop. P*)j but since my = \ ax? + bx?, dividing by mx, we have - we may easily find the best arrangement of the joints in a flat arch: the object, in such cases, being to dimipish the lateral thrust as much as possible, it is obvious that ^ax + j^bx? the common centre of the joints must be brought as neai m to the arch as is compatible with the condition of the It is also obvious, that if w-e subtract, instead of adding, circle remaining within its limits; and it may even happen one sixth of the difference, we have ^ ax ; and dividing that the superincumbent materials would prevent the opening of the joints even if the centre were still nearer in by l x, we obtain a, and thence r -, m being previous- than this; but if, on the other hand, the arch depended only on its own resistance, andr the materials were in an) ly found by the proposition. danger of being crushed, it w ould be necessary to keep U. When the load is terminated 2by a circular or elliptical arc, w — a nb — n \Z(b‘ — x‘2) and my =. ^ the circle at some little distance from its surfaces, even at the expense of somewhat increasing the lateral pressuie. When the curve of equilibrium touches the inti ados o (a + nb) x'2 — nb5333. conseqUently the hori- ing on it will be about one sixteenth greater than would s7 3 937-5 15 press on it if it were of undorm thickness ] and this inzontal thrust will be to the w-eight of the half arch as crease will be very nearly proportional to w, the whole fifteen to eight, and to that of the whole arch as fifteen load at each part; so that it will only affect the total to sixteen. Now the arch is supposed to contain 6500 macrnitude of the thrust, which, instead ot 436, must be tons of cast iron, and together with the road will amount, supposed to amount to about 463. It also great accuracy according to Professor Robison’s estimate, to 10,100 tons ; were required, it would be necessary to appieciate the dilso that the lateral thrust on each abutment is 9470 tons; ferent specific gravities of the various materials constitutand since this is equal to the weight of 937*5 feet in ing the load, since they are not altogether homogeneous; length, of the thickness of the crown, the load there must but so minute a calculation is not necessary in older to be about ten tons for each foot of the length. Hence it show the general distribution of the forces concerned, and appears, that although the thrust thus calculated is greater the sufficiency of the arrangement for answering all the than the weight of a portion of equal length with the ap- purposes intended. parent radius at the crown, it is less than would be inQuestion V. What additional weight will the bridge ferred from the angular direction of the intrados at the sustain, and what will be the effect of a given weight placed abutment; the inclination of the termination of the arch upon any of the before-mentioned sections? being 24° 27', while that of the true curve of equilibrium When a weight is placed on any part of a bridge, the is 28° 4'; that is, about one tenth greater. curve of equilibrium must change its situation more or As a further illustration of the utility of this mode of less according to the magnitude of the weight; and the computation, we may take the example of an arch of tangent of its inclination must now be increased by a quanBlackfriars Bridge. The radius of curvature, as far as tity proportional to the additional pressure to be supportfour fifths of the breadth, is here fifty-six feet; and we ed, which, if the weight were placed in the middle ot the may suppose, without sensible error, the whole load to be arch, would always be equal to halt of it; but when the that wffiich would be determined by the continuation of weight is placed at any other part of the arch, it we find the same curve throughout the breadth. Now, the middle the point where the whole thrust is horizontal, the vertica of the arch-stones at the distance of fifty feet from the pressure to be supported at each point of the curve must middle of the bridge, that is, immediately over the termi- obviously be equal to the weight of the materials internation of the abutment, is about twelve feet above that posed between it and this new summit of the curve. .Now, termination, and at the crown about three feet above the in order to find where the thrust is horizontal, we must intrados, so that we have only thirty-one feet for the ex- divide the arch into two such portions, that their cjnter' treme value of y, while the whole height of the arch ence, acting at the end of a lever of the length of halt the is forty; and a being 6-58 feet, we find (Prop. U.) my span, that is, of the distance from the abutment, may be 771 to — 13,510 = 31m, whence m — 436, and ~--r — 66^; we equivalent to the given weight, acting on a lever equal its distance from the other abutment, to which it is npa^' also obtain the values of the ordinates of the curve as in est: consequently this difference must be to the weig as the distance of the weight from the end to hair t e the annexed table. span; and the distance of the new summit of the curve . Middle of the Distance *. Ordmate y. Arch-Stones. from the middle must be such, that the weight or ma....-90 10 feet ‘76. terials intercepted between it and the middle shall be 0 ..3-72 20 3-12. the weight as the distance of the weight from the end 0 ..6-12 25 5-13. the whole span ; and the tangent of the inclination mus ..8-75 30 7-71. everywhere be increased or diminished by the tangent 0 .16-81 40 15-81. the angle at which the lateral thrust would support tne 50 31-00 31-00 weight of this portion of the materials, except immedia e Hence it appears that the greatest deviation is about ly under the weight, where the two portions of the curve

BRIDGE. 275 Ige. will meet in a finite angle, at least if we suppose the weight strength of attachment to the abutments would, of course, Bridge, make it still firmer, and any want of connection between ^ to be collected in a single point. If, for example, a weight of 100 tons, equal to that of the parts weaker; and since the actual resistance to such about ten feet of the crown of the arch, be placed half- a force must depend entirely on the strength of the oblique way between the abutment and the middle ; then the ver- connection between the ribs, it is not easy to define its tex of the curve, where the thrust is horizontal, will be magnitude with accuracy: but, as Professor Robison has removed 21 feet towards the weight; but the radius being justly remarked, the strength would be increased by caus937-5 feet, the tangent of the additional inclination will ing the. braces to extend across the whole breadth of the half arch. The single ribs, if wholly unconnected, might 2-5 = 1, be 375’ anc* eac^ orc^nate t^ie curve will be in- be overset by an inconsiderable force, since they stand in a kind of tottering equilibrium ; and something like this creased of the absciss, reckoning from the place of appears to have happened to the bridge at Wearmouth. Dr Hutton, indeed, mentions some “ diagonal iron bars” the weight to the remoter abutment; but between the in this bridge ; but these were perhaps added after its first weight and the nearest abutment the additional pressure erection, to obviate the “ twisting,” which had become apat each point will be 10 — 2-5 = 7-5 feet, consequently parent, since they are neither exhibited in the large plates of the bridge, nor mentioned in the specification of the the tangent will be y^r, and the additions to the ordi- patent. Question VII. Supposing the span of the arch to remain 450 150 nates at the abutments will be — and —each equal the same, and to spring ten feet lower, what additional O/O strength would it give the bridge ? Or, making the strength 150 2 to foot, and at the summit zr which being de- the same, what saving may be made in the materials ? Or if, instead of a circular arch, as in the plates and drawings, ducted, the true addition to the height of the curve will the bridge should be made in the form of an elliptical arch, what would be the difference in effect, as to strength, dura4 appear to be But the actual height will remain unal- tion, convenience, and expenses ? _ The question seems to suppose the weight of the matetered, since the curve is still supposed to be terminated rials to remain unaltered, and the parts of the structure by the abutments, and to pass through the middle of the that would be expanded to be made proportionally lightkey-stone; and we have only to reduce all the ordinates er; which could not be exactly true, though there might in the proportion of 64-8 to 64. Thus, at 200 feet from be a compensation in some other parts. Granting, howthe summit, the ordinate, instead of 24-50 + —7 = 25-03, ever, the weight to be the same under both circumstances, if the ordinate y at the end be increased in the prowill be 24-72, so that the curve will be brought 2^ inches portion of sixty-four to about seventy-three, the curvature nearer to the intrados, which, in the proposed fabric, would at the vertex will be increased, and the lateral thrust diby no means diminish its strength ; while, on the opposite minished in the same ratio, the 9470 tons being reduced to 8300. The additional thrust occasioned by any foreign side, immediately under the weight, the ordinate 13 weight would also be lessened, but not the vertical dis150 ^ = 12-6 will be reduced to 12-45, and the curve rais- placement of the curve derived from its pressure; and since the whole fabric might safely be made somewhat ed between six and seven inches, which is a change by no lighter, the lightness would again diminish the strain. means to be neglected in considering the resistances re- The very least resistance that can be attributed to a quired from each part of the structure. We ought also, square inch of the section of a block of cast iron is about if great accuracy were required, to determine the effect fifty tons, or somewhat more than 100,000 pounds. It is of such a weight in increasing the lateral thrust, which said, indeed, that Mr William Reynolds found, by accurate would affect in a slight degree the result of the calcula- experiments, that 400 tons were required to crusli a cube tion ; but it would not amount, in the case proposed, to of a quarter of an inch of the kind of cast iron called gunmore than one eightieth of the whole thrust. which is equivalent to 6400 tons for a square inch It is obvious that the tendency of any additional weight, metal, the section. But this result so far exceeds any thing placed near the middle of a bridge, is to straighten the of that could be expected, either from experiment or from two branches of the curve of equilibrium, and that, if it analogy, it would be imprudent to place much reliwere supposed infinite, it would convert them into right ance on itthat in practice ; the strength attributed to the melines; provided, therefore, that such right lines could be tal being equivalent to the pressure of a column 2,280,000 drawn without coming too near the intrados at the haunch- feet in height, which would compress it to about four es, the bridge would be in no danger of giving way, unless fifths of its length, since the height of the modulus of either the materials were crushed, or the abutments were torced out. In fact, any bridge well constructed might elasticity (Prop.G.) is about 10,000,000 feet. The greatest cohesive force that has ever been observed in iron or steel support a load at least equal to its own weight, with less does not exceed seventy tons for a square inch of the secoss of strength than would arise from some such errors as have not very uncommonly been committed, even in tion, and the repulsive force of a homogeneous substance works which have on the whole succeeded tolerably well. has not been found in any other instance to be many times greater or less than the cohesive. There cannot, howQuestion VI. Supposing the bridge executed in the best nanner, what horizontal force will it require, when applied ever, be any doubt that the oblique thrust, which amounts o any particular part, to overturn it, or press it out of the to 10,730 tons, would be sufficiently resisted by a section of 215 square inches, or, if we allowed a load amounting J vertical plane? If the bridge be well tied together, it maybe consider- to about one third only of the whole strength, by a section of 600 square inches; and since each foot of an iron G m ass , ’ standing on its ; its mean eadtn bemg about 80 feet, and itsabutments weight 10,100 tons; bar an inch square weighs three pounds, and the whole length of the arch nearly a ton, the 600 square inches • C maSS would rec uire a would require nearly as many tons to be employed in the ; of about l7000 tons lateral pressure at the r- o? tie arch to overset it. Any ribs affording the resistance, upon this very low estimate

B R I 1[) G E. o-eneral be “ stronger than an elliptical arch of the same Bridge, of the strength of cast iron. The doubts here expressed height and span,” have not adverted to the distinction respecting Mr Reynolds’s results have been fully justified between the apparent curvature of the arch, and the siby some hasty experiments, which have been obligingly tuation of the true curve of equilibrium, which depends made by the son of a distinguished architect: he fount on the distribution of the weight of the different parts of that two parallelepipeds of cast iron, one eighth of an inch the bridge, and by no means on the form of the archsquare, and a quarter of an inch long, were crushed by a stones only ; this form being totally insufficient to deterforce of little more than a ton. The experiments were mine the true radius of curvature, which is immediately made in a vice, and required considerable reductions tor connected with the lateral thrust, and with the stiengtn the friction. The mode of calculation may deserve to be of the fabric. explained, on account of its utility on other similar occaQuestion VIII. Is it necessary or advisable to nave a mosions. Supposing the friction to be to the pressure on the del made of the proposed bridge, or any part of it, in cast screw as 1 to m, and the pressure on the screw to the iron. If so, what are the objects to which the experiments actual pressure on the substance as n to 1, calling this should be directed; to the equilibration only, or to the cohepressure x, the pressure on the screw will be nx, and the sion of the several parts, or to both united, as they will occur friction —; but this resistance will take from the gross in the intended bridge ? m Experiments on the equilibration of the arch would be ultimate pressure a force, which is to the friction itself easy and conclusive ; on the cohesion or connection of the as the velocity of the parts sliding on each other is to the parts, extremely uncertain. The form and proportion of velocity of the part producing the ultimate pressure, a the joints could scarcely be imitated with sufficient accuproportion which we may call to 1; and the force remain- racy; and since the strength of some of.the parts con. ~ pnx _ , cerned would vary as the thickness simply, and that of ing will be the actual pressure; that is,/ — — ana others as the square or cube of the thickness, it would be more difficult to argue from the strength of the model m f In these experiments, the gross force /, upon that of the bridge, than to calculate the whole from x — J m + pn still more elementary experiments. Some such experias supposed to be exerted on the iron, was four tons; the ments ought, however, to be made on the force required friction —, was probably about the screw not having to crush a block of the substance employed ; and the form calculated to afford the proper equilibrium might be very been lately oiled; the distance of the screw from the precisely and elegantly determined, by means of the mecentre of motion was to the length of the whole vice as 3 thod first suggested by Dr Hooke, that of substituting for to 4, whence ii was and p was 8‘44, the middle of the the blocks, resting on each other and on the abutments, screw describing 4’22 inches, while the check of the vice as many similar pieces forming a chain, and suspended at m moved through half an inch: consequently —was the extremities. It would, however, be important to make one alteration in the common mode of performing this 4 — _J—, and the corrected pressure becomes experiment, without which it would be of little or no value ; the parts corresponding to the blocks of the arch 4 + 11-25 3-81’ should be formed of their proper thickness and length, —. In several experiments made with still greater and connected with each other and with the abutments 3 31. /■'ii care, and with an improved apparatus of levers, the mean by a short joint or hinge in the middle of each, allowing force required to crush a cube of a quarter of an inch was room for a slight degree of angular motion only; and every other part of the structure should be represented not quite 41 tons, instead of 400. Calcareous freestone supports about a ton on a square in its proper form and proportion and connection, that inch, which is equal to the weight of a column not quite form being previously determined as nearly as possible by 2000 feet in height: consequently an arch of such free- calculation ; and then, if the curve underwent no material stone, of 2000 feet radius, would be crushed by its own alteration by the suspension, we should be sure that the weight only, without any further load; and for an arch calculation was sufficiently correct; or, if otherwise, the like that of a bridge, which has other materials to support, arrangement of the materials might be altered, until the 200 feet is the utmost radius that it has been thought required curve should be obtained; and the investigation prudent to attempt; although a part of the bridge of might be facilitated by allowing the joints or hinges conNeuilly stands, cracked as it is, with a curvature ol 250 necting the block to slide a little along their surfaces, feet radius; and there is no doubt that a firm structure, within such limits as would be allowable, without too well arranged in the beginning, might safely be made great a reduction of the powers of resistance of the blocks. Question IX. Of what size ought the model to be made, much flatter than this, if there were any necessity for it. An elliptical arch would certainly approach nearer to and what relative proportions will experiments made on the the form of the curve of equilibrium, which would remain model bear to the bridge when executed ? The size is of little importance, and it would be unsafe little altered by the change of that of the arch; and the pressure might be more equably and advantageously trans- to calculate the strength of the bridge from any general mitted through the blocks of such an arch, than in the comparison with that of the model. There is an Essay proposed form of the structure. The duration would pro- of Euler in the New Commentaries of the Royal Academy t0 t ie bably be proportional to the increased firmness of the fa- of Petersburg (vol. xx. p. 271), relating expresslym0( bric, and the greater flatness at the crown might allow a mode of judging of the strength of a bridge from a t " ’ wider space for the passage of the masts of large ships but it contains only an elementary calculation, applicable on each side of the middle. There might be some addi- to ropes and simple levers, and by no means comprehendtional trouble and expense in the formation of portions of ing all the circumstances that require to be considered m an elliptical curve; but even this might be in a great the structure of an arch. Question X. liy what means may ships be best dimeasure avoided by employing portions of three circles of different radii, which would scarcely be distinguishable rected in the middle stream, or prevented from driving to the side, and stinking the arch ? and ivhat would be the confrom the ellipsis itself. Those who have imagined that a circular arch must in sequence of such a stroke ?

BRIDGE. 277 E Ige. For the direction of ships, Professor Robison’s suggestion one foot in five of horizontal extent, which anything short Bridge, seems the simplest and best, that they might be guided of an absolute quicksand or a bog would certainly do in by means of a small anchor, dragged along the bottom of perfect security. The proper direction of the joints of the river. The stroke of a ship might fracture the outer the masonry may be determined for the abutment exactly ribs if they were too weak, but could scarcely affect the as for the bridge, the tangent of the inclination being alwhole fabric in any material degree, supposing it to be ways increased in proportion to the weights of the sucfirmly secured by oblique bars, crossing from one side of cessive wedges added to the load; and the ultimate inthe abutment to the other side of the middle; and if still clination of the curve is that in which the piles ought to greater firmness were wanted, the braces might cross still be driven, being the direction of the result, composed of the lateral thrust, together with the joint weight of the more obliquely, and be repeated from space to space. A ship moving with a velocity of three miles in an hour, half bridge and the abutment. Question XII. The weight and lateral pressure of the or about four feet in a second, would be stopped by a force equal to her weight when she had advanced three inches bridge being given, can a centre or scaffolding be erected with a retarded motion; and the bridge could not very over the river, sufficient to carry the arch, without obstructeasily withstand, at any one point, a force much greater ing the vessels which at present navigate that part.? There seems to be no great difficulty in the constructhan such a shock of a large ship, if it were direct, without being dangerously strained. But we must consider tion of such a centre. When the bridge at Wearmouth that a large ship could never strike the bridge with its was erected, the centre was supported by piles and standfull force, and that the mast would be much more easily ards, which suffered ships to pass between them without broken than the bridge. The inertia of the parts of the interruption ; and a similar arrangement might be made in bridge, and of the heavy materials laid on it, would enable the present case with equal facility. Question XIII. Whether would it be most advisable to it to resist the'stroke of a small mass with great mechanical advantage. Thus the inertia of an anvil laid on a make the bridge of cast and wrought iron combined, or of man’s chest enables him to support a blow on the anvil, cast iron only ? And if of the latter, whether of the hard which would be fatal without such an interposition, the white metal, or of the soft gray meted, or of gun metal ? A bridge well built ought to require no cohesive strength momentum communicated to the greater weight being always less than twice the momentum of the smaller, and of ties, as Mr Southern has justly observed in his answer this small increase of momentum being attended by a to the eighth question; and for repulsive resistance, in much greater decrease of energy or impetus, which is ex- the capacity of a shore, cast iron is probably much stronger pressed by the product of the mass into the square of the than wrought iron ; and it has also the advantage of being velocity, and which is sometimes called the ascending or less liable to rust, and of expanding somewhat less by heat. penetrating force, since the height of ascent or depth of But wherever any transverse strain is unavoidable, wrought penetration is proportional to it when the resistance is iron possesses some advantages, and it is generally most i given. And the same mode of reasoning is applicable to convenient for bolts and other fastenings. The kind of any weight falling on the bridge, or to any other cause of iron called gun metal is decidedly preferred by the most vibration, which is not likely to call forth in such a fabric experienced judges, as combining in the greatest degree any violent exertion of the strength of the parts, or of the properties of hardness and toughness; the white being their connections. We must also remember, in appre- considered as too brittle, and the gray as too soft. Dr ciating the effect of a stroke of any kind on an arched Hutton, however, and Mr Jessop, prefer the gray; and structure, that something of strength is always lost by if we allow the strength of the gun metal to be at all comtoo great stiffness ; the property of resisting velocity, which parable to that which Mr Reynolds attributes to it, we has sometimes been called resilience, being generally di- must also acknowledge that a much weaker substance minished by any increase of stiffness, if the strength, with would be amply sufficient for every practical purpose, and might deserve to be preferred, if it were found to possess respect to pressure, remains the same. Question XI. The weight and lateral 'pressure of the a greater degree of tenacity. Question XIV. Of ivhat dimensions ought the several bridge being given, can abutments be made in the proposed members of the iron work to be, to give the bridge sufficient situation for London Bridge, to resist that pressure ? Since this question relates entirely to the local circum- strength ? stances of the banks of the Thames, the persons to whom See the answers to Questions VII. and XI. it has been referred have generally appealed to the staQuestion XV. Can frames of cast iron be made suffibility of St Saviour’s Church, in a neighbouring situation, ciently correct to compose an arch of the form and dimenas a proof of the affirmative ; and it does not appear that sions shown in the drawings, so as to take an equal bearing there have been any instances of a failure of piles well as one frame, the several parts being connected by diagonal driven, in a moderately favourable soil. Professor Robi- braces, and joined by an iron cement, or other substance ? son, indeed, asserts that the firmest piling will yield in Professor Robison considers it as indispensable that the time to a pressure continued without interruption; but a frames of cast iron should be ground to fit each other; consideration of the general nature of friction and lateral and a very accurate adjustment of the surface would ceradhesion, as well as the experience of ages in a multitude tainly be necessary for the perfect co-operation of every of structures actually erected, will not allow us to adopt part of so hard a substance. Probably, indeed, any very the assertion as universally true. When, indeed, the earth small interstices that might be left would in some meais extremely soft, it would be advisable to unite it into sure be filled up by degrees, in consequence of the oxione mass for a large extent, perhaps as far as 100 yards dation of the metal, but scarcely soon enough to assist in in every direction, for such a bridge as that under discus- bearing the general thrust upon the first completion of the sion, by beams radiating from the abutments, and resting bridge. The plan of mortising the frames together is by on short piles, with cross pieces interspersed; since we no means to be advised, as rendering it very difficult to might combine, in this manner, the effect of a weight of adapt the surfaces to each other throughout any consider100,000 tons, which could scarcely ever produce a lateral able part of their extent. They might be connected either, adhesion of less than 20,000, even if the materials were as in the bridge at Wearmouth, by bars of wrought iron semifluid; for they would afford this resistance if they let into the slides, which might be of extremely moderate were capable of standing in the form of a bank, rising only dimensions, or, as in some still more modern fabrics, by

BRIDGE. 278 similar joint would be required at the abutment, where it Bridg Bridge. being wedged into the grooves of cross plates adapted to would be still more objectionable, as extending to a wider Wy, receive them, which very effectually secure the co-operasurface. tion of the whole force of the blocks, and which have the The arrangement of the joints between the portions of advantage of employing cast iron only. Question XVI. Instead of casting the ribs in frames oj the ribs in one or more transverse lines would be a matter considerable length and breadth, would it be more advisable of great indifference. Some have recommended to break to cast each member of the ribs in separate pieces of consider- the joints, as is usual in masonry, in order to tie the parts able lengths, connecting them together by diagonal braces, more firmly together; others to make all the joints continuous, as a safer method, on account of the brittleness of both horizontally and vertically ? No joint can possibly be so strong as a single sound the materials; but if the fabric were well put together, piece of the same metal; and it is highly desirable that there would be neither any want of firm connection, nor the curve of pressure should pass through very substantial any danger of breaking from irregular strains, in whatever frames or blocks, abutting fully on each other, without any way the joints may be disposed. Question XX. Upon considering the whole circumstances reliance on lateral joints; but for the upper Paits> of t ie of the case, agreeably to the resolutions of the committee, as works, single ribs, much lighter than those which form the stated at the conclusion of their third report, is it your opitrue arch, would be sufficiently firm. Question XVII. Can an iron cement be made which nion that an arch of 600 feet in the span, as expressed in shall become hard and durable, or can liquid iron be poured the drawings produced by Messrs Telford and Douglas, or the same plan, with any improvement you may be so good as into the joints ? Mr Reynolds has observed that a cement composed of to point out, is practicable and advisable, and capable of being iron borings and saline substances will become extreme- made a durable edifice ? The answers that have been returned to this question ly hard; and it is probable that this property depends on the solidity which is produced by the gradual oxidation are almost universally in the affirmative, though deduced of the iron. It would certainly be injurious to the strength from very discordant and inconsistent views of the subof the fabric to interpose this cement between perfectly ject. The only reasonable doubt relates to the abutments; smooth and solid surfaces, but it might be of advantage to and with the precautions which have been already menfill up with it any small interstices unavoidably left be- tioned in the answer to the 11th question, there would be tween the parts. To pour melted iron into the joints no insuperable difficulty in making the abutments sufficiently firm. would be utterly impracticable. Question XXI. Does the estimate communicated hereQuestion XVIII. Would lead be better to use in the with, according to your judgment, greatly exceed, or fall whole or any part of the joints ? Lead is by far too soft to be of the least use, and a sa- short of, the probable expense of executing the plan proposed? specifying the general grounds of your opinion. line cement would be decidedly preferable. The estimate amounts to L.262,289, and it has generalQuestion XIX. Can any improvement be made in the plan, so as to render it more substantial and durable, and less ly been considered as below the probable expense. The abutments are set down at L.20,000, but they would very expensive ? And if so, what are these improvements ? The most necessary alterations appear to be the omis- possibly require five times- as much to be properly exesion of the upper and flatter ribs; the greater strength cuted ; while some other parts of the work, by a more juand solidity of the lower, made either in the form of blocks dicious distribution of the forces concerned, might safely or of frames with diagonals; a curvature more nearly ap- be made so much lighter, as considerably to lessen the proaching to that of the curve of equilibrium; and a greater expense of the whole fabric, without any diminution either of its beauty or of its stability. obliquity of the cross braces. It would be necessary to wedge the whole structure very firmly together before the removal of the centres; a Sect. VI.—Modern History of Bridges. precaution which is still more necessary for stone bridges, The whole series of the questions which we have been Iron in which a certain portion of soft mortar must inevitably be employed, in order to enable the stones to bear fully on considering are still fully as interesting as they were at the brings each other, and which has been very properly adopted in time when they were circulated by the committee of the the best modern works. In this manner we may avoid House of Commons. The practice of building iron bridges the inconvenience pointed out by Professor Robison, who has been progressively gaining ground ever since its first has remarked, that the compressibility of the materials, introduction in 1779 by Mr Abiah Darby of Colebrook hard as they appear, would occasion a reduction of three Dale. Mr Wilson, indeed, who assisted Mr Burden in inches in the length of the bridge,, from the effect of the the erection of the bridge at Wearmouth, mentions in his lateral thrust, and a consequent fall at the crown of fif- answers an iron bridge which has stood secure for ninety teen ; a result which will not be found materially erroneous years; but it must have been on a very small scale, and if the calculation be repeated from more correct elements, has not been at all generally known. Of most of the later derived from later experiments and comparisons. For iron bridges we find a concise account in Dr Hutton’s elaobviating the disadvantageous effects of such a depression, borate Essay on Bridges, which has been reprinted in the which he seems to have supposed unavoidable, as well as first volume of his valuable collection of tracts; but there those of a change of temperature, which must in reality are some still greater edifices of this kind which still reoccur, though to a less considerable extent, Professor Ro- main to be completed. Mr Darby’s construction is not remarkably elegant bison suggested the expedient of a joint to the middle of the bridge, with an intermediate portion, calculated to (Plate CXXXII. fig. 8), but it is by no means so objectionreceive the rounded ends of the opposite ribs, somewhat able as several late authors have seemed to think it. ^Ihee like an interarticular cartilage; but it is impossible to de- span is 100 feet six inches, the weight 178,} tons. fh vise any kind of joint without limiting the pressure, dur- curvature of the exterior concentric arches which assist m ing the change of form, to a very small portion of the sur- supporting the roadway, though it may be somewhat too faces, which could not bear fully on each other throughout great for the most favourable exertion of their resistance, their extent if any such liberty of motion were allowed, leaves them still abundantly strong for the purpose intendunless all friction between them were prevented; and a ed : nor is it correct to say that every shore supporting a

BRIDGE. 279 I ye. pressure should be straight; for if its own weight bears any it began to sink, and some of the transverse pieces broke Bridge, 'i-w' considerable proportion to that which it has to support, in consequence of the change of form. Upon examination the curvature ought to be the same with that of a chain it was found that one of the abutments had given way; of the same weight suspending a similar load in an in- and when this was repaired and made firmer, the other verted position; and the parts of the bridge in question failed. The abutment was pushed outwards horizontally seem to differ only about as much from such a form in ex- without any material derangement of its form or direction ; cess of curvature as a straight line would differ from it in a circumstance which could not have happened if its weight defect. The partial failure which accidentally occurred had been sufficiently great. But the architect seems to rather bears testimony to the merits than to the demerits have trusted to the firmness of the iron and the excellence of the bridge, as they would be estimated in any other si- of the workmanship, and to have neglected the calculation tuation ; for the lateral thrust, which it is generally desir- of the lateral thrust, which it is of so much importance to able to reduce as much as possible, was here actually too determine. Mr Rennie executed several iron bridges with success small; and the abutments were forced inwards by the external pressure of the loose materials forming the high in Lincolnshire; one at Boston over the Witham, of which banks against which the abutments rested. the span is eighty-six feet, and the rise five and a half Mr Paine’s iron bridge, exhibited in London, and in- only; but the abutments being well constructed, it has tended to have been erected in America, was a professed stood securely, notwithstanding the fracture of some of imitation of a catenarian curve ; it was a good specimen of the cross pieces of the frames, which had been weakenthat ideal something which a popular reformer generally has ed by the unequal contraction of the metal in cooling. in view; a thing not ill imagined, and which might possibly At Bristol, Messrs Jessop erected two iron bridges of 100 succeed very well under very different circumstances, but feet span, rising fifteen; each of them contains 150 tons which, when closely examined, proves to be wholly unfit of gray iron, and the expense of each was about L.4000. for the immediate purpose to which the inventor intends The construction appears to be simple and judicious. to apply it. (Plate CXXXII. fig. 11.) The bridge at Wearmouth was completed in 1796, in a Mr Telford has been employed in the construction of great measure through the exertions of Mr Burden, both several aqueduct bridges on a considerable scale. One of as architect and as principal proprietor of the undertaking. these was cast by Messrs Reynolds, and completed in It is remarkable for springing seventy feet above low-wa- 1796, near Wellington in Shropshire; it is 180 feet long, ter mark; and the arch rises thirty feet, leaving a height and twenty feet above the water of the river, being supof 100 feet in the whole for the passage of ships in the ported on iron pillars. Another, still larger, was cast by middle of the stream; the span is 240. The abutments Mr Hazledine, for carrying the Ellesmere Canal over the are founded on a solid rock, but their own internal solidi- river Dee, at Pontcysylte, in the neighbourhood of Llanty appears to be somewhat deficient. The weight of iron gollen. It is supported 126 feet above the surface of the is 250 tons, 210 of them being of cast iron, and 40 of river by twenty stone pillars, and is 1020 feet in length, wrought iron. (Plate CXXXII. fig. 9.) and twelve feet wide. (See Aqueduct, Plate XLIX.) A bridge was finished in the same year at Buildwas, In France, a light iron bridge for foot passengers only near Colebrook Dale (Plate CXXXII. fig. 10), under the was thrown across the Seine, opposite to the gate of the direction of Mr Telford, 130 feet in span, weighing 174 Louvre, in 1803. It is supported by stone piers, which tons, and rising only seventeen feet in the roadway, but are too narrow to withstand the effect of an accident hapfurnished on each side with a stronger arch, of about twice pening to any part of the fabric, and leaving the lateral the depth, which extends to the top of the railing, and as- thrust uncompensated; nor is there any immediate reason sists in suspending the part of the road which is below it to apprehend that inconvenience should arise from this by means of king-posts, and in supporting the part nearer deficiency of strength, since it is highly improbable that the abutments by braces and shores. The breadth is only any partial failure should occur in such a situation, supeighteen feet; and the construction would not be so easily posing the bridge originally well constructed. (Plate applicable to a wider bridge, unless the road were divided CXXXIII. fig. 1.) in the middle by an additional elevated arch with its But all these works have been far exceeded in extent king-posts, like the celebrated wooden bridge at Schaf- and importance by the bridges which have been built over hausen, which was burnt down by one of the French ar- the river Thames. The Vauxhall Bridge was completed mies. A third iron bridge was also erected in 1796, on and opened in August 1816 ; it consists of nine arches of the Parrot at Bridgewater, by the Colebrook Dale Com- cast iron, each of seventy-eight feet span, and between pany. It consists of an elliptic arch of seventy-five feet eleven and twelve feet rise. The breadth of the roadway span and twenty-three feet height, and somewhat resem- is thirty-six feet clear. The architect was Mr Walker. bles the bridge at Wearmouth in the mode of filling the The form of the arches considerably resembles that of haunches with circular rings; a mode not very advantage- Messrs Jessop’s bridges at Bristol, but it is somewhat ous for obtaining the greatest possible resistance from the lighter and more elegant, and it has the advantage of a materials, and consequently throwing a little too much greater solidity in the blocks supporting the principal part weight on the parts of the arch which support them, al- of the pressure. (Plate CXXXIII. fig. 3.) though it is probable that no great inconvenience has acThis advantage also characterizes very strongly the mastually arisen from this cause. terly design of Mr Rennie shown in the structure at the An attempt was also made about the same time to throw bottom of Queen Street, Cheapside, opposite to Guildhall, ?n bridge over the river Tame in Herefordshire, but under the name of the Southwark Bridge. It exhibits an it fell to pieces as soon as the centre was removed. A si- excellent specimen of firmness of mutual abutment in the nmar failure occurred some time afterwards in a bridge of parts constituting the chief strength of the arch, which yout feet span, which was erected on the Tees at has been shown in this essay to be so essential to the searm. In 1802 or 1803 an elegant iron bridge of 181 curity of the work, and which the architect had probably e e span and sixteen and a half of rise was erected at been in a great measure induced to adopt from his practical _ aines. Its general form resembled that of the bridge at experience of the comparative merits of different arrangeearmouth, but the mode of connection of the parts was ments. (Plate CXXXIII. fig. 4, 5.) omewhat difi’erent. In a short time after its completion, An act of parliament for the erection of this bridge was

bridge. 280 but it will be safer to retain the whole weight, especially BridJ Bridge. passed in 1811, but it was not begun till 1814, the act as something must be allowed for the greater extent of having directed that no operations should he commeneed the upper surface of the wedges. We shall therefore until L.300,000 out of the required L.400,000 should be have for the interior quarter 297 + 439-5 = ')36-5 tons, raised by subscription^ The subscribers were allowed and for the exterior 1523 — 736-5 = 786-5, the difference to receive ten per cent, annually on their shares and te beino- fifty tons ; one sixth of which added to 736-5, gives remainder of the receipts was to accumulate until it should us 744-8 for the reduced weight, which is to the lateral become sufficient to pay off to the proprietors the double thrust as the rise to the half span. But for the rise vve amount of their subscriptions : after this time the budge must take twenty-three feet, since the middle of the was to remain open without any toll. The middlearchis blocks next to the piers is a foot more remote from the 240 feet in span, the side arches 210 feet each. 1 intrados than that of the blocks at the crown ; and the abutment is of firm masonry, connected by dowels to pre- true half span, measured from the same point, will be 4 vent its sliding, and resting on gratings oft^ber supportgreater than that of the intrados, amounting to ed by oblique piles. The piers stand on foundations nine X or ten feet below the present bed of the river, tn order t 121-6. We have therefore 23 : 121-6 = 745-8 : 3942 provide against any alterations which may hereafter take place in its channel from the operation of various causes; tons, for m, the lateral thrust; and for ^ ax, 736-5 — — and they are abundantly secured by a flooring of timber resting on a great number of piles. _ 728-2 ; whence, ^ x being 60*8, a = 1P98, and r Bridge. Weight of half of the middle arch of Southwark Cross Total. = — Z= 329 feet, the radius of curvature of the curve of No. 8 Blocks. 3 Frames. Crosses Spandrels. t. cwt. t. cwt. f. cwt. f. cwt. t. cwt. t- civtequilibrium at the vertex, while that of the middle of the Ill 17 blocks is 334. In order to determine the ordinate y, we 26 4 9 1 11 0 2 11 1 62 18 103 4 12 10 13 8 15 20 3 2 60 19 108 10 have 13 10 2 8 2 32 16 =i + 4 S*1; but 1 f°r the wl,ole arcl1 is 3 54 15 87 6 23 14 ~ 50 11 9 17 4 51 3 95 19 728-2, and f 32 14 13 9 15 5 50 17 = 50 ; consequently my =728-,!:+ -3 88 6 24 15 13 9 15 6 51 2 48 12 the first portion varying as 20 7 12 and the second as +; and half 7 25 12 .. 152 0 Covering-plates. .. 77 5 the sum y being 23 = 22-49 + -51, the ordinate at ? a: or Cornice and palisades... .. 650 0 Roadway and pavement 30-4 feet is ^ X 22-19 + ^ X = Ml i and, in a l 52 Whole weight ’ ^ ^ similar manner, any other ordinate may be calculated, so 11.000 « that we have Middle of the Blocks. x. V' Span 240 feet; rise 24 ; depth of the blocks or plates at 1-40 30-2 P4T 65 the crown six feet, at the pier eight feet. . 5-67 60-8 S' It is evident from the inspection of this statement ot 12-89 91-0 13-02 23-00 the weights, that their distribution is by no means capable 121-6 23-00 of being accurately expressed by any one formula ; but it Hence it appears that the curve of equilibrium nowhere will be amply sufficient for the determination of the thrust to employ the approximation founded on the supposition deviates more than about two inches from the middle of of a parabolic curve (Prop. T.); and if we afterwards the blocks, which is less than one fortieth of the whole wished to find the effect of any local deviation from the dC The half weight of the smaller arches is probably about assumed law of the weight, we might have recourse to the smc 1300 tons, and their lateral thrust 3500; and, o 1 mode of calculation exemplified in the answer to the fifth abutment weighs 11,000 tons, the foundation ought question. But, in fact, that answer may of itself be considered as sufficient to show, that the effect of a variation have an obliquity of or more than one in four, if it of a few tons from the load appropriate to each part would be wholly unimportant. „ were intended to stand on the piles without friction ; bjit We must, therefore, begin by finding the weight of a in reality it rises only sixty-six inches in 624, or ne y portion of the arch corresponding to a quarter of the span ; one in nine ; so that there is an angular difference of one r in seven between the direction of the piles and that o . 24 and the whole angle, of which the tangent is = "2, thrust, which is probably a deviation of no practical being 11° 181', its sine is T961 ; and the angle, of which ^ifrem'ains to be inquired how far the series of masses the sine is -09805, being 5° 371', we have to compute the of solid iron, constituting the most essential Par‘ ° weight of or of the angular extent, beginning arch, is well calculated to withstand the utmost chan of temperature that can possibly occur to i in from the middle of the arch; and this will be 48 ^ verest seasons (Prop. K.) For this purpose, we may ta^ + 88 A + 95 ^ + (87^) X -7345 = 297 tons. Now the weight of the covering-plates, cornice, palisades, road- the mean depth a = 7 feet, h being 23 ; then 1 + f way, and pavement, is distributed throughout the length, 99 1 and 1 4-— - 91 —= 12-52: consequent+ lbaa = 14 14, 135 without sensible inequality, making 879 tons, fiom which _ __ -14.14 the part immediately above the piers might be deducted, 1

The Southwark Bridge was not completed at the time this article was written.

BRIDGE. 281 idge. ly the greatest actual compression or extension of such a blocks of granite, with short counter-arches over each pier. Bridge. structure is to the mean change which takes place in the The haunches are filled up, as is usual in the most modirection of the chord, as 14-14 to 12-53, or as 1-129 to one ; dern bridges, by spandrels, or longitudinal walls of brick, and if, in a long and severe frost, the temperature varied covered with flat stones, and extending over about half from 52° to 20°, since the general dimensions would con- the span of the arch ; the remainder being merely covered with earth or gravel, which is also continued over the tract about the extreme parts of the blocks near the stones covering the spandrels. The hollow spaces between the walls are carefully closed above, and provided with 1-129 abutments would vary of their length ; and the mo- outlets below, in order to secure them from becoming receptacles of water, which would be injurious to the duradulus M being about 10,000,000 feet, this change would bility of the structure. The mean specific gravity of the produce a resistance equivalent to the weight of a column materials is such, that a cubic yard of the granite weighs of the same substance 2258 feet high ; that is, to about exactly two tons, of the brick work one ton, and of the three tons for each square inch, diminishing gradually to- earth a ton and an eighth. Hence the weight of the wards the middle of the blocks, and converted on the whole may be obtained from the annexed statement. other side into an opposite resistance; so that this force (Plate CXXXIV. fig. 1, 2, 3.) would be added to the general pressure below in case of contraction, and above in case of extension. Now, the Contents of the materials in half an arch of Waterloo Bridge, lateral thrust is derived from a pressure equivalent to a from the middle of the pier to the crown, beginning from column about 329 feet high, of materials weighing 1523 the springing of the arch. tons, while the blocks themselves weigh 357 ; that is, to a Cubic Feet. column equal in section to the blocks, and 1400 feet high ; Half of the arch stones 25311 it will therefore amount to about two tons on each square Half of the inverted arch 2555 inch; consequently such a change of temperature as has Square spandrel between them 1994 been supposed, will cause the extreme parts of the abutOutside spandrel walls 4374 ments to bear a pressure of five tons, where, in the ordiSpandrels of brick 4976 (z= 2489) nary circumstances, they have only to support two. Kirbels of the brick spandrels 1271 The ingenious architect proposed to diminish this conFlat stone covers 969 tingent inconvenience, by causing the blocks to bear someEarth 10260 (= 5771) what more strongly on the abutments at the middle than Foot pavement 620 at the sides, so as to allow some little latitude of elevation Frieses, E. and W 1586 and depression in the nature of a joint; and, no doubt, Cornice, E. and W 1120 this expedient would prevent the great inequality of presPlinth of balustrade 510 sure which might otherwise arise from the alternations of Solid in parapet 416 heat and cold. But it cannot be denied that there must Balusters 72, 151 cwt 102 be some waste of strength in such an arrangement, the Coping, E. and W 142 extreme parts of the abutments, and of the blocks near From this statement, and from a consideration of the them, contributing very little to the general resistance; and when we consider the very accurate adjustment of arrangement of the materials, exhibited in the plate, we the equilibrium throughout the whole structure, we shall may infer that the half arch, terminated where the middle be convinced that there was no necessity for any thing line of the arch-stones enters the pier, is equivalent in like so great a depth of the solid blocks, especially near weight to about 34,000 cubic feet of granite; its inner the abutments ; and that the security would have been half containing in round numbers 13,000, and its outer amply sufficient if, with the same weight of metal, they had 21,000, whence we have 14,333 for the reduced weight been made wider in a transverse direction, preserving only of the quarter arch (Prop. T.) The extreme ordinate will the form of the exterior ones on each side, if it had been be about twenty-one feet; the middle of the blocks being thought more agreeable to the eye. In carpentry, where somewhat more than sixteen feet above the springing of there is often a transverse strain, and where stiffness is fre- the arch, and the key-stone being four feet six inches quently required, we generally gain immensely by throw- deep ; consequently the horizontal thrust will be expressing much ol the substance of our beams into the depth ; but ed by 14,333 x = 40,952 cubic feet, weighing 3033 in a bridge perfectly well balanced, there is no advantage whatever from depth of the blocks. We only want enough to secure us against accidental errors of construction, and tons. But ^ ax being 11667, and ^ a? =r 30, a = 389, and against partial loads from extraneous weights; and it is m 40952 not probable that either of these causes, in such a bridge, r— ■ = 105 feet; while the radius of curvaobo * would ever bring the curve of equilibrium six inches, or a ~ even three, from its natural situation near the middle of ture of the ellipse at the crown is = 103 feet. the blocks. We cannot conclude our inquiries into this subject with It is obvious, therefore, that the curve of equilibrium will a more striking example than by applying the principles pass everywhere extremely near to the middle of the 0 the theory to the magnificent edifice by the same judi- blocks, and there can be no apprehension of any deficiency cious and experienced architect, which now bears the tri- in the equilibrium. It is true that, as it approaches to the wnp lant appellation of Waterloo Bridge ; a work not less piers, it acquires an obliquity of a few degrees to the pre-eminent among the bridges of all ages and countries, joints; but the disposition to slide would be abundantly ian the event which it will commemorate is unrivalled obviated by the friction alone, even if the joints were not in ie annals of ancient or modern history. It consists of secured by other precautions. me e hptical arches, each of 120 feet span, and thirtyIn building the arches the stones were rammed togetJ6 The piers are twenty feet thick, the road ther with very considerable force, so that, upon the rew fpp6/1 ^'G1 , t idc, besides a foot pavement of seven moval of the centres, none of the arches sunk more than n Cac 1 s e whole vo° ^ - The arches and piers are built of large an inch and a half. In short, the accuracy of 2the N

bridge. 282 x 1 -A nf thp de- fered bv the works of the new bridge made it expedient Bi%,i Bridge, execution seems to have vied with the beauty ot^the ^ throw two ^ of ^ the ^ small arches at each each arches of of the the old bridSe at old bridge . si originally intended to be on the site of the old one, and its to the level of the bridge, 1”e ^ .‘eS °artic„. elevation was to correspond with the level of the ancient arches in continuation of ' a„d

approaches, may cost about L.2,000,000; and of this sum a free space was left for carriages and foot passe g L

Thf builtogwa's rgun typing ZTs^le of a principal part of the bri^e coffer-dam for "the south pier on the 15th of March 1824. from the original plan consisted m an ad^10n « SI^ The bed of the river at the site of the bridge is about to the width of the roadway, and of two feet to the height thirty feet deep at low water of spring-tides, and the cur- of the abutment arches. 1 he first of these was conside rent bebg at ^1 times extremely rapid, the Coffer-dams in ed to be of such importance that the expense, L.42,000, which the piers were to be built, required to be construct- was defrayed out of the public puise. Id whh more than ordinary strength to keep out the waThe bridge was completed da^ of July 831, ter. Their general form was elliptical; three rows of the whole time occupiedsev in itst election a g piles dressed in the joints, and shod with iron, many of years, five months, and ^ ^ days; , ronsists 0f five them eighty or ninety feet long, were driven into the Ihe bridge, as has been already state , . ground, and, after being firmly bolted together, were pud- elliptical arches, the least of which is argei c Y died with clay; wooden stays or props&were then intro- stone arch of this description ever abefore erected The duced between the different rows of piers, and the whole centre arch is 152 feet span, with 1186 ° 1 ^ hes interior space strongly truss-framed in a diagonal manner, feet six inches above high-water mark. Jhe ^ and the longitudinal beams firmly strapped together, form- next the centre are 140 feet span, with t) ig() ing at the joints abutments for the braces. Stairs were six inches of rise ; and the two abutment aidies a also formed for descending into the coffer-dam, and pumps feet span, rising twenty-four feet six incl e . P fixed to raise the water arising from springs or leakage. The are of a rectangular form, and perfect y . • • JLt|_ first coffer-damwascompletedonthe27th of April 1825, and diminution in the quantity of masonry by the sem P the first stone of the bridge was laid on the 15th of June, cal form of the arch has admitted of the piers being with all due ceremony. The foundations of the piers are duced in thickness below the ordinary propoi tions.. of wood. Piles of beech were first driven in the interior bases of the piers are of a circular cone-topped toin ’ ■j. of the coffer-dam to a depth of nearly twenty feet into the harmonize with the waving line of the water, an 16 P , stiff blue clay which forms the natural bed of the river; the impression of tameness which might Have 16 two rows of horizontal sleepers, about twelve inches square, from the plainness and rectangular shape o ^ i were then laid on the head of these piles, and covered A simple modillion cornice, supported on denti with beech planking six inches thick, and on this floor the of solid beams of granite, runs along the upper par lowermost of masonry was laid. _ _ bridge, and marks the l^e^ofjoadwaj^ wermost course or was, uuu. ----- ^externaHy , ':n(T wi r The obstruction which the navigation of the river suf- is surmounted by a close parapet, in perfect ke p g 1 The foregoing article was written by the late Dr Thomas Young, for the Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Ed' this Encyclopaedia.

BRIDGE. 283 dge. the simplicity of the whole structure. The line of road- improvement of the high northern or Queensferry Road, Bridge, way, or upper surface of the bridge, is a segment of a very which could only be surmounted by a spacious bridge. large circle, the rise being only one in 132. The abutThe length of the Dean Bridge is 447 feet, and the ments are each seventy-three feet wide at the base, and width between the parapets thirty-nine feet, consisting of they spread out backward, so as to sustain the thrust of a carriageway twenty-three feet wide between the curbthe bridge with the best effect. stones, and two footpaths, each eight feet wide. The The length of the bridge from the extremities of the height of the roadway above the bed of the river is 106 abutments is 982 feet, and within the abutments 728 feet; feet. the roadway is fifty-three feet between the parapets, beThe style of the elevation is unprecedented, and deing eight feet wider than the old bridge, and eleven feet mands our particular attention. wider than any other bridge on the Thames. Of this A lofty bridge forming a commodious roadway across width, the footways occupy nine feet each, and the car- a deep ravine, will, from the nature of its romantic situriageway thirty-five feet. The whole bridge, including ation, and its evident utility, excite our admiration, notthe dry arches over Thames and Tooley Streets, is con- withstanding that, when examined as a work of art, solely structed of the finest granite, selected from the quarries upon its own merits, and when our minds are divested of of Aberdeen, Heytor, and Penryn. The remaining arches the fulness of gratification derived from the surrounding over which the approaches pass are of brick. The total scenery, we frequently find its architectural details and quantity of stone employed was about 120,000 tons. Mag- outline devoid of taste, and deservedly the object of our nificent candelabra of brass support the gas lamps, and disapprobation. the ends of the parapet are finished with four immense Upon examining, strictly upon their own merits as archiblocks of granite. The building expense of the bridge tectural productions, even the grandest viaducts and aqueamounts at present to L.506,000; the remainder of the ducts hitherto constructed of masonry only, it will, we whole expense has been incurred by the approaches. A venture to say, be generally felt, either that the pillars side view of the bridge is exhibited in Plate CXXXIII. have a heavy and clumsy appearance, or that the great fig. 7, and a plan of the roadway in fig. 8. mass of masonry being uppermost, the superstructure apA few years ago the elliptical arches of Blackfriars and pears too massive, on account of the unusual altitude at Waterloo Bridges were considered as the largest ever which it is supported; and we are of opinion that the exerected; but the centre arch of the one is less by one pansive mass of dead flat masonry presented by the spanhalf, and that of the other by one fourth, than the centre drels over the pillars, and between the adjacent arches, is arch of the new London Bridge. Plate CXXXIII. fig. 2, the principal cause of the anomaly, especially when semiwill give a distinct notion of their relative magnitudes, circular arches, on many accounts to be preferred in such in which AA represents the curve of the Blackfriars situations, are adopted. arch, BB that of the Waterloo, and CC that of the new This observation is in some measure applicable to all deLondon Bridge, stretching out far above and beyond the scriptions of stone bridges. To large bridges over rivers, others. of which the springers, and consequently the mass of the hi eld Bridge, which crosses the Tay, was completed spandrels, do not require to be elevated far above the Br }e. in Dunkeld the year 1809, after a design of Mr Telford; and, by surface of the water, the objection has less weight; but competent judges, is regarded as one of his happiest ef- even in this case the difficulty has been genei’ally felt, as forts. It consists of five large and two small arches. The is proved by the incessant endeavours of engineers to form figure of the arch is a segment of a circle. This is the new designs for carrying up the masonry over the piers, form which Mr Telford seems to have adopted for all his so as to give relief to the face of the spandrel walls. The bridges. Some may be of opinion that it is less elegant ordinary devices for this purpose, if applied to a lofty than the semi-ellipse ; but looking at Dunkeld Bridge, we bridge or viaduct, would be attended w ith many practical hesitate to pronounce an absolute opinion. objections, and would fail of producing the desired effect. The principal dimensions of the bridge are these :— It therefore remained a desideratum to devise a method Feet. In. by which the masonry composing the body of a bridge, to Span of the middle arch 90 0 be supported upon lofty pillars, may have its exterior eleSpan of the two adjoining arches 84j 0 vation or outline relieved, so as to break the flatness of Span of the two side arches 74 0 the spandrel walls, thereby giving lightness and elegance Span of the land arches 20 0 to the superstructure; and it was essential to the perfect Hise of the middle arch 30 0 fulfilment of this object to produce the desired effect by Breadth across the soffit 27 0 some bold stroke of extension upon the general plan, not Breadth of roadway within the parapets 25 0 by the aid of minor superficial ornaments, now generally Breadth of footpath on each side 3 6 discarded, particularly from bridges whose magnitude Thickness of each of the two middle piers 16 0 alone insures grandeur, and purity of design the most efThickness of each of the two adjoining piers... 14 0 fective beauty. Thickness of each of the two side piers 20 0 W ith the aid of Plate CXXXV. the following description Thickness of the land abutment 7 0 will convey an accurate idea of the design of the Dean )ean The Dean Bridge, Edinburgh, is remarkable on account Bridge, which may be regarded as consisting of these parts, Bri, i ( Edil urgh. °, ^ situation, its magnitude, the style of its elevation, viz. the main body of the bridge supporting the carriagethe peculiarities of the details of its construction, and the way, and the wing-arches on each side supporting the practical advantages of those peculiarities as proved by footpaths. tie complete success which has attended the execution The main body of the bridge consists of four arches, °f the design. segments of circles, each ninety feet span and thirty feet Tins edifice is situated at the north-west extremity of rise; consequently the radius of curvature of the arch is ie city of Edinburgh, and crosses the deep ravine formed forty-eight feet nine inches. The width across the soffit } tie stream called the Water of Leith, a little above St is thirty-one feet. These main arches are supported ernards Well. This ravine had previously been found upon hollow pillars, hereafter more particularly described, a n e ectual barrier to the extension of the New Town in the eleven feet thick and thirty-one feet wide, agreeably to nort i-western direction, and presented an obstacle to the the soffit of the arch. The arch springers are set at the

bridge. 284 We shall now consider the peculiarities and practical Bridge, Bridge, height of sixty-seven feet above the level of the bed of advantages of the details of the construction of the Dean ■ the stream flowing underneath the second arch from the Bridge.piUar^ p i i arches or body of which SU port t ie ma n south. The depth of the arch-stones of these mam arches is three feet, being one thirtieth of the span. Over the the bridge are eleven feet thick, but not of solid masonry, pillars, and between the adjacent arches, the spandrels there being four voids in the shaft of each pillar, of which are built up solid to the height of twelve feet above the the dimensions and construction will be clearly underarch springers. The remainder of the spandrels is lett stood from Plate CXXXV. fig. 1 and 2. The side walls are hollow, with the exception of the longitudinal spandie three feet thick, and the interior cross walls which conwalls, four feet apart, and one foot six inches thick, which nect them two feet, all of squared ashlar, laid in uniform being corbelled at the top, and covered with flag pavement courses throughout; the interior stones being of the same stones, support the bridge roadway. The exterior span- height as the face stones, and as fully and truly squared drel walls are two feet six inches thick, faced with close- upon the bed. In these three-feet walls every alternate jointed ashlar. . course consists entirely of headers, three feet on the bed, The wing-arches supporting the footpaths constitute and the intermediate courses are of stretchers laid in pairs, the peculiar characteristic of the Dean Bridge, springing each about one foot five and a half inches on the bed, the from pilasters brought up from the foundation, and exe- space of about one inch being left for the longitudinal cuted at the same time with the main pillars, nve xeet joint, to allow room for forcing down stiff mortar wdth a wide in front, and projecting six feet from the body ot wooden sword, it being found that this method of groutthe pillars. These pilasters are continued up the lace ot ing the vertical joint with stiff mortar makes more solid the spandrels of the main arches to the height of seven- work than would be effected by laying the stones nearly teen feet four inches above the level of the lower arch close, and pouring in thin grout, which gradually dries up springers, at which height the springers for the upper and leaves the joint void. arches are laid. The upper or wing-arches extend oyer Many practical advantages attend the construction of the main arches. There are therefore four on each side hollow pillars. That part only of the masonry is omitted of the bridge, each ninety-six feet span, and sixteen feet which, if the pillar were solid, would tend in the least deeight inches rise; consequently the radius of curvature is gree to its effective stability, and, consequently, being alseventy-seven feet five inches; the width across the soffit most a useless mass, would do more harm than good, by is eight feet two inches, of which five feet project in front operating as a pernicious load upon the foundations. Also, of the face of the spandrels of the lower arches, the re- by this method, the bed of every stone throughout the mainder, three feet twm inches, being bonded into the work is exposed to view, which insures perfect woikman* main body of the bridge. The depth of the arch-stones ship in the setting, on which the strength of masonry is two feet six inches, or about one thirty-eighth part of mainly depends. Moreover, the great proportion of mathe span. The face of the outer spandrels ol the uppei terials,' labour, and workmanship thus saved is an importarches is one foot within the face of the main pilasters, allowing an intake of six inches upon the face of the up- ant consideration. In the dressing of ashlar required to carry a heavy load, per arch springers, and the remaining six inches for the as that for the pillars of a bridge, especial pains must be projection of a pilaster up the spandrels, in order to retaken that the stones be as full at the back as at the front; lieve, as far as practicable, the flatness of this part of the for it is here of importance to observe that workmen, espework. _ ' cially piece-workmen, find it much to their advantage to The upper arches, by a bold projection of five feet, eitecupon this fundamental rule in good masonry. By tually break up and relieve the extensive surface of dead infringe masonry that would otherwise be presented by the span- working the stone lean on the back, they can slap away drels of the ninety feet arches, which being elevated upon more freely and do more work than if truth to the square lofty pillars, would, when view ed from the walks by St be insisted on; and, moreover, when the stone comes tope Bernard’s Well, along the banks of the rivulet, present a laid, the inequality of pressure will produce a fine joint mass of flatness and uniformity detractive from the gene- without any trouble on the part of the setter. To t is practice of working ashlar lean on the bed, the ral gratification which the height and magnitude of the vicious edifice, and the beauty of the surrounding scenery, would skirping of the face-work and bulging of the walls may generally be attributed; and it is principally owing to its nevertheless insensibly create. The upper arches of the Dean Bridge forming in a having been specified that drafts be put along t ic ^ 6® measure a secondary member of the edifice, their span- of the beds of the ashlar, and the stone kept full, thaJJJ drels may with propriety be further relieved with orna- great pressure on the three-feet walls of the pillais o c mental sculpture, which, though generally excluded from Dean Bridge has produced no skirps or cracks in any part . modern bridges, would in this case be rendered appro- of the work. It remains to be explained by what method the upper priate by the circumstance of the close vicinity of the bridge to the most splendid buildings of the New Town of arches were executed, so as to allow of their subsiding Edinburgh. However, the general purity of the design freely upon the centres being struck, without receiving renders it doubtful whether or not such embellishment any obstruction from the lower spandrels; foi it is evi en , would be conducive to the perfection of the work, and may that had the centres of the main arches been struck an6 the spandrels completed close up to the soffit of the ^PP be regarded as doubtful. The cornice consists of a frieze course and cordon, to- arches, the upper arches would, upon their centies gether two feet six inches in height. The parapet con- subsequently struck, have been subject to unequa c feet two inches of the so sists of a base, dado, and coping, together four feet in pression; the interior three r being hard upon the low er spandrel walls, and the Pr0J^.c. height above the footpath pavement. The profile of the ing five feet left to subside freely by its own weight,e wmci cornice and parapet will be best understood by reference v 1 to Plate CXXXV. It wall be observed that the mem- unequal bearing wmuld infallibly have disturbed t“ ^ bers are very few, bold, and easily executed; the effect superstructure. And it is equally evident that the low thus produced upon the elevation is particularly striking ; and upper arches, being dissimilar, would not su and smaller members at such an elevation would fail of equally, and therefore could not be struck at the s time dependent on each other. The course, theie > producing any effect.

E jge. / pursued in the case of the Dean Bridge, was to strike the centres of the lower arches as soon as the arch-stones were laid, and immediately to proceed with the turning of the upper arches and the striking of their centres, previous to the completion of the lower spandrels. This was a most delicate operation, and we believe it to have been unprecedented; for the pilasters or pillars of the upper arches being only five feet wide, it follows that the four upper arches of ninety-six feet span each were supported solely upon their pillars of five feet thick, being only one nineteenth of the span of the arch. To accomplish this, it was evidently necessary that all the four arches should be struck as gradually and as equally as possible, and which was done with great care, never allowing the slack blocks to be driven farther at one time than sufficient to let down the centre a quarter of an inch. It was found that these upper arches subsided very nearly equally and gradually during the course of a month, by which time they attained permanent stability, and the total depression amounted to about four and a half inches each at the crown. The lower arches subsided about three inches each at the crown. In constructing the centres a subsidence of three inches was calculated upon for the lower arches, and six inches for the upper arches, and so much additional rise given to the centres accordingly, over and above what was intended for the arches when complete. After having allowed the upper arches freely to attain their position of permanent stability, a considerable portion of their spandrel walling was built, and the centring removed, and the masonry of the lower spandrels made good up to their soffits. In completing the exterior spandrels of the upper arches, which are only eighteen inches

W)-w

thick, they were connected with the interior spandrels by Bridgemeans of dovetailed bond-stones, which, at the same time Town. that they gave stability and stiffness to the walls, effectually tied them to the interior work, rendering the wings and the main body of the bridge a nerfectly connected mass. In all extensive edifices composed of heavy materials, it is of primary consequence to the stability of the work that good arrangements be made whereby every stone may be laid with ease and expedition, by means of cranes or other mechanical contrivances. This point cannot be too forcibly insisted upon; for whatever pains may be taken in preparing the materials, it will frequently be found, upon setting the stones, that the bed of lime is either too full or too lean, or that the stone is in some respects unsuitable, and ought to be raised. If, therefore, it can be raised with ease and expedition, it is done at once, and the fault rectified; but if the arrangements for setting be imperfect, the uniformity of the bed of lime is disturbed before the stone is properly seated in its place, and glaring imperfections will be submitted to rather than incur the labour and loss of time consequent to its reparation. The success which has attended the execution of the Dean Bridge, and the expedition with which the work was carried on, are in a great measure attributable to the judicious manner in which the cranes, machinery, and scaffolding were constructed. The Dean Bridge was commenced in October 1829, and completed, with the exception of the parapet, in December 1831. It is gratifying to all concerned, that not a single accident occasioning loss of life or limb occurred during the progress of the work. See Chain Bridges.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Plate CXXXII. fig. 1. If AB represent the distance of any two particles of matter, and BC, DE, EG, the repulsive forces at the distances AB, AD, AF, respectively, and BC, DH, FI, the corresponding cohesive forces, then GI must be ultimately to EH as FB to BD. (Sect. I. Prop. A.) Fig. 2. The block wall support twice as great a pressure applied at A as at B. (Prop. B.) Fig. 3. It is obvious that ABC — ADE = ABC — CFG, HI being = HK, and HG = HA; and the difference ABFHA is always equal to DB X KH. (Prop. C.) Fig. 4. It is evident that AB is to CD as AE to CE, or as z + £ a to z. (Prop. E.) It is also obvious that as z or CE is to CD, so is EF to FG. (Prop. F.) Fig. 5. Supposing the arch AB to be so loaded in the neighbourhood of C as to require the curve of equilibrium to assume the form ADCEB, the joints in the neighbourhood of D will be incapable of resisting the pressure in the direction of the curve CD, and must tend to turn on their internal terminations as centres, and to open externally. (Prop. Y.) Fig. 6. A, B, C, different steps in the fall of a weak arch. (Prop. Y.) Fig. 7. Elevation and plan of Messrs Telford and Douglas’s proposed iron bridge over the Thames. (Sect. V.) Fig. 8. Elevation of Mr Darby’s iron bridge at Colebrook Dale. (Sect. VI.)

Fig. 9. Elevation of Mr Burden’s bridge at Wearmouth. (Sect. VI.) Fig. 10. Elevation of Mr Telford’s bridge at Buildwas. (Sect. VI.) Fig. 11. Elevation of Messrs Jessop’s bridges at Bristol. (Sect. VI.) Fig. 12. Elevation of Mr Telford’s bridge at Dunkeld. Plate CXXXIII. fig. 1. Elevation of the bridge of the Louvre at Paris. (Sect. VI.) Fig. 2. Comparative size of the arches of Blackfriars, Waterloo, and the new London Bridge. Fig. 3. Elevation of Vauxhall Bridge. (Sect. VI.) Fig. 4. Elevation of Southwark Bridge. (Sect. VI.) Fig. 5. Plan of Southwark Bridge. (Sect. VI.) Fig. 6. Elevation of the old London Bridge. Fig. 7. Elevation of the new London Bridge. Fig. 8. Plan of the new London Bridge. Plate CXXXIV. fig. 1. Elevation of Waterloo Bridge. (Sect. VI.) Fig. 2. Plan of Waterloo Bridge. (Sect. VI.) Fig. 3. Section of an arch of Waterloo Bridge, showing the foundations of the piers and the spandrel walls of brick, together with the centre supporting it. The dotted line represents the direction of the curve of equilibrium. (Sect. VI.) Plate CXXXV. Elevation and plan of the Dean Bridge, Edinburgh, and the section of an arch.

Bridge, in Gunnery, the two pieces of timber which of a violin is about one inch and a quarter in height, and go between the two transums of a gun-carriage. near an inch and a half in length. BRIDGE-TOWN, the capital of the island of BarbaBridge, in Music, a term for that part of a stringed instrument over which the strings are stretched. The bridge does. See Barbadoes.

286 B R I Bridgend BRIDGEND, a market-town of the county of Glamoril gan,j.] in South Wales, being partly in the parish of NewBridjioit. cag e anc| pari;]y in that of Coity, 179 miles from London. It stands on the river Ogmore, which supplies a great abundance of salmon and other fish, and the market, held on Saturday, is well supplied with all other necessaries. There is a neat county-hall, whei'e the sessions, and occasionally the county elections, are held. BRIDGENORTH, a borough and market-town of the hundred of Stoddendon, in the county of Salop, 140 miles from London, on the river Severn. It is an ancient place, in the vicinity of which are many interesting remains of antiquity. There is a considerable trade carried on in iron, leather, pipes, malt, and building boats for navigating the Severn. The town returns two members to parliament, who are chosen by the corporation and the freemen, in number about seven hundred, over whom the family of Whitmore have long held a predominant influence. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 4408, in 1811 to 4179, and in 1821 to 4345. BRIDGEWATER, a borough and market-town of the hundred of North Petherton, in the county of Somerset, 142 miles from London. It stands on the river Parret, on which vessels from sea ascend to the iron bridge, but are aground at low water. There is much trade here, as coals for the supply of the interior are imported in large quantities, and much malt and a peculiar kind of bricks are exported. There is a good market on Thursday. Two members are returned to parliament by the inhabitant householders. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 3634, in 1811 to 4179, and in 1821 to 6155. BRIDLE, a contrivance made of straps or thongs of leather and pieces of iron, in order to keep a horse in subjection and obedience. The several parts of a bridle are the bit or snaffle; the head-stall, or leathers from the top of the head to the rings of the bit; the fillet, over the fore-head and under the fore-top; the throat-band, which buttons from the head-band under the throat; the reins or thongs of leather, which, proceeding from the rings of the bit, and cast over the horse’s head, are held by the rider in his hand ; the nose-band, passing through loops at the back of the head-stall, and buckled under the cheeks; the trench; the cavesan; the martingal; and the chaff-halter. Pliny assures us that one Pelethronius first invented the bridle and saddle, though Virgil ascribes the invention to the Lapithse, to whom he applies the epithet Pelethronii, from a mountain in Thessaly named Pelethronium, where horses were first begun to be broken. The first horsemen, not being acquainted with the art of governing horses with bridles, managed them only with a rope or a switch, and the accent of the voice. This was the practice of the Numidians, Getulians, Libyans, and Massilians. The Roman youth also learned the art of fighting without bridles, which was an exercise or lesson in the manege; and hence it is that on Trajan’s column soldiers are represented riding at full speed without any bridles on. BRIDPORT, a borough and market-town in the hundred of Beaminster and county of Dorset, 134 miles from London, on the river Brit, which is divided into two branches, one of them passing at the east, the other at the west end of the town. The manufacturing industry here is very great, producing sail-cloth, twine, nets, ropes, and other requisites for the Newfoundland fishery. The harbour is small and almost choked, but some vessels are built celebrated for their fast sailing. The streets are wide and well paved, and where the four cross streets meet is a handsome town-hall. It returns two members to parliament, chosen by the inhabitant householders. There is a

B R I good market on Saturday. The population amounted in Brief 1801 to 3117, in 1811 to 3666, and in 1821 to 3742. Jj BRIEF, in Law, an abridgment of the client’s case, made out for the instruction of counsel on a trial at law; wherein the case of the litigant is to be briefly but fully stated. Brief, or Brieve, in Scots Law, a writ issued from the Chancery, directed to any judge-ordinary, commanding and authorizing that judge to call a jury to inquire into the facts mentioned in the brief, and upon their verdict to pronounce sentence. Apostolical Briefs, letters which the pope dispatches to princes or other magistrates, relating to any public affair. These briefs are distinguished from bulls, in regard the latter are more ample, and always written on parchment, and sealed with lead or green wax; whereas briefs are very concise, written on paper, sealed with red wax, and with the seal of a fisherman, or St Peter in a boat. BRIEG, a circle in the Prussian province of Silesia, extending over 213 square miles, or 136,320 acres, containing two cities, two market-towns, sixty-two villages, and 5226 houses, inhabited by 34,342 individuals. It is divided into two parts by the river Oder, is a level district, and, on the Polish side of that river, is covered with woods. The only manufacture is that of linens. The capital of the circle, the city of Brieg, is on the banks of the Oder, a well-built town, containing four Lutheran and three Catholic churches, with several public charitable institutions. The inhabitants amount to 10,547, who are occupied in various manufactures, and carry on trade by the Oder with the Baltic Sea at Stettin. BRIEL, a town in the province of South Holland, in the Netherlands, the chief place of a circle of the same name, on the north side of the island Boorne, near the mouth of the Maas. It contains about 3800 men, of whom many are fishermen and pilots. It is interesting as the place the capture of which laid the foundation of the power and wealth of the United Provinces. Long. 4. 3. 45. E. Lat.51. 54. 15. N. BRIEY, an arrondissement of the department of Moselle, in France, extending over 474 square miles, comprehending five cantons and 165 communes, with 56,112 inhabitants. The chief place, a town of the same name, on the river Waget, contains about 1900 inhabitants. BRIG, or Brigantine, a merchant-ship with two masts. This term is not universally confined to vessels of a particular construction, or which are masted and rigged in a manner different from others, but is variously applied, by the mariners of different European nations, to a peculiar sort of vessel in their own marine. Amongst British seamen this description of vessel is distinguished by having her main-sails set nearly in the plane of her keel, whereas the main-sails of larger ships are hung athwart, or at right angles with the ship’s length, and fastened to a yard which hangs parallel to the deck. In a brig, the foremost edge of the mainsail is fastened in different places to hoops which encircle the main-mast, and slide up and down it as the sail is hoisted or lowered; and it is extended by a gaff above and a boom below. BRIGADE, in the military art, signifies the union of several squadrons or battalions under the command of a colonel, who has also the rank of brigadier-general in the army. A brigade .of artillery consists of a certain number of cannon or field-pieces, with the necessary munitions, stores, and gunners. The soldiers attached to these guns are also collectively denominated a brigade, and are under the command of a superior officer of artillery. A brigade of cavalry consists of different regiments, making together eight or ten squadrons, and commanded by a colonel or

B R I cavalry, who has the rank of brigadier-general in the army. Br '3e A brigade of dragoons consists of different regiments of Bras. dragoons, making together eight squadrons or more, and commanded by a colonel of dragoons, who has also the rank of brigadier-general in the army. A brigade of infantry consists of two or more regiments of foot, making together four, five, six, eight, or more battalions, commanded by a colonel of foot, who has the rank of brigadier-general in the army. And, generally, according to the most modern arrangement of troops, two or more regiments constitute a brigade, two or more brigades a division, two or more divisions a corps d’armee, and two or more corps d’armee a grand army. Bin gad E-Major is an officer appointed by the brigadier to assist him in the management and ordering of his brigade. BRIGADIER, a military officer, whose rank is next above that of colonel, and who is intrusted with the command of a brigade. In Great Britain this rank is in abeyance during peace, but revived in actual service in the field. Every brigadier marches at the head of his brigade upon duty. The brigadier des arme.es of the French service corresponds to our brigadier-general, and, like him, has the command of a brigade of cavalry, dragoons, or infantry. BRIGANDINE, a coat of mail, a kind of ancient defensive armour, consisting of thin jointed scales of plate, pliant and easy to the body. BRIGG, or Glandford Brigg, a market-town in the hundred of Yarborough and county of Lincoln, 153 miles from London, on the river Ancolme, which is navigable to the Humber. There is a large corn-market here on Thursday. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1327, in 1811 to 1497, and in 1821 to 1674. BRIGGS, Henry, one of the greatest mathematicians of the sixteenth century, was born at Warley Wood, in the parish of Halifax, Yorkshire, in the year 1556. In 1592 he was appointed examiner and lecturer in mathematics, and soon afterwards reader of the physical lecture founded by Di Linacer. W hen Gresham College in London was established, he was chosen the first professor of geometry there, about the beginning of March 1596. In 1609 Mr Briggs contracted an intimacy with Usher, afterwards archbishop 0 Aimagh, which continued many years, and was kept up chiefly by letters, two of which, written by the subject of this notice, are still extant. In one of these letters, dated in August 1610, he tells his friend he was engaged on the subjeet 0f eclipses ; and in the other, dated in March , he acquaints him with his being wholly employed about the noble invention of logarithms, then lately discovered, and in the improvement of which he had afterwards a large share. In his lectures at Gresham College, ie pioposed the alteration of the scale of logarithms, from .inlew^ypci’bolic form which as Napier had givenofthem, to that ich unity is assumed the logarithm the ratio of en 0 on ^ . ®» antl soon 0 e same

afterwards he WTote to the inventor proposal to himself. In 1616 Briggs paid visit to Napier at Edinburgh, in order to confer with that ninent person respecting the suggested change; and next year lie repeated his visit for a similar purpose. During these con erences the alteration proposed by Briggs was agreed in lei 7ile°n t^le 1!eturn latter from his second visit ’ accordingly published the first chiliad of his locenm 1619 he was appointed Savilian professor of 1mm p 7at Oxford, and resigned his professorship ofGres0n tlempn°t .°^ July 1620. Soon after his setr ( le w x 01 univp as incorporated master of arts in that 1 ’ll lifp pmL7’ ,lere lle. continued a laborious and studious and Inn£i°yy-in the l?artlcomputation y ‘n discharging the duties and of his of logarithms in office, other

B R I 287 useful works. In 1622 he published a small tract on the Briggs. North-west Passage to the South Seas, through the continent of Virginia and Hudson’s Bayand in 1624 he printed, at London, his Arithmetica Logarithmica, in folio, a work containing the logarithms of thirty thousand natural numbers to fourteen places of figures besides the index. He also lived to complete a table of logarithmic sines and tangents for the hundredth part of every degree to fourteen places of figures besides the index, with a table of natural signs to fifteen places, and the tangents and secants for the same to ten places; all of which were printed at Gouda in 1631, and published in 1633 under the title of Trigonometria Britannica. In the construction of these works, the author, besides immense labour and application, displayed great powers of genius and invention ; and in his investigations may be detected the germs of discoveries in mathematics which are generally considered as of later invention, namely, the binomial theorem, the differential method and construction of tables by differences, the interpolation by differences, together with angular sections, and several other things of scarcely inferior importance. Mr Briggs terminated his laborious and useful life on the 26th of January 1630, in the seventy-fourth year of his age. Dr Smith gives him the character of being a man of great probity, a contemner of riches, and contented with his own station, preferring a studious retirement to all the splendid circumstances of life. His works are, 1. A Table to find the Height of the Pole, the Magnetical Declination being given, London, 1602, 4to; 2. lables for the Improvement of Navigation, printed in the second edition of Edward Wright’s treatise entitled “ Certain Errors in Navigation detected and corrected,” London, 1610, 4to; 3. A Description of an Instrumental lable to find the part proportional, devised by Mr Edward Wright, London, 1616 and 1618, 12mo; 4. Logarithmorum Chilias prirna, London, 1617, 8vo; 5. Lucubrationes et Annotationes in opera posthuma J. Neperi, Edinburgh, 1619, 4to ; 6. Euclidis Elementorum VI. libri priores, London, 1620, folio; 7. A Treatise on the North-west Passage to the South Sea, London, 1622, 4to, reprinted in Purchas’s Pilgrims, vol. iii. p. 852; Arithmetica Logarithmica, "London, 1624, folio; 9. TrigonometriaBritaniiica,Gondso, 1663, folio ; 10. Two Letters to Archbishop Usher; 11. Mathematica ab Antiquis minus cognita ; and some other works, as his Commentaries on the Geometry of Peter Ramus, and Remarks on the Treatise of Longomontanus respecting the quadrature of the Circle, which have not been published. Briggs, William, an eminent physician in the latter end of the seventeenth century, was the son of Augustin Briggs, Esq. four times member for the city of Norwich, where our author was born. He studied at the university of Cambridge ; and his genius leading him to cultivate physic, he travelled into France, where he attended the lectures of the celebrated anatomist M. Vieussens at Montpelier. After his return he published his Ophthalmographia in 1676. The year following he was created doctor of medicine at Cambridge, and soon after was made fellow of the College of Physicians at London. In 1682 he resigned his fellowship in favour of his brother; and the same year his Theory of Vision was published by Hooke. The ensuing year he sent to the Royal Society a continuation of that discourse, which was published in their Transactions ; and the same year he was appointed by King Charles II. physician to St Thomas’s Plospital. In 168? he communicated to the Royal Society two remarkable cases relating to vision, which were likewise printed in their Transactions; and in 1685 he published a Latin version of his Theory of Vision, at the desire of Mr, afterwards Sir Isaac Newton, professor of mathematics at Cam-

B R I B R I '288 BRILLIANT, in a general sense, something that has a Brilliant ; wy Bright- bridge, with a recommendatory epistle from him prefixe bright and lucid appearance. . . , . I 1 helmstone to it. He was afterwards appointed physician in QuiBRILLIANTS, a name given to diamonds of the finest Bnndler nary to King William, and continued in great esteem tor cut. See Diamond. Brignoies. skill till his death, which took place in SepBRILON, a circle in the Prussian government of Arnstember 1704. , berg, and province of Westphalia. It extends over 376 BRIGHTHELMSTONE, or Brighton, a town on the square miles, or 240,640 acres, contains six cities, four sea-coast, in the hundred of Whalesbone and rape of Lewes, market-towns, eight parishes, and 105 hamlets, with 3652 in the county of Sussex. The growth of this place is one houses, and 29,082 inhabitants. Although the northern of those manifestations of the progress of wealth and the partis hilly and woody, the valleys to the south aie fertile, increased power of gratification m this kingdom, wine i and yield sufficient corn and cattle for the dense populaon reflection cannot fail to excite astonishment. Ihis tion. The chief object of industry is the linen trade. The town, a small fishing place till 1784, with neither com- capital, which gives its name to the circle, is near the merce nor manufactures, and with no peculiar advantages river Ruhr. It was formerly one of the Hans lowns. even for sea-bathing, which formed the only pretext for It contains two churches, 396 dwelling-houses, and 2766 visiting it, has, by the mere force of fashion acting upon inhabitants, chiefly employed in the various branches of rapidly-augmented wealth, grown up to be a city almost the linen trade. Long. 8. 4. 10. E. Lat. 51. 22. 20. N. of palaces, exhibiting a display of every comfort and BRIM denotes the utmost verge or edge, especially of even luxury, and containing a population of more than round things. The brims of vessels are made to project a 40,000 persons. It is built under the shelter of the South- little over, to prevent liquors, when poured out, from rundown Hills, which protect it from the northern and east- ning down the side of the vessel. The brimming of vessels ern blasts, and hence it is as much a place of resort for was contrived by the ancient potters, in imitation of the the idle, the invalid, and the mere fashionist, in the win- supercilium or dip of the cornices of columns.. . _ ter, as it was at its first establishment in the summer seaBRINDISI, a city on the shores of the Adriatic, in the son. Magnificent squares and parades have been built, province of Otranto and kingdom of Naples. It was forwhich have speedily found occupants; the embellishments merly fortified, but its defences are now dilapidated, it have kept pace with their growth; churches and chapels contains a cathedral, several cloisters and nunneries, and at have been erected to supply religious aid to all sects and present only 6150 inhabitants. The harbour is now nearall tastes; hotels, club-houses, and other establishments, ly choked up with sand, and hence its importance has dehave been formed for purposes of amusement; carriages clined gradually from the state which it had attained unand horses are in readiness equal to the demand for them ; der the name of Brundusium, when the population amountand every necessary, every accommodation, and almost ed to 60,000, and it enjoyed an extensive trade. Long. every luxury, may be found in the markets, the shops, and 17. 55. E. Lat. 40. 52. N. , . 4 the repositories. By means of steam-boats it has become BRINDLEY, James, a man celebrated for mechanical one of the passages to France, and from thence the inha- inventions, and particularly skilful in planning and conbitants can obtain supplies of fruit, vegetables, game, poul- ducting inland navigation, was born in 1716, at I^nste try, and other articles at reasonable rates. In addition to in Derbyshire. Through the mismanagement ot his laother inducements, a German institution for producing all ther, his education was totally neglected ; and, at seventhe waters of the most celebrated medicinal springs on teen, he bound himself apprentice to a mill-wnght, near the Continent has, at much expense, and with very great Macclesfield, in Cheshire. He served his apprenticeship, scientific skill, been constructed. A new town has been afterwards setting up for himself, by inventions ana built or is building, called Kemp Town, to contain houses and contrivances of his own advanced the mil 1-wright usiness of a large kind, sufficient for ten thousand more inhabi- to a degree of perfection which it had not attained be ore. tants. According to the government census, the popula- The consequence was, that his fame as an ingenious metion amounted in 1801 to 7339, in 1811 to 12,012, and in chanic spreading widely, his genius was no longer con1821 to 24,429; but the greatest proportional increase has fined to the business of his profession. In 1752 he erectbeen since the last of these years. . . BRIGITTINS, or Bridgetins, more properly Bngit- ed a very extraordinary water-engine at Clifton, in Lanfor the purpose of draining coal mines; and, m tins, a religious order, so called from their founder, St cashire, Bridget, or Birgit, a Swedish lady of the fourteenth cen- 1755, he was employed to execute the larger wheels lor a tury, whom some represent as a queen, but Fabricius, on new silk mill at Congleton, in Cheshire. The potteries better grounds, considers as a princess, the daughter of Staffordshire were also about this time indebted to Him tnem King Birgenes, legislator of Upland, and famous for hei for several valuable additions to the mills used by eie for grinding flint-stones. In 1756 he undertook to revelations. The Brigittins are sometimes also called the Order of our Saviour, from their pretending that Christ a steam-engine near Newcastle-under-Line, upon a n himself dictated to St Bridget the rules and constitutions plan ; and it is believed that he would have brough perfection, if some interested observed by them. In the main, the rule is the same as that engine to a great degree of perfectic , /r of St Augustin ; only with certain additions supposed to engineers had not opposed him. His attention, however, was soon afterwards called on have been revealed by Christ, and hence called the Rule of our Saviour. This order spread considerably through Swe- to another object, which in its consequences has prove den, Germany, the Netherlands, and other parts. In Eng- of high importance to trade and commerce; name 7’ land we read but of one monastery of Brigittins, which was projecting and executing of inland navigations. By built in 1415 by Henry V., opposite to Richmond, and is navigations the expense of carriage is lessened; ^ ^ now called Sion House. The revenues were reckoned at munication is opened from one part of the king o another, and from each of these parts to the sea, L.1495 per annum. at BRIGNOLES, an arrondissement of the department of hence products and manufactures are afforded derate price. The Duke of Bridgewater having at vvor the Var, in France. Its extent is 492 square miles, and it contains eight cantons, twenty-six communes, and 66,184 ley, about seven miles from Manchester, a large abounding with coal, which lain. useJr»eirnilS e ^ Willi MJai> wiiic-ii had hciva hitherto ** v inhabitants. The chief place, of the same name, is situated aDOUnUing on the river Salme, in a mountainous district, containing cause of the expense of land-carriage, and being to work these mines, perceived the necessity or cons 5301 souls. Long. 6. 50. E. Lat. 43. 24. N.

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B R I 289 [dley. ing a canal from Worsley to Manchester ; upon which oc- cution of his works, he generally retired to bed, and lay Brine casion Brindley was consulted, and having declared the there one, two, or three days, till he had surmounted it. II scheme practicable, an act for this purpose was obtained He then got up and executed his design without any Bangingin 1758 and 1759. But as it was afterwards discovered drawing or model; for he had a prodigious memory, and t y that the navigation would be more beneficial if carried carried every thing in his head. over the river Irwell to Manchester, another act was obAs his station in life was low, and his education totally tained to vary the course of the canal ^agreeably to the neglected, so his exterior accomplishments were suitable new plan, and likewise to extend a side-branch to Long- to them. He could indeed read and write, but very indiffeford Bridge in Stretford. Brindley, in the mean time, had rently ; and he was perhaps as thoroughly abnormis sapiens, begun these great works, being the first of the kind ever “ of mother-wit, and wise without the schools,” as any attempted in England with navigable subterraneous tun- man that ever lived. “ He is as plain a looking man,” says a nels and elevated aqueducts; and, in order to preserve writer of the time, describing him, “ as one of the boors in the level of the water, and free it from the usual obstruc- the Peak, or his own carters; but when he speaks, all ears tions of locks, he carried the canal over rivers and many listen; and every mind is filled with wonder at the things large and deep valleys. When it was completed as far as he pronounces to be practicable.” The same author adds, Barton, where the Irwell is navigable for large vessels, he “ Being great in himself, he harbours no contracted noproposed to carry it over that river by an aqueduct of tions, no jealousy of rivals ; he conceals not his method of thirty-nine feet above the surface of the water; and though proceeding, nor asks patents to secure the sole use of the this project was treated as wild and chimerical, yet, sup- machines which he invents and exposes to public view. ported by his noble patx*on, he began his work in Septem- Sensible that he must one day cease to be, he selects men ber 1760, and the first boat sailed over it in July 1761. The of genius, teaches them the power of mechanics, and emduke afterwards extended his ideas to Liverpool, and ob- ploys them in carrying on the various undertakings in tained, in 1762, an act for branching his canal to the tide- which he is engaged. It is not to the Duke of Bridgeway in the Mersey; this ramification of the work being water only that his services are confined; he is of public carried over the rivers Mersey and Bolland, and over many utility, and employs his talents in rectifying the mistakes wide and deep valleys. of despairing workmen and artizans. His powers shine The success of the Duke of Bridgewater’s undertakings most in the midst of difficulties ; when rivers and mounencouraged a number of gentlemen and manufacturers in tains seem to thwart his designs, then appears his vast caStaffordshire to revive the idea of a canal navigation pacity, by which he makes them subservient to his will.” through that county, and Brindley was therefore engaged Happening on one occasion to be examined before a com, to make a survey from the Trent to the Mersey. This mittee of the House of Commons, and to express a decidcanal was begun in 1766, conducted under Brindley’s di- ed preference for artificial navigation as a means of interrection as long as he lived, and finished after his death by nal communication, a member asked him, “ For what pur, his brother-in-law Mr Flemshall in May 1777. The pro- pose, then, do you think rivers were created ?” “ To prietors called it the Canal from the Trent to the Mersey; furnish water for navigable canals,” replied Brindley after but the engineer, more emphatically, the Grand Trunk a moment’s hesitation. Navigation, on account of the numerous branches, which, BRINE, or Pickle, water saturated with saline paras he justly supposed, would be every way extended from ticles. i it. It is ninety-three miles in length, and, besides a large Brine also denotes a pickle pregnant with salt, wherein number of bridges over it, has seventy-six locks and five things are steeped for preservation. tunnels. The most remarkable of the tunnels is the subBniNE-Pans, the pits where the salt water is retained, terraneous passage of Harecastle, being 2880 yards in and suffered to stagnate, that by the action of the sun it length, and more than seventy yards below the surface of may be converted into salt. There are divers sorts of the earth. The scheme of this inland navigation had em- salt-pans, as the water-pans, second pan, sun-pan; the ployed the thoughts of the ingenious part of the kingdom water being transferred only from one to another. for upwards of twenty years before, and some surveys had BniNE-Pit, in salt making, the salt spring from which been made; but Harecastle Hill, through which the tun- the water to be boiled into salt is taken. There are some nel is constructed, could neither be avoided nor overcome of these springs in many places. That at Namptwich in by any expedient which the most able engineers could Cheshire is alone sufficient, according to the account of devise. It was Brindley alone who surmounted this, and the people of the place, to yield salt for the whole kingother similar difficulties arising from the variety of strata dom ; but it is under the government of certain indiviand quicksands, which no one but himself would have at- duals who, that the market may not be overstocked, pertempted to conquer. mit only a certain quantity of the salt to be made yearly. Brindley was engaged in many other similar undertakBniNE-Springs are fountains which flow with salt wamgs ; for a fuller account of which the reader is referred ter instead of fresh. Of these there are a good number t le ^ * Biographia Britannica, and to a curious and valu- in England; but, though not peculiar to this island, they able pamphlet, published many years since, entitled The are far from being common in the countries on the ConHistory of Inland Navigations, particularly that of the Duke tinent. oj Bridgewater. Brindley died at Turnhurst in StaffordTo BRING-to, in Navigation, to check the course of a shire on the 27th September 1772, in his fifty-sixth year, ship when she is advancing, by arranging the sails in such emg supposed to have shortened his days by too intense a manner that they shall counteract each other, and preapplication, and to have brought on a hectic fever, which vent her either from retreating or moving forward. In continued in his system for some years before it consumed this situation the ship is said to lie by, or to lie to; havnm. He never indulged or relaxed himself in the com- ing, according to the sea phrase, some of her sails aback, mon diversions of life, not having the least relish for them ; to oppose the force of those which are full; or having once reva otherwise shortened by being furled, or hauled up P he iled on on to no seeaccount a play in ye he declared that would be London, present them in the brails. a another, because it so disturbed his ideas for several Bringing-to is generally used to detain a ship in any ays after as to render him unfit for business. When particular station, in order to wait the approach of some ny extraordinary difficulty occurred to him in the exeother that may be advancing towards her; or to retard vol. v. 2o

B R I B R I 290 by means of the different currents of fluid imagined by Brissot. Brioude her course occasionally near any port in the course of a Nollet, but certainly with very little success. ^ He afterwards undertook a course of experiments on the Brisson. BRIOUDE, an arrondissement in the department of Specific Gravity of Alcohol and Water, mixed m different the Upper Loire, in France, extending over 706 square proportions, which led him to a conjecture, at that time miles, and containing eight cantons and 118 communes somewhat singular, that water was not a homogeneous with a population of 76,374 persons. The capital is the substance. He assisted M. Trudaine and other observers city of the same name, on the left bank of the njer Alher, in the experiments which they made on Heat and Light with 5486 inhabitants. Long. 3. 15. E. Lat. 45. 14. N. with the powerful lens of Berniere; and, in conjunction BRISSON, Mathurin James, a zoologist and natural with M. Cadet, he endeavoured to disprove the opinion philosopher, born at Fontenay-le-Comte, 3d April LU3, of Beccaria, that electricity has a power of reviving the the son of Mathurin Brisson and Louisa GabrielleJourdai . metallic oxides. He also made experiments on the reHe was originally intended for the church, but he hat fractive powers of fluids which might be substituted for acquired at an early age a taste for natural history, which ‘flint glass in the object-glasses of telescopes; on the utiwas particularly encouraged by the advantage that lity of different kinds of steel for magnetical purposes; enjoyed of passing his holidays with the justly-celebrated and on the mode of renewal of the shells of some species Reaumur, who had an estate near Fontenay. At the age o of snails. . , „ twenty-four he had made great progress in his theological In 1772, M. Brisson published a memoir on the bpecijie studies, and had fully qualified himself for the rank of a Gravities of Metals, a subject which, in all its extent, ocsubdeacon ; but his courage failed him at the time appoint- cupied a great portion of his attention during twenty ed for taking orders, and he then determined to confine years of his life. The results of his experiments on a himself to the study of physical sciences. Reaumur had o-reat variety of substances were collected into a single the direction of the chemical laboratory of the Academy volume of Tables of Specific Gravities, which was pubof Sciences, and had given up the salary attached to it lished in 1787. It was principally for the use of stuto several young men in succession, whom he appointed dents who attended his lectures that he published bis as his assistants, and of whom Pitot and Nollet became Trade de Physique and his Dictionnaire, both of them afterwards the most distinguished. He now chose bris- containing elementary and popular information, rather son for the situation, which served him, as it had done calculated exclusively for the immediate purpose which his predecessors, rather as a step in his advancement with they were intended to serve, than for being of permanent ..J. 4.:™ 0f fRp respect to general science, than in enabling enaming him nun to pursue u ^ ~■ ~ Dromotion the c,6pr.pps. sciences. At a late period r -.F moren'hpmioal: and he he folio followed any objects immediately chemical; and e F Lnewed his attention to the subject of chehis passion in attaching himself almost exclusively to nadiscoveries of his junior contemporaries tural history. The collection of Reaumur furnished him mistiy, when the discov eriesand u ^ precision _J. ^ ^c ;. and nrul had given greater certainty to its 1q laws with W1L11 ample tun UlC materials Iti.o for his studies, ; - ' and with . .the lprinci T^rhis last work was an Elementary Treatise on that science, pal subjects described in his works on the Animal King- intended for the use of his pupils in the central school. dom. The first of these was published in 1756, containHis whole life was occupied in his studies, and the hising quadrupeds and cetaceous animals. It consists of tory of his various works comprehends the history ot simple descriptions of the different species, together with everything that is to be recorded concerning him. After synonyms in various languages, more in the natuie o a years of uninterrupted activity ot mind, an attack prodromus than of a complete history. His Omifhologie eighty apoplexy reduced him to a state of second childhood appeared in 1760, forming six volumes, and containing a of and effaced from his memory all traces even of his native number of well-executed plates. But upon Reaumui s language, except a few of the dpath co lection having been added acmeu to ro the we royal iuycu ea—---r- , _. „„ „ death, the collection binel; Messrs Buffon and Daubenton, the directors of that tlm academy was filled cabinet, not affording him all the accommodations that he of June 1806 and^i p^ ^ vii. Hist. expected, he discontinued the work, and altogether re- by M. Guy-Lussac. (Ueiamore, * (L> k*) L>) 1P 189 ^ nounced the study of natural history in favour of natural ’ BRISSOT, Peter, one of the ablest physicians of the philosophy. . sixteenth century, was born at Fontenay-le-Com e, m M. Brisson had been chosen a member of the Academy in 1478. He studied at Pans, and, having taken lus of Sciences in 1759: he soon afterwards associated him- tou, doctor’s degree, bent his thoughts on reforming physic, self with the Abbe Nollet in delivering lectures on expeby restoring Galen rimental physics, and obtained the reversion ot ms apoy lesroi mg the precepts of H.pPocrate*a„d ^ which purpose J of his . r *in aTtheXTrvxrarro Qnrl ap in pointments ofn professor college of Navarre, and in- exploding -c ‘ ^ > works instead of those of CX structor of the royal family in natural philosophy and na- he pub ic J P ‘ , M svj He afterwards resolved t,v.t*,44 history. The subject of electncrty was at tins tune tural ^es, -d He ^ ^ goi„ 1 . ° 4-u^ x. otn; T? vo ills . i — i • !_ R.vnra. warmly debated between Nollet and hranklin; and M. LU LI cl V Cl, iaj. Portugal, he practised physic in the city .0/- , re Brisson had a difficult task to perform, in discussing the _ merits of a mistaken friend and an overbearing opponent; new method of bleeding in pleurisies, on the sic pleurisy was situated, raised a kind ot civ c , but, in fact, this department of science was at that time the too little understood to make it disgraceful for Nollet to the Portuguese physicians, and was brought e be in error with respect to the utility of conductors,, or university of Salamanca, which at last gave judgmen1 , , for Brisson to remain neutral upon this and other similar the opinion ascribed to Brissot was the pure doc questions. He seems, however, by no means to have ad- Galen. The partisans of Denis, his opponent, appea eu o hered to the character of neutrality in his anonymous in 1529 to the emperor, to prevent the practice, as Translation of Priestley s History of Electricity, published attended with destructive consequences; but Enaries ^ in 1771, and accompanied by notes, which exhibit a spirit duke of Savoy happening to die at this time of a P after having been bled on the opposite side, ve 1 . of acrimonious criticism, not at all calculated to enhance d the merit of the work which he wished to intioduce to tion dropped. He wrote an Apology for his p died before it was published, in 15o2, by n the notice of his countrymen* He also attempted, in an but Essay on Waterspouts, published in the Memoirs of the Anthony Luceus. Renatus Moreau printed a ,j academy, to explain a variety of electrical phenomena, tion at Paris in 1622, and annexed to it a treatise entitle

B R I issot. Be Sanguinis Missione in Pleuritide, together with a life V of Brissot. Brissot, John Peter, the chief of the Brissotine or pure republican party in France during the early stages of the revolution, was born at the village of Ouaroille, near Chartres, in the Orleannois, on the 14th of January 1754. His father, who was a pastry-cook, gave his son a liberal education, and Brissot became an author when he had scarcely left college. He exhibited a decided predilection for politics, and displayed an early zeal for republican principles. The boldness of his writings against the inequality of ranks excited the displeasure of the government, and subjected him to a prosecution and imprisonment in the Bastile. Having been restored to liberty through the influence of the Duke of Orleans, at the solicitation of Madame de Genlis, he married one of the duchess’s women, and soon afterwards went to England, with secret instructions, it is said, from the lieutenant of the police. Others assert that he came over to London to avail himself of the freedom of the press in conducting a periodical publication, the design of which was to enlighten the people of France on the subject of civil liberty. It is certain that he endeavoured to maintain himself in London by his literary talents ; but the failure of this attempt subjected him to embarrassments, from which he was relieved by the liberality of a friend, and he then returned to his native country. Having again rendered himself obnoxious to the government by an attack on the administration of the Archbishop of Sens, he escaped a second imprisonment by a journey to Holland. During a temporary residence at Mecklin he published a periodical paper called Le Courrier Belgique. In the beginning of the year 1788 he repaired to America; but on the approach of the revolution he returned to Paris, resolved to take an active part in tne scenes which were just preparing. He commenced his revolutionary career in 1789, by the publication of some pamphlets, and particular!}’- of a journal entitled Le Patriote Francois. He belonged to the Representation des Communes, which was formed in the capital a short time previous to the memorable 14th of July. On the storming of the Bastile, the keys were deposited with him. He was elected president ol the Jacobin Club ; and, in consequence of his zeal and activity in the revolutionary cause, he was appointed by his colleagues a member of the Comite des Recherches, which served as the model of all those committees which were afterwards successively formed under similar denominations, and with similar objects; such as the Comites de Surveillance, de Surete Generale, de Salut Public, &c. Of this committee Brissot was the president; and, while in this situation, he acquired a number of enemies. A French writer of the name of Morande published at Paris, in 1791, a periodical pamphlet, under the title of Argus, in which he assailed the character of Brissot wdth great bitterness, representing his conduct in the most odious colours, and even accusing him o robbery; an accusation which, there is reason to believe, was utterly calumnious. On the flight of the royal family in 1791, Brissot, in concert with the Chevalier de Laclos, drew up the fawous petition of the Champ de Mars, demanding the abication of the king, which became the signal for a dangerous insurrection, that was with difficulty quelled by ie interposition of the national guard. This circum.W said to have been the occasion of his quarrel Vl La T i attached. %ette hadrepublican previouslyfaction been zeatmsly At’ thiswhom periodhethe gan to assume a consistent form, and to utter their entiments with freedom and boldness. Brissot, who had een one of its first and most zealous apostles, was re-

B R I 291 turned a member to the National Assembly, in spite of the Brissot. opposition of the court, to whom he had become extremely formidable; and from this time he displayed an implacable enmity to the king. The National Assembly attributing to Brissot talents which he does not appear to have possessed, appointed him a member of the diplomatic committee, of which he became the habitual organ ; and in this capacity he was the constant advocate of the most violent public measures, and never ceased to demand a declaration of war against all the powers of Europe. In order to attain this object, it was necessary to remove the ministers, whose dispositions were favourable to peace, Brissot accordingly attacked them all, but particularly M. Delessart, who was at the head of the department of foreign affairs; and, by repeated denunciations, he at length succeeded in obtaining a decree of accusation against him. His place was supplied by Dumouriez, under whose administration war was declared against the emperor of Germany, on the 20th of April 1792. From this period, however, the political influence of Brissot began to decline. Robespierre, with whom he had previously been intimately connected, now declared himself his enemy, denounced him at the Jacobin Club as a traitor to his country and an enemy of the people, and continued to persecute him with unrelenting rancour, until he finally effected his destruction. Alarmed at the storm which was gathering around him, Brissot, in concert with the other leaders of his party, attempted to form a reconciliation with the constitutional royalists; but this attempt having proved abortive, he reverted to his former opinions and line of conduct, and continued to denounce to popular vengeance all those whom he knew to be attached to the king. But although his writings may naturally be supposed to have excited those dispositions among the people which gave rise to the atrocities of the times, he had no direct influence on the revolution of the 10th of August, which appears to have been planned and directed by Danton. He was chosen a deputy to the National Convention for the department of the Eure, where he played only an inferior part, and was continually exposed to the rancorous attacks of Robespierre. It was Brissot, however, who, as the organ of the diplomatic committee, obtained the declaration of war against England and Holland, on the 1st of February 1793. This may be considered as the last act of his political life; for from thenceforth he was only occupied in defending himself against his numerous enemies. The party distinguished by the name of the Mountain had now acquired a complete ascendancy, and meditated the destruction of their opponents, the Girondists, to which latter party Brissot was attached. Having at length been proscribed, after the revolution of the 31st of May, he was arrested at Moulins while attempting to make his escape into Switzerland, sent to Paris, subjected to a mock trial before the revolutionary tribunal, and beheaded on the 31st of October 1793, at the age of thirty-nine, Brissot was somewhat below the middle size, a little deformed, and of a feeble constitution. Plis countenance was pale and melancholy, and he affected an extreme simplicity in his dress. With regard to his intellectual character, his talents appear to have been much beneath his reputation, and he certainly possessed more zeal than judgment. Notwithstanding the violence of his writings, declamations, and public conduct, however, he wras not deficient in humanity; and, in the intercourse of private life, his manners said toBrissot have been mildmuch and accommodating. As anareauthor, has not merit; his style is monotonous, verbose, and tedious; and, upon the whole, it is wonderful that, with such slender abilities, he should have acquired so great an ascendancy in public

B R I B R I 292 sheriffs, twelve aldermen, and twenty-eight common coun- Bristol Bristol, opinion. The best articles of his journal are said to have cil men, besides a high steward, commonly a nobleman of I Bristol been written by his secretary Dupre. Ihe following are high rank, and a recorder, usually a lawyer of distinguish- Channel the principal productions of his pen 1. Moyens d ^ ou- ed eminence. The guilds are thirteen in number, and the ^ cir la Rigueur des Lois Penales en France, Chalons, 1 '81, whole body of freemen many thousands, and the more so 8vo; 2. Un Independant'de 1’Ordre des Avocats sur la as every daughter of a freeman conveys by marriage the Decadence du Barreau en France, 1781, 8vo; 3. De la freedom to her husband. The two members for the city Yerite, ou Meditations, &c. 1782, 8vo ; 4 Le Plnladelphien are chosen by the whole body of them. Bristol contains, a Geneve, 1783, 8vo; 5. Theorie des Lois Cnminelles, besides the cathedral, eighteen parish churches and five 1781, 2 vols. 8vo; 6. Bibliotheque Philosophique du Le chapels, with a number of places of worship for the segislateur, du Politique, du Jurisconsulte, 1782-1786, iU veral descriptions of separatists from the established revols. 8vo; Tableau de la Situation Actuelle des Anglais Ihrion. It has two scientific institutions, social establishdans les Indes Orientales, &c. 1784-5, 8vo; 8 Journal du ments, and numerous societies for the laudable purposes Lvcee de Londres, &c. published in monthly numbers, of benevolence, in the formation of which all the jarring 1784, 8vo; 9. Un Defenseur du People a 1 Empereur Jo- political and religious parties show an honourable rivalry. seph II., sur son Reglement concernant 1’Emigration, &c. There are several markets, where provisions are supplied 1785 l2mo; 10. Examen Critique des Voyages dans of excellent quality, in great abundance, and at very moI’Am'erique Septentrionale, par le Marquis de Chatellux, derate rates. The inhabitants of Bristol are more dis1786, 8vo ; 11. Voyages en Europe, en Asie, et en Atnque, tinguished for their steady prudence than for their adtranslated from the English, with notes, 1786 and 17JO, venturous spirit in commerce ; hence, if the city has not 2 vols. 8vo; 12. Nouveau Voyage dans les Etats-Ums de made occasionally such rapid advances, it has. gone, on I’Amerique Septentrionale, 1791, 3 vols. 8vo. lo the first steadily, and scarcely ever suffered by extensive disappointvolume of this work was prefixed a life of Bnssot, which ments in its commercial pursuits, or been the victim of w'as translated into English, and published separately in those crises and fluctuations which have frequently occur1794. Besides these works, Brissot wrote a variety ot red in other trading towns. pamphlets, and articles inserted in periodical publications, The hot wells near this city were formerly higher in which it is unnecessary to enumerate. See the life ot fame than at the present day, but the water is still in esBrissot, above mentioned, and the Biographic UmverscUe. timation for its purity, and large quantities of it are disBRISTOL, a city of England, partly within the bound- patched to distant parts of the world. The population of ary of the county of Somerset, and partly in that of Glou- Bristol has made the same regular advances as are to be cester, though it is a county of itself; distant 119 miles found in the other ports of the British islands. In our from London, and 13 miles from Bath. It is situated in a view we include the parish of Bedminster in the city of valley, rather contracted, at the junction of the riveis Bristol, because it forms a part of it, as much as WestFrome and Avon, which, by the construction of a canal minster or Southwark do of London. Ihe number of inand locks, have been formed into a basin, where vessels, habitants thus taken amounted in 1801 to 66,922, in 1811 which lay on the ground formerly at low water, are now to 76,952, and in 1821 to 95,758. According to all prokept constantly afloat. From this floating dock the ships bable appearance this rate of increase must have continued are lowered by locks into the united stream, which joins since the last census, which will make the present poputhe Severn a few miles below the city. Bristol is a city lation at least 105,000 persons. of extensive and beneficial commerce, and that with est alBristol, a seaport town, and capital of a county of the most every part of the globe. The trade with the ^ same name, in Rhode Island. It is a very pleasant town, Indies is the most considerable; that with Spain and 1 or- finely situated and handsomely built. The harbour is sam tugal, with the Baltic ports, with the Mediterranean, with and commodious, and the place has a considerable tiace. Africa, and the East Indies, if inferior to that of London In 1820, the shipping belonging to the port amounted to and Liverpool, comes next to the latter place. There are 10,701 tons. The trade is carried on principally with the considerable manufactures also in and near the city, es- West Indies and with Europe. Bristol possesses a 9°^" pecially of glass, sugar, braziery and tin ware, snuft, toa jail, a market-house, a masonic-hall, a public libbacco, beer, soap, corn, spirits, vinegar, sugar refineries, house, rary containing 1400 volumes, and four places o white lead, and many smaller articles. It has, from its public worship. about Great quantities of onions are raised i.ere local position, an advantageous inland trade ; and is a kind for exportation. Mount Flope, which lies about two miles of emporium for South Wales, and the northern parts oi north-east of Bristol, within the township, is a pleasant Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall, to which theie is a conof a conical form, and famous for having been theie stant water conveyance ; whilst by means of other canals hill, goods are transmitted to the central parts of the kingdom. sidence of the Indian king, Philip. The population ot Many ships are built here ; and the equipment of them, as Bristol in 1820 amounted to 3197. It is situated fifteen well as the barges and trows for inland navigation, affords miles south from Providence, fifteen north from Newport, considerable employment to the labouring portion ot the and fifty-six south-south-west from Boston. Long. W. Lat. 41. 38. N. , population. _ Bristol, a town of the United States, in Bucks coun ), Although this city dates its origin at a remote period, It stands on Delaware river, opposite and some parts of it contain streets that are narrow, ciook- Pennsylvania. Burlington in New Jersey, and contains-about one hundred ed, and gloomy, and many houses of an antiquated appearhouses. It is a great thoroughfare, and is noted or i ance, yet many parts are not behind any city in England of several kinds. It is situated about eleven mi e in improvements of every kind. Several new stieetsand mills squares have been built of late years in the valley; whilst south-south-east from Newton, and about twenty nor in Clifton, one of the parishes'which compose the city, east from Philadelphia. Long. 74. 56. W. Lat. 4). • ‘ there have been constructed crescents, parades, and stieets, There are several other places of this name in the Lni . ^ which vie with the best in the metropolis, and, from theii States, but of inferior note. Bristol Channel, a portion of the Atlantic U > beautiful situation and prospects, far exceed them. Ansc u other of the parishes of this city, Bedminster, has also much on the coast of Great Britain, lying between t ie * , increased in beauty of buildings, as well as in the number coast of Wales and the counties of Somerset, Devon, an of its inhabitants. The city is governed by a mayor, two Cornwall, in England.

293

BRITAIN, B ish d K ’.an ]’ iod.

OR

GREAT

The most considerable of all the European islands, is situated between fifty and fifty-eight and a half degrees of north latitude. It is bounded on the north by the North Sea, on the east by the German Ocean, on the south by the English Channel, and on the west by St George’s Channel and the Atlantic Ocean. From north to south it extends about five hundred and eighty miles in length; its greatest breadth, from the North Foreland in Kent to the Land’s-End in Cornwall, is about three hundred and seventy miles ; and,its superficial area is computed at eighty-seven thousand five hundred square miles. The figure of this island is irregular, somewhat resembling that of a wedge, to which indeed it was compared by the ancients, from its gradually narrowing towards its northern extremity ; and its whole line of coast is deeply indented by bays, creeks, and estuaries, which, notwithstanding its boldness and ruggedness in many parts, afford safe and commodious harbours. From its geographical position, therefore, no less than from its natural advantages, this island seems to have been destined by nature to become the seat of a great and powerful nation. CHAP. I. BRITISH AND ROMAN PERIOD. Origin of the names Albion and Britain The Gauls, Kelts, or Celts.—Their migrations and incursions Portion of Europe occupied by them at the dawn of history.—Distinctive characters of the race—Branches of the great Celtic family.—Celts the earliest inhabitants of Britain—Followed by invaders of the Gothic or Teutonic race—Predominance of the latter Aboriginal Celtic population of Scotland succeeded by the Gothic Condition of the Britons in the time of Caesar Druidism Character and habits of the Britons.—Commerce and War Roman Period—Caesar’s Expeditions—Subsequent attempts of the Romans—Aulus Plautius—Ostorius Scapula.—Gallant struggle of Caractacus—His defeat in South Wales Betrayed—Aulus Didius—Attack on Anglesea by Suetonius Paulinus. —Revolt of the Britons under Boadicea—Campaigns of Agricola—Extent of the Roman Conquests in Britain Introduction of Christianity—Hadrian, Severus, and Caracalla Constitution of the Roman Provincial Government.—Usurpations of Carnusius and Allectus—Constantine Cruelties of Paulus. —Scots and Piets.—Their inroads and ravages Departure of the Romans from Britain—Distresses of the Natives Arrival of the Saxons under Hengist and Horsa.—Saxon Conquest. Various etymologies have been proposed of the words Albion and Britain; the former being the ancient name of the island; the latter that which superseded it, and in time became the appellation by which it was universally known. Originally Albion was considered as only one of the British islands, and it is described as such both by Agathemerus and Ptolemy ; but being by far the largest and roost important of the group, the particular name was in course ol time laid aside, and the general denomination used in its stead. The etymological origin of both, however, is involved in uncertainty. Some derive that of Albion from the Greek AXpog or ATsirog, identical with the Eatm Aldus and the Sabine Alpus, signifying White, and being obviously mere variations of the Celtic Alb or Alp, wmeh has the same meaning; conceiving, with Festus, fiat as the mountains which separate France and Italy weie called Alpes, by reason of their snowy covering, so 1

BRITAIN,

this island was denominated Albion on account of the British and chalky cliffs and soil of its southern shores, which were the portions that appeared to those who viewed it from the Roman Period. coast of Gaul; and this conjecture derives some countenance from the fact that the ancient Britons themselves called it Inis-iven or Eilanban, the White Island. Others, again, have recourse to the Phoenician, in which Alp signifies High, and contend that the name Albion was originally bestowed upon the island by the adventurous navigators of Phoenicia, who first visited its shores, by reason of the bold and precipitous aspect of its headlands and coasts, and that hence it is descriptive, not of the colour, but of tbe physical conformation, of these coasts. Of the word Britain a still greater variety of etymologies have been proposed. Nennius derives it from Brutus, whom he likewise calls Brito, the fifth in descent from iEneas. Camden supposes it a compound of Brith or Brit, a Celtic word signifying painted, and reewa, a Greek word denoting a region; so that, according to him, the island was called Britannia from its being the country of painted people. Carte, founding on the circumstances that the ancient Britons called themselves Prydhain, and their country Inis-prydhain, or the Isle of the Prydhain, conceives that Britanni and Britannia are only latinized forms of the original word Prydhain in the British or Celtic tongue. Somner, disliking Camden’s etymology, conjectures that Britain is derived from brydio, which in the ancient language of the island signified rage, and, according to hing was intended to indicate its position in the midst of a tempestuous sea. Whittaker is equally or even more fanciful than Somner, contending that the true etymon of the word is brith, briet, brit, bris, or brig, which he says means striped or divided. And Bochart, whose love of the Phoenician was such that he found it every where and in every thing, conceives that this island and some others near it were denominated Barut Anac by the Phoenicians, that is, the country of tin, which, contracted into Bratanac, passed from them to the Greeks and Romans, and ultimately emerged in the softened forms of Britanni and Britannia. This, at least, has the merit of ingenuity to recommend it. Of the others, that of Carte seems to us to be the most natural and probable ; although it leaves unexplained the word Prydhain, the analysis of which is essential to complete the etymology. It has been assumed by some that the name was originally bestowed on the island by foreigners; and, on this supposition, they have endeavoured to resolve it into its elements, or at least to offer a conjectural explanation of the circumstance which led to its primary application. But for our own part, we see no grounds whatever for entertaining such a notion; and think it much more likely that foreigners varied, according to their respective idioms and modes of articulation, the name in use among the natives, than that they invented, applied, and rendered general a new one, constructed on a remote and fanciful analogy, and having reference to accessory circumstances or particular localities.1 At the period when the Greek and Roman writers began to turn their attention to the west of Europe, they found it, from the remotest extremity of Ireland to the banks of the Danube, peopled by a race called Gauls, Kelts, or Celts, who, before the practice of tillage bound them to the soil, had overspread a large portion of Spain

Carte, History, vol. i. pp. 4, 5, 6.

294 British and Roman Period.

BRITAIN. detecting the peculiarities, of each successive immigration B | in the course of their armed migrations, and, through the Italy, again, being accessible to colonists by sea from ntis and passes of the Julian and Rhsetian Alps, had poured preda- Greece, Asia Minor, and Egypt, and always exposed to Roma tory bands on the great plain of northern Italy, where they the inroads of the tribes who inhabited or were able to make established themselves, and afterwards struck a heavy blow themselves masters of the principal passes of the Alps, was WYV' at the rising power of Rome, stretching their dominions occupied by a greater diversity of races than any other as far as the Appennines. This remarkable race, believed country of the West; and hence has arisen a confusion in with reason to be of oriental origin, extended along the the genealogy of its tribes, whicji even the profound saDanube till they reached the Sarmatians on the one hand, gacity and varied learning of Niebuhr have not succeeded and the Thracians and Illyrians on the other; and .rom in disentangling. Population appears to have originally the central position which they thus occupied, they appear flowed into this country from its two extremities; but in to have diverged by various natural channels to the ditter- process of time the opposite streams met, and became so ent countries of Europe where their descendants are still thoroughly intermingled, that no moral or intellectual to be found. How they came to establish themselves ori- chemistry can ever decompose them. With regard to the ginally in such a position is uncertain. Their early mi- colonies of the Phoenicians, they encircled the Meditergrations, undertaken for plunder rather than conquest, ranean as far as Carthage and Cadiz, whilst no Grecian occurred anterior to the period of history; and we have but colonists had as yet established themselves farther to the slender grounds for probable conjecture respecting either than Massalia, Massilia, or Marseilles. In circumtheir extent or their antiquity. But some of the latei in- west cursions of this people into Italy and Greece are fortunate- stances and times like these, the natural boundaries of were often irregularly changed. The course of ly better known to us. A numerous body of Gauls, for nations migration was frequently diverted from its ordinary chanexample, deserting the bands of their countrymen who ravaged Greece, established themselves in Asia Minor nels, and sometimes forced back towards its original source. under the successors of Alexander, and gave their name Races were mingled so that their distinctive marks beno longer discoverable; and even languages were to the country they occupied, which was accordingly call- came or altogether disappeared. Of this confusion the ed Galatia. In the opinion of some, this body of invaders changed, consisted wholly of Celts, wdiile others maintain that they Galatians in Asia Minor, and the Keltiberians in Spain, were of the Teutonic race; but it seems at least equally afford examples. Even the Belgic inhabitants of northern probable that they were composed of both races. With Gaul have been thought a mixed race, and it seems pretty regard to the causes which produced these fierce and ex- certain that, from whatever cause, Teutonic tribes were tensive irruptions, the learned have lost themselves in generally classed amongst them. Again, although the speculation, and wearied their readers with endless con- natural tendency of an unwritten language be to break jectures. The motives which led to them were in all like- down first into dialects and afterwards into distinct lanlihood different at different times, and they may therefore guages, yet languages originally different sometimes run be variously ascribed to the restless and adventurous spiiit into each other, and coalesce in a very remarkable manner. of such tribes, to the ambition and rapacity of their chiefs, Of this the Hindustanee and Anglo-Norman have affordto the necessity which, after a certain period, urges on an ed examples at the opposite extremities of the globe, both unproductive race to seek new settlements, or to the re- having been formed out of jargons used in intercourse besistless pressure of invading barbarians from behind, or tween the conquerors and the conquered. The victors perhaps1 to the simultaneous operation of several of these sometimes impose their language, with little mixture, on the vanquished ; but in India every variety of dialect has causes. The Rhine formed the northern boundary of the Gauls, been deeply tinctured with Sanscrit, the original as well and separated them from the Germanic or Teutonic race, as the sacred language of that country ; and nothing can which spread into Scandinavia, towards the last retreat be imagined more heterogeneous or dissimilar than the of the Finnish tribes in the Arctic solitudes, and extend- roots2 of most of the forms of speech which actually obtain ed, on the other side, from the shores of the Atlantic to in it. It may not be out of place to observe here, that the term the vast plains inhabited by the Sarmatians and Dacians. The Garonne divided them from the Aquitanians, a peo- race, as used in civil history, has a very different accepta^ ple who, from various circumstances, as the testimony of tion from that which is given to it by natuialists. the ancients, and the names of rivers and mountains, ap- latter, confining their view to the physical form and orpear to have been the original inhabitants of the Spanish ganization of man, and making no account of language, ana peninsula ; whilst a portion of this primitive Iberian race of those other minor varieties and peculiarities which the occupied the southern coast of Gaul from the Pyrenees to civil historian is obliged to notice, admit at present on y five races of men; the Caucasian, the Mongolian, the the frontier of Italy. The intermingling, followed by the gradual fusion and Ethiopian, the American, and the Malay. Colour is conamalgamation of the various races by which most coun- sidered as one of their tests or characters. The Caucasian tries have been successively overrun, renders it exceeding- is accounted the primitive stock, and it deviates mto two ly difficult, if not impossible, to discriminate the first in- extremes, equally remote and different from each otie , habitants from the more civilized visitants, as well as to namely, the Mongolian and the Ethiopian. But althoug distinguish between the different tribes of the latter. the Mongol and the Negro differ from the European nmcn Greece, from its position near the earliest seats of civili- more deeply and radically than the Hindu and the ^ ia , zation, was open to conquest and colonization from nume- yet if the lesser difference be admitted to be the resu o rous points both by sea and land; on the side of Thrace, physical causes, operating throughout a long tract of ages, on that of Asia Minor, from Egypt, and from the coun- it will be difficult to prove that, the greater may not at tries of the East. Europe, Africa, and Asia, appear at length have been produced by similar causes acting c u different times to have discharged portions of their popu- ing a greater period of time. Be this as it may, however, lation into this favoured spot; and hence has arisen the it must be obvious that, from lengthened separation, aiy difficulty of ascertaining the number, and much more of the natural divergency of language, the historical division 1

Mackintosh, History of England, vol. i. Introd.

2

Mackintosh, ubi supra.

BRITAIN. Br sh of mankind become broken into portions or subdivisions incompatible with any other supposition than that of Bri£i not always corresponding with the political distribution of tain being originally peopled by a Celtic race; and as the Iti in territory among nations, and that, as the same state may Gaelic dialect explains many more of the names of extercontain tribes of various race, so the same race may be nal objects than that spoken by the other branch of the i race, the same principle leads us to conclude, that those ^ ^ subject to many distinct rulers.1 The Celtic race may be considered as subdivided into who employed that variety of the common or parent lantwo distinct portions, with languages which, though cer- guage were the first settlers. Beyond these probabilities tainly derived from a common stock, are not, it is be- the most ancient period of our history is involved in imlieved, reciprocally understood. One of these cognate penetrable darkness. To the Celtic population of Britain succeeded the Golanguages or dialects, called the Gaelic, is still spoken by the native Irish, by the Highlanders of Scotland, and in thic, by whom they were, at a very early period, displathe Isle of Man; the other is the common speech of ced to a considerable extent. Advancing from the northWales and Lower Bretagne, and, till a period comparative- ern parts of Asia and Europe, where they had enjoyed a ly recent, it was spoken in Cornwall; whilst, in each branch wild independence, the Scythians or Goths drove the Cimor subdivision, the parent language seems only to differ bri or northern Celts before them, and, seizing upon that by provincial variations, which, accumulating in a long part of Gaul which is nearest to Britain, they crossed over series of ages, have produced a greater divergence than is into England. The period of this immigration is uncergenerally found to exist between affiliated dialects. The tain ; but at the time of Caesar’s invasion, the primitive or Gaulish tribes are unable to converse with the Cimbric, Celtic inhabitants had been driven into the interior and yet there is abundant evidence that the Gaelic and Cym- more inaccessible parts of the island, while the southraig or Welsh are branches of the same family. Indeed eastern portion was peopled with colonies of Gothic deit is supposed by some that the Cimbric or Cymraig fol- scent, who may, therefore, be regarded as the chief anceslowed, at a considerable interval, the Gaulish settlers ; tors of the English nation. The expulsion of the aborigiand it seems not improbable, that the tribes who spoke nal population from the south-eastern coasts and lowland this form or dialect of Celtic were, as Sir James Mackin- districts of the whole island was complete ; so much so, in tosh observes, “ the same Cimbri who, in conjunction with fact, that, but for the tenacity with which the names of their Teutonic allies, were expelled from the Roman ter- natural objects adhere to them, and some other indications ritory with a slaughter so enormous, and after atrocities of a still fainter kind, not a trace or vestige of their origiso unmatched, as to be suspected of exaggerational- nal ascendancy would have remained. The Saxon conthough it should be borne in mind “ that the adversaries quest was of a different character. The invaders, inconof the Romans were not armies, but migratory nations, siderable in number, sought political supremacy rather bringing into the field women and children, and fierce than a settlement by means of extermination, and used animals,” which all contributed to swell the horrors of the the privileges of conquest with more moderation than their I butchery, and first taught 2the Romans to dread the arms predecessors of the same race. There no longer existed of the northern barbarians. between the conquerors and the conquered that radical That the aboriginal, or at least the earliest inhabitants diversity of physical conformation, habits, and customs, of these islands were a people of Celtic origin and race, which, in a barbarous age, is the source of inextinguishseems to be admitted on all hands, and is rendered high- able hostility; they accordingly enslaved, but forebore ly probable, both from the intimations of history and the from exterminating or utterly expelling the natives; a evidence of language. The former leave little doubt that gradual amalgamation took place; and, from the comthe migrations and settlements of the Celtic tribes pre- mingled Gothic dialects of both, at length sprung the ceded those of the Scythian or Gothic nations by whom Anglo-Saxon, which is the parent of the English language. they were almost everywhere displaced; and this conclu- Some, indeed, have maintained that, at the period of Caesion derives additional probability from the consideration, sar’s invasion, the population of Britain still continued that the greater part of the names of mountains, lakes, Celtic. But this opinion labours under serious objections. and rivers, in both the British islands, are still descriptive The Anglo-Saxon and the English language, in its elder and significant in some dialect of the Celtic language. and simpler form, exhibit scarcely a trace of Celtic in “ The appellations of these vast and permanent parts of na- their composition; and they have even less of that pecuture,” says Sir James Mackintosh, “ are commonly observ- liar dialect of Gothic which the Angles and Saxons must ed to continue as unchanged as themselves.” Of all the have spoken at the period of their arrival in Britain, than languages that ever existed, the Celtic is perhaps the richest of the Belgic and Dutch dialects, which are in all probam an appropriate and expressive nomenclature for physical bility of Scandinavian origin. To this it may, indeed, be objects; and the facility with which its elementary forms objected that Druidism, which is rightly considered as a admit of combinations descriptive of the varieties obser- Celtic superstition, is mentioned by Caesar in the earliest vable in external nature, must have greatly tended to im- authentic records of the island which has reached our times. press and perpetuate the appellations which it originally But, in the first place, Caesar never speaks of having actualsupplied. Hence it is that, after the revolution of ages, ly seen Druids, nor does it appear that any one of this class and the fluctuations of conquest, dominion, and race, to- of priests was discovered until the Romans had penetratgether with all the changes which time and usage insen- ed into South Wales; and, secondly, forms of superstition sibly operate in language, the names in question are still often survive the races or nations amongst which they distinctly traceable ; whilst the extent to which they still originated, and pass indifferently from the conquered to obtain in both parts of Britain seems to argue the origi- the conquerors, and conversely, by the operation of causes nal ascendancy of the race from whose language they were totally distinct from those which determine the fate of derived. Had the Gothic preceded, instead of following, communities of men. the Celtic colonists, the case would in all probability have The expulsion of the Celts from the eastern coast of ieen exactly, or at least very nearly, the reverse of this. Britain long preceded the arrival of Caesar. This may be As it is, however, the fact here mentioned appears to be inferred from the account of Tacitus, whose description Mackintosh, Hist, of England, vol. i. p. 12.

* History, Hid.

295 British and Roman Period.

296 British and Homan Period.

BRITAIN. is difficult to say. From all that we learn, however, we are British of the inhabitants of the lowland parts of Scotland as a inclined to think that here the similarity failed. and red-haired and large limbed race, clearly indicates their But whatever may have been the power of the kings or Roman Gothic origin; whilst, in the interval between Caesar and the influence of the people, there existed an order which Agricola, no material change appears to have occurred in exercised an authority paramount to that of either, or of both the relative distribution of the various tribes by whom united. This was the Druidical or sacred caste, which, in Scotland was then inhabited. It would be vain to attempt relation to the rest of society, occupied a station and ento ascertain the epoch of a revolution which seems to have joyed privileges in Britain, analogous to those possessed been effected long anterior to the period of history; but by the Brahmins of India at the period of their greatest if the time of its occurrence be uncertain, the tact itselt glory. The power of the Druids was absolute, exclusive, is nevertheless indisputable; and this is connected with and peculiar to them as a body. Their sanction was neanother, sufficiently remarkable, namely, that every trace cessary to all public transactions, which otherwise were of or vestige of the original Celtic population of the Lowlands no validity. They could pardon malefactors who had been has been obliterated, and that there is neither monument, judicially condemned, or ordain victims to the sacrifice record, tradition, nor circumstance of any kind which can without the intervention of any trial or judgment but their lead to a conjecture as to their fate. It is natural, indeed, own. From the Druids the Romans seem to have borto suppose that in Scotland, as elsewhere, those who rowed the aquce et ignis interdictio, which became the most escaped the fury of the invaders sought shelter m the mountains or Highlands, where a people chiefly Celtic still terrible sentence of their law. It was, in fact, the Druidical excommunication slightly varied. An individual deexists; but it seems as well established as any fact of the barred from attending the holy rites, and interdicted the kind can ever be, that the occupation of the Highlands by use of fire, received sentence of eternal banishment from a Celtic population does not date much earlier than the the fellowship of his kind ; and this sentence, more forsixth century, and. that the first settlers of this race were midable than the excommunication of the Roman Cathoa reflux of the Celts from Ireland, not a remnant of the aboriginal inhabitants ot the Lowlands, dhe Dalriads or lic church in aftertimes, they could pronounce at pleaAttacotii are indeed said to have established themselves sure. Their ceremonies were at once mysterious and inin Argyleshire about the middle of the third century , but human. The mistletoe, which they accounted peculiarly they were driven back to Ireland in the fifth century, and sacred, was gathered by them from the leaves of the oak did not return till the following one, when they effected with circumstances of extraordinary solemnity, though for a second and permanent settlement. Extiavagant pie- what purpose or with what view is unknown. They dwelt tensions to antiquity have, it is true, been set up in favour in the centre of concentrated woods, and their reheats of the Celtic Scots by Boyce, Buchanan, and others, who w ere defended from intrusion or violation by the power of gravely affirm that this people reigned in Scotland a thou- a dark and gloomy superstition. On their rude but horsand years before the Christian era. But the fabulous rid altars they sacrificed human victims; and from the millennium with which these writers gratified the credu- course of the blood as it flowed under the knife of the oflous nationality of their countrymen in^ an uninquiring ficiating priest, they prognosticated future events. They were the lawgivers, physicians, poets, and philosophers o age has found no supporters in more modern times. The condition of the Britons in the time of Caesar very their country. They are said to have been, acquainted with much resembled that of the Gauls from whom they sprung. letters and the art of writing, though in what particular They were divided into a number of petty kingdoms or form is uncertain. Caesar, probably from misinformation, states, each of which was again subdivided among subor- says that they employed the Greek letters, which is very dinate chieftains, who governed their respective tribes or improbable. They' taught their disciples the doctime o clans with more than feudal authority. On great emer- transmigration, and inculcated on them the duty of despisgencies, indeed, they united under a common leader; but ing death in defence of their country. They practised this “ king of kings” had only a limited and precarious celibacy, and continued their order by kidnapping chilrule; and the confederacies of the ancient Britons, like dren, whom they trained up and initiated in their mystethose of the ancient Greeks, were neither numerous nor ries. Some of their observances are described as exceslasting. Like the mutually repellant atoms of the Epicu- sively revolting; others would seem to have been of a rean philosophy, their union was fortuitous; and as there more innocent and even humane character. Britain was existed no principle of compression to retain them in the the great sanctuary of this superstition. Originally importsituation into which accident or a sense of common dan- ed from Gaul, it seems to have found a congenial soil in ger sometimes threw them, a separation speedily followed. this country, where it struck its roots so firmly, and insiIt was this which gave the Romans so great an advantage nuated itself so deeply, into the general character, that in their contests with these warlike nations. Never con- traces of it are still discoverable in several of the popular sulting together for the benefit of the whole, it was rare superstitions which the “ schoolmaster” has not yet suc. , r < -os that even two or three of them united against the com- ceeded in effacing. The Druidical system is not without oriental features. mon enemy. They fought, for the most part, separately, and, as a necessary consequence, were beaten in detail. “ So much subserviency of one part of a nation to anot ier, Of the limits of the regal authority among the Britons says Sir James Mackintosh, “ in an age so destitute of18 tne little is known with any degree of certainty, though much means of influence and of the habits of obedience, ? . probably depended on the personal character of the indi- without resemblance to that system of ancient Asia, w ic vidual who exercised it. Hereditary right seems to have confined men to hereditary occupations, and consequen y been recognised, and extended even to female succession, vested in the sacerdotal caste a power founded in the 1e but it was not strictly observed or enforced ; and instances elusive possession of knowledge. The Egyptian an were not rare of the exclusion of a son by his father, whom nician colonists who settled in the Hellenic territory r he had offended, from any share in his dominions. It has by some fortunate accident unknown to history, set rot,a ' been conjectured that the power of the people was consi- from those Asiatic restrictions which, having P g derable ; but tnis is merely conjecture. Among the Gauls long subsisted as usages, were at length sanctioned am cu J the few had not succeeded in excluding the many from all their ancestors by law and by religion as the sole se participation in the conduct of their own affairs. But whe- against a relapse into unskilfulness and barbarism, ther the Britons resembled them in this respect or not, it the Celtic colonists who originally settled in Can

1 stlsh id I nan 1 iod.

BRITAIN. 297 Britain were not equally fortunate. Having imported, them, and we may conclude that the products of other British long before the period of record, the oriental sj'stem, with countries were imported in return or exchange for these and its restrictive and stationary spirit, they submitted to its commodities. The only manufacture we read of was that Roman yoke in their new settlements, where it withstood the ex- of baskets, in which, as we learn from various authorities, Period. ample of a more generous polity afforded by the neigh- the Britons greatly excelled. Some of the more useful bouring republics of Hellenic origin, and only yielded at but baser metals seem not to have been found in Britain length to the ascendancy of the benignant genius of the before the time of Caesar, who informs us that even their Christian religion. brass was imported ; and their skill in manufacturing such The prevalence of such a system is, even under the as they had must have been very small indeed, since, as most favourable circumstances, incompatible with an ad- we learn from the same authority, their ornamental trinvanced state of civilization; and in Britain it co-existed kets were supplied by strangers. But their warlike habits with a condition of society which, anterior to the Roman had not left them ignorant of the coarser craft of the aroccupation, was but little elevated above absolute barba- mourer. Man has never been found, in any state or conrism. The south-western shores of the island had, it is dition of his existence, altogether unprovided with weapons true, been.early resorted to by foreigners for purposes of of defence. Those of the Britons consisted of small tartraffic; the Phoenicians and Massilians, for example, trad- gets and swords, spears, and chariots armed with iron ed in the tin of Cornwall, and from them geographers scythes projecting from the extremities of the axle-tree; spoke of the Cassiterides or Tin Islands; but this traffic and they were also provided with noisy rattles, intended was too limited in extent, and too confined in its sphere, to strike terror into their enemies. Their chariots they to have any material influence on the general character of managed with considerable dexterity, and, on several octhe people, who accordingly derived small benefit from casions, succeeded in breaking the Roman line by means their occasional intercourse with foreigners. Their scan- of these vehicles ; but, on the whole, they proved unavailty clothing consisted of untanned skins; and the parts of ing against the admirable discipline of "the legions, and the body left exposed were bedaubed with an azure co- were no more heard of after the Romans gained a footing louring matter extracted from a particular herb. Tillage, in the island. It is even wonderful that they should ever, which had been introduced by the Belgic Gauls, was not in any instance, have been found in the least degree danaltogether unknown; but the principal articles of food gerous or formidable, except to theBritons themselves ; for were the milk and flesh of their herds. Superstition, with as these vehicles could only act on level unbroken ground, its usual blind absurdity, had forbidden them the use of and as the extreme mobility of the legion gave it the choice fish, which abounded on all the coasts of the island. Their of its own position, whether for attack or defence, nothing towns were merely clusters of wigwams, covered with turf, but the grossest misconduct on the part of its commander boughs, or skins, and situated in the midst of some forest could ever have placed it in a situation to be successfully or morass, with the avenues defended by ramparts of earth assaulted by such clumsy and unmanageable engines. and felled trees. In their persons they were large and Such are the principal notices supplied by historians tall, excelling the Gauls alike in stature and in strength ; respecting the ancient inhabitants of this country prior to but their features were heavy, their figures clumsy, and, the Roman conquest. The first events in the authentic according to Strabo, they did not stand firm on their legs. history of Britain are the landing of Caesar on the southern Laige men, indeed, are seldom handsome or elegantly shores, in the fifty-fifth year before tbe Christian era, and formed. But although barbarians in point of art and in- his invasion of the country in the following year. The dustry, the ancient Britons commanded respect by their course of his conquests in Gaul had brought him in sight intellectual and moral qualities. According to Tacitus, of an island hitherto known only by name, and, being prothey possessed a quicker apprehension than the Gauls; bably desirous of dazzling the people of Rome by a new and Diodorus Siculus commends their integrity as greater achievement, as wTell as of seeming to be engaged in obthan that of the Romans. A custom abhorrent to natural jects remote from internal aggrandizement, he resolved on morality is indeed said to have prevailed amongst them; attempting a descent upon this unexplored region, on the we are told that societies of ten or twelve persons possess- pretence that the Britons had rendered some assistance to ed wives in common. But the supposition of such a cus- the Gauls in their struggle for independence. Another and tom might be easily, though erroneously, formed, by a more secret motive for this expedition may have been, Roman stranger, from the circumstance of the barbarians that it would enable him to prolong his provincial comsleeping promiscuously in their hovels, as the peasantry mand, and, above all, to keep up an army devoted to its do to this day in some parts of Scotland; and the fact, chief, until the fulness of time should come for the execuwhen rightly understood, by no means warrants the con- tion of his projects against liberty. On the first occasion, clusion which seems to have been drawn from it. On the when he disembarked near Deal, his landing was warmly contrary, the chastity of the sexes, and the purity of do- disputed by the natives; but discipline and skill at length mestic intercourse, may have been as rigidly observed and prevailed over wild valour, and after a sanguinary struggle maintained among these simple barbarians as in periods the Britons were defeated, and forced to sue for peace. o society when the guards of virtue are multiplied, and modesty is sheltered by factitious sentiment and conven- Deputies were accordingly sent to lay their submission before Caesar, and learn the conditions on which they were tional ceremony. The trade in tin of Cornwall, carried on either directly to be forgiven for the crime of defending their native soil. or indirectly by the Phoenicians and Massilians, has been But having ascertained the number of the invaders, and rea y noticed. Prior to the Roman conquest, however, learnt that accidents arising from ignorance of the navigation had damaged the Roman fleet, they acceded to must j have been inconsiderable ; and it is even whatever terms Caesar thought proper to dictate, and ,ule whether those early navigators were acquainted secretly resolved to renew the attack. They were again m .. ainland of Britain, since we hear only of the repulsed, however, though not without inflicting a severe advm fndeS’ or adjacent islands, to which their mercantile loss on the enemy ; and Caesar, surprised at the resistance RomanTfla8 flr ml t0 have.been confined. But after the he had encountered, as well as anxious to secure his reaupst ^ . y established themselves in their con- turn to Gaul, which the approach of winter had endangered, horsed CrfPer’ t!f’ lime’ chalk’ Pearls> corn> cattle, hides, readily accepted the nominal submission proffered by the von v eeSe’anc^ slaves> began to be exported by islanders. Thus ended the first descent of the Romans 2p

298 British and Roman Period.

BRITAIN. too formidable to be seriously; passed; reinforcements Bntii on Britain. After a brief but fierce strugg e of little more were demanded by the emperors lieutenants; and seven than three weeks, Caesar embarked his whole army, and years elapsed before they succeeded in reducing 1the coun- Perio J or uie xuam^. v ; ipartial ;V conquest cost ^ returned to Gaul, glad to escape from a .^tuation wheie try tryJ soutnwara southward ^ t of the Thames. This tVip* Homans were not his means were insufficient to enable him . P , the blood of thirty battles, in which the Romans were not ground, and where the slightest reverse would undoubted- always victorious. . . . ly have proved fatal. • or. Ostorius Scapula, who succeeded Aulus Plautius m the In the ensuing spring the same commander agam ap- provincial government of Britain, extended the province peared on the British coast, with an armament of 800 to the banks of the Severn, and built a chain of forts to vessels having on board five legions and 2000 auxiliary check the incursions of the independent tribes. But Cahorse. ? The sight of so formidable a fleet made the Bri- radoc or Caractacus still lived. This renowned chief had tons despair of resisting the landing of the invaders, an lost his dominions; but, notwithstanding all his reverses, they accordingly withdrew to tiieirforests,t^ere thejrcouhl the ascendancy he had acquired over the minds of his act with better chance of success. The tiieie countrymen remained unshaken, and, great in adversity, fore, disembarked without opposition, penetrated mto t( he was still formidable. Despairing of success in the open country, and passing the Thames above Kingston, enter- country, he transferred the war to the mountains of Wales, ed the country of the Trinobantes, whose terntory^ncludand at the head of the Silures and other tribes, who had ed the site of the present metropolis of Bntain. 1 ^ a“ arms in their hands and the love of liberty in their heaits, vance was bravely disputed, and in the course of this io he prepared to make another effort in defence of his counrest campaign, the military qualities of the invaders were try. The position he selected for this final stand shows t0 a severe trial, by the incessant activity, the daring him to have been possessed of that instinctive military courage, ancfthe rapid7 movements of the hardy nat.ves genius which anticipates science and often defeats its comCassivelaunus, a British chief, particularly Jstmgmshed binations. It consisted of a rising ground or eminence, himself by his gallantry and enterprise, as well as by a na with a rapid and scarcely fordable river, which it comtural talent for war, which was strikingly exhibited in the manded in front, and was incapable of being turned by bold design of cutting off Caesar from Ins fleet. But gemus either flank, whilst its defensive strength was increased by and science asserted their usual superiority. The Brito a stone rampart built along the brow of the hill. Here were at length vanquished; and the chiefs having promis- he resolved to await the attack of the Romans ;- and exed to pay tribute, and to abstain from hostility against horting his followers to remember that Caesar himself had those of their countrymen who had abetted the Romans, been driven from the shores of Britain, he called upon the latter withdrew, content with the barren glory o av- them to maintain by their valour the liberty which they ing gained a victory without result, and conquered a cou - had inherited from their ancestors. 1‘ley vowed fidehty trf which they could not retain. In fact, it is not easy to to the cause of their country, and promised that they dTvine the real object of these expeditions. It has been would conquer or die where they stood. Ihe Roman said that Caesar showed no signs of an intention to esta- general was astonished. He saw that he had to encounter blish himself in Britain, and probably regarded his expe- a desperate enemy, skilfully posted, and unassailable exditions only as a means of flattering the Romans, and ot cept where his position was strongest; and, in viewing the displaying the complete reduction of Gaul. This may be difficulties of his situation, his mind almost misgave him. true ; but it was never the character of Roman policy to But the spirit of his soldiers was roused, and they cried fiaht useless battles, or lavish unprofitably the blood of out that no position was impregnable to the brave. Havthe legions. The more probable supposition appears to i„g forded the river with extreme difficulty, they formed be, that Csesar considered the entire conquest and subju- the testudo, or close column, covered overhead with their gation of a country covered with forests, without roads, shields, to protect them from the missile weapons of the and inhabited by a hardy, warlike race, as a hopeless task natives; ascended the hill in this compact order; broke or at least as one which, in his particular situation, and through the rampart of loose stones ; and charging home with the means at his disposal, it would be unwise or urn- upon the Britons, overthrew them with great slaughter. prudent to persevere in. One benefit, however resulted The brothers of the British prince surrendered ; Ins wife from his enterprise ; he first laid open the countiy to s and daughter were made captive ; and the hero hiraselfi tory, and collected those invaluable notices of the cha- who had escaped the casualties of the field, and taken racter, condition, habits, manners, customs, and religion of refuge among the Brigantes in Yorkshire, was afterwar| the people, which he has preserved in his Commentaues, basely betrayed into the hands ot the enemy by thei and ^which still afford instruction and delight to every queen Cartismandua, his inhuman stepmother. He was sent captive to Italy, whither the fame of his achieve1C Britain was threatened with invasion by Augustus, who ments had preceded him; and the people flocked ^to bethereby extorted presents and tribute from the insular hold the man who for nine years had defied the powe chiefs ; Tiberius employed no menace, but exacted the Rome. His family supplicated for mercy ; but the mag tribute ; and Caligula, in one of his insane freaks, landet naTmous chief, suLhing in misfortune greatness f at the head of a body of troops, whom he commanded to character, stooped not to prefer any sohcitation, anefi ^ charge the ocean, and collect cockle-shells as fit emblems dressing the emperor with a manly dlgnitJ’ ^ ^ de of his imaginary triumph over that boisterous enemy. I fie moved from abject submission and insolent defiance, m ^ visit of the imperial madman took place ninety years alter so great an impression on the mind of Ckud , Cmsar’s expedition, and formed a subject of derision to the fetters were ordered to be struck off, and both his fam y whole Roman world. But the next attempt was of a more and himself treated with the most distingmshed regard^ serious character, and productive ot graver results. In Meanwhile the Silures, beaten but not subdued, i en the reign of Claudius, the adventurous and hitherto un- ed their attacks on the Romans, and kept UPa t0 profitable enterprise was resumed under two distinguish- sity of their countrymen by then- example. } ed officers, Aulus Plautius and Vespasian, who, landing pieces some cohorts employed in building [°^s at the head of an army 50,000 strong, marched through country; harassed the enemy with contmual skirmishe^ the territories of the Cattivelauni, and defeated Caracta- and, although defeated in a general ncUon-which they ^ cus and Trocodumnus, the British leaders, in thiee suc- terwards risked, they escaped without entire rou cessive engagements. But the retreating enemy was sti

,

BRITAIN. 299 itish cover of night. Weary of an obscure and destructive great; but this is probably an exaggeration in both direc- British nd warfare, barren of glory and productive of little save fa- tions. The Britons seem to have fought gallantly, though and man tigue and anxiety, Ostorius died, and was succeeded by not successfully ; and hence the historian says, that “ the Roman riod. Aulus Didius. The latter checked the incursions of the glory won on that day was equal to that of the most re- Period. Britons, who had again become formidable under a new nowned victories of the ancient Romans,” a statement inleader; but not till after they had defeated a Roman le- consistent with the notion that it had been either easily gion, and reaped some other advantages of a minor de- or cheaply purchased. Boadicea ended her miseries by scription. Unfortunately for himself, however, Venusius, taking poison ; and Posthumus, the commander of a legion, the leader in question, and chief of the Huiccii of Warwick fell on his sword, indignant at not having a share in so and Worcestershire, had married the betrayer of Carac- glorious a victory.1 tacus, a woman as licentious in her personal conduct as Broken by this blow, the spirit of the Britons would have she had proved herself devoid of principle or patriotism. soon been quenched had it not been kept alive by oppresHaving scandalized her subjects by admitting Villocatus, sion. Suetonius, with all his abilities, was injudiciously her armour-bearer, to a share of her bed and throne, Car- vindictive, and frequently lost by his cruelty the advantismandua implored the aid of the Romans against her tages which he had gained by his talents. He was therehusband, who had collected a force to expel the usurper. fore recalled by Nero ; and, under his more immediate sucBut the promised assistance proved too scanty for the cessors, the Britons enjoyed a short interval of repose. protection of the adultress, who, in the end, was driven But the Roman energies revived under Vespasian, who from her kingdom ; and although this civil war operated had gathered his first laurels in Britain. The Brigantes, as a seasonable diversion, the efforts of the Romans were commanded by Venusius, were at length overcome; and for several years confined to the preservation of what they the Silures, after a gallant but hopeless resistance, were had already acquired. in like manner subdued. In this double contest Cerealis But the season for action in due time arrived. Sueto- and Frontinus employed no less than seven years, a fact nius Paulinus, an officer of high reputation, but ambitious, which sufficiently indicates the persevering energy with and prone to cruelty, having obtained the province of Bri- which these powerful tribes contended for independence. tain, resolved to destroy the sacred seat of Druidism in These successes paved the way for the subjugation of the island of Mona or Anglesea, where the head of that the greater part of the island under Crueus Julius Agricola, order resided, considering it as the centre of the British who was now appointed to the government of the province. nation, and the source whence emanated that spirit of The administration of this distinguished Roman would resistance which had already cost the Romans so much probably have been as little known to us as that of any blood. The project was equally bold and well conceived. of his predecessors, if it had not been for the circumstance Having crossed the strait, however, he found a host drawn of having as his son-in-law the most able and philosophiup in order of battle to receive him, the declivities brist- cal of the ancient historians ; “ a singular instance,” as Sir ling with arms, soldiers occupying every defile, and women, James Mackintosh observes, “ of the power which gein funeral apparel, running along the ranks like furies with nius, in ages where historical materials are scanty, may burning torches in their hands, whilst Druids clustered exercise over the allotment of fame.” In the character of around, imprecating the wrath of heaven on the sacrilegious Agricola is exhibited an example of the union of great caintruders into their holy of holies. Awed by the spectacle, pacity for war, with prudence, moderation, and judgment the legions for a moment stood powerless ; but ashamed of in the administration of civil affairs. “ His well-balantheir momentary panic, they rushed forward to the attack, ced mind,” says the very eminent writer just cited, “ was drove all before them, and, after demolishing the altars averse from all excess, but it was without those brilliant and groves, burned the Druids in their own fires. peculiarities in which the biographer delights. The only In the midst of this havoc, however, Suetonius received general maxim by which the historian attempts to exalt intelligence of a general insurrection of the conquered his character is, that there is a conduct, even under tyrantribes. The immediate causes of an outbreaking so little nical reigns, equally distant from servility and turbulence, expected were the gross injustice done to the family of by which an eminent man may serve his country with Prasutaegus, king of the Icini, and the atrocious outrages safety and innocence. The work in question ought rather offered to his queen Boadicea, who, having remonstrated to be regarded as the funeral panegyric than as the life of against the fraudulent exheredation of her children, was Agricola. The age of Tacitus afforded him few opportunipublicly whipped, and constrained to witness the violation ties to acquire a talent for praise by frequent exercise : his of her daughters. Wrongs so great, and insults so intoler- style did not easily descend to ordinary particulars; and able, required not the general spoliation which followed to his affection in this case cramped his freedom.” Hence kindle up the spirit of an indignant people, and to turn the indistinctness of the outline presented to us by the their vengeance on the oppressors. The standard of the in- historian may be ascribed both to the generality of his lanjured queen was raised, and numerous tribes rallied round guage and to the limits of his information; circumstances ^n^ant colony of Camelodunum (Malden or Col- often render it difficult to extract a precise meaning from chester) was destroyed; the infantry of the ninth legion his words, and, particularly, to fix the localities of some of were annihilated; and in the more flourishing colony of the most interesting events he relates. Verulamium (St Alban’s) seventy thousand persons are Agricola began his military career in Britain by subdusaid to have been put to death with all the cruelties of a ing the Ordovici of North Wales, and reducing Mona, barbarous revenge. Suetonius flew to the assistance of which, after the fierce vigour of Suetonius was withdrawn is countrymen, and soon succeeded in bringing the Bri- in consequence of the insurrection under Boadicea, had ons to a general action on open ground, where their su- regained its independence and religious pre-eminence as peuority in point of numbers was of little avail against dis- the grand seat of Druidism. This he effected without cipline and science. They were defeated with prodigious the aid of ships, by causing a sufficient force to swim across s aughter, whilst the victors, by their own account, lost the narrowest part of the strait with their arms and horses, on y hve hundred men. The disproportion was doubtless but unencumbered with baggage. In his second campaign 1

Mackintosh, History, vol. i. p. 22.

300 British and Homan Period.

BRITAIN. solution succeeded to the noise of conflict. The pursuit British he carried his arms to the northward, and subdued tribes was soon discontinued; the vanquished found refuge in and who had never as yet come into contact with the Romans; their mountain fastnesses; and as the Giampian range showing clemency to such as submitted to the power ot which towered in front constituted the advanced bulwark Period. Rome, and never, in any instance, abusing victory mr pur- of a country wholly unknown, Agricola did not attempt to poses of cruelty or oppression. To secure these advan- penetrate into its dangerous defiles, but, marching into ced conquests, he built a chain of forts or military stations the country now. called Angus, took it from the Horesti, from sea to sea, in nearly the same line where the ram- whom he had previously subdued. Meanwhile his fleet part of Hadrian and the wall of Severus were afterwards returned from a voyage of discovery which it had proseci'GCtcd# n cuted as far as the Orcades, and even Thule, supposed to In his third campaign Agricola entered the country of be Foula, the most northerly of the Zetland islands; and the Caledonians by the head of the Solway, and traversed Agricola established his winter quarters on the most level it as far as the Tay without encountering an enemy. Be- district, which lay to the northward of the natural frontier lieving that the invaders would retire on the approach ot formed by the two friths. But in the reign of Domitian winter, they abstained from committing any hostilities; it was difficult for the most prudent general to be long but in this expectation they were deceived, for, when win- successful with safety. Agricola was recalled; and, on ter set in, they found the Romans established in fortified his return to Rome, all the arts by which he shunned potowns, well provided with all necessary stores, and secure pularity proved insufficient to lull the suspicions of a jeaalike against surprise or assault. Next year the Roman lous tyrant, by whose directions his days seem to have o-eneral built a line of forts between the friths of forth been shortened by poison. t and Clyde, with the double view of excluding the contaUnder Agricola the -Roman dominion reached its utgion of revolt, and of protecting the inhabitants of the most extent in Britain, and the natives, as we have seen, province against the inroads of the northern barbarians. were driven into the rugged and inhospitable regions beIn his fifth campaign he crossed the frith ot Clyde; and, yond the Grampians. From this time till the close of the after a variety of skirmishes with the wild natives of Can- third century the island is seldom noticed by the Roman tyre, Lorn, Argyleshire, and Lochaber, obtained a view of historians. We know, indeed, though chiefly by the evithe coast of Ireland, which, from the information he col- dence of medals, that the mountaineers broke into the lected as to the force necessary for subduing and retain- Roman province, and were driven back into their fastnesses ing, he meditated adding to the Roman empire; but this by the vigorous arm of Hadrian, who erected a second design was never put in execution. During his sixth ll, the remains of which are still traceable fiom the campaign he passed the friths of Forth and lay, and led wa Solway Frith to the mouth of the Tyne. Under Antonihis army, which was attended and supported m all its nus the same species of fortification was constructed on movements by a fleet, along the eastern coast of Scotland. more northern frontier of the friths; while Seveius, The Caledonians hung upon his line of march, and harass- the abandoning Agricolas rampart, which Antoninus had ed him considerably ; but, awed by the presence and sight caused to be repaired, erected a stone wrall almost paralof the fleet, which was to them a novel spectacle, they lel with that of Hadrian already mentioned, and in a mangenerally kept at a respectful distance. In a night attack, equally solid and durable. These frontier works, exhowever, they threw a portion of his army into confusion ; ner ecuted on so large a scale, and requiring a numerous body and, having penetrated into the camp of the ninth legion, of troops at the different stations for their defence, suitiwould have overwhelmed them entirely if Agricola had ciently attest the persevering and formidable character of not come with great celerity to their aid, and driven the the assaults of our rude ancestors on the Roman power m assailants back to their woods and morasses. After this Britain. They might be beaten, but they could not be action, Agricola retired into winter quarters, and left the subdued; they might be driven back, but in a little time Caledonians a short respite to prepare for the final strugthey were sure to return to the attack. I he progress o gle in defence of their rude independence. & Roman arms in the reduction of Britain was singularWhen the Roman commander took the field in his se- the ly slow; and, notwithstanding all their defensive precauventh campaign, he found the native host encamped in a position the exact locality of which has been much disputed tions, the tenure by which the northern part of the pro(some fixing it at the base of the central and others at that vince was held seems to have been exceedingly insecure. was conquered by one great effort, and retained in of the eastern portion of the Grampian chain), under a Gaul without difficulty. Britain, on the other hand, chief whose name has been latinized into Galgacus. The subjection barbarians were estimated at near 30,000 men, whilst the though peopled by a race of kindred origin, was only carRoman army was little, if at all, inferior in number. Lut ried as it were foot by foot, and keptd under by the direct every possible advantage was on the side of the latter; for ascendancy of si^” 0f'|!,“"““dC with what conceivable chance of snecess could a disorder- duced another, winch, tn /es“ “"““X „d ciesumes oi me imumu wunu. Its insu a ~ - - a Iv^ mass or rabble of 30,000 barbarians contend against an destinies of the Roman woild. , , (II1• • 1• 1 1 ... equal number of highly-disciplined and veteran troops, led the large force which it was necessary to maintain tor me on by a general of consummate ability and great expe- support of order and government, offered irresistib e temp rience in the art of war ? The elaborate description of tations to irregular ambition ; it became “ an island er i Tacitus has caused an importance to be attached to this in usurpers;” and the commander who assumed t e pu battle, which, in reality, does not belong to it. The issue pie had always at hand powerful means to enforce his prewas never even for an instant doubtful. I he C-uledonians tensions. It was alike the object and the theatie o a were defeated with great slaughter, ten thousand having manner of intrigues and contentions; the first, thoug i n fallen either in the battle or in the pursuit, whilst the loss the highest, prize in the lottery of ambition. Hence t of the Romans scarcely exceeded three hundred men. Roman cultivation was extended to it in a much less * of r the a After the defeat of their main body, a reserve of the Ca- gree than to Spain and Gaul. Ihe writersrrne t ledonians moved to take the Romans in flank ; but the at- province were respectable, those of the f? . , tempt was defeated by Agricola in person at the head ot celebrated of the time; but Roman Britain die no 6P a strong body of legionaries, and the flight then became duce a single literary name. In what degree the P^ universal. The inhabitants mingled with the fugitives lence of the Latin might have paved the way for that after setting fire to their dwellings, and the silence of de- appearance of the ancient language of Britain in the

BRITAIN. 301 ways so fortunate as so be provided with such instruments. British d his inquisitor, surnamed Catena, from his expertness in and connecting criminal charges, entered at once on his career, Roman and soon filled all the western parts with tortures, confis- t F^nodcations, and murders. Martinus, the British governor, unable to restrain his cruelties, attempted his life, but unhappily missing the aim, was obliged to pay the forfeit of his own. On the accession of Julian to the purple, that event was signalized by an act of exemplary justice ; the inhuman Paulus was ordered to be burned alive. A few words may be necessary here respecting the constitution of the provincial government of Britain. This was generally intrusted to a prefect, who exercised the civil and military power, subject only to the control of the questors, whose peculiar department was finance. The prefect acted as imperial lieutenant or viceroy, and appointed the governors of the six provinces into which Roman Britain was divided. These were, first, Britain to the south of the Severn and the Thames; second, Britain along the Severn, including Wales and the adjoining districts ; third, Flavia Caesariensis, from the two former provinces to the German Ocean, the Humber, and the Don ; fourth, Maxima Caesariensis to the north of the Humber, from its mouth, as far as the mouths of the Tyne and the" Eden; fifth, Valencia, from the Tyne to the Clyde and the Forth ; and, sixth, Vespasiana, the country beyond the friths, a precarious and ill-defined conquest, continually disturbed by the inroads of the barbarians. Such were the territorial divisions of this country under the Romans. They seem to have been adopted gradually as conquest extended, and afterwards rounded off by natural limits for the convenience alike of the general and of the local government. For about a century and a half the southern part of the Roman province in Britain had suffered but little disturbance from the northern tribes, whose inroads were generally checked by the frontier defences and garrisons. About ten years, however, after the judicial campaign of Paulus, the Scots and Piets, recovering from the chastisement inflicted on them by the commanders of Julian, attacked with greater force the legions of Valentinian and Valens, and for three years ravaged the province with impunity. They were at length driven back by Theodosius, governor of Britain, and father of the celebrated emperor of that name, who defeated them in several battles, and forcing them beyond the rampart of Agricola, once more extended the province to its utmost ancient limits. But the progressive decline of the empire having exposed its northern frontier to invasion at every point, the Roman troops were gradually withdrawn from this island for the more urgent purpose of protecting the seat of dominion ; and about the middle of the fifth century Britain was abandoned to her own resources. Gallio of Ravenna commanded the last detachment of troops that Rome ever sent to this island. This was under Honorius. After repelling a furious inroad of the Scots and Piets, the Roman general, assembling the British chiefs, told them frankly, that, since the empire, labouring under its own weight, could no longer afford them protection, they must henceforth take courage and defend themselves; and, in the name of the emperor, he formally absolved the different cities or townships of the province from their allegiance to Rome. Lastly, having repaired the wall of Severus, erected useful forts, and supplied the natives with military weapons and engines, the Romans took their final departure from Britain exactly four hundred and seventy-five years after Julius Caesar first landed on its shores. These bequests, however, proved unavailing. The British youth who had been trained in the Roman army more than once drove back the barbarous tribes of their own

Bush ger and more fertile portion of the island, which was com» Sil pleted under the Saxons, there are no memorials extant B :an which warrant us to hazard a conjecture. The Roman rePelbd. mains seem rather to indicate the luxury of the military stations of that people, than a desire to adorn their province with civil architecture; whilst, in the convenience and magnificence of their roads, they only contemplated the security of their power or the extension of their conquests. The precise period of the introduction of Christianity into Britain is uncertain. About the end of the second century, however, we find Tertullian boasting that the gospel had subdued tribes yet unconquered by the Romans ; and from this circumstance, as well as from our more accurate information respecting the diffusion of Christianity in Gaul, it may be reasonably supposed that its first planting in our island was considerably earliei'. Two centuries afterwards, theological controversy had become so prevalent, that Pelagius and Celestius, the one a Welchman and the other a Scotchman, agitated all Christendom by their heretical notions on the subjects of original sin and free will. The received opinion, which ascribes to Constantine, who began his reign at York, the introduction of Christianity into Britain towards the middle of the fourth century, is founded upon the palpable error of confounding the first preaching of the gospel with the formal recognition or establishment of Christianity, upon the ruins of Paganism, as the religion of the empire. Long before that time intrepid and dauntless missionaries had carried the faith of the cross to the hearths and the homes of our barbarous ancestors ; and the policy of Constantine only kept pace with, instead of outrunning, the natural course of events. When Severus died at York, Caracalla, then known by his original name of Bassianus, concluded a peace with the Caledonians, and, along with his brother Geta, hastened to Rome to plunge into all the debaucheries of the capital. There now occurs in the history of Britain a chasm of seventy years, during which the silence of the Roman writers would lead us to infer that the island enjoyed peace. In the reign of Diocletian, Carnusius, intrusted with the command of a naval armament, fitted out to repress piracy on the coasts of Britain, usurped the purple, and maintained his assumed dignity for eight years. But while Constantins, the coadjutor of the emperor, was preparing to attack him, he was assassinated by Allectus, who, imitating the example of his master, usurped the sovereignty, and maintained it for three years. He wras, however, defeated and slain by Constantius, who put an end to the rebellion, and dispersed the followers of the usurper. In the division of the empire between Galerius and Constantius, Britain fell to the share of the latter, who, in consequence, fixed his residence in the island, and, after some contests with the Caledonians, of which little is known, died at York, leaving his son Constantine his successor in the empire. This prince, not unjustly surnamed the Great, assumed the purple at York, where he staid some time to pay the last honours to his father’s ashes, and to finish the war with the Meaetse and Caledonians, who at this time began to be known by the names of Piets and Scots. Called afterwaids to a higher destiny, and recognized as the undisputed master of the Roman world, he overthrew the altars 0 Paganism, and established Christianity as the religion ^ the empire, including that portion of it where he had fst been invested with the ensigns of the imperial dignit y.. About eighteen years after the accession of Consantme, Britain took part with the unsuccessful usurper p a8nentius. This entailed on it the bitter resentment of onstantius, who sent into the island one Paulus, a SpaWlt 1 nstruc ns h!f[ v! een * fi°in the to discover punish those concerned rebellion.andTyranny is notwho al-

302 British and Roman Period.

BRITAIN. the union of the crowns, we refer to the article England. Reign f island ; but the latter increasing in numbers and audacity, See also the article Scotland. James] w at length “ broke through their walls, like wolves into a sheep-fold, retired with their booty, and returned every sucCFIAP. II. ceeding year.” In their distress they made a yam appeal to iEtius, who for a moment propped the falling empire. REIGN OE JAMES I. « The barbarians,” said they in a letter entitled the hroans of the Britons, “ drive us into the sea, and the sea drives Accession of James to the English throne—State of the nation at us back upon the swords of the barbarians. But Atius this time Origin of the patriotic party—Grievances of the nation James’s arbitrary system of government—Puritans— bad to do with Attila, and, however much he might pity Attempt to establish Episcopacy in Scotland—Iniquity and the suppliants, he could afford them no relief. Disapfolly of the project First Parliament—Peace with Spain— pointed of aid in this quarter, and despairing of their abiProposed union' with Scotland—Difference between the King lity any longer to resist their northern invaders, the Briand the Parliament New Parliament convoked—Execution tish states were led to employ in their defence auxiliaries of Sir Walter Raleigh—Gunpowder Plot—Policy in regard to Ireland Death of Henry Prince of Wales.—Affairs of the who soon became more formidable than the enemies Palatinate Spanish match proposed.—Remonstrance of the against whom they had been called in to combat. Ihese Commons, and dispute consequent thereon—Marriage with mercenaries, who gradually rose to be • conqueroi s, conthe Infanta resolved on—Prince Charles sets out for Madrid— sisted chiefly of Saxons, intermingled with Angles, Jutes, His reception there Articles of the Marriage treaty—Faithand Frisians from the Cimbric Chersonesus, or peninsula lessness of the Prince Marriage with the Infanta broken off— of Jutland. The Saxons, who appear to have had their New match proposed with Henrietta of France—War declared against Spain Affairs on the Continent—Death and characchief seat on the Elbe, were previously known to the Briter of James. tons only by predatory descents on their coasts ; and, certainly, it does seem rather extraordinary that they should The history of Britain as one kingdom commences with have thought of calling in the aid of such perilous auxiliaries. But, under the pressure of urgent danger or actual the union of the crowns in the beginning of the sevencalamity, men are more inclined to seek present relief than teenth century. In 1603 the kingdoms of Scotland and to calculate remote consequences ; and it should be recol- England fell under the dominion of one sovereign, by the lected that the Britons, denied all assistance by their for- accession of James VI. of Scotland to the English throne. mer masters, and wholly unable to defend themselves He derived his title to the latter from being the greatagainst the desolating inroads of the fierce tribes of the grandson of Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry VII.; north, were in a situation to close with any scheme and, on the failure of the male line, his hereditary right which promised even a chance of deliverance. That the remained incontestible. Queen Elizabeth, with her last invitation given to this marauding race was as formal as breath, had recognised him for her successor; and the it afterwards proved fatal to the native population, may parliament, conformably to her dying request,Jiad settled safely be doubted, notwithstanding the direct testimony the succession on the heirs of Henry VII.; so that few soveof the Saxon historians. They were probably at hand, reigns ever ascended a throne with more general approbaand being always ready to embark in any enterprise which tion, or greater hopes of a peaceable and happy reign. The held out a prospect of booty, they in all likelihood required memory of a disputed succession was yet fresh in the but little solicitation to induce them to join the Britons minds of the English; and as the title of James was unagainst their northern enemies. Accordingly, in the mid- questionable, the accession of a protestant sovereign, who dle of the fifth century, the Saxon ships arrived on the was to extinguish the hostility of Scotland, and unite two British coast, where they disembarked a few hundred wild kingdoms intended by nature to form one, was regarded as warriors of that roving nation under their leaders Hengist a new and auspicious era in the history of both countries. But the popularity of James hardly survived his arrival and Horsa. These fabled descendants of Oden immediately took the field at the head of their followers, and by in England; the hopes which had been so eagerly chetheir aid the Piets and Scots were completely defeated. rished were soon blighted ; and the history of this moOne evil was thus averted, but another, and, if possible, narch’s reign consists of little else than a detail of disputes a greater, succeeded. The Saxons, acquiring a liking for and contentions between him and his parliament. A the country they had been hired to defend, and eager to minute account df these transactions would scarcely conexchange the bleak shores and sandy wastes of the north duce either to entertainment or instruction; but it is neverfor the rich fields and more genial climate of Britain, in- theless of importance to know their origin, as out of them vited fresh bodies of their countrymen to join them, and, sprung those succeeding events which make so conspiin a little time, from being the auxiliaries, they became the cuous a figure in the annals of Britain.^ In the ages which preceded the period upon which we conquerors and masters, of the ill-fated Britons. But the latter did not yield without a struggle. Displaying, when are now entering, the human mind, enervated by superstiit was too late, a valour which, more opportunely exerted, tion, and degraded by ignorance, seemed to have surrenwould have spared them the miseries of this contest, they dered all pretensions to liberty, either religious or civi • resisted their new tyrants, and occasionally with success. Unlimited and uncontrolled despotism everywhere preHorsa fell in battle ; and so slow was the progress of the vailed ; and although England suffered less in this respect Saxon arms, that Hengist, with all his boasted victories, than almost any other nation, the numerous examples o never penetrated beyond the county of Kent. The in- arbitrary power exercised by her sovereigns show tha vaders, however, clung with desperate tenacity to the soil. the country was then very far indeed from enjoying liberBy degrees the Saxon power reduced the natives to entire ty in any rational sense of the term. As a proof of this, submission, or drove them to seek shelter in the moun- and as an evidence how little restraint was at that time tains of Wales, Cornwall, and Cumberland. Many emi- imposed on the authority of the sovereign, it is only necesgrated to avoid the horrors of this conquest; and some sary to mention, that the proceedings of parliament were settling in Armorica, the peninsula between the Seine accounted of so little consequence, that no journals were and the Loire, laid the foundation of that singular resem- kept of them ; nor was it till 1607, four years subsequen blance in language and manners to the insular Britons to the accession of James, that parliamentary journals weie which has ever since distinguished the inhabitants of Bre- commenced, on the motion of Sir Edwin Sandys, a mem tagne. For the history of England from this period until ber of great authority in the house.

BRITAIN. Itei 1 of The proceedings of parliament being held as of so little Jan; !• consequence, it is no wonder that the sessions were not regular, and that little attention was paid to the choice or continuance of the members. In the reign of Elizabeth and her predecessors the sessions of parliament seldom exceeded in duration a twelfth part of the vacations. When parliaments were prolonged beyond one session, it was usual for the Chancellor to exert a discretionary authority of issuing new writs to supply the place of such members as he judged incapable of attending, either by reason of business, sickness, or any other impediment. No practice could be more dangerous to liberty than this', yet so little were the rights and interests of the nation then understood, that the Commons, of their own accord, confirmed the Chancellor’s power in this respect by the 23d of Elizabeth; nor did they proceed any further in the assertion of their .privileges, than to vote, that during the sitting of parliament no writ should issue for the choosing or returning of any member without the warrant of the house. But towards the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth century, a great though insensible revolution took place throughout all Europe. Arts and sciences began to flourish ; commerce and navigation were greatly extended; and learning of all kinds began to be diffused, More enlarged views naturally gave birth to generous sentiments ; a love of freedom, in England especially, was implanted in the breasts of most people of birth and education; and this was greatly promoted by an acquaintance with the ancient Greek and Latin writers. The exampie of the republics of Greece and Rome, the members of which had so often sacrificed their lives in defence of liberty, produced a powerful impression; and a desire of circumscribing the excessive prerogative and arbitrary proceedings of the crown began to be secretly formed throughout the nation. Nor was this desire unreasonable, or without a solid foundation. During the last years of Queen Elizabeth’s reign, the commerce, navigation, and number of seamen in England, had sensibly decayed. A remonstrance from the Trinity-house in 1602 bears, that since 1588, the number of seamen and shipping had decayed about a third, Every species of domestic industry was fettered by monopolies, and exclusive companies, which are only another species of monopoly ; almost all foreign trade, except that to France, was in the hands of a few; and any prospect of future improvement in commerce was for ever sacrificed to the temporary advantage of the sovereign. These companies, though arbitrarily erected, had carried their privileges so far, that almost all the commerce of England centred in London ; the customs of that port alone amounted to L.l 10,000 a year, whilst those of the rest of the kingdom amounted only to L. 17,000 ; and the whole trade of London itself was confined to about two hundred citizens, who, by combining together, were easily enabled to fix whatever price they pleased both on the exports and imports of the nation. Besides this, the subjects were burdened by wardships and purveyances. The latter constituted an old prerogative of the crown, by which the officers of the household were empowered to take, without consent of the owners, provisions for the king’s family, and carts and horses for the removal of his baggage, upon paying a stated price for them. The king had also a power of sending any person, without his own consent, on whatsoever message he pleased; and thus he could easily compel an individual to pay any sum of money he chose, rather than be sent out of the country on a disagreeable mission. Money extorted from individuals by this or by an y other method was usually called, doubtless in derision, a benev “ olence.” These were a few of the grievances under which the

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nation at this time laboured, and which the rising spirit Reign of of patriotism tended to redress. This disposition, how- James I. ever, the severe government of Elizabeth had confined within very narrow limits. But when James, a foreign prince, less dreaded and less beloved, succeeded to the throne, symptoms of a freer and more independent genius immediately appeared. Happily, James neither perceived the alteration, nor had sufficient capacity to check its early advances. He bad established in his own mind a spedilative system of absolute government, which few of his subjects, and none but traitors and rebels, as he thought, would make any scruple to admit. He thought himself entitled to equal prerogatives with other European sovereigns, not considering the military force by which their despotism was sustained. The almost unlimited power which for upwards of a century had been exercised by the English sovereigns, he considered as the prerogative of royal birth, and not as the result of peculiar circumstances skilfully improved. In his person, therefore, he imagined all legal power to be centred by a hereditary and divine right; and so fully was he persuaded of his absolute property in his subjects, that in his speech to the parliament in 1621, he told them that he “ wished them to have said that their privileges were derived from the grace and pei'mission of him and his ancestors.” And when the same parliament protested that “ the liberties, franchises, privileges, and jurisdictions of parliament, are the ancient and undoubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects of England,” he was so enraged, that, sending for the journals of the Commons, he, with his own hand, before the council, tore out this protestation, and ordered his reasons to be inserted in the council-book, The consequence of such opposite dispositions actuating the king and parliament was, that during this reign the prerogatives of the crown were openly and violently attacked. But the chiefgrounds of discontent were money and religion. The king’s high notions of the royal prerogative made him imagine that he had a right to whatever sums lie pleased to demand; whilst his profusion caused him to dissipate in a short time the scanty supplies which he succeeded in extorting from the parliament. With regard to religious matters, the nation was at that time greatly infected with Puritanism. Though the severities of Elizabeth had almost totally suppressed the Papists, it had been otherwise with the Puritans. So much had they increased by the very means which had diminished the number of Catholics, that no less than seven hundred and fifty clergymen of that persuasion signed a petition to James on his accession to the English throne. They hoped that the king, having received his education in Scotland, and always professed an attachment to the church established there, would at least abate the rigour of the laws enacted against the Puritans, if he did not show them particular favour and encouragement. But in this they were grievously mistaken. He had observed in their Scottish brethren a decided turn towards republicanism, and a zealous attachment to civil liberty. In his capacity of monarch as well as of theologian, he had experienced the little complaisance they were disposed to show him. They controlled his commands ; disputed his tenets ; and to his face, before the whole people, censured his conduct and behaviour, This superiority assumed by the Presbyterian clergy, the monarchical pride of James could never digest. Although he had been obliged, while in Scotland, to court their favour, he treasured up, on that account, the stronger resentment against them; and he was determined to make them feel, in their turn, the full weight of his authority. He therefore not only rejected the petition of the clergymen above mentioned, but throughout his whole reign refused to relax in the least the severity of the law's against

BRITAIN. 304 that, for the object contemplated, there was no need of Keigno Reign of Protestant nonconformists, although often petitioned to ing uniformity in the laws or religion of the two countries,— James I James I. the contrary by his parliament. that, with Ireland subdued, Scotland united, and the The same principles which produced in James sue i and navy supported, the English monarchy would bean aversion to the Puritans, prompted him to favour t ic come duly the most formidable in the world. It is to the hoEpiscopalians, and even the Catholics, as being gieatci nour of James, and reflects credit on the sagacity which friends to despotism. In his jmuth he had been sus- he at intervals displayed, that he was eager in forwarding pected of a bias towards the ancient religion; and it is certain that when he ascended the throne of England, this measure. But the Commons remained inflexible, and project consequently failed. In conformity, however, he often endeavoured to procure some mitigation of the the with an opinion obtained from the judges, the post-nati, laws against them, if not an absolute toleration. But in that is, all Britons born since the death of Queen Elizathis he was constantly opposed by the parliament; and beth, were declared to be naturalized subjects in either indeed the strong inclination shown by James to establis i kingdom. Episcopacy throughout the whole of his dominions, tended Pecuniary difficulties, from which the king was never very much to alienate the minds of his subjects, especially free, brought him again as a suppliant for aid from this in Scotland, and to create that suspicion of his intentions parliament. Squandering with reckless prodigality, he which accompanied him to the grave. continually in want; and, in the present instance, his The first intercourse between King James and his English was parliament discovered at once the character of the nevv embarrassments were aggravated by the expense incurred monarch, and the spirit of the people over whom he had in maintaining his government in Ireland. The parliament been called to reign. Vain, pedantic, garrulous, mean, acceded to his solicitations; but, in return, demanded a and accessible to flattery, however gross; arbitrary in his redress of grievances, and amongst these the suppression principles, and in his own opinion the greatest master of of the High Commission Court, which had become odious king-craft that ever lived; “ the wretched Solomon of by the severities it exercised against the Puritans. James Whitehall” found in his English ministers, Cecil, Suffolk, refused the supply tendered on such conditions, and the and Northampton, devoted parasites and ready tools. His dispute ended by his dissolving the parliament; on which address to the parliament bespoke his own opinion of occasion the royal pedant told them “ not to meddle with himself, and showed that he believed himself an absolute the main points of government—that was his craft; nor king, whose proclamations were to have the force of laws. pretend to instruct a king who had been thirty years at But it was only with his courtiers and bishoyis that James the trade in Scotland, besides an apprenticeship of seven passed for that paragon of wisdom and policy which he years in England.” But James found it impossible to dispense altogether devoutly believed himself to be. The House of Commons already contained many men of free, fearless, and intelli- with this “ meddling” body. His usual extravagance soon gent minds; nor were the principles of independence, reduced him to straits, notwithstanding the discreditable which in several instances had been asserted against all shifts he had recourse to for raising money; and, in the power and energy of Elizabeth, likely to be veiled 1613, he was obliged to convoke another parliament, for before the mock dignity of such a regal punchinello as the sake of obtaining a supply. At this time Robert James. His first parliament, accordingly, reminded him Carre, whom he had raised through several gradations of of their privileges; resisted the arbitrary issue, by the dignity to be Earl of Somerset, engrossed the favour of Chancellor, of new writs for elections; and made some the monarch, and merited the hatred of the nation. The laudable attempts to check the spirit of monopoly which sums spent on this worthless minion, and the countenance paralysed the trade and manufactures of the kingdom, as shown him after the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury, at well as to relieve the landed interest from some remnants once degraded the king in the eyes of the people, and drained the scanty resources of his ill-supplied exchequer. The of feudal oppression. consequence was, that his second parliament proved still The accession of James was speedily followed by the conclusion of peace with Spain. rihe tendency of his dis- more refractory than the first. On their assembling, the position was pacific, not so much from principle, as from king proposed to them to vote a supply, and then proceed the want of all energy, vigour, and force of character, if to the consideration of such grievances as required to be not positive cowardice. But whilst the nation was thus redressed. But the Commons inverted this order of prodelivered from the evils of war, a deadly blow was medi- cedure, and began with the redress of grievances. The tated against the government in all its branches, and king’s wrath was kindled at their obstinacy. He disagainst the religion of the country. This was the famous missed them, and imprisoned some of the members who Gunpowder Plot, which the habitual fears of the king, had particularly signalized themselves in resisting the sharpened by the scenes he had witnessed in his youth, supply; a proceeding of fatal example, as the son and enabled him to “ nose out,” as he called it, and to read successor of James afterwards found to his bitter expethe true meaning of the threats contained in a letter from rience, and which Lord Coke justly describes as the greatone of the conspirators, after it had eluded the sagacity est violence ever done to the constitution by an Engbsi . f of his wisest counsellors. The common danger which the monarch. In 1617 the king revisited Scotland, wdth the design ot king and the parliament had escaped kept them for a time in good humour with each other ; and a supply of L.400,000 establishing Episcopacy in that kingdom. He did no, was voted by the Commons to relieve the king from the however, propose to abolish Presbytery entirely, and se embarrassments in which his thoughtless profusion had up Episcopacy in its room. He meant to content himse involved him, and to enable him to give a suitable recep- with establishing the royal authority above the eccle-1 siastical, and introducing some ceremonies into the pu tion to his brother-in-law, the king of Denmark. But the most important subject of discussion which oc- worship, such as kneeling at the sacrament, private com cupied the attention of this first parliament was a pro- munion, private baptism, confirmation of children, the o ject for incorporating the kingdoms whose crowns were servance of Christmas, and the like. But as his desig already united on the head of James. A motion to this .was fully seen through from the beginning, every advanc effect was made by Sir Francis Bacon, the king’s solicitor, towards Episcopacy produced the greatest discon en > who supported it with all the ability, ingenuity, and elo- and the ceremonies in question were rejected as so ma y quence for which he was so greatly distinguished; maintain- mortal sins.

BRITAIN. 305 Ueif of At this time the power of the Scotch clergy was ex- ment. Imagining that it would be easy to infuse cheer- Reign of Jam I. ceedingly great; and the severe spirit with which they fulness into the spirit of devotion which then prevailed, Janies I. ^ were actuated prompted them to exercise it in a manner he issued a proclamation to allow and encourage, after little calculated to operate in the way of conciliation. divine service, all kinds of lawful games and exercises. Every ecclesiastical court possessed the power of excom- But this proclamation was regarded by his subjects as an munication, which was then attended with serious tem- instance of the utmost profaneness and impiety. In 1620 poral effects, to say nothing of the spiritual consequences a bill was brought in by the Commons for the more strict which were supposed to flow from it. The person excom- observance of the Sunday, which they called the Sabbath. municated was shunned by every one as profane and im- One Shepherd opposed this bill, objecting to the appellapious; and his whole estate during his life-time, with all tion of Sabbath, as puritanical, and justifying indulgence r his movables for ever, were forfeited to the crown. A in sports and amusements on that day. For this he w as expelled the house on the motion of Mr Pym ; and in the sentence of excommunication might be pronounced in a summary manner, even by an inferior ecclesiastical court, sentence pronounced agains-t him his offence is described against a person, whether he lived within the bounds of as “ great, exorbitant, and unparalleled.” The men of that their jurisdiction or not; and as its effects were in every day were in earnest, and seldom did things by halves. From this sketch, imperfect as it necessarily is, a toleinstance the same, the power which the clergy thus exercised was truly formidable. But they were not satisfied rable idea may be formed of the situation of affairs during with this unbounded authority in ecclesiastical matters; the reign of James I., as well as of the character and dethey assumed a censorial power over every part of the admi- signs of that weak, wavering, and on the whole mischievous nistration ; and, mingling politics with religion in their ser- prince. It now becomes our duty to proceed to the more mons, and even in their prayers, they inculcated principles proper business of the present article, and to give some which were accounted alike turbulent and seditious. But account of the remarkable transactions of this period. however much we may revolt at this intermixture of saThe first thing of any consequence was a conspiracy cred and secular things, there was something in the spirit formed, or alleged to have been formed, in the year of the and circumstances of the time which went far to justify king’s accession to the throne, to displace him, and beit. The pulpit was then the only place whence the people stow the kingdom on Arabella Stuart, a near relation of could derive instruction, and their sole teachers and guides his own, and equally descended from Henry VII. Every were the clergy. No public press as yet existed. Books thing regarding this pretended conspiracy, except that were few and expensive, appearing at distant intervals, and some such plot was favoured by one or two priests, remains wholly inaccessible to the mass of the people. Journals nearly in its original obscurity. What renders it remarkwere wholly unknown. In such circumstances the clergy able, however, is the concern Sir Walter Raleigh was said naturally became the political as well as the religious in- to have in it. For this he was tried, condemned without structors of the people; the defenders of their civil rights proof, suffered thirteen years’ imprisonment in the Tower, as well as the guardians of public morals, and of the purity and was at length executed out of complaisance to the of ecclesiastical discipline. Spaniards. The execution of this distinguished man is That a monarch like James should have hated an order one of the most unjustifiable acts of James’s reign. It is of men whom he could neither intimidate by his power certainly possible, as Hume has asserted, that Raleigh may nor cajole by his flatteries, is most natural. But this have made the pretended gold mine in Guiana a cloak for forms a poor justification for the faithless and hypocritical his real design of plundering the Spanish settlements; but course he pursued; whilst his maxim of “ No bishop, no if the fact admitted of as easy proof as has been alleged, king,” shows that his understanding was as confined as Raleigh ought to have been punished on that account, his character was mean and grovelling. He began his and on no other. It has been conceded, however, that attack upon Presbytery by discontinuing the General an English jury would not have returned a verdict of Assembly, and banishing those clergymen who had the guilty against him 5 and if so, the sacrifice of the bravest spirit to remonstrate. He procured a decree restoring living commander, at the instigation of a foreign power, thirteen bishoprics ; and, at a packed meeting of the sub- was equally detestable in itself and derogatory to the digservient part of the Scottish clergy, the holders of these nity and independence of the country. unenviable preferments were appointed perpetual modeAllusion having been already made to the Gunpowder rators within their presbyteries. And to complete the treason, discovered in 1605, the origin and circumstances degradation of the people, a high commission was given of that desperate plot shall now be detailed. On the acto the ^ prelates, conferring upon them inquisitorial and cession of James, great expectations had been formed by discretionary powers of citing and punishing for religious the Catholics that he would prove favourable to them; opinions, laymen as well as clergymen. But this tyran- and it is even pretended that he had entered into a positive nical and iniquitous project utterly failed. James aimed engagement to grant them toleration as soon as he should at nothing less than subverting the established religion of mount the throne of England. But their hopes were built the country, and he was unable to introduce a single cere- on an insecure foundation. James on all occasions exmony borrowed from Episcopacy, Not a rag of the sur- pressed his intention of executing strictly the laws enactplice would the stern Presbyterians of that age consent ed against them, and of persevering in the rigorous meato tolerate. Enough, however, was done to envenom the sures of Queen Elizabeth. A scheme of revenge was first hatred of the people, and to treasure up vengeance against thought of by one Catesby, a man of good parts and anthe coming day of retribution. James, it has been truly cient family, who communicated his design to Percy, a said, was one of those kings whom God seems to send for descendant of the house of Northumberland. The latter tie expr^s purpose of hastening revolutions. proposed to assassinate the king. But Catesby deemed JNor was he in any degree more successful in the oppo- this quite inadequate to the purpose, inasmuch as the sition which he attempted to the puritanical innovations in king would be succeeded by his children, who would also ngland. He had observed, in his progress through that inherit his maxims of government; and even if the whole kingdom, that a rigid, or, as some called it, Judaical observ-’ royal family were destroyed, the parliament, nobility, and ance °‘ the Sabbath gained ground every day ; and that by gentry, who were all infected with the same heresy, ns means the people were debarred from such sports and would raise another Protestant prince to the throne. “ To iccreations as contributed to their health as well as amuse- serve any good purpose,” said he, “ we must destroy, at vol. v.

BRITAIN. 306 lleign of one blow, the king, the royal family, the lords and com- may expect the event in safety. For though there be no Reign oi James I. m0ns, and bury all our enemies in one common ruin- appearance of any stir; yet, I say, they shall receive a James I, terrible blow this parliament, and yet they shall not see Happily they are all assembled on the first meeting o hurts them. This counsel is not to be contemned, parliament, and afford us the opportunity of glorious and who because it may do you good, and can do you no harm ; useful vengeance. Great preparations will not be requi- for the danger is over as soon as you have burned this site. A few of us may run a mine below the hall in which letter. And I hope God will give you the grace to make they meet; and choosing the very moment when the king good use of it, to whose holy protection I commend you.” harangues both the houses, consign over to^ destruction Though Lord Monteagle imagined this letter to be only the determined foes to all piety and religion. a ridiculous artifice to frighten him, he carried it to Lord This comprehensive scheme being approved ot, A was Salisbury, secretary of state ; and the latter laid it before resolved to communicate it to a few more. Ihomas Wm- the king on his arrival in town a few days after. His mater was sent over to Flanders in quest of Fawkes, an om- jesty looked upon it in a much more serious light than the cer in the Spanish service, of approved zeal and courage. young nobleman to whom it had been addressed. From All the conspirators were bound by the most solemn oaths, the peculiar manner in which it was expressed, he conaccompanied with the sacrament; and to such a degree cluded that some design had been formed to blow up the had superstition hardened their minds, that not one ot Parliament House with gunpowder; and it was thought them entertained the smallest compunction for the cruel advisable to search the vaults underneath. destruction they were preparing to commit. Some inThe lord chamberlain, to whom this charge belonged, deed were startled at the thoughts of destroying a num- purposely delayed the search till the day before the meetber of Catholics who must necessarily be present as spec- ing of parliament. He remarked the great piles of wood^ tators, or attendants on the king, or as having seats m and faggots which lay in the vault under the House of the House of Peers; but Desmond a Jesuit, and Garnet, Lords ; and easting his eye upon Fawkes, who stood in a superior of that order in England, removed these scruples, corner and passed himself for Percy s servant, he could by showing that the interest of religion requited in this not help noticing the daring and determined courage concase the sacrifice of the innocent with the guilty. This happened in the spring and summer of 1604, about spicuous in his face, and which so much distinguished this which time the conspirators hired a house in Percy’s man even amongst the other conspirators. As Percy lived name, adjoining that in which the parliament was to meet. little in town, so large a quantity of fuel appeared someTowards the end of the year they began to pierce through what extraordinary; suspicions were thus excited; and, the wall of the house, in order to get in below that where upon comparing all circumstances, it was resolved to make further search. About midnight, Sir Thomas Knevet, the parliament was to assemble. 1 he wall being about aa justice peace, was sent with proper attendants; and three yards thick, occasioned a great deal of labour ; but its meeting of Fawkes, wdio had just finished all his prepadensity yielded to perseverance, and they at length approached the other side, when they were startled b;y a rations, before the door of the vault, Sir I homas immenoise for which they could not well account. Upon in- diately seized him, and, turning over the faggots, discoquiry, they found that it proceeded from a vault below vered the gunpowder. The matches and every thing piothe House of Lords; that a magazine of coals had been per for setting fire to the train were found in the pocket kept there; and that the coals were then selling off, after of Fawkes, who seeing now no refuge except in boldness which the vault would be let to the highest bidder. Upon and despair, expressed the utmost regret that he had missed this the vault was immediately hired by Percy, and thirty- the opportunity of firing the powder at once, and of sweetsix barrels of gunpowder lodged in it; the whole being ening his own death by that of his enemies. _ For several covered up with faggots and billets, the doors of the cel- days he displayed the same obstinate intrepidity; but on lars boldly flung open, and every body admitted as if it being shut up in the Tower, and the rack exhibited to him, his resolution at last failed, and he made a full discovery. contained nothing dangerous. Catesby, Percy, and the other conspirators, on learning Considering themselves as now certain of success, the conspirators began to arrange the remaining part of their that Fawkes was arrested, hurried to Warwickshire, where enterprise. The king, the queen, and Prince Henry, were Sir Edward Digby, imagining that his confederates had expected to be present at the opening of the parliament. succeeded, was already in arms to seize the Princess EliBut as the duke, by reason of his tender age, would be zabeth. But she had escaped into Coventry; and they absent, it was resolved that Percy should seize or murder were obliged to put themselves in a posture of defence him. The Princess Elizabeth, likewise a child, being against the country people, who w'ere raised in all quarkept at Lord Harrington’s house in Warwickshire, some ters and armed by the sheriffs. The conspirators, wit i others of the conspirators engaged to assemble their friends their attendants, never exceeded eighty in number, an on pretence of a hunting match, to seize the person of being surrounded on every side, could no longer op that princess, and immediately proclaim her queen. The either to prevail or escape. Haying therefore confesse day so long wished for at last approached. The dread- themselves, and received absolution, they boldly piepare ful secret, though communicated to more than twenty for death, and resolved to sell their lives as dear as po persons, had been religiously kept for near a year and a sible. But even this miserable consolation was denieu half; and nothing could be foreseen calculated to prevent them. Some of their powder catching fire, exploded, an the success of their design. Ten days before the meeting disabled them from defending themselves. The peop of parliament, however, Lord Monteagle, a Catholic, son then rushed in upon them. Percy and Catesby were i of Lord Morley, received the following letter, which had by one shot. Digby, llookwood, Winter, and others, be g merit, nriannprs. were wprp tried, tripd. confessed their guilt, an and 1 ’ made prisoners, been delivered to his servant by an unknown hand. “ My Lord, out of the love I bear to some of your as well as Garnet, by the hands of the common ^ friends, I have a care for your preservation. Therefore I tioner. The Lords Stourton and Mordaunt, two C atm)’ > would advise you, as you tender your life, to devise some were fined by the Star Chamber, the former mr0LAW mP excuse to shift off your attendance on this parliament. the latter in L.10,000, because their absence t . . nre For God and man have determined to punish the wicked- liament had occasioned a suspicion of their acquain a ness of this time. And think not slightly of this adver- with the conspiracy. The Earl of Northumberlan tisement ; but retire yourself into the country, where you fined in L.30,000, and detained several years a prisoner

BRITAIN. 307 Rei; of the Tower, by reason of his having admitted Percy into whose opposition he foresaw, accepted the offer, and Iteign of Jain I. the number of gentlemen-pensioners without taking the marched into Bohemia in support of his new subjects. James IBut the affairs of the new king soon came to a crisis. ^ requisite oaths. James’s attempts to civilize the barbarous inhabitants Frederic, defeated in the decisive battle of Prague, fled of Ireland, and to render their subjection durable and with his family into Holland; whilst Spinola the Spanish useful to the crown of England, were more honourable general invaded the palatinate, where, meeting with little in the design than successful in the execution. He be- resistance, except from onfi body of 2400 Englishmen gan by abolishing the ancient Irish customs which sup- commanded by Sir Horace Vere, he quickly reduced the plied the place of laws, and were exceedingly barbarous whole principality. The ban of the empire was published and absurd. By the Brehon law, every crime, however against the unfortunate elector in 1621; the upper palaenormous, was punished only by fine. Murder itself was tinate was in a little time conquered by the elector of compensated in this way. Every one bad a value affixed Bavaria, to whom the execution of the decree of the diet to him, called his eric ; and he who was able to pay this, had been committed; Frederic was obliged to live with his might kill whomsoever he pleased. As for such slight of- numerous family in poverty and distress, either in Holfences as oppression, extortion, or other things of that land or at Sedan ; and the new conquests of the Catholics nature, no penalty was affixed to them, nor could any re- throughout Germany were attended with persecutions dress be obtained for them. The custom of gavelkind, by against the Protestants. which, upon the death of any person, his land was divided By this intelligence the religious zeal of the English amongst all the males of the sept or family, both bastard was inflamed to the highest pitch. The sufferings of their and legitimate, also operated as a powerful preventive to Protestant brethren in Germany excited universal symimprovement, and commenced that incessant subdivision pathy, whilst the neutrality and inactivity of James were of the soil, the bitter consequences of which we have liv- loudly exclaimed against. But although the king might ed to witness. Having abolished these customs, James have defended his pacific measures by plausible argusubstituted English law in their stead, and taking the na- ments, some of his motives were the most ridiculous that tives under his protection, he declared them free citizens, can be conceived. In a spirit of pedantic self-conceit, he and proceeded to govern them by a regular administration, fancied himself capable of disarming hostile nations by military as well as civil. But other measures of a more dint of argument; and believed that the power of Austria, doubtful character followed. As the Irish had been en- though not awed by that of England, would submit to his gaged in rebellion against Elizabeth, a renunciation of all arbitration merely out of respect to his virtue and moderights formerly granted them to separate jurisdictions was ration. Wedded to his notions concerning the prerogarigorously exacted; a resignation of private estates was tive of kings, he also imagined, that wherever a conteneven required; and when these were restored, the pro- tion arose between any sovereign and his subjects, the prietors received them back under such conditions as latter must necessarily be in the wrong; and for this reaseemed calculated to prevent all future oppression of the son he from the first denied his son-in-law the title of common people. Meanwhile a company was established king of Bohemia, and forbade him to be prayed for in the in London for planting new colonies in the province of churches under that appellation. Besides, Jarpes was on Ulster, which had fallen to the crown by the attainder of other accounts extremely averse to a rupture with Spain. rebels. The property was divided into moderate shares, He had entertained an opinion peculiar to himself, that the largest not exceeding 2000 acres; tenants were any alliance below that of a king was unworthy a prince brought over from England and Scotland; the Irish were of Wales; and he never would allow any princess except removed from the hills and fastnesses, and settled in the a daughter of France or of Spain to be mentioned as a open country; husbandry and the arts were taught them ; match for his son. This pitiful folly gave Spain an opand Ulster, from being the most wild and disorderly pro- portunity of managing the English monarch in his most vince in Ireland, became in time the best cultivated and important concern^. With a view of engaging him to obmost civilized. serve neutrality in regard to the succession of Cleves, the On the 6th of November this year Henry prince of Wales elder daughter of the king of Spain had been indirectly died suddenly, not without strong suspicions of poison. offered during the life of Prince Henry. The bait, howOn opening his body, however, no symptoms of the kind ap- ever, did not then take ; and James, in consequence of his peared ; but his death diffused a universal grief through- alliance with the Dutch, sent 4000 men to the assistance out the nation, as he was reckoned a prince of extraordi- of the Protestants, by which means the succession was nary accomplishments and high promise. But the mar- secured to the Protestant line. In 1618, Gondomar offerriage of the Princess Elizabeth with Frederic, elector ed the king of Spain’s second daughter to Prince Charles; palatine, which was celebrated in February 1613, served and, to render the temptation irresistible to so necessitous to dissipate the grief caused by Prince Henry’s death. a prince as James, he gave hopes of an immense dowry with This marriage, however, proved unfortunate both with the Infanta. On this match James built great hopes, not respect to the king and to his son-in-law; for the elector, only of relieving bis own necessities, but of recovering tiusting to so great an alliance, engaged in enterprises be- the palatinate for his son-in-law; at least the public were yond his means; and James, unable, and perhaps also un- taught to believe that the recovery of the palatinate was willing, to assist him in his distress, lost his last hold on one of the king’s chief motives for entertaining the prothe affections of his people. ject of such a marriage. These bad consequences did not begin to appear till the But the Commons viewed the matter in a very different year 1619. At that time the states of Bohemia, having light; and this, joined to other parts of the king’s conduct, ta en arms in defence of the Protestant religion, and per- blew into a flame the contention which had long subsisted severed in the contest notwithstanding the preparations of between them. On the 14th of November 1621, the Come emperor to crush them, made an offer of their crown framed a remonstrance, which they intended to carry o t le elector palatine, induced doubtless by his connec- mons to the king, representing that the enormous growth of the W1 lo.n ^ ^e king of England, and his relationship to Austrian powder threatened the liberties of Europe; that nnce Maurice, whose authority in the United Provinces the progress of the Catholic religion in England bred the was nearly absolute. Stimulated by ambition, the young most melancholy apprehensions ; that the indulgence of pa a me, without consulting either James or Maurice, his majesty towards the professors of that religion had

BRITAIN. 308 he would prohibit in future the execution of the penal Reign of Heign of encouraged their insolence and temerity; that the un- laws against them. This conduct, generous had it pro- Jama I. James I. controlled conquests made by the Austrian family in tuerceeded from genuine principles of toleration, he was oh- WTV many raiSed mighty expectations in the English Catholiged to justify on the hollow pretence that it was done in lics ; and particularly that the proposed Spanish match order to procure from foreign princes a corresponding inhad led them to hope for the entire toleration, if not final dulgence for the Protestants ; the severity of the English re-establishment, of their religion. They therefore entreat- laws against Catholics having, it was alleged, been urged ed his maiesty to undertake the defence of the palatinate, as a reason against showing any favour to Protestants reand maintain it by force of arms ; to turn his sword against siding in Catholic kingdoms. Spain, whose armies and treasures were the chief suppoit Armed with these concessions, which were but ill reof the Catholic interest in Europe; to enter into ne- lished at home, Digby, earl of Bristol, was sent as amgotiation for the marriage of his son except with a 1 ro- bassador to the court of Spain ; and one Gage was secrettestant princess; to cause the children of 1 opish recu- ly dispatched as an agent to Rome. After amusing him sants to be taken from their parents and committed to so long with false hopes, the court of Spain seemed at the care of Protestant teachers and schoolmasters ; and last sincere in the projected marriage. Lord Bristol himto exact with the utmost severity the fines and conhsca- self, although he had formerly opposed the Spanish match, tions to which the Catholics by law were liable. 1 rotes- now came to be of this opinion, and considered the protants had not yet learnt toleration m the school of adver- posed marriage as an infallible prognostic of the palasity. The king was then at Newmarket; but hearing of tine’s restoration ; nor, indeed, was it easy to conjecture the intended remonstrance, he wrote a letter to the Speak- why Philip should be ready to bestow the Infanta with a er, sharply rebuking the House for debating on matters dowry of L.600,000 sterling on a prince whose demands far above their reach and capacity, and strictly forbid- he meant to refuse at the hazard of a war, unless we supding them to meddle with any thing that regarded his government, or deep matters of state, and especially not pose that he reckoned on the cowardice and imbecility the English monarch’s character. to touch on his son’s marriage with the Spanish princess. of But the king exulted in his pacific counsels, and Upon this the Commons framed a new remonstrance, in boastedwhilst of his sagacity and penetration, all his which they asserted their right of debating on all matters prospects were superior blasted by the temerity of the worthless of government, and claimed entire freedom of speech m who governed both court and nation with almost their debates. The king replied, that their remonstrance favourite unlimited sway. This was Villiers, duke of Buckingham, was more like a denunciation of war than an address of who had succeeded Somerset in the capricious affections dutiful subjects; that their pretension to inquire into all James, and had risen from the rank of cupbearer to a state affairs without exception, was such a plenipotence of dukedom and the highest honours of the state. Ihoug as none of their ancestors, even during the reign of the possessed of some accomplishments as a courtier, he was weakest princes, had ever pretended to; that they could not better show their wisdom, as well as duty, than by utterly devoid of the talent necessary to a minister; and keeping within their proper sphere; and that in any af- at once partook of the insolence which attends a foitune fair which depended on his prerogative, they had no title newly acquired, and the impetuosity which belongs to born in high stations, and unacquainted with opto interpose with their advice, unless when he pleased to persons position. Amongst those who had experienced the arroask it. The Commons in return framed the protestation already mentioned, which the king tore out of theii joui- gance of this overgrown favourite, was the Prince of W ales nals, and soon after dissolved the parliament. Of the himself; and a coldness, if not enmity, had in consequence between them. Desirous of putting an end to this leading members of the house, Sir Edward Coke and Sir arisen Robert Phillips were committed to the Tower, and Sel- misunderstanding, and at the same time envious of the den, Pym, and Mallory, to other prisons; while, as a great reputation of the Earl of Bristol, Buckingham per* lighter punishment, some others were sent into Ireland to suaded the prince to undertake a journey to Madrid. execute the king’s commands in that country. A moie This, he said, considered as an unexpected piece of gallanjudicious course was followed with Sir John Saville, who try, would equal all the fictions of Spanish romance; and, was made comptroller of the household, a privy counsel- suiting the chivalrous and enterprising character of that nation, would immediately introduce him to the princess lor, and soon after a baron. This open breach between the king and the parliament under the agreeable character of a devoted and adventusoon rendered politics a general subject of. discourse, rous suitor. Little persuasion was necessary to prevail every man began to indulge himself in reasonings and in- with Charles to undertake the journey ; and the impetuoquiries concerning matters of state ; and the parties which sity of the favourite having extorted a consent from James, arose in parliament were speedily propagated throughout the prince and Buckingham (or “ Baby Charles an the nation. In vain did James, by reiterated proclama- “ Steenie,” as the king ridiculously called his son and ms tions, forbid discourses of this kind. These, if they had minion) set out as knight-errant and squire. They traany effect at all, served rather to inflame than allay the velled through France in disguise, under the assume curiosity of the public. In every company or society the names of Jack and iom Smith. At a ball in Paris, transactions just mentioned became the subject of argu- prince first saw the Princess Henrietta, whom he afterment and debate ; some taking the side of monarchy, and wards married. She was then in the bloom of youth ana others that of liberty. And this was the real origin of the beauty, and the novelists of the time say that the prince . , two parties since known by the names of Whiys and Toxics* fell in love with her on this occasion. On their arrival at Madrid, every body was sin prise During five years James continued the dupe of the court of Spain. Firmly resolved to contract no alliance with a by a step so little usual among great princes. The Spanis^ heretic, the king of Spain continued to procrastinate and monarch made Charles a visit, expressed the utmost gr invent one excuse after another; pretending all along a titude for the confidence reposed in him, and made war willingness to conclude the match, though no step had as protestations of a corresponding confidence and friends npyet been taken for obtaining a dispensation from the pope. He gave Charles a golden key which opened all ms apa ■ To pave the way for bringing the matter to a close, James ments, that the prince might, without any formality, 0 issued public orders for discharging all popish recusants access to him at all hours; and heaped upon him who were imprisoned ; and it was daily apprehended that marks of distinction and favour if possible still more

BRITAIN. 309 promise, by which he bound himself to procure the restoReign of lle^i of tering. The Infanta, however, was only shown to her Jaiis I. lover in public ; the Spanish ideas of propriety being too ration of the palatinate either by persuasion or by every James I. strict to allow any further intercourse till the arrival of other possible means. When he found that this concesthe dispensation. Meanwhile no attempt was made by sion gave no satisfaction, he ordered the Infanta to lay the Spaniards to profit by the circumstance of having the aside the title of Princess of Wales, which she had borne prince of Wales in their power, in order to impose any after the arrival of the dispensation from Rome, and to drop harder conditions of treaty. Their Catholic zeal, indeed, the study of the English language ; and as he foresaw prompted them on one occasion to seek more concessions that the rash counsels which now governed the court of in the religious articles ; but, on the opposition of Bristol, England would not stop short at the breach of the marthey immediately desisted. The pope, however, hearing riage-treaty, he immediately ordered preparations for war of Charles’s arrival in Madrid, tacked some new clauses to be made throughout all his dominions. A match for Prince Charles was soon afterwards negoto the dispensation; and it became necessary to transmit the articles to London for the king’s ratification. This ciated with Henrietta, daughter of Henry IV., and this treaty, which was made public, consisted of several ar- met with much better success than that with the Infanta. ticles, chiefly regarding the exercise of the Ca'tholic reli- But the king had not the same inducements to prosecute gion by the Infanta ; and of these, the only one that could this match as the former one, the portion promised being reasonably be found fault with, was that in which the king much smaller; yet willing that his son should not be alconsented that the children of the marriage should be together disappointed of a bride, and the king of France educated by the princess till they were ten years of age. demanding only the same terms which had been offered to But besides this public treaty, there were some private the court of Spain, James thought proper to comply. In articles, which stipulated for a suspension of the penal laws an article of this treaty of marriage, it was stipulated that against the English Catholics in the first instance, together the education of the children till the age of thirteen with a toleration for the exercise of the Roman Catholic should belong to the mother; and this probably gave that religion in private houses, and, next, a repeal of these laws turn towards popery which afterwards proved the ruin of by parliament. Meanwhile Gregory XV. who had granted the unfortunate house of Stuart. the dispensation, died ; and Urban VIII. was chosen as Being now deprived of every other hope of relieving his his successor. Upon this the nuncio refused to deliver son-in-law, except by force of arms, James declared war the dispensation till the pleasure of the new pope should against Spain and the emperor, for the recovery of the palabe known concerning it. But the crafty pontiff delayed tinate; and six thousand men were sent over into Holhis confirmation, in hopes that, during the prince’s resi- land to assist Prince Maurice in his schemes against those dence in Spain, some expedient might be fallen upon to powers. The people were everywhere elated at the course effect his conversion. The king of England, as well as his which events had taken ; and so popular was the idea of a son, became impatient; but, on the first hint, Charles ob- Spanish war, and so great the joy at the rupture of the protained leave to return, and Philip graced bis departure jected Catholic alliance, that Buckingham became for the with the same marks of civility and respect which had sig- time a favourite of the people, and was hailed even by Sir nalised his arrival. Edward Coke as the saviour of the nation. The reinforceThe modest, reserved, and highly dignified behaviour of ment sent to Prince Maurice was followed by another conCharles, together with the confidence he had reposed in sisting of twelve thousand men, commanded by Count the Spanish nation, and the romantic gallantry he had Mansfeldt; and the court of France promised its assistance. practised in regard to their princess, endeared him to the But the English were disappointed in all their views. The whole court of Madrid. But in the same proportion that troops embarked at Dover found, on arriving at Calais, that Charles was beloved and esteemed, Buckingham was de- no orders had arrived for their admission into that place, spised and hated. His sallies of passion, his indecent free- much less for affording them a passage through France, as doms with the prince, his dissolute pleasures, and his ar- had been promised ; and after waiting some time, they were rogant, impetuous temper, which he either could not or obliged to sail towards Zealand, where proper measures would not restrain, rendered him an object of undisguised had not as yet been taken for their disembarkation. Meanaversion to the Spaniards. Buckingham, on the other hand, while a pestilential disorder crept in amongst them; half sensible how odious he had become to the Spaniards, and their number died while on board, and the other half, dreading the influence which that nation would naturally weakened by sickness, was insufficient to march into the acquire after the arrival of the Infanta, employed all his palatinate; and thus ended this ill-concerted and fruitless influence to prevent the marriage. What arguments he expedition. Whether its unfortunate result had any effect used to prevail with the prince to offer so gross an insult on the king’s health is uncertain; but he was soon after to the Spanish nation, from whom he had received the seized with a tertian ague, which put an end to his life on most generous treatment, or what colours he employed to the 27th of March 1625, after having lived fifty-nine years, disguise the ingratitude and imprudence of such a mea- and reigned over England twenty-two, and over Scotland sure, are totally unknown. Certain it is, however, that almost as long as he had lived. when the prince left Madrid, he was firmly determined, James, the son of Queen Mary and of Lord Darnley, in opposition to his most solemn promises, to break off the handsomest couple of their age, was lumpish, not to the treaty with Spain. Accordingly, on their arrival at say deformed, in his person, vulgar in his air, and unLondon, the prince and Buckingham assumed the entire gainly in his manners. He had an awkward figure, a direction of the negociation ; and it was not difficult to rolling eye, a ricketty sidelong walk, nervous tremblings, find pretences under which to mask the breach of treaty a slobbering mouth, and a boyishness of manner which "Inch had been secretly resolved on. After employing formed a ludicrous contrast with the airs of dignity and many fruitless artifices to delay or prevent the espousals, regal state which he was constantly labouring to assume. Bristol received positive instructions not to deliver the These imperfections, it is true, might have been found in proxy which had been left in his hands, nor to conclude the best and greatest man ; and it is seldom indeed that t e marriage until security was given for the full restitu- nature is equally lavish in physical and mental endowtion of the palatinate. Philip understood this language; ments. But, in this king, the ungainliness of his outward ut, determined to throw the whole blame of the rupture man was not redeemed by intellectual or moral qualities on the English, he delivered into Bristol’s hand a wrritten calculated to insure admiration or regard. He possessed

BRIT A I N. Petition of Right Duplicity of Charles—Royal assent at Reign c Reign of some learning, indeed, and, within a narrow circle, exhilength given to the Bill—Assassination of Buckingham—Ton- Charles nage and poundage Parliament dissolved—Peace concluded Charles I. bited considerable ingenuity of speculation on subjects with France and Spain—Archbishop Laud—Religious Innovaconnected with government and morals. But his undertions New Ministry Strafford—Arbitrary measures of the standing was deficient alike in depth and in soundness; Kino- John Hampden prosecuted for the payment of shiphis principles were loose, vague, and undefined; his premoney Particulars of this memorable case—Hampden, Cromjudices ridiculously gross; his credulity boundless; and well, and other Puritans prevented from emigrating to North his conceit only to be matched by his pedantry and imbeAmerica Attempt to introduce Episcopacy into Scotland— The Covenant King tries to soothe the Covenanters—Assemcility. As a king he was perhaps the most extraordmaiy bly at Glasgow.—Episcopacy abolished—War.—Peace.—A\ar phenomenon that history has ever presented to the wonagain declared A Parliament called and dissolved—Pecuniary der of mankind. What policy would have induced wise distresses of the King Royalists defeated at Newburn.— tyrants to conceal, James was continually obtruding on all Treaty of Rippon Meeting of Parliament.—Impeachment, who had the patience to listen to him. His despotic theotrial, and execution of Strafford.—Injustice of this proceeding. Parliament rendered perpetual—Imprisonment of Laud— ries of government, and his pretensions to arbitrary power, Delinquency Charles’s visit to Scotland—His concessions and were continually in his mouth; and whilst he had not a promotions The Incident—Rebellion and Massacre of the regiment of guards to enforce his doctrines, he talked Protestants in Ireland Reasons for attaching suspicion to the with more confidence than Hadrian would have judged it King Proceedings of the English Parliament—Acrimonious wise to assume when at the head of eighty legions and the remonstrance of the Commons.— 1 heir violent proceedings. master of the Roman world. In practice, however, no Roundheads and Cavaliers—The Bishops retire from the House of Lords Impeachment, by the King’s order, of six members monarch ever held his prerogatives with less tenacity. of Parliament.—He goes in person to seize them.—Consequen« jje neither gave way gracefully to the advancing spirit ces of this rash act Proffered concessions unavailing—Comof liberty, nor took vigorous measures to stop it, but remons demand the surrender of the executive power of the state. treated before it with ludicrous haste, blustering and in—Refused by the King War between the King and Parhasulting as he retreated.” Whatever might have been the ment. frailties, vices, or crimes of former kings of England, they had all possessed great force of character, and, whether Charles I. succeeded to the same favourite, the same loved or hated, they had always been feared. James, on ministers, and the same council, which his father had posthe contrary, was only despised; and even his spoiled sessed, to say nothing of the same pecuniary distress; and, minion Buckingham made no scruple to laugh outright unhappily, he also inherited the same principles of governin the face of his “ dear dad and gossip.” Nor did the ment. But in other respects he bore no resemblance to follies and vices of the man tend in any degree to lessen his sire. “ He was neither a driveller nor a pedant, a bufthe contempt produced by the feeble and wavering policy foon nor a coward. Even in the judgment of his enemies of the sovereign. The indecent gallantries of the com t, he was a scholar and a gentleman, a man of exquisite taste and the habits of gross intoxication which even the females indulged, were viewed with loathing and disgust by in the fine arts, and of strict morals in private life. His a people whose manners were beginning to be tinctured talents for business were respectable, and his demeanour by a more than stoical severity. But there were shades was grave, dignified, and kingly. But he was false, imstill darker and deeper than these. “ Crimes of the most perious, obstinate, narrow-minded, ignorant of the temper frightful kind had been discovered; others were suspect- of his people, and unobservant of the signs of the times. ed. The strange story of the Cowries was not forgotten. The main principle of his government was resistance to The ignominious fondness of the king for his minions,- ■ public opinion; and hence his concessions were delayed the perjuries, the sorceries, the poisonings, which his chief till it mattered not whether he resisted or yielded, till the favourites had planned within the walls of his palace,—— nation, which had long ceased to love or to trust him, had the pardon which, in direct violation of his duty and of his at last ceased also to fear him.” (Edinb. Rev. vol. hv. word, he had granted to the mysterious threat of a mur- p. 515.) At the same time his accession to the throne derer,—made him an object of loathing to many of his was greeted with favour, and even hailed as auspicious subjects.”1 In a word, nature and education seem to have by the nation, which had been wearied and sickened by done their best to make James a finished specimen of all the pedantic and presumptuous incapacity of his father. Nothing is more easy than for princes to gain golden that a king ought not to be. opinions; nothing more difficult than to rule with wisdom and moderation in those great crises when the naCHAP. III. tional mind becomes agitated by a new spirit, and when the old frame of government must either accommodate REIGN OF CHARLES I. itself to the advancing state of society, or be dashed in Accession of Charles I—His character as contrasted with that of pieces by a rude collision with a new and resistless force. his father First Parliament—Their niggard supply—Dis- Pleased with his temporary popularity, obtained partly solved New Parliament—Impeachment of Buckingham— by the rupture with Spain, and also in want of money for Arbitrary proceedings of the King—Disputes—Dissolution.^— carrying on his government, Charles resolved to cal to Ship-money.—Forced loan resisted—Remarkable trial.—War with France.—Buckingham’s Expedition.—Third Parliament. gether the great council of the nation ; and, according },

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1 Edinburgh Review, vol. liv. p. 512. “ The sovereign whom James most resembled,” says the very able writer of the art referred to, “ was, we think, Claudius Caesar. Both had the same feeble and vacillating temper, the same childishness, coarseness, the same poltroonery. Both were men of learning; both wrote and spoke—not, indeed, well, but still in a “ ude. which it seems almost incredible that men so foolish should have written or spoken. The follies and indecencies of Janies are 1 scribed in the words which Suetonius uses respecting Claudius ‘ Multa talia, etiam privatis deformia, necdum P™^ ’ JJ ;n facundo, neque indocto, immo etiam pertinaciter liberalibus, studiis dedito.’ The description given by Suetonius, .ot . fuit which the Roman prince transacted business, exactly suits the Briton. ‘ In cognoscendo ac decernendo mira vanetate ^ ^ modo circumspectus et sagax, modo inconsultus ac prseceps, nonnunquam frivolus amentique similis. Claudius was ruieos ^ by two bad women ; James successively by two bad men. Even the description of the person of Claudius which we P™, . re. cient memoirs might in many points serve for that of James. ‘ Ceterum et ingredientem destituebant poplites minus n m 4 misse quid vel serio agentem multa dehonestabant, risus indecens, via turpior, spumante nctu, praeterea linguae tibubanua.

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BRITAIN. jl of he issued writs for summoning a new parliament for the intolerant subjects, or in its consequences more fatal to £es I 7th of May 1625. But the arrival of the Princess Hen- himself, than this resolution. The Puritans, who had conrietta, whom he had espoused by proxy, obliged him to tinued to gain ground during the whole reign of James, delay, by repeated prorogations, their meeting till the 18th now formed the majority of the House of Commons. Peof June, when they assembled at Westminster for the dis- titions were consequently presented to the king for replapatch of business. cing such clergymen as had been silenced for want of conThe king’s discourse to the parliament was full of appa- formity to the ceremonies; and laws were enacted for the rent simplicity and cordiality. He mentioned cursorily strict observance of Sunday, which was sanctified with the the occasion he had for supply, but, it is said, employed most rigid and melancholy gloom. The inevitable result no means to influence the suffrages of the members. The of all this was the dismissal of the refractory parliament, officers of the crown, who had seats in the house, were which was dissolved on the 12th of August. not even allowed to specify the particular sum which he During this interval Charles had been obliged to borrow had occasion for; he trusted entirely to the wisdom and from his subjects on privy-seals and other expedients, by affection of his parliament. But the parliament, composed which means he was enabled, though with great difficulty, chiefly of Puritans, was not in a humour to be generous, to equip a fleet destined to act against Spain. But the or even just, in appreciating the king’s necessities. They force thus painfully fitted out performed nothing worthy knew that all the money formerly granted had been ex- of notice, and the ill success of the enterprise onfy served pended on military and naval preparations ; that great an- to increase the clamours against the court. ticipations were made on the revenues of the crown ; that Charles’s second parliament, which was speedily conthe king was loaded with a debt contracted by his father, voked, adopted substantially the same views as the first, who had borrowed money both from foreign princes and though without pushing their parsimony to such meanness. from his own subjects; that the public revenues could They voted a supply of three subsidies, amounting to with difficulty maintain the dignity of the crown, even un- L.l 68,000 and three fifteenths; but the passing of this vote der the ordinary charges of government; that the present into a law was reserved until the end of the session ; a war had been, in a great measure, the result of their own proceeding which was tantamount to a threat of withholdimportunate applications and entreaties; and that the na- ing it unless their demands were satisfied. Charles was tion was solemnly pledged to support their sovereign in greatly incensed at this conduct; but he found it prudent carrying it on. They could not be ignorant of the difficulty to submit, and to wait the event with patience. In the of military enterprises directed against the whole house of mean time the Commons attacked the Duke of BuckingAustria; against the king of Spain, possessed of the great- ham, who had become generally obnoxious; and he wras est riches and most extensive dominions of any prince in also impeached by the Earl of Bristol in the Lords, on acEurope; against the Emperor Ferdinand, hitherto the most count of his conduct in the Spanish negociation. But the fortunate monarch of the age, who had astonished Ger- earl’s impeachment was entirely overlooked, and the Commany by the rapidity of his victories. Yet, with all this mons taxed Buckingham with offences, such as adminisknowledge, and to answer all these important ends, the com- tering physic to the late king without consent of his phymons thought proper to vote a supply of only L.l 12,000. sicians^ from which he found little difficulty to exculpate The excuses wfliich have been made for this insulting par- himself. While under this impeachment, Buckingham simony are, the hatred of Buckingham, and the discovery was elected chancellor of the university of Cambridge, and that the war had been produced by his artifices and in- the king publicly thanked the university for their wise and trigues. But the validity of this apology may reasonably proper choice. This was keenly resented by the Combe disputed. If the war was judged impolitic or unneces- mons ; but when they loudly complained of the affront, sary, it became the duty of the Commons to address the the lord-keeper commanded them, in the king’s name, not king, praying him to abandon it. If it was neither the one to meddle with his minister and servant, but to finish in a nor the other, they ought not to have avenged themselves few days the bill they had begun for the subsidies, otherfor a trifling grievance by insulting the king and degrad- wise they must expect to sit no longer. And to strip this ing the country. imprudent menace of all disguise, Sir Dudley Carlton emThe parliament was adjourned for a few w'eeks in sum- phatically explained it by allusion to those monarchs in mer by reason of the plague, which had suddenly broken Christendom who, owing to the turbulence of their subout; but on their re-assembling at Oxford, the king re- jects, had been obliged to overthrow parliaments altogepresented, in the most explicit manner, the necessity there ther. Nor was this the whole, or even the worst. Adding was for a large supply, urging that this request was the injury to indignity, the king next ordered two members of first he had ever made them ; that he was young, and in the House of Commons, Sir John Eliot and Sir Dudley the commencement of his reign; and that if he now met Digges, the chief managers of the impeachment against with kind and dutiful usage, it would endear to him the the duke, to be thrown into prison, alleging as the reason use of parliaments, and for ever preserve an entire har- of this proceeding certain seditious expressions said to mony between him and his people. But the Commons have dropped from these members. Upon inquiry, howlemained inexorable, refusing even the addition of two ever, it appeared that no such expressions had been utterfteenths to the former supply. They renewed their com- ed ; and as the Commons refused to proceed with any busiP amts against the growth of popery; they demanded a ness until they received satisfaction in their privileges, the strict execution of the penal laws against the Catholics ; members were accordingly released, though with a very my remonstrated against some late pardons granted to bad grace. Soon after, the House of Lords, moved by the pnests; and they attacked Montague, one of the king’s example of the Commons, claimed liberty for the Earl of chaplains, on account of a book he had lately composed, Arundel, who had been lately confined in the Tower; and in which it was maintained that virtuous Catholics as well after many fruitless evasions the king was obliged, though as ot er Christians would be saved from eternal torments. ungraciously, to comply with their demand. iar es gave them a complaisant answer, but at the same somewhat next attack meditated by the Commons, if successime rmly resolved to abate somewhat of the rigorous ful,The would have proved decisive, and reduced the king to aws against that unfortunate party, which his engage- an absolute dependence on his parliament. They were en s with France absolutely required. No measure of a remonstrance against the levying of tonnage w mie reign, however, proved more obnoxious to his preparing and poundage without consent of the legislature. This

311 Iteign of Charles I. '—'

;

BRITAIN. 312 e ch 5 eommhmmt; the Special command of the king and lieigii of impost, together with six new ones laid on J [ “^ ® Charles I. by King James, constituted nearly me-Mf o^he crown tl.e^^ But u was alleged that, by '-vrevenues; and it was therefore of vital impo ta this was n„t sufficient reason for refusing bad or reking, situated as he ivas, to preserve it ent e, B leicement to the prisoners. The question was brought to there can be no doubt whatever that,Ifc inRs ow a so]emn trial before the Court of King’s Bench and the was an odious and oppressive tax. "a\ ‘ ta • tbis whoie kingdom was attentive to the issue of the cause, tion of the Commons, if they succeeded in ) . . B j debates on this subject, it appeared that personal point, to petition the king to remove Buckingham from h^ J gix different sta_ 8 presence and ^Ihe ctmons tu,^ “by an article in kgna Char,a itself. In times which was preparing for hl™’ 1626. The of turbulence and sedition, indeed, the princes had me by dissolving parliament, on the f deter. fringed upon these laws ; and of this several examples were House of Lords in vain interceded, ihe x S1 nroduced The difficulty then lay to determine when such mined on his course ; and when the Peers prayed hat the Jcessary, and of that the court preparliament might he allowed to continue its y tended to be supreme and only judge. As it was found replied in anger, “ Not a moment longer Jhe king and that the fiVe gentlemen should plead the Commons at their sepaiation published c II ^ statute, by which they might demand bail, so it was to the nation. ,' . „„ri- ^^nt deemed expedient by the court to remand them to prison, Charles having thus made a breach wi i P , without determining on the necessity of taking bail for the which there were no hopes of repairing, wasobhged o without deter ^ ^ ^ . andi as of have recourse to the naked exercise of his prerogat P . , , pvnpcted satisfied neither party. The court inorder to supply himself with money. Ajommissmn was m.g ^ ^ ^ yu]d be taken . the country exclaimed ^wltrt^^acled against them an expe- that.the prisoners ought to he set fre^^ ]^ assistance ; from the city of London he requiied a oan g formed an alliance ; a temerity bordering on L.100,000. The former contributed but slowly; the lat- hat .storians ao.ree that the French, like the ter, sheltering themselves under ^ war, was of Buckinlham’s creating; and the mocuses, gave at last a flat denial. To equip a ee , an apj j which ]ed t0 it would Appear incredible, if the vioportionment was made by order of the council among rwoflitracv and folly of that man’s character were the maritime towns, each of which was required, with t e ’ P yt ’he time ,Jhen Charles married, by proxy, assistance of the adjacent counties, to fui ms i Henrietta of France, Buckingham had appeared at Paris number of vessels or amount of shipping. F e the festivity, and, by his showy superficial acLondon was rated at twenty ships. And tms w, * g , . attracted the admiration of the Queen appearance, in the present reign of ^p-money; XLg conducted Henrietta safely on a a taxa- ® “P'f tion which had once been imposed by Elizabeth g i i he vvas preparing, doubtless in the spirit of F emergency, but which, revived and carried some steps far- to Eng^nd he was PrePa . when emb ther by Charles, produced the most violent discontents, disappointed lover of These summary methods of supply, howevei, were eni ’ caused a message to be sent him from France, ployed with some moderation, until the tidings arr i r • Vrp Virmnnr of his intended visit. Buckingham s S,e king of Denmark's defeat by Tilly, the imperial geneof passion, ral. Money then became more than ever necessary; and rages at tlmknew no bounds ana, in ^ I ^ J ^ the as the ways and means hitherto employed had notanswei- he '0'® p “ determined, if possible, to em- • He j ed expectation, it was suggested in council, as the most power of wit’h ^ yiew he pre. speedy, equal, and eftective means of obtaining a supp }, o r®1 Charfes to dismiss the queen’s French domesexact a general loan from the subject, rating every man ac- vailed with Chai^b^ t0 seize on those of cording as he was assessed in the rolls of the last subsidy tics, and encouraged the English ships to seize ^ The precise sum required was what each would have paid France. “ gr hich was t0 drive the French to a declarahad the vote of four subsidies passed into a law ; but it in their obj , this Buckingham persuaded the king was at the same time ostentatiously declared that the tion 0 • P » Huguenots, whose leadsums thus exacted were not to be considered as subsidies, ^^*^6 80^“, was then inTondon. And the bU

This paltry and equivocating subterfuge imposed upon no one. It was plain that by the course which the court was now pursuing, the liberty of the subject would be entirely destroyed, and parliaments in future rendered wholly superfluous/ It was to no purpose, therefore, that the followers of the court, and their preachers in the pulpit enjoined submission to this loan as part of the duty of nassive obedience and non-resistance. A spirit oi oppoLion arose among the people ; many refused these loans ; r so "e0e?en a^tiv? iA encouraging their neighhours to insist upon their common rights and privileges, Bv a warrant of the council these were thrown into primon" and most of them patiently submitted to confinemem? akhough such as Applied\o the king by petition were commonly released. Five gentlemen alone, Sir Thomas ZS Sir John Corbet,SSir Walter Earl, Sir John Heweningham, and Sir Edmond Hampden, demanded release, not os a favour from the court, but as their

vain, shallow, SsTthe'E” hunt ret s ip c ^ i ninformed of his designs, however, guenots of Rochelle. aL. * ' Instead of attackthe latter shut t leu g ^ o Qleron Buckingham mg the rich and detence es ^ Jen bent lus course to tha^ ^ovisioned, heretie , f* • But his impatience soon solved to reduce it by c • „nj „ttpmDtins to storm led him to abandon this design; and atte \ g f Je P^ce w;^t having made a breach m the cleffi^ he was lepulsed with the ioss 0 e. Destiand returned to England copied ^ d comtute alike of capacity for war, of comm j liig mon vigilance, his conduc^ hro^hou. the wh^ » ^ expedition, was alternately that , nr.t tn have done; man He did t •«: neglected every thjng which it sacri(iccd tempted what was impossible or impracticable.

BRITAIN. 313 :ign of the lives of brave men at the shrine of his insane folly; the realm, and that the statutes be put into execution; Reign of (arles I. brought disgrace on the national arms ; and prodigiously that his subjects may have no cause to complain of any Charles I. v aggravated all the difficulties and embarrassments with wrong or oppression contrary to their just rights and liwhich his master was then surrounded. Of all the popin- berties, to the preservation whereof he holds himself in jays ever hatched and feathered in a court, Buckingham conscience as much obliged as of his own prerogative.” was beyond all doubt one of the most mischievous as This equivocal answer was highly resented. The Comwell as most unprincipled. mons returned in very ill humour; and their indignation Well then might the king and his favourite tremble at would undoubtedly have fallen on the unfortunate Cathothe prospect of meeting a third parliament, after having lics, had not the petition against that persecuted class of squandered the money illegally extorted from a nation, religionists already received a satisfactory answer. To now on the point of insurrection, on a wrar begun in the give vent to their displeasure, therefore, they fell on Dr madness of profligacy, and productive only of disaster Mamwaring, who had preached, and, at the special comand shame. But, in the actual state of men's minds, it mand of the king, printed, a sermon, which was found to v/ would have been hazardous to renew the experiment of contain doctrines subversive of civil liberty. For these raising money by the exercise of the prerogative alone. doctrines Mainwaring was sentenced to be imprisoned A third parliament was therefore summoned, and met on during the pleasure of the house, to be fined in L.1000, the 17th of March 1628. At the beginning of the ses- to make submission and acknowledgment for his offence, sion Charles plainly told them, that “ if they should not do to be suspended for three years, and declared incapable of their duties, in contributing to the necessities of the state, holding any ecclesiastical dignity or secular office; and he must, in discharge of his conscience, use those other his book wras ordered to be called in and burnt. But the means which God had put into his hands, in order to save session was no sooner ended than Mainwaring received a that which the follies of some particular men might other- pardon, and w’as promoted to a living of considerable value ; wise put in danger.” Foreseeing that they might expect and some years afterwards he was raised to the see of St to be dismissed on the first disagreement with the king, Asaph. Having dealt thus with Mainwaring, the Comthe Commons proceeded with caution, yet relaxed nothing mons proceeded to censure Buckingham ; and the storm in vigour. The nation was now really suffering from the of public indignation seemed ready to burst on his head, late arbitrary proceedings. They, therefore, began by re- when it wras diverted by the king’s yielding to the impormonstrating against arbitrary imprisonments and forced tunities of parliament. He went to the House of Peers, /loans; after which, five subsidies, or L.280,000, w^ere voted and when he pronounced the usual form of words, “ Let to the king, a sum with which Charles declared himself it he law as is desired” the house resounded with acclawell satisfied. The Commons, however, resolved not to mations, which were re-echoed over all the country, and pass this vote into a law, until they had obtained from the the bill for five subsidies immediately passed. king a sufficient security that their liberties should no But the Commons were not yet done with the redress of longer be violated as they had formerly been. With this gri^ances. They called for the abolition of a commission view they framed a law which was called a Petition of which had been recently granted to thirty-three officers of Right, because it was only a confirmation of the ancient the crow-n for levying money by impositions or otherwise, constitution, in which they collected all the arbitrary ex- “ in which form or circumstance were to be dispensed ertions of the prerogative which had taken place since the with rather than the substance be lost or hazarded.” They kings accession, and in particular complained of the grie- adverted to a scheme for introducing into England a thouvances of forced loans, benevolences, taxes without con- sand German horse, probably to aid in levying contribusent of parliament, arbitrary imprisonments, billeting sol- tions ; they again attacked Buckingham, against whom diers, and martial law. They made no pretensions to any they w'ere justly implacable; and they also asserted that unusual power or privileges'"; nor did they intend to in- the levying of tonnage and poundage without consent of unge on the royal prerogative in any respect. They parliament wras a palpable violation of the ancient liberaimed only at securing those rights and privileges derived ties of the people, and an open infringement of the petifrom their ancestors. tion of right so lately granted. To prevent a formal re. ®ut ^ie on his part, began plainly to show that he on these subjects, the king suddenly prorogued aimed at nothing less than absolute power. This most monstrance the parliament on the 26th of June 1628. reasonable petition he did his utmost to evade, by reThe band of an assassin soon rid the Commons of their peated messages to the house, in which he offered his enemy Buckingham. He was murdered on the 23d of roya woia that there should be no more infringements August this same year, by one Felton, who had formerly °n e ectlbert y Commons. tbe subject.They Butknew these messages had served under him as a lieutenant. The king did not apno on the how brittle such pear much concerned at his death, but retained an affecpi onuses were without further security, and raccordingly tion for his family throughout his whole lifetime. He depassed the bill. In the Lords an attempt w as made to sired also that Felton might he tortured, in order to exme tfi11e rightse of asure, by and adding to a ageneral of tort from him a discovery of his accomplices; but the property person clause declaration to the effect judges declared, that though that practice had been forn very common, it was altogether illegal. nhr’iged!? toCaimprison -Se tbe sovere ig be, from absolute necessity, a subject, “ he shall be petitioned to merly In 1629 the usual contentions between the king and his c are that, within a convenient time, he shall and will were renewed. The great article on which press tie cause of imprisonment, and will, upon cause parliament the Commons broke with their sovereign, and which finalthe risoner t0 mnnXiPreSS^ 1 leave P be tried by the com- ly created in him a disgust at all parliaments, was their rpfn 6^ ann ^ l.an(b” But in a conference the Commons demands with regard to tonnage and poundage. The questhp T i° *bilate their petition by such a compromise; tion at issue was, whether this tax could be levied withhm t]°er r S talV311assPassed the bill, and nothing was wanting out consent of parliament or not. Charles, supported by v/ ent to give it the force of a law. Charles multitudes of precedents, maintained that it might; and af * i °y eume to the House of Peers, sent for the the parliament, in consequence of their petition of right, be "ivin11^!, ‘n& of ffivin tu311^ SUa “CUJ g seated s>cciieu in the tne chair cnair of ot state, instead asserted that it could not. But the Commons were rethat riJt u j * concise assent, said, “ the king wdlieth solved to support their rights. They began with summoning before them the officers of vol v 6 ^0ne accortbnS to the laws and customs of 2R

lieign of Charles I. Barons of Exchequer were questioned with regardcto their ^i' o? En lar party, by creating suspicion and distrust of its Charles, resorting to an expedient often adopted by pf >nces, . had chosen his ministers from the ranks of the patriots, in

store the palatinate, except on condition of its dependence effects of this pohtical aposta y. president of upon himself. In short, the peace was as ignonnmous as dep^y of MaTand chlf counselTheAbg-s corfucfto his'subjects cannot now therefore appear blameless, nor the general discontent without foundation. As if resolved to ruin himself utterly, and to forfeit any7 small degree of regard which his subjects still retained for him, Charles now set about making in/ novations in religion. Archbishop Laud had obtained a iirodigious ascendancy over the king, and, by a superstitious attachment to fantastical ceremonies, led him into a conduct that proved fatal to himself and ruinous to the kingdom. The humour of the nation at that time inclined tE to enthusiasm rather than superstition; and the ancient ceremonies which had been sanctified by the permission and practice of the first reformers, were barely tolerated in divine service. Yet Laud chose this time, in every respect the most unseasonable that could have been hit upon, for renewing the ceremonies of the fourth and

lor of the king. Sir Dudley rolls ; bury, attoiney-genera , an ^ man disneral. But the arch-apostate vvas ^ entworth a ma tinguished by great force °[ C \aJ^ lxtraordinary intelbrilliant and commanding eioqmnc ‘ and 1 fierce lectual re^urces, unconf|uerable_m trampl^;ithout scru. tumultuous ambitio , ~ accounted most sapie or remorse upon eveiy punciple accou ^ cred and most binding on public men. In hi l [ Pd party lost one of its most powerful supporters, wh 1st potism gained his own apostacy on the meiRiRad 0f crushed, and to employ all powms fo I P mogt distin. mg those liberties °f which he had be k bleaiike guished champion _ I his bold bad man, ™ iate and m every aspect of his character, became

BRITAIN, that the law was clearly in favour of Hampden, and that Iteign of the arguments of his counsel remained unanswered. The Charles I. scribed as a lower kind of Saint Dominic, “ differing from bench was, however, divided in opinion. Four of the the fierce and gloomy enthusiast who founded the Inqui- twelve judges pronounced decidedly in his favour; a fifth sition, as we might imagine the familiar imp of a spiteful took a middle course; and the remaining seven gave their witch to differ from the archangel of darkness.” {Edin- voices in favour of the writ. The majority against him burgh Review, vol. liv. p. 521.) was, therefore, the narrowest possible; and when it is reWhilst Charles ruled without parliaments he ruled by collected that the judges held their situations only during the naked exercise of prerogative alone. He wanted the royal pleasure, and consequently were entirely demoney for the support of government; and he levied it, pendent on the court, this decision may be regarded as in either by the revival of obsolete laws, or by violations of reality a victory. In this light it was considered at the the rights and privileges of the nation. In the Star-cham- time; and it certainly had the effect of awakening the pubber and High Commission unheard of severities were lic indignation against the arbitrary designs of the court, practised in order to support the present mode of admi- and the abominable prostitution of judicial authority by nistration, and suppress the rising spirit of liberty through- which these had been sanctioned and abetted. “ The V out the kingdom. Sir David Foulis was fined L.5000 for judgment,” says Clarendon, “ proved of more advantage dissuading a friend from compounding for knighthood. and credit to the gentleman condemned, than to the king’s Prynne, a barrister, was condemned to be pilloried in two service.” places, to lose his ears, to pay a fine of L.5000, and to be The decision of the Exchequer Chamber, however, had imprisoned during life, for reviling stage plays, huntings, placed at the disposal of the crow n the property of every and festivals, and animadverting on the superstitions of man in England; whilst the abominable proceedings of the Laud. Allison was ordained to pay L.1000 to the king, Star-chamber, which caused obnoxious individuals to be to be publicly flogged, and to stand four times in the pil- mutilated and sent to rot in dungeons, showed that the lory, for reporting that the Archbishop of York had fallen persons as w^ell as the estates of all who ventured to opinto disgrace by asking toleration for the Catholics. Nor pose the crown were entirely at its mercy. What that were these the only cases of the kind. Personal liberty mercy was will immediately be seen. Hampden, with was annihilated. Meanwhile tonnage and poundage con- some of his friends and connections, determined to quit tinued to be levied by royal authority alone. The former England for ever, and to betake themselves across the Atarbitrary impositions were still exacted, and even new lantic, to a settlement which a few persecuted Puritans ones laid upon the different kinds of merchandise. The had formed in the wilderness of Connecticut. Lords custom-house officers received orders from the council to Saye and Brooke wrere the original projectors of this enter into any house, warehouse, or cellar; to search any scheme of emigration ; and Hampden, who had been early trunk or chest, and to break any bulk whatsoever, in default consulted respecting it, now resolved to withdraw himself of the payment of customs. To exercise the militia, each beyond the reach of further persecution, having reason to county was assessed by edict of the council, in a certain dread the vengeance of the court for the resistance he had sum for maintaining a muster-master appointed to that offered to its tyranny. He was accompanied by his kinsservice. Compositions were openly made with recusants, man Oliver Cromwell; and the cousins took their passage and the toleration of the Catholic religion being sold, re- in a vessel which lay in the Thames, bound for North ligion became a regular part of the revenue. A commis- America. They were actually on board, when an order sion was also granted for compounding with such as pos- of council appeared, by which the ship was prohibited from sessed crown-lands on defective titles ; and upon this ini- sailing; and seven other ships, filled with emigrants, were quitous pretence large sums were exacted from the peo- also stopped by the same authority. “ Hampden and Cromple, who chose rather to submit to this fraudulent impo- well remained,” says the writer from w hom we have borsition, than to have the precise nature of their titles and rowed so much, “ and with them remained the evil genius the state of their private affairs exposed to the world. of the house of Stuart.” (Edinburgh Revieiv, vol. liv. p. These arbitrary proceedings led to an occurrence which 526.) will be ever memorable in the history of English liberty. While the discontent produced by these arbitrary proJohn Hampden had been rated at twenty shillings of ship- ceedings was at its height in England, and the people money for an estate he possessed in Buckinghamshire, ready to break out in open rebellion, Charles thought prowhich was assessed at a ship of four hundred and fift}' tons, per to attempt setting up Episcopacy in Scotland. The or four thousand five hundred pounds. The share of the tax canons for establishing a new ecclesiastical jurisdiction which fell to Hampden was very small; so small, indeed, were promulgated in 1635, and w ere received without any that the sheriff was blamed for setting so wealthy a man external appearance of opposition, yet wdth great inward at so low a rate ; but although the sum demanded was a apprehension and discontent. But when the reading of trifle, the principle of the demand was essentially despo- the liturgy was first attempted in the cathedral church of tical. The judges, it is true, had declared that, in case St Giles in Edinburgh in 1637, it produced such a violent or necessity, the king might impose the tax of ship-money, tumult that it was not thought safe to repeat the experiand that his majesty was the sole judge of that necessity. ment. A universal combination against the religious inut after consulting the most eminent constitutional law- novations began immediately to take place ; but Charles, yers of the time, Hampden, undismayed by7 this judicial as if obstinately bent on his own destruction, continued e iverance, refused to pay the few shillings at which he inflexible in his purpose, though he had nothing to oppose was assessed, and determined, rather than submit to the to the united force of the kingdom but a proclamation, in imposition, to incur the certain expense and eventual which he pardoned all past offences, and exhorted the anger of bringing to a solemn hearing this great contro- people to be more obedient for the future, and to submit versy between the crown and the people. The leading peaceably to the use of the liturgy. This proclamation C0 U C1 a a ns , .” S * t the writ was the celebrated Oliver St John, accelerated the insurrection which had before been but 16 attorn eneral an slowly advancing. Four Tables, as they were called, were f•°r ^ solicitor-general appeared , et crown. ?y-g The case wasdargued during twelve days formed in Edinburgh; one consisting of nobility, another e ,, cJle(lu>er Chamber, and the judges took a con- of gentry, a third of ministers, and the fourth of burgesses. erable time for deliberation. No one has ever doubted The table of gentry was divided into many subordinate

BRITAIN. 316 lleign of ones, according «o the different counties In the hands of ^^^et^^^iningfc auth^rffc ^ S Charles I. the Four Tables the authority of the whole k.ngd»m was Jt°ted and ejected, and^in his ma- ^ ■^placed. Orders were issued by them, and everyw ) . dissolved it. This measure was foreseen, V Id with the utmost regularity ; and amongst Id,e first acts The court still continued to sit and 8 of their government was the All the acts of assembly since the acces. 0f clo business This famous f ‘,In his vouth? and filled siou of James to the crown of England were, upon very popery, formerly signed by James m bis you b an reasonable grounds, declared null and invalid. The acts 1 with many virulent invectives aganis that P1! ' f liame®t „hich affected ecclesiastical affairs were on of union or league followed, by winch X““sc™ au j to that very account supposed to have no authority. And liged themselves to resist al religious in ^ the whole fabric which James and Charles, in along defend each other ^'XTralks and con- course of years, had been rearing with much care and Covenant was subscribed by people of a D0licv fell at once to the ground. The Covenant likewise fewer^ared'openly^^condemn It", ^'^s’^s^ and counsellors themselves were mostly onhe "•‘"“ "'ay of thinking ; and none but pei so < • hd tl God, and traitors to their country, could w hdraw them selves from so salutary and pious a combination. The king now began-to be seriously alarme^. He sent the Marquis ot Hamilton, as commissioner, w ^ to treat with the Covenanters; • conces_ to be renounced and recalled and as s ft ^ sions on his part, he offeied to suspend t e liturgy till they couid be received in a air an^ ^‘ and so to model the High Commiss o c longer give ^nce t„ M mand, however, the Covenanters declaredt a y ^ sooner renounce their baptism pan t tt -i they invited the commissioner ehimseltheto sign it JHamdton returned to London ; ^^ b^ returaed a (raln m

Ordered to be signed gy every one, under pain of eXcommumca ^ C(. vt nanUirs prepared in earnest for war. -phe Earl of Argyll, though he long seemed to temporize, Hie ^ ; Covenant, and became the chiefleadat a 0f Rothes, Cassillis, Montrose, er m uia^pa Linde Loudoun> Yesterj and Bal. merino,’also distinguished'themselves. Many Scottish officers had acquired reputation in the German wars, particu]ariy under Gustavus; and these were invited over • i tj ir COuntry in its present necessity. The command wag intrusted t0 Leslie, a soldier of experience and ability Forces were regularly enlisted and disciplined; S^were^ommSionedlnd imported from foreign conntries. a few casties which belonged to the king, be.ng linnr0vided with provisions, ammunition, and- garrisons, with ;Pand ^ exc a all part under the Marquis of Huntly, who still adhered to

LondoTanTwrTmmediately sengt back with still more • ’ • d 'Tl-io 1-incp wts now willing to satisfactory concessions. The king ^ ^ih [ abohsh entirely the canons, tbe btu gy. ® Commission Court; he even resolved to limit greatly tne power of the bishops, and seemed con e s/ntland he could retain that order in the Church of Scotland Further, he gave Hamilton authority to summon first an assembly, and then a F^d en^u^heL Ta^dVan^regrievance should be only redressed. Butweakness t e t oi dyuie k g, luctant concessions showed the

the king, fell into the Covenanters’ hands, and was soon in a tolerable of hand, defence. _ Charles, on thestate other was not deficient in endeavours to oppose this formidable combination. By rehe had not only paid a]l the debts contracted in the^French and Spanish wars, but had amassed d ‘araS^ £e had reserved for any sudU1 ^ n had t interesi with the Catholics, both from sympathy of religion, and from he favours and indulgences which she had been able to cmnloved her credit in persuading

1put

The^)ffeis’however^ ofaan)Ia^slemblyramlIa parHameiTb in ^gly'embraced by^he0Covenante^rs^^'^^^^^^^1 ^ ^ *nSe^^S;#wMt

remove alf rile ^^cionfenSld UgallvVt'hlm.0 As the ancUhvee thousand ^STulidel^lmblemanrf oppositioii^hadbeenlcarefld not'to’except^the’king^Charl^s also formed a bond, which was annexed to this renunciation, and expressed the subscribers' loyalty and duty to his majesty. But the Covenanters perceiving that tins new Covenant was only meant to weaken and divide them, received it with the utmost scorn and detestation ; and proceeded without delay to model the assembly from which such great achievements were expected. This assembly met at Glasgow in 1638. A firm determination had been entered into of utterly abolishing Episcopacy ; and, as preparatory thereto, there was laid before the presbytery of Edinburgh, and solemnly read in all thp the churches of the kingdom, an accusation against tne the bishops as guilty all of them, of heresy, simony, bribery, perjury, Cheating, incest, adultery, foLcX comnJn swearing, drunkenness, gaming, breach of the sabbath, and every other crime which had occurred to the accusers,

^ htical abilities. The Fail ot Essex, a man ot smci and extremely popular espectahy among the soW ^ appointed heutenant-gene.al, and the Bari ot the made general of the horse I he king hm*elt J wd army, and summoned a 1 the Peels “ ‘.'"S'™' ,. , court him. 1 he who e had the appearance of a sple I d rather than a military armament, and in tins state the arrived at Berwick. of The Scottish force was equally numerous t more the king, but inferior in cavalry. Hie officer ^ experience; and the solcheis thoug ' , rs{on to aimeu, j weie vvc*. ^ ■ amma ed n ere ammai-cu, 0f their England, and the dread of becoming a provi - old rival, as by ^ 6 that occasion o wai. 1 -njocive messages to the that they immediately sent very submissive mes &

/

BRITAIN. 317 llei of king, and craved leave to be admitted to a treaty. Charles, extorted from the Spanish merchants who had bullion in Reign of Chajis I. as usual, took the worst possible course. He concluded the Tower. Coat and conduct money for the soldiery was Charles I. w'-v'-da sudclen pacification, in which it was stipulated, that he also levied on the counties; all the pepper was bought up should withdraw his fleet and army; that within forty- from the East India Company upon trust, and sold at a eight hours the Scots should dismiss their forces; that great discount for ready money; and an infamous scheme the king’s forts should be restored to him, his authority was proposed for coining two or three hundred thousand acknowledged, and a general assembly and parliament im- pounds of base money. Such were the extremities to which mediately summoned, in order to compose all differences. Charles was now reduced. The fresh difficulties which But this peace was not of long duration. Charles could were every day raised with regard to the payment of shipnot prevail on himself to abandon the cause of Episcopacy, money, obliged him to exert continual acts of authority, and secretly intended to seize every favourable opportu- and augmented extremely the discontents of the people, nity to recover the ground he had lost. The assembly, while his indigence and necessities continued undiminished. These expedients, however, enabled the king, though on the other hand, proceeded with the utmost vigour and determination. They voted Episcopacy to be unlawful in with great difficulty, to set in motion an army, consisting the church of Scotland ; they stigmatized the canons and of 19,000 foot and 2000 horse. The Earl of Northumberliturgy as popish; and they denominated the High Commis- land was appointed general; the Earl of Strafford, who had sion tyranny. The parliament, which sat after the as- been recalled from Ireland, lieutenant-general;r and Lord sembly, advanced pretensions which tended to diminish Conway general of the horse. A small fleet w as thought the civil power of the monarch; and they were proceed- sufficient to serve the purposes of this expedition. The ing to ratify the acts of assembly, when, by the king’s in- Scottish forces, though somewhat superior, were sooner structions, Traquair, the commissioner, prorogued them. ready than the king’s army, and marched to the borders of By reason of these claims, which might have easily been England. But notwithstanding their warlike preparations, the Covenanters still held the most submissive language foreseen, the war recommenced the same year. No sooner had Charles concluded the peace, however, to the king; having entered England, they said, with no than he found himself obliged to disband his army from other design than to obtain access to the king’s presence, want of money; and as the soldiers had been held toge- and lay their humble petition at his royal feet. At Newther merely by mercenary views, it was not possible, with- burn-upon-Tyne they were opposed by a detachment of out great trouble, expense, and loss of time, to re-assemble four thousand five hundred men under Conway, who seemthem. The Covenanters, on the contrary, in dismissing ed resolved to dispute the passage of the river. The Scots their troops, had been careful to preserve nothing but the first entreated them civilly not to interrupt them in their appearance of a pacification. The officers had orders to be march to their gracious sovereign ; and then attacking the ready on the first summons ; the soldiers were warned not detachment with great bravery, killed several, and chased to think the nation secure from an English invasion; and the remainder from the ground. A panic now seized the the religious zeal which animated all ranks of men made wdiole English army ; the forces at Newcastle fled immethem immediately fly to their standards as soon as the diately to Durham; and not thinking themselves safe there, trumpet of war was sounded by their spiritual and tem- they abandoned the town, and retreated into Yorkshire. The Scots continuing to advance, dispatched messenporal leaders. In 1640, however, the king managed to draw an army to- gers to the king, who had by this time arrived at York. gether ; but finding himself unable to support them, he was They took care to redouble their expressions of loyalty, obliged to call a parliament after an intermission of about duty, and submission to his person; and they even made eleven years. As the sole object of the king in calling apologies for their late victory. Charles was in a very this parliament was to obtain a supply, and the only rea- distressed condition; and, in order to prevent the further son they had for attending was to procure a redress of advance of the Scots, he agreed to a treaty, and named sixgrievances, much harmony could scarcely be expected. teen English noblemen to meet with eleven Scottish comThe king accordingly insisted for money, and the parlia- missioners at Rippon.' Strafford, upon whom, by reason ment expatiated on their grievances, till a dissolution en- of Northumberland’s sickness, the command of the army sued ; and, as if to render this measure still more unpo- had devolved, advised Charles rather to put all to the hapular, the king permitted the Convocation to sit after the zard than to submit to the terms which he foresaw would dissolution ;—a practice of which there had been very few be prescribed. He urged him to push forward, to attack the examples since the reformation, and which w as now deemed Scots, and to bring the affair to a quick decision. If he exceedingly irregular. Besides granting a supply to the were ever so unsuccessful, nothing worse could befal him king from the spiritualities, the Convocation, jealous of in- than what he would certainly be exposed to from his inacnovations similar to those which had taken place in Scot- tivity; and, to show how easily this project might be exeland, imposed an oath on the clergy and the graduates in cuted, he ordered an assault to be made on some quarthe Universities, binding them to maintain the government ters of the Scots, and gained some advantage over them. of the church, by archbishops, bishops, deans, chapters, and This energetic advice Charles had not resolution to adopt. otherwise, as by law established. These steps were deemed He resolved to summon a council of the peers ; and as he illegal, because not ratified by consent of parliament; and foresaw that they would advise him to call a parliament, the oath became a subject of general ridicule. he told them in his first speech that he had already taken Disappointed of parliamentary subsidies, the king was that resolution. Meanwhile, in order to subsist both arobliged to have recourse to other expedients. The eccle- mies (for the king was obliged to pay his enemies, in orsiastical subsidies offered a considerable resource ; and it der to save the northern counties), Charles wrote to the seemed but just that the clergy should contribute to the city, desiring a loan of L.200,000; and the peers asexpense of a war which they had been mainly instrumental sembled at York joined in the same request. m raising. Charles borrowed money from his ministers The parliament met in November 1640. The House ^corn-tiers; and so urgent were his wants, that above of Commons had never been observed to be so numerous ; .300,000 were subscribed in a few days. Attempts were and, in order to strike a blow at once against the court, made to levy a forced loan from the citizens; but these they began with the impeachment of the Earl of Strafford. were repelled by the spirit of liberty, which had now be- That nobleman, who was considered as prime minister, come unconquerable. A loan of L.40,000 was, however, both on account of the credit he possessed with his mas-

BRITAIN. 318 Ileign of ter, and his own uncommon vigour and capacity, had in- nor his hand immediately engaged in it, he was free from Reig: Chart * Charles I. curred the hatred of' the three kingdoms. ihe Scots the guilt which attended this base and ungrateful act. That Strafford, on general grounds, perhaps, merited his ''T' looked upon him as the capital enemy of their country. fate, may be more easily conceded than the legality or He had engaged the parliament of Ireland to advance justice the proceedings which issued in his condemnalarge subsidies to be employed in a war against them; he tion andof death. The articles of impeachment exhibited had levied an army of nine thousand men, with which he against him respected his conduct as president of the Counhad menaced their western coast; he had obliged those cil of the North, as deputy of Ireland, and as commanderwho lived under his government to renounce the solemn in-chief in England; and four months were employed by league and covenant; and he had governed Ireland, first as deputy, and then as lord-lieutenant, during eight years, the managers in framing the accusation, so as, if possible, entangle him in the meshes of treason. But he baffled, with great vigilance, activity, and energy, but with very to with ability, all the arguments of his accusers, little popularity, owing to the severities he had exercised. whomwonderful he met and on every point; nor was the In a nation so averse to the English government and re- evidence produced overthrew against him at all sufficient to establish lio-ion, these qualities were sufficient to draw upon him the the charge of absolute treason, or to warrant the bill of public hatred. His manners, besides, were at bottom attainder was subsequently introduced. He was haughty, rigid, and severe; and no sooner did adversity convicted which that constructive or accumulative species begin to seize him, than this concealed hatred blazed up of treason, of which, once admitted into the criminal jurisat once, and the Irish parliament used every expedient to prudence of any country, must, in seasons of agitation aggravate the charge against him. Nor was this all. The universal discontent which prevailed throughout England and excitement, place the life of every man in it at the was all pointed against the Earl of Strafford; and for this disposal of the ruling powers. He was sentenced to death reason, that he was the minister of state whom the king most in virtue of an ex post facto law, and fell the victim of favoured and trusted. His extraction was honourable, his popular odium, if not of party vengeance. It has indeed paternal fortune considerable ; yet envy attended his sud- been said, that the proceedings against Strafford were den and great elevation, and his former associates in po- justified by that which alone justifies capital punishment, pular counsels, finding that he owed his advancement to or warrants the ravages committed in war, namely, by the desertion of their cause, denounced him as the arch- the public danger. But, even on this ground, it was inapostate of the commonwealth, whom it behoved them to cumbent on his accusers to show, first, that there was such a pressing and urgent danger as to justify an act of atsacrifice as a victim to public justice. From such causes nothing else could be expected than tainder ; and, secondly, that the sacrifice demanded was what really happened. Articles of impeachment were the only mode in which such danger could be obviated exhibited against Strafford, and this proceeding was fol- or removed. Neither of these points, however, w'as estalowed by a bill of attainder. The king had induced Straf- blished, or attempted to be established. Ihe high tribuford to leave the army by a promise of protection, and an nal before which Strafford was tried, convicted, and connever seems to have thought of setting forth its assurance that not a hair of his head should be hurt; but demned, r he soon learnt to his cost, that in neglecting the scriptural ow n fears for the public w^eal, whether well or ill foundadmonition, “Put not your faith in princes,” he had rushed ed, as the sole and only measure of the justice of its prointo the jaws of destruction. It was not without extreme cedure ; they went upon grounds totally different, and difficulty, however, that the king could be brought to con- sought to give a legal sanction to a judgment, for which sent to the sacrifice of his favourite minister. He came no better defence can now be devised than the plea ol to the House of Lords, where he expressed his resolution necessity. And had they followed a different course, their never to employ Strafford again in any public business; conduct would have been at once absurd and inconsistent; but with regard to the treason of which that minister was for where there is an urgent or admitted necessity, that, convicted, he professed himself totally dissatisfied. The from the nature of things, supersedes all ordinary prinCommons, however, voted it a breach of privilege for the ciples of law, all questions of evidence, all considerations king to take notice of any bill depending before the House. of guilt or of innocence; and where, as in this case, a toiCharles did not seem to perceive that his attachment to mal investigation and trial have been gone into, it converts Strafford was the chief motive for the bill; and that the them into an absolute and intolerable mockery. The exegreater the proof he gave of this attachment to his minister, cution of Strafford, therefore, may be more easily palliated the more inevitable did he render his destruction. The than defended. As a revolutionary measure, it may have House of Lords were intimidated, by popular violence, been expedient; considered as a judicial act, it seems to into passing the bill of attainder against the unfortunate have been a flagrant violation of the most sacred principles _ . earl; and the same battery was next employed to force of law and justice. These commissioners were empowered to give the royal the king’s assent. The populace flocked about Whitehall, and accompanied their demand of justice with loud cla- assent to a bill yet more fatal to the king, which provide mours and open menaces. A thousand reports of conspi- that the present parliament should not be dissolved, pro* racies, insurrections, and invasions, were spread abroad. rogued, or adjourned, without their own consent. By this On whatever side the king cast his eyes he saw no re- last bill Charles perpetuated the power which had already source nor security. All his servants, consulting their become uncontrollable. The reason of this extraordinary own safety rather than their master’s honour, declined in- step was, that the Commons, from policy rather than necesterposing with their advice between him and his parlia- sity, had resorted to the expedient of paying the two annies ment ; the queen, terrified at the appearance of so great by borrowing money from the city; and these loans tiey a danger, pressed Charles, with tears, to satisfy his people were to be afterwards repaid by taxes levied on the peop e. in this demand, which it was hoped would finally content But at last the citizens began to start difficulties with regar no them; Archbishop Juxon alone had the courage to advise to a further loan which was demanded. “ We make ere him, if he did not approve of the bill, by no means to con- scruple of trusting the parliament,” said they, “ w sent to it. At last, after the most violent anxiety and doubt, certain that the parliament was to continue till our repay Charles granted a commission to four noblemen, in his ment. But, in the present precarious situation^ of affairs, name, to give the royal assent to the bill; flattering him- what security can be given us for our money ?” hi or e self, that as neither his will was consenting to the deed, to obviate this objection, the above-mentioned bill was su

BRITAIN. 311) Charles arrived in Scotland on the 14 th of August 1641, Reign of R ;tl of denly brought in, and having passed both houses with great a ies I. rapidity, was at last brought to the king, who, being op- intending, it is said, to give full satisfaction if possible to Charles I. pressed with grief on account of the unhappy fate of Straf- the people of that country. And some useful changes were ' ford, did not perceive the effect of it until it was too late. in reality made. The bench of bishops and the lords of Soon after the impeachment of Strafford, Laud was ac- articles were abolished ; it was provided that no man should cused of high treason, and committed to custody ; and to be created a Scottish peer who possessed not ten thousand avoid a similar fate Lord Keeper Finch and Secretary merks, above L.500 sterling, of annual rent in the kingWindebank fled, the one into Holland, the other into dom ; a law for triennial parliaments was likewise passed; France. The house then instituted a new species of it was resolved that the last act of every parliament crime, which was termed delinquency; and persons who should be to appoint the time and place for holding the had acted under the king or by his authority during the parliament next ensuing; and the king was also deprived late military operations were now called delinquents. of the power he had formerly exercised of issuing proMany of the nobility and gentry of the nation, while ex- clamations which enjoined obedience under the penalty erting what they considered as the legal powers of magi- of treason. But the hardest blow given to the royal austracy, thus found themselves unexpectedly involved in thority was an article which provided that no member this new and sufficiently vague offence. The Commons, of the privy council, no officer of state, none of the judges, however, reaped great advantage from their invention •— should be appointed without the advice and approbation they disarmed the crown, established the maxims of rigid of parliament. Charles even agreed to deprive of their law and liberty, and spread the terror of their own autho- seats four judges who had adhered to his interests; and rity. All the sheriffs who had formerly exacted ship-mo- their place was supplied by others more agreeable to the ney, though by the king’s express command, were now de- ruling party. Several of the Covenanters were also sworn clared delinquents. The farmers and officers of the cus- of the privy council; and all the ministers of state, countoms who had been employed during so many years in sellors, and judges, were by law to hold their offices during levying tonnage, poundage, and other imposts laid on life or good behaviour. \\ bile in Scotland, the king conwithout the authority of parliament, were likewise deno- formed himself to the established church; he bestowed minated delinquents, and were afterwards glad to com- pensions and preferments on Henderson, Gillespie, and pound for a pardon by paying L. 150,000. Every sentence other popular preachers; and he practised every artifice of the Star Chamber and High Commission Courts, which to soften, if not to gain, his greatest enemies. The Earl from their very nature were arbitrary and oppressive, under- of Argyll was created a Marquis, Loi’d Loudon an Earl, went a severe scrutiny ; and all who had concurred in such and Leslie was raised to the peerage by the title of Lord sentences were voted liable to the penalties of law. No Leven. But though Charles thus heaped favours on his eneminister of the king, no member of the council, was safe. mies with a prodigal hand, they were not satisfied, believThe judges who had formerly given judgment against ing that all he did proceeded from artifice and necessity; Hampden for refusing to pay ship-money were accused whilst some of his friends were disgusted, and thought before the Peers, and obliged to find security for their themselves ill rewarded for their past services. The king appearance when required. Berkeley, a judge of the was manifestly playing a part, and he played it ill, beKing’s Bench, was seized by order of the house, even cause he overacted his assumed character. when sitting in his court. The sanction of the Lords and Argyll and Hamilton, being seized with an apprehenCommons, as well as that of the king, was declared neces- sion, real or pretended, that the Earls of Crawford and sary for the confirmation of ecclesiastical canons. Cochrane meant to assassinate them, left the parliament In a word, the constitution was new-modelled, in as far suddenly, and retired into the country; but, upon receivas that may be said to have been done by reforming abuses ing assurances of safety, they returned in a few days. and striking terror into all those who had profited by them, This event, which had no visible result in Scotland, was or had in any manner of way been accessory to the arbi- commonly denominated,the Incident; but it was attended trary proceedings of the court. And during the first pe- with very serious consequences in England. The English riod of the transactions of this parliament, their merits so parliament immediately took the alarm. They insinuated greatly overbalanced their defects and errors, as to entitle that the Malignants, as they called the king’s party, had them to the admiration of all lovers of liberty. Not only laid a plot to murder the godly in both kingdoms; and were former abuses remedied, and grievances- redressed ; having applied to Essex, whom the king had left general provision was also made, by excellent laws, against a re- of the south of England, he ordered a guard to attend currence of the like evils. And if the means by which them. they accomplished such great ends savoured often of arIn the mean time a rebellion broke out in Ireland, with tifice, sometimes of violence, it is to be considered that circumstances of unparalleled atrocity, bloodshed, and derevolutions in government cannot always be effected by vastation. By the judicious conduct of James the old niere force of argument and reasoning; and that, factions Irish had been subdued, and proper means taken for sebeing once excited, men can neither so certainly regulate curing their subjection in time coming; but their ancient the tempers of others, nor control their own, as to guard animosity still remained, and only wanted an occasion, or against all excesses. rather pretext, to burst forth. And this, according to the The king having promised to pay a visit this summer received account, was furnished by the circumstances of to his subjects in Scotland, in order to settle their go- the times and the weakness of the government. vernment, the English parliament was very importunate Roger More, a gentleman descended from an ancient with him to lay aside that journey; but they could not Irish family, but of narrow fortune, first formed the proprevail with him so much as to delay it. Failing in this, ject of expelling the English, and asserting the indepenney appointed a small committee of both houses to atdence of his native country. He went secretly from on nm; in order, as was pretended, to see the articles chieftain to chieftain, and roused up every latent principle o pacification executed, but in reality to watch the mo- of discontent. He maintained a close correspondence ions of the king, and to extend still further the ideas of with Lord Macguire and Sir Phelim O’Neale, the most par lamentary authority. This committee consisted of the powerful of the old Irish chiefs; and, by his persuasions, 1 ° Wnr Lord Howard, Sir Philip Stapleton, Sir soon engaged not only them, but the most considerable tam Armyne, Nathaniel Fiennes, and John Hampden. persons of the nation, in a conspiracy. It was also hoped

BRITAIN. 320 Reign of that the English of the Pale, as they were called, or the old rance of the natives, were consumed with fire, or laid level Reigt 'Charles I. English planters, who were all Catholics, would afterwards with the ground; whilst the miserable owners, shut up in Chari.join the party which proposed to restore their religion to its their houses, and preparing for defence, perished in the '“‘V ancient splendour and authority. The design was, that Sir flames, together with their wives and children ; thus afPhelim O'Neale and the other conspirators should begin an fording a double triumph to their insulting foes. If anyinsurrection on a given day throughout the provinces, and where a number assembled together, and resolved to opattack all the English settlements; and that, on the very pose the assassins, they were disarmed by capitulations same day, Lord Macguire and Roger More should sur- and promises of safety, confirmed by the most solemn prise the castle of Dublin. Ihey fixed on the beginning oaths ; but no sooner had they surrendered, than the reof winter for the commencement of the insurrection, that bels, with perfidy equal to their cruelty, made them share there might be more difficulty in transporting ibices from the fate of their unhappy countrymen. Others tempted England. Succours of men and supplies of arms were ex- their prisoners, by the love of life, to embrue their hands pected from France, in consequence of a promise to that in the blood of friends, brothers, or parents; and having effect made them by Richelieu; and many Irish officers thus rendered them accomplices in their own guilt, gave who had served in the Spanish army expressed their them that death which they sought to shun by deservreadiness to lend their aid as soon as they saw an insur- ing it. The barbarities by which Sir Phelim O’Neale and the rection commenced by their Catholic brethren. Ihe news which every day arrived from England of the fury ex- Irish in Ulster signalized their rebellion may be imagined pressed by the Commons against Catholics struck tenor from this faint description. More, shocked at the recital into the Irish nation, and stimulated the conspirators to of such enormities, flew to O’Neale’s camp; but he found execute their fatal purpose, by assuring them of the con- that his authority, though sufficient to excite the Irish to a rebellion, was too feeble to restrain their inhumanity. currence of their countrymen. From the propensity discovered by the Irish to revolt, Soon afterwards he abandoned the cause, and retired to it was deemed unnecessary as well as dangerous to trust Flanders. From Ulster the flames of rebellion diffused the secret to many; and, though the day appointed drew themselves in an instant over the other three provinces of near, no discovery, it is said, had yet been made by govern- Ireland. In all places death and slaughter were comment. The king, indeed, had received information from mon, though the Irish in some provinces pretended to his ambassadors, that something w'as in agitation among act with moderation and humanity. But barbarous indeed the Irish in foreign parts ; but though he gave warning to was their humanity. Not content with expelling the Engthe administration in Ireland, his intelligence was entire- lish from their houses, they stripped them of their very lv neglected. They were awakened from their security clothes, and turned them out naked and defenceless to all only the day before the commencement of hostilities. The the severities of the season; and the heavens, as if concastle of Dublin, by which the capital was commanded, con- spiring with the wrath of man against that unhappy people, tained arms for ten thousand men, with thirty-five pieces were armed with cold and tempest unusual to the climate, of cannon and a proportional quantity of ammunition ; yet and destroyed what the sword had spared. By some comthis important place was guarded by no greater force than putations, the number of those who perished by all these fifty men, and even they did their duty negligently. Mac- cruelties is estimated at a hundred and fifty thousand; guire and More were already in town with a numerous by the most moderate, forty thousand are calculated to band of retainers; others were expected in the course of have lost their lives; but even this estimate is in all prothe night; and next morning they were to enter on what bability exaggerated. The English of the Pale, who were not probably at first seemed an easy enterprise, the surprisal of the castle. But O’Connolly, an Irishman and a Protestant, discovered the in the secret, pretended to condemn the insurrection, and conspiracy. The justices and council immediately fled to detest the barbarity with which it was accompanied; to the castle, and reinforced the guards. The city was and by their earnest protestations they engaged the justices alarmed, and the Protestants prepared for defence. More to supply them with, arms, which they promised to employ escaped, but Macguire wns taken ; and Mahon, one of the in defence of government. But the interests of religion conspirators, being likewise seized, first discovered to the were found to have more influence over them than a regard to duty and the peace of their country. They chose Lord justices the project of a general insurrection. But though O’Connolly’s discovery saved the castle from Gormonstone as their leader; and, joining the old Irish, a surprise, Mahon’s confession came too late to prevent rivalled them in acts of cruelty towards the English Prothe intended insurrection. O’Neale and his confederates testants. Besides many smaller bodies dispersed over the had already taken arms in Ulster. The houses, cattle, kingdom, the main army of the rebels amounted to twenty and goods of the English were first seized. Those who thousand men, and threatened Dublin with an immediate heard of the commotions in their neighbourhood, instead siege. Both the English and Irish rebels pretended authoof deserting their habitations, and assembling together for rity from the king and queen, but especially the latter, for mutual protection, remained at home in hopes of defend- their insurrection; and they affirmed that the cause o ing their property, and thus fell separately into the hands their taking arms was to vindicate the royal prerogative, of their enemies. A universal massacre now commenced, now invaded by the puritanical parliament. Sir Phelan accompanied with circumstances of unequalled barbarity. O’Neale having, it is said, found a royal patent in 110 No age, no sex, no condition, was spared. In the frenzy house of Lord Caulfield, whom he had murdered, tore oa of this bloody tragedy, every ordinary tie was broken, and the seal, and affixed it to a commission which he had pre. , death dealt by the hand from which protection was im- viously forged for himself. The king received intelligence of this insurrection while plored and expected. All the tortures which wanton cruelty could devise, all the lingering pains of body, all in Scotland, and immediately communicated the disasthe anguish of mind, all the agonies of despair, could not sa- trous tidings to the Scottish parliament; expressing a op tiate revenge excited without injury, and cruelty derived that, as there had all along been an outcry against popery, from no cause. Enormities, indeed, were committed, which, the nation would now, wflien that religion was appearing the supthough attested by undoubted evidence, appear almost in- in its blackest colours, support him vigorously in pression of it. But if he was sincere in this request, w credible. The stately buildings or commodious habitations of the planters, as if upbraiding the sloth and igno- may not uncharitably be doubted, the Scots were no

BRITAIN. 321 I jn of posed to give so serious a pledge without due deliberation, reserved them for more immediate use. Yet though no Iteign of f ries I. Considering themselves now as secured in the enjoyment forces were for a considerable time sent over to Ireland, Charles I. ^ Y''*' of their rights, and conceiving hopes from the present and very little money remitted during the extreme disdistresses of Ireland, they resolved to ascertain precisely tress of that kingdom, so strong was the attachment of the the ground on which succours were demanded, before con- people to the Commons, that the fault was never imputed senting to grant them. Except dispatching a small body to persons whose votes breathed nothing but destruction of forces to support the Scottish colonies in Ulster, the and death to the Irish rebels. utmost length they would go, therefore, was to agree to In the meanwhile it was resolved to frame a general send commissioners to London, in order to treat with the remonstrance on the state of the kingdom; and the comparliament. The king accordingly found himself obliged mittee, which at the meeting of the parliament had been to have recourse to the English parliament, and to de- chosen for that purpose, w'ere commanded to finish their pend on their assistance for a supply. He told them that undertaking. The king returned from Scotland on the the insurrection was not, in his opinion, the result of any 25th of November 1641, and was received in London with rash enterprise, but of a preconcerted conspiracy against shouts and acclamations by the people. Sir Richard Gourthe crown of England. To their care and wisdom, there- nay, the lord-mayor, had promoted these favourable disfore, he said, he committed the conduct and prosecution of positions, and persuaded the populace, who had so lately the war, which, in a cause so important to national and re- insulted the king, and wdio so soon after made war’upon ligious inteiests, must of necessity be immediately begun him, to show these marks of respect. But all the pleaand vigorously pursued. These words are fair-seeming, sure which Charles had reaped from this reception was and it would be cruel to load the memory of an unfortu- soon damped by the remonstrance of the Commons, which nate prince with unjust reproach, or even ill-founded sus- was presented to him, accompanied with a petition of sipicion. But the impartiality of history compels us reluc- milar import. The bad counsels which he had followed tantly to admit that there are grounds for charging the were there complained of; his concurrence in the Irish king with a guilty foreknowledge of what was designed rebellion was plainly insinuated; the scheme laid for the and perpetrated in Ireland. I he suddenness of his visit introduction of popery and superstition was inveighed to Scotland, and the time chosen for undertaking it; his against; and, as a remedy for all these evils, the king was whole conduct in that country, particularly in at once desired to intrust every office and command to persons making concessions at utter variance with the principles in whom his parliament should see cause to confide. To of his government and the integrity of his prerogative, this bitter remonstrance Charles found it necessary to which he had risked a civil war to preserve entire, and in make a civil reply. He knew that the public confidence heaping favours on his bitterest .enemies; his new-born was at that time denied to his ministers, more especially zeal against popery, which he had been so long covertly to such of them as had deserted the public cause; and labouring to introduce; the criminal intrigues of the queen that whilst men detested the servile insolence of Williams, and those about her person, of which he could scarcely the reckless levity of Digby, and the unblushing infamy be altogether ignorant; the known deceit and duplicity of Saville, their faith and hope were strong in the inflexible of his own character; the strange inaction of the public virtues of Hampden, the mild integrity of Kimbolton, the functionaries in Ireland, even after they were apprized of ardent patriotism of Hollis, and the cool sagacity of Pym. the danger, to say nothing of the deaf ear they had turned from this period the proceedings of the Commons beto many previous hints that danger was brewing, and came bolder, and more determined and violent. Findsome sudden explosion contemplated; the absence'of all ing themselves likely to be opposed by the nobility, who t le rau< rv\T^ ^ ^tosieged to patent have been by saw that their own degradation would speedily follow U iNeale in^ regard the royal said committed to have been of the crown, they openly told the Upper House round in the house of Lord Caulfield;—these, and many that that “ they themselves were the representatives of the other circumstances that might be mentioned, seem to whole body of the kingdom, and that the Peers were noestablish, first, that Charles had some very particular and thing but individuals, who held their seats in a particular urgent reasons for visiting Scotland at this time; second- capacity ; and therefore, if their Lordships would not conly, that while there he acted a part which is only expli- sent to acts necessary for the preservation of the people, cable on the supposition that he had a secret design to the Commons, together with such of the Lords as were cover by it; thirdly, that such an impression seems to have been general at the time; and, lastly, that there are cir- more sensible of the danger, must join together and represent the matter to his majesty.” Every method of cumstances connected with this atrocious rebellion which alarming the country was now put in practice. Affectiave never been explained in such a manner as to vindi- ing continual fears of destruction to themselves and to cate the king’s memory from the suspicion of at least the whole nation, they excited the people by never-ceasguilty knowledge. ing inquiries concerning conspiracies, by reports of in• Tta English parliament, now re-assembled, discovered surrections, by alleged rumours of invasion from abroad, ln each vote th e same dispositions in which they had seby discoveries of dangerous combinations at home. parated. By the difficulties and distresses of the crown, and ne Lommons, who alone possessed the power of supply, When Charles dismissed the guard which had been ordered them during his absence, they complained; and, tlfCf fSg^dized themselves; and some were not sorry on his promising them a new guard under the command inn he tris rebellion had succeeded, at such a critical of the Earl of Lindesay, they declined the offer. They ta hthe pacification in Scotland. An expression ordered halberts to be brought into the hall where they le kin s T i g yby which he committed to them the care of assembled, and thus armed themselves against those conas lrn me tl1oan ’ "Ua , diately laid hold of, and interpreted in spiracies with which they pretended they were hourly j hruited sense. On other occasions the Com- threatened. During this time several reduced officers nowpr +^Gen &radualiy encroaching on the executive and young gentlemen of the inns of court offered their cr0 vn onl o ssuthe . ' ;. but in regard to Ireland they now at service to the king; and between them and the populace J hv n uied it.as if it had been delivered over to them there occurred frequent skirmishes, which ended not withtenpp^11^ a®s!gnment* They levied money under pre- out bloodshed. By way of reproach, these gentlemen gave Iris Purnncph expedition, but reserved it for other the rabble the name of Roundheads, on account of their 1 le t0 vol v ^ °k arms from the king’s magazines, but short cropped hair; whilst the latter distinguished their 2s

BRITAIN. the accused were present; but they had escaped a few Reign!, Reign of opponents by the name of Cavaliers ; and thus the nation before his entry, and taken shelter in the city. Charles Charles I. was furnished with party names, under which the factions minutes Disappointed, perplexed, and not knowing on w hom to rely, might rendezvous and signalize their mutual hatiet. he next proceeded, amidst the invectives of the populace, These tumults continued to increase about Westminster who continued to cry out, “ Privilege, privilege 1” to the and Whitehall. The cry against the bishops continually common council of the city at Guildhall, where he justiresounded ; and being easily distinguishable by their habit, fied his proceedings respecting the fugitives, and expressed as well as objects of violent hatred to all the sectaries, they a hope that they would not find shelter or protection m were exposed to the most outrageous insults. In these cir- the city. The common council answered his complaints cumstances, the Archbishop of York, having been abused by a disdainful silence; and, on his return, one of the pobv the populace, hastily called a meeting of his biethren pulace, more courageous or insolent than the rest, cried and by his advice a protestation was drawn up and out, “ To your tents, O Israel 1” addressed to the king and the House of Lords, setting When the Commons assembled the next day, they forth, that though they had an undoubted right o sit and affected or felt the greatest terror, and passed a unanivote in parliament, yet in coming thither they had been mous vote that the king had violated their privileges, and menaced and assaulted by the multitude, and could no that they could not assemble again in the same place, till lono-er with safety attend their duty in the House; for they had obtained satisfaction, and a guard for their sewhich reason they protested against all laws, votes, and curity. Meanwhile the king retired to Windsor, whence resolutions, as null and invalid, which should pass during he wrote to his parliament, promising every satisfaction in the time of their forced absence. This ill-timed protesta- his power. But they were resolved to accept of nothing tion was signed by twelve bishops, and communicated to unless he would discover his advisers in that illegal meathe king. As soon as it was presented to the Lords, that sure ; a condition which they knew that, without renderhouse desired a conference with the Commons, whom they ing himself for ever vile and contemptible, he could not informed of this unexpected protestation. An impeach- possibly submit to. . . . .. ^ f ment of high treason was immediately sent up against the The Commons had already stripped the king of most ol bishops, as endeavouring to subvert the fundamental laws, his privileges ; the bishops were fled, the judges were inand to invalidate the authority of the legislature; and on timidated ; and it now only remained, alter securing the the first demand they were sequestered from parliament, church and the law, that they should also get possession of and committed to custody. No man in either house ven- the sword. The power of appointing governors and genetured to speak a word in their vindication. One individual rais, als, ana and ui of levying armies, ^ still continued a Aprerogative ot alone remarked, that he did not believe them guilty o the crown. Having first magnified their terrors ot popery, high treason; he only thought they were stark mad, and which perhaps they actually dreaded, the Commons protherefore desired that they might be sent to Bedlam. ceeded to petition that the Tower might be put into their This was a fatal blow to the royal interest, and it was ag- hands, and that Hull, Portsmouth, and the fleet, should be gravated by the imprudence of the king himself. Chai les intrusted to persons of their choosing. Compliance with had long suppressed his resentment, and only strove to these requests was calculated to subvert what remained gratify the Commons by the greatness of his concessions; of the monarchy; but such was the necessity of the times, but finding all his compliances unavailing, he now gave that they were first contested, and then granted, the orders to Herbert, the attorney-general, to enter an ac- Commons then desired to have a militia, raised and gocusation of high treason, in the House of Peers, against verned by such officers and commanders as they should Lord Kimbolton and five commoners, Sir Arthur Hazlerig, nominate. But Charles hesitated. Being at that time in Hollis, Hampden, Pym, and Strode. The articles charged Dover attending, the queen and the Princess of Orange, them with traitorously endeavouring to subvert the fun- who was about to leave the kingdom, he replied that he damental laws and government of the kingdom, to deprive had not now leisure to consider a matter ot such grea the king of'his regal power, and to impose on his subjects importance; and therefore would defer an answer till an arbitrary and tyrannical authority; with inviting a return. The Commons, however, were well aware that foreign army to invade the kingdom; with aiming at sub- they had gone too far to recede; and hence they were verting the very right and being of parliaments; and v\ it i desirous of leaving him no authority whatever, conscious actually raising and countenancing tumults against t ic that they themselves would be the first victims of its free kino-. Men had scarce leisure to wonder at the precipi- exercise. They alleged that the dangers and distempers tation and imprudence of this impeachment, when they of the nation were such as could endure no longei de y, deman were astonished by another measure still more rash and and unless the king speedily complied with ^ unwarrantable. A serjeant at arms, in the king s name, they would be obliged, both for his safety and that of t demanded of the house the five members, and was sent kingdom, to embody and direct a militia by the authority back without any positive answer. This was followed by of both houses. In their remonstrance they also des conduct still more extraordinary. Next day the king himbe permitted to command the army for an appomte self entered the House of Commons alone, and advanced to time; request which so exasperated him, ia through the hall, while all the members stood up to receive claimeda with indignation, “ No, not for an hour! him. The Speaker withdrew from the chair, and the king peremptory refusal broke off all further tiea y, took possession of it. Having seated himself, and looked sides now resolved to have recourse to aims. round for some time, he told the house that he was sorry for the occasion that forced him thither, but that he was come in person to seize the members whom he had acCHAP. IV. cused of high treason, seeing they would not deliver them up to his serjeant at arms. Then addressing himself to the REIGN OF CHARLES I. : CIVIL WAR. Speaker, he desired to know whether any of the members were in the house. But the Speaker, falling on his knees, Charles, with his family, retires to VorL—Pruitles^ neg(W^ tions—State of the belligerent parties—Ina 7^ of Edgereplied that he had neither eyes to see nor tongue to liamentary army—Skirmish at VJ orceste • defeated in speak, in that place, but as the house was pleased to ldid hill—Association in favour of the yaiists. rect him; and he asked pardon for not being able to g ' 0 the north—Battle of Stratton—Bristol taken by the ) any other answer. The king sat for some time to see if

.jgn 0f atles I.

BRITAIN. 32.3 —Siege of Gloucester—Raised—Battle of Newbury Advan- blessing, he doubted not would recover all the rest. There- Reign of tages gained by Fairfax and Cromwell Lord Fairfax defeated fore, collecting some forces, he advanced southwards, and Charles I. at Atherton—The Scots agree to assist the Parliament—Solemn League and Covenant—Dexterity of Yrane King’s erected his royal standard at Nottingham. The struggle now about to commence seemed, in many Irish auxiliaries—Dispersed at Lantwich—Siege of York. .—Royalists totally defeated at Marston-Moor Demands of respects, exceedingly unequal. The king, indeed, was the Parliament—Execution of Laud—Exploits of Montrose supported by a splendid nobility, and a large portion of in Scotland—Defeat of the Covenanters under Burley at Aber- the more considerable gentry, who, dreading a total condeen Subsequent movements—Devastation of Argyll’s coun- fusion of ranks, enlisted themselves under the banner of try Battle of Inverlochy—Sack of Dundee Battles of Alderne and Alford—Parliamentary army new-modelled by Crom- their monarch, from whom they received, and to whom well—Royalists defeated at Naseby—Bristol taken Retreat they communicated, lustre. The cordial concurrence of of the King to Oxford—Battle of Kilsyth—Montrose defeated the bishops and church of England also increased the at Philiphaugh—Charles throws himself on the Scottish army at number of his adherents. But it may safely be affirmed, Newark—Negociations and proceedings in consequence Sur- that the high monarchical doctrines so much inculcated by render of the King’s person to the English—The army usurp the clergy had been eminently prejudicial to his cause; the sovereignty—Seizure of the King by Cromwell Designs of the army resisted, but ineffectually—Presbyterian members while the bulk of the nobility and gentry who now attended the king in his distress breathed the spirit of liberty as forced to leave the House—Both parties treat with the King His resolution to quit the kingdom—Seized and confined in well as of loyalty ; and it was only in the hopes of his subthe Isle of Wight—Levellers—Danger of Cromwell from this mitting to a limited and legal government that they were sect.—Put down—The Scottish army under Hamilton defeated—State of parties—Cromwell enters Edinburgh in triumph, willing to sacrifice their lives and fortunes in his cause. and settles the government of Scotland Negociations between On the other hand, the city of London, and most of the the King and Parliament—Pride’s Purge Charges against the great corporations, took part with the parliament. In the King.—His trial—His sentence—His execution Behaviour capital, no less than four thousand men enlisted in one in his last moments—Feelings of the nation on the King’s day; and the demand for a loan, by the parliament, was death. answered with so much alacrity, that the treasure flowed in faster than it could be received. All the sea-ports, exCharles, taking the Prince of Wales and the Duke of cept Newcastle, were also in the hands of the parliament; York along with him, retired, by slow journeys, to the city and the seamen naturally followed the party espoused by of York, where the people were more loyal, and less in- the ports to which they belonged. Add to this, that the fected with the prevailing spirit of the times, than else- example of the Dutch commonwealth, where liberty had where. Here he found his cause backed by a more nume- so happily supported industry, made the commercial part rous party among the people than he had expected. The of the nation desire to see a similar form of government nobility and gentry from all quarters, either personally or established in England; whilst many families, who had by messages and letters, expressed their duty towards enriched themselves by commerce, finding that, notwithhim; and the queen, who was then in Holland, had suc- standing their opulence, they could not raise themselves ceeded in levying men and procuring ammunition by sell- to a level with the ancient gentry, adhered to a power by ing the crown jewels. But before war was openly de- the success of which they hoped to acquire both rank and clared, the semblance of a negociation was kept up, rather consideration. with a view to please the people, than with any hope of At first every advantage seemed to lie against the royal reconciliation. Nay, that the king might despair of all cause. The king was totally destitute of money, while, composition, the parliament sent him the conditions on from the causes already mentioned, the parliament were which they were willing to come to an agreement. Their secure of a considerable revenue. They had begun by demands were contained in nineteen propositions or ar- seizing all the magazines of arms and ammunition, and ticles, and in effect amounted to a total abolition of mo- their fleet intercepted the greater part of the succours narchical authority. It was required that no man should sent by the queen from Holland; so that the king, in order remain in the council who was not agreeable to parlia- to arm his followers, was obliged to borrow the weapons of ment; that no deed of the king’s should be held valid un- the trained bands, under promise of restoring them on the less it passed the council, and was attested under their return of peace. The nature and qualities of his adherents hand; that all the officers of state should be chosen with alone gave the king some compensation for all the advanconsent of parliament; that none of the royal family should tages possessed by his adversaries. More bravery and marry without the consent of parliament or of council; activity were hoped for from the generous spirit of the that the laws should be executed against Catholics; that nobles and gentry, than from the baser disposition of the the votes of Catholic lords should be excluded; that the multitude; and as the landed gentlemen had levied and reformation of the liturgy and church government should armed their tenants at their own expense, greater force proceed according to the advice of parliament; that the and courage were to be expected from these rustic troops ordinance with regard to the militia should be acquiesced than from the vicious and enervated population of cities. m; that parliament should judge all delinquents; that a But the parliamentary forces were ill officered or ill general pardon should be granted, with such exceptions directed, otherwise, with a disposable force of six thouas might be advised by parliament; that the forts and sand men, which lay within a few days’ march of the royalcastles should be disposed of by consent of parliament; ists, they might have easily dissipated the small number and that no peers should be created but with consent of of which the king had been able to collect, amountoth houses. War on any terms was esteemed by the ingtroops to no more than eight hundred horse and three hunmg and all his counsellors preferable to a peace on such dred foot. In a short time the parliamentary army march'gnominious terms. “ If I should submit to these terms,” ed to Northampton, where the Earl of Essex, who had joinsai he, “ I may have my hand kissed, and may retain the ed them, found a force amounting to fifteen thousand men. i e of majesty, but I should remain but the outside, the The king’s army too was soon reinforced from all quarpic ure, the sign of a king.” Charles accordingly resolved ters ; but having no force capable of coping with the orfc ho SU authority force arms.his His towns, saiPP, were taken from byhim; hisofships, army, and parliamentary army, he thought it prudent to retire to Derby, and thence to Shrewsbury, in order to cover the t ere levies which his friends were making in those parts. At qnrAn116 ^Utof ^ his loyalremained him a good e ?' hearts subjects,towhich, with cause, God’s Wellington, a day’s march from Shrewsbury, he assem-

BRITAIN. 324 an assembly of divines. But considerable abatement would Reign of Reign of bled his forces, amounting to near ten thousand men, probably have been made in these demands if Charles had Chartel Charles I. and caused to be read at the head of every regiment Ins not been extravagant in his ; and the failure of the negomilitary orders, in which he protested solemnly before his ciation is ascribed to the king s fidelity to an unhappy whole army that he would maintain the Protestant religion promise he had made to the queen to accede to no terms according to the church of England ; that he would govern without her intervention and consent. according to the known statutes and customs ol the kingWhile the treaty was in dependence no cessation of hosdom ■ and that he would observe inviolate the laws to tilities took place. On the 27th of April 1643 Reading which he had given his consent during the present and surrendered to fhe parliamentary forces under the Earl of Essex, who commanded a body of eighteen thousand men. P1 WMe'charles lay at Shrewsbury, he received the news In the north, the Earl of Northumberland united the counof an action, the first that occurred in this unhappy conties of Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmoreland, test, in which his party were victorious. On the »PPeai'- in a league for the king, and some time after engaged other ance of civil commotion in England, the Princes Kupert counties in the same association. Fhe same nobleman and Maurice, sons of the elector palatine, had ottered also took possession of York, and the Earl of Newcastle their services to the king; and the former at that time dislodged the forces of the parliament under Fairfax at commanded a body of horse which had been sent to Wor- Tadca*ster; but his victory was not decisive. Other adcester to watch the motions of Essex, who was then march- vantages were also gained by the royalists, the most iming towards that city. The prince, however, had scarcely portant of which was at Stratton, where Waller, who comarrived, when he saw some of the enemy s cavalry ap- manded the parliamentary army, was entirely defeated, proaching the gates. Without a moments delay he at- and forced to fly with only a few horse to Bristol. This tacked them as they were defiling from a lane and in the happened on the 13th of July, andwas followed by the siege act of forming, killed their commander, Colonel bandys, of Bristol, which surrendered to Prince Rupert on the 25th routed the whole party, and pursued them above a mile. of the same month. . At this period military science and skill were at the Although the taking of Bristol cost the royalists dear, lowest possible ebb in England; so much so, indeed, that, five hundred having fallen in the attempt to carry it by however much the contending parties might (fitter in spi- storm, yet their general success had greatly dispirited the rit or in means, they were on a footing of perfect equality opposite party ; and the confusion which now prevailed at in ignorance of the principles and conduct of war. Ine London was so great that some proposed to the king to march hostile armies moved simultaneously, the kings from directly to the metropolis, which it was hoped might be reShrewsbury, and the parliamentary from Worcester; but duced bv an insurrection of the citizens, by victory, or by so totally destitute were both of intelligence, that they treaty, and thus put an end at once to the civil disorders. wandered about for ten days in absolute ignorance of each But this judicious advice was rejected; and it was resolved other’s motions. At length, on the 23d of October 1642, first of all to reduce Gloucester, that the king might have they met at Keinton, or Edgehill, in the county of Marwhole course of the Severn under his commamk hy wick. The royalists were commanded in chief by the the this means it was hoped that the rich but disaffected Earl of Lindesay, who had seen some^ service in the Low counties of the west, losing the protection of their friends, Countries, and now had under him Prince Kupeit, master might be forced to pay large contributions as an atoneof the horse, Sir Jacob Astley in charge of the foot. Sir ment for their disaffection; that a communication miglit Arthur Aston commanding the dragoons, and Sir John maintained between Wales and these new conquests; Heydon the artillery. The general-in-chief of the parlia- be and that half the kingdom, freed from the enemy, and mentary forces was the Earl of Essex, assisted by a num- united into one firm body, might be employed in re-estaber of subordinate officers as yet unknown to fame. In blishing the king's authority throughout the remainder. the encounter which immediately ensued, the royalists The siege accordingly commenced on the 10th of August, were at first victorious. Both wings of the parliamentary the town being defended by Massey, a resolute goarmy were broken and put to flight by the onset of Prince but Rupert’s cavalry, supported by the troops under Aston vernor, and well garrisoned, made a vigorous defence. consternation in London, however, was as graat a and Wilmot; and if the royalist reserve had remained The if the had already been at their gates; an in steady, the day would have been won. But thinking the midst enemy general confusion a design was formed oy victory already decided, they broke up from their position Wallerofofthe forcing parliament to accept of some reato join in the pursuit, and, whilst in the confusion pro- sonable conditions the of peace. He imparted his design o duced by this disorderly movement, they were attacked others; but a discovery being made of their proby Sir William Balfour, who had anxiously watched then- some ceedings, he and two others were condemned to dea ^ motions, with the parliamentary reserve, and defeated in their turn. Both armies then rallied, and faced each Waller, however, escaped with a fine of L.10,000. In t other for some time, neither party venturing to renew the meanwhile Gloucester was reduced to the utmost extreattack: they lay all night under arms, and next day with- mity. A general assault had been repelled by the aes drew, Essex towards Warwick, and the king to his former- perate enthusiasm of the garrison and city; but t e m of prolonging tne the ueience defence were nnO ^ wcie uu*, -a. quarters. Five thousand men, it is said, were left dead of As a last resource, the parliament dispatched Esse on the field in this bootless encounter. Soon afterwards, the king took Banbury and Reading, and defeated two re- an army of fourteen thousand men to raise the siege, giments of his enemies at Brentford, taking five hundred he effected without much difficulty; and on entering prisoners. Thus ended the campaign of 1642, in which, place he found only one barrel of gunpowder left, an _ ,, ti,e though the king upon the whole had the advantage, yet provisions nearly exhausted. But on his return to London he was intercepte y the parliamentary army amounted to twenty-four thousand e v men, and was much superior to his. Nevertheless, his ene- king’s army, and a desperate battle ensued at ) • „s which lasted till night. Essex’s horse were several t_ mies had so far been humbled as to otter terms of peace. This led to the negociations at Oxford. The terms requir- broken by the king’s, but his infantry preserved its to ^ 7 ed by the parliament as the condition of the king s recal, tion ; and the front ranks presenting a formidable were the disposal of the militia, the abolition of Episco- pikes, whilst those in the rear poured in a destruct pacy, and the settlement of ecclesiastical controversies by Prince Rupert and the gentry composing the royai

BRITAIN. 325 Re ji of ry were unable, notwithstanding the furious impetuosity of besides mutually engaging to defend each other against Reign of Clui?9 !• their attacks, to make any impression on its compact or- all opponents, bound themselves to endeavour, without re- Charles I» ^ der. Night put an end to the contest, but left the vic- spect of persons, the extirpation of popery, prelacy, supertory undecided. On the side of the king fell the brave, stition, heresy, and profaneness; to maintain the rights accomplished, and virtuous Lord Falkland, one of the few and privileges of parliaments, together with the king’s aupersonages to be met with in history whose life and death thority ; and to discover and bring to justice all incendiawere equally honourable and glorious. Next morning ries and malignants. They vowed also to preserve the reEssex proceeded on his march to London; and although formed religion as established in the church of Scotland; he had rather escaped a defeat than gained a victory, he but, b}^ the artifice of Vane, no declaration more explicit obtained the approbation of parliament. The king follow- was made with regard to England and Ireland, than that ed in the same direction, and, having taken possession of those kingdoms should be reformed according to the word of Reading, he established a garrison there, and by that means God and the example of the purest churches. This equistraitened London and the quarters of the enemy. vocal abjuration of prelacy completely blinded the Scottish In the north, during the summer, the Earl, now created Presbyterians, who, assuming their own to be the purest Marquis, of Newcastle, had raised a considerable force for church, never doubted that it was intended to serve as a the king; and great hopes of success were entertained from model for England. But, as a leader of the sect of Indethat quarter. But there appeared, in opposition to him, two pendents, Vane had other views, and artfully reserved a men, on whom the event of the war finally depended, and loophole of retreat whenever it should be convenient to who about this time began to be remarked for their valour dispense with the assistance of the Scots. Meanwhile and military conduct. These were Sir Thomas Fairfax, the Solemn League and Covenant was received in the Scotson to the lord of that name, and Oliver Cromwell. The tish convention, and in the assembly of the kirk, with tears former gained a considerable advantage over the royalists of enthusiastic joy, and transmitted to the English parliaat Wakefield, and took General Goring prisoner ; the latter ment and assembly of divines at Westminster, where, for obtained a victory at Gainsborough over a party command- different reasons, it was received with equal applause, and ed by General Cavendish, who perished in the action. ordained to be universally subscribed in both kingdoms. But both these defeats were more than compensated by By a treaty with the convention, twenty-one thousand the total rout of Lord Fairfax at Atherton Moor, and the Scottish troops Avere to be retained in arms at the expense dispersion of his army, which happened on the 31st of of England, to be led by their own generals, and to reJuly. After this victory, the Marquis of Newcastle sat ceive orders from a committee of both kingdoms. 1 down before Hull with an army of fifteen thousand men; The king likeAvise, in order to secure himself, had conbut, being beaten off by a sally of the garrison, he suffered cluded a cessation of arms Avith the Irish rebels, and reso much that he thought it proper to raise the siege. About called a considerable part of his army from Ireland. Some the same time Manchester advanced from the eastern as- Irish Catholics came over with these troops, and joined sociated counties, and having joined Cromwell and young the royal army, where they continued the same cruelties Fairfax, defeated the royalists at Horne Castle, where the and disorders to which they had been accustomed; and conduct and gallantry of these two rising officers were the parliament voted that no quarter should ever be given eminently conspicuous. But though fortune had thus ba- them in any action. But Prince Rupert having made some lanced her favours, the king’s party still remained much reprisals, this inhumanity was repressed on both sides. superior in the north; and had it not been for the garriThe campaign of 1644 proved very unfortunate to the son of Hull, which kept Yorkshire in awe, a junction of royal cause. The forces brought from Ireland were landthe northern forces with the army of the south might have ed at Mostyne in North Wales, and placed under the comenabled the king, instead of undertaking the imprudent mand of Lord Biron. They then besieged and took the enterprise against Gloucester, to march directly to Lon- castles of HaAA'arden, Beeston, Acton, and Deddingtondon and put an end to the war. The indecisive battle of house. No place in Cheshire or the neighbourhood now Newbury terminated the campaign of 1643, by both par- adhered to the parliament except Lantwich, and to it Biron ties retiring into winter quarters. laid siege in the depth of winter. Alarmed at this progress, The issue of the war being still doubtful, both the king Sir Thomas Fairfax assembled an army of four thousand and parliament began to look for assistance from other na- men in Yorkshire, and having joined Sir William Breretions. The former looked to Ireland, the latter to Scot- ton, approached the camp of the royalists. Biron and his land. The parliament of England, at the commencement soldiers, elated with success, entertained a most profound of the civil dissensions, had invited the Scots to interpose contempt for their enemies, and, as usual in such cases, their mediation, which, however, the king had declined. paid dear for their absurd vanity. Fairfax suddenly attackEarly in the spring of 1643 this offer was renewed, but with ed their camp, while the swelling of the river by a thaw dino better success than before. Commissioners were also vided one part of the army from the other. Those immeempowered to urge on the king to a compliance with the diately opposed to Fairfax Avere quickly driven from their presbyterian worship and discipline ; but this he absolutely post, and having retired into the church of Acton, were refused, as well as to call a parliament in Scotland; and surrounded and taken prisoners; the other part retreated the commissioners, finding themselves unable to prevail precipitately without fighting; and thus Avas dissipated 1 an ” y °ne of their demands, returned highly dissatisfied. or rendered useless the body of auxiliaries from Ireland. isappointed in all these views, the English parliament happened on the 25th of January. On the 11th of now sent commissioners to Edinburgh, to treat of a more This April ensuing Colonel Bellasis Avas totally defeated at P ose confederacy with the Scottish nation. The person Selby in Yorkshire by Sir Thomas Fairfax, Avho had reto whom they principally confided on this occasion Avas Sir turned from Cheshire with his victorious forces. Being ^ Yane, who, in eloquence, address, and capacity, as afterwards joined by Lord Leven with the Scottish army, .as art and dissimulation, was not surpassed by any Fairfax, in conjunction with his ally, sat down before the one m that age, so famous for men of active talents. By his city of York, but being unable to invest the city completepersuasions was framed at Edinburgh the Solemn League ly, they Avere obliged to content themselves with incomvo ov3ynanb which effaced all former protestations and moding it by a loose blockade. Hopetoun, having asseme 1 crpr/ koth kingdoms, and longthe maintained its bled a body of fourteen thousand men, endeavoured to break and1°authority. In this covenant, subscribers, into Sussex, Kent, and the southern association, which seem-

B R I T A I 326 lleign of ed well disposed to receive him; but he was defeated by of Essex’s forces, which happened on the 1st of Septem- lleign Charles I. Waller at Cherington. At Newark, however, Trince Ku- her. On the 27th of October another battle was fought Charles ij at Newbury, in which the royalists were worsted; but pert totally routed the parliamentary army which besieg- soon after they retrieved their honour at Bennington Cased that place, and thus preserved the communication open tle, which finished the campaign in 1644. between the king’s northern and southern quarters. ;■ In 1645 negociations were renewed, afid the commisThe great advantages which the parliament had gamed sioners, sixteen from Charles, twelve from the parliament, in the north seemed now to second their enterprises, and and four from the Scots, assembled at Uxbridge on the finally to promise them success. Manchester having taken 30th of January; but it was soon found impossible to come Lincoln, had united his army to that of Leven and hair- to any agreement. Ihe demands of the parliament were fax; and York was now closely besieged by their nume- exorbitant, and, what was worse, their commissioners alrous forces. That town, though vigorously defended by leged that these were nothing but pichminaiies. The the Marquis of Newcastle, was reduced to the last extre- kin0- was required to attaint, and except fiom a geneial mity, when Prince Rupert, having joined Sir Charles pardon, forty of the most considerable of his English, and Lucas, who commanded Newcastle s horse, hastened to its nineteen of his Scottish subjects, together with all the porelief with an army of twenty thousand men. pish recusants who had borne arms for him. It was inThe Scottish and parliamentary generals raised the siege, sisted that forty-eight more, with all the members of and, drawing up on Marston-moor, prepared to give bat- either house wrho had sat in the parliament called by the tle to the royalists. By a dexterous movement, or lathei kino- at Oxford, all lawyers and divines who had embraced by masking his movements, Rupert, interposing the Ouse theldng’s party, should be rendered incapable of any office, between him and the enemy, threw military stores and forbidden the exercise of their profession, be prohibitprovisions into York, and joined his forces with those un- be from coming within the verge of the court, and should der Newcastle. The marquis then endeavoured to per- ed forfeit the third of their estates to the parliament. It was suade him, that, having successfully effected his purpose, required, that whoever had borne arms for the king should he outfit to be contented with the present advantage ; re- forfeit the tenth of their estates, or, if that did not sufmain on the defensive at least till an expected reinforce- fice, the sixth, for the payment of public debts. And, as ment arrived; and leave the enemy, diminished by losses, if such terms would not have sufficiently annihilated the and discouraged by ill success, to dissolve by the mutual royal authority, it was further demanded that the court of dissensions which had begun to take place among them. should be abolished; that all the considerable offiThe prince, however, hurried on by his natural impetuo- wards cers of the crown, and particularly the judges, should be sity, gave immediate orders for fighting. His forces oc- appointed by parliament; and that the right of peace and cupied Marston-moor; those of his opponents were posted war should not be exercised without consent of parliain the adjacent fields; and both sides were nearly equal in ment. Considerable abatement was, however, made in numbers. Fifty thousand British subjects were now drawn rigorous demands; and as the rising power of the up in order of battle, and ready to begin the work of mu- these Independents made it the interest of the Presbyteuans to tual destruction. After an ineffectual cannonade across a conclude peace, if it could be done with any degree of bank and ditch which separated the two armies, the sigthe treaty was now limited to the three subjects of nal for close combat was given nearly at the same instant safety, religion, the militia, and Ireland. On the first, the kings by both sides. A moment of silent suspense followed, enemies required the abolition of prelacy, the confirmation each party expecting that the other would begin the attack. But evening approached, and no time was to be of the acts of the assembly of divines at Westminster, ana lost. At the head of the left wing of the parliamentary the ratification of the Solemn League and Covenant, with army Cromwell and David Leslie crowned the bank, drove an injunction to all to take it, beginning with the king back Rupert’s right wing, dispersed his cavalry, and over- himself; on the second, the management of the militia powered part of his centre. A different fortune awaited till seven years after the peace, and an act of mutual obthe right wing of the parliamentary army, where young livion ; on the third, or Ireland, a cessation of arms, ana Fairfax commanded. Charged with irresistible impetuo- the surrender to parliament of the direction of the war, sity by General Hurry, it was beaten back in disorder; and of the power of concluding peace without their con and a reserve of the Scottish infantry, which moved to its sent. But, after a great deal of fruitless negociation, support, was also cut up with astonishing celerity. The Charles ultimately refused to concede any of these points, royalists then pushed for the enemy’s baggage, and began and the treaty was in consequence broken off. Ihe news to plunder. But while they were thus occupied, Crom- of Montrose’s victories in Scotland, and the hope of ten well and Leslie wheeled round and restored the battle. thousand men under the Duke of Lorraine, which i had stipulated for, are alleged to have been ne The parliamentary right wing now rallied on the left, and queen chief causes of the failure of the treaty. A little be ore the whole army having changed its front, drew up in a position at right angles to that which it had occupied at commencement of this negociation, the parhamen , the commencement of the battle. The royalists did the show their determined resolution to proceed as they same, and the combat w^as renewed with great fury on begun, brought to the block Archbishop Laud, w io both sides. But fortune soon declared in favour of the for a considerable time been a prisoner in the lowei, parliamentarians. The shock, though bloody, was brief, was no longer capable of giving offence, or rendering 11 and the victory decided by Leslie’s three Scottish regi- self dangerous to any one. The sacrifice of t ® ^ ’ ments and Cromwell’s brigade of ironsides. The royal wicked, and unfortunate man,- was therefore, poh^ J army was driven off the field, and its whole artillery considered, an act of bootless severity, and as suci g to be condemned. rse taken. But while the king’s affairs were daily becoming Immediately after this unfortunate action the Marquis ’ of Newcastle left the kingdom, while Prince Rupert retir- in England, they seemed to revive a little in ^co ed into Lancashire. The city of York surrendered in a few through the conduct and valour of the Earl ofilo days, and Newcastle was soon afterwards taken by storm. On his return from his travels, Montrose had been ^ This was a fatal blow to the royal cause, and far from be- duced to the king; but not meeting with an agreea . ing counterbalanced by an advantage gained at Cropredy- ception, he went over to the Covenanters, am bridge by the king over Waller, or even by the surrender active in forwarding all their schemes. Being c

BRITAIN. 327 Ti Irn of sioned, however, by the tables to wait upon the king and foitune relieved him, and brought back victory to his C! ;es I. while the army lay at Berwick, he was gained over by the standard. By a rapid and unexpected march he hasten- Reign of v - .'^ civilities and caresses of that monarch, and thenceforth ed to Innerlochy, and presented himself in order of battle Charles I. devoted himself entirely, though secretly, to his service. before the Covenanters at the head of about eighteen hunHaving attempted to form an association in favour of the dred men. Argyll, seized with a panic, deserted his army, royal cause, Montrose was thrown into prison ; and on his and, at a secure distance, having pushed off from the shore release, which he managed to obtain, he found the kino- of the loch in a boat, witnessed the conflict which he had ready to give ear to his counsels, which were of the boldest not the courage to share. The Campbells, however, made and most daring kind. The whole nation of Scotland was a stout resistance, but were at last defeated and pursued occupied by the Covenanters ; considerable armies were with great slaughter. After this victory, Montrose was kept on foot by them, and every place wras guarded by a joined by great numbers of Highlanders ; Seaforth’s army vigilant administration ; yet, by his own credit, and that of dispelsed of itself; and the Lord Gordon, eldest son of a few friends who remained to the king, this bold rene- the Marquis of Huntly, having escaped from his uncle gade undertook to raise such commotions as should soon Argyll, who had hitherto detained him, now joined Monoblige the malcontents to recal the forces which had so trose with a considerable number of his followers, accomsensibly turned the balance in favour of the English par- panied by the Earl of Aboyne. liament. The defeat at Marston-moor had left him no Alarmed at these victories, the council at Edinburgh hopes of any succours from England; he was therefore sent for Badlie, an officer of reputation, from England, obliged to stipulate with the Earl of Antrim for a sup- and, joining him in command with Urrey, dispatched them ply of men from Ireland. And having used various dis- with a considerable army against the royalists. Montrose, guises, as well as passed through many dangers, he arriv- with a detachment of eight hundred men, had attacked ed in Scotland, where he lay for some time concealed on Dundee, a town remarkable for its zeal in favour of the the borders of the Highlands. covenant, carried it by assault, and given it up to be plunAlthough the Irish did not exceed eleven hundred foot, dered by his soldiers, when Baillie and Urrey with their very ill armed, Montrose immediately put himself at their whole suddenly came upon him. He instantly callhead ; and, being joined by thirteen hundred Highlanders, ed off force his soldiers from the plunder, put them in order he attacked Lord Elcho, who lay at Tibbermore, near coveied his retreat by a series of skilful manoeuvres, and, Perth, with six thousand men, and utterly defeated him, laving marched sixty miles in the face of a superior enekilling two thousand of the Covenanters. He next march- my without stopping or allowing his soldiers the least time ed northwards in order to rouse the Marquis of Huntly for sleep or refreshment, he at last secured himself in the and the Gordons, who had before taken arms, but had mountains. His antagonists now divided their forces, in been overpowered by the Covenanters. At Aberdeen he order to carry on the war against an enemy who surprisattacked and entirely defeated Lord Burley, who commanded two thousand five hundred men. But by this ed them as much by the rapidity of his marches as by the of his enterprises. Urrey met him with four thouvictory Montrose did not obtain the end he proposed; for boldness sand men at Auldearn, near Inverness, and, trusting to his the Marquis of Huntly showed no inclination to join an army where he was sure to be eclipsed by a powerful and superiority in number, Montrose having only two thousand men, attacked him in the post which he had chosen. Mongenius act n om trose posted his right wing on some strong ground, and ivr ^ * & fr its own impulses. Montrose was now in a very dangerous situation. Ar- drew the best of his forces to the other, leaving no main gy k reinforced by the Earl of Lothian, was behind him body between them ; a defect which he artfully concealed with a great army; while the militia of the northern counties ot Moray, Ross, and Caithness, to the number of five by showing a few men through the trees and bushes with thousand, opposed him in front, and guarded the banks of the which the ground was covered. And, that Urrey mUht £pey, a deep and rapid river. In order to save his troops, have no leisure to discover the stratagem, he instantly fed w n to tPe he turned aside into the hills; but, after some marches Vs ^ S charge, and from madethea field furious onset on the Covenanters, whom he drove in complete C Un r mai heS Argy11 came U with him at raM ° uere " ? some ’ P Fmvy disorder. Baillie now advanced to revenge Urrey’s deastie. Montrose *T ’ aftergot in which wasby vie-a feat, and re-establish, if possible, the credit of the popuftonous, clearskirmishes, of a superior army,heand, lar arms. But he himself met with a similar fate at Alml himself absolutely ,thr?ug1,1 a,most ced beyondinaccessible their reach.mountains, pla- ford. Montrose, weak in cavalry, intermixed his troops of horse with platoons of infantry,“and, having put his eneU lt Was the ill of this general, that good or my s horse to rout, fell with united force upon their foot, fn itune proved misfortune ill fo equally destructive to his army. After which were entirely cut in pieces, though with the loss snoiiytlV1Ct0i!yihlS.?COttlsh adherents went home with the of the gallant Lord Gordon on the part of the royalists. lad ed nf cePected; and had his army been compos- Victoi tous in so many battles, which his vigour had rendoned 1Rf 10fi16y’ m mu st soon have been altogether aban- dered as decisive as they were successful, Montrose now to which thV I’f Under hls command, having no place piepared to march into the southern counties, in order to tune WiR ^1cou c t retir e, adhered to him in every for- put down the power of the Covenanters, and disperse the Atholemln1 ^erefbre’ and some reinforcements of parliament, which had been ordered to assemble at St AmvllW,nrd ^acdonalds’ Montrose fell suddenly upon Johnstone or Perth. in fher mn«f0086 Up°n k a11 the h°n-ors of war M hile Montrose was thus signalizing his valour in the Having colIec noith, l airfax, or rather Oliver Cromwell under his name sand men^"V • ted three thouretired with thA U!arc led in fiuest of the enemy, who had and sanction, employed himself in new-modelling the parlochy snnnoe^eir Pjimder, and took up a position at Inner- liamentary army, and throwing the whole into a different Hmsed to tance'from he still at a considerable dis- and much more effective form. And never perhaps was tagoni st W blished ned itsein itself inaJ?front, the . - Earl hile of Seaforth, this forceathad the thus headesof there a more singular army established than that which was now re-organized by the parliament. To the greater levied trnrmc^ Inve™ess and a body of five thousand new number of the regiments chaplains were not appointed: alists threatened ihf 688^? tt0le ar°y on the other side, and the officers assumed the spiritual duty, which they united destru Montrose was 'rm the i extreme; ction. situation of with their military functions. During the intervals of acas crit’' ci itical but a The stroke of genius tion they occupied themselves in sermons, prayers, and

AIN. 328 BRIT recalled all the prince’s commissions, and sent him a pass Hekiui Reign of exhortations. Rapturous ecstasies supplied the place of to go beyond sea. Charles I. study and reflection; and whilst the zealous devotees In the mean time the Scots, having made themselves > poured out their thoughts in unpremeditated harangues, masters of Carlisle after an obstinate siege, marched they mistook the natural eloquence which flowed from an southwards and invested Hereford, but were obliged to excited and enthusiastic temperament, for illuminations raise the siege on the king’s approach. This was the last and illapses of the Holy Spirit._ Wherever they were glimpse of success that attended his arms. Having marchquartered, they excluded the minister from his pulpit, ed to the relief of Chester, which was anew besieged by and, usurping his place, conveyed their sentiments to the the parliamentary forces under Colonel Jones, his rear was audience with all the authority that belonged to their power, attacked by Poyntz, and an engagement immediately entheir valour, and their military exploits, united with zeal sued. The fight was maintained with great obstinacy, and fervour. The private soldiers were infected with the and victory seemed to incline to the royalists, when Jones same spirit; and such an enthusiasm seized the whole fell upon them from the other side, and defeated them with army as perhaps has scarce ever been equalled in the his- the loss ofsix hundred killed and a thousand taken prisoners. tory of the world. The royalists ridiculed the fanaticism The king, with the remains of his army, fled to Newark, of the parliamentary armies, without being sensible how thence escaped to Oxford, where he shut himself up much reason they had to dread its effects. They were at and during the winter season. After the surrender of Bristol, this time equal, if not superior, in numbers to their eneand Cromwell, having divided their forces, marchmies, but so licentious in their conduct, that they had Fairfax ed, the former westwards in order to complete the conbecome more formidable to their friends than to their enequest of Devonshire and Cornwall, and the latter to attack mies. The commanders were most of them men of dissolute characters ; in the west especially, where Goring com- the king’s garrisons to the eastward of Bristol. Nothing manded, universal spoil and havoc were committed ; the was able to stand before these victorious generals; every was obliged to submit, and every body of troops whole country was laid waste by the excesses of the town royalist army; and even the most devoted friends of chui ch which ventured to resist them were utterly defeated. At last news arrived that Montrose himself, after some and state longed for success to the parliamentary foices in these parts, as the only mode in which a stop could be more successes, had been defeated; and thus the only hope of the royal party was destroyed. When he had descendput to these frightful disorders. The natural consequence of this enthusiasm in the par- ed into the southern counties, the Covenanters, assembling liamentary army, and this licentiousness in that of the their whole force, met him with a numerous army, and gave king, was, that equal numbers of the latter were no longer him battle at Kilsyth. But here he obtained a memorable able to maintain their ground against the former. Ibis ap- victory. Of the Covenanters above four thousand were peared conspicuously in the decisive battle of Naseby, which killed on the spot, and no remains of an army left them in wyas fought between forces nearly equal. Prince Rupert, by Scotland. Many noblemen, who had secretly favoured the his furious onset, broke the wing of the enemy opposed to royal cause, now declared openly for it, when they saw a him, but, as usual, pursued too far. Cromwell also bore force able to support them. The Marquis of Douglas, the down the wing of the royalists opposite that w^hich he com- Earls of Annandale and Hartfield, the Lords Fleming, Semanded ; but instead of imitating the example of the im- ton, Maderty, Carnegy, and many others, flocked to the petuous prince, he sent a detachment in pursuit, and exe- royal standard. Edinburgh opened its gates and gave n cuting what is technically called a quart de conversion, at- berty to all the prisoners detained there by the Covenanttacked the exposed flank of the centre, where the royalist ers, and amongst the rest to Lord Ogilvy, son to the Eau o infantry were pressing hard on Fairfax. rIhe result ot Airly, whose family had contributed essentially to the victhis movement was decisive. When Rupert returned from tory gained at Kilsyth. David Leslie was now detached pursuit the battle was irretrievably lost. The king called from the army in England, and marched to the rebel ot out to make but one charge more and the day would be his distressed party in Scotland. Allured by vain hopes their own; but his artillery and baggage being already of rousing to arms the Earls of Hume, Iraquaire, and taken, his infantry destroyed, and the prince’s cavalry burgh, who had promised to join him, and of obtaining wholly exhausted by their exertions, it was now too late from England some supply of cavalry, in which he was still to attempt any such effort. After an obstinate struggle, very deficient, Montrose advanced still further to tne Charles was entirely defeated, with the loss of five hundred south. But by the negligence of his piquet, or more proofficers and four thousand private men prisoners, and all bably from security engendered by success, Leslie surhis artillery and ammunition, while his infantry were total- prised his army at Philiphaugh in the Forest, then muc diminished in numbers from the desertion ol the Hig ly dispersed. After this fatal battle, the king retired first to Hereford, ers, who, according to custom, had retired to the In s then to Abergavenny, and remained some time in Wales, secure their plunder. After a sharp conflict, in rwu ic in the vain hope of raising a body of infantry in these Montrose displayed great valour, his forces were ®0 jy quarters, already harassed and exhausted. His affairs now by Leslie’s cavalry, and he was himself forced to fly _ i . i he went to ruin in all quarters. Fairfax retook Leicester on mountains. In the situation to which the king was now reduce , the 17th of June; and on the 10th of July he raised the siege of Taunton, while the royalists retired to Lamport, resolved to grant the parliament their own terms, an erse an open town in the county of Somerset. Here they were them repeated messages to this effect; but a consi re^ lD attacked by Fairfax, and driven from their position, with time elapsed before they deigned to make him the loss of three hundred killed and fourteen hundred At last, after reproaching him with the blood spin n taken prisoners. This was followed by the loss of Bridge- the war, they informed him that they were prep’ water, which Fairfax took three days after, making the some bills, to which, if he would consent, they sho garrison, to the amount of tw'o thousand six hundred men, be able to judge of his pacific inclinations. In tie prisoners of war. He then reduced Bath and Sharburn; time Fairfax was advancing with a victorious armyani . , j. and on the 11th of September Bristol was surrendered by der to lay siege to Oxford; and Charles, rather tinS Rupert, though a few days before he had boasted, in a mit to be taken captive and led in triumph by msc s ^ letter to Charles, that he would defend the place for four subjects, resolved to give himself up. to the k ? ’j . months. This so enraged the king, that he immediately had never testified such implacable animosity agams ^

BRITAIN. 329 R rn of and to trust to their loyalty for the rest. After passing might have arisen in England, such a stipulation to sup- Reign of CLiesI-in disguise through many bye-ways and cross-roads, he port the king, without first exacting from him an unequi- Charles I. ^ ^ arrived, in company with only two persons, Dr Hudson vocal pledge to grant all the objects for which they had v— and Mr Ashburnham, at the Scottish camp before Newark, taken up arms, would have been the height of folly, and and immediately discovered himself to their general Lord a saciifice of great national interests to a romantic sentiLeven. ment. Accordingly, they remained faithful to their oriThis resolution, though adopted in the midst of disaster, ginal engagements; and although they withdrew to Newseems to have been formed by the king in hopes of divid- castle to prevent the English intercepting their return ing his enemies, and profiting by their dissensions, of home, they obtained the king’s order for the surrender of which, indeed, any prince in his situation would not have Newark, guarded his person with respectful vigilance, and hesitated to avail himself. Nor were there wanting cir- openly professed their resolution to avail themselves of cumstances to justify a measure which, because it proved the advantage they had thus acquired, in order to obtain unfortunate, has generally been considered as rash and ill- the desired conformity in religion, and the establishment advised. fhe Presbyterian form of church government of peace on a durable basis. had indeed been adopted in England, under the sanction Next came the negociations between the Scots and Engof the divines assembled at Westminster; but the parlia- lish for the payment of arrears due to the former, and for ment steadily refused to render the church supreme, and the surrender of the king’s person into the hands of the to disjoin it from all connection with the state. The Inde- latter. The arrears, after many deductions, were finally pendents, also, had combined with the Erastians in parlia- settled at L.400,000; and this adjustment has been perment to procure a charitable indulgence of conscience, petually identified by historians with the agreement to or, in other words, unlimited though tacit toleration of all deliver up the king’s person, and represented as the equisects and opinions; a proceeding which the English as valent given, or the price paid, for an act of unparalleled well as Scottish Presbyterians resisted as at once incompabaseness. The confusion of facts, however, is as gross as tible with the covenant, and favourable to boundless lati- the stigma attached to the Scottish nation is undeserved. tudinanamsm. Nor were there wanting other causes of Ihe amount of the arrears was fixed in August. In Nodeep offence to exasperate the Scots. Their pay was in arrear; their supplies were neglected; their cautionary vember the question as to the disposal of the royal person remained still unsettled. At this time the Scottish pargarrisons in the north were demanded back; their free liament, at a vote passed by the English parliaquarters were refused. Ever since the battle of Naseby ment in indignant September (a month after the settlement of the the Presbyterian, and with it the Scottish, influence had declined, whilst that of the Independents became every arrears) claiming the sole disposal of the king’s person, day stronger and stronger. Symptoms of an approaching resolved to maintain the freedom of the king, and assert Ins right to the English throne; but the vote was afterschism, it not collision, were apparent. Is it to be won- wards rescinded, on the just ground that it amounted to dered that, in these circumstances, Charles, who had al- an abandonment of the solemn league and covenant, adoptready maintained a secret correspondence with the two ed in concert with English Presbyterians, unless their tactions of his enemies, should have now calculated on joint demands werethe granted by the king. They offered, widening, by his presence with one of them, the breach that had so evidently taken place ? His previous views, lowever, to reinstate him on the throne, and to obtain for as expressed in a confidential letter to Lord Digby, were urn a just settlement with his English subjects, provided to draw either the Presbyterians or the Independents be would consent to take the covenant; and commissiono side with him, ’ and to render whichever of the two ers were appointed by the estates in Scotland to signify to his majesty these conditions, upon which alone he could he succeeded in gaining instrumental in extirpating the expect to be received in Scotland, or assisted by the other ^ so that,” as he says, “ I shall really be king Scottish nation. But the king remained inflexible. In N 1S here a ny reaSOn t0 doubt that in SUV . i camp, the real design’ of betaking mself ,to *!l the JScottish the kin? vain did the Duke of Hamilton, one of his principal friends in Scotland, unite with the ministers in representing that declared ndeaV°Ur t0 ^ °bjeCt here 80 distinctly this alone could save him; in vain was it urged that if he On the authority of an intercepted letter of the king, it conceded the Presbyterian church to both kingdoms, the has been asserted that he threw himself on the Scottish demands respecting the militia would be relaxed, that all Scotland would declare in his favour, and that, while the skth; n ?onseTuen.ce °f an assurance that they would as- l resbytenans remained numerous and powerful, few in e 0Ve nng hlS forces undpr M f !°St I,rer°gative> unite with the England would venture to oppose the reconstitution of t~6r MontrosTe5 and comPel tlle Eng]ish Parliament the monarchy with limited power. Nothing could move the Sr* tlSh leaders dlsa ^ec^aration still extant, however, him to accede to that which alone could save him. On niihl.V n * e a reemen claim, in the strongest terms, any the eve of his departure, the commissioners renewed with and as th' P!,d1-Vaclamation f £ t whatsoever with the king; great earnestness their offers to conduct him to Berwick ed nn r*n * !? > which was publicly made, receiv- and to procure more equitable terms, provided he would es dm b rad!^tl0n at the time, the reasonable conclusion take the covenant; and so anxious were they to save him, an ap-reempnf if 5? be dlsPuted< U is no doubt true that that a bare promise to comply with their religious demands French Sasha abeeu con1c.erted» through Montreville the would have been deemed sufficient. But all that could be Sadoi b ledge and ' > y which the Scots, with the know- wrung from this unhappy prince was a doubtful consent the En lish to escort S ^esbyterians, were to tolerate Presbytery for three years; and even in makbroken off K rVng 5° t,heir camP' But the treaty was ing this concession, he justified it to his own curious conMontrose and h6’fith® Sc°tS t0 C0-°Perate with science, by declaring before two of his bishops his unalfirm the Prpoh ^ -he ring S hesitatlon t0 sanction and con- terable resolution to restore and uphold Episcopacy. In f0rm 0fchurch Scl se^t/fr establishment. The the case of a sovereign cursed with such blind and obsti1 Poi e their dec!aiAf’ f J ’ have been perfectly sincere in nate infatuation, what else could be done but leave him amongst them011/^ 16 Lngbsb Parliament* Charles came to his fate ? It has been mentioned as a circumstance reflecting sequence of Tn r-S T* ProPer m?tion’ and not in conbim against thofr En ^lpulation on tlle‘r Part to unite with disgrace on the Scots, that the English parliament still vol. y. gbsh allies; and whatever discontents withheld their arrears, and that the surrender of the king’s 2x

BRITAIN. 330 Ileum of person was the only condition upon which payment could of it as enemies to the state and disturbers of the public Reign (: Charles I. ke obtained. If the case had really stood so that the re- peace. The army accordingly began to set up for them- Charles , fusal of the Scots to deliver up Charles would have been selves, and a military parliament was organized, in opposition to the parliament at Westminster. I he principal punished only by defrauding them of the money which officers formed a council to represent the body of Peers; was justly due to them, and by no other consequence the soldiers elected two men out of each company, called whatever, then the charge of selling the king for prompt the agitators of the army, to represent the Commons; and payment might well have been alleged against them. But of this assembly Cromwell took care to be a member. The it must be obvious that the loss of the arrears, upon which new parliament soon found many grievances to be reso much stress has always been laid, was a mere trifle in dressed, and specified some of the most considerable. comparison with the misery and bloodshed which must The Commons were obliged to yield to every request, and have ensued from drawing the sword in defence of t le the demands of the agitators rose in proportion to the conking, without first securing the grand objects of the cove- cessions they extorted. The Commons accused the army of nant. Conduct such as this, on the part of the Scottish mutiny and sedition ; but the army retorted the charge, and leaders, would have amounted to a violation of their so- alleged that the king had been deposed only to make way lemn oaths, and a betrayal of the great national interests for their usurpations. In the mean time Cromwell, who seintrusted to their guardianship. They offered all that cretly conducted all the measures of the army, while he exmen, circumstanced as they were, could offer; they were claimed against their violence, resolved to seize the kings willing, at any hazard, to adhere to the king, if the king person. Accordingly a party of five hundred horse appeared would have been true to the country; and his refusal to accede to the terms proposed to him shows, that, if the at Holmby Castle, under the command of one Joyce, oriCovenanters had conquered all England in his cause, they ginally a tailor, now a cornet; and by this man was the conducted to the army, who were hastening to thenwould only have rivetted more firmly the chains of Epis- king rendezvous at Triplow Heath, near Cambridge. Next day 1 copacy and tyranny on themselves. , Cromwell arrived, and being received with acclamations After the flight of Charles, Oxford surrendered to Fair- °f joy, was immediately invested with the supreme comfax, and the civil war terminated exactly four years after mand. The Commons now the designs of the the king’s standard was first erected at Nottingham. In army; but it was too late. Alldiscovered resistance had become hopeconsequence of the transactions at Newark* and the total Cromwell advanced with precipitation, and was in failure of all attempts at an accommodation with the Pres- less. a few days at St Alban’s. Even submission was now to byterians, the king was delivered over to the English comno purpose. The army still rose in their demands, m promissioners, and conducted under a guard to Holdenby, in Northamptonshire, where he was very rigorously confined, portion as these were gratified, and at last proclaime and debarred from visits of his friends, as well as all com- their intention of modelling the whole government, as well as settling the nation. munication with his family. Cromwell began with accusing eleven members of tne The civil war being thus ended, the king absolved his house, leaders of the Presbyterian party, as guilty of high followers from their allegiance, and the parliament had now no enemy to fear but the troops which had fought for treason, and enemies to the army. The Commons were them. But it was not long before they found themselves willing to protect them ; but the army insisting on tieir in the same unfortunate predicament to which they had dismission, they voluntarily left the house. At last t ie reduced the king. The majority of the house were Pres- citizens of London, finding the constitution totally overbyterians, but the majority of the army were Independ- turned, and a military despotism about to be established ents. Soon after the retreat of the Scots, the foimer on the ruins of the kingly tyranny which they formerly seeing every thing reduced to obedience, proposed to dis- dreaded, began to think seriously of repressing tie inso band a considerable part of the army, and send the rest lence of the troops. The common council assembled the over to Ireland. But this was by no means relished by militia of the city ; the works were manned; and a manithe Independents, and Cromwell took care to heighten festo was published, aggravating the hostile intentions o the disaffection. Instead of preparing to disband, there- the army. Finding that the Commons, in comphan fore, the soldiers resolved to petition, and began by de- with the request of the army, had voted that the city nilmanding an indemnity, ratified by the king, for any illegal litia should be disbanded, the multitude rose, besieged 1.1 actions they might have committed during the war. But door of the house, and obliged them to reverse the vote the Commons voted that this petition tended to introduce which they had so lately passed. The assembly was m con mutiny, and threatened to proceed against the promoters sequence divided into tw-o parties ; the greatei pait s. 1 The comments which Mr Hume has thought it proper to make on this unfortunate transaction are sufficiently met and answered lul by the. . statements contained The of tthe e cenWHO .. W 111 *.'.otbe ... in the text. . . following i *11 defence i _ Scots j against the 4 ~~accusations which r»*r\m ciia\ , writ6r '^

neighbours OX XMlgiaim, xur xuveiginug su severely against, uui natiun nn uenvcnug mvii e> ^ qjgjr i up to the then parliament, who first imprisoned and thereafter murdered him : whereas how soon even our rebels discovere^ ^^ ^ their lives and fortunes for his safety. And albeit some bigot Presbyterians did use him unkindly out of too ni. clea . an

BRITAIN. 34,1 ij jrn of painted on the door of every infected house, with the each for his turn with the resignation of the Christian or Ct esII.words “Lord have mercy on us” placed above it, that the indifference of the Stoic. Some devoted themselves Reign of Charles II. ^ •r'-/ the healthy might be warned of the existence of the disV-6 .exe.rcises others of sought relief in the riot ease. Provision was also made for the interment of the of dissipation or of thepioty; recklessness despair.” dead. In the day-time persons were always on the watch In September the heat of the atmosphere abated • but to withdraw from public view the bodies of those who ex- contrary to expectation, the mortality increased. From pired in the street; during the night the tinkling of a bell, this time infection became the certain harbinger of death accompanied with the lurid glare of torches, announced which followed often within the space of twenty-four the approach of the pest-cart making its melancholy round hours, generally in the course of three days. An experito receive the victims of the previous twenty-four hours. ment, gi-ounded on the practice of former times, was now “ No coffins were prepared; no funeral service was read; oidered to be tried. Fires of sea-coal, in the proportion no mourners were permitted to follow the remains of then- of one to every tw-elve houses, were kindled in the streets, relatives and friends. The cart proceeded to the nearest courts, and alleys of London and Westminster, and were cemetery, and shot its burden into the common grave, a kept burning three days and nights, till a heavy, contideep and spacious pit, capable of holding some scores of nuous rain extinguished them. By the supposed disinbodies, and dug in the church-yard, or, when the church- fecting power of heat, it was hoped to dissipate the pesyard was full, in the outskirts of the parish.” tilential miasm, or at least to abate its virulence; and, in The distemper generally manifested itself by the febrile fact, the next report exhibited a considerable diminution symptoms of shivering, nausea, headach, and delirium; in the number ot deaths. But whilst the survivors were but in some these affections w-ere so mild as to be mis- congratulating themselves on the prospect of deliverance, taken for a slight and transient indisposition. The insi- the destroying angel was scattering a fiercer pestilence dious approaches of the mortal foe were not discovered, from his wings. In the following week, ten thousand vicand the patient applied to his usual avocations, till sud- tims sank under the accumulated virulence of the disease, denly faintness seized him, the'fatal “ tokens” or plague- and despair reigned in every heart. Yet even now, in this spots appeared on his breast, and then his hour was come. lowest depth of human misery, deliverance was at hand. In most cases, however, the pain and delirium left no room I he high winds which usually accompany the autumnal for doubt. The sufferings of the patients were dreadful, and equinox, cooled and purified the air; the fever assumed a often threw them into paroxysms of frenzy, during which less malignant form ; the weekly number of deaths succesthey burst the bands that confined them to their beds, sively decreased ; in the beginning of December seventyprecipitated themselves from the window-s, ran naked into three parishes were pronounced clear of the disease ; and in the street, and plunged into the river. If the patient Febiuary the court, attended by the nobility and gentry, survived till the third or fourth day, buboes appeared, letuined to Whitehall. Upwards of a hundred thousand and when these could be made to suppurate recovery individuals are said to have perished in London alone; might be anticipated; but if the efforts of nature and and as the pestilence extended its destructive sway over the physician proved unavailing, death became inevitable, the greater part of the kingdom, the fugitives from the ilen of the strongest minds were lost in amazement when metropolis carrying the infection with them wherever they contemplated the woe and desolation wrought by the they found an asylum, the total amount of its ravages pestilence; the timid and credulous became the dupes of must have been truly dreadful. their own imaginations and the victims of their own terThis calamity was followed by another, if possible, still 101s; whilst fanaticism scattered abroad its wild predic- more dreadful. On the night of Sunday the 2d of Septions and fierce denunciations to add to the inexpressible tember 1666, a fire broke out in Pudding Lane, near Fish horror of the scene. During the months of July and Au- Street, one of the most crowded quarters of the metrogust, when the weather was sultry and the heat oppres- polis. It originated in a bakehouse; the buildings in the sive, the eastern parishes, which had at first been spared, neighbourhood being constructed of wood, with pitched ecame the chief seat of the pestilence, and the substan- roofs, quickly caught the flames; and the stores with ia citizens suffered in common with their poorer neigh- which they were filled consisting of the highly combusours. The regulations of the magistrates could now no tible articles used in the equipment of shipping, nourished onger be enforced. The nights were insufficient for the mual of the dead; coffins were borne along the street at the conflagration. The pipes from the new river were found empty, and the engine which raised water from the Thames was consumed. No decisive measures were adopted to fec e0U1S °f the day; and the poor burst from their in* dwellings .to seek relief for their families, who were check the progress of the devouring element, and several pens img of famine as well as of the pestilence. “ Lon- hours elapsed before the aid of the military was called don, says Dr Lingard, in a passage worthy of Thucydides, for. Meanwhile the wind, which during the day blew presented a wide and heart-rending scene of misery and the east, augmented hourly in violence, and became eso ation. Rows of houses stood tenantless and open to from e win s; others, in almost equal numbers, exhibited the a perfect hurricane. The fire spread with astonishing velocity, leaping as it were from roof to roof, and frequently n on sol o16?88 10 “aPri1‘en § the doors. The chief thoroughfares, igniting houses at a distance; “ the night was as light as witi, ^ *' ^^ by the feet of thousands, were overgrown day for ten miles round;” a vast column or pillar of fire, wqlL-0^rln -aSS’i. e ^evv individuals who ventured abroad about a mile in diameter, ascended to the clouds; the ., noiddle, and, when they met, declined on flames, as they rose, were bent, broken, and shivered, by the om.. to av if li 1 e °id the contact of each other. But fury of the tempest; and every blast scattered through the lind S.°,ltu^e anci stillness of the streets impressed the air flakes of fire, which, falling on inflammable materials, in tliQWlt; 1 a,'ve’ ,t!lere was something yet more appalling kindled new conflagrations. The lurid red glare of the sky, one inn°Un^S wkich occasionally burst upon the ear. At the scorching heat of the atmosphere, the roaring of the wail ?ment J1'61'6 heard the ravings of delirium or the flames, and the frequent crash of falling buildings, combined merrv ^roai the infected dwelling; at another the to fill every breast with astonishment and terror. While 01 t le an< care es sailers n/fK " ^ i s laugh from the was- the storm raged, the conflagration bade defiance to every became l cam ar se0r the inmates of the brothel. Men effort of human ingenuity or power. Ftouses had been their fpnr° . i d with the form, that they steeled blown up or demolished, and gaps thus made, in hopes of aSamst the terrors f vol. v. > o death. They waited arresting the progress of the flames; but ignited flakes 2x

BRITAIN. 346 oanln therefore set on foot, and concluded at Breda on the 21st Keign of Reign of were carried over the empty space, or the ru‘n® J , T , ]667> this treaty the only advantage gained CharlesII Charles II. took fire, or the flames unexpectedly turned in a BrUain was, the cession of the colony of New York. ^ r r., cbS txa % i ^ the blame of it thrown upon the Earl of Clarendon, who, as well as Westminster Abbey and Whitehall, were saved besides, was charged with the sale of Dunkirk, the bad paybv “the des't'ructioTof the neighbouring buildings. To- ment of the seamen, the disgrace inflicted by the Dutch wards the evening of Thursday the weather became calm, Tnd hopes wei^e Entertained that this dreadful calamity fleet, and his own ambition. His daughter, whilst yet in Paris, had countenanced the addresses of the Duke of York, was approaching its close. But in the night new alarms and, under a solemn promise of marriage, had admitted were excited. The fire burst out again in the Temp e, him to the privileges of a husband. James, however, while it still raged with unabated fury near Cripplegate, either of his own accord, or through the persuasions of and a laro-e body of flame seemed to be making lapid ad- his brother Charles, afterwards married her; and this was vances towards the Tower. With W.m the tne aid am of o. gunpowder tas PWM ^ ^ ^ to clarendon. 0n these grounds ttle however, large openings were made; and as the kin who had never much loved this nobleman, ordered W C©Htinu6U tuc conflagration . J. J.,-.IKr continued Cdiiu* calm, the Ke alsl“belken from him him and and given given to to Sir Sir’Orlando the seals to be taken from Orlando extending its ravages, and, in consequence, gradually died Bridgemen. Clarendon \Vas again impeached; and though out, although months elapsed before the combustion was the charges were manifestly frivolous, yet so strong was altogether extinguished in the immense accumulation ot the popular torrent against him, that he thought proper ruins. By this deplorable calamity two thirds of Lon- to withdraw into France. Soon after, Charles formed an don, including the whole space from the lower to the alliance with Holland and Sweden, in order to prevent Temple, were reduced to ashes. The number of houses the French king from completing his conquest ot the consumed amounted to thirteen thousand two hundred, Netherlands, the greatest part of which he had already and that of churches, including St Paul s, to eighty-mne, subdued; and he was unexpectedly stopped in his career covering three hundred and seventy-three acres within, by this league, in which it was agreed by the contracting and sixty-three without the walls. . powers to constitute themselves arbiters of the diflerences The history of this fire accounts sufficiently for its ori- between France and Spain, and to check the exorbitant gin, as well as for the destructive ravages it committed. pretensions of both. But at this time political and religious prejudices hac The king now began to govern in a very arbitrary manperverted the understandings by inflaming the passions ot ner. He had long wished to extend his prerogative, and men, and every occurrence was viewed through a false to be able to furnish himself with whatever sums he wantand distorting medium. By some it was considered as ed for his pleasures, and he therefore sought ministers an evident visitation of Providence in punishment of sin: who would make no scruple of gratifying him in both parbut the precise nature of the sin was not agreed upon; ticulars. In Clifford, Ashley (afterwards Shaftesbury), the more rigid religionists declaring it to consist in the Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale, who were disimmorality of the king and the courtiers, whilst the cava- tinguished by the term Cato/, a word formed from the liers were equally positive that nothing but the guilt of initials of their names, he found a junta m all respec s the late rebellion could have entailed such a chastisement suited to his wishes. These men, it is probable, were as on the nation. Others, again, attributed it to the dis- ready to betray their king as they speedily showed themloyalty and revenge, either of the republicans, who sought selves to betray their country; yet it seems pretty e to destroy the seat of the monarchy, or of the Catholics, dent that they were deceived by their master, who conwho wished to punish the stronghold of Protestant heresy. cealed from them the real state of his degrading connecOf these charges, however, no vestige of proof could ever tion with France, and also the secret of what he was be discovered ; and in the report of the House of Commons, pleased jocosely to denominate his religion. which i, still extant, will be found a complete refutation P'^J^^d;rce"“^eo~by'to Cabal wore a secret ^ned ITX wtt tyTd1e“7aet^h^ alliance with Fmoce.oi uum ^ undivided disgrace v an„. notwithstanding the king SSLdiS ki„S had bad taken a bribe bomhanee, from. France, lumnious falsehood, that “ the burning of this Protestant which, however, he kept from the knowdedge o n ’ lest they should claim their share in the wage city was begun and carried on by the treachery and malice ters, infamy. Soon after this the Duke of \ork declarS • j of the Popish faction.” Next to the guilt of him who per- self a Catholic; and liberty of conscience was prt r- ^a.mes H* 8 feign was to assemble the chief favourite. \\ hen the news of Charles’s death arrivthe memrn-v’fU-1SWhlC!1’ after I)estowing sorne praise on ed, indeed, the prince made a show of changing his tone, resolutm n ? °10311113111 k- Predecessor, he made professions of his and dismissed Monmouth, but still kept up a close correchiimh i° ^e established government both in spondence with him. The duke retired to Brussels; and, life in def stat0; andnati as he had heretofore ventured his having resolved to invade England, he was seconded by still go^far^ ^ •0n, he declared that he "'ould the Earl of Argyll, who formed the scheme of exciting and privileges ^ ^ “ maintainiDg aU its jU8t rights an insurrection in Scotland. But the generosity of the Prince of Orange did not correspond with the warmth of 86 Wlth onlybvthp0^UnC1 Tabut u reby ,ceived great applause, not his professions. The unfortunate duke derived from his the whole nat n came from all q ters ’ i° - Addresses own plate and jewels his whole supply for the war ; whilst vile adulation T ’ [,dl °,f dut>’’ nay’ of the most ser- the enthusiasm of a rich widow supplied Argyll with ten thousand pounds, with which he purchased three vessels, cepted that off the th^n ^1S cha f?e’ however, must for be exQuakers, which is remarkable its and loaded them with arms and ammunition.

BRITAIN. 356 lieign of Having landed in Scotland, Argyll published his mani- when the Bishop of Bath and Wells informed him that Reign James II. festoes, put himself at the head of two thousand five hun- these unhappy men were now bylaw entitled to a trial, James Hi dred men, and strove to influence the people in his favour. and that their execution would be deemed murder. Nineteen were put to death in the same manner at BridgeBut a formidable body of the king’s forces having marched water by Colonel Kirke, a man of a thoroughly savage and against him, his army fell away ; and he himself, after being wounded in attempting to escape, was taken pi isoner bloody disposition. This miscreant, practised in the arts slaughter at Tangiers, where he had served in garrison, by a peasant, carried to Edinburgh, and, after suffering of took pleasure in committing acts of wanton barbarity, and many indignities, publicly executed. _ the whole country without making any distincBy this time Monmouth had landed in Dorsetshire with ravaged tion between friend and foe; his own regiment being descarcely a hundred followers. His name, however, was so signated, by way of eminence, “ Kirke’s Lambs.” The napopular, and so great was the hatred of the people to James on account of his religion, that in foui da^s he had tural brutality of this man’s temper was inflamed by conassembled a body of above two thousand men, and con- tinual intoxication. No fewer than eighty were executed tinuing to make a rapid progress, in a short time found by his orders at Dorchester; and on the whole, at Exehimself at the head of six thousand men ; but he was daily ter, Taunton, and Wells, two hundred and fifty are comobliged to dismiss great numbers for want of arms. Alarm- puted to have fallen by the hand of justice, as it was called at his invasion, the king recalled six regiments of Bri- ed, under the auspices of Judge Jefferies, who had been tish troops from Holland; and a body of regulars, to the sent down to try the delinquents. This man, hot satisfied number of three thousand, was sent, under the command with the sacrifice of the principals, charged the juries to of the Earl of Feversham, and of Lord Churchill, to check search out the aiders and abettors of the rebellion; and the progress of the rebels. They took post at Sedgemore, those persons who, in compassion for the wretched fugitives, a village in the neighbourhood of Bridgewater, and were had afforded them an asylum, were denounced and punishjoined by considerable numbers of the country militia. ed as such. Even women did not escape, and two, Lady Here Monmouth resolved to make a stand ; and having Lisle and Mrs Gaunt, were sentenced to be burned alive drawn up his followers in the best order he could, he for similar acts of humanity. Jefferies, on his return from drove the royal infantry from their ground, and was on his campaign in the west, was immediately created a peer, the point of gaining a complete victory, when the coward- and soon after invested with the dignity of chancellor. In ice of Gray, who commanded the horse, ruined all. This his Memoirs James complains, with apparent indignation, nobleman fled at the first onset; and the insurgents being of “ the strange havock made by Jefferies and Kirke in the charged in flank, gave way after a contest of three hours. west,” and attributes the unpopularity which afterwards About three hundred were killed in the engagement, and deprived him of the crown to the violence and barbarity a thousand in the pursuit. Monmouth fled above twenty of those pretended friends of his authority. James now began to throw off the mask, and to endeamiles from the field of battle, till his horse sunk under him. He then alighted, and, exchanging clothes with a vour openly to establish popery and arbitrary power. He shepherd, fled on foot, attended by a German count who told the House of Commons that the militia were found had accompanied him from Holland. Being at length by experience to be of no use; that it was necessary to quite exhausted with hunger and fatigue, they both lay augment the standing army; and that he had employed down in a field, and covered themselves with fern. Mean- a great many Catholic officers, in whose favour he had while the shepherd being found in Monmouth’s dress, thought proper to dispense with the test required to be increased the diligence of the search; and by means of taken by all who were employed by the crown, ihese bloodhounds he was detected in his miserable situation, stretches of power naturally led the Lords and Commons with raw peas in his pocket, on which he had subsisted into some degree of opposition ; but they soon acquiesced for some days. He burst into tears when seized by his in the king’s measures, and then the parliament was disenemies, and petitioned, with abject importunity, for his missed for their tardy compliance. The parliament being dissolved, James’s next step was life. He also wrote to the queen dowager; he sent a letter to secure a Catholic interest in the privy council. Acto the reigning queen, as well as to the king himself; and cordingly four Catholic lords, Powis, Arundel, Bellasis, he begged his life, when admitted into the presence of and Dover, were admitted as members. Sunderland, who James, with a meanness unsuitable to his pretensions and saw that the only way to gain preferment was by popei)) high rank. But all his entreaties and submissions were became a convert. Rochester, the treasurer, was turne of no avail. James told him that he was much affected out of his office because he refused to conform. Even m had long supported at his misfortunes, but that his crime was too dangerous Ireland, where the Duke of Ormond r in its example to be left unpunished. In his last moments the royal cause, this nobleman w as displaced as being a Monmouth behaved with a magnanimity worthy of his Protestant, and the Lord Tyrconnel, a furious Catholic, ‘ former courage. When he came to the scaffold, he con- was placed in his stead. In his zeal for popery, it is sai ducted himself with decency and even with dignity. He that James stooped so low as even to attempt the convei spoke little, he made no confession, nor did he accuse sion of Colonel Kirke ; but the daring soldier told ini any of his friends. The circumstances attending his death that he was pre-engaged, for he had promised the kmg ° excited horror among the spectators. The executioner Morocco, when he was quartered at langiers, that i over missed his aim, and struck him slightly on the shoulder. he changed his religion he would turn Mahommedan. Monmouth raised his head from the block, and looked last the clergy of the church of England began to ta him full in the face, as if reproaching him for his mis- the alarm, and commenced an opposition to couit0 roea take. The man struck twice again, but feebly, and then sures. The pulpits now thundered out against P ?^’ threw away the axe. The sheriff forced him to renew his and it was in vain that James attempted to impose si en attempt; and the head of the duke, who seemed already on this topic. Instead of avoiding the controveisy, dead, was at last severed from his body. Protestant preachers pursued it with greater warmt • Those concerned in the Duke of Monmouth’s conspiracy To effect his designs, the king determined to revive were punished with the utmost severity. Immediately High Commission Court, wdiich had formerly given . after the battle of Sedgemore, Feversham hanged up above nation so much disgust, and which had been abohs et twenty prisoners, and was proceeding with his executions ever by act of parliament. An ecclesiastical commission

BRITAIN. 357 of accordingly issued/ by which seven commissioners were but the soldiers shouting for the delivery of the bishops, Reign of If .1; es II- invested with full and unlimited authority over the whole Call you that nothing ?” said he; “ but so much the James II. V« ^ church of England. The next step was to allow liberty worse for them.” of conscience to all sectaries. This was done in the beAs the king found the clergymen everywhere averse lief that the truth of the Catholic religion would, upon a to his measures, he was willing next to try what he could fair trial, gain the victory. Besides, the same power that do with the army, thinking that if one regiment could granted liberty of conscience might restrain it;, and the be brought to promise implicit obedience, their example Catholic religion alone would thus predominate. He would soon induce others to comply. He therefore ordertherefore issued a general indulgence, declaring that non- ed one of the regiments to be drawn up in his presence, conformity to the established religion was no longer penal; and desired "that such as were against the late declarabut in Scotland he ordered his parliament to grant a tole- tion of liberty of conscience should lay down their arms. ration only to the Catholics, without interceding in the He was surprised to see the whole battalion ground their least for the other dissenters. In Ireland the Protestants arms, except two officers and a few Roman Catholic solwere totally expelled from all offices of trust and profit, diers. A few days before the acquittal of the bishops and Catholics put in their places. These measures suffi- the queen was delivered of a son. This, if any thing could ciently disgusted every part of the British empire; but to at that time, might have served to establish James on the complete the work, James publicly sent the Earl of Cas- throne; but so violent was the animosity against him, that tlemaine as ambassador extraordinary to Rome, in order a story was propagated that the child was supposititious; to express his obedience to the pope, and reconcile his and the monarch s pride scorned to take any precautions kingdoms to the Catholic communion. Phis proceeding to refute the calumny. was too precipitate to be relished even by the pope himThough the enthusiast of James himself was sufficiently self; and therefore the only return he made to this em- extravagant, the wildest of his religious projects seem t*o bassy was the sending a nuncio into England. Soon after have been suggested by his enemies in order to accomplish this the Jesuits were permitted to erect colleges in differ- his ruin. The Earl of Sunderland, whom he chiefly trusted, ent parts of the kingdom, and to exercise the Catholic was a man of abandoned principles, insatiable avarice, and worship in the most public manner. fitted by nature for stratagem, deception, and intrigue. In 1686 a second declaration in favour of liberty of con- The love of money was his ruling passion, and he accordingscience was published almost in the same terms with the ly sold his influence to the highest bidder. To such a deformer, but with this particular injunction, that all divines gree was he mercenary, that he became at once the penshould read it after service in their churches. The clergy sioner of the Prince of Orange and of the king of France. resolved to disobey this order. Loyd, bishop of St Asaph, The former, who had long fixed his eye on the English Kenn of Bath and Wells, Turner of Ely, Lake of Chiches- thione, watched James s motions, and took every advanter, White of Peterborough, and Trelawney of Bristol, toof his errors. He had laid his schemes so extensively, gether with Sancroft the primate, concerted an address in tage that nothing but the birth of a male heir to the crown of the form of a petition to the king, which, w-ith the warmest expressions of zeal and submission, signified that they England seemed likely to prevent him from obtaining an immediate possession of the kingdom ; and he had could not read the declaration consistently with their con- almost the address to render two thirds of the powers of Europe sciences or the respect they owed the Protestant religion, interested in his success. The treaty of Augsburg, formed the kmg received their petition with marks of surprise to break the power of France, could not accomplish its and displeasure. He said he did not expect such an adobject without the accession of England. The house of dress from the church of England, particularly from some Austria, in both its branches, preferred their political views amongst them; and persisted in his orders for their obey- to their zeal for the Roman Catholic faith, and promoted ing his mandate. As the petition had been delivered in private, the king summoned the bishops before the coun- the dethronement of James as the only means of humbling cil, and there questioned them whether they would ac- Louis XIV. Odeschalchi, who under the name of Innoknowledge it. They for some time declined giving an an- cent XI. then filled the papal chair, was also gained to the swer; but being urged by the chancellor, they at last own- measures of the Prince of Orange by other considerations, ed the petition. On their refusal to give bail, an order as well as through his fixed aversion to France. Seeing the national discontent now raised to the highwas immediately issued for their commitment to the Tower, and the crown lawyers received directions to prosecute est pitch, the Prince of Orange resolved to take advantage of it. He began by giving one Dykevelt, his envoy, ina se( ltlous structions to apply in his name to every religious sect in cllrtm i * ^bel. The king gave orders that they uld be conveyed to the Tower by water, as the whole city was in commotion in their favour. But the people, the kingdom. To the church party he sent assurances of favour and regard; protesting that his education in Holtheir dan er ran t0 th S ’blessing, and e river in land had no way prejudiced him against Episcopacy. To gereat eat multitudes,°fcraving their callingside upon the non-conformists he sent exhortations not to be deceivthp, en to Protect them; whilst the very soldiers by whom ed by the insidious caresses of their known enemy, but to wT6- gaarded kneeled down before them and im- wait for a real and sincere protector. In consequence of for thp fle-ir| of °^lven ess* The 29th of June 1686 was fixed these insinuations, the prince soon received invitations 116 numhpi- T eatZemen bmhops. Twenty-nine peers, a great from the most considerable persons in the kingdom. Adwaited ° £ > an(l an immense crowd of persons, mirals Herbert and Russell assured him in person of their t0 Westmins was leaTu them ter Hall. The discussion own and the national attachment. Henry Sidney, brother ed jury w,Yhdd 7 lnt0 !Tianaagcham by the lawyers on both sides. The to Algernon, and uncle to the Earl of Sunderland, came nicht ber, where they passed the whole over to him with assurances of a universal combination Pronounced^returned into court, and against the king. Lord Dumblane, son to the Earl of )S not U]lt stantlv r?nl ,.bliSho l S yWestminster Hall in- Danby, being master of a frigate, made several voyages to nicated tn ?ud acclamations, which were commu- Holland, and carried from many of the nobility tenders of 0 6 exten the camn tr^ , t of the city, and even reached duty, and even considerable sums of money, to the Prince Lord Fevprol oans °'v’ where the king was at dinner in of Orange. Soon after, the Bishop of London, the Earls of His of thoserejoicings, ilmS ten cause Danby, Nottingham, Devonshire, Dorset, and several other and,Sbeing ™jesty informeddemanded that it wasthe nothing lords, gentlemen, and principal citizens, united in their

BRITAIN. 358 concessions were now too late, and were regarded as the Reignj lleign of addresses to him, and entreated his speedy descent. The Jam* j James If. people, though long divided between whig and tory, now effects of fear, not of repentance. In the mean time, William set sail from Helvoetsluys with ' joined against their misguided sovereign as against a comfleet of near five hundred sail, and an army of above fourmon enemy. William therefore determined to accept then ateen thousand men. Fortune, however, seemed at first very invitation ; and this the more readily, as he perceived that unfavourable to his enterprise. He was driven back by a the malcontents had conducted themselves with prudence dreadful storm; but he soon refitted his fleet, and again and secrecy. Having the principal servants of James in set sail for England. It was given out that this invasion pay, he was minutely informed of the most secret actions was designed for the coast of France; and many of the and designs of that prince. His intelligence came through English, who saw the fleet pass along their coast, little Sidney from Sunderland, who betrayed the very measures which he himself had advised. The prince had a fleet suspected the place of its destination. It happened that same wind which sent the Dutch to their place of desready to sail, and troops provided for action, before the the tination, detained the English fleet in the river; so that beginning of June 1688. The king of France was the first who gave James warn- the Dutch passed the Straits of Dover without molestation, ino- of his danger, and offered to assist him in repelling it. and, after a voyage of two days, landed at Broxholme in But he declined this friendly offer, lest it should be said Torbay, on the 5th of November 1688, the anniversary of that he had entered into a private treaty with that mo- the gunpowder treason. But although the invitation from the English was genenarch to the prejudice of the Protestant religion. Being the prince for some time had the mortification to find also deceived and betrayed by Sunderland, he had the ral, himself joined by very few. He continued for ten days in weakness to believe, that the reports of an invasion were expectation of being joined by the malcontents, and at last invented in order to frighten him into a strict connection beginning to despair of success, and to deliberate about with France. He gave credit to the repeated assurances was of the States, that the armament preparing in their ports re-embarking his forces, when he was joined by several was not designed against England; nay, he even believ- persons of consequence ; and the whole country soon aftered the assertions of the prince himself, whose interest it wards flocked to his standard. The first person who went was to deceive. Sunderland descanted against the possi- over to the prince was Major Burrington, and he was quickly bility of an invasion, and turned into ridicule all who be- followed by the gentry of the counties of Devon and bolieved the report. Having, with the consent of James, merset. Sir Edward Seymour made proposals for an astaken possession of all the foreign correspondence, he sup- sociation, which was signed by great numbers ; and every pressed every kind of intelligence that might alarm ; and day there appeared some new proof of that universal comall others whom James trusted, except Dartmouth, affect- bination into which the nation had entered against the ed long to place no faith in the reports of an invasion. measures of the king. This was followed by the defection Louis finding his first offers rejected, next proposed to of the army. Lord Colchester, son to the Earl of Fivers, march down his army to the frontiers of the Dutch pro- first deserted to the prince; Lord Cornbury, son to the vinces, and thus detain their forces at home for their own Earl of Clarendon, carried off the greatest part of three defence. But this proposal met with no better reception regiments of cavalry at once; and several officers of disthan the former one. Still Louis, unwilling to abandon a tinction informed Feversham their general, that they could friend and ally whose interest he regarded as closely con- not in honour fight against the Prince of Orange, boon nected with his own, ventured to remonstrate with the after this the unhappy monarch found himself deserted by Dutch against the preparations they were making to in- his own servants and creatures. Lord Churchill had been vade England. But the Dutch treated his remonstrances raised from the rank of page, and had been invested with as an officious impertinence, and James himself declined a high command in the army; he had been created a peer, and owed his whole fortune to the king’s bounty; yet even his mediation. The king of England, having thus rejected the assist- he deserted among the rest, and carried with him the Duke ance of his friends, and being left to face the danger alone, of Grafton, natural son to the late king, besides Colonel . was astonished with an advice from his minister in Hol- Berkeley and others. In this universal defection, James, not knowing where to land, that an invasion was not only projected, but avowed. When he first read the letter containing this information, turn, began to think of requesting assistance from France, he grew pale, and the letter dropt from his hand. He saw when it was now too late. He also wrote to Leopolc, em himself on the brink of destruction, and knew not to whom peror of Germany; but that monarch only returned for anto apply for protection. In this emergency, Louis wrote swer, that what he had foreseen had happened. James had to James in his own hand, that to divert the Dutch from some dependence on his fleet; but in reality they were their intended invasion of England, he would lay siege to entirely disaffected. In a word, his interests were desertea Maestricht with thirty thousand men. James communi- by all, for he had long deserted them himself. His army, cated this intelligence to Sunderland, and the latter to the however, still amounted to twenty thousand men , an ia Prince of Orange, by whom six thousand men were thrown he led them immediately to battle, it is possible they nugn into Maestricht; and the design of Louis being thus ren- then have fought in his favour. But his misfortunes naa deprived him of his natural firmness and resdutum 5 an dered impracticable, it was laid aside. James had now no resource but in retreating from those seeing himself deserted by those in whom he t ioug i precipitate measures which had plunged him into inextri- could place most confidence, he became suspicious t ie P°.rinw*\ 0f cable distress. He paid court to the Dutch, and offered all, and was in a manner deprived even of deliberation. In this extremity of distress, the . to enter into any alliance with them for their common security. He replaced, in all the counties of England, the Denmark, and Anne, James’s favourite daughter, per deputy lieutenants and justices who had been deprived of ing the desperation of his circumstances, resolve ° . their commissions for their adherence to the test and pe- part with the Prince of Orange. Informed of this ^ ’ nal law. He restored the charters of such corporations as the king was stung with the most bitter anguish, he had possessed himself of, annulled the High Commis- help me,” said he; “ my own children have forsaken * sion Court, reinstated the expelled president and fellows To add to his distress as a parent, he was accused or o , of Magdalen College, and even caressed the bishops whom accessory to the death of his own child. On the 30th of November 1688, James dispatche he had so lately persecuted and insulted. But all these

BRITAIN. 359 K of noblemen to treat with the Prince of Orange. But though claration to the disbanded army to re-assemble themselves. Reign of Ji is II. the latter knew very well that the king’s commissioners He ordered the secretary at war to bring him a list of the James II. ^ ^ were in his interests, his behaviour showed plainly that he king’s troops. He commanded the Lord Churchill to colnow thought the period for treating was past. For some lect his troop of horse guards. He sent the Duke of Graftime he would not admit them to an audience; and when ton to take possession in his name of Tilbury Fort. The he did, he gave no satisfactory answer. James now beo-an to assembly of peers adjourned to the council-chamber at be alarmed for his personal safety; but what most affected Whitehall, and, to give the appearance of legality to their him was the terror of the queen for herself and her infant meeting, chose the Marquis of Halifax as their president. son. He therefore resolved to send them abroad. They Whilst this assembly was sitting, on the 13th of Decemcrossed the river in a boat, at Whitehall, on a stormy day, ber, a poor countryman, who had been engaged by James, and were carried to Gravesend in a coach, under the con- brought an open letter from that unfortunate prince to duct of the Count de Lauzun; a yacht, commanded by London. It had no subscription; and it was addressed to Captain Gray, which lay there ready for the purpose, soon none. It described in one sentence only, his deplorable transported them in safety to Calais. condition when in the hands of a desperate rabble. This The king was now so dispirited and distracted, that he poor messenger of a fallen sovereign waited long at the resolved to leave the kingdom at once, and thus plunge council door, without being able to attract the notice of every thing in confusion. He threw the great seal into the any who passed; but when the Earl of Mulgrave became Thames; he left none with any authority to conduct the apprised of his business, his lordship had the courage government in his absence; and he vainly hoped to derive to introduce him to the council. He delivered his open advantage to his affairs from anarchy and disorder. About letter, and told the unhappy state of the king. The astwelve at night, on the 10th of December, he disguised sembly were much moved, and sent the Earl of Fevershimself, took a boat at Whitehall, and crossed the river. ham with two hundred of the guards towards Feversham. Sir Edward Hales, with another friend, met him at Vaux- His instructions were first to rescue James from danger,' hall with horses. He mounted; and being conducted and afterwards to attend him to the sea coast, should he through by-ways by a guide, he passed in the night-time wish to retire. He chose, however, to return to London ; to the Medway, which he crossed by Ailesford-bridge. At but the Prince of Orange sent a message to him, desiring Woolpeck he took fresh horses, sent thither before by him to approach no nearer the capital than Rochester. Shelden, one of his equerries, who was in the secret of his The messenger missed James by the way; and the king flight. Having arrived at Embyferry near Feversham, he sent Feversham with a letter to the Prince of Orange, tound a custom-house hoy, hired by Sir Edward Hales, lyrequesting his presence in London to settle the nation,’ ing ready to receive him on board. But the wind blew tresh, and the vessel had no ballast. The master, there- while he himself proceeded thither, and arrived on the ore, easily persuaded the king to permit him to take in 16th of December. , The Prince of Orange received the newrs of his return some ballast at Shilness. It being half ebb when they ran with little satisfaction. His aim from the beginning was ashore, they intended to sail as soon as the vessel should to force him by various means to relinquish "the throne. be afloat; but when the vessel was almost afloat, she was The Dutch guards were ordered to take possession of boarded by three fishing boats belonging to Feversham, containing fifty men, who seized the king and his two \\ hitehall, and to displace the English ; and the king was companions, under pretence of their being Papists who soon after commanded by a message, which he received wanted to escape from the kingdom. They turned up in bed at midnight, to leave his palace next morning, and Feversham water with the tide; but still the king remain- to depart for Ham, a seat of the Duchess of Lauderdale’s. ed unknown. Sir Edward Hales placed privately fifty But he desired permission to retire to Rochester, which was readily granted. The harsh measures of the prince t le hands of t,le ca tain a P > He s anpromised, earnest ofbut more should he permit them to escape. so had now taken effect, and the king meditated an escape to ar Irom keeping his word, he took what money they had, France. Surrounded by the Dutch guards, he arrived at under pretence of securing it from the seamen; and hav- Rochester on the 19th of December. The restraint put ing possessed himself of their all, left them to their fate. upon his person, and the manner in which he had been forced from London, raised the indignation of many, and eothUr°5UnattfugltlVeS were at lenSth carried in a excited the compassion of all. The English army, both a T lidst the insults 21^™'^’ I. . > clamours, and officers and soldiers, began to murmur ; and had it not been 116 sai ors for the timidity and precipitation of James himself, the inn n . * who hadWhen the king was brought to the m servedhimself under was him so knew him, and nation would probably have returned to their allegiance. mePnted into tears ; and James much moved He remained three nights at Rochester, in the midst of a fisherm nstan ife,°f ,hlS affection’ that he wept. The other few faithful friends, the Earls of Arran, Dumbarton, AilesWh lad reviousI whenTl ’ ° P y treated him with indignity, bury, Litchfield, and Middleton, and, amongst other officers h,S tears fel1 u n their kne s dass nf \Sab tWtantS ’ P° ^ - The lower of merit, Lord Viscount Dundee. They all argued against sort flpVf ', gathered round him; but the better his intended flight; and several bishops, some peers, and r 0rn blS resence ed theme i P - The seamen, however, form- many officers, entreated his stay in some part of England. a guard and his heaTJ68! ^ ’ declared, that “ a hair of They represented that the opinions of men began to touch James Ove ^ n0t ed.” In the mean time, Sir change, and that events would daily rise in favour of his 0n uader ret the rabble Cam ’ P ence of guarding him from authority. Dundee added his native ardour to his advice. The kino- ’f U die aWltc !1 the ™dltia to prevent his escape, “ The question, Sir,” said he, “ is, Whether you shall stay taken on? p f? , hange in his condition when he was in England or fly to France ? Whether you shall trust °f the milif f lands the sailors. The commanders the returning zeal of your native subjects, or rely on a insultedbvtb sbowed him no respect; and he was even foreign power ? Here you ought to stand. Keep possestended ? c°mmon soldiers. A letter which he in- sion of a part, and the whole will submit by degrees. ReLondon for and some mono ^ clothes, a change of linen, sume the spirit of a king. Summon your subjects to their protect his personWere St0pped hy those who Pretended to allegiance. Your army, though disbanded, is not dispersed. Give me your commission. I will gather ten thou6 116 Prlnce of own personab h? / Orange exercised in his sand your troops. I will carry your standard at their the functions of royalty. Fie issued a de- head of through England, and drive before you the Dutch

BRITAIN. 360 Reign of CHAP. VIII. Reign of and their prince.” The king replied, that he believed William James II. it might be done, but that it would raise a cm war, and and Mary REIGN OF WILLIAM AND MARY. he would not do so much mischief to a nation that would soon come to their senses again. Middleton urged Ins First measures of William National discontents—Scheme in fastay, though in the remotest part of the kingdom. “ i our vour of the Dissenters rejected—Precarious condition of Wilmaiesty,” said he, “ may throw things into confusion by liam’s government Proceedings in Scotland—William acknowledged as King Attempts of Viscount Dundee in favour your departure ; but it will be but the anarchy of a month. of James. Battle of Killicrankie, and death of Dundee—State A new government will soon be settled, and you and your of Ireland Insurrection in favour of James—The Protestants family will be ruined.” take arms in their own defence, and are defeated at Drumore— These spirited remonstrances had no effect upon James. Landing of James in Ireland—Subsequent operations—GalHe resolved to quit the kingdom; and having communilant defence of Londonderry—Odious measures resorted to by cated his design to a few of his friends, he left the house Janies Disembarkation of King William’s army—Its compowhere he had lodged at midnight, accompanied by his son sition Arrival of William—Battle of the Boyne, and defeat of James Battle of Aughrim, and defeat of St Ruth, James’s the Duke of Berwick, and went in a boat to a smack which General Siege of Limerick—Pacification of Ireland—Affairs lay waitin'* for him without the fort at Sheerness. In the of Scotland Massacre of Glenco—Conduct of William remorning of Tuesday the 25th December, the king landed specting this atrocious barbarity—The Dover expedition— at Ambleteuse in France, and taking post, soon joined his Violent discontents in Scotland, in consequence of the supposed consort at St Germains. # perfidy of the King Plots in favour of James—France declares James having thus abandoned his dominions, the I rince in his favour.—Battle of La Hogue, and total defeat of the French fleet under Tourville—James offered the crown of Poof Orange remained master of all. By the advice of the land, which he declined—Offer by William to secure the sucHouse of Lords, the only member of the legislature recession to the Prince of Wales, James’s son, also declined by maining, he was desired to summon a parliament by cirhim Death of James Conduct of Louis on this occasion.— cular letters ; but the prince, unwilling to act upon so imThe Pretender acknowledged bv France as king of Great Briperfect an authority, convened all the members who had tain and Ireland Death of Queen Mary—National disconsat in the House of Commons during any parliament of tent William forced to disband his troops—Altercations between the King and the Parliament—Confederacy against Charles II., to whom were added the mayor, aldermen, and France Death and Character of William. fifty of the common council of London; and being thus supported by an assembly deriving its authority from himself, William began his reign with issuing a proclamation for he wrote circular letters to the counties and corporations of continuing in office all Protestants who had been in place England, directing them to return members to this parliament or convention. When the house met, thanks were on the first of the preceding December. On the 17th of voted to the Prince of Orange for the deliverance he had the month he formed his privy council, which consisted wrought; after which they proceeded to settle the king- chiefly of those persons who had been most active in raisdom. A vote soon passed both houses, that King James ing him to the throne. To gratify as many as possible of H. having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the his friends, the several boards, and even the chancery, kingdom,’by breaking the original contract between the were put into commission. The benches of the Exchequer king and the people, and having by the advice of Jesuits and Common Pleas were filled with persons who had disand other wicked persons violated the fundamental laws, tinguished themselves against the measures of the late and withdrawn himself out of the kingdom, had abdi- king. But the Earl of Nottingham, who had violently opcated the government; and that the throne was thereby posed the elevation of M illiam, and the Earl of Shrewsbury, who had adhered to his views, were made secretaries vacant. The king being thus deposed, it was easy for William of state. The Marquis of Halifax, and the Earl of Dauby, to get himself appointed as his successor. Proposals were though rivals in policy, were admitted into the cabine , indeed made by some for electing a regent; and others the first as lord privy seal, the second as president of the were fbr investing the Princess of Orange with regal power, council. William’s Dutch friends in the mean time were and declaring the young prince supposititious. But to not forgotten by the king. Bentinck, his favounte, was these proposals William opposed the decisive argument, made a privy counsellor, groom of the stole, and pny that he had been called over to defend the liberties of the purse ; Auverquerque was appointed master of the horse, British nation, and that he had happily effected his pur- Zuylstein received the office of master of the robes; ana pose ; that he had heard of several schemes proposed for Schomberg was placed at the head of the ordnance. Though these instances of gratitude were no doubt nethe establishing of the government; that, if they chose a regent, he thought it incumbent upon him to inform them cessary to William, the generality of the nation were disthat he would not be that regent; that he would not ac- pleased. The tories were offended at being excluded from usua cept of the crown under the princess his wife, though he favour, especially as they had departed from theirene S , was convinced of her merits; that therefore, if either of principles in order to serve him. The nation in nlve these schemes was adopted, he could give them no assist- • were much prejudiced against foreigners, and ^ L ance in the settlement of the nation, but would return discontent ensued upon seeing them preferred, home to his own country, satisfied with his aims to secure king, who had been bred a Calvinist, was also strong y the freedom of theirs. Upon this, after a long debate in dined to favour that sect; and finding the clergy o both houses, a new sovereign was preferred to a regent church of England but little inclined to take the oatns i ns by a very small majority. It was agreed that the Prince the new government, he began openly to.indulge c0 e and Princess of Orange should reign jointly as king and prejudices in favour of dissenters. Having ™ , iie queen of England; whilst the administration of govern- House of Lords to pass some bills, on the 16th Mai > ment should be placed in the hands of the prince only. made a speech, urging the necessity of admitting a ^ The Marquis of Halifax, as Speaker of the House of Lords, testants indiscriminately into the public service. made a solemn tender of the crown to their highnesses, in formed them, that he was employed in filling up the name of the Peers and Commons of England. The cancies in offices of trust; he expressed his iope ^ prince accepted the offer; and that very day, the 13th of they had become sensible of the necessity of a law February 1689, William and Mary were proclaimed king the oaths to be taken by such persons as shou . . y mitted into place; and he doubted not, that w n and queen of England.

BRITAIN. 361 II# of provided against Papists, they would at the same time partisans of James ; and the archbishop of Glasgow, the Helen of W :am leave room for the admission of all Protestants who were .belli of Balcarras, and the Viscount Dundee, were autho- William ami ^7-a5le and willing to serve their country. But this proposinzed by an instrument signed by him, at that time in Ire-and Mary, ^ ^ tion was rejected with vehemence. The adherents of the land, to call a convention of the estates at Stirling. But church complained that the ruin which they feared from this measure was disappointed, first by the wavering disthe Papists in the preceding reign was now to be dreaded position of the Marquis of Atholl, and afterwards by the from the Protestant dissenters; and they affirmed, that procrastination and folly of the party. At last Viscount if the established religion was to be destroyed, it mat- Dundee, pretending alarm on account of a design alleged tered little by whose hands it might fall. A bill brought to have been formed by the Covenanters to assassinate in by the ministry for abrogating the former oaths of su- him, left Edinburgh at the head of fifty horse. As he premacy and allegiance was rejected; and an attempt to passed under the walls of the castle, the Duke of Gordon, dispense with the sacramental test was made without suc- who then held the command of the fortress, and favoured cess in another form. The court party proposed that any the cause of James, called him to a conference. Dundee man, by producing a certificate of his having received the scrambled up the precipice, and informed the duke of his sacrament in any Protestant congregation, should be held designs in favour of James, at the same time conjuring sufficiently qualified for office. But this motion was also him to hold out the castle, under a certainty of being re^ rejected in the House of Lords by a great majority. Wil- heved. The novelty of the sight collected a multitude of liam repeated his attempts at a comprehension ; but he spectators. The convention took the alarm. The president was ultimately unsuccessful, and in the coronation-oath ordered the doors to be locked, and the keys to be laid the church party inserted a clause, that the king should upon the table. The drums beat to arms in the town; maintain the Protestant religion “ as established by law.” and a parcel of ill-armed retainers were gathered together I'or these and other reasons the government of Wil- in the street by the Earl of Leven. Dundee in the mean liam was for some time in a very tottering condition. The time rode off with his party. But as soon as they found king, either through want of health or inclination, inter- themselves secure, the Duke of Hamilton adjourned the fered but little in the affairs of the nation ; Ireland was convention, which relieved the adherents of James from strangely neglected ; whilst Halifax and Danby, who had dreadful apprehensions for their own safety. Fifty memin a manner raised the king to the throne, caballed with bei s retired from Edinburgh; and that circumstance prohis enemies. They perceived that the people, with the duced unanimity in all the succeeding resolutions of the same levity which had induced them to desert their former convention. Soon after this it was determined in a comsovereign, were beginning to be discontented with their mittee that James had “forefaulted” his right to the crown new prince. Every thing seemed to tend to a change. by which was meant that he had perpetually excluded Halifax himself declared, that were James to conform with the Protestants, he could not be kept four months himself and his whole race from the throne, which was thereby become vacant. This resolution being approved rom re-ascending his throne ; and Danby averred, that, by convention, another was drawn up raising Wilwere the late king to give satisfaction for the security of liamthe and Mary to the vacant throne ; and in consequence religion, it would be difficult to oppose his restoration, they were publicly proclaimed at Edinburgh on the 11th from these apparent discontents of the nation, the friends and emissaries of James assumed more boldness in tam- of April 1689. The castle of Edinburgh was still kept in the name of pering with the servants of the crown and inflaming the by the Duke of Gordon ; but despairing of any rearmy. The former they alarmed with the prospect of a James icf, and pressed by a siege, his Grace surrendered it on sudden change; the latter they roused into indignation the 13th of June, upon honourable terms. The adherents by the alleged preference shown by William for his counot James, terrified at this unexpected misfortune, now trymen the Dutch. Though the kingdom of Scotland did not at first recog- turned their eyes to the Viscount Dundee, who having nise the authority of William, yet the party of James been m vain urged by the convention to return, was at length declared a fugitive, an outlaw, and a rebel. Genenever attained sufficient strength to be of any effectual service to him in that kingdom. Thirty Scottish Peers, and ral Mackay had been sent to Scotland by William, with four regiments of foot and one of dragoons. But Dundee, apty gentlemen, then in London, had waited on of the general’s design to surprise him, retired to e Trmce ot Orange in the beginning of January, and, prised ithout any authority from the regency still subsisting in the Grampian Mountains with a few horse, and thence marched to Gordon Castle, where he was joined by the -Edinburgh, formed themselves into a kind of convention. Earl of Dunfermline with fifty gentlemen. He next passed e Tnnce of Orange in a formal manner asked their advice; and when he withdrew, they adjourned to the coun- through the county of Moray to Inverness, which Maccil chamber at Whitehall. The Duke of Hamilton being donald of Keppoch had invested with seven hundred men nosen president, explained the distracted state of Scot- after having ravaged the lands of the clan of Mackintosh in his way from his own country. Dundee promised to the rep reSei tin that magistrates of Inverness to repay, at the king’s return, Z ’ , l g’ disorders, anarchy, and confusion ] prevailed, and urging the necessity of placing the power t le money extorted from them by Macdonald, and thus mewhere till a convention of estates should be called to induced the latter to join him with all his men. But as an™/. .aSting £?nd solid settlement. When the heads of ic could not prevent the Highlanders from first returning Pnnce oP orrWlTV0 116 ^ange had been settled, and ionic with their spoil, he accompanied them to Lochaber, en r „r ose, anda proposed g ossed, the back Earl of to invite theArran king.unexpectedly The meet- and on the 6th of May arrived in Badenoch, whence he wiote letters to the chiefs of the different clans, appointng, however, adhered to the Prince of Orange, and wait- ing them to meet at a general rendezvous in Lochaber on ir a bod tm- . ? y’ requesting him to take the adminis- the 18th of the same month. In the mean time, passing bands thpv l.0? ° 188e°T" . ' He thanked them for the trust suddenly through Athole, he surprised the town of Perth, to mp0fC Ldlnbur j ,d b on ’ and a convention was ordered and hoping to gain over two troops of Scottish dragoons who vidpd nA g the 14th of March, it being pro- lay at Dundee, he marched suddenly to that place; but the m-irlp o a n° except*on or limitation whatever should be fidelity of Captain Balfour, their commander, disappointed his views. Dundee then returned through Athole and This XCept t^at the members should be Protestants. vol ^0nventl0n> however, was opposed by some of the Rannoch to hold the diet of rendezvous at Lochaber; and 2z

362

BRITAIN.

ings’ flying through the Pass on the north side, and the Reign Reign of there he was reinforced by several Highland chieltains, fusileers dashing across the river, followed by the High- Williai; William so that his little army was increased to about fifteen hun- landers. But Dundee having fallen early in the attack,and Mar and Mary. dred men. He now turned against Mackay, who had ad- the consternation occasioned by his death prevented an vanced to Inverness, but on the approach of Dundee re- immediate pursuit through the great Pass. Had they treated to Strathbogie, leaving the whole Highlands ex- been closely followed, and had a few men been placed at posed to the enemy. ^ , r . the southern entrance, not a man of the king’s troops But notwithstanding this partial success, Dundee found would have escaped to tell the story of their defeat. As himself surrounded with many difficulties. The officers it was, they lost nearly two thousand men, and the reof the Scottish dragoons, who maintained a secret corre- mainder were completely broken and dispersed. But the spondence with him, sent him false intelligence, as an victory, though gallantly achieved, was productive of noexcuse for their own fears, informing him that a party o thing but barren glory; and with the fall of Dundee endIrish, who had endeavoured to land m Scotland under the ed all the hopes of James in Scotland. Colonel Cannon, Duke of Berwick, were driven back, and the duke himseii who succeeded him in the command, possessed neither taken prisoner; and that Mackay had been reinforced his popularity nor his abilities. After some insignificant with a regiment of English horse, and another ot foot. actions, in which the valour of the soldiers was moie conCrediting this information, Dundee retreated to Badenoch ; spicuous than the conduct of their leader, the Highlanders the natives of the low country who served m his little dispersed in disgust; and the war soon afterwaids ended army quitted him without leave; the Highlanders plun- favourably for William, without the trouble of repulsing dered the country wherever they went; and he himself liis enemies. at last fell sick, while Mackay hovered on his rear. A slight During the troubles in England, which had terminated skirmish occurred, in which the Highlanders had the at placing William on the throne, the two parties in Irevantage; but they nevertheless lost their baggage during in land were kept in a kind of tranquillity by their mutual the action. Dundee at length arrived at Ruthven ; but fears. The Protestants were terrified at the prospect of Mackay, reinforced with a body of twelve hundred men, another massacre; and the Catholics expected eveiy day advanced against him, and other regiments had arrived at be invaded by the united force of the English and Perth and Dumblane, on their way to join. The High- to Their terrors, however, were ill founded; for landers now deserted every night by hundreds, and their Dutch. leader was forced to retire to Lochaber, where only two although Tyrconnel sent several messages to the prince, hundred of his whole force remained with him; whilst, stating his readiness to deliver up the kingdom to any that might make a surrender decent, his offers were to complete his misfortunes, he at the same time received force intelligence of the surrender of the castle ot Edinburgh. always rejected. This vs said to have been owing to HaMeanwhile, 'letters having arrived from King James lifax, who is alleged to have represented to the king, that promising immediate succours from Ireland, Dundee or- if Ireland yielded, no pretence would remain for keeping dered the neighbouring clans to assemble round his stand- an army in pay; that without an army to protect his auard. But still he wanted the necessary means for prose- thority, he might be as easily turned out as he had been cuting the war. The Highlanders were armed only with brought in; that the English nation could never remain their own proper weapons, and he had no more than forty long in a state of contentment; and that they had already pounds weight of powder in his whole army. All difficul- begun to show symptoms of strong disaffection with the , • ties, however, were surmounted by the activity of the new government. Tyrconnel, disappointed in his views of surrendering re o-eneral, for whom his army entertained an enthusiastic zeal. Having collected a force of about two thousand five land to the Prince of Orange, affected to adhere to King hundred men, including three hundred Irish recruits, he James. The whole military force of the kingdom at that resolved to give battle to Mackay, who, with a force con- time amounted only to four thousand men, and of tiese siderably superior in numbers, was advancing against him. six hundred were in Dublin; whilst all of them weie so The encounter took place on the 17 th of July 1689, near the much disposed to quit the service, that the lord-deputy head of the Pass of Killikrankie. The Highlanders took post was obliged to issue commissions for levying new forces. on the face of a hill, a little above the house of Urrard, and The effect of this was, that there suddenly appeared m to the westward of the great Pass ; whilst the king’s forces various parts of the kingdom a half-armed i abb e, wio, were drawn up on a level piece of ground, in the form of having no pay from the king, subsisted by depreda ion, an amphitheatre, bounded on two sides by the heights, and disregarded all discipline. I he Protestants in and on the third by the river Garry. Dundee delayed north armed themselves in their own defence; an of Londonderry, relying on its situation, and a s ig1 his attack until about sunset, when suddenly the High- city r landers rushed down like furies, covering themselves from w all, shut its gates against the newly-raised army. the fire of the king’s troops with their targets. “ At last,” testant parties also appeared everywhere, declaring says an eye-witness, “ they cast away their muskets, drew resolution to unite in self-defence, to preserve t it their broadswords, and advancing furiously on the king’s testant religion, to continue their dependence on Eng ’ troops, broke them, and obliged them to retreat; some and to promote the meeting of a free parliament. In these circumstances William sent General wlt Hanu > flying to the water, some another way.” The charge was . like a torrent, fierce, rapid, irresistible; and the rout an Irishman and a Roman Catholic, to treat ie ^ complete. The 21st or Scotch fusileers was on the left connel; but instead of persuading that lord to y of General Mackay’s front line, Hastings’ and Leslie’s, William, Hamilton advised him to adhere to now the 13th and 15th regiments, in the centre, and Lord the mean time James himself assured the lor -t P Leven’s, now the 25th, on the right; the whole consisting that he was ready to sail from Brest with a power a al s of two regiments of cavalry and nine battalions of infan- mament; upon which Hamilton marched S f| try. After the right of the line had given way, the regi- northern insurgents, who were routed with consi ments on the centre and the left, which were covered by slaughter at Drumore, whilst Hillsborough, where . ^ the river Garry and the woody precipice below the house had fixed their head-quarters, was taken wit iou of Urrard, kept their ground, and for a short time with- ance. The city of Londonderry, however, reso ,, est. stood the shock of the Highland charge with the broad- hold out to the last extremity. On the 7th of March 1689, James embarked at n sword ; but at length they gave way on all sides, Hast-

BRITAIN. 363 Ii ;ii of The whole force of his expedition consisted of fourteen To add to the distress of James, Ireland was now invad- Reign of A\ !iam ships of war, six frigates, and three fire-ships ; whilst ed by ten thousand men under the command of the Duke William and fary, twelve hundred of his native subjects in the pay of France, of Schomberg. On the 12th of August 1689, they appear- and Mary. and a hundred French officers, composed his army. He ed in ninety transports, on the coast of Donaghadee, in landed at Kinsale without opposition on the I2th of the the county of Down; and next day Schomberg landed month; and his first care was to secure, in the fort, the his army, horses, and train of artillery, without opposition. money, arms, and ammunition which he had brought from On the 15th he marched to Belfast, and continued in that France, and to put the town in some posture of defence. place four days to refresh his troops. He then invested This done, he advanced to Cork, where Tyrconnel arrived Carrickfergus, and threw into it a thousand bombs, which soon after, and brought intelligence of the rout at Drumore. laid the houses in ashes. When the garrison had expendThe king was so much pleased with his attachment and ed their powder to the last barrel, they marched out with services, that he created him a duke, and then began his all the honours of war; but Schomberg’s soldiers broke advance towards Dublin. But the condition of the' rabble the capitulation, disarmed and stripped the inhabitants, who flocked to his standard was not calculated to raise without regard to sex or quality, and perpetrated many his hopes of success. Their very numbers distressed their disgraceful cruelties by \vay of retaliation on the Papists. sovereign, and ruined the country; insomuch that James Schomberg ivas an experienced general, who had passed resolved to disband the greatest part of them. More a life of eighty years almost continually in the field; yet than one hundred thousand were already on foot in the he found himself at a loss how to carry on the war with different parts of the island. Of these he reserved four- Ireland. Not considering the dangers which threatened teen regiments of horse and dragoons, and thirty-five re- the health of his troops by confining them too long in one giments of foot; the rest he ordered to their respective place, he kept them encamped in a low damp situation near homes, and armed those who w^ere retained in the best Dundalk, almost without fuel; the consequence of which manner he could. was, that the men were seized with fevers and fluxes, and On reaching Dublin, James immediately proceeded to died in great numbers. Nor were the enemy less afflicted business. He ordered all Protestants who had abandoned with similar disorders. In both camps sickness prevailed ; the kingdom to return; he commanded all Papists, ex- and as the rainy season was now approaching, the hostile cept those in his army, to lay aside their arms, and put armies, after remaining for some time in sight of each an end to the depredations which they had committed in other, quitted their camps at the same time, and retired the excess of their zeal; he raised the value of the cur- into winter quarters. rency by proclamation ; and he summoned a parliament to The ill success of this campaign, and the miserable simeet on the 7th of May, in order to settle the affairs of the tuation of the Protestants in Ireland, at length induced kingdom. The Protestant clergy represented their griev- William to attempt their relief in person. Accordingly, ances in an address; and the university of Dublin ap- he left London on the 4th of June 1690, and arrived on peared with complaints and congratulations. He assured the 14th at Carrickfergus; whence he passed to Lisburn, the first of his absolute protection, and a full redress; the head-quarters of the Duke of Schomberg. At Loughand he promised the latter not only to defend, but even Britland he reviewed his army, which amounted to thirtyto enlarge, their privileges. six thousand men, consisting of Lnghsh, Dutch, Germans, On the 8th of April he left Dublin, resolving to lead and French ; and being supplied with every neceshis army against the insurgents in person ; but as they Danes, sary, as well as in high health and spirits, they seemed cerretired before him, he resolved to lay siege to London- tain of victory. The Irish army abandoned Ardee at their derry. The place, however, made a vigorous resistance; and fell back to the south of the Boyne, where but being reduced to the last extremity, it would have approach, they were joined James, who had marched from Dublin been obliged to surrender had it not been relieved on the at the head of hisbyFrench auxiliaries. The banks of the vi 0 the , JuIsiege T by sever i ships laden raised. with provisions, upon Boyne were precipitous, and on the south side the ground which was immediately In the mean hilly, and intersected with ditches. The river itself was mie, the distressed situation of James, and his absolute was deep, and it rose to a considerable height in consequence dependence upon France, drove him to the adoption of of the tide. These advantages induced James, contrary measures equally odious and impolitic. His soldiers had to the opinion of his officers, to maintain possession of this or some time been supported by their officers, or subsist- post. His army was inferior in numbers, in discipline, f y depredation. But the funds of the officers were at and in every other quality, to that of his adversary; but ength exhausted, and the country itself could no longer convinced that a retreat would dispirit his troops, and endure the riot and injustice of the soldiers. Pressed by tarnish his own reputation, he resolved to put the fate of jese difficulties, he resolved, by the advice of his counIreland on the issue of a battle. William had no sooner arC< ln C0 ? pper which should be received in rived on the ground than he rode along the river in sight of eu’ ^°p ot silver. The pieces, inconveniences and iniquity of this measure were obvious; but all Ireland possessed not the both armies, to examine the position of the hostile force, < ans ot paying the army in current coin till the middle and make proper dispositions for battle ; but being observed by the enemy, a cannon was privately brought out and rnmUlne -ne'i ; andthefc French remittances only 200,000 livres pointed against the spot where for the moment he stood. * i be king found it absolutely necessary to The shot killed several of his followers, and he himself r j n erCe with EngW ' ° " river, traversed a bog on the opposite side, and attacked

BRITAIN. 364 . *1 1 A. Tovnoc wWh nftpr a fered as many of the Irish as chose, to retire to Limerick. Eeign i Iteign of With great impetuosity the left of Ja . t tl }last ast retreat, however, the Irish forces made a brave ^iUia s Wiliam Short resistance, gave way, and ret.red pi^.pitetely to ^7’ e°comm’enced on the 24th of August"^ sle e an.l Mary. secure the Pass of Dunleck, winch formed the only Ime of defence B com e ^ witfout ^ retreat. The centre next crossed ‘he nver but were galThe garrison was well supplied with lantly opposed by the Freirch and r^;j c ^ ‘Visions, and provided with all means of defence. On maintained a doubtful contest, t ’ „ j Tup other hand the winter was approaching, and Ginckel h river farther down attire “ tad orders to finSt the war upo/tlny term!. Accordingthe enemy s flank, and forced t e , around ly he offered conditions to the Irish, which, even had they been victors, they could scarcely have refused with prutheir king. 1 he left met wit , He agreed that all persons in arms should be parh i f* es>,s dence. the force opposed to them; doned ; that their estates should be restored, their attain, Kb^rVen“a comparatively small loss, Wiliam Succeeded in forcing hi, position at all points, and in establishing his whole army on the opposite bank of this deep and difficult river. Whilst the armies were vet engaged, James, who had so often shown the heroic courage in battle, rode ingloriously off the field. This dispirited his troops, who fell into irretrievable disorder, and fled in all directions, neglecting his injunction to defend the Pass of Dunleck, and leaving nearly two thousand men killed and wounded on the field. The loss sustained by William’s army was, owing to the difficult nature of the ground, considerably greater, though much inferior to what it would have been if James had skilfully availed himself of the strength of his position, and headed the columns of attack as they debouched from the fords, waakdkd'by’a^lisclmrge fromtamv-n troops^ wlio^nof'know^

ders annulled, and their outlawries reversed; that none snouiu Ut? lltlUIC AUl & 111 should be liable for debts mcurrrf through deeds done ,n the course of hostilities ; that all Roman Catholics should enjoy the same toleration in regard to their religion as in the reign of Charles II.; that the gentry should be permitted to retain their arms ; that the inferior class should be allowed to exercise theirvariouseallingsand professions; that no oath but that of allegiance should be required of any one ; and that if the troops, or any number of them, snould choose to enter into any foreign service, they should be conveyed to the Continent at the expense ol the king. Sarsfield, who had obtained the title of Earl of Lucan from James after his abdication, was permitted to retain laws7 could not recognise. lords «a dignity which the7 "Y ™ tho Uf ofThe October just.ces having arrived from Dublin on the Ut of October, ffitopTa ^eri^tTa whid.

anout lourteen uiuuscum ui wwo --- - 0 passed over to France in transports provided by him. When James first deserted his troops, O’llegan, an James government for conveying them thither; and in this manold Irish captain, was heard to observe, that if the English ner all James’s expectations from Ireland were entirel} would exchange generals, the conquered army would fight frustrated, and the kingdom submitted quietly to the Engthem over again. James withdrew precipitately to Waterlish government. ford, where he immediately embarked for France. In the beginning of the year 1692 an action of unexBut the victory at the Boyne was by no means decisive, barbarity disgraced the government of W illiam m and the adherents of James resolved to continue their op- ampled position. Sarsfield, a popular and experienced general, Scotland. In the August preceding, a proclamation had issued, offering an indemnity to such insurgents as put himself at the head of the army which had been rout- been ed at the Boyne, and took measures for defending the should take the oaths to the king and queen on or before tribesf' • December; r* T and the- chiefs _ Di. „ ^ i-r-.of^ 1 -such /•ItrrjmfCIO' banks of the Shannon. But James superseded him in the the last day of tnnk advantage so r t0 g command, which he conferred on St Ruth, a proceeding as had been in arms for James s „ ’ _ that a forlorn hope should ford the stream in the face of the whole country was covered with a deep snow, the enemy; and this desperate enterprise being perform- however, was Macdonald to take ie oaie ro iaVWithed with great resolution, the enemy were driven from limited time should expire, that, thong i 6 ^ their works, and the town surrendered at discretion. St in half a mile of his own house, he stoppe no Tnve. Ruth marched to its relief, but he came too late, and, as family, and, after various obstructions, ai rive ^ he approached, his own guns were turned against him. rary. The time had elapsed, and the sheri Upon this he instantly counter-marched, and took post at receive his submission; but Macdona functionary Aughrim, ten miles distant, where he determined to wait importunities, and even tears, in inducing tim the English army. Ginckel, though he had only eighteen to administer to him the oath of allegiance, an ^ thousand men, whilst the Irish were above twenty-five the cause of his delay.’ At this time birJolm thousand strong, did not decline the combat. A fierce afterwards Earl of Stair, being in attendance up ^ contest ensued; but St Ruth having fallen, his troops gave as secretary of state for Scotland, took adyan g way on all sides, and retreated in disorder to Limerick, donald’s neglecting to take the oaths wittnn .j^y where they determined to make a final stand, after having scribed, and procured from the king a wanc an q'jjjg vvas lost near five thousand of their best men. execution against that chief and his w io e aI1’ ^ose Ginckel, wishing to put an end to the war at once, suf- done at the instigation of the Eau of real a >

BRITAIN. 365 Ii rn of lands the Glenco men had plundered, and whose treachery his sign-manual, a thing altogether unusual and unprece- Reign of "VV iam ^ government in negociating with the Highland clans ^onted, might well have excited suspicion in the mind of William ant lary-Macdonald had himself exposed. The king was accord- W illiam.; nor, with the knowledge of this fact, coupled an(i Mary. ^ ingly persuaded that Glenco .was the main obstacle to the \yith the neglect of all inquiry in the first instance, and pacification of the Highlands ; and the fact of the unfortu- the impunity of the instigators of the crime afterwards, nate chief’s submission having been concealed, the sangui- is it easy to believe that this otherwise excellent prince nary orders for proceeding to military execution against was altogether free of guilty participation in the foul and his clan were in consequence obtained. The warrant wras bloody tragedy of Glenco. both signed and countersigned by the king’s own hand; To efface the remembrance of this massacre, and to and the secretary urged the officers w ho commanded in blink the inquiry which had been commenced, the king the Highlands to execute their orders with the utmost now caused his commissioner to declare in the Scottish rigour. Campbell of Glenlyon, a captain in Argyll’s re- pailiainent, “ "I hat if the members found it would tend to giment, and two subalterns, were ordered to repair to the advancement of trade that an act should be passed for Glenco on the first of February with a hundred and twen- the encouragement of such as should acquire and establish ty men. Campbell, being uncle to young Macdonald’s a plantation in Africa, America, or any other part of the wife, was received by the father with all manner of friend- world where plantations might be lawfully acquired, that ship and hospitality. The men were lodged at free quar- his majesty was willing to declare he would grant to the ters in the houses of his tenants, and received the kindest subjects of this kingdom, in favour of these plantations, entertainment. Till the 13th of the month the troops such rights and privileges as he granted in like cases to lived in the utmost harmony and familiarity with the peo- the subjects of his other dominions.” Relying on this and ple ; and on the very night of the massacre the officers other flattering promises, the nobility and gentry of Scotpassed the evening at cards in Macdonald’s house. In land advanced L.400,000 towards the establishment of a the night Lieutenant Lindsay, with a party of soldiers, company for carrying on an East and West India trade; called in a friendly manner at his door, and was instantly and twelve hundred veterans who had served in Kbg’ admitted. Macdonald, while in the act of rising to re- W illiam’s wars were sent to effect a settlement on the ceive his guest, was shot dead through the back with two isthmus of Darien or Panama, which, from its situation, bullets. His wife had already dressed; but she was strip- was equally adapted for trading with both the Indies. ped naked by the soldiers, who tore the rings oft’her fingers The new colony was well received by the natives, and with their teeth. The slaughter now became general, matters began to wear a promising aspect, when the king, and neither age nor infirmity was spared. Some women, at the earnest solicitations of the English and Dutch in defending their children, were killed; boys, imploring East India Companies, resolved to gratify the latter at the mercy, were shot dead by officers on wdiose knees they expense of his bcottish subjects, and sent orders to the hung. In one place nine persons, as they sat enjoying governor of Jamaica and the English settlements in Amethemselves at table, were butchered by the soldiers. In lica to issue pioclamations, prohibiting, under the severest Inverriggon, Campbell’s own quarters, nine men were first penalties, all his majesty s subjects from holding any corbound by the soldiers, and then shot at intervals, one by respondence with the Scottish colony, or assisting it in any one. Nearly forty persons were massacred by the troops; way with arms, ammunition, or provisions. Thus the new and several who fled to the mountains perished by famine settlers were abandoned to their fate, although many of and the inclemency of the season. Those who escaped them had been covered with w;ounds in fighting the king’s owed their lives to a tempestuous night. Lieutenant- battles; and thus vanished all the hopes of the Scottish nacolonel Hamilton, who had received the charge of the tion, which had engaged in the design with incredible alaexecution from Dairymple, was on his march with four crity, and with sanguine expectations that the misfortunes hundred men, to guard all the passes from the valley of of their country would, by this new channel of commerce, Glenco; but he was obliged to stop by the severity of the be completely healed. The distresses of the people, upon weather, which proved the safety of the unfortunate clan. receiving authentic accounts of the fortune of their colony, Next day he entered the valley, laid the houses in ashes, scarcely admit of any description; and the whole nation and carried away the cattle and spoil, which were divided joined in reproaching their sovereign with double dealing, among the officers and soldiers. inhumanity, and base ingratitude, to a people who had It can scarcely be imagined that a massacre attended lavished their treasure and best blood in support of his with circumstances of such unparalleled treachery and government, and in the gratification of his ambition. cruelty could pass without some animadversion at the time, But the total reduction of Ireland, and the dispersion or escape the indignant reprobation of history afterwards. and extermination of the Highland chieftains who favour■However willing we may be to ascribe to the immediate ed his cause, did not entirely put an end to the hopes of agents m this horrid business all that is most revolting James. His chief expectations were founded on a cona •11 j ous execution of theat sanguinary warrant ovLtamed by Secretary Dalrymple the instigation of spiracy among his English adherents, and in the succours promised him by the French king. A plot was first formreadalbane, and to transfer to them a large share of the guilt and odium which will ever attach to it, still, after all ed in Scotland by Sir James Montgomery, a person who, from being an adherent of William’s, now turned against allowances are made, it is impossible to exculpate William him; but as the project was ill contrived, so it was as n Wingly consentin Wag to justify. a proceeding nothing out dire° necessity could ever Thatwhich he was beset lightly discovered by the instigator. To this succeeded another, which seemed to threaten more serious consenf iun^ilinayj»m*n‘st?rs’ an(^ *n ignorance of the fact quences, as it was managed by the Whig party, the most it w'nC3 i°n i S suknnssi°n> may be readily admitted ; but formidable in the state, a number of whom joined themm nr i ^ observed that he signed and countersigned selves to the Tories, and made advances to the late king. inff o 6r °r .^terminating a whole clan without institut- I hey assembled together ; and, in order to lose no time, truthnK Previoas inquiry; and that afterwards, when the it was resolved to send over to France two trusty persons, in,,_ecare known, no punishment was inflicted on the Lord Preston and Mr Ashton, to consult with the exiled Drepqnt'11'n8 °p o16 massacre- Besides, the extraordinary monarch. Both of them, however, were seized by order to rnimt°ersign ^ Secretary requiring king of Lord Caermarthen, and condemned. Ashton was exthe order Dalrymple to which heinhad alreadytheaffixed ecuted without making any confession; but Lord Preston

BRITAIN. 366 ambassador of France to Poland, wrote to his master that Reign , Reign of wanted equal virtue or resolution, for on an offer of par- thoughts were entertained of the late king of Britain in the Willi; ., William don, he discovered a great number of associates, amongst and Mary. whom were the Duke of Ormond, Lord Dartmouth, and new election which happened on the death of John Sobieski; and that James had already been named by some of Lord Clarendon. The French having at last become sensible of their bad the diet as his successor. Louis was eager to seize an opof ridding himself with honour of a prince whose policy in not better supporting the cause ot James, re- portunity solved to attempt a descent upon England in his favour; pretensions he could no longer support; and the friends of and, in pursuance of this scheme, James was supplied with James were also sanguine as to the project; but he himan army consisting of a body of French troops, some Eng- self refused it. The same year, at an interview between lish and Scottish refugees, and the Irish regiments which King William and Louis XIV. it was proposed that the had been transported into France from Limerick, and by Prince of Wales, James’s son, should succeed to the throne long discipline and severe duty had become excellent sol- of England after the death of William. William with diers. This army was assembled between Cherbourg and La little hesitation agreed to this request, and even engaged Hogue, and commanded by King James in person. More to procure the repeal of the act of settlement, and the than three hundred transports were provided for landing passing of another declaring the Prince of Wales his sucthe expedition on the opposite coast; and Tourville, the cessor to the throne. But this proposal was also rejected French admiral, at the head of sixty-three ships of the by James. He told the king of France, that though he line, was appointed to favour the descent; his orders be- could endure with patience the usurpation of his nephew, ing at all events to attack the enemy in case they should he would never permit his own son to be guilty of the oppose him. Every thing therefore promised a change of same injustice; that should his son reign in his fathers fortune to the exiled king, and he might now entertain life-time, that circumstance would amount to a formal rehopes of recovei’ing his crown. But these preparations on nunciation ; and that the Prince of Wales, by succeeding the side of France were soon known at the English court, to the Prince of Orange, would thereby yield his sole right, and measures taken for a vigorous and effective resistance. which devolved to him through his father alone. From this time James lost every hope of being restored The secret machinations of the banished king’s adherents to the throne, and resigned himself entirely to religious were discovered to the English ministry by spies ; and it was thus found that the Tories were more faithful than austerities. His constitution, though vigorous and athleeven the Whigs, who had placed King William on the tic, had for some time begun to yield to the infirmities of throne. The Duke of Marlborough, Lord Godolphin, and age, and to that melancholy which superstition, uniting even the Princess Anne herself, were violently suspected with misfortune, had impressed on his mind. In the beginning of September 1701, whilst he was at public prayof disaffection. Preparations, however, were made with great tranquil- ers, according to his daily custom, he fell suddenly into a lity and resolution, to resist the coming storm. Admiral lethargy; and though he recovered his senses soon alter, Russell was ordered to put to sea with all possible expedi- he languished for some days, and expired on the 6th of tion ; and he soon appeared with ninety-nine ships of the September. The French king paid him several visits line, besides frigates and fire-ships. At the head of this for- during his sickness, and exhibited every symptom of commidable fleet he set sail for the coast of France ; and, near passion, affection, and even respect. Embarrassed as to how he ought to proceed upon the La Hogue, he discovered the enemy under Tourville, who prepared to give him battle. The engagement began be- unexpected death of James, Louis called a council to detween the two flag ships with the greatest fury, and the liberate whether he should acknowledge the Prince of rest of the ships in succession followed their example. Wales as king of Great Britain and Ireland. The king The battle lasted ten hours ; but at length victory de- himself had hesitated long in this delicate point; but the clared in favour of numbers, and the French fled for Con- Dauphin, the Duke of Burgundy, and all the princes o quet road, having lost four ships in the action. The pur- the blood, declared that it would be unbecoming the digsuit continued for the two days following. Three French nity of the crown of France not to own that the titles o ships of the line were destroyed on the day succeeding the the father had devolved immediately on the son. Louis principal conflict; and eighteen more, which had taken approved of this view, and determined in person to acrefuge in the bay of La Hogue, were burnt by Sir George quaint the dying king with his resolution. When he arRooke. The ships were drawn up in the shallows, and rived at St Germains, James lay almost insensible from Ins seemed to be secure against attack; but nothing could disorder; but rousing himself, he began to thank his mo» resist the bravery and enterprise of the British seamen, Christian majesty for all his favours. Louis, however, who, crowding in barges, under cover of such frigates as interrupted him: “ Sir,” said he, “ what I have done is could be brought sufficiently near, boarded the enemy’s but a small matter; but what I have to say is of the uu ships, overpowered their crews, and then set them on fire. most importance.” The people then began to retire, When James beheld his late subjects thus daringly occu- Louis ordered them to remain. “ I come to acquam pied in completing the destruction of the French fleet, he you, Sir,” he added, “ that when God shall please to can could not restrain his admiration of their gallantry; and, your majesty from this world, I shall take your iami y whilst witnessing the wreck of all his hopes, exclaimed, under my protection, and acknowledge your son as m» “ Ah, none but my brave English could do this.” And of Great Britain and Ireland.” Though the defeat of the French fleet at La Hogue thus were frustrated the preparations of France, which from this time seemed to relinquish all claims to the em- had put an end to all danger of any further attempt ro that quarter, William by no means possessed hisc01tiron pire of the ocean. n The battle of La Hogue, which took place on the 21st in any degree of tranquillity. The want of a ^ ^e of May 1692, put a final period to the hopes of James. enemy produced dissensions amongst the people, an No further attempts were made in his favour, except some king began to experience as much trouble from his pa ^ plots to assassinate King William, which ended only in the liament at home as from any enemy in the field, destruction of those who had formed them. But it was uneasiness he felt on account of the refractory ^1SP0S|] f never thoroughly proved that James countenanced these of his subjects was not a little heightened by thexdea ^ designs; and it rather appears that he expressed abhor- his queen, who was carried off by the small-po ieon rence of such attempts. In 1697 the Abbe de Polignac, 28th of December 1694. The grief he felt for ‘

BRITAIN. 367 ll« n of was deep and sincere ; but all private concerns were soon he began to think of resources for carrying on a new war, lieign of U jam merged in the greatness of his apprehensions for the ba- and enlisting his English subjects in a confederacy against ami I ary,, lance of power and the fluctuating interests of Europe. Trance. Several arts were used for inducing the people Queen Anne. William’s chief motive for accepting the crown had been to second his aims; and the whole nation seemed at last to engage England more deeply in the concerns of Europe; to join in desiring a French war. He had been in Holand as his great object had been to humble the French, land concerting with his allies operations for a new camso his politics mainly consisted in forming alliances against paign ; and he had entered into a negociation with the France. But many of the English had no such animosity Prince of Hesse, who assured him that if he would beagainst that country; and considering the interest of the siege and take Cadiz, the admiral of Castile and several nation as sacrificed to foreign connections, they complained other grandees of Spain would declare for the house of that the continental war fell most heavily on them, though Austria. The Elector of Hanover had concurred in the they had the least interest in its success. These com- same measures; the king of the Romans, and Prince plaints were at first heard by William with indifference; Louis of Baden, undertook to invest Landau; and the and he continued to bestow all his attention on the balance emperor piomised to send a powerful reinforcement into of power and the interests of Europe. But in attending Italy. But death unexpectedly put a period to the proto foreign affairs he overlooked internal polity; and, as jects and ambition of this prince, who, with all his defects, he foimed alliances abroad, he increased the influence of was, in many particulars, a truly great man. party at home. In accepting the crown, William had reWilliam, was naturally of a very feeble constitution; solved to preserve as much of the px-erogative as could and by this time it had become almost quite exhausted decently be retained ; and he sometimes exerted a branch by a series of continual disquietude and action. He had of it, the power of refusing his assent to bills which had endeavoured to repair his strength, or at least to conceal passed both houses, with equal firmness and decision. its decay, by exercise on horseback. But on the 21st of Hence perpetual bickerings took place between him and February 1702, whilst riding to Hampton Court from Kenhis parliaments. But William at last became fatigued sington, his horse fell under him, and he was thrown with with opposition, and admitted every restraint which they such violence that his collar-bone was fractured. Plis chose to impose on the prerogative in England, upon con- attendants conveyed him to the palace at Hampton Court, dition of being properly supplied with the means neces- where the fracture was reduced; and in the evening he sary for humbling France. returned to Kensington in his coach. But the joltimj of Ihe war with I ranee continued dui’ing the greatest part the carriage disunited the fracture; and although the bones of tins king’s reign; but at length the treaty of Ryswick, were again replaced by Bidloo his physician, this accident in 1697, put an end to a contest in which England had en- proved ultimately fatal. For some time indeed he apgaged without policy, and from which she came off without peared to be in a fair way of recovery; but falling asleep advantage. In the general pacification her interests seem- in. his couch, ne ivas seized with a shivering, which tered entirely neglected; and for all the treasures she had minated in a fever and diarrhoea, that resisted all remedial transmitted to the Continent, and all the blood which had been shed there, the only equivalent received was an ac- means employed to abate them. Perceiving his end approaching, he exhibited another example of the ruling pasKnowledgment of William’s title by the king of France. Ihe king being now freed from foreign war, set himself sion strong in death. The objects of his former care lay to strengthen his authority at home; and as he could not nearest his heart; and the fate of Europe seemed to render him insensible to his own. Fhe Earl of Albemarle arendure the thoughts of a king without an army, he con- riving from Holland, he conferred with him in private on ceived hopes of keeping up, in time of peace, those forces which had been granted him during the time of danger. the posture of affairs abroad ; and having received the sacrament from Archbishop Tennison, he expired on Sunday ho ever his reat ^a vntp TT if’ , ^ ’ t° g mortification, passed vote that all the forces in the pay of England, exceed- the 8th of March, having lived fifty-two years, and reigned thirteen. William was in his person of the middle stah0USand men should be ing that rff . ’ ^thwith disbanded, and those retained should be natural-born subjects of ture ; his body was slender and his constitution delicate. He had an aquiline nose, sparkling eyes, a large forehead, tllS V te the kin s m «„i1 a nAt ,° £’ mdignation was kindled and a grave solemn aspect. He left behind him the chae ree i ? . ^ the g government. 5 that he actually conceived a designhis of racter of a great politician, though he had never been poabandoning From this, however, pular ; and of an able general, though he had seldom been dlVe t d h hennls7 f 1bill. ™’ and Persuaded him to consent to victorious. Flis deportment was grave, phlegmatic, and the passing of/the sullen ; nor did he ever show any fire or animation except alt t ionS con inued in the day of battle. On such occasions he was all life, w-n ^ during the remainder of ofr ^n' • ^ flham considered the Commons as a body gaiety, energy, and alacrity. At the last moment, when f r themse hem n™'Tf °f ?°Wer ° lves, and consequently his mind was otherwise oppressed, he retained a just sense a]1 bis bertieTof abstructln g projects for securing the li- of religion, and seemed impressed with anxiety for the welanv narfin ?Ur°Pe ’ and be seemed but little attached to fare of his subjects. Fie lay quietly and composed, with U1 thG h USe aI1 of whom b aUiml S ° ’ e found his eyes fixed upon heaven; and when his speech failed to Whi^ and Td ^ °PP®sed him* He therefore inclined him, he appeared so resigned that no man could die either nes lndls immedbL gr°ncy cnminately, as interest or the better prepared or with greater constancy and piety, than as a nllfp fl f demanded. He considered England this prince, whose memory will ever be respected by the ny time for a b°Ur’ ?d alte-ation. If he* had lovers of rational liberty. Sement r relaxation h in HolTanS whlere amon ° a > e retired to Loo such festiviii ’ g few friends, he indulged in 1 aS h Was ca able CFIAP. IX. Planned b! ? P of relishing. Here he and laboure f t CCeSSi10n tlle different princes of Europe, REIGN OF QUEEN ANNE. Louis, his redfi0Und rine the schemes and the power of might be Will; In,Pa ltlcs nnd fame. But however feeble of Anne—State of parties—War declared against scarcely ex t ^f. deSlr! °f °ther amusements, he could Accession France—Duke of Marlborough appointed general Flis suc0Ut hcWg at varianc Peace had Wn7 !! e with cess in his first Campaign.—losses sustained at sea Gallantry midly been concluded with that nationFrance. when and death of Admiral Benbow—Continental army increased.—

368 Reign of Queen Anne.

BRITAIN. he was sure to promote it; and thus all the upper ranks Beigr of command were filled with men rather remarkable for Quew their skill and talents than for their age and experience. ^nn ; In his first campaign, in the beginning of July 1702, he ^ repaired to the camp at Nimeguen, where he found himself at the head of sixty thousand men, well provided with all necessaries, and long disciplined by the best officers of the age. He was opposed on the part of France by the Duke° of Burgundy, a youth of very little experience in the art of war; but the real acting general was Marshal Boufflers, the second in command, an officer of courage and activity. But wherever Marlborough advanced, the French were obliged to retire before him, leaving all Spanish Guelderland at his discretion. The Duke of Burgundy, finding himself obliged to retreat before the allied army, William was succeeded by the Princess Anne, who had rather than expose himself longer to such a mortifying married George, Prince of Denmark. She ascended the indignity, returned to Versailles, leaving Boufflers to comthrone in the thirty-eighth year of her age, to the ge- mand alone. The latter then retired to Brabant; and neral satisfaction of all parties. W ilham had died on the Marlborough ended the campaign by taking the city of eve of a war with France; and the present queen, who Liege, in which he found an immense sum of money and was generally guided by the advice of her ministry on number of prisoners. every important occasion, was now urged by opposite a great This good fortune seemed to console the nation for councils, one part of the ministry being inclined for war some unsuccessful expeditions at sea. Sir John Munden and another for peace. At the head of those who opposed having a French squadron of fourteen ships to a war with France was the Earl of Rochester, lord lieuten- escape permitted him by taking shelter in the harbour of Corunna, ant of Ireland, first cousin to the queen, and the chief of was dismissed the service. An attempt was made upon the Tory faction ; whilst the opposite party was led by the Cadiz by sea and land, Sir George Rooke commanding the Earl, afterwards Duke, of Marlborough, and subsequently navy, and the Duke of Ormond the land forces; but this so much and justly renowned for his victories over the also miscarried. At Vigo, however, the British arms were French. After both parties had given their opinions, that attended with better success; and the French fleet which of Marlborough preponderated. The queen resolved to had taken refuge there were burned in order to prevent declare war ; and having communicated her intentions to the House of Commons, by whom it was approved, war their falling into the hands of the English, whilst ten ships was proclaimed accordingly. In this declaration Louis u as of war were taken, together with eleven galleons, and taxed with having taken possession of a great part of the above a million of money in silver. In the ^\est Indies, Spanish dominions; with a design to invade the libeities Admiral Benbow, who had been stationed with ten ships of Europe, and to obstruct the freedom of navigation and to distress the enemy’s trade, having received information commerce ; with having offered an unpardonable insult to that Du Casse the French admiral was in those seas with a the queen and her throne, by acknowledging the title of the force equal to his own, resolved to attack him ; and having pretender ; and with attempting to unite Spain to his own discovered the enemy’s squadron near St Martha steering dominions, by placing his grandson upon the throne of along the shore, he quickly gave the necessary orders to that kingdom, and thus endeavouring to destroy the ba- his captains, and forming the line of battle, began the aclance of power that subsisted among the states of Euiope. tion. But the rest of the fleet having taken some causeless This declaration of war on the part of England was second- disgust at his conduct, permitted the admiral to sustain, almost alone, the whole fire of the enemy. Nevertheless, ed by similar manifestoes by the Dutch and Germans. Louis XIV., whose power had been greatly circumscrib- the engagement continued till night, and he determin ed by William, expected, on the death ot the latter, to to renew it next morning; but he had the mortification to enter on a field open for new conquests and fame. At the perceive that all the rest of his ships had fallen bac ex news of the English monarch’s death, therefore, he could cept one, who joined him in urging the pursuit of tiie not suppress his satisfaction; whilst the people of Paris, enemy. During four days this intrepid seaman, assistea and indeed throughout the whole kingdom, testified their by only one ship, pursued and fought the enemy, w i s joy in the most public manner. The French monarch his dastardly officers remained at a secure distance, n was filled with indignation at seeing such a combination the last day’s battle, which was more furious than any o against him ; but his resentment fell chiefly on the Dutch, the preceding conflicts, the admiral s leg was shattere J and he declared with great emotion, that as for those gen- a cannon-ball, and he himself died soon after of his tlemen pedlars, they should one day repent their insolence Two of his associates w^ere shot on their arrival m Engand presumption in declaring war against him, whose power land ; one died on his passage home; and the remain they had formerly felt and dreaded. By these threats, were justly disgraced. The next parliament, which was convened by the que ’ however, the affairs of the allies were no way influenced. rl Marlborough was appointed general of the British forces, evinced great satisfaction at the success of the co and by the Dutch he was chosen generalissimo of the al- arms on the Continent. The House of Commons, sean en ? ’**•.]. lied army; and indeed his subsequent conduct showed posed chiefly of Tories, voted forty thousand that no person could possibly have been chosen with the like number of land forces, to act in conjunction ' greater propriety. He had learned the rudiments of war those of the allies. But soon afterwards the queenain ^ ed her nei puiimmciii/ parliament that LiiaL out. she was pressed — byj the1 tint ten under Turenne, having served as a volunteer in his army; eu ‘ taj and that celebrated commander had prognosticated his augment her forces; and upon this it was resolvet c ntin thousand more men should be added to the ° . future greatness. T 11 The first attempt which Marlborough made to deviate army; on condition, how ever, that the Dutch ^ho ^ . from the general practice of the army was to advance the mediately break off all commerce with France an 1 , In the beginning of April 1703 the Duke o . subaltern officers, whose merits had hitherto been neglected. Regardless of seniority, wherever he found ability borough crossed the sea, and assembling the alhe Further successes of Marlborough—French defeated at Blenhelm Gibraltar taken—French defeated at sea.—Ineffectual attempt of the Spaniards to recover Gibraltar—Charles declared king of Spain—War of the Succession—Barcelona taken— French defeated at Ramillies—The King of France sues for peace—Change in the councils of Queen Anne—English defeated at Almanza—Shipwreck of Sir Cloudesley Shovel. Union between Scotland and England—The articles violent y opposed in Scotland—Effects of this measure—Dissolution ot the Scottish Privy Council—French defeated at Oudenaide. —Battle of Malplaquet—Last Campaign of MarlboroughForces Villars to quit his lines without striking a blow—Capture of Bouchain—Marlborough dismissed from all his employments—Peace of Utrecht—Attempt to dissolve the UnionIntrigues of the Whigs and Tories—Death of Queen Anne.

BRITAIN. 369 opened the campaign with the siege of Bonn, the residence nications intercepted by another strong detachment. In Reign of of the Elector of Cologne, which held out but a short time. this situation lallard flew to rally some of his squadrons; Queen He next retook Huy, the garrison of which, after a vigo- but, being short-sighted, he mistook a Flessian for a French Annerous defence, surrendered prisoners of war. Limburg was corps, and was made prisoner. On the left Prince Eugene then besieged, and surrendered in two days ; and the cam- had encountered a vigorous resistance and been thrice repaign concluded by securing the country of Liege, the elec- pulsed ; but, having received some reinforcements from torate of Cologne, and the Lower Rhine, against the de- Marlborough, he at last succeeded in dislodging the enesigns of the enemy. my opposed to him. The battle was now won. The French In the campaign of 1704, the Duke of Marlborough, hav- fled in the utmost confusion, whilst the corps of thirteen ing informed the Dutch of his intention to march to the thousand men which occupied Blenheim were surrounded relief of the empire, which had been for some time op- and made prisoners. About twelve thousand French and pressed by the French forces, the states gave him full Bavarians were killed on the field or drowned in the powers to act as he thought proper, with assurances of as- Danube ; whilst one hundred colours, two hundred standsistance in all his efforts. The French king, finding Bouf- ards, three thousand tents, all the baggage, and the miliflers no longer capable of opposing Marlborough, appoint- tary chest of the French army, formed the trophies of this ed the Marshal de Villeroi to command in his room. But glorious day. Of the allies not less than thirteen thouMarlborough, having no great fears from Villeroi, immedi- sand were killed, wounded, or missing; but the conquerately marched to the assistance of the emperor. Taking ors by the victory gained a territory of a hundred leagues with him about thirteen thousand British troops, he ad- in extent, and inflicted a blow on the power of France vanced by rapid marches to the banks of the Danube, de- from which it did not soon recover. Having finished the feated a body of French and Bavarians stationed at Do- campaign, the duke repaired to Berlin, where he procured nawerth to oppose him, and, passing the river, laid under a reinforcement of eight thousand Prussians to serve uncontribution the electorate of Bavaria, which had taken part der Prince Eugene in Italy, and then proceeded to negowith the enemy. Villeroi, who at first had attempted to fol- ciate for succours at the court of Hanover ; after which he low his motions, soon lost sight of him ; nor w as the French returned to England, and was received with every possible commander apprised of his route till informed of his suc- demonstration of joy. The manor of Woodstock was concesses. But, in the mean time, Marshal Tallard prepared ferred upon him; and the lord-keeper, in the name of the by another line to obstruct Marlborough's retreat, w ith an Peers, honoured him with the praises which his talents army of thirty thousand men ; and being soon after joined and conduct had so well merited. by the forces of the Elector of Bavaria, the French army Nor were the arms of Britain less fortunate by sea than in that part of the Continent amounted to sixty thousand by land. The town of Gibraltar was taken by the Prince veterans, commanded by twm generals then reputed the of Hesse and Sir George Rooke; but so little wras the best in France. To oppose this powerful force the Duke of value of the conquest at that time understood, that it was Marlborough formed a junction with a body of thirty thou- for some time debated whether the admiral should be sand men under the celebrated Prince Eugene ; so that, thanked for making it, and at last it was considered as with this reinforcement, the allied army amounted to about unworthy of public gratitude. Soon after, the British fifty-two thousand combatants. After various marches and fleet, to the number of fifty-three ships of the line, came countermarches, the twm armies met at Blenheim. The up with that of France, consisting of fifty-two men of war, French, under Tallard, were posted upon a hill near the commanded by the Count de Toulouse, off the coast of towii of Hochstet, having their right covered by the Da- Malaga. Fhe battle began at ten in the forenoon, and nube and the village of Blenheim, their left by the village of continued with great fury for six hours, when the van of Lutzengen, and their front by a rivulet, the sides of which the French began to give way. The British admiral for were steep and the bottom marshy; and in this strong two days attempted to renew the engagement; but this position they seemed to bid defiance to their adversaries. was cautiously declined by the French, who at last disapBut Marlborough and Eugene, having carefully examined peared totally. Both sides claimed the victory, although e r § nund, resolved to attack them, and accordingly ad- the result showed that it was in favour of the British. vanced upon the plain in front of their position. The bat- Meanwhile the Spaniards, alarmed at the capture of Gibtle began by a cannonade on both sides, which lasted from mne in the morning until halfan hour after mid-day. At raltar, sent the Marquis of Villadurias with a large army ns moment Marlborough, who had completed all his dis- to retake it. France also dispatched a fleet of thirteen ships of the line; but some of them parted company in a positions, crossed the rivulet at the head of the English, an attacked the cavalry of Ballard on the right, while that gale, and others were taken by the British. Nor was the land force more successful. The siege continued for four officer was engaged in reviewing his troops on the left. months, during which time the Spaniards repeatedly atAn hour elapsed, however, before Prince Eugene could ring up his forces to attack the other wing of the enemy tempted in vain to scale the rock; and at last, losing all hopes of taking the place, they were contented to draw off commanded by the Elector of Bavaria; but, during this their men and abandon the enterprise. orou \\ hilst the British were thus victorious by land and fui; i e’andj^ gh’s attack had to been successwhen Tallard repaired thecompletely scene of action he und that the French cavalry had been thrice repulsed. sea, a new scene of contention was opened on the side of Spain. Philip V. grandson of Louis XIV. had been raised len a ttem . pted to lead to the charge a large body of to the throne of that kingdom, having been nominated as hl< h he had • r^ r posted in the village ; but these beIg luriously assailed by a strong detachment of English successor to the crown by the late king of Spain’s will. But in a former treaty among the powers of Europe, tbp0^’ 6We£e scarcelylnatde to maintain their ground, while Charles, son of the emperor of Germany, was appointed flank an( in defpa/ ! l reverse, were totally heir to that crown; and this treaty had been guaranteed rntrmW *i j . ?uccess lod to a movement which proved by France herself, although she now resolved to recal that of thp6 t? ^ c^cis^ve* Penetrating between the two wings consent in favour of a descendant of the house of Bourdefpat ^ trough the space left open by the bon. Charles was still further led to urge his pretensions senaraim n^i? tcavall T’ the English troops effected a total to the crown of Spain by the invitation of the Catalonians, V ee n dentlv ^ »^ ' , them’ whilst the large force impru- who declared in his favour, and promised, with the assistm t le v a e vol PyS ^ ^ S Blenheim had its commu- ance of the British and Portuguese, to arm in his cause. 3a

1) gn of ( een u16u ^

BRITAIN. 370 began to meditate schemes of opposition to the Duke Reign of lieign of On his way to his new dominions, he landed in England, they Queen where, on his arrival, he was received by the Dukes of of Marlborough, whom they represented as an interested Queen Anne, Anne. Somerset and Marlborough ; kindly greeted by the queen ; man, who sacrificed the real interests of the nation, in vw protracting a ruinous war, for his own private emolument 'r*' and furnished with two hundred transports, thirty ships of and glory ; and as the country was oppressed with a load war, and nine thousand men, under the command of the Earl of Peterborough, a man of romantic bravery and of taxes, which a continuance of the war would inevitably high military genius. The first attempt of this geneial increase, discontent began to spread, and the Tories wanted was on the city of Barcelona, at that time defended by a only a few determined leaders to assist them in removing garrison of five thousand men. The fort of Monjuic, situ- the present ministry. In the meanwhile, a succession of losses began to dissiated on a hill which commanded the city, was attacked; and the outworks being taken by storm, as well as the pate the conquering mania which had seized the nation, powder-magazine blown up, the fort surrendered, and in a and to incline them to wish for peace. The Earl of Galshort time afterwards the city capitulated. The conquest of way, who commanded the English army in Spain, was all Valencia succeeded the capture of Barcelona; Charles completely defeated at Almanza by the Duke of Berwick; became master of Aragon, Garthagena, Grenada, and and in consequence of this victory all Spain, except the Madrid ; and the British general having entered the capi- province of Catalonia, returned to their duty to Philip as tal in triumph, there proclaimed Charles king of Spain, their lawful sovereign. An attempt was made upon Toulon by the Duke of Savoy and Prince Eugene by land, without opposition. These successes, however, were soon eclipsed by the and an English fleet by sea; but to no purpose. The fleet victories of the Duke of Marlborough, which alone en- under Sir Cloudesley Shovel, having set sail for England, grossed public attention. In 1706 he opened the cam- was driven by a violent storm on the rocks of Scilly, where paign with an army of eighty thousand men. The army his own ship was lost, and every person on board perished; of Villeroi, in the vicinity of Tirlemont, was of nearly while three more ships met with the same fate, and four equal strength, and he had orders to attack the allies be- others were saved with the utmost difficulty. In Germany, fore the Danish and Prussian contingents could join. But, Marshal Villars carried all before him, and was upon the whilst it was his intention to become the assailant, Ville- point of restoring the Elector of Bavaria. The only hopes roi was himself attacked, in a position which prevented of the people lay in the activity and conduct of the Duke his developing the whole of his force. He had the river of Marlborough, who opened the campaign of 1707, about Mehaigne on his flank, and his centre occupied the vil- the middle of May; but even here they were disappointed. lage of Ramillies, while a marsh covered his left. Marl- The duke declined an engagement; and, after a variety borough skilfully availed himself of the disposition made of marches and countermarches, both armies retired into by his antagonist; and knowing that Villeroi’s left was winter quarters about the end of October. The French paralysed by reason of the marsh in front, which effectual- made vigorous preparations- for the next campaign; and ly prevented its acting on the offensive, he directed his the duke returned to England to meet with a reception principal attack upon the centre, which formed the key of which he did not at all expect, and which he certainly did the position. The issue of the conflict was never for a not deserve. The most remarkable transaction of this year, and inmoment doubtful; the village was carried in the most gallant style, and both wings being at once separated and deed of this whole reign, was the union between the two turned, a complete rout ensued. About six thousand kingdoms of Scotland and England. 1 hough governed French were made prisoners, and upwards of eight thou- by one sovereign since the time of James I. of England, sand killed or wounded. The whole of Brabant became yet each nation had continued to be ruled by its respecthe reward of the victors. The French troops were now tive parliament, and often professed to pursue interests dispirited ; the city of Paris was in confusion ; and Louis, opposite to those of its neighbour. The union had often who had long been flattered with conquest, was humbled been unsuccessfully attempted before, and had indeed to such a degree as almost to excite the compassion even been the cause of the bloody wars in the times of Edward I. of his enemies. He sued for peace, but in vain; the and Edward HI. of England. In all the former proposals allies carried all before them; and his capital began to on that head, both nations were supposed to remain free dread the approach of the conquerors. But what neither and independent; each kingdom having its own parliahis armies nor his politics could effect, was brought about ment, and being subject only to such taxes and other by the intrigues of a party in England. The dissensions commercial regulations as those parliaments judged expebetween the Whigs and Tories saved France, which now dient for the benefit of their respective states. But alter the destruction of the Darien colony in the manner alseemed tottering on the very brink of ruin. The councils of the queen had hitherto been governed ready related, King \\ illiam had endeavoured to allay t e by a Whig ministry; for though the Duke of Marlborough national ferment by resuming the affair of a union wit began his career in the interest of the opposite party, as much assiduity as his warlike occupations would allow. he soon joined the Whigs, whom he found most sincere The terms proposed were the same with those formeil} ten in the design of humbling France. The people, however, dered; namely, a federal union, somewhat like thato t e were now in fact beginning to change their sentiments, and- states of Flolland. With this view the Scots were prevailto imbibe the slavish spirit of Toryism. The queen’s pex - ed on to send twenty commissioners to London, who, wi1 ei sonal virtues, her successes, her deference for the clergy, twenty-three on the part of England, assembled at > and their great veneration for her, all contributed to give hall in the month of October 1702. Here they were o her great influence with the nation. Persons of every noured with a visit from the queen, in order to enliven t ei1 rank were not ashamed to defend the most servile tenets, proceedings and stimulate them to the more speedy when these tended to flatter or increase the power of the patch of business; but the treaty was entirely broken o sovereign, and to argue in favour of strict hereditary suc- this time by the Scottish commissioners insisting that r1 ^ cession, divine right, and non-resistance to the regal power. rights and privileges of their countrymen trading to The Tories, though joining in vigorous measures against and the Indies should be preserved and maintaine • France, were never very ardent enemies of that country; was, however, resumed in the year 1706, when the co^ but they secretly hated the Dutch, and longed for an op- missioners again assembled on the 16th of April? m portunity of breaking with that people. With this view council chamber of Whitehall. The Scottish commission

BRITAIN. 371 Reft of still proposed a federal union; but the English were deter- conduct by a public declaration, and resolved to take the Reign of Q fcn mined on an incorporation, which should not afterwards route to Edinburgh and dissolve the parliament. Queen be dissolved by a Scottish parliament. Nothing but this, In the mean time the privy council issued a proclama- Anne. they said, could settle a perfect and lasting friendship be- tion against riots, commanding all persons to retire from twixt the two nations. The commissioners from Scotland, the streets whenever the drum was beat; ordering the however, continued to resist the article which subjected guards to fire on those who disobeyed this command; their country to the same customs, excises, and regula- and indemnifying them from all prosecution for maiming tions of trade as England; but the queen being persuaded or slaying the lieges. But even these precautions were to pay two visits in person to the commissioners, exerted insufficient. The Duke of Queensberry, the chief proherself so vigorously, that a majority was at last gained moter of the union, though guarded by double lines of over; and all the rest yielded, though with reluctance, horse and foot, was obliged to pass through the streets excepting Lockhart of Carnwath, who could not by any at full gallop, amidst the curses and imprecations of the means be persuaded either to sign or seal the treaty. populace, who pelted his guards, and even wounded some The articles being fully prepared on the 22d of July, of the persons who attended him in the coach. In oppowere presented next day to her majesty by the lord-keeper sition to all this fury, the friends of the measure magniin the name of the English commissioners; and at the fied the advantages that would accrue to the kingdom same time a sealed copy of the instrument was deliver- from the union ; they abated the resentment of the clergy, ed by the lord chancellor of Scotland. The articles were by promoting the insertion in the treaty of an act by which most graciously received; and the same day the queen the Presbyterian discipline was declared to be the only dictated an order of council, threatening with prosecution government of the church of Scotland, unalterable in all such as should be concerned in any discourse or libel, or succeeding times, and a fundamental article of the union. in laying wagers, with regard to the union. But notwith- Emissaries were also employed to disunite the Camerostanding all this harmony the treaty was received with the nians and the Cavaliers, by demonstrating the absurdity, utmost disapprobation in Scotland. The terms had been sinfulness, and danger, of such a proceeding. The India carefully concealed, so that nothing transpired till the whole Company w^as flattered with the prospect of an indemniwas at once laid before parliament. The ferment then fication for the losses they had sustained, and individuals became general; and all ranks of people, however divid- by sharing an equivalent. And the last manoeuvre coned in other respects, united against this detested treaty. sisted in bringing over a party in the Scottish parliaThe nobility and gentry were exasperated at the annihi- ment, nicknamed the Squadrons Volants, from their fluclation of parliament, and the consequent loss of their in- tuating between the ministry and the opposition, without fluence and credit. The body of the people cried out, attaching themselves to any party till the critical moment, that the independence of the nation was sacrificed to which was either to cement both kingdoms by a firm treachery and corruption; and insisted, that the obligations union, or involve them in the calamities of war. By this laid on their members to stay so long at London, in their unexpected stroke, the ministry obtained a decisive vicattendance on the British parliament, would drain the tory, and all opposition was henceforth vain. The articles country of its money, impoverish the members themselves, of treaty were ratified by parliament, with some trifling and subject them to the temptation of being corrupted. variations, on the 25th of March 1707; when the Duke of Aor was the commercial part of the people better satisfinally dissolved that ancient assembly, and fied. The dissolution of the India Company; the taxes Queensberry ceased to be a separate independent kingdom. laid on the necessaries of life; and the vast number of Scotland On the conclusion of the treaty, the queen informed both duties, customs, and restrictions, laid upon trade, were all houses of parliament that the treaty of union, with some of them matter of complaint. Before this time Scotland had traded freely to the Levant, the Baltic, France, Spain, additions and alterations, was ratified by an act of the parliament of Scotland; that she had ordered it to be laid rortugal, Holland, and the Dutch plantations; and it before them, hoping it would meet their approbation ; that seemed difficult to conceive how the commerce of the had now an opportunity of putting the last hand to country could be advanced by laying restrictions upon athey happy union of the two kingdoms; and that she would it in regard to these places, especially as the compensation allowed, namely, the privilege of trading to the Eng- look upon it as a particular happiness if this great work, so lish plantations in America, formed a very trifling advan- often attempted before without success, could be brought tage, seeing that the amount of the whole exports to these to perfection in her reign. Objections, however, were started by the Tory party; but they were at that time too places did not by any means equal the expense of defend- weak to be heard with any attention; and all their arguing them. The most violent disputes took place in the ments were answered with such success by the opposite par lament. Lord Belhaven delivered a most pathetic party, that the union w^as unalterably completed on the eec *P Y’ which, enumerating the miseries that would first of May 1707, and the island took the name of The tend this treaty, he drew tears from the audience, and United Kingdom of Great Britain. tiered many prognostications, which to this day are reckIn this treaty it must be observed, that the commissionned prophetic by many of the Scottish nation. Almost 'erv article of the treaty was the subject of a protest; and ers on the part of England were not only able statesmen, but, for the most part, well skilled in trade; which gave res „ ventlo ses against it were presented to parliament by the them an evident advantage over those of Scotland, who 1 n of royal burghs, the commissioners of the gene- consisted of lords and gentlemen who had no commercial mbly nd the con an Indt? ’,f T y trading to Africa and the knowledge. Hence they were overmatched by the forS5 a We as from shires and - i without . > stewartries, burghs, towns, mer in the great objects which are more immediately conand pansfies, distinction of Whig, Tory, Presbytenected with national prosperity; though they were very mnn °r PlscoPa^an* Nor was the resentment of the com- careful to preserve all their heritable offices, superiorities, G less mpmK e0P Wltdlin - 7-lthout doors violent than that of the jurisdictions, and other privileges and trappings of the coa PrpsVivt ^ • * htion was formed between the feudal aristocracy. Had the English commissioners made resentmen11 fnS/nid Cavaliers j and to such a height did the a liberal use of the advantages afforded them at this time, officer' f ° i th emse Peove Ple .rise’ that they actually chose it would have been in their power to have greatly enriched themselves as well as the inhabitants of Scotland; but and amm?™., l thes into regiments, unition, burnt articles of union,provided justifiedhorses their instead of this they were influenced by the narrow’ and

BRITAIN. 372 lleign of short-sighted principle of commercial monopoly; and t m had commanded the French in the battle of Malplaquet; Reign Queen consequences were such as might, with a small degree ot but he contrived his measures so, that, by marching and Queei countermarching, he, without striking a blow, forced the Anne, reflection, have been foreseen. enemy to quit a strong line of entrenchments, which he In 1708 there was a warm debate in a grand committee afterwards took possession of. This enterprise was followof the House of Lords, occasioned by a bill passed by t le ed by the taking of Bouchain, which was the last military Commons for rendering the union of the two kingdoms achievement of this great general. By a continuation of more entire and complete, by which it was enacted, that, conduct and success almost unparalleled, he had gained from the first of May 1708, there should be but one privy the allies a prodigious tract of country. From the becouncil in the kingdom of Britain. The arguments for to ginning of the war, which had now continued nine years, the dissolution of the privy council of Scotland were, its he had perpetually advanced, and never retreated before enormous stretches of power and acts of cruelty, and the circumstance that it could now be of no other use in Scot- his enemies, nor lost an advantage he had obtained over He frequently gained possession of the enemy’s land except to enable the court to govern every thing at them. posts without fighting ; and where he was obliged to attack, pleasure, and procure such members of parliament as it fortifications were able to resist him. He had never thought proper. The dissolution, however, was carried by no besieged a city which he did not take, nor fought a battle fifty against forty, after which the nation, deprived of this which he did not win. Thus the allies had reduced under last fragment of its ancient government, was thrown into their command Spanish Guelderland, Limburg, Brabant, a ferment by the opponents of the union; but after an in- Flanders, and Hainault; they were masters of the Scarpe; effectual attempt in favour of the pretender, animosities the capture of Bouchain had opened for them a way into began to subside. We must now return to the Duke of Marlborougn, who the very heart of France ; and another campaign might had gone over to Flanders to open the campaign. Peace have made them masters of Paris. But on the duke’s rehad been more than once offeredj and treaties entered turn from this campaign, he was accused of having taken bribe of six thousand pounds a year from a Jew who had upon, but as often frustrated. After the battle of Ramil- acontracted to supply the army with bread; and the queen lies, the king of France had employed the Elector of Ba- thought proper to dismiss him from all his employments. varia to write letters in his name to the Duke of MarlboOn the removal of this great general, the command of rough, containing proposals for opening a congress, and offering to renounce either Spain and its dominions, or the British forces was conferred on the Duke of Ormond. the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, to Charles of Austiia, The transactions which followed are by no means creditand to concede a barrier to the Dutch in the Netherlands. able to the character of the British nation. The people at But these terms were rejected ; and the two armies once large, blinded by a headstrong and furious clergy, wished more met in nearly equal numbers at Oudenarde, on the to revive the ceremonies of the Romish religion, and to Scheldt, where an engagement ensued, in which the french unite the English and Gallican churches; the general ot were defeated with immense loss; and Lisle, the strong- the army acted a most insidious part, by giving the enemy est town in Flanders, with Ghent, Bruges, and all the intelligence of the designs of the allies before he had deother towns in that country, soon after fell into the hands clared that he was not to act in concert with them; and of the victors. In this battle the electoral prince of Ha- the queen herself commanded him to pursue this shameful nover, afterwards George II. of Britain, greatly distin- course, nay even acted in a similar manner herself. Pnnce guished himself, and had the merit of conducting the first Eugene complained much of the inactivity of the English attack. His horse was killed under him, and Colonel general, though apparently unacquainted with his treachLuschki was slain close by his side. The campaign ended ery ; whilst the whole army loaded him with execrations, with fixing a barrier to the Dutch provinces, and it now calling him a stupid tool, and a general of straw. All this, only remained to force a way into the provinces of the however, was in vain; the duke continued to prefer the commands of his sovereign to every other consideration, enemy. The French king, being now in a manner reduced to and Ormond lost what Marlborough had gained. The disgrace of the Duke of Marlborough had been despair, again sued for peace; but the demands of the allies were so high, that he was obliged to reject them, and owing to the prevalence of the Tory party, who had now prepare for another campaign, in the year 1709. The first got the Whig ministry turned out; and the consequence attempt of the allies was against the city of Tournay, gar- was, that notwithstanding all the remonstrances and enrisoned by twelve thousand men, and exceedingly strong treaties of the allies, the British army in Flanders was orboth by nature and art. After a terrible siege of twenty- dered not to act offensively. Hence the operations lanone days, the town capitulated; and a month afterwards guished; a considerable body of the allies was cut oft a the citadel, which was still stronger than the town, surren- Denain, and the French retook several towns. A peace, dered. Next followed the bloody battle of Malplaquet, however, was at last concluded in 1713 between where the allied army, consisting of a hundi'ed and ten and Britain. In this treaty it was stipulated that i mnPj thousand men, attacked the French, consisting of a hun- now acknowledged as king of Spain, should renounce dred and twenty thousand, strongly posted, and fortified right to the crown of France, the union of two sue po in such a manner behind the woods of La Merte and Ta- erful kingdoms being thought dangerous to the hher1 i nieres, with triple entrenchments, that their position seem- of Europe. It was agreed that the Duke de Bern, ls0 P ed quite impregnable. Nothing, however, could resist the brother, and next after him in succession, should ^ ec energy of Marlborough and the bravery of his troops. The nounce his right to the crown of Spain in case he 6 0 ‘ French were driven from all their positions, and totally king of France. And it was stipulated that the Du 0 . . defeated. But the victory cost the allies very dear ; for voy should possess the island of Sicily with the tit e twenty thousand of their best troops lay dead or wounded together with Fenestrelles, and other places on t ie on the field of battle. The consequence of this victory nent; and this increase of dominion was in some me ^ was the surrender of the city of Mons, which ended the provided out of the spoils of the French monarchy. Dutch had the barrier granted them which they so campaign. The last campaign of the Duke of Marlborough, which desired; and if the crown of France was deprived o ^ happened in the year 1711, probably excelled all his for- dominions to enrich the Duke of Savoy, the house o mer exploits. He was opposed by Marshal Villars, who tria was also taxed to supply the wants of the Do

BRITAIN, 373 Ityliof who were put in possession of the strongest towns in Flan- also taken to secure all the sea-ports; and the command Reign of Qen ders. The fortifications of Dunkirk were demolished. of the fleet was bestowed upon the Earl of Berkeley, a pro- George I. Spain gave up Gibraltar and the island of Minorca. France fessed Whig. These measures answered a double purpose, ; resigned her pretensions to Hudson’s Bay, Nova Scotia, as they argued the alacrity of the Whigs in the cause of and Newfoundland, but was left in possession of Cape Bre- their new sovereign, and seemed to imply that the state ton, with the liberty of drying fish upon the shore. Among was in danger from the disaffection of the opposite party. the articles creditable to the British nation, their setting On the 30th of July the queen seemed somewhat relieved free the French Protestants confined in the prisons and by the medicines which had been administered; and havgalleys for their religion was not the least meritorious. ing risen from her bed about eight in the morning, she In behalf of the emperor, it was stipulated that he should walked a little ; but she was soon afterwards seized with an possess the kingdom of Naples, the duchy of Milan, and apoplectic fit; and although she recovered somewhat by the Spanish Netherlands; and the king of Prussia was the assistance of Dr Mead, she continued all night in a to have Upper Guelderland. A period was fixed for the state of stupefaction, and expired the following morning, emperor’s acceding to these articles, as he had for some at seven, having lived forty-nine years, and reigned uptime obstinately refused to assist at the negociation. This wards of twelve. This princess was remarkable neither famous treaty was signed at Utrecht on the last day of for learning nor capacity. Like all the rest of her family, March 1713. she seemed rather fitted for the duties of private life than The same year was also remarkable for an attempt of the those of a public station, being a pattern of conjugal fideScottish Peers and Commons to dissolve the union, which, lity? a g°0(i mother, a warm friend, and an indulgent misas already stated, had proved exceedingly disagreeable tress ; and to her honour it should be recorded, that duand distressful to the nation. During the debates on this ring her reign none suffered for treason on the scaffold. subject the Earl of Peterborough endeavoured to prove In her ended the line of the Stuarts, a family who neithe impossibility of dissolving the treaty; but the Duke of ther rewarded their friends nor punished their enemies, Argyll, who had originally promoted the union, now de- and whose misconduct and misfortunes are scarcely to be clared against it, and said, that unless it were dissolved paralleled in history. he did not long expect to have either property in Scotland or liberty in England. By some other Peers it was CHAP. X. alleged, that the union had not produced its intended effect; that it had been designed to promote friendship REIGN OF GEORGE I. between the two nations; that, so far from answering this purpose, the animosities between them were never so Accession of George I.—His arrival in England.—Favour shown great as then; and that if separated again they would be by him to the Whigs—National Discontents Dissolution of better friends than in a state of nominal union and real Parliament—New one assembled—Its violent proceedings dissension. This motion was however overruled; but the Rebellion in Scotland—Battle of Sheriffmuir Proceedings of the Jacobites in England—Expedition of the Earl of Derwentdiscontent of the people still continued; addresses were water—.Jacobites forced to surrender at Preston Ridiculous prepared throughout the kingdom; and matters were in schemes of the Pretender—He lands in Scotland without means, danger of coming to the worst extremities, when the atand quits it -without necessity—Cruel treatment of the rebels. tempt of the pretender in 1715 so divided the minds of —Execution of Derwentwater and Kenmuir—Escape of others the people that no unanimous effort could ever afterwards by various means.—Duration of Parliaments extended Bribe made for the repeal of the union. tain threatened with invasion by Charles XII. of Sweden Quadruple Alliance—War with Spain—Intended invasion by The history of the latter portion of this reign consists enthe Spaniards defeated—Irish Parliament made dependent on tirely of the intrigues of the Whigs and Tories against each that of Britain—South Sea Scheme—Origin and nature of this other, which, as they are now of no importance whatever, delusion—The Directors punished—Expedition of Admiral it is needless to take up time in relating, further than that Hosier.—Death of George I. the Tory influence continued to prevail. Whether the ministry at this time wished to alter the succession from The queen had no sooner resigned her breath than the the Hanoverian line, cannot now be clearly ascertained; privy council met, and three instruments wrere produced, but it is certain that the Whigs firmly believed it, and the by which the Elector of Hanover appointed several of his lories but faintly denied the charge. The suspicions of the adherents to be added as lords justices to the great offiformer became every day stronger, particularly when they cers of the kingdom. Orders were also issued out for prosaw a total removal of the Whigs from all places of trust claiming George, son of Ernest Augustus, Elector of Brunsand confidence throughout the kingdom, and their employ- wick, and of Sophia, grand-daughter of James I., king of ments bestowed on professed Tories, supposed to be de- England, Scotland, and Ireland ; and the regency appointvoted to the cause of unbroken hereditary succession. ed the Earl of Dorset to carry to him the intimation of his The violent dissensions between these parties, with accession to the crown, and to attend him in his journey t leir cabals and tumults, made the queen’s situation very to England. disagreeable; her health visibly declined. On the 28th of The king landed at Greenwich, and walked to his house July 1714 she fell into a lethargic insensibility; and, not- in the park, accompanied by a great number of the nowithstanding all the medicines prescribed by the physi- bility and other persons of distinction. George I. was mans the distemper gained ground so fast, that next day fifty-four years of age when he ascended the British ier life was despaired of. The members of the privy coun- throne; and his mature age, his experience and sagacity, ci were now summoned from the different parts of the his numerous alliances, and the general tranquillity of Euingdom, and began to provide for the security of the conall contributed to establish his interests, and promise s itution. A letter was sent to the Elector of Hanover, rope, and happy reign. His virtues, though m orming him of the queen’s desperate condition, and de- him a peaceable r not shining, w ere solid; and he was of a very different siring him to repair to Holland, where a British squadron disposition from the Stuart family whom he succeeded; wou a attend to convey him to England ; and instructions for, soon after his arrival in England, he was heard to say, aiTh 6auta^euesame ^me dispatched to the Earl of Strafford “ My maxim is, never to abandon my friends, to do justice 0 to all the world, and to fear no man.” To these qualities t ° guarantee a ^ S ’the l- squire the succession. states-general to be prepared Protestant Precautions were of resolution and perseverance he joined great application

BRITAIN. 374 Reign of to business; but, unfortunately for England, he studied where to other grievances was added that of the union, Rei„n { George 1. the interests of the territory he had left more than those which all considered as an oppression. The malcontents of George that country had all along maintained a correspondence of the kingdom he came to govern. The new king early discovered a natural enough incli- with their friends in England, and some of the Tory party nation to support those who had raised him to the throne, who were attached to the Protestant religion, and of moor, in other words, the Whig party. Immediately after derate principles in government, began to associate with his landing, he sent for such of the nobility as had dis- the Jacobites, and to wish in earnest for a revolution. Scotland first showed them the example. The Earl of tinguished themselves by their zeal for his succession. He expressed the greatest regard for the Duke of Marl- Mar, assembling three hundred of his vassals in the Highborough, who had just then arrived from the Continent, lands, proclaimed the pretender at Castleton, and setting whither he had been driven by the violence of the Tories ; up his standard at Braemar, assumed the title of Lieutenand he professed the same friendship for the other lead- ant-general of his Majesty’s Forces. To second these aters of the Whigs, while the Tories found themselves ex- tempts, two vessels arrived from France with arms, ammucluded from the royal favour. The king did not seem nition, and a number of officers, together with assurances, sensible that the monarch of a faction rules but one half tlmt the pretender himself would shortly come over to of his subjects; and it was his misfortune to be surround- head his own forces. In consequence of this promise, the ed by men who, whilst they pretended to secure the crown earl soon found himself at the head of ten thousand men for the king, used all their arts to confirm their own inte- well armed and provided; and having secured the pass of rests, extend their connections, and give laws to their so- Tay at Perth, where his head-quarters were established, vereign. In consequence of these partialities, the great- he made himself master of the province of Fife, and the est discontent was excited throughout the whole king- whole sea-coast on that side of the Frith of Forth. He dom. The Tories or Jacobites raised terrible outcries; then marched to Dumblane, as if with the intention of and had the pretender been a man of judgment or ability, crossing the Forth at Stirling Bridge ; but there he was ina fair opportunity now offered him of striking a decisive formed that the Duke of Argyll, who had been appointed blow. Instead of this, he remained a calm spectator on the commander-in-chief of all the forces in North Britain, was Continent, and only sent over his emissaries to disperse advancing against him from Stirling with his own clan, ineffectual manifestoes and delude the unwary. At this assisted by some troops from Ireland. Upon this he at time the Catholic religion was much hated in England; first judged it proper to retreat; but being soon afterwards but the principles of the Dissenters were little, if at all, joined by reinforcements under the Earl of Seaforth, and more agreeable to the generality. The Tories affirmed General Gordon, an experienced officer, who had signalisthat, under a Whig administration, heresy and impiety ed himself in the Russian service, he resolved to face the were daily gaining ground; whilst the lower orders of the enemy, and directed his march towards the south. The clergy joined in these complaints, and pointed out several Duke of Argyll, apprised of his intentions, and anxious to tracts published in favour of Arianism and Socinianism. prove his attachment to the present government, resolved The ministry, however, not only refused to punish the de- to give him battle in the neighbourhood of Dumblane, linquents, but silenced the clergy themselves, and forbade though his forces did not amount to half the number of the enemy. Accordingly, in the morning he drew up his their future disputations on these topics. The parliament having been dissolved, another was now army, which did not exceed four thousand men, in order called by a very extraordinary proclamation, in which the of battle ; but he soon found himself greatly outflanked by king complained of the evil designs of men disaffected the insurgents. The duke, therefore, perceiving the earl to his succession, and of their misrepresentations of his making attempts to surround him, was forced to alter his conduct and principles; expressed his hopes that his sub- dispositions ; but, from the scarcity of general officers, this jects would send up to parliament the fittest persons to was not done so expeditiously as to be completed before redress the present disorders; and entreated that they the insurgents began the attack. The left wing of the would elect such in particular as had expressed a firm at- duke’s army received the centre of the enemy, and suptachment to the Protestant succession. In the election porting the first charge without shrinking, seemed for of this important parliament, uncommon vigour was ex- a time victorious. The chief of Clanronald was killed; erted on both sides; but by dint of the monied interest but Glengarry, who was second in command, waving his which prevailed in corporations, and the activity of the bonnet and crying out “ Revenge !” animated the rebel ministry, a great majority of Whigs was returned both in troops to such a degree, that they followed him close to England and Scotland. Upon the assembling of the new the points of the enemy’s bayonets, and got within their parliament the most violent measures were resolved on guard, when a total rout ensued of that wing of the royal against the late ministry. A committee was appointed army. General Witham, their commander, fled full speed to inspect all the papers relative to the recent treaty, and to Stirling, and gave out that the rebels were completely to select such of them as might furnish grounds of accusa- victorious. But Argyll, who commanded in person on the tion against the former ministry; and the Earl of Oxford right, having in the meanwhile attacked the left of the was impeached of high treason, and sent to the Tower. enemy, drove them before him for two miles, notwithstan Nor was the violence of the Commons answered with less ing they often faced about and attempted to rally; an vehemence without doors. Tumults became every day having entirely broken and driven them over the river more frequent, and each new ebullition served only to in- Allan, he returned to the field of battle. Here, however, crease the severity of the legislature, which at length to his great mortification, he found the enemy victorious, passed an act, declaring, that if any persons to the num- and patiently waiting the attack. But instead of renewber of twelve, unlawfully assembled, should continue to- ing the engagement, both armies continued to observe eac gether one hour after being required to disperse by a jus- other, neither caring to recommence the contest; and o tice of peace or other officer, and after hearing the act wards evening each drew off. Both sides of course claim^ against riots read in public, they should be deemed guilty ed the victory ; but all the advantages of success belong of felony without benefit of clergy. These proceedings ed to Argyll. He had arrested the progress of t^ie excited the indignation of the people, who perceived that and, in their circumstances, delay was defeat. In fact, the avenues of royal favour were closed against all but a Earl of Mar soon found his losses and disapointments | faction; and a rebellion commenced in the sister kingdom, crease. The Castle of Inverness, of which he had ob at

BRITAIN. 375 Re:ii of ed possession, was delivered up by Lord Lovat, who had arms, and were put under a strong guard. All the nobleGee e I. hitherto professed to act in the interest of the pretender ; men and leaders were secured, and a few of their officers Reign of ^ the Marquis of Tullibardine also forsook the earl, in order were tried for deserting from the king’s army, and shot by George I. to defend his own part of the country ; and many of the oi der of a court-martial. The common men were impriclans, seeing no likelihood of coming to a second engage- soned at Chester and Liverpool; whilst the noblemen and ment, returned quietly home. officers were sent to London, and led through Nor was the rebellion more successfully prosecuted in considerable the streets pinioned and bound together, in order to intiEngland. From the time the pretender had undertaken midate their party in the metropolis. this wild project at Paris, in which the Duke of Ormond But, however ill the schemes of the pretender may apand Lord Bolingbroke were engaged, Lord Stair, the Eng- pear to have been conducted in Britain, they were still lish ambassador there, had penetrated all his designs, and more so in France. Bolingbroke had been appointed his sent faithful accounts of all his measures and of all his ad- secretary at Paris, and Ormond his prime minister. But herents to the ministry at home. Upon the first rumour these statesmen quickly found that nothing could be done of an insurrection, therefore, several lords and gentlemen in favour of his cause. The king of France, who had ever of whom they had suspicions were imprisoned; and al- warmly espoused the interest of the exiled family, was though these precautions were insufficient to stop the in- just dead ; and the Duke of Orleans, who succeeded to surrection in the western counties, where it had already the government of the kingdom, was averse to lend the begun, all the preparations of the insurgents were weak pretender any assistance. His party, however, which was and ill conducted, while every measure was betrayed to composed of the lowest ami the most ignorant exiles from government as soon as projected, and many revolts were the British dominions, affected the utmost confidence, and repressed in the very outset. boasted of a certainty of success. The deepest secrets of But the insurrection in the northern counties attained ns cabinet, and all his intended measures, were bandied to greater maturity. In the month of October 1715, the about in coffee-houses by persons of the lowest ra'nk both Earl of Derwentwater and Mr Forster took the field with in fortune and abilities ; whilst subaltern officers aspired to a body of horse, and, being joined by some gentlemen be generals, and even prostitutes were intrusted with the from the borders of Scotland, proclaimed the pretender. management of his negociations. From such instruments Their first attempt was to seize upon Newcastle, in which and such councils nothing could be augured but folly and they had many friends ; but finding the gates shut against them, they retired to Hexham. To oppose them General The pretender, in fact, might easily have seen that his Carpenter was detached by government with a body of nine affairs were desperate ; yet, with his usual infatuation, he hundred men; and an engagement was hourly expected, resolved hazard his person among his friends in Scotland, the rebels had two courses, by pursuing which they might at a timetowhen such a measure was too late to serve any have conducted themselves with prudence and safety. The purpose. Accordingly, travelling through France one was, to march directly into the western parts of Scot- rational and embarking in a small vessel at Dunkirk, land, and there join General Gordon, who commanded a inle disguise, arrived, after a short voyage, on the coast of Scotland, strong body of Highlanders ; and the other was. to cross the Iweed and boldly attack General Carpenter, whose with only six gentlemen in his train. He passed unknown through Aberdeen to Fetteresso, where he was met by torces did not exceed their own. But, from the infatua- the Earl of Mar, with about thirty noblemen and gentletion attendant on the measures of the Jacobite party, neiof the first quality, and solemnly proclaimed; and ther of these courses was pursued. They took the route to men ns declaration, dated at Comerey, was printed and disJedburgh, by which they hoped to elude Carpenter, and persed. He then proceeded to Dundee, where he made penetrate into England by the western border. But this was the most effectual means of cutting themselves off from a public entry ; and in two days more he arrived at Scone, either assistance ot retreat. A party of Highlanders, who w here he intended to have the ceremony of his coronanad by this time joined, at first refused to accompany them tion performed. He ordered thanksgivings to be offered in so desperate an incursion, and one half of their num- tor his safe arrival; he enjoined the ministers to pray for ner in consequence returned to their own country. At him in their churches ; and, without the smallest share of power, he enacted all the ceremonial of royalty, which rampton Mr lorster opened his commission of general, served to throw an air of ridicule upon his pretensions. which had been sent him by the Earl of Mar, and there Having thus spent valuable time in useless parade, he proclaimed the pretender. The insurgents then continu- next abandoned the enterprise with the same levity with t0 Penrith wher m ^arch a body of the militia, assembled to oppose them, > fled ate their approach. From which it was undertaken. He made a speech to his grand i ennth they proceeded by the way of Kendal and Lan- council, in which he informed them of his want of the aster to Freston, of which they took possession without money, arms, and ammunition necessary for undertaking a campaign; and deploring the necessity he was under of Srr lln tdtcd c ? ,r£Ttance- But this the last stage of leaving them, he once more embarked on board a small : advance; for General Wills, at the head of Trench ship that lay in the harbour of Montrose, accomseven thousand men, came up to attack them, and from panied with several lords, his adherents, and in five days J 11 le was no esca arrived at Gravelines. raispd ? ping. They now, therefore, CadeS ab0Ut the town ut the Ia I he rebellion being thus ended, the law was put in turl nf ip ’P P ce in a postark« pf efence> and repulsed with success the first at- force in all its rigour; and the prisons of London were enem s for forSfl i! T . ce. But next day Wills, rein- crowded with deluded persons, whom the ministry seemthis a T arpenter, invested the town on all sides. In ed resolved not to pardon. The Commons, in their adrab 6 SltUatl0n Forst with thp ° nerali ; and er proposed to capitulate dress to the crown, declared they would prosecute, in the who 1 Id f , accordingly sent Colonel Oxburgh, most rigorous manner, the authors of the late rebellion ;5 terms Wn/1 Prisoner’ with a trumpter, to propose and their measures were as vindictive as their resolutions h eVe r refused t0 listen t0 position ’ g°T ^ch a pro- were speedy. The Earls of Derwentwater, Nithsdale,5 1 ’ could not tbat be that the treat with rebels, and Carnwath, and Wintoun, the Lords Widrinton, Kenmuh’ tbe lla from immerr te flvos1ur T d to expect was to be spared and Nairne, were impeached; and, upon pleading guilty,’ ai h ^ut as no hPtf !S be ter.obtained, This was a hard condition; better could they laid down their all except Lord Wintoun received sentence of death. No entreaties could prevail on the ministry to spare these un»

BRITAIN. 376 was, however, passed by the Commons, prohibiting all Reign of lieign of happy men. The House of Lords even presented an ad- commerce with Sweden, although the trade with that George I. George I. dress to the throne for mercy, but without effect; the king country was at the time of the utmost consequence to the ^Tv' only answered, that on this, as on all other occasions, he English merchants. George having passed through Holwould act in the manner which he thought most consistent land to Hanover, in order to secure his German dominions, with the dignity of the crown and the safety of the people. entered into a new treaty with the Dutch and the Regent Orders were accordingly issued for the execution of the of France, by which they agreed mutually to assist each Lords Derwentwater, Nithsdale, and Kenmuir, immediate- other in case of invasion ; and, for his further security, ly : the rest were respited. Nithsdale, however, had the the Commons granted him L.250,000. But the death of good fortune to escape in woman’s clothes, which were the Swedish monarch, who was soon afterwards killed at brought him by his mother on the eve of the day fixed for the siege of Fredericsthal in Norway, put an end to all his execution. Derwentwater and Kenmuir were brought disquietude from that quarter. at the time appointed to the scaffold on lower Hill, where Among the many treaties for which this reign was reboth underwent the sentence of the law with calm intrepi- markable, one had been concluded, called the Quadruple dity, and apparently less moved than those who witnessed Alliance, in which it v/as agreed between the emperor, their execution. . . .1 Q France, Holland, and Britain, that the emperor should reAn act of parliament was next passed for trying the nounce all pretensions to the crown of Spain, and exchange private persons in London, and not in Lancashire, where Sardinia for Sicily with the Duke of Savoy ; and that the they had been taken in arms. This was considered, by succession to the duchies of luscany, Parma, and Plasome of the best lawyers, as an alteration of the ancient centia, should be settled on the queen of Spain’s eldest constitution of the kingdom, according to which it used to son, in case the present possessors should die without male be held, that every prisoner should be tried in the place issue. This treaty, however, was by no means agreeable to where the offence charged against him had been commit- the king of Spain; and it became prejudicial to the Engted. In the beginning of April, commissioners for trying lish, as it had the effect of interrupting the commerce with the rebels met in the Court of Common Pleas, when true that kingdom. A war soon afterwards commenced bebills were found against Forster, brigadier Mackintosh, tween Spain and the emperor, who was considered as the and twenty of their associates. Forster escaped from New- principal contriver of the treaty ; and a numerous body of gate, and reached the Continent in safety ; the rest plead- Spanish forces were sent into Italy to support Philip’s preed not guilty to the charge. Pitts, the keeper of Newgate, tensions in that quarter. The regent of France attempthaving been suspected of conniving at borsters escape, ed in vain to dissuade him, and the king of Britain offered was tried for his life, but acquitted. Mackintosh and se- his mediation with as little success, their interposition being veral other prisoners subsequently broke from Newgate, considered as partial and unjust. A Spanish war was then having mastered the keeper and turnkey, and disarmed resolved on, and a squadron of twenty-two ships equipped the sentinel. The court then proceeded to the trial of with all expedition. The command was given to Sir George the remainder, and four or five were hanged, drawn, and Byng, who had orders to sail for Naples, which was at quartered, at Tyburn. The judges appointed to try the that time threatened by a Spanish army. He was re• rebels at Liverpool found a considerable number of them ceived with the greatest joy by the Neapolitans, who ino-uilty of high treason; twenty-two were executed at formed him that the Spaniards, to the amount of thirty Manchester and Preston ; while about a thousand experienced the king’s mercy, and were transported to the thousand, had then actually landed in Sicily. In this exigency, and whilst no assistance could be afforded by land, plantations. c resolved to proceed thither by sea, fully' determined to The rebellion being thus extinguished, the danger ot he the Spanish fleet, on board of which the army was the state was made a pretence for continuing the parlia- pursue embarked. Upon coming round Cape Faro, he perceived ment beyond the term fixed for its dissolution. An act small Spanish vessels, and pursuing them closely, came was therefore passed, repealing that which provided for two the triennial dissolution ot parliaments, and the teim of upon their main fleet, which, before noon, he discovere their duration was extended to seven years. This attempt in line of battle, amounting in all to twenty-seven sail. in a delegated body to increase their own power by ex- The Spaniards, however, notwithstanding their superiority tending it, is contrary to the first principles of justice. If of number, attempted to sheer off; but finding it impos to escape, they kept up a running fight, the comit was right to extend their duration to seven years, they sible might also perpetuate their authority, and thus cut off even manders behaving with great courage and activity, notthe shadow of representation. The bill, however, passed withstanding which they were all taken except t ree> both houses, and all objections to it were considered as which were saved by the conduct of their vice-admira, . disaffection. The people might murmur at this encroach- native of Ireland. The rupture with Spain was thought favourable to ment, but it was too late for redress. ) Domestic concerns being thus adjusted, the king re- interest of the pretender; and it was hoped that, m, solved upon a voyage to the Continent. He foresaw a assistance of Cardinal Alberoni, a new insurrection g storm gathering from Sweden. Charles XII. highly pro- be excited in England. The Duke of Ormond wase voked at his having entered into a confederacy with the person fixed upon to conduct this expedition ; an Russians and Danes during his absence at Bender, and tained from the Spanish court a fleet of ten ships 0 purchased from the king of Denmark the towns of Bre- and transports, having on board six thousand regular r p > men and Verden, which constituted part of his dominions, with arms for twelve thousand more. But fortun 1 1 maintained a close correspondence with the dissatisfied still as unfavourable as ever to the cause of l^g . subjects of Great Britain; and a scheme was formed for Having set sail, and proceeded as far as Cape kints > ’ landing a considerable body of Swedish forces, with the he encountered a violent storm, which disabled ns king at their head, in some part of the island, where it and frustrated the expedition. This misfortune, 1C1og ^ ga. was expected they would be joined by all the malcon- with the bad success of the Spanish arms m tents in the kingdom. Count Gyllenburg, the Swedish other parts of Europe, induced Philip to agree to act 1 e(j minister in London, was peculiarly active in the affair ; but tion of arms; and at last he consented to sign having been seized, with all his papers, by order of the druple alliance, by which means peace was again r king, the confederacy was for the time broken up. A bill to Europe.

BRITAIN. 377 Rei^ of Tranquillity being thus established, the ministry pro- mgJy, a bill passed both houses of parliament. But now Reign of Geor I. ceeded to take measures for securing the dependence of came the part of the scheme which was big with fraud George I. ^ the Irish parliament upon that of England. One Maurice and ruin. As the directors of the South Sea Company Annesley having appealed to the House of Peers of Eng- could not of themselves be supposed to possess money land from a judgment of the Irish Peers, the decree of sufficient to buy up the debts of the nation, they were the latter was reversed, and the British Peers ordered the empowered to raise it by opening a subscription to an Barons of Exchequer in Ireland to put Mr Annesley in pos- imaginary scheme for trading in the South Seas; and as session of the lands which he had lost by the decree of the immense advantages were promised from this suppositiLords in that kingdom. The Barons obeyed this order; tious commerce, and still greater expected by the rapabut the Irish Peers passed a vote against them, as having cious credulity of the people, all the creditors of governattempted to diminish the just privileges of the parliament ment were invited to come in and exchange their securiof Ireland, and at the same time ordered the barons to be ties for that of the South Sea Company. The directors’ taken into custody by the usher of the black rod. On the books were accordingly no sooner opened for the first subother hand, the House of Lords in England resolved that scription, than crowds came to effect the exchange of gothe Barons of Exchequer in Ireland had acted with cou- vernment for South Sea stock ; and the delusion was artrage and fidelity; and addressed the king to signify his fufly piopagated and continued. In a few days subscripapprobation of their conduct by some marks of his favour ; tions oi shares sold for double the price at which they had while, to complete their object, a bill was prepared by been purchased ; the scheme succeeded beyond even the which the Irish House of Lords was deprived of all right projectors hopes; and the whole nation was infected with of final jurisdiction. This bill was opposed in both houses, a spirit of avaricious enterprise. The infatuation, in fact, but particularly in the Commons, where it was asserted by became ejndemic, and the stock rose to a surprising deMr Pitt that it would only serve to increase the power of the gree, even to a thousand per cent, premium on the oriEnglish Peers, who were already but too formidable. Mr ginal value or price of the shares. But after a few months Hungerford also demonstrated that the Irish Lords had the people awaked from their dream of riches, and found always exercised the power of finally deciding causes ; but, that all the advantages which they expected were purely in spite of all opposition, it was carried by a great majori- visionary, whilst thousands of families were involved in utty, and soon afterwards received the royal assent. ter ruin. Many of the directors, by whose arts the people This blow was severely felt by tbe Irish, but it was by had been taught to expect such benefits from a traffic to the no means so great as that which the English about this South Seas, had indeed amassed enormous fortunes in contime leceived from the South Sea Scheme, which com- sequence of the credulity of the public ; but it was some menced in the year 1721. To understand the genesis of consolation to the jieople, to find that the parliament, sharthis delusion, it is necessary to observe, that ever since the ing in the general indignation, had resolved to strip these Revolution, owing either to the insufficiency of the supplies plundereis of their ill-gotten wealth. Accordingly, orders granted by parliament, or to the time required for collect- were first given to remove all the directors of the South ing those which were actually granted, the government was Sea Company from their seats in parliament, and the places obliged to borrow money from several different companies they held under government; and the principal delinquents of merchants ; and among the rest from that which traded were by a forfeiture of all such possessions and I to the South Seas. In the year 1716 the government were estatespunished as they had acquired during the continuance of indebted to this company upwards of nine millions ster- the popular frenzy. The next care of parliament was to ling, for which interest at the rate of six per cent, was agreed to be paid. But as this company was not the only afford some relief to the sufferers. Several just and proper creditor of the government, Sir Robert Walpole formed a resolutions were in consequence adopted, and a bill was speedily prepared for alleviating the sufferings of the people design of lessening the national debt, by giving the several as far as the power of the legislature in such a case could associations which had advanced funds for the public ser- possibly extend. Out of the profits arising from the South vice an alternative of either accepting a lower rate of interest, namely five per cent., or of being paid the principal, hea scheme, the sum of seven millions was restored to the m point of fact, the different companies chose rather to original proprietors ; several additions were also made to theii dividends out of what was possessed by the company accept of the reduced rate of interest than to be paid the m their own right; and the remaining capital stock was pnncipal; and the South Sea Company in particular, havmg advanced Joans to the extent of ten millions, were con- also divided among the former proprietors at the rate of thirty-three per cent. Petitions from all parts of the king6 0 000 T^.wu,uuo, finnnnn^i - ^p annuallyreceived. as interest,And instead of dom were in the meanwhile presented to the house, dewhich they’ previously in the ame manner, the governors and company of the Bank, manding justice ; and the whole nation seemed exasperated to the highest degree. Public credit sustained a terri• . otlile,!' associations, consented to receive a diminished ble shock. Some leading members of the administration merest for their respective loans, which of course lessen- were deeply implicated in these fraudulent transactions. ed considerably the burdens of the nation. A run was made upon the bank; and nothing was heard but nneo 18 ?ituat.io.n ^things, one Blount, a scrivener, pro- the ravings of disappointment and the cries of despair. By degrees, however, the effects of this terrible calamity Zv 1 ihe mini f,try’ in fche name of the South Sea ComU a the m nrd ° P 1 debts of the different associations, woie off, and matters returned to their former condition. Sea sole rZl Z th/ 41South Company might become the A new war with Spain, however, commenced in 1726. 16 State vernm Were0textrem * Tlle terms he offered to go- Admiral Hosier was sent to South America to intercept Comn, ely advantageous. The South Sea the Spanish galleons; but the Spaniards, apprised of his redt em the debts of 1116 hanT /.re 8 nvat : nation out of the design, relanded their treasure, and thus defeated the obo-overZ l P e individuals who were creditors to the ject of the expedition. Meanwhile the greater part of the for tho •e?t’ uPon ®uch terms as could be agreed on ; and British fleet sent on this service was rendered entirely uninto the r Wnestlands n°f,the m°ne^ thus adeemed and taken fit for service. The seamen were cut off in vast numbers mem fiv 6 Per ° Cent for ’ they were to be allowed by govern- by the malignity of the climate and the length of the six ears; after ivas to h i ‘ y which the interest voyage, whilst the admiral himself died, it is said, of a broredeemable6]!110^ f°Ur per cent> and to be at anY time ken heart. By way of retaliation the Spaniards undertook vol. v ^ parliament. For these purposes, accord- the siege of Gibraltar; but they soon found that this at3E

BRITAIN. wondered at by the country party, and it was as constant Reign t lleign of tempt was hopeless; and France offering her mediation, a George II-temporary peace ensued, although both sides only watch- ly the business of the court to give plausible reasons for George 31 increase. Hence demands for new supplies were ^ ed an opportunity for renewing hostilities with the pro- the made every session of parliament, for the purpose of sespect of success. friends upon the Continent, of guarding the kingSoon after the dissolution of the parliament m the year curing dom from internal conspiracies, or of enabling the minis1727, the king, resolving to visit his electoral dominions of to act vigorously in conjunction with the powers in Hanover, appointed a regency to govern in his absence, try alliance abroad. It was vainly alleged that these exand, embarking for Holland, landed at a little town called pences were incurred without foresight or necessity; and Voet. Next day he proceeded on his journey; and in two that the increase of the national debt, by multiplying and days more, betwixt ten and eleven at night, he arrived at increasing taxes, would at last become an intolerable Delden, to all appearance in perfect health. He supped burden to the poor. These arguments were offered, canthere very heartily, and continued his journey early the vassed, rejected; the court party was constantly victorious, next morning ; but betwixt eight and nine he ordeied his and every demand was granted with equal cheerfulness coach to stop; and it being perceived that one of his hands and profusion. lay motionless, Fabrice, who had formerly been servant to The next thing worthy of notice in the reign of George the king of Sweden, and now attended King George in the II. is the Charitable Corporation. A society of men had same capacity, attempted to quicken the circulation by united themselves into a company under this name, with chafing the royal hand between his own. As this had no effect, however, the surgeon who followed on horseback was the professed intention of lending money at legal interest to poor upon small pledges, and to persons of higher rank called, and rubbed it with spirits. But the friction was the upon proper security. Their capital was at first limited unavailing; the king’s tongue began to swell, and he had just strength enough to bid them hasten to Osnaburgh , to thirty thousand pounds ; but they afterwards increased to six hundred thousand. This money was supplied by after which he fell insensible into Fabrice’s arms. He it subscription, and the care of conducting the capital was never recovered ; but expired about eleven o clock the intrusted to a proper number of directors. The company next morning, in the sixty-eighth year of his age and thirteenth of his reign. His body was conveyed to Hanover, having continued in existence for more than twenty years, the cashier, George Robinson, member for Marlow, and and interred among his electoral ancestors. the warehouse-keeper, John Thomson, disappeared in one day ; and five hundred thousand pounds of capital were CHAP. XL found to be sunk or embezzled by means which the proprietors could not discover. In a petition to the House, REIGN OF GEORGE II. therefore, they represented the manner in which they had been defrauded, and the distress to which many of them Accession of George II.—Court and Country Parties.—Charitable Corporation Excise Scheme rejected—Parliament dis- had in consequence been reduced; and a secret commitsolved War with Spain—Capture of Puerto Bello—An- tee having been appointed to examine into this grievance, son’s Expedition Unsuccessful attempt on Carthagena—Re- a most iniquitous scene of fraud was discovered, which tirement of Sir Robert Walpole—Army sent into Flanders— had been carried on by Thompson and Robinson, in conOrigin of the Continental War—Desperate situation of the cert with some of the directors, for embezzling the capiQueen of Hungary Relieved by the British forces—Battle of Dettingen Intended invasion of Britain by France—Bat- tal and cheating the proprietors. Many persons of rank tle of Fontenoy Capture of Louisbourg—Landing of the Pre- and quality were concerned in this infamous confederacy, tender in Scotland—Battle of Gladsmuir—Advance into Eng- and even some of the first characters in the nation did not land Consternation in London—Retreat of the Highland escape censure. No less than six members of parliament army from Derby.—Siege of Stirling Castle.—Battle ot Fal- were expelled for the most sordid acts of knavery ; Sir Rokirk Advance of the Duke of Cumberland, and retreat of the bert Sutton, Sir Archibald Grant, and George Robinson, Rebels Battle of Culloden—Cruelty of Cumberland—Subsequent adventures and escape of Prince Charles Edward— for their frauds in the management of the Charitable CorExecution of Rebels—Policy of the Government in regard to poration scheme ; Dennis Bond and Serjeant Burch, for a the Highlands of Scotland—Allies defeated in Flanders.— fraudulent sale of the unfortunate Earl of Derwentwater s Losses sustained by the French in other parts—Peace of Aix- estate ; and John Ward of Hackney, for the crime of forla-Chapelle—Death of the Prince of Wales—Hostilities re- gery. It was at this time asserted in the House of Lords newed Minorca invaded—Execution of Admiral Byng.— Treaty with Russia—Opposition of the King of Prussia—New that not one shilling of the forfeited estates had ever been Combination of the European powers—Unsuccessful expedition applied to the service of the public, but had become t e against France—Accession of Mr Pitt to office.—Success of reward of fraud, venality, and profligacy. the British arms in both hemispheres—Quebec taken and This happened in the year 1731. In 1732 a scheme Canada reduced—Misconduct of Cumberland in Germany— was formed by Sir Robert Walpole of fixing a general exCapitulation of Cluster Seven—French defeated at Minden— German war continued with various success—Death of George cise ; and he introduced it by enumerating the frauds prac-e tised by the factors in London employed in selling II. American tobacco. To prevent these frauds, he propose , On the accession of George II. who succeeded to his that instead of having the customs levied in the usua man father in the forty-fourth year of his age, the two great ner, all the tobacco to be hereafter imported shouki parties into which the nation had so long been divided lodged in warehouses appointed for that purpose by again changed their names, and were now called the Court officers of the crown; and should from thence be sold, up and Country Parties. Throughout the greatest part of paying the duty of fourpence a pound, whenever at vle P ° . this reign there seem to have been two objects of con- prietor found a purchaser. This proposal raised troversy, which rose up in debate every session, and tried ferment, both within and without doors ; and at last a the strength of the opponents ; namely, the national debt, fury of the people was worked up to such a pitch, t 10 and the number of forces to be kept in pay. The govern- parliament-house was surrounded by multitudes, ^ . ment, on the present king’s accession, owed more than timidated the ministry, and compelled them to aban the , bill was cele r thirty millions of money; and although there was a long the scheme. The miscarriage of an estm nste an ^ J’T joB, continuance of profound peace, yet this sum went on con- with public rejoicings in London d ^ * stantly increasing. How this could happen was much minister was burned in effigy by the populace of °

BRITAIN. 379 jRaji of On this occasion an attempt was made to repeal the sep- he set sail for China; and returning by the same route, he Reign of Gefils H-tennial bill, and bring back triennial parliaments, as settled at last discovered the galleon, which he engaged and took;George II. ^ at the Revolution. But notwithstanding the warmth of and with this prize, valued at upwards of three hundred the opposition, the ministry, exerting all their strength, thousand pounds, together with other captures to the vaproved victorious, and the motion was defeated. How- lue of about as much more, he returned home, after a voyever, as on this occasion the country party seemed to age of three years. By this expedition the public sustainhave gained strength, it was thought proper to dissolve ed the loss of a fine squadron of ships, but a few indivithe parliament, and to summon another by the same pro- duals became possessed of immense fortunes. clamation. Another expedition which was fitted out ended still But the same disputes were carried on in this as in the more unfortunately. The armament consisted of twentyformer parliament. New subjects of controversy offered nine sail of the line, anff an almost equal number of frievery day, and both sides were eager to seize them. A gates, furnished with all kinds of warlike stores, near fifconvention agreed on by the ministry with Spain became teen thousand seamen, and as many land forces. The an object of warm altercation. By this the court of Spain most sanguine hopes of success were entertained ; but the had agreed to pay ninety-five thousand pounds to the Eng- ministry detained the fleet without any visible reason till lish, as a satisfaction for all demands, and to discharge the season for action in America was nearly past. At last, the whole in four months from the day of ratification ; but however, the squadron arrived before Carthagena, and soon this stipulation was considered as not containing an equi- captured the strong forts which defended the harbour. But valent for the damages which had been sustained, and though by this means they were enabled to approach nearwhich were said to amount to three hundred and forty er the town, they still found great difficulties before them. thousand pounds. A violent discussion ensued, in the iTom an erroneous belief that the ships could not get near course of which the minister was provoked into unusual enough to batter the town, and that therefore the remainvehemence, and branded the opposite party with the ap- ing forts must be attempted byescalade, this dangerous expellation of traitors. But he was, as usual, victorious ; and periment was tried ; but the guides were slain by the enethe country party finding themselves out-numbered and my s fire, and the forces, mistaking their way, instead of atout-voted in every debate, resolved to withdraw for ever; tempting the weakest part of the fort, attacked the strongwhile Walpole, thus left without opposition, took the op- est, where they were exposed to the fire of the whole town. portunity of passing several useful laws in their absence, Their scaling ladders were also too short; and at last, after in order to render his opponents odious or contemptible to sustaining a dreadful fire with great resolution for some the country. hours, they retreated, leaving six hundred men dead on In 1739 a new wrar commenced with Spain. Ever since the spot. I he ravages of the climate now began to prove the treaty of Utrecht, the Spaniards in America had insult- more dreadful than the casualties of war; and the rainy ed and distressed the commerce of Great Britain ; whilst season commenced with such violence, that it was found the Biitish merchants, on the other hand, had endeavourfor the troops to continue in their encampment. ed to carry on an illicit trade with their dominions. As a impossible And, as if to aggravate these calamities, dissension arose right of cutting logwood in the Bay of Campeachy, claim- between the commanders of the sea and land forces, who ed by the British, gave them frequent opportunities of in- blamed each other, and at last could only be brought to troducing contraband commodities into the continent, the agree in one mortifying measure, namely, the re-embarkaSpaniards resolved to put a stop to the evil by refusing tion of the troops. liberty to cut logwood in that place. The guarda-costas The miscarriage of this enterprise produced the greatest exercised great severities, and many British subjects were discontents, more especially as other causes of complaint sent to the mines of Potosi. One remonstrance followed at the same time. Sir John Norris had twice another to the court of Madrid; but the only answers occurred sailed to the of Spain at the head of a powerful squagiven were promises of inquiry, which produced no refor- dron, withoutcoast effecting any thing of consequence. The mation. Accordingly, in 1739 war was declared with all proper solemnity; and soon after Admiral Vernon, with only commerce of Britain was greatly annoyed by the Spanish six ships, destroyed all the fortifications of Puerto Bello, privateers, who had taken upwards of four hundred ships and came away victorious, with scarcely the loss of a man. since the commencement of the war; whilst the British fleets remained quite inactive, and suffered one loss after Was t lus successf if War begun, supplies were c>1 leer ully granted to^ prosecute ully it with all imaginable vig- another, without endeavouring in the least to make proper our. Commodore Anson was sent with a squadron of ships reprisals. Ihese discontents burst out all at once against o istress the enemy in the South Seas, and to co-operate Sir Robert Walpole ; a majority was formed in the House of Commons in opposition to the ministry of which he was occasionally with Admiral Vernon across the Isthmus of the head ; he was created Earl of Orford ; and the parliaDarien. This squadron was designed to act a part subormate to a formidable armament which was to be sent ment having adjourned for a few days on purpose, he regainst i exmo or New Spain; but through the mismanage- signed all his employments. Ihe removal of this minister gave universal satisfaction. u o the ministry both these schemes were frustrated, nson was detained till too late in the season, when he His antagonists entertained great hopes of seeing him punished ; but he had laid his schemes too well to be unS 'inrl°nK Wltf0ur r ^Veteen ^'PS °f ^le liuCj a frigate, two store-ships, der any apprehensions on that account; and, in fact, the slrr , hundred men. But having entered the new ministry had no sooner got into office than they trode pn™1 f d ^ t^le .most unfavourable period of the year, he in the footsteps of those whom they had so much exclaime e( terr his \ * 1 ^hie storms ; his fleet was dispersed, and ed against. The nation had now become disgusted with ut adhcted the withisland scurvy, so that with the naval operations. The people desired a renewal of their utmost difficulty he reached of Juan Fernandez. victories in Flanders, and the king ardently joined in the ev ’ ™ -> he was joined by one ship and a frigate of same wish. An army of sixteen thousand men was thereen uns Chili , & > and sailing from thence along the coast of fore shipped and sent to Flanders, to take part in the quarburnt the town of Paita. He next rels that were then beginning to break out on the Contirirh (roil le ,cific, in hopes of meeting with one of the nent. Immense triumphs were expected from this underS MexEn • eiT ^hich traded his frommen theatPhilippine to taking ; but it was somehow forgotten that the army was Having refreshed the island Islands of Tinian, not now commanded by John Duke of Marlborough.

BRITAIN. 380 Reign of In order to give some notion of the origin of these conti- receive pay from Britain for defending their own cause 11^ George II. nental disputes, it is necessary to go back for several years. came to be considered, violent parliamentary debates en-George j '•—-V-w' After the Duke of Orleans, regent of France, died, Cardi- sued ; and although the ministry carried their point by the ''-ys nal Fleury undertook to settle the confusion in which the strength of numbers, they had but little reason to boast of kingdom was then involved; and under him France repair- their victory. Yet, however prejudicial these continental measures ed her losses, and enriched herself by means of commerce. During the long interval of peace which this minister s might be to the true interests of Great Britain, they efcounsels had procured for Europe, two powers, hitherto fectually retrieved the queen of Hungary’s affairs, and soon disregarded, began to attract the notice and the jealousy of turned the scale of victory in her favour. The French the neighbouring nations. These were Russia and Prussia, were driven out of Bohemia; while her general, Prince both of which had been gradually rising into power and Charles of Lorraine, at the head of a large army, invadconsequence. The other states were but little prepared to ed the dominions of Bavaria. Her rival, the nominal renew the war. The empire remained under the govern- emperor, was obliged to fly before her; and, abandoned ment of Charles VI. who had been placed on the throne by his allies, as well as stripped of his hereditary domiby the treaty of Utrecht; Sweden continued to languish, nions, he retired to Frankfort, where he lived in obscurity. from the destructive projects of Charles XII.; Denmark Meanwhile the British and Hanoverian army advanced in was powerful enough, but inclined to peace; and part of order to -- effect - - - a jjunction with that under , , Prince , . Charles, Italy still remained subject to those princes who had been by which they would have outnumbered their enemies; imposed upon it in consequence of foreign treaties. All and to prevent this the French opposed an army oi sixty these states, however, continued to enjoy profound peace; thousand men, upon the Maine, under the command of until the death of Augustus king of Poland; an event by Marshal de Noailles, who posted his troops on the eastern which a general flame was once more kindled in Europe. side of that river. The British army was commanded by The emperor, assisted by the arms of Russia, declared for the Earl of Stair, who, although he had learned the art of the elector of Saxony, the son of the deceased king; whilst war under Eugene and Marlborough, suffered himself to France, on the other hand, espoused the cause of Stanislaus, be inclosed by the enemy on every side, near a village who had long ago been nominated king of the Poles by called Dettingen ; and in this situation the whole army, Charles of Sweden, and whose daughter the king of France with the king himself, who had by this time arrived in the had since married. Stanislaus was gladly received at Dant- camp, must have been taken prisoners, had the French bezic, and acknowledged as king of Poland ; but having been haved with ordinary prudence. But their impetuosity saved besieged there by ten thousand Russians, the city was ta- the combined force from destruction. They passed a deken, and he himself with difficulty made his escape. France, file which they ought to have contented themselves with however, still resolved to assist him, as the most effectual guarding, and, under the conduct of the Duke de Grammethod of distressing the house of Austria; and her views mont, their horse charged the British foot with great fury; were seconded by Spain and Sardinia, both of which hoped but they were received with unshaken firmness, and at last to be enriched by the spoils of Austria. A French army, obliged to repass the Maine with precipitation, and the loss therefore, overran the empire, under the conduct of the of about five thousand men. The British monarch, who old Marshal Villars; whilst the Duke of Montemar, the was present in the battle, displayed equal courage and conSpanish general, was equally victorious in the kingdom of duct, and in some measure atoned for an error which Naples. The emperor was soon obliged to sue for. peace, might otherwise have proved fatal. But though the British were victorious in this engagewhich was granted ; but Stanislaus was neglected in the treaty, it having been stipulated that he should renounce ment, the French were very little disconcerted by it all claim to the kingdom of Poland; while the emperor They opposed Prince Charles, and interrupted his attempts gratified France with the duchy of Lorraine, and other to pass the Rhine; and in Italy they also gained some advantages ; but their chief hopes were placed on an invaluable territories, as an indemnification. The emperor dying in the year 1740, the French thought tended invasion of England. From the violence of paithe opportunity favourable for their ambition, and, re- liamentary disputes in England, France had been persuadgardless of treaties, particularly that called the Pragmatic ed that the country was ripe for a revolution, and only Sanction, by which the late emperor’s dominions were set- wanted the presence of the pretender to bring about a tled upon his daughter, caused the Elector of Bavaria to be change. An invasion was therefore projected ; the troops crowned emperor. Thus the queen of Hungary, daughter destined for the expedition amounted to fifteen thousan , of Charles VI. was at once stripped of her inheritance, and preparations were made for embarking them at Dunand left for a whole year without any hopes of succour ; kirk and some of the ports nearest to England, under t e and at the same time she lost the province of Silesia by eye of the young pretender. The Duke de Roquefeui e, an irruption of the young king of Prussia, who took the op- with twenty ships of the line, was to see them sate y portunity of her defenceless condition to renew his preten- landed on the opposite shore; and the famous Count baxe sions to that province. France, Saxony, and Bavaria, at- was to command them w hen disembarked. But the w 0 e tacked the rest of her dominions; and Britain was the only project was disconcerted by the appearance of Sir Jo n ally who seemed willing to assist her ; but Sardinia, Hol- Norris, with a superior fleet, which obliged tlm Irene land, and Russia, soon afterwards concurred in the same squadron to put back ; while a severe gale of wind damage views. It must be owned that the only reason which Bri- their transports, and thus entirely frustrated the sc em tain had for interfering in these disputes was, that the se- of a sudden descent. But the national joy for Sir ° curity of the electorate depended upon nicely balancing the Norris’s success was soon damped by the miscarriage different interests of the empire ; but the ministry were Admirals Mathews and Lestock, who, through a nll*u nevertheless willing to gratify the king by engaging the derstanding, suffered a French fleet of thirty-four sai country in a war. His majesty informed the parliament escape them near Toulon. , j that he had sent a body of British forces into the NetherIn the Netherlands the British arms were also at which this additional number of Planoverian troops was to and an officer of great experience. The English were un

BRITAIN. 381 r of the Duke of Cumberland, whose army was much inferior Perth, where he performed the ceremony of proclaiming Reism of G< ige II in number to that of the enemy, whilst in point of know- his father king of Great Britain. He then proceeded to-George II. ledge of war the disparity between him and the French waids Edinburgh, and, his forces continually increasing,'1 general was still greater. Count Saxe, therefore, carried entered the capital without opposition ; but he was unable, all before him. In the year 1743 he besieged Fribourg, from want of cannon, to reduce the castle. Here he again and in the beginning of the campaign of 1744 he invested pi oclaimed his father; and promised to dissolve the union, the strong city of Tournay. To save the place, if pos- which was still considered as one of the national grievsible, the allies resolved to hazard an engagement; and ances. In the mean time Sir John Cope, having arrived this brought on the memorable battle of Fontenoy. The from Inverness, and been reinforced by two regiments of French were posted behind the town of that name, on some dragoons, resolved to give battle to the enemy. The insureminences which completely commanded the defile which gents, however, attacked him at Gladsmuir, near Prestonformed the only approach to the position. At two in the pans, and in a few minutes put him and his troops to flight, morning the assailants quitted their camp, and about nine with the loss of five hundred men. This victory gave the inthe British infantry, formed in a kind of grand square, surgents great hopes, from the impression it produced; and attacked the centre of the enemy’s line, which was drawn had the pretender marched directly to England, the result up in a sort of avenue to receive them. But from the might perhaps have been fatal to the House of Hanover. confined nature of the ground, the obstinacy of the re- But he was amused by the promise of succours which in sistance in front, and the flanking fire kept up from some fact never arrived, and thus induced to remain in Edinwoody heights which domineered over the defile, this burgh till the season for action was lost. He was joined, fine body of troops was never able to develope its attack however, by the Earl of Kilmarnock, Lord Balmerino, Lords nor to clear the defile; yet, in spite of every effort of the Cromarty, Elcho, Ogilvy, Pitsligo, and the eldest son of enemy, it maintained its ground till three in the afternoon, Lord Lovat, who with their vassals considerably increased preserving its formation unbroken, notwithstanding the his army; and Lord Lovat himself, so remarkable for his plunging fire of the French artillery, and the concentrated treachery, was favourably disposed towards the pretender, musketry of their infantry, to which it was without inter- although unwilling to act openly for fear of the governmission exposed; and at last it retired in perfect order, ment. But whilst Charles was thus trifling away his time facing round at intervals, and checking the pursuit of the at Edinburgh, the British ministry were taking most effecenemy. The loss of the allies amounted to twelve thou- tual methods to oppose him. Six thousand Dutch troops, sand men, and that of the French was even greater; but which had come over to assist the government, were disthe victory nevertheless gave them the superiority during patched northward under the command of General Wade ; the rest of the campaign, as well as during the remainder but this force was then in some measure incapable of actof the war. The capture of Tournay was the first fruit of ing, being prisoners of France upon parole, and under enthis dear-bought success; and though the Elector of Ba- gagements not to oppose that power for a year. Be this varia, whom they had proclaimed emperor, was now dead, as it may, however, the Duke of Cumberland arrived soon the French were too much elated by success to relax in afterwards from Flanders, and was followed by a detachtheir operations against the allies. ment of dragoons and infantry, well disciplined and inured To balance the defeat at Fontenoy, however, Admirals to action ; whilst volunteers offered their services in every Rowley and Warren retrieved the honour of the British part of the kingdom. flag, and made several rich captures at sea. The fortress At last Charles resolved upon an irruption into England. of Louisbourg, a place of great consequence to the British He entered that country by the western border, and took commerce, surrendered to General Pepperel; and a short the town of Carlisle ; after which he continued his march time afterwards two French East India ships, and a Spa- southwards, having received assurances that a considernish ship from Peru laden with treasure, put into the har- able body of forces would be landed on the southern coasts bour, supposing it still their own, and were taken. to create a diversion in his favour. He established his During this gleam of returning success, Charles Edward, at Manchester, where he was joined by bethe son of the old pretender to the British crown, resolved head-quarters tween two and three hundred English formed into a regito make an attempt to recover what he called his right. ment under the command of Colonel Townley; and thence Being furnished with some money from France, he em- he pursued his march to Derby, intending to go by the way arked for Scotland on board of a small frigate, accom- of Chester into Wales, where he hoped to be joined by a panied by the Marquis of Tullibardine, Sir Thomas Sheri- great number of malcontents; but in this he was prean, and some others ; and for the conquest of the whole vented by the factions among his followers. British empire, he only brought with him seven officers, Having now advanced within a hundred miles of London, and arms for two thousand men. Fortune, however, seem- that capital was thrown into the utmost consternation ; ed nowise more favourable to this attempt than to others and had he proceeded with the same expedition which he sum ar to it. His convoy, a ship of sixty guns, was so had hitherto used, he might perhaps have made himself oisabled in an engagement with an English man of war, master of it. But he was prevented from pursuing this or nat it was obliged to return to Brest, whilst he continued any other rational plan by the discontents which began to ins course to the western parts of Scotland. On the 27th prevail in his army. The young pretender was in fact but o u y 1745 he landed on the coast of Lochaber, and was the nominal leader of his forces; and his generals, the t rae ‘ j°ined by the Highlanders to the number Highland chiefs, were equally averse to subordination and teen hundred men. The ministry at first could ignorant of command. They now, however, became unanicaicely be induced to credit the story of his arrival; but mous in their resolution to return to their own country ; and ien it could no longer be doubted, they sent Sir John pe with a small body of forces to oppose his progress. Charles was forced to comply. Accordingly they retreated to Carlisle without sustaining any loss; and thence Cor^V°U^i G. but °PPortunit y offered a blow at crossing the Eden and Solway, entered Scotland. They Cope, who seemsforto striking have been equally next marched to Glasgow, which was laid under severe 0 c °nduct and of energy, withdrew to Inverness, contributions; and thence proceeding to Stirling, they were joined by Lord Lewis Gordon at the head of some Th ncovennS the road to the low country, dpr > ^immediately adventurer, himselfand of arrived this blunmarched availing to the south, at forces which had been assembled in his absence. Other clans likewise came in; while some supplies of money re-

BRITAIN. 382 Heign of ceived from Spain, and some skirmishes with the loyalists, line ; and in this state he was carried off the field by his Iteign George II. in which he was victorious, caused the pretender s affairs two brothers, between whom he had advanced. Mac-George] to assume a much more promising aspect. Being joined by donald of Keppoch was also rushing on in like manner Lord Drummond, he invested the castle ot Stirling, in the to the attack, when, receiving a wound which brought him to the ground, he was conjured by a friend not to throw siege of which much valuable time was consumed to no away his life, but to retire and rejoin the main body; but purpose. General Hawley, who commanded a consider- desiring friend to provide for his own safety, Macdonald able body of forces near Edinburgh, undertook to raise got uponhis his legs, and, whilst preparing again to advance, the siege, and with this view advanced as far as Falkirk received another shot, by which he fell to rise no more. in order to give battle to the Highland army. After some Most of the chiefs who commanded the body that adtime spent in mutual observation, an engagement ensued vanced to the charge, and almost every man in the front on the 17th January 1746, in which the king’s troops were ranks, were killed. Unfortunately the Highland regiments entirely defeated. The Highlanders advanced to the at- on the left did not advance to close combat, or support the tack with their usual impetuosity, threw in a volley or two, and then drawing their claymores, rushed forward, sword gallant attack which has just been described: had they so, the issue might have been very different. After in hand, to close with the enemy. Ihe onset pioved irie- done sistible ; infantry and cavalry were intermingled in one exchanging a volley or two with the right wing of the common rout; and the whole artillery and tents of the duke’s army, and answering the fire of some dragoons who hovered near, they retreated, and separating into small royal army fell into the hands of the conquerors. But the victory of Falkirk was the last of the triumphs parties, were cut up in detail, losing more men in proporof the rebel army. The Duke of Cumberland having ar- tion than the brave band who had made so gallant and vigorived, put himself at the head of the troops at Edinburgh, rous an effort to retrieve the fortune of the day. In less amounting to about fourteen thousand men ; and with than thirty minutes the battle was lost, and with it a final these he marched to Aberdeen, where he was joined by period was put to all the hopes of the young adventurer. several of the nobility attached to the house of Hanover, The conquerors behaved with the greatest cruelty, refusthe enemy in the mean time retreating before him. He ing quarter to the wounded, the unarmed, and the denext advanced to the banks of the Spey, a deep and rapid fenceless ; and some were slain who had only been specriver, where the Highlanders might have successfully dis- tators of the combat; whilst soldiers were seen to anticipate puted his passage ; but their mutual contentions had now the base employment of the executioner. The duke, imrisen to such a height that they could scarce agree in any mediately after the action, ordered thirty-six deserters to thing. At last, however, they resolved to make a stand, be executed; the conquerors spread terror wherever they and for this purpose selected Drummossie Muir, near Cul- went; and in a short time the whole country around became loden, nine miles distant from Inverness ; the only ground one dreadful scene of plunder, slaughter, and desolation. Immediately after the battle, the pretender fled with in the whole country where cavalry and artillery, the two arms which they had most reason to dread, could act with a captain of Fitzjames’s cavalry ; and when their horses effect against them. Their numbers amounted to about were fatigued, they both alighted, and separately sought eight thousand; and after an abortive attempt to surprise for safety. There is a striking resemblance between the the royal army at Nairn, they returned to their position adventures of Charles II. after the battle of Worcester, and drew out to receive the attack. At one in the after- and those of the pretender after the battle of Culloden. noon of the 15th of April 1746, the cannonading com- For several days he wandered through the country ; somemenced ; and whilst the artillery of the rebels, from being times he found refuge in caves and cottages, without any miserably served, did little or no execution, that of the royal attendants at all; sometimes he lay in forests 'with one or army, at every discharge, made frightful gaps in the High- two companions of his distress, continually pursued by the land ranks. During the continuance of the cannonade, troops, there being a reward of L.30,000 offered for taking Cumberland observing that the right of the Highlanders him either dead or alive. In the course of his adventures was covered by a wall, ordered a body of men to advance he had occasion to trust his life to the fidelity of above fifty and pull it down. The Campbells, to whom this service individuals, not one of whom could be prevailed on, even by was committed, promptly obeyed the order; and the right so great a reward as that which was offered, to betray nm wing of the Highlanders being thus uncovered, they be- whom they looked upon as the son of their king, for six came exposed to a flanking fire as well as to that in front, months the unfortunate Charles continued to wander m the which was now kept up with the greatest vivacity. In this mountains of Glengarry, often hemmed round by his purtrying situation a body, chiefly Atholemen, about nineteen suers, but still rescued, by some providential accident, horn hundred strong, unable any longer to sustain the galling the impending danger. At length a privateer of St i a fire which was poured in on their ranks, and conscious that loes, hired by his adherents, having arrived in Lochratheir real strength lay in close combat, advanced to the nach, he embarked on board that vessel for France, attack sword in hand ; broke through Burrell’s and Monro’s this time he was reduced to a state of inexpressi e regiments in an instant; and pressed on, with diminished wretchedness, being clad in a short coat of black nzc, al numbers but dauntless resolution, against the second line threadbare, over which was a common Highland _p girt round him by a belt, from which hung a pisto an of the royal army, amidst a concentrated and terrible fire from every gun that could be brought to bear upon them. dagger. He had not been shifted for many weeks; ms The second line steadily awaited the onset of this forlorn eyes were hollow, his visage was wan, and his constitution hope, reserving their fire till it came quite close, when a greatly impaired by famine and fatigue. Accompame naa destructive volley was thrown in, while Wolfe’s regiment, by Sullivan and Sheridan, two Irish adherents, whocnie formed en potence, opened at the same instant a flanking shared all his calamities, together with Cameron of T° ‘’ > fire. The force of the charge was thus completely broken; his brother, and a few other exiles, he set sail for Dane w » a few and but a few of the assailants escaped; and the and, after having been chased by two English men o bravest, who did not fall by the murderous fire, perished in arrived in safety at a place called Roseau, near Mor aix, a desperate conflict with the English bayonets. Lochiel, While the pretender was thus pursued, the scaffolds and advancing at the head of a small band, who had survived the encounter with the first line, was wounded in both ancles gibbets were preparing for his brave adherents. Seven by a grape-shot while in the act of charging the second officers were hanged, drawm, and quartered, at Kenni s

BRITAIN. 383 ign of ton Common, in the neighbourhood of London ; nine were tuallygiven up, and all conquests restored; that the duchies Reign of (■ rge II executed in the same manner at Carlisle, and eleven at of I arrna, Placentia, and Guastalla, should be ceded to Geor|e II. 0 York. A few obtained pardons, and a considerable num- Don Philip, heir-apparent to the Spanish crown, and after ber of the common men were transported to America. him return to the house of Austria; that the fortifications The Earls of Kilmarnock and Cromarty, and Lord Bal- of Dunkirk towards the sea should be demolished; that merino, were tried and found guilty of high treason. Cro- the British ship annually sent with slaves to the’ coast of marty was pardoned, but Kilmarnock and Balmerino were JNew Spain should have this privilege continued for four executed; as was also Mr Radcliffe, brother to the P^arl years; that the king of Prussia should be confirmed in of Uerwentwater, who received sentence upon a former the possession of Silesia; and that the queen of Hungary conviction. Lord Lovat was tried, and suffered some time should be secured in the possession of her patrimonial afterwards. But the most mortifying clause was, that the Immediately after the suppression of the rebellion, the dominions. mg or Cajeat Britain should, immediately after the ratilegislature undertook to establish regulations in Scotland, fication of this treaty, send two persons of rank to France conducive to the happiness of the people and the tran- as hostages, until restitution should be made of Cape quillity of the united kingdoms. The Highlanders had Breton and all other British conquests during the war. till that time continued to wear the military dress of their No mention whatever was made of the searching of British ancestors, and never went without arms; in consequence vessels m the American seas, though this was the original of which they considered themselves as a body of people cause of the quarrel; the limits of their respective possesdistinct from the rest of the nation, and were ready upon sions in North America were not ascertained; nor did the shortest notice to second the projects of their chiefs ZZ J T WfG ?0t ascertainf ^ ; nor had did Their habits were now reformed by an act of legislature,' restored to tEemT ^ ^ ^ Wal fashion^ BuTwh^contributedTtd^more0^)^destroy^the pleurif/SV751 FrfdfHck Prin- ^ied of a spirit of clanship was the abolition of the hereditary jurisdangerous He^L^uchTe^vn ff ^ ^ ^ ^ JJ Ha ihetinns r™ , ig ous. s much legretted, for his good-nature dictions whiVh which their chieftains ™—:_i exercised over them. ’ The powei of the chiefs was totally destroyed, and every sub- au rendered him popular, and those who opposed the administration had grounded their hopes of reject in that part of the kingdom was liberated from the present dress upon his accession to the throne. state of vassalage in which they had formerly lived. Some time before this, in the year 1749, a scheme had Soon after the battle of Culloden the Duke of Cumberwhich the nation in general antiland proceeded to Handers, where he resumed the com- been entered upon, from g 5; namely, e cipated great advantages encouraging mand of the army, to which he was by no means equal had WnB i f ^ouraging those those who who The French carried every thing before them and rednced trrl m • discharged from the army or navy to become co la a under their dominion all the stron" places which hurl been • ?, ^ ! > country cold, barren, and almost taken by the Duke of MarftoS • 01 incapable ot cultivation. Nevertheless, on account of this to the united provinces. They trained a considcrnl.i^v! ' al len 8pot, the English and French actually renewed the tory near Rocoux, though at a great sacrifice of men which" f Possesslan he °f this country was reckoned necessary however, they coJild eafiiy spfre asXy were^ fo nreser.LXb°- ‘ Eng'ish .col?ni?1to the."»rthsu eriont in t e s en numerous than their adversaries- and annthpr v.Vf fit Sc v!^ P 0 Y ^ fi h es in that part Which they obtained at LaSServed to deprels stS b cT f" '’’ Tf"’ Wh° had b™n 6 1 back arts further the spirit of the allied armv Bm tliP til-.-nm c , P ’ resolved to use every method to Bergen-op-Zoom, the strongest fortHraHnn nf Rk ig / ^ISPos®ess.lt.hP new comers, and spirited up the Indians to was the event which naturafly reduced the Dutch to the hTfhe same part of theworld” Th f F^'b 8lS° SPTS UP P 1 d- 1,16 French greatest alarm and distress. wl G T r ?t ° , > pretending to These victories and successes in FHnHprc Wro,V r C) a • ed firstt ie discovered the mouth of the river Mississippi, wboIe ad acent coun were counterbalanced bv almost emml rile* ’0 •0 61118, ? ’ on ™ j try towards New Mexico th east an( t0 In Italy, the brother of Marshal Belleisl ^ IT ' ‘P p ’ I the Apalachian Mountains on the west; t0 penetrate into Piedmont at ^ ^ °rder ? fSert their claims’ as they found several lsb w 10 ia( sand men, was defeated and killed A Appi l u ' ^ of settled beyond these mountains, they dlS SSessed them out for the recovery of Cape Breton but wh ^ P° ^eir new settlements, and built such s CCeS8 and two others°wepe eqHTOed V ’ 0 , indasabaut were calculated to command the whole country upon the British colonies m America and tlf ** !’. 1 ] 0 - Negociations and mutual accusations were carry on the operations fn the E^st lidips 1 H ’ ^i ^ by bosti,ities ’ aad 1756 four operations were attacked by L on and Warren aJd ^ of the ir s n s undertaken by the British in America at once. Colonel taken. Soon after this Cnmmid^F . . j P Monkton had orders to drive the French from the proova cotla of war, took above forty French ships rirhii Dd^ r"06 ofPp:^,nt ^ ; General Johnson was sent against St Domingo, and about ^ ^ ?T ° ,; G.eneral Shir1^ aSai"8t Niagara, to secure CC le )rts on was defeated by Admiral Hawke ? who tnnk spvpp S 1UpS * r ^ the river; and General Braddock against Fort the line and several frigates. c ^ ^aesne’ ln these expeditions Monkton was successFor a long time Louis had Wn dp^Vp,^ pf i i ’ Jofins°u was also victorious, though he failed in taking f rt a ainst which h wa tWs desire h?evei expressed to SR ohi ? ° SSt the SeaSOn of* eration « ^nt; bShirley was thought Wh fa haVe been taken prisoner at the battle off Laf I IfJdF iTl ° ? i ° °P Y delay; and Bradldt But now the bad success of bifldf i “ f dock was defeated and killed. m But in retUrn f r this failure of success tbe the frequent bankrumcie 'of hTme^hantsT/fi ’i ° ’ British made mG and r r als at se£ and theelectionofastad^holderJn RpTl ? who / th ° ’ fP ^ G here they were so successful that a s irit to the the opposition all these t / .-T ’ French navy was unable to i recover itself during the If ^ P of f ^ continuance of tbe war. The first measure of the French w the war, and to pronOSP termf as what the allied hod 1 fc 1°^ vlhlS was to tbreaten an invasion. Several bodies of their troops ashamed to demand A AA pp g W1S ed f ^r i f i , 611 were^ sent KAyjyvn down to tU the LUC coasts UUUUMtC opposite Britain, X>1 liailJ, tXYUl and tlleSi these hekl at were instructed in the manner of ernWHnp embarking and reland Aix-lfl.PKn„„n_ ,* A congress was therefore held ^i„„a conclad d b wblcb lt wa provided that alfnrRnnerfp ! > should J mg from for flat-bottomed were madeamounted in great P soners on each side be mu-s numbers the purpose.boats, Thewhich number of men

BRITAIN. 384 Austrians were seconded by France, Sweden, and Russia, Reign of Reign of to fifty thousand, but all discovered the utmost reluctance who had hopes of acquiring a settlement in the west of George II. George II. to the undertaking. The ministry were greatly alarmed, . ' anci applied to the Dutch for six thousand men, which Europe. Thus the king of Prussia launched into the tumult of they were by treaty obliged to furnish in case of invasion. war, having only the king of Britain for his ally; whilst the But this supply was refused, the Dutch alleging that their most powerful states of Europe were his antagonists. He treaty was to send the troops in case of an actual, and not now performed a series of exploits which, taken as a whole, of a threatened, invasion. The king, therefore, finding he are not surpassed in the annals of modern times, and of could not reckon upon the Dutch forces till their assistance which a particular account will be given in the article would be too late, desisted entirely from his demand ; and Prussia. The British ministry, in order to create a dithe Dutch with great cordiality returned him thanks for in his favour, planned an enterprise against the withdrawing his request. Upon this ten thousand Hes- version coast of France ; but the destination of the fleet equipped sians and Hanoverians were brought over; a proceeding for this purpose was kept a profound secret. At last, howwhich occasioned great discontent. The ministry were ever, it appeared before Rochefort, where the commandreviled for such disgraceful conduct, as if the nation was ers, having trifled away their time in deliberating how to unable to defend itself; whereas the people only demanded proceed, took the little island of Aix, an easy and useless a vigorous exertion of their own internal strength, and conquest, and soon afterwards returned home without atthen feared no force that could be led to invade them. tempting any thing else. By this miscarriage the ministry The threatened invasion, however, never took place. were so discouraged that they had thoughts of abandoning But a French army landed in Minorca, and invested the the king of Prussia to his fate; and the king was actually citadel of St Philips, which was reckoned the strongest in meditating a negociation of this nature, when he was preEurope, but the garrison was nevertheless weak, and no- vented by the expostulations of his distressed ally. From wise fitted to stand a vigorous siege. To raise this siege, motives of generosity, therefore, more than of interest, it Admiral Byng was dispatched with a squadron of ten men resolved to continue to assist him; and success, which of war, with orders to relieve Minorca, or at any rate to was long fled from the British arms, once more began to throw a body of troops into the garrison. But this last had return with double splendour. _ he reckoned too hazardous an undertaking, nor did he It was in the East Indies where this return of good even attempt it; and soon afterwards a French fleet appeared nearly equal in force to his own, when he resolved fortune first manifested itself; but the British conquests the western part of the world speedily eclipsed those to act only on the defensive. The French advanced, and in the eastern. These successes must, in part at least, be a slight engagement ensued with part of the English fleet; in after which the enemy slowly withdrew, and no other ascribed to the vigorous administration of Mr William Pitt, opportunity occurred of coming to a close engagement. who about this time came into power. An expedition was Upon this it was resolved in a council of war to return to set on foot against Cape Breton, under General Amherst Gibraltar to refit, and agreed that the relief of Minorca and Admiral Boscawen; another under General Aberwas impracticable. For such pusillanimous, if not treache- crombie, against Crown Point and Ticonderago; and a rous conduct, Byng was brought home under arrest, tried, third under Brigadier-General Forbes, against Port cm condemned to death, and shot. He suffered with the Quesne. The fortress of Louisbourg, which defended the greatest resolution, after delivering a paper filled with pro- island of Cape Breton, was strong both by nature and art ; testations of his innocence as to any treacherous intention. the garrison was numerous, the commander vigilant, and After the conquest of Minorca, the French declared that every precaution had been taken to prevent a landing; bu they would revenge all injuries which they might sustain the activity of the British surmounted every obstacle; and in their colonies on the king of Britain’s dominions in Ger- the place having been surrendered by capitulation, its tormany. Upon this the court of London, eager to preserve tifications were demolished. The expedition against or Hanover, entered into a treaty with the court of Russia, du Quesne was equally successful; but that against Crown * by which it was stipulated that a body of fifty thousand Point once more miscarried. General Abercrombie a Russians should be ready to act in the British service,, in tacked the French in their intrenchments, but was repulsec case Hanover should be invaded by the French; for which with great slaughter, and obliged to retire to his camp a the Czarina was to receive L. 100,000 annually, to be paid Lake George. But though in this respect the British arms in advance. But the treaty was opposed by the king of were unsuccessful, yet, upon the whole, the campaign o Port Prussia, who had long considered himself as guardian of 1758 ended greatly in their favour. The taking of terror the interests of Germany, and was therefore alarmed at a Quesne served to remove from their colonies the treaty which threatened to deluge the empire with an ar- the incursions of the Indians, whilst it interruptec t ie coi my of barbarians. Besides, he was already apprised of an munication along a chain of forts with which the re agreement between the Austrians and Russians, by which had environed the British settlements in America; a the latter were to enter the empire and strip him of his the succeeding campaign promised still greater successIn 1759 it was resolved to attack the French in seye late conquest of Silesia. He therefore declared that he would not suffer any foreign forces to enter the empire, parts of their territory at once. General Amherst, wi a either as auxiliaries or principals; so that the king of body of twelve thousand men, was commanded to Britain found himself obliged to drop his Russian connec- Crown Point; General Wolfe was to undertake t e tion, and conclude a treaty with the king of Prussia. As of Quebec; whilst General Prideaux and Sir William J both monarchs wished only to prevent the invasion of Ger- son were to attempt a French fort near the catarac many, they soon came to an agreement to assist each other Niagara. This last expedition was the first that msus ^ mutually; and from this alliance a new combination took ed. The siege was begun with vigour, and P™ ' . ki eia place among the European powers, quite opposite to the easy conquest; but General Prideaux beingcornr l t n0ps former one. Britain opposed France in America, Asia, and trenches by the bursting of a mortar, on the ocean. France attacked Hanover, which the king volved on General Johnson. A body of French ^ of Prussia undertook to protect; whilst Britain promised sensible of the importance of the place, attemp e ^ him troops and money to assist his operations. Austria lieve it, but were utterly defeated and dispersed; afterwards the garrison surrendered prisoners o w • having aims on the dominions of Prussia, drew the Elector his arrival at the forts of Crown Point and Ticon ei g> of Saxony into the same designs; and in these views the

BRITAIN. 385 Kun of neral Amherst found them deserted and destroyed. There Geome Sackvillp A t h wever Gecie II. now remained, therefore, but one decisive blow to be beUvSn hhn and PHnro ° > arose Reign of the e CtS struck in order to reduce the whole of North America glared at the J f af which George III den under the British dominion; namely, by the capture of Xr lorVrp^i n ’ ^ was fought shortly Quebec, the capital of Canada. This expedition was com- pretended that he could not umwX^ t/6 Bri1tlsh cavahJ> unders the manded by bv Admiral Saunders and General Wnlfc Wolfe. The tu, bv ]?Jndnot orders sent The him by the the nrinr-P pnnce, Irld and ofr consequence did obey them. enterprise was attended with difficulties which appeared allies gained the victory, but it would have been more deinsurmountable; but all these were overcome by the ad- cisive had the British commander obeyed his orders. He mirable conduct of the general, and the great bravery of was soon after recalled, tried by a court-martial, found his men. He engaged and put to flight the French under guilty of disobedience, and declared incapable of serving; Montcalm ; but, to the great regret of the British, he was m any military command for the future. After this vickilled in the action nearly at the same instant that his It adversary also fell. The surrender of Quebec was the of British - S troops SeneralI y imagined that the onewar reinforcement would terminate in favour ofmore the consequence of this victory, and it was soon followed by allies ; and that reinforcement was accordingly sent. The the cession of all Canada. The next season, indeed, the British army in Germany was augmented to upwards of French made a vigorous effort to recover the city; but by thnty thousand men, and sanguine hopes of conquest were the resolution of Governor Murray, and the appearance of generally entertained. But these hopes proved to be ill a British fleet under the command of Lord Colvile, they founded. The allies were defeated at Corbach, but rewere obliged to abandon the enterprise. The whole pro- tnved the honour of their arms at Exdorf. A at A victory VICt ry a rince was soon after reduced by the prudence and activity Warbourg followed shortlv ° ] J y nd of General Amherst, who obliged the French army to ca- bv annthpr if- 7'^ 1 ^ was succeeded nitulate: and it has h„» ever avnr since remained ™ .fl. 11 ?? Compen; £nothe' “after Z>erenb Butsides theyretired sufferedinto a reverse pitulate; as a„ dependency erg.both at which winter of the British empire. About the same time also the island quarters. of Guadaloupe was reduced by a force under Commodore On the 25th of October 1760 died George II. He had More and General Hopson. risen at Ins usual hour, and observed to his attendants, At the beginning of the war the British affairs in Ger- that as the weather was fine, he would take a walk into many had worn a very unfavourable aspect. The Hanove- the garden of Kensington, where he then resided. But in rians were commanded by the Duke of Cumberland, who, a few minutes after his return, being left alone, he was greatly outnumbered by the enemy, was obliged to retire heard to fall heavily on the floor; and the noise bringing beyond the Weser. The passage of this river by the ene- his attendants into the room, they lifted him into bed, my might have been disputed with success; but the French were suffered to effect it unmolested. I he Hanoverians when he desired in a faint voice that the Princess Amelia might his be m sentie for; were then driven from one part of the country to another ment tv but before she could ^ reach ^ the ^ aparts vent sevent tiH at length they made a stand near a village called Has- his -me and^thiftv-tlG • 1° ’ iml ^re,? J' h yearwas or tenbach, where it was hoped die numbersMdie'enemy made to bleed him, but without °± ™ effect; >‘. An and afterwards would not avail them in a general engagement. The Ha- the surgeons, upon opening him, discovered that the right noverians, however, left the field of battle to the French, ventricle of the heart had been ruptured, and a great quanafter a feeble resistance. The latter pursued, and the duke tily of blood discharged through the aperture. retired towards Stade; by which means he marched into a country where he could neither procure provisions nor attack the enemy with any prospect of success. And CHAP. XII. iere, being unable either to escape or advance, he was comItEIGN OF GEORGE III. pelled to sign a capitulation, by which the whole army laid down their arms, and were afterwards dispersed into diff- Accession of George III.—Success of the British arms—Propoerent cantonments. By this disgraceful surrender, which sals of peace—A war with Spain proposed by Mr Pitt. His was called the capitulation of Closter Seven, Hanover was resignation—Created Earl of Chatham War with Spain France and Spain declare war on Portugal Invasion of that obliged to submit quietly to the French, and the latter country—Spaniards defeated—Taking of Havana Philip. were thus left at full liberty to turn their arms against the pine Islands reduced.—JKxtent of the conquests of Britain. king of Prussia. eace of 1/63—-Discontents.—Cyder tax.—Resignation of Lord Soon after this capitulation, both sides began to complain Lute—-INew ministry—Supposed influence of Lord Bute iat the treaty had not been strictly observed. The Ha1 roceedmgs against John Wilkes—Licentiousness of the time. —Expedients resorted to in order to increase the revenue noverians exclaimed against the rapacity of the French Renewal of the Charter of the Bank—Taxation of America. general and the brutality of his soldiers. The French reAct against illicit trade with the Spaniards Stamp Act. w e the charge, accusing the Hanoverians of insolence Violent resistance of the Americans—Conduct of Administramsurrection ; and being sensible of their own superiotion—Disturbances in London—Illness of the King, and Regency Bill—Change of Ministry—Death of the Duke of Cummfn\1 reS Ta edLT° ^nd ^iem strictly to their terms of agreebeiland—-Stamp Act repealed—Consequences Return of fora; premnee* to -rhe takeHanoverians, arms, and forhowever, a generalonly to wished head them and Wilkes—Differences with Spain about the Falkland Islands, —rvegociations—The affair terminated, and the settlement 61 WaS lon wan i gthe French ting. had Theappointed oppressions of considerthe taxabandoned—Proceedings of the corporation of London Speech gp-aihi berers whom were of Mr Beckford, the Lord Mayor—His death—Ex-officio InS 0 Se Vere tIiat tile arm rose formations.—Law of Libel—Debates concerning the conduct of f]nm J 4! - ’ y to vindicate the freethe Judges—Tumult in the House of Lords Case of New ! r C0 un and mn hif 6u at ltS . V’yead ’ Prince as Ferdinand of Brunswick Shoreham and its Christian Club—Licentiousness of the Press. Britain tar SUp lieS \ W8re * -^s soon this became known in ran j roceedingsexpedient of the House of Commons against some aprinters. the kin’n- JD P g ted, both for the service of —-Ridiculous resorted to in order to avoid contest with Wilkes—East India Affairs—Discouragement of the poto art ^ ° rnssia, and for enabling the Hanoverian army pular party.—Meeting of Parliament—Augmentation of the of RrJ1f)1c-0US y m exjunction with him. A small body number of Seamen—Subscription of the thirty-nine Articles Ver t0 in Prince under tho nT* ° j° Ferdinand Royal Marriage Bill—Bill for the relief of the Dissenters rederadiosn > u^e Marlborough ; but after some inconsi- jected—East India Affairs—Exportation of tea, and its conseCCesSes t and tbo f the Duke of Marl borough died, quences—Regulation Bill—Reports of the Select and Secret mmand f the British forces Committees—Lord Clive accused.—His acquittal American vol. y ° devolved on Lord 3c

386 Iteign of George III-

BRITAIN. nff- ^ Rnslon Port Bill -Repeal of the Tea-dutv refused— it would be looked upon as an affront to the dignity 0of his Reign 0 IlTtlbLClj ,the negocia-Georg^n, y KSe, Bilk—Quebec Chatand incompatible with the s.ncen Aciminisirauun [UStraiiUll Ui in ^ _pBill-Lord . . of0 various • * ! clllvl f.irtlipr mpntmn of suchyaofcircumstance, master 0f;tmns ham’s motion for the recal of the troops—Petitions of various tion, to make any further mention of such a circumstance. Being now convinced of the sinister designs of Spain, this kinds, and debates thereon—^Chatham s Scheme u’ * of * Conciliation rejected Address on the Americanl The papers—Violent debates. minister also proposed immediately to declare war against An -The American fisheries— —New England Restraining Bill— that country. But the proposal being rejected, he resigned War resolved on. his employment of secretary of state ; upon which he was Kim? George III. ascended the throne amidst the great- created Earl of Chatham, and had a pension of L.3000 tim est successes both by sea and land. At this e> “jdeed, per annum settled upon him for three lives. the efforts of Britain in every quarter of the globe were The new administration, however, soon found that Mr truly astonishing. The king of Prussia had received a sub- Pitt was in the right; and war wTas accordingly declared sidy - a large body of English forces commanded the exten- against Spain. As Portugal was the ally of Britain, the sive peninsula of]India ; another army of twenty thousand French and Spaniards resolved to attack that kingdom, men confirmed the conquests in North Amenca, while which was then in no condition to defend itself. 1 he 1 orthirty thousand were employed in Germany; and a great tuguese monarch was haughtily commanded to accede to many more were dispersed in garrisons in different parts of the confederacy against Britain, and threatened with the the world. But all this was surpassed by the nava force, vengeance of France and Spain in the event of lefusal.. It which carried every thing before it, and totally annihilated was°in vain that he promised to observe a strict neutrality, the French maritime power. The courage and conduct of and urged the obligations he was under to the king of Brithe English admirals excelled every thing that had been tain. This moderate and reasonable representation only heard of before; neither superior force, nor numbers, nor led to more haughty and insulting demands. His Portueven the terrors of the tempest, could intimidate them. guese majesty, however, continued to reject their pioposa s Admiral Hawke gained a complete victory over an equal in the most resolute manner ; and concluded his last declanumber of French ships in Quiberon Bay on the coast of ration by stating, that it would affect him less to be reduced Bretagne, in the midst of a storm, during the darkness of to the last extremity, than to sacrifice the honour of his night, and, what a seaman fears still more, m the neigh- LAUWii, ' by submitting crown, all thati a.Portugal most . and cm i g held ~ 4-x-v dear, oil yaor*!tir» nnwprfi. bourhood urnooa oi of